[Background Material and Data on Programs within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means (Green Book)]
[Program Descriptions]
[Section 8. Aid to Families with Dependent Children and Related Programs (Title IV-A)]
[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]






 
[1996 Green Book] SECTION 8. AID TO FAMILIES WITH DEPENDENT CHILDREN AND RELATED PROGRAMS (TITLE IV-A) *
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    * The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation 
Act of 1996 changed this program; see appendix L for details.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

                                CONTENTS

Overview
Basic Federal Rules
Treatment of Income and Resources
  Unearned Income
  Earned Income and Disregards
  Resources
  Accounting Period and Monthly Reporting
The AFDC Unemployed Parents Program
Interaction Between AFDC and Other Programs
  Medicaid
  Food Stamps
  Earned Income Credit (EIC)
  Child Support Enforcement
  SSI and Social Security
  Other Benefit Programs
  Participation in Multiple Means-Tested Programs
  Spending for Cash and Noncash Benefits for Persons of Limited 
            Income
Job Opportunities and Basic Skills (JOBS) Training Program
  Purpose and Administration
  Assessment, Employability Plan, Case Management, and 
            Orientation
  JOBS Activities
  Participation Requirements
  Targeting of JOBS Funds
  Funding of JOBS and Supportive Services
  Indian Tribes and JOBS
  Supportive and Transitional Services
  Welfare-to-Work Efforts: Some Assessments
Title IV-A Emergency Assistance
Waivers From Federal AFDC Law--Section 1115 Demonstration 
        Projects
Child Care for Families at Risk of AFDC Receipt
AFDC Benefit Levels and Trends
  Maximum Benefits (State AFDC Guarantees)
  Need and Payment Standards
  Trends in Benefits
  Income Eligibility Limits
  AFDC Benefits for Special Needs
Federal and State Funding of AFDC Benefit Payments and 
        Administrative Costs
AFDC Caseload Data
Characteristics of AFDC Families
  National Data About AFDC Families
  State Data About AFDC Families
The AFDC Quality Control System
  Description of AFDC Quality Control System
  Quality Control and JOBS Performance Standards
  Recent Quality Control Statistics
Welfare Dynamics
  Exits and Returns to AFDC
  Endings and Beginnings of AFDC Spells
  Length of Time on Welfare and Turnover Within the AFDC 
            Caseload
  Relationship of Personal Characteristics to Duration of AFDC
  Welfare Dependency
  Intergenerational Transmission of AFDC Receipt
Adolescent and Out-of-Wedlock Childbearing and Use of AFDC
  Trends Over Time
  First Births to Unmarried Women
  Links to AFDC Use
Legislative History
References

                                OVERVIEW

    Aid to Dependent Children was established by the Social 
Security Act of 1935 as a cash grant program to enable States 
to aid needy children without fathers. Later renamed Aid to 
Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), the program provides 
cash welfare payments for needy children who have been deprived 
of parental support or care because their father or mother is 
absent from the home continuously, is incapacitated, is 
deceased or is unemployed. AFDC benefits also are paid to the 
child's needy caretaker relative (usually the mother) and, in 
some States, may be paid to another person in the home who is 
deemed essential to the child's well-being. All 50 States, the 
District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands 
operate an AFDC Program. Although 1988 legislation allowed 
American Samoa to participate in the AFDC Program, as of April 
1996 it had not chosen to do so.
    States define ``need,'' set their own benefit levels, 
establish (within Federal limitations) income and resource 
limits, and administer the program or supervise its 
administration. States are entitled to unlimited Federal funds 
for reimbursement of benefit payments, at ``matching'' rates 
known as Medicaid matching rates, which are inversely related 
to State per capita income. States must provide aid to all 
persons who are in classes eligible under Federal law and whose 
income and resources are within State-set limits. Thus, an 
individual's entitlement to AFDC varies from State to State. 
Federal funds currently pay from 50 to about 78 percent of AFDC 
benefit costs in a State (55 percent on average) and 50 percent 
of administrative costs in all States.
    As Table 8-1 indicates, AFDC enrollment and benefit outlays 
in fiscal year 1994 rose to all-time high levels. That year a 
monthly average of 14.2 million persons (9.6 million children) 
in 5 million families received benefits totaling $22.8 billion. 
However, in fiscal year 1995 enrollment dropped by 0.6 million 
persons (0.3 million children), average family benefits rose 
only $1.00 monthly, and total benefit outlays fell by $0.8 
billion.
    Table 8-1 summarizes AFDC enrollment and spending trends 
from 1970 to 1995. In that quarter-century period, the number 
of AFDC families more than doubled, from 1.9 million to 4.9 
million, but, because family size shrank, the number of 
recipients rose only 83 percent. The proportion of the U.S. 
population enrolled in AFDC increased from 3.6 percent in 
fiscal year 1970 to 5.5 percent in 1993 and 1994, a 53 percent 
rise. In the same period the share of families with children 
served by AFDC more than doubled, from 6.6 percent to 14.8 
percent. Measured in constant value (1995) dollars, AFDC 
benefit expenditures increased 35 percent, from $16.4 billion 
in 1970 to $22 billion in 1995. Administrative costs remained 
almost the same in both years, after adjusting for inflation, 
at $3.5 billion. AFDC administrative costs were 22 percent of 
benefit payments in 1970, when they included some services, and 
16 percent in 1995. The average monthly family benefit measured 
in 1995 dollars, fell from $713 in 1970 to $377 in 1995, a 47 
percent drop.

