[Background Material and Data on Programs within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means (Green Book)]
[Appendices]
[Appendix K. Spending for Income-Tested Benefits, Fiscal Years 1968-96]
[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]


[1998 Green Book] APPENDIX K. SPENDING FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS, FISCAL YEARS 1968-96

                                CONTENTS

Overview
Trends in Spending
Spending Trends by Level of Government
  Federal Government
  State and Local Governments
Share of Federal Budget Used for Income-Tested Benefits
List of Income-Tested Programs
  Medical Aid
  Cash Aid
  Food Aid
  Housing Aid
  Education Aid
  Other Services
  Jobs and Training Aid
  Energy Aid
References

                              OVERVIEW \1\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    \1\ The Census Bureau (Tin, 1996), based on the Survey of Income 
and Program Participation, examines participation in several of the 
programs reviewed in this section. These include: Aid to Families with 
Dependent Children, general assistance, food stamps, Supplemental 
Security Income, Medicaid, and housing assistance. The Census Bureau 
study provides measures of how many adults and children actually 
receive benefits from these programs.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
     The Congressional Research Service (CRS) has found that 
almost 80 benefit programs provide cash and noncash aid that is 
directed primarily to persons with limited income (Burke, 
1998). Such programs constitute the public ``welfare'' system, 
if welfare is defined as income-tested or need-based benefits 
(the programs are listed at the end of this chapter). This 
definition excludes social insurance programs, such as Social 
Security and Medicare.
     These income-tested benefit programs in fiscal year 1996 
cost $367.7 billion: $261.3 billion in Federal funds and $106.4 
billion in State-local funds. Total outlays by these programs 
amounted to 4.8 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), 
dropping slightly from the record-high share set in fiscal year 
1995 (5.1 percent). Federal funds provided 71 percent of the 
total. These Federal welfare outlays accounted for 16.7 percent 
of the fiscal year 1994 Federal budget.
     In fiscal year 1996, medical services represented 48.3 
percent of total welfare spending, exceeding combined outlays 
for benefits in the form of cash, food, housing, services, and 
energy aid (46 percent). The remainder (less than 6 percent) 
was invested in ``human capital'' programs; that is, those 
providing education, jobs, and training. The composition of 
welfare spending differed by level of government. Medical aid 
consumed 69.6 percent of State-local welfare funds, but only 
39.6 percent of Federal welfare dollars.
     Most income-tested programs provide benefits, in the form 
of cash, goods, or services, to persons who make no payment and 
render no service in return. However, in the case of the job 
and training programs and some educational benefits, recipients 
must work or study. Further, the program of Aid to Families 
with Dependent Children (AFDC) required some able-bodied 
recipients to engage in work or a work-related activity. The 
block grant program of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families 
(TANF), which has replaced AFDC, imposes work requirements as a 
condition of eligibility, and the Food Stamp Program also has 
work and training requirements. Finally, the earned income 
credit (EIC) is available only to workers.
     An unduplicated count of welfare beneficiaries is not 
available. Enrollment in Medicaid, AFDC, and food stamps 
declined from their record-high levels of 1994 or 1995, but the 
number of SSI and EIC recipients continued to grow. Numbers of 
beneficiaries in 1996: Medicaid, 41.3 million; food stamps, 
26.8 million, monthly average; AFDC, 14.6 million, monthly 
average; and EIC, 53.7 million persons in 17.9 million 
families.

