[U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual]
[Chapter 8 - Punctuation]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]


[[Page 125]]


 
                             8. PUNCTUATION

  8.1. Punctuation is used to clarify the meaning of written or 
printed language. Well-planned word order requires a minimum of 
punctuation. The trend toward less punctuation calls for 
skillful phrasing to avoid ambiguity and to ensure exact 
interpretation. The Manual can only offer general rules of text 
treatment. A rigid design or pattern of punctuation cannot be 
laid down, except in broad terms. The adopted style, however, 
must be consistent and based on sentence structure.

  8.2. The general principles governing the use of punctuation 
are: If it does not clarify the text it should be omitted; and, 
in the choice and placing of punctuation marks, the sole aim 
should be to bring out more clearly the author's thought. 
Punctuation should aid reading and prevent misreading.

Apostrophes and possessives

  8.3. All singular nouns form their possessive case by the 
addition of an apostrophe and an s. Plural nouns ending in s 
form their plurals by adding only an apostrophe. Some irregular 
plurals require both an apostrophe and an s.

boss's, bosses'
child's, children's
citizen's, citizens'
Congress's, Congresses'
criterion's, criteria's
Co.'s, Cos.'
datum's, data's
erratum's, errata's
hostess's, hostesses'
lady's, ladies'
man's, men's
medium's, media's
people's, peoples'
prince's, princes'

Consider, also, the forms below:

following Robert's Rules of Order
the planet Mars's craters
a study of Socrates's writings
Charles Dickens's novels
Robert Burns's immortal poetry
President Adams's defense of law
Jefferson Davis's home
  
but
the runner's Achilles' heel
moved by Jesus' tears
the United States position

  8.4. In compound nouns, the 's is added to the element 
nearest the object possessed.

comptroller general's decision
attorneys general's appointments
Mr. Brown of New York's motion
attorney at law's fee
John White, Jr.'s (no comma) account

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  8.5. Joint possession is indicated by placing an apostrophe 
on the last element of a series, while individual or 
alternative possession requires the use of an apostrophe on 
each element of a series.

soldiers and sailors' home
Brown & Nelson's store
men's, women's, and children's clothing
St. Michael's Men's Club
editor's or proofreader's opinion
Carter's or Reagan's administration
Mrs. Smith's and Mrs. Allen's children
the Army's and the Navy's work
master's and doctor's degrees

  8.6. In the use of an apostrophe in firm names, the names of 
organizations and institutions, the titles of books, and 
geographic names, the authentic form is to be followed. (Note 
use of ``St.'')

Masters, Mates & Pilots' Association
Dentists' Supply Co. of New York
International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union
Court of St. James's
St. Peter's Church
  
St. Elizabeths Hospital
Johns Hopkins University
Hinds' Precedents
Harpers Ferry
Hells Canyon
Reader's Digest
  
but Martha's Vineyard

  8.7. Generally, the apostrophe should not be used after names 
of countries and other organized bodies ending in s, or after 
words more descriptive than possessive (not indicating personal 
possession), except when plural does not end in s.

United States control
United Nations meeting
Southern States industries
Massachusetts laws
Bureau of Ships report
Actors Equity Association
House of Representatives
  session
Teamsters Union
editors handbook
syrup producers manual
technicians guide
teachers college
merchants exchange
children's hospital
Young Men's Christian Association
  
but
Veterans' Administration
  (now Department of Veterans Affairs)
Congress's attitude

  8.8. Possessive pronouns do not take an apostrophe.

its
ours
theirs
yours
hers
whose

  8.9. Possessive indefinite or impersonal pronouns require an 

apostrophe.
each other's books
some others' plans
one's home is his castle
another's idea
someone's guesstimate
  
but  someone else's proposal

  8.10. The singular possessive case is used in such general 
terms as the following:

arm's length
attorney's fees
author's alterations
confectioner's sugar
cow's milk
distiller's grain
fuller's earth
miner's inch
printer's ink
traveler's checks
writer's cramp

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  8.11. While an apostrophe is used to indicate possession and 
contractions, it is not generally necessary to use an 
apostrophe simply to show the plural form of most acronyms, 
initialisms, or abbreviations, except where clarity and sense 
demand such inclusion.

49ers
TVers
OKs
MCing
RIFing
RIFs
RIFed
YWCAs
ABCs
1920s
IOUs
10s (thread)
4\1/2\s (bonds)
3s (golf)
2 by 4s
IQs
don't (do not)
I've (I have)
it's (it is/it has)
ne'er (never)
e'er (ever)
class of '92 (1992)
spirit of '76 (1776)
  
not in her '70s (age)
  better: in her seventies
  
not during the '20s
  better: during the 1920s or
    during the twenties
  
but
he never crosses his t's
she fails to dot her i's
a's, &'s, 7's
watch your p's and q's
are they l's or 1's
the Oakland A's
a number of s's
his resume had too many I's

  8.12. The apostrophe is omitted in abbreviations, and also in 
shortened forms of certain other words.

Danl., not  Dan'l
phone, not  'phone
coon, not  'coon
possum, not  'possum
Halloween, not  Hallowe'en
copter, not  'copter
  
but ma'am

  8.13. The plural of spelled-out numbers, of words referred to 
as words, and of words containing an apostrophe is formed by 
adding s or es; but 's is added to indicate the plural of words 
used as words if omission of the apostrophe would cause 
difficulty in reading.