                          BASIC FEDERAL RULES

    AFDC is a voluntary program for States, but participating 
States must submit plans for approval. They must operate the 
program statewide and apply their need standards uniformly 
within the State or locality to all families in similar 
circumstances. States may adopt separate urban and rural 
benefit schedules and may vary benefits by region, with 
differences usually reflecting shelter costs. States are at 
liberty to pay as much in benefits as they choose, or as 
little, with one exception. Medicaid law forbids them to reduce 
AFDC payment standards below those of May 1, 1988 (or, if 
higher, those of July 1, 1987).
    Eligibility for AFDC ends on a child's 18th birthday, or at 
State option upon a child's 19th birthday if the child is a 
full-time student in a secondary or technical school and may 
reasonably be expected to complete the program before reaching 
age 19.
    Since October 1, 1990, State AFDC Programs have been 
required to offer AFDC to children in two-parent families who 
are needy because of the unemployment of one of their parents 
(AFDC-UP). Eligibility for AFDC-UP is limited to families whose 
principal wage earner is unemployed but has a history of work. 
States that did not have an Unemployed Parent Program as of 
September 26, 1988 may limit benefits under the AFDC-UP Program 
to as few as 6 months in any 13-month period.

                                        TABLE 8-1.--SUMMARY OF KEY AFDC PROGRAM ELEMENTS, SELECTED YEARS 1970-95                                        
                                        [In dollars, \1\ except for caseload numbers and enrollment percentages]                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             Year                                                       
          Program element           --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                       1970      1975       1980       1985       1988       1990       1991       1992       1993      1994      1995  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             Total AFDC                                                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                                        
Benefit expenditures (millions) \2\     4,082     8,153     11,540     14,580     16,663     18,539     20,356     22,240     22,286    22,797    22,032
     In 1995 dollars...............    16,350    23,829     21,839     20,707     21,562     21,809     22,795     24,172     23,513    23,432    22,032
Federal share (millions)...........     2,187     4,488      6,224      7,817      9,125     10,149     11,165     12,252     12,270    12,511    12,018
    In 1995 dollars (millions).....     8,460    13,117     11,779     11,102     11,808     11,939     12,503     13,316     12,945    12,859    12,018
Administrative cost (millions).....    \3\881     1,082      1,479      1,779      2,353      2,661      2,673      2,764      2,956     3,282     3,524
    In 1995 dollars................     3,529     3,162      2,799      2,527      3,045      3,130      2,993      3,004      3,119     3,373     3,524
Federal share (millions)...........    \3\572       552        750        890      1,194      1,358      1,373      1,422      1,518     1,670     1,770
    In 1995 dollars................     2,291     1,613      1,419      1,264      1,545      1,598      1,538      1,546      1,602     1,716     1,770
Average monthly numbers                                                                                                                                 
 (thousands): \4\                                                                                                                                       
    Families.......................     1,909     3,269      3,574      3,692      3,748      3,974      4,375      4,769      4,981     5,046     4,869
    Recipients.....................     7,429    10,960     10,497     10,813     10,920     11,460     12,595     13,625     14,144    14,226    13,619
    Children.......................     5,494     7,821      7,220      7,165      7,326      7,755      8,515      9,225      9,539     9,590     9,275
Average family size................       4.0       3.2        3.0        3.0        3.0        2.9        2.9        2.9        2.8       2.8       2.8
Average monthly benefit per family.       178       208        269        329        370        389        388        389        373       376       377
     In 1995 dollars...............       713       608        509        467        479        458        434        423        394       386       377
Percent of families with children                                                                                                                       
 enrolled \5\......................       6.6      10.9       11.5       11.9       11.7       12.3       13.5       14.6       15.0      14.8        NA
Percent of population enrolled.....       3.6       5.1        4.6        4.5        4.5        4.6        5.0        5.3        5.5       5.5       5.2
                                                                                                                                                        