                           TRENDS IN SPENDING

     The CRS data series provides annual spending figures for 
24 fiscal years (1968, 1973, and 1975-96). Total expenditures 
on cash and noncash welfare programs were almost 23 times as 
great in 1994 as in 1968 (table K-1). Even after allowance for 
price inflation, spending almost quintupled (rising 399 
percent) over the 28 years, a period when the U.S. population 
rose 32 percent. Trends shown in table K-1 are consistent with 
those in a less inclusive data series maintained by the Social 
Security Administration (SSA). The SSA series, called public 
aid, is a category within SSA reports on social welfare 
expenditures. SSA data on public aid exclude income-tested 
child nutrition, subsidized housing, educational benefits, 
adoption assistance, foster care, some job training, and other 
programs covered in the CRS series. Public aid expenditures 
reported by SSA generally are about 30 percent below income-
tested outlays reported by CRS. Adjusted for price inflation, 
public aid outlays in the SSA series rose 371 percent, and 
income-tested outlays in the CRS series rose 379 percent, 
between 1968 and 1992. (For fiscal years 1960-93 public aid 
data of SSA, see Bixby, 1996. SSA also maintains a data series 
on private social welfare expenditures. See Kerns, 1997.)
     The CRS data series is somewhat different from one 
presented in a recent study by Rector and Lauber (1995) of the 
Heritage Foundation. The list of 80 major programs included in 
their analysis (see their appendix one, pp. 45ff) is similar to 
the CRS list. However, the Rector and Lauber list includes some 
programs (grants to local education authorities for 
educationally deprived children and programs of community 
development aid) not in the CRS series, which is restricted to 
programs that provide benefits to individuals or families who 
meet a needs test. Moreover, the Rector and Lauber study 
provides estimates for years (1965-67; 1969-72; and 1974) that 
are not covered in the CRS study.

               TABLE K-1.--EXPENDITURES FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968-96               
                                            [In billions of dollars]                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          Total spending        
                                                                                 -------------------------------
                      Fiscal year                         Federal    State/local    Current      Constant 1996  
                                                                                    dollars         dollars     
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 1968.................................................      $11,406       $4,710      $16,116            $73,755
 1973.................................................       26,876       10,054       36,930            134,259
 1975.................................................       39,461       14,753       54,214            162,851
 1976.................................................       49,954       16,990       66,944            187,684
 1977.................................................       55,113       18,892       74,005            192,884
 1978.................................................       63,964       20,151       84,115            204,824
 1979.................................................       70,172       21,304       91,476            202,183
 1980.................................................       80,043       24,633      104,676            203,595
 1981.................................................       87,936       29,045      116,981            204,752
 1982.................................................       88,977       31,706      120,683            196,834
 1983.................................................       93,830       33,982      127,812            201,291
 1984.................................................       99,151       36,191      135,342            204,651
 1985.................................................      105,064       38,230      143,294            209,161
 1986.................................................      107,775       40,811      148,586            211,527
 1987.................................................      114,789       43,364      158,153            218,938
 1988.................................................      125,047       46,580      171,627            228,247
 1989.................................................      134,715       51,587      186,302            236,454
 1990.................................................      151,478       61,064      212,542            256,965
 1991.................................................      177,899       73,943      251,842            289,845
 1992.................................................      208,211       88,130      296,341            331,016
 1993.................................................      223,528       88,736      312,264            338,594
 1994.................................................      246,302      102,396      348,698            368,346
 1995.................................................      258,382      108,212      366,594            376,763
 1996.................................................      261,311      106,401      367,712           367,711 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Burke, 1997.                                                                                            

     Even so, results from the two studies are similar. The 
most recent year for comparison of results is 1993. In that 
year, Rector and Lauber estimate total (Federal and State) 
welfare spending at $324.4 billion, as compared with $311.2 
billion in the CRS analysis. Almost all of the difference 
between the two estimates is accounted for by the education and 
community development programs included in the Rector and 
Lauber analysis. For the period 1965-93, the Rector and Lauber 
study estimated that a total of $5.4 trillion in constant 1993 
dollars was spent by Federal and State governments on the 
programs included in their analysis. For fiscal years 1968, 
1973, and 1975-94, total spending in the CRS series was $4.5 
trillion in fiscal year 1994 dollars.
    Measured in constant 1996 dollars (calculated by use of the 
Consumer Price Index for Urban Consumers), the annual rate of 
growth in spending for income-tested benefits over the whole 
period, 1968-96 was 5.9 percent in the CRS study. However, the 
growth pattern was uneven. During the first 8 years (1968-75) 
spending climbed at an annual rate of 12.9 percent; in the next 
8 years (1976-83) the annual rate of increase dropped to 1.7 
percent (in 1 year, 1982, real spending declined, and it 
remained below the 1981 level until 1985); from 1985 to 1995 
growth resumed and averaged an annual rate of 6 percent. 
However, real spending declined 2.4 percent in 1996.
     Total per capita welfare spending grew in constant 1996 
dollars from $367 in fiscal year 1968 to a peak of $1,434 in 
fiscal year 1995 and receded to $1,386 in fiscal year 1996.