twos, threes, sevens
ands, ifs, and buts
ins and outs
the haves and have-nots
ups and downs
whereases and wherefores
pros and cons
yeses and noes
yeas and nays
  
but
do's and don'ts
which's and that's

  8.14. The possessive case is often used in lieu of an 
objective phrase even though ownership is not involved.

1 day's labor (labor for 1 day)
12 days' labor
2 hours' traveltime
a stone's throw
2 weeks' pay
for charity's sake
for pity's sake
several billion dollars' worth
  
but $10 billion worth

  8.15. The possessive case is not used in such expressions as 
the following, in which one noun modifies another.

day labor (labor by the day)
quartermaster stores
State prison
State rights


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  8.16. For euphony, nouns ending in s or ce and followed by a 
word beginning with s form the possessive by adding an 
apostrophe only.

for goodness' sake
Mr. Hughes' service
for old times' sake
for acquaintance' sake
for conscience' sake

  8.17. A possessive noun used in an adjective sense requires 
the addition of 's.
      He is a friend of John's.
      Stern's is running a sale.

  8.18. A noun preceding a gerund should be in the possessive 
case.
      in the event of Mary's leaving
      the ship's hovering nearby

Brackets

Brackets, in pairs, are used_

  8.19. In transcripts, congressional hearings, the 
Congressional Record, testimony in courtwork, etc., to enclose 
interpolations that are not specifically a part of the original 
quotation, corrections, explanations, omissions, editorial 
comments, or a caution that an error is reproduced literally.

      We found this to be true at the Government Printing 
        Office [GPO].
      He came on the 3d [2d] of July.
      Our conference [lasted] 2 hours.
      The general [Washington] ordered him to leave.
      The paper was as follows [reads]:
      I do not know. [Continues reading:]
      [Chorus of ``Mr. Chairman.'']
      They fooled only themselves. [Laughter.]
      Our party will always serve the people [applause] in 
        spite of the opposition [loud applause]. (If more than 
        one bracketed interpolation, both are included within 
        the sentence.)
      The Witness. He did it that way [indicating].
      Q. Do you know these men [handing witness a list]?
      The bill had not been paid. [Italic added.] or [Emphasis 
        added.]
      The statue [sic] was on the statute books.
      The Witness. This matter is classified. [Deleted.]
      [Deleted.]
      Mr. Jones. Hold up your hands. [Show of hands.]
      Answer [after examining list]. Yes; I do.
      Q. [Continuing.]
      A. [Reads:]
      A. [Interrupting.]
      [Discussion off the record.]
      [Pause.]
      The Witness [interrupting]. It is known----
      Mr. Jones [continuing]. Now let us take the next item.
      Mr. Smith [presiding]. Do you mean that literally?
      Mr. Jones [interposing]. Absolutely.
      [The matter referred to is as follows:]
      The Chairman [to Mr. Smith].
      The Chairman [reading]:


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      Mr. Kelley [to the chairman]. From 15 to 25 percent.
      [Objected to.]
      [Mr. Smith nods.]
      [Mr. Smith aside.]
      [Mr. Smith makes further statement off the record.]
      Mr. Jones [for Mr. Smith].
      A Voice From Audience. Speak up.
      Several Voices. Quiet!
  8.20. In bills, contracts, laws, etc., to indicate matter 
that is to be omitted.

  8.21. In mathematics, to denote that enclosed matter is to be 
treated as a unit.

  8.22. When matter in brackets makes more than one paragraph, 
start each paragraph with a bracket and place the closing 
bracket at end of last paragraph.

Colon

The colon is used_

  8.23. Before a final clause that extends or amplifies 
preceding matter.

      Give up conveniences; do not demand special privileges; 
        do not stop work: these are necessary while we are at 
        war.
      Railroading is not a variety of outdoor sport: it is 
        service.

  8.24. To introduce formally any matter that forms a complete 
sentence, question, or quotation.

      The following question came up for discussion: What 
        policy should be adopted?
      She said: ``I believe the time is now or never.'' [When a 
        direct quotation follows that has more than a few 
        words.]
      There are three factors, as follows: First, military 
        preparation; second, industrial mobilization; and 
        third, manpower.

  8.25. After a salutation.

      My Dear Sir:
      Ladies and Gentlemen:
      To Whom It May Concern:

  8.26. In expressing clock time.

      2:40 p.m.

  8.27. After introductory lines in lists, tables, and 
leaderwork, if subentries follow.

      Seward Peninsula:
          Council district:
              Northern Light Mining Co.
              Wild Goose Trading Co.
          Fairhaven district: Alaska Dredging Association 
        (single subitem
            runs in).
      Seward Peninsula: Council district (single subitem runs 
        in):
          Northern Light Mining Co.
          Wild Goose Trading Co.


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  8.28. In Biblical and other citations.
      Luke 4:3.
      I Corinthians xiii:13.
      Journal of Education 3:342-358.

  8.29. In bibliographic references, between place of 
publication and name of publisher.

      Congressional Directory. Washington: U.S. Government 
        Printing Office.