       AFDC-Basic and AFDC-UP                                                                                                                           
                                                                                                                                                        
Benefit expenditures (in millions                                                                                                                       
 of 1995 dollars):                                                                                                                                      
    AFDC-Basic.....................    15,424    22,771     20,528     18,498     19,725     20,068     20,749     21,869     21,088    20,961    19,820
    AFDC-UP........................       925     1,058      1,312      2,210      1,838      1,741      2,046      2,303      2,425     2,471     2,212
Average monthly number of families                                                                                                                      
 (thousands):                                                                                                                                           
    AFDC-Basic.....................     1,831     3,168      3,433      3,431      3,538      3,770      4,107      4,447      4,622     4,683     4,534
    AFDC-UP........................        78       101        141        261        210        204        268        322        359       363       335
Average monthly benefit per family                                                                                                                      
 (in 1995 dollars):                                                                                                                                     
    AFDC-Basic.....................       702       599        498        449        465        444        421        410        380       373       364
    AFDC-UP........................       988       873        775        706        729        711        636        596        563       567       550
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Current dollars and constant value (1995) dollars. The latter were adjusted for inflation on the basis of the Consumer Price Index for Urban        
  Consumers (CPI-U).                                                                                                                                    
\2\ AFDC benefit expenditures have not been reduced by child support enforcement collections. Data are from table 8-22, but (unlike that table) exclude 
  foster care payments made in 1975 and 1980.                                                                                                           
\3\ Includes expenditures for services.                                                                                                                 
\4\ AFDC enrollment data are from table 8-25, but (unlike that table) exclude foster care recipients for 1975 and 1980.                                 
\5\ Based on the number of U.S. families with children under age 18.                                                                                    
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and U.S. Bureau of the Census. Table prepared by the    
  Congressional Research Service.                                                                                                                       

    The Family Support Act of 1988 (Public Law 100-485) 
substantially revised the work and training requirements of the 
AFDC Program. Since October 1, 1990, States have been required 
to have a Job Opportunities and Basic Skills Training (JOBS) 
Program. This program, which replaced the Work Incentive (WIN) 
and WIN Demonstration Programs, seeks to help needy families 
avoid long-term welfare use. The JOBS Program must include 
specified educational activities. States are required to enroll 
able-bodied persons whose youngest child is at least age 3, 
provided State resources are available.
    Families receiving AFDC are automatically eligible for 
Medicaid. The Family Support Act also requires that States 
provide transitional Medicaid benefits of up to 12 months for 
those who lose AFDC eligibility as a result of increased hours 
of, or increased income from, employment or as a result of the 
loss of earnings disregards (special treatment of earned income 
by which some income is ignored for the purpose of computing 
AFDC eligibility and benefits).
    The Family Support Act requires that States guarantee child 
care found necessary for an individual's employment or 
participation in education or training activities approved by 
the State, and requires that transitional child care of up to 
12 months be provided for families who lose AFDC eligibility as 
a result of increased hours of, or increased income from, 
employment or as a result of the loss of earnings disregards. 
The law provides unlimited matching funds for this child care.
    In addition, the AFDC statute entitles States to capped 
matching funds for child care for families that need child care 
in order to work and that, without child care, would be at risk 
of becoming eligible for AFDC.
    Finally, Federal law requires AFDC mothers (and 
applicants), as a condition of AFDC eligibility, to assign 
their child support rights to the State and to cooperate with 
welfare officials in establishing the paternity of a child and 
in obtaining support payments from the father.