                 SPENDING TRENDS BY LEVEL OF GOVERNMENT

                           Federal Government

     Measured in constant 1996 dollars, Federal spending for 
income-tested benefits climbed from $52.2 billion in fiscal 
year 1968 to $261.3 billion in fiscal year 1996, an increase of 
401 percent (table K-2). Cash aid was the leading form of 
Federal welfare until 1980, when it was overtaken in value by 
medical benefits. Two years later, in 1982, Federal welfare 
spending declined for all forms of aid except subsidized 
housing, in which case outlays reflected earlier commitments, 
and education benefits. In 1983, Federal spending declined 
further for medical benefits. For the next 12 years, aggregate 
real Federal welfare outlays climbed steadily, from $147.8 
billion in fiscal year 1983 to $265.6 billion in fiscal year 
1995. However, in fiscal year 1996, real Federal welfare 
spending declined by $4.2 billion or 1.6 percent. Decreases 
occurred for all forms of income-tested aid: medical benefits, 
down $0.6 billion; cash aid, $0.2 billion; food benefits, $0.7 
billion; housing benefits, $0.5 billion; education benefits, 
$0.2 billion; jobs/training, $0.8 billion; services, $0.7 
billion; and energy aid, $0.5 billion.

                       State and Local Governments

     Measured in constant 1996 dollars, State-local spending 
for income-tested benefits climbed from $21.6 billion in fiscal 
year 1968 to $106.4 billion in fiscal year 1996, an increase of 
392 percent (table K-2). Cash aid was overtaken by medical 
benefits as the dominant form of State-local welfare spending 
in 1976. Unlike Federal welfare spending, which fell below 1981 
levels in real value in 1982-86, State-local spending rose 
steadily in all years except three, 1978, 1993, and 1996. The 
1996 decline totaled $4.8 billion (4.3 percent): cash aid, down 
$2.3 billion; medical benefits, down $1.2 billion; services, 
down $0.8 billion; housing, down $0.3 billion; and jobs/
training, down $0.2 billion.
     Between 1983 and 1996, State-local spending for income-
tested benefits almost doubled in real value, rising by $52.8 
billion. More than four out of five of these extra dollars 
($44.3 billion in all) were spent on medical benefits. In both 
years medical benefits and cash aid together consumed 90 
percent of State-local welfare dollars, but their shares were 
drastically changed. The share spent on medical aid climbed by 
14 percentage points (to 70 cents out of the benefit dollar); 
the share spent on cash aid declined by 13 percentage points 
(to 21 cents out of the benefit dollar).