  8.30. To separate book titles and subtitles.

      Financial Aid for College Students: Graduate
      Germany Revisited: Education in the Federal Republic

  8.31. In imprints before the year (en space each side of 
colon).

                    U.S. Government Printing Office

                           Washington : 1999

  8.32. In proportions.

      Concrete mixed 5:3:1
  but 5-2-1 or 5-2-1 (when so in copy)

  8.33. In double colon as ratio sign.
      1:2::3:6

Comma

The comma is used_

  8.34. To separate two words or figures that might otherwise 
be misunderstood.

      Instead of hundreds, thousands came.
      Instead of 20, 50 came.
      May 5, 1929.
      In 1930, 400 men were dismissed.
      To John, Smith was very kind.
      What the difficulty is, is not known.
  but He suggested that that committee be appointed.

  8.35. Before a direct quotation of only a few words following 
an introductory phrase.

      He said, ``Now or never.''

  8.36. To indicate the omission of a word or words.

      Then we had much; now, nothing.

  8.37. After each of a series of coordinate qualifying words.

      short, swift streams; but short tributary streams

  8.38. Between an introductory modifying phrase and the 
subject modified.

      Beset by the enemy, they retreated.


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  8.39. Before and after Jr., Sr., Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S., Inc., 
etc., within a sentence except where possession is indicated.

Henry Smith, Jr., chairman
Peter Johns, F.R.S., London
Washington, DC, schools
Motorola, Inc., factory
Brown, A.H., Jr. (not Brown, Jr., A.H.)

but
John Smith 2d (or II);
  Smith, John, II
Mr. Smith, Junior, also spoke
  (where only last name is used)
Alexandria, VA's waterfront

  8.40. To set off parenthetic words, phrases, or clauses.
      Mr. Jefferson, who was then Secretary of State, favored 
        the location of the National Capital at Washington.
      It must be remembered, however, that the Government had 
        no guarantee.
      It is obvious, therefore, that this office cannot 
        function.
      The atom bomb, which was developed at the Manhattan 
        project, was first used in World War II.
      Their high morale might, he suggested, have caused them 
        to put success of the team above the reputation of the 
        college.
      The restriction is laid down in title IX, chapter 8, 
        section 15, of the code.
  but The man who fell [restrictive clause] broke his back.
      The dam that gave way [restrictive clause] was poorly 
        constructed.
      He therefore gave up the search.

  8.41. To set off words or phrases in apposition or in 
contrast.

      Mr. Green, the lawyer, spoke for the defense.
      Mr. Jones, attorney for the plaintiff, signed the 
        petition.
      Mr. Smith, not Mr. Black, was elected.
      James Roosevelt, Democrat, of California.
      Jonathan's brother, Moses Taylor, was appointed. 
        (Jonathan had more than one brother.)
  but Jean's sister Joyce was the eldest. (Jean had one 
        sister.)

  8.42. After each member within a series of three or more 
words, phrases, letters, or figures used with and, or, or nor.

      red, white, and blue
      horses, mules, and cattle; but horses and mules and 
        cattle
      by the bolt, by the yard, or in remnants
      a, b, and c
      neither snow, rain, nor heat
      2 days, 3 hours, and 4 minutes (series); but 70 years 11 
        months 6 days (age)

  8.43. Before the conjunction in a compound sentence 
containing two or more independent clauses, each of which could 
have been written as a simple sentence.

      Fish, mollusks, and crustaceans were plentiful in the 
        lakes, and turtles frequented the shores.
      The boy went home alone, and his sister remained with the 
        crowd.

  8.44. After a noun or phrase in direct address.

      Senator, will the measure be defeated?
      Mr. Chairman, I will reply to the gentleman later.
  but Yes, sir; he did see it.
      No, ma'am; I do not recall.


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  8.45. After an interrogative clause, followed by a direct 
question.

      You are sure, are you not?
      You will go, will you not?

  8.46. Between the title of a person and the name of an 
organization in the absence of the words of or of the.

      Chief, Division of Finance
      chairman, Committee on Appropriations
      colonel, 12th Cavalry Regiment
      president, University of Virginia

  8.47. Inside closing quotation mark.

      He said ``four,'' not ``five.''
      ``Freedom is an inherent right,'' he insisted.
      Items marked ``A,'' ``B,'' and ``C,'' inclusive, were 
        listed.

  8.48. To separate thousands, millions, etc., in numbers of 
four or more digits.

      4,230
      50,491
      1,250,000
  but 1,000,000,000 is more clearly illustrated as 1 billion

  8.49. After the year in complete dates (month, day, year) 
within a sentence.

      The dates of September 11, 1943, to June 12, 1944, were 
        erroneous.
      This was reflected in the June 13, 1959, report.
  but Production for June 1950 was normal.
      The 10 February 1980 deadline passed.

The comma is omitted_

  8.50. Between superior figures or letters in footnote 
references.

      Numerous instances may be cited.1}2
      Data are based on October production.a b


  8.51. Before ZIP (Zone Improvement Plan) Code postal-
delivery number.

      Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20401-0003
      East Rochester, OH 44625-9701

  8.52. Between month, holiday, or season and year in dates.

June 1938
22d of May 1938
February and March 1938
January, February, and March 1938
January 24 A.D. 1938; 15th of June A.D. 1938
150 B.C.
Labor Day 1966
Easter Sunday 1966
5 January 1944 (military usage)
spring 1929
autumn 1997

  8.53. Between the name and number of an organization.

      Columbia Typographical Union No. 101-12
      American Legion Post No. 33


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  8.54. In fractions, in decimals, and in serial numbers, 
except patent numbers.