                   TREATMENT OF INCOME AND RESOURCES

    Federal AFDC law requires that all income received by an 
AFDC recipient or applicant be counted against the AFDC grant 
except income explicitly excluded by definition or deduction. 
Moreover, AFDC law requires that certain persons be considered 
part of the AFDC assistance unit and that part of the income of 
certain other persons be counted in determining the AFDC 
eligibility status and benefit amount.
    In 1981, Congress required that a portion of the income of 
a stepparent be counted in determining AFDC eligibility and 
benefit amounts. However, in a few States (seven as of April 
1996), all stepparents must assume the legal responsibility of 
a natural or adoptive parent. In these States, all of the 
stepparent's income must be counted in determining the AFDC 
eligibility status and/or benefit amount of the children and 
spouse.
    In 1984, a standard definition of the AFDC assistance unit 
was established for the first time. Under this requirement, the 
parent(s) of a dependent child and any dependent brothers or 
sisters who are in the home are to be included in the AFDC 
unit, with eligibility and benefits based on the income and 
circumstances of this family unit. SSI recipients, 
stepsiblings, and children receiving foster care maintenance 
payments or adoption assistance are not counted as part of the 
AFDC unit. In addition, if a minor who is living in the same 
home as her parents applies for aid as the parent of a needy 
child, a portion of the income of the minor's parents is to be 
counted as available to the filing unit.
    The law also requires that income from a nonrecurring lump 
sum payment that exceeds the monthly AFDC need standard be 
taken into account in determining AFDC eligibility and/or 
benefit amount. Lump sum payments in excess of the State's need 
standard--for the given family size--render a family ineligible 
for AFDC for a period of time equal to the lump sum payment 
divided by the State's monthly need standard.

                            Unearned Income

    States are required by Federal law to disregard certain 
income in determining the eligibility and benefits of families 
applying for or receiving AFDC. Unearned income not counted by 
the AFDC Program includes the following: the first $50 of 
current monthly child support payments received by the family; 
any student financial assistance provided under the Higher 
Education Act; the value of Department of Agriculture donated 
foods; benefits from child nutrition programs or nutrition 
programs for the elderly; payments to VISTA workers; some 
payments to certain Indian tribes; any amounts paid by a State 
welfare agency from State-only funds to meet the needs of AFDC 
children if the payments are made under a statutorily-
established State program that has been continuously in effect 
since before January 1, 1979; payments for supporting services 
or reimbursement of out-of-pocket expenses made to volunteers 
serving as foster grandparents, senior health aides, or senior 
companions; and Agent Orange settlement payments.