                TABLE K-2.--FEDERAL AND STATE-LOCAL SPENDING FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS BY FORM OF BENEFIT, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968-96               
                                                     [Millions of constant fiscal year 1996 dollars]                                                    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                     Medical                  Food       Housing   Education    Jobs/    Services/    Energy            
                    Fiscal year                      benefits   Cash aid  benefits \1\   benefits   benefits   training  other \2\     aid     Total \3\
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Federal spending:                                                                                                                                       
    1968..........................................    $12,544    $23,052       $4,087      $3,583     $3,936     $3,245     $1,753          0    $52,200
    1973..........................................     24,209     31,174       14,015      12,208      6,620      3,356      6,126          0     97,708
    1975..........................................     28,792     38,266       19,342      13,019      6,548      6,455      6,113          0    118,535
    1976..........................................     30,685     41,833       21,653      14,887     10,356     12,913      7,634        $79    140,051
    1977..........................................     34,352     40,912       20,215      15,742      9,062     14,134      8,439        787    143,644
    1978..........................................     35,469     39,075       20,720      17,876      9,903     23,620      8,428        665    155,756
    1979..........................................     36,272     37,424       22,936      18,696     10,633     20,480      8,074        581    155,096
    1980..........................................     37,731     36,912       25,458      18,684      9,511     16,776      7,265      3,347    155,684
    1981..........................................     38,949     36,686       27,460      19,007      8,379     13,155      6,761      3,516    153,914
    1982..........................................     37,578     35,189       25,564      19,218     12,697      6,506      5,061      3,308    145,121
    1983..........................................     37,127     35,279       28,499      19,653     11,690      7,098      5,203      3,222    147,773
    1984..........................................     37,567     35,962       28,300      19,408     12,113      8,131      5,200      3,245    149,926
    1985..........................................     40,695     35,741       28,262      20,600     13,890      5,685      5,183      3,300    153,358
    1986..........................................     42,386     37,481       27,251      18,884     14,314      5,162      4,826      3,125    153,428
    1987..........................................     48,588     38,013       27,539      18,289     13,522      5,236      4,993      2,729    158,907
    1988..........................................     51,345     40,315       26,885      19,551     14,824      4,984      5,970      2,426    166,300
    1989..........................................     53,805     42,090       26,444      20,212     15,845      4,842      5,675      2,068    170,980
    1990..........................................     60,680     44,062       28,860      21,216     16,637      4,806      4,938      1,939    183,138
    1991..........................................     71,813     48,651       32,231      21,822     17,106      5,051      5,992      2,079    204,744
    1992..........................................     87,817     54,416       36,648      24,487     15,194      5,605      6,524      1,882    232,574
    1993..........................................     92,151     57,848       37,704      25,975     15,520      5,173      6,341      1,663    242,376
    1994..........................................     98,891     66,969       38,142      25,506     15,462      5,135      8,051      2,025    260,181
    1995..........................................    104,149     69,807       37,818      25,640     15,557      4,754      6,179      1,645    265,550
    1996..........................................    103,568     69,637       37,116      25,096     15,320      3,955      5,452      1,167    261,311
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
State and local spending:                                                                                                                               
    1968..........................................     $9,432    $11,395            0           0          0       $197       $531          0    $21,555
    1973..........................................     15,142     19,257            0           0          0        204      1,949          0     36,551
    1975..........................................     19,859     20,279       $1,679           0       $430        117      1,953          0     44,316
    1976..........................................     21,879     21,504        1,775           0        437        109      1,929          0     47,633
    1977..........................................     23,168     21,307        2,119           0        482        149      2,015          0     49,239
    1978..........................................     23,769     20,459        2,126           0        577        153      1,985          0     49,069
    1979..........................................     24,613     18,951          873           0        555        172      1,923          0     47,087
    1980..........................................     25,674     18,956          889           0        556        158      1,679          0     47,911
    1981..........................................     27,357     19,248        1,015           0        511        147      2,559          0     50,837
    1982..........................................     28,634     18,222        1,173           0        439        122      3,099        $24     51,712
    1983..........................................     29,739     18,600        1,233           0        476        124      3,307         39     53,518
    1984..........................................     31,045     18,730        1,436           0        457        118      2,873         65     54,724
    1985..........................................     31,470     19,195        1,502           0        663        118      2,810         45     55,803
    1986..........................................     32,840     20,104        1,570           0        705        104      2,705         71     58,099
    1987..........................................     34,064     20,516        1,616           0        707         98      2,741        288     60,031
    1988..........................................     36,113     20,471        1,515           0        723         96      2,793        235     61,947
    1989..........................................     39,363     20,928        1,475           0        692        123      2,665        228     65,474
    1990..........................................     44,244     21,532        1,493           0        760        323      5,324        150     73,827
    1991..........................................     54,621     22,271        1,510           0        630        505      5,435        130     85,101
    1992..........................................     63,846     23,577        1,612      $2,569        686        532      5,522         98     98,442
    1993..........................................     62,896     23,260        1,698       1,442        831        609      5,405         77     96,218
    1994..........................................     71,545     24,214        1,870       1,706        954        691      7,105         81    108,166
    1995..........................................     75,249     24,332        1,881       2,389        981        833      5,464         83    111,214
    1996..........................................     74,007     22,036        1,921       2,113        955        612      4,684         73   106,401 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ The spending ``decline'' in 1979 represents a change in accounting. Data for 1975-78 include State-local funds used for free and reduced price      
  school lunches. For later years these estimates could not be made.                                                                                    
\2\ ``Other'' represents State Legalization Impact Assistance Grants, which funded medical, cash, education, and other benefits for legalized immigrants
  in fiscal years 1988-94.                                                                                                                              
\3\ Housing data represent HOME and HOPE Programs, begun in 1992. HOME includes some private funds (amount not available).                              
                                                                                                                                                        
 NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                     
                                                                                                                                                        
 Source: Burke, 1997.                                                                                                                                   

         SHARE OF FEDERAL BUDGET USED FOR INCOME-TESTED BENEFITS

     The share of the Federal budget used for income-tested 
benefits climbed from 6.4 percent in fiscal year 1968 to 17.1 
percent in fiscal year 1995, then declined slightly, to 16.8 
percent, in fiscal year 1996 (table K-3). Most of the 1968-96 
increase of 10.4 percentage points was accounted for by medical 
benefits (5.1 percentage point gain). Measured in percentage 
points, increases for other forms of aid were: cash benefits, 
1.6; food aid, 1.9; housing benefits, 1.2; education, 0.5; 
services, 0.2. Federal spending for income-tested jobs/training 
benefits declined as a percent of the budget (down 0.2 
percentage points), and energy aid was not provided in 1968.

  TABLE K-3.--SHARE OF FEDERAL BUDGET USED FOR INCOME-TESTED AID, BY FORM OF AID, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1968-96 
                                                  [In percent]                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                         Medical   Cash    Food   Housing  Education    Jobs/                   
              Fiscal year                  aid      aid     aid     aid       aid     training  Energy  Services
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1968...................................     1.54    2.83    0.50     0.44      0.48      0.40     0.00     0.22 
1973...................................     2.71    3.49    1.57     1.37      0.74      0.38     0.00     0.69 
1978...................................     3.18    3.50    1.85     1.60      0.89   \1\ 2.11    0.06     0.75 
1983...................................     2.92    2.77    2.24     1.54      0.92      0.56     0.25     0.41 
1988...................................     3.63    2.85    1.90     1.38      1.05      0.35     0.17     0.42 
1990...................................     4.00    2.91    1.90     1.40      1.10      0.32     0.13     0.33 
1991...................................     4.71    3.19    2.12     1.43      1.12      0.33     0.14     0.39 
1992...................................     5.69    3.53    2.37     1.59      0.98      0.36     0.12     0.42 
1993...................................     6.03    3.79    2.47     1.70      1.02      0.34     0.11     0.41 
1994...................................     6.40    4.34    2.47     1.65      1.00      0.33     0.13     0.52 
1995...................................     6.69    4.48    2.43     1.65      1.00      0.31     0.11     0.40 
1996...................................     6.64    4.46    2.38     1.61      0.98      0.25     0.07    0.35  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ In fiscal year 1978, jobs and training benefit outlays were $9.7 billion of this total; $5.8 billion        
  represented public service employment and $2 billion, employment and training services.                       
                                                                                                                
 Source: Burke, 1997.                                                                                           

                     LIST OF INCOME-TESTED PROGRAMS

     Below is the list of programs providing income-tested 
benefits. Within each category, the programs are listed in the 
order of their total cost in fiscal year 1996 to Federal and 
State-local governments. Amounts shown are millions of dollars.

                               Medical Aid

 1. Medicaid ($159,357)
 2. Medical care for veterans without service-connected 
        disability ($8,697)
 3. General assistance (medical care component)--no Federal 
        dollars ($5,429)
 4. Indian health services ($1,984)
 5. Maternal and child health services block grant ($1,105)
 6. Community health centers ($615)
 7. Title X family planning services ($193)
 8. Medical assistance to refugees and Cuban/Haitian entrants 
        ($131)
 9. Migrant health centers ($65)

                                Cash Aid

10. Supplemental Security Income (SSI) ($30,367)
11. Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) ($23,677)
12. Earned income tax credit (EITC) ($21,566)
13. Foster care ($5,853)
14. Emergency assistance for needy families with children 
        ($3,185)
15. Pensions for needy veterans, their dependents, and 
        survivors ($3,086)
16. General assistance (nonmedical care component)--no Federal 
        dollars ($2,880)
17. Adoption assistance ($897)
18. Cash assistance to refugees and Cuban/Haitian entrants 
        ($64)
19. General assistance to Indians ($61)
20. Dependency and indemnity compensation (DIC) and death 
        compensation for parents of veterans ($37)