      \1/2500\
      1.0947
      page 2632
      202-275-2303 (telephone number)
      1721-1727 St. Clair Avenue
      Executive Order 11242
      motor No. 189463
      1450 kilocycles; 1100 meters

  8.55. Between two nouns one of which identifies the other.

      The Children's Bureau's booklet ``Infant Care'' continues 
        to be a bestseller.

  8.56. Before an ampersand (&).

      Brown, Wilson & Co.
      Mine, Mill & Smelter Workers

  8.57. Before abbreviations of compass directions.

      6430 Princeton Dr. SW.

  8.58. In bibliographies, between name of publication and 
volume or similar number.

      American Library Association Bulletin 34:238, April 1940.

  8.59. Wherever possible without danger of ambiguity.

      $2 gold
      $2.50 U.S. currency
      $3.50 Mexican
      Executive Order No. 21
      General Order No. 12; but  General Orders, No. 12
      Public Law 85-1
      He graduates in the year 2000 (not  the year 2,000)
      My age is 30 years 6 months 12 days.
      John Lewis 2d (or II)
      Murphy of Illinois; Murphy of New York (where only last 
        name is used)
      Carroll of Carrollton; Henry of Navarre (person closely 
        identified with place); but Clyde Leo Downs, of 
        Maryland; President Hadley, of Yale University
      James Bros. et al.; but James Bros., Nelson Co., et al. 
        (last element of series)

Dash

A 1-em dash is used_

  8.60. To mark a sudden break or abrupt change in thought.

      He said--and no one contradicted him--``The battle is 
        lost.''
      If the bill should pass--which God forbid!--the service 
        will be wrecked.
      The auditor--shall we call him a knave or a fool?--
        approved an inaccurate statement.

  8.61. To indicate an interruption or an unfinished word or 
sentence. A 2-em dash is used when the interruption is by a 
person other than the speaker, and a 1-em dash will show self-
interrup


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tion. Note that extracts must begin with a true paragraph. 
Following extracts, colloquy must start as a paragraph.

      ``Such an idea can scarcely be----''
      ``The word `donation'----''
      ``The word `dona'----''
      ``He said: ``Give me lib----''
      ``The bill reads ``repeal,'' not ``am----''
      Q. Did you see----A. No, sir.
      Mr. Brown [reading]: ``The report goes on to say that''--
        Observe this closely--``during the fiscal year * * *.''

  8.62. Instead of commas or parentheses, if the meaning may 
thus be clarified.

      These are shore deposits--gravel, sand, and clay--but 
        marine sediments underlie them.

  8.63. Before a final clause that summarizes a series of 
ideas.

      Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, 
        freedom from fear--these are the fundamentals of moral 
        world order.

  8.64. After an introductory phrase reading into the following 
lines and indicating repetition of such phrase.

      I recommend--
          That we submit them for review and corrections;
          That we then accept them as corrected; and
          That we also publish them.

  8.65. With a preceding question mark, in lieu of a colon.

      How can you explain this?--``Fee paid, $5.''

  8.66. To precede a credit line or a run-in credit or 
signature.

                          Lay the proud usurpers low!
                          Tyrants fall in every foe!
                          Liberty's in every blow!
                            Let us do or die!
                                                --Robert Burns.

      Every man's work shall be made manifest.--I Corinthians 
        3:13.
      This statement is open to question.--Gerald H. Forsythe.

  8.67. After a run-in sidehead.

  8.68. To separate run-in questions and answers in testimony.

      Q. Did he go?--A. No.

A 1-em dash is not used_

  8.69. At the beginning of any line of type, except as shown 
in rule 8.66.

  8.70. Immediately after a comma, colon, or semicolon.

A 3-em dash is used_

  8.71. In bibliographies to indicate repetition.

      Powell, James W., Jr., Hunting in Virginia's lowlands. 
        1972. 200 pp.
      ------ Fishing off Delmarva. 1972. 28 pp.


[[Page 135]]

An en dash is used_

  8.72. In a combination of (1) figures, (2) capital letters, 
or (3) figures and capital letters. An en dash, not a hyphen, 
is used, even when such terms are adjectival modifiers.

  figures:
      5-20 (bonds)
      85-1--85-20 (Public laws. Note em dash between two 
        elements with en dashes)
      1-703-765-6593 (telephone number)
      230-20-8030 (Social Security number)
      $15-$25 (range)
  capital letters:
      WTOP-AM-FM-TV (radio and television stations)
      CBS-TV
      AFL-CIO (union merger)
      C-SPAN (satellite television)
  figures and capitals:
      6-A (exhibit identification)
      DC-14 (airplane)
      I-95 (interstate roadway)
      4-H (Club)
      LK-66-A(2)-74 (serial number)
  but section 12(a)-(b) (en dash used for the word ``to'')
      ACF-Brill Motors Co. (hyphen with capital letters and a 
        word)
      loran-C (hyphen with lowercase word and capital letter)
      MiG-25 (hyphen with mixed letters with figure)
      ALL-AMERICAN ESSAY CONTEST (hyphen in capitalized 
        heading)

  8.73. In the absence of the word to when denoting a period of 
time.

1935-37
January-June
Monday-Friday

An en dash is not used_

  8.74. For to when the word from precedes the first of two 
related figures or expressions.

      From June 1 to July 30, 1951; not from June 1-July 30, 
        1951

  8.75. For and when the word between precedes the first of two 
related figures or expressions.

      Between 1923 and 1929; not between 1923-29

Ellipses

  8.76. Three asterisks (preferred form) or three periods, 
separated by en spaces, are used to denote an ellipsis within a 
sentence, at the beginning or end of a sentence, or in two or 
more consecutive sentences. To achieve faithful reproduction of 
excerpt material, editors using period ellipses should indicate 
placement of the terminal period in relation to an ellipsis at 
the end of a sentence. Note, in the following examples, the 
additional spacing necessary to clearly define commas and the 
terminal period when period ellipses are employed.