                      Earned Income and Disregards

    States are required by Federal law to disregard certain 
earned income when determining the amount of benefits to which 
a recipient family is entitled. States must disregard all the 
earned income of each dependent child receiving AFDC who is a 
student (full or part time) at a school, college, university, 
or vocational training course and not a full-time employee. 
States may disregard all or part of the earned income of a 
dependent child who is a full-time student and an applicant for 
AFDC if the child's earnings are excluded in determining the 
family's total income. States may disregard, for up to 6 
months, earnings derived from Job Training Partnership Act 
(JTPA) Programs by a dependent child applying for or receiving 
AFDC.
    With respect to self-employment, ``earned income'' is 
defined by Federal regulations as the ``total profit from a 
business enterprise, farming, etc., resulting from a comparison 
of the gross receipts with the business expenses, i.e., 
expenses directly related to producing the goods or services 
and without which the goods or services could not be 
produced.'' However, under AFDC regulations, items such as 
depreciation, personal business and entertainment expenses, 
personal transportation, purchase of capital equipment and 
payments on the principal of loans for capital assets or 
durable goods are not considered business expenses.
    Before OBRA 1981, in order to provide a financial incentive 
for recipients to seek and maintain employment, Federal law 
required the deduction of an initial $30 in monthly earnings 
plus one-third of remaining earnings, plus work expenses (child 
care costs, payroll taxes, transportation, and similar expenses 
reasonably attributable to the earning of income). Under this 
rule, a person did not lose AFDC eligibility until monthly 
gross earnings equaled 150 percent of the AFDC payment 
standard, plus $30, plus 150 percent of work expenses. When 
making an initial determination of eligibility, however, only 
work expenses were disregarded.
    Amendments in OBRA 1981 standardized and limited the 
disregard for work expenses to $75 per month, capped the child 
care disregard at $160 per child per month, specified that the 
HHS Secretary could lower these sums for part-time work, and 
changed the order of disregards. The $30 plus one-third 
disregard was limited to a period of 4 consecutive months; 
recipients who left AFDC and then returned could not again 
qualify for this disregard for 12 months. States were 
prohibited from paying AFDC to any family with a gross income 
above 150 percent of the State's standard of need and were 
required to assume that working AFDC recipients received a 
monthly earned income credit (EIC), if they appeared eligible 
for it and regardless of when or if they actually claimed the 
credit. The standard $75 expense disregard and child care 
disregard were applied before the one-third (this lowered the 
point at which counted earnings ended eligibility). Previously, 
the EIC was counted only when received; most AFDC recipients 
did not receive the EIC on a monthly basis. Taken together, 
these changes substantially reduced the amount of earnings a 
recipient could have and remain eligible for an AFDC payment.
    In 1984, Congress further revised these disregards. The 
gross income limit was increased to 185 percent from 150 
percent of the State standard of need, the work expense 
disregard of $75 per month was applied to both full- and part-
time workers, and the $30 disregard--originally a part of $30 
and one-third--was extended for an additional 8 months beyond 
the 4-month limit. The 1984 legislation also returned to prior 
law policy with respect to the earned income credit: it was to 
be counted only when actually received.
    The Family Support Act of 1988 further revised the 
treatment of earned income effective October 1, 1989. The work 
expense disregard is now $90 per month, the maximum child care 
expense allowance is $175 per month per child ($200 for 
children under age 2), and the child care disregard is 
calculated after other disregard provisions have been applied. 
Furthermore, States are now required to disregard the earned 
income credit in determining eligibility for and benefits under 
the AFDC Program.
    Table 8-2 illustrates the impact of the 1981, 1984, and 
1988 changes on benefits payable to a mother with 2 children 
working full time at a low wage. The table also shows how gross 
earnings limits were reduced by the changes in treatment of 
earnings. Two AFDC benefit standards are illustrated: $600 
represents the AFDC payment standard for a family of three in a 
high benefit State and $400 is slightly above the payment 
standard for a three-person family in the median benefit State 
(January 1996 data).
    As the table shows, before the 1981 law, a mother would not 
work her way totally off AFDC until gross earnings reached 
$1,185 per month in the high benefit State ($600 payment 
standard) and $885 per month in the near-median benefit State 
($400 payment standard). The corresponding limits today, after 
1 year on a job, are $790 and $590, respectively.
    The table also shows the growth in the earned income credit 
(EIC) over this period, from $32 to $232 monthly for a worker 
(with two children) earning $581. In some States, the rise in 
the EIC equals the cut in AFDC benefits caused by the less 
generous treatment of earnings.
    Several States use a method of paying AFDC that allows 
working families to retain a greater portion of their AFDC 
grant as earnings increase. This method of payment, commonly 
referred to as ``fill-the-gap,'' provides greater financial 
incentives for families to work than the standard payment 
method. Under the standard payment method, the AFDC grant is 
determined by subtracting countable income (e.g., earnings less 
disregards) from the State's payment standard. Most States set 
payment standards below their need standards--the amount the 
State recognizes as essential for a family's needs. Further, 
several States have maximum benefits below the payment 
standard. (To compare State need standards and maximum benefits 
for a typical AFDC family of three with each other and with 
payment standards, see tables 8-12 and 8-17, respectively.) 
Some States having AFDC payment standards below their need 
standard allow families to fill part or all of the gap between 
the payment and need standard with earnings, before reducing 
the AFDC grant. Other States set a maximum payment below the 
payment standard, allowing families to ``fill-the-gap'' only up 
to the payment standard. Most States with AFDC payment 
standards below their need standard do not use a fill-the-gap 
policy--they begin to reduce the AFDC grant dollar for dollar 
for earnings in excess of the standard earnings disregards. In 
January 1994, 10 States were using some form of ``fill-the-
gap'': Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, 
Georgia, Utah, South Dakota, Colorado, Wyoming, and Maine. 
Working mothers in these States have higher net income at 
equivalent earnings than mothers living in States with similar 
AFDC payment levels that do not use a ``fill-the-gap'' payment 
method (Gabe and Falk, 1995).