                                Food Aid

21. Food stamps ($27,344)
22. School Lunch Program (free and reduced price segments) 
        ($4,784)
23. Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, 
        and Children (WIC) ($3,688)
24. School Breakfast Program (free and reduced price segments) 
        ($1,088)
25. Child and Adult Care Food Program ($945)
26. Nutrition Program for the Elderly ($691)
27. Summer Food Service Program for Children ($258)
28. Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP) ($87)
29. The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP) ($80)
30. Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations ($70)
31. Special Milk Program (free segment) ($1)

                               Housing Aid

32. Section 8 low-income housing assistance ($15,015)
33. Low-rent public housing ($4,710)
34. Home Investment Partnerships Program (HOME) ($3,136)
35. Rural housing loans (section 502) ($2,716)
36. Section 236 interest reduction payments ($651)
37. Rural rental assistance payments (section 521) ($538)
38. Rural rental housing loans (section 515) ($151)
39. Home Ownership and Opportunity for People Everywhere (HOPE) 
        Programs ($79)
40. Rural housing repair loans and grants (section 504) ($61)
41. Section 101 rent supplements ($59)
42. Section 235 home ownership assistance for low-income 
        families ($31)
43. Farm labor housing loans (section 514) and grants (section 
        516) ($25)
44. Rural housing self-help technical assistance grants 
        (section 523) and rural housing site loans (sections 
        523 and 524) ($14)
45. Indian housing improvement grants ($13)
46. Rural housing preservation grants (section 533) ($11)

                            Education Aid \2\
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    \2\ Dropped from the fiscal year 1996 list of income-tested benefit 
programs were two education programs that ended in fiscal year 1995: 
Follow Through and Child Development Associate Scholarship Program.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
47. Federal Pell grants ($6,144)
48. Head Start ($4,461)
49. Subsidized Federal Stafford loans ($3,339)
50. Federal Work-Study Program ($617)
51. Supplemental educational opportunity grants ($583)
52. Federal Trio Programs ($463)
53. Chapter 1 Migrant Education Program ($305)
54. Perkins loans ($158)
55. State Student Incentive Grant (SSIG) Program ($127)
56. Fellowships for graduate and professional study ($33)
57. Health professions student loans and scholarships ($32)
58. Migrant High School Equivalency Program (HEP) ($8)
59. Ellender fellowships ($3)
60. College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP) ($2)

                             Other Services

61. Social Services Block Grant (title XX) ($6,095)
62. Child care for recipients (and ex-recipients) of AFDC 
        ($1,737)
63. Child Care and Development Block Grant ($935)
64. At-risk child care (to avert eligibility for AFDC) ($487)
65. Community Services Block Grant ($436)
66. Legal services ($278)
67. Emergency Food and Shelter Program ($100)
68. Social services for refugees and Cuban/Haitian entrants 
        ($69)

                          Jobs and Training Aid

69. Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training Program (JOBS) 
        ($1,280)
70. Job Corps ($1,094)
71. Adult training ($850)
72. Summer Youth Employment and Training Program ($625)
73. Senior Community Service Employment Program ($446)
74. Youth training ($127)
75. Foster grandparents ($94)
76. Senior companions ($51)

                               Energy Aid

77. Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) ($1,064)
78. Weatherization assistance ($175)

                               REFERENCES

Bixby, A.K. (1996). Public Social Welfare Expenditures, Fiscal 
        Year 1993. Social Security Bulletin, 59(3), pp. 67-75
 Burke, V. (1998). Cash and noncash benefits for persons with 
        limited income: Eligibility rules, recipient and 
        expenditure data, fiscal years 1994-96. (98-226 EPW). 
        Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
 Rector, R., & Lauber, W.F. (1995). America's failed $5.4 
        trillion war on poverty. Washington, DC: Heritage 
        Foundation.
 Kerns, W.L. (1997). Private social welfare expenditures, 1972-
        94. Social Security Bulletin, 60(1) pp. 54-60.
 Tin, J. (1996, July). Who gets assistance? Current Population 
        Reports (Household Economic Studies, P70-58). 
        Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.