        The Senate having tried Andrew Johnson, President of 
      the United States, upon articles of impeachment exhibited 
      against him by the


[[Page 136]]

      House of Representatives, and two-thirds of the Senators 
      present not having found him guilty of the charges 
      contained in the second, third, and eleventh articles of 
      impeachment, it is therefore
        Ordered and adjudged. That the said Andrew Johnson, 
      President of the United States be, and he is, acquitted 
      of the charges in said articles made and set forth.

        The Senate having tried Andrew Johnson * * * upon 
      articles of impeachment * * * and two-thirds of the 
      Senators present not having found him guilty of the 
      charges * * *, it is therefore
        Ordered and adjudged. That the said Andrew Johnson, 
      President of the United States be * * * acquitted of the 
      charges * * *.

        The Senate having tried Andrew Johnson . . . upon 
      articles of impeachment . . . and two-thirds of the 
      Senators present not having found him guilty of the 
      charges . . . , it is therefore
        Ordered and adjudged. That the said Andrew Johnson, 
      President of the United States be . . . acquitted of the 
      charges . . . .

  8.77. Ellipses are not overrun alone at the end of a 
paragraph.

  8.78. When periods are not specifically requested for 
ellipses in copy that has both periods and asterisks, asterisks 
will be used.

  8.79. A line of asterisks indicates an omission of one or 
more entire paragraphs. In 26\1/2\-pica or wider measure, a 
line of ``stars'' means seven asterisks indented 2 ems at each 
end of the line, with the remaining space divided evenly 
between the asterisks. In measures less than 26\1/2\ picas, 
five asterisks are used. Quotation marks are not used on a line 
of asterisks in quoted matter. Where an ellipsis line ends a 
complete quotation, no closing quote is used.

    * * * * * * *

  8.80. Indented matter in 26\1/2\-pica or wider measure also 
requires a seven-asterisk line to indicate the omission of one 
or more entire paragraphs.

  8.81. If an omission occurs in the last part of a paragraph 
immediately before a line of asterisks, three asterisks are 
used, in addition to the line of asterisks, to indicate such an 
omission.

  8.82. Equalize spacing above and below an ellipsis line.

Exclamation point

  8.83. The exclamation point is used to mark surprise, 
incredulity, admiration, appeal, or other strong emotion which 
may be expressed even in a declarative or interrogative 
sentence.

      Who shouted, ``All aboard!'' [Note omission of question 
        mark.]
      ``Great!'' he shouted. [Note omission of comma.]
      He acknowledged the fatal error!
      How breathtakingly beautiful!
      Timber!
      Mayday! Mayday!

  8.84. In direct address, either to a person or a personified 
object, O is used without an exclamation point, or other 
punctuation; but


[[Page 137]]

if strong feeling is expressed, an exclamation point is placed 
at the end of the statement.

      O my friend, let us consider this subject impartially.
      O Lord, save Thy people!

  8.85. In exclamations without direct address or appeal, oh is 
used instead of O, and the exclamation point is omitted.
      Oh, but the gentleman is mistaken.
      Oh dear; the time is so short.

Hyphen

The hyphen (a punctuation mark, not an element in the spelling of 
        words) is used_

  8.86. To connect the elements of certain compound words. (See 
``Compounding Rules.'')

  8.87. To indicate continuation of a word divided at the end 
of a line. (See Word Division, supplement to the Style Manual.)

  8.88. Between the letters of a spelled word.
      The Style Board changed New Jerseyite to New J-e-r-s-e-y-
        a-n.
      A native of Halifax is a H-a-l-i-g-o-n-i-a-n.
      The Chinese repressive action took place in T-i-a-n-a-n-
        m-e-n Square.

  8.89. To separate elements of chemical formulas.

The hyphen, as an element, may be used_

  8.90. To represent letters deleted or illegible words in 
copy.

      Oakland's - - bonic plague
      Richard Emory H - - - -

Parentheses

Parentheses are used_

  8.91. To set off matter not intended to be part of the main 
statement or not a grammatical element of the sentence, yet 
important enough to be included. In colloquy, brackets must be 
substituted.

      This case (124 U.S. 329) is not relevant.
      The result (see fig. 2) is most surprising.
      The United States is the principal purchaser (by value) 
        of these exports (23 percent in 1995 and 19 percent in 
        1996).

  8.92. To enclose a parenthetic clause where the interruption 
is too great to be indicated by commas.

      You can find it neither in French dictionaries (at any 
        rate, not in Littre) nor in English dictionaries.

  8.93. To enclose an explanatory word not part of a written or 
printed statement.

      the Winchester (VA) Star; but the Star of Winchester, VA
      Portland (OR) Chamber of Commerce; but Athens, GA, 
        schools


[[Page 138]]

  8.94. To enclose letters or numbers designating items in a 
series, either at the beginning of paragraphs or within a 
paragraph.