   TABLE 8-2.--CALCULATION OF MONTHLY AFDC BENEFITS AND ELIGIBILITY LIMITS FOR A WORKER WITH LOW EARNINGS UNDER PRE-OBRA, OBRA, DEFRA, AND CURRENT LAW  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       OBRA (1981)                DEFRA (1984)                     Current AFDC         
                                                        Pre-OBRA ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                         (1979)    First 4    After 4    First 4    After 4    After 12   First 4    After 4    After 12
                                                                    months     months     months     months     months     months     months     months 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Income:                                                                                                                                                 
  Gross earnings.....................................        581        581        581        581        581        581        581        581        581
  Earned income credit \1\...........................         32         32         32         41         41         41        232        232        232
                                                      --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      Gross income...................................        613        613        613        622        622        622        813        813        813
                                                      ==================================================================================================
Disregards: \2\                                                                                                                                         
  Initial disregards \3\.............................        -30       -105        -75       -105       -105        -75       -120       -120        -90
  One-third of rest..................................       -184      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)       -154      (\4\)      (\4\)
  Child care.........................................       -100       -100       -100       -100       -100       -100       -100       -100       -100
  One-third of rest..................................      (\4\)       -136      (\4\)       -125      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)
  Other expenses.....................................     \5\-70      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)      (\4\)
  Earned income credit \6\...........................        -32      (\4\)      (\4\)        -41        -41        -41       -232       -232       -232
                                                      --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      Total disregards...............................       -416       -341       -175       -371       -246       -216       -606       -452       -422
                                                      ==================================================================================================
      Net countable income...........................        197        272        438        251        376        406        207        361        391
AFDC benefits:                                                                                                                                          
  $600 payment standard..............................        403        328        162        349        224        194        393        239        209
  $400 payment standard \7\..........................        203        128          0        149         24          0        193         39      \8\ 0
Eligibility limits \9\ (in earnings):                                                                                                                   
  $600 payment standard..............................      1,185  \10\ 1,10                                                                             
                                                                          5   \10\ 775      1,105        805        775      1,170        820        790
  $400 payment standard..............................        885   \10\ 805   \10\ 575        805        605        575        870        620        590
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note.--OBRA = Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985; DEFRA = Deficit Reduction Act of 1984.                                                         
\1\ Earned income credit amounts reflect credit rates in effect for a tax filer with two children in 1979, 1981, 1984, and 1996 (current law). Until    
  1991, the rate was the same for one or more children.                                                                                                 
\2\ Initial disregards, one-third disregards, child care and other expense disregards are based on gross earnings and subtracted from them. In 1981     
  column only, gross earnings include the EIC.                                                                                                          
\3\ Pre-OBRA: $30 disregard. OBRA: Standard work expense deduction of $75 plus $30 in first 4 months. DEFRA: Standard work expense deduction of $75 plus
  $30 disregard in first 12 months. FSA: Standard work expense deduction of $90 plus $30 disregard in first 12 months.                                  
\4\ Not applicable. Note: In columns 2 and 4 (1st 4 months, OBRA and DEFRA) there is a one-third residual disregard, but not until after deduction of   
  child care costs (as shown).                                                                                                                          
\5\ Itemized work expenses (including payroll deductions and transportation) are assumed to be $70.                                                     
\6\ EIC disregard applied in all years shown except 1981.                                                                                               
\7\ Slightly above the payment standard for a family of three in the median State, January 1996.                                                        
\8\ To receive an AFDC check, the benefit amount must equal at least $10. (Here the calculated benefit would be $9.)                                    
\9\ Except in 1979, earnings limits for payment of an actual benefit would be lower than shown ($15 less monthly, first 4 months of a job, and $10 less 
  monthly thereafter) because of the rule enacted in 1981 against paying a benefit amount below $10.                                                    
\10\ Including EIC, treated as counted earnings in 1981.                                                                                                
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service.                                                                                           

                               Resources

    Allowable resources are limited, by Public Law 97-35, to 
$1,000 (or a lower amount set by the State) in equity value 
(i.e., market value minus any encumbrances) per family, 
excluding the home and one automobile if the family member's 
ownership interest does not exceed a limit chosen by the 
Secretary of Health and Human Services. In addition, States 
must disregard from countable resources burial plots and (up to 
$1,500) funeral agreements for each member of the assistance 
unit. Also, for a limited time, States must exclude real 
property the family is making a ``good faith'' effort to sell, 
but only if the family agrees to repay benefits. HHS 
regulations set $1,500 as the outer limit (in equity value) for 
an automobile (Indiana and Louisiana have lower limits) and 
permit States to exclude from countable resources ``basic items 
essential to day to day living,'' such as clothing and 
furniture. Previous regulations permitted States to adopt a 
counted resource limit as high as $2,000 per family member, and 
to treat the home and auto as counted resources.
    Neither law nor Federal regulations mention capital 
equipment as being exempt from the resource requirement, but 
the compilation of State AFDC plans indicates that about half 
of the States exclude from countable resources farm machinery, 
livestock, and tools and equipment essential to employment, 
livelihood, or income.

                Accounting Period and Monthly Reporting

    AFDC eligibility and benefits are determined monthly. 
Public Law 97-35 required States to determine eligibility on 
the basis of the family's circumstances in the current month. 
Payment amounts were to be determined ``retrospectively''--on 
the basis of the family's countable income and resources in the 
preceding month (or, at the discretion of the Secretary of 
Health and Human Services, in the second preceding month). In 
addition, States were to require recipients to provide monthly 
reports on income, family composition, and resources. However, 
a State could adopt less frequent reporting for specified 
categories of families if it demonstrated that this would be 
cost-beneficial.
    In 1984, Public Law 98-369 revised these rules. 
Retrospective budgeting was made mandatory only for families 
that file a monthly report. Monthly reporting was required for 
families with earned income or a recent work history and 
whenever cost effective.
    The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 gave States 
the option of specifying which categories of AFDC families, if 
any, must file monthly (or less frequent) reports and permitted 
them to apply retrospective budgeting to those required to file 
periodic reports. Effective in fiscal year 1994, Public Law 
103-432 gave States the option to apply retrospective budgeting 
to categories of their choice. Regulations require States that 
specify retrospective budgeting to provide a monthly reporting 
form plus a stamped, self-addressed envelope, to recipients who 
have earnings.

                  THE AFDC UNEMPLOYED PARENTS PROGRAM

    The original Social Security Act permitted States to give 
AFDC only to needy children in one-parent homes unless the 
second parent was incapacitated. Then, as now, most AFDC 
children lived in fatherless homes. For the first 25 years of 
the program, if a father lost his job and his family became 
needy, State AFDC Programs were forbidden to help the family so 
long as the father lived at home. In 1961, as an antirecession 
measure, the law was changed so that families with jobless 
fathers at home could qualify for AFDC. Since May of that year 
States were permitted to give AFDC to needy children of 
unemployed parents. This program is known as AFDC for 
Unemployed Parents--AFDC-UP.
    In 1988, the Family Support Act required all States, 
effective October 1, 1990, to provide AFDC to two-parent 
families who are needy because of the unemployment of the 
principal wage earner. (As a result of a 1994 amendment (Public 
Law 103-432), the requirement does not take effect for American 
Samoa, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Virgin Islands until funding 
ceilings for AFDC benefits in these areas are removed.) The 
two-parent program reverts to optional status for all States 
after September 30, 1998.
    The 29 jurisdictions (including Guam and Washington, DC) 
that had an AFDC-UP Program as of September 26, 1988, were 
required to continue operating the program without any time 
limit on eligibility. Other States have the option to impose a 
time limit. In exercising this option, a State may not deny 
AFDC to a family unless the family has received AFDC under the 
Unemployed Parents Program in at least 6 of the preceding 12 
months. As of February 1996, the following 12 States have time 
limits on eligibility: Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, 
Georgia, Nevada, North Dakota, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, 
Virginia, and Wyoming.
    AFDC-UP families, like other AFDC families, are 
automatically eligible for Medicaid. The Family Support Act of 
1988 requires States that time-limit AFDC-UP benefits to 
provide Medicaid to all members of the family without any time 
limitation.
    When AFDC-UP began, States were allowed to define 
``unemployment.'' Some States included in the program families 
in which the principal wage earner worked as many as 35 hours a 
week. Since 1971, Federal regulations have specified that an 
AFDC parent must work fewer than 100 hours in a month to be 
classified as unemployed, unless hours are of a temporary 
nature for intermittent work and the individual met the 100-
hour rule in the two preceding months and is expected to meet 
it the following month. The Family Support Act of 1988 required 
the DHHS Secretary to enter into agreements with up to eight 
States for demonstrations to test a definition of unemployment 
less restrictive than the present 100-hour rule and authorized 
projects with no limitation on hours worked. Resulting projects 
in California, Wisconsin, and Utah set no limit on hours worked 
by AFDC-UP recipients and based eligibility on income alone. As 
of February 1996, evaluations of these demonstrations were not 
completed.
    However, additional experiments with AFDC-UP rules are 
underway. As of late 1995, 22 States had received Federal 
waivers, and another 6 had applications pending, to test 
elimination of the 100-hour rule. Some of these end the hour 
limit for applicants as well as AFDC-UP recipients.
    Attachment to the labor force is one condition of 
eligibility for AFDC-UP. The principal earner must: (1) have 6 
or more quarters of work in any 13-calendar-quarter period 
ending within 1 year before application for assistance; or (2) 
have received or been eligible to receive unemployment 
compensation within 1 year before application. A quarter of 
work is a quarter in which an individual earns at least $50 or 
participated in the JOBS Program. At State option, attendance 
in elementary or secondary school, vocational or technical 
training, or participation in JTPA, may be substituted for up 
to 4 of the 6 required quarters of work. Some States have 
waivers to test ending the work history rule, as well as the 
100-hour rule.