      The order of delivery will be: (a) Food, (b) clothing, 
        and (c) tents and other housing equipment.
      You will observe that the sword is (1) old fashioned, (2) 
        still sharp, and (3) unusually light for its size.
      Paragraph 7(B)(1)(a) will be found on page 6. (Note 
        parentheses closed up.)

  8.95. To enclose a figure inserted to confirm a written or 
printed statement given in words if double form is specifically 
requested.

      This contract shall be completed in sixty (60) days.

  8.96. A reference in parentheses at the end of a sentence is 
placed before the period, unless it is a complete sentence in 
itself.

      The specimen exhibits both phases (pl. 14, A, B).
      The individual cavities show great variation. (See pl. 
        4.)

  8.97. If a sentence contains more than one parenthetic 
reference, the one at the end is placed before the period.

      This sandstone (see pl. 6) is in every county of the 
        State (see pl. 1).

  8.98. When a figure is followed by a letter in parentheses, 
no space is used between the figure and the opening 
parenthesis; but if the letter is not in parentheses and the 
figure is repeated with each letter, the letter is closed up 
with the figure.

      15(a). Classes, grades, and sizes.
      15a. Classes, grades, and sizes.

  8.99. If both a figure and a letter in parentheses are used 
before each paragraph, a period and an en space are used after 
the closing parenthesis. If the figure is not repeated before 
each letter in parentheses but is used only before the first 
letter, the period is placed after the figure. However, if the 
figure is not repeated before each letter in parentheses and no 
period is used, space is inserted after the number if at least 
one other lettered subsection appears.

      15(a). When the figure is used before the letter in each 
        paragraph--

      15(b). The period is placed after the closing 
        parenthesis.

      15. (a) When the figure is used before the letter in the 
        first paragraph but not repeated with subsequent 
        letters--
      (b) The period is used after the figure only.

      Sec. 12 (a) When no period is used and a letter in 
        parentheses appears after a numbered item--
      (b) Space must be used after the number if at least one 
        other lettered subsection is shown.

  8.100. Note position of the period relative to closing 
parenthesis:

      The vending stand sells a variety of items (sandwiches, 
        beverages, cakes, etc.).
      The vending stand sells a variety of items (sandwiches, 
        beverages, cakes, etc. (sometimes ice cream)).
      The vending stand sells a variety of items. (These 
        include sandwiches, beverages, cakes, etc. (6).)


[[Page 139]]

  8.101. To enclose bylines in congressional work.

           (By Harvey Hagman, archeological correspondent)

  8.102. When matter in parentheses makes more than one 
paragraph, start each paragraph with a parenthesis and place 
the closing parenthesis at the end of the last paragraph.

Period

The period is used_

  8.103. After a declarative sentence that is not exclamatory 
or after an imperative sentence.

      Stars are suns.
      He was employed by Sampson & Co.
      Do not be late.
      On with the dance.

  8.104. After an indirect question or after a question 
intended as a suggestion and not requiring an answer.

      Tell me how he did it.
      May we hear from you.
      May we ask prompt payment.

  8.105. In place of a closing parenthesis after a letter or 
number denoting a series.

a. Bread well baked
b. Meat cooked rare
c. Cubed apples stewed
1. Punctuate freely
2. Compound sparingly
3. Index thoroughly
  8.106. Sometimes to indicate ellipsis.

  8.107. After a run-in sidehead.

        Conditional subjunctive.--The conditional subjunctive 
      is required for all unreal and doubtful conditions.

        2. Peacetime preparation.--a. The Chairman of the 
      National Security Resources Board, etc.

        2. Peacetime preparation--Industrial mobilization 
      plans.--The Chairman of the National Security Resources 
      Board, etc.

        2. Peacetime preparation.--Industrial mobilization.--
      The Chairman of the National Security Resources Board, 
      etc.

        62. Determination of types.--a. Statement of 
      characteristics.--Before types of equipment, etc.

        Steps in planning for procurement.--(1) Determination 
      of needs.--To plan for the procurement of such arms, etc.

        62. Determination of types.--(a) Statement of 
      characteristics.--Before, etc.

        DETERMINATION OF TYPES.--Statement of 
      characteristics.--Before types of, etc.

        Note.--The source material was furnished.

  but Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 
        Census.

  8.108. Paragraphs and subparagraphs may be arranged according 
to the following scheme. The sequence is not fixed, and varia-


[[Page 140]]

tions, in addition to the use of center and side heads or 
indented paragraphs, may be adopted, depending on the number of 
parts.

 I. Outlines can begin with a capital Roman numeral.
A. The number of levels and the width of the column determine   
alignment and indention.
1. A set space (en space) following the identifier aids alignment.
a. Usually, typefaces and sizes are chosen to agree with the 
hierarchy of the head breakdowns.
(1) Aligning runover lines with the first word which follows the 
    number or letter aids readability.
(a) It is important to vary (rotate) the use of letters and 
        numbers in any outline.
(i) The lowercase Roman numerals (i), (ii), etc. may be used as 
parts of the outline or to identify subparts of any previous 
parts.
(aa) When absolutely necessary, double (or triple) lowercase 
letters may be used.
II. Where not needed, the capital Roman numerals may be discarded 
    and the outline can begin with the letter A. As in any 
    composition, consistency in indentions and order is essential.