              INTERACTION BETWEEN AFDC AND OTHER PROGRAMS

                                Medicaid

    States must provide Medicaid to families receiving cash 
assistance under AFDC. Beginning in 1986, Congress extended 
Medicaid coverage, at regular Federal matching rates, to groups 
of women and children not enrolled in AFDC. The most important 
of these groups include (1) pregnant women, and children up to 
age 6, with family incomes up to 133 percent of the poverty 
level; (2) children born on or after October 1, 1983, with 
family incomes below the Federal poverty level (this provision 
is phased in to cover all children up to age 19 by the year 
2002); and (3) certain persons whose family income and 
resources are below the AFDC standards but who fail to qualify 
for AFDC for other reasons, such as family structure (these 
include first-time pregnant women). In addition, States have 
the option to provide coverage to pregnant women and infants 
under age 1 with incomes that do not exceed 185 percent of the 
Federal poverty level.
    When families lose AFDC eligibility, Medicaid eligibility 
also frequently ends, except under income circumstances 
outlined above, or if the family qualifies for transitional 
Medicaid benefits established under the Family Support Act of 
1988. This act requires States to extend Medicaid coverage for 
12 months to families who lose AFDC eligibility because of 
earnings. During the first 6 months of coverage, the States 
must provide each family the same Medicaid coverage that the 
family had while receiving AFDC. States are not permitted to 
impose premiums for this coverage, but States do have a 
Medicaid ``wraparound'' option. Under this option, States may 
use Medicaid funds to pay a family's expenses for premiums, 
deductibles and coinsurance for any health care coverage 
offered by the employer of the caretaker relative. The employer 
coverage would then be treated by the Medicaid Program as a 
third party liability.
    During the second 6 months of coverage, the States have a 
number of options. First, they may limit the scope of the 
Medicaid coverage to acute care benefits, dropping nursing home 
coverage and other nonacute benefits. Second, States may impose 
a monthly premium on families with incomes, less necessary 
child care expenses, in excess of 100 percent of the Federal 
poverty level. The monthly premium on these families could not 
exceed 3 percent of gross income. Premiums would be determined 
on the basis of quarterly reports from families on earnings and 
child care costs. Third, States have the option of offering 
families the choice of (1) basic Medicaid coverage (either the 
same as offered to cash assistance beneficiaries or the more 
limited acute care package) or (2) one or more types of 
alternative coverage. These alternative coverages could include 
enrollment in an employer group health plan, a State employee 
plan, a State health plan for the uninsured, or a health 
maintenance organization. Families would always have a choice 
of staying with their basic Medicaid coverage, although they 
could not elect both the basic Medicaid and one of the 
alternative coverages. With respect to the basic Medicaid 
coverage, States would have the same ``Medicaid wraparound'' 
option as during the first 6-month period. In general, 
transitional coverage would terminate if a family no longer had 
a child, failed to report earnings on a quarterly basis, failed 
to pay any required premium, or fraudulently obtained cash 
assistance benefits.
    States are required to provide full Medicaid coverage to 
all members of AFDC-UP families even in months when cash 
benefits are not paid because of a State-established time limit 
(described above).
    In the mid-1980s, some States sought to cover more pregnant 
women and children under the Medicaid Program. However, they 
did not want to raise AFDC income eligibility levels in order 
to cover them under both programs. Congress gave States the 
option of extending Medicaid to pregnant women and children 
with incomes below the poverty lines but above AFDC limits. 
Congress later made this coverage mandatory. To prevent States 
from reducing AFDC benefits (because the targeted populations 
would receive Medicaid irrespective of the AFDC Program), 
Public Law 100-360 prohibited the Secretary of Health and Human 
Services from approving a State's Medicaid plan if the State 
reduced its AFDC payment levels below those in effect on May 1, 
1988 and prohibited reimbursement for Medicaid to certain 
pregnant women and children if a State reduced AFDC payment 
levels below those in effect on July 1, 1987.

                              Food Stamps

    Most AFDC families are also eligible for and participate in 
the Food Stamp Program, which provides an important in-kind 
supplement to the cash assistance