  8.109. To separate integers from decimals in a single 
expression.

13.75 percent
$3.50
1.25 meters
0.08 mile

  8.110. In continental European languages, to indicate 
thousands.

1.317
72.190.175

  8.111. After abbreviations, unless otherwise specified. (See 
``Abbreviations and Letter Symbols.'')

Apr.
fig.
Ph.D.
NE. (Northeast)
SSE. (South-Southeast)
RR.
  
but
m (meter)
kc (kilocycle)
NY (New York)

  8.112. After legends and explanatory matter beneath 
illustrations. Legends without descriptive language do not 
receive periods.


                     Figure 1.--Schematic drawing.

                         Figure 1.--Continued.

                but Figure 1 (without legend, no period)

  8.113. After Article 1, Section 1, etc., at the beginning of 
paragraphs.

A center period is sometimes used_

  8.114. To indicate multiplication. (Use of a multiplication 
sign is preferable.)
ab
(a x b)


[[Page 141]]


The period is omitted_

  8.115. After--

            Lines in title pages
            Center, side, and running heads; but is not omitted
                after run-in sideheads
            Continued lines
            Boxheads of tables
            Scientific, chemical, or other symbols
This rule does not apply to abbreviation periods.

  8.116. After a quotation mark that is preceded by a period.

      She said: ``I believe the time is now or never.''

  8.117. After letters used as names without specific 
designation.

      Officer B, Subject A, Brand X, etc.
      A said to B that all is well.
      Mr. A told Mr. B that the case was closed.
      Mr. X (for unknown or censored name).
  but Mr. A. [for Mr. Andrews]. I do not want to go.
      Mr. K. [for Mr. King]. The meeting is adjourned.

  8.118. After a middle initial which is merely a letter and 
not an abbreviation of a name.

      Daniel D Tompkins
      Ross T McIntire
  but Harry S. Truman (president Truman's preference)

  8.119. After a short name which is not an abbreviation of the 
longer form.

Alex
Ed
Mac
Sam

  8.120. After Roman numerals used as ordinals.

King George V
Apollo XII insigne
Super Bowl XXXI

  8.121. After words and incomplete statements listed in 
columns. Full-measure matter is not to be regarded as a column.

  8.122. After explanatory matter set in 6 point under leaders 
or rules.

        ................  ................  ................
            (Name)            (Address)         (Position)

  8.123. Immediately before leaders, even if an abbreviation 
precedes the leaders.


[[Page 142]]

Question mark

The question mark is used_

  8.124. To indicate a direct query, even if not in the form of 
a question.

      Did he do it?
      He did what?
      Can the money be raised? is the question.
      Who asked, ``Why?'' (Note single question mark.)
      ``Did you hurt yourself, my son?'' she asked.

  8.125. To express more than one query in the same sentence.

      Can he do it? or you? or anyone?

  8.126. To express doubt.

      He said the boy was 8(?) feet tall. (No space before 
        question mark.)
      The statue(?) was on the statute books.
      The scientific identification Dorothia? was noted. (Roman 
        ``?''.)

Quotation marks

Quotation marks are used_

  8.127. To enclose direct quotations. (Each part of an 
interrupted quotation begins and ends with quotation marks.)

      The answer is ``No.''
      He said, ``John said, `No.' '' (Note thin space between 
        single and double closing quotes.)
      ``John,'' asked Henry, ``why do you go?''

  8.128. To enclose any matter following such terms as 
entitled, the word, the term, marked, designated, classified, 
named, endorsed, cited as, referred to as, or signed; but are 
not used to enclose expressions following the terms known as, 
called, so-called, etc., unless such expressions are misnomers 
or slang.

      Congress passed the act entitled ``An act * * *.''
      After the word ``treaty'', insert a comma.
      Of what does the item ``Miscellaneous debts'' consist?
      The column ``Imports from foreign countries'' was not * * *.
      The document will be marked ``Exhibit No. 21''; but The 
        document may be made exhibit No. 2.
      The check was endorsed ``John Adamson.''
      It was signed ``John.''
  but Beryllium is known as glucinium in some European 
        countries.
      It was called profit and loss.
      The so-called investigating body.

  8.129. To enclose titles of addresses, articles, awards, 
books, captions, editorials, essays, headings, subheadings, 
headlines, hearings, motion pictures and plays (including 
television and radio programs), operas, papers, short poems, 
reports, songs, studies, subjects, and themes. All principal 
words are to be capitalized.

      An address on ``Uranium-235 in the Atomic Age''
      The article ``Germany Revisited'' appeared in the last 
        issue.
      He received the ``Man of the Year'' award.


[[Page 143]]

      ``The Conquest of Mexico,'' a published work (book)
      Under the caption ``Long-Term Treasurys Rise''
      The subject was discussed in ``Punctuation.'' (chapter 
        heading)
      It will be found in ``Part XI: Early Thought.''
      The editorial ``Haphazard Budgeting''
      ``Compensation,'' by Emerson (essay)
      ``United States To Appoint Representative to U.N.'' 
        (heading for headline)
      In ``Search for Paradise'' (motion picture); ``South 
        Pacific'' (play)
      A paper on ``Constant-Pressure Combustion'' was read.
      ``O Captain! My Captain!'' (short poem)
      The report ``Atomic Energy: What It Means to the 
        Nation''; but annual report of the Public Printer
      This was followed by the singing of ``The Star-Spangled 
        Banner.''
      Under the subhead ``Sixty Days of Turmoil'' will be found 
        * * *.
      The subject (or theme) of the conference is ``Peaceful 
        Uses of Atomic Energy.''
  also Account 5, ``Management fees.''
      Under the heading ``Management and Operation.''
      Under the appropriation ``Building of ships, Navy.''

  8.130. At the beginning of each paragraph of a quotation, but 
at the end of the last paragraph only.

  8.131. To enclose a letter or communication, which bears both 
date and signature, within a letter.

  8.132. To enclose misnomers, slang expressions, sobriquets, 
coined words, or ordinary words used in an arbitrary way.

      His report was ``bunk.''
      It was a ``gentlemen's agreement.''
      The ``invisible government'' is responsible.
      George Herman ``Babe'' Ruth.
  but He voted for the lameduck amendment.

  8.133. Quotation marks close up to adjacent characters except 
when they precede a fraction or an apostrophe or precede or 
follow a superior figure or letter, in which case a thin space 
is used. A thin space is used to separate double and single 
quotation marks.

Quotation marks are not used_

  8.134. In poetry. The lines of a poem should align on the 
left, those that rhyme taking the same indention.

                          Why seek to scale Mount Everest,
                            Queen of the air?
                          Why strive to crown that cruel crest
                            And deathward dare?
                          Said Mallory of dauntless quest:
                            ``Because it's there.''
  8.135. To enclose titles of works of art: paintings, 
statuary, etc.

  8.136. To enclose names of newspapers or magazines.

  8.137. To enclose complete letters having date and signature.

  8.138. To enclose extracts that are indented or set in 
smaller type, or solid extracts in leaded matter; but indented 
matter in text that is already quoted carries quotation marks.


[[Page 144]]

  8.139. In indirect quotations.

      Tell her yes.
      He could not say no.

  8.140. Before a display initial which begins a quoted 
paragraph.

  8.141. The comma and the final period will be placed inside 
the quotation marks. Other punctuation marks should be placed 
inside the quotation marks only if they are a part of the 
matter quoted.

      Ruth said, ``I think so.''
      ``The President,'' he said, ``will veto the bill.''
      The trainman shouted, ``All aboard!''
      Who asked, ``Why?''
      The President suggests that ``an early occasion be sought 
        * * *.''
      Why call it a ``gentlemen's agreement''?

  8.142. In congressional and certain other classes of work 
showing amendments, and in courtwork with quoted language, 
punctuation marks are printed after the quotation marks when 
not a part of the quoted matter.

      Insert the words ``growth'', ``production'', and 
        ``manufacture''.
      To be inserted after the words ``cadets, U.S. Coast 
        Guard;''.
      Change ``February 1, 1983'', to ``June 30, 2001''.
      ``Insert in lieu thereof `July 1, 1983,'.''

  8.143. When occurring together, quotation marks should 
precede footnote reference numbers.

      The commissioner claimed that the award was 
        ``unjustified.'' 1
      Kelly's exact words were: ``The facts in the case prove 
        otherwise.'' \2\

  8.144. Quotation marks should be limited, if possible, to 
three sets (double, single, double).

      ``The question in the report is, `Can a person who 
        obtains his certificate of naturalization by fraud be 
        considered a ``bona fide'' citizen of the United 
        States?' ''

Semicolon

The semicolon is used_

  8.145. To separate clauses containing commas.

      Donald A. Peters, Jr., president of the First National 
        Bank, was also a director of New York Central; Harvey 
        D. Jones was a director of Oregon Steel Co. and New 
        York Central; Thomas W. Harrison, chairman of the board 
        of McBride & Co., was also on the board of Oregon Steel 
        Co.
      Reptiles, amphibians, and predatory mammals swallow their 
        prey whole or in large pieces, bones included; 
        waterfowl habitually take shellfish entire; and 
        gallinaceous birds are provided with gizzards that 
        grind up the hardest seeds.
      Yes, sir; he did see it.
      No, sir; I do not recall.


[[Page 145]]

  8.146. To separate statements that are too closely related in 
meaning to be written as separate sentences, and also 
statements of contrast.
      Yes; that is right.
      No; we received one-third.
      It is true in peace; it is true in war.
      War is destructive; peace, constructive.
  8.147. To set off explanatory abbreviations or words which 
summarize or explain preceding matter.

      The industry is related to groups that produce finished 
        goods; i.e., electrical machinery and transportation 
        equipment.
      There were three metal producers involved; namely, Jones 
        & Laughlin, Armco, and Kennecott.

The semicolon is not used_

  8.148. Where a comma will suffice.
      Offices are located in New York, NY, Chicago, IL, and 
        Dallas, TX.

Single punctuation

  8.149. Single punctuation should be used wherever possible 
without ambiguity.

      124 U.S. 321 (no comma)
      Sir: (no dash)
      Joseph replied, ``It is a worthwhile effort.'' (no 
        outside period)

Type

  8.150. All punctuation marks, including parentheses, 
brackets, and superior reference figures, are set to match the 
type of the words which they adjoin. A lightface dash is used 
after a run-in boldface sidehead followed by lightface matter. 
Lightface brackets, parentheses, or quotation marks shall be 
used when both boldface and lightface matter are enclosed.

      Charts: C&GS 5101 (N.O. 18320), page 282 (see above); 
        N.O. 93491 (Plan); page 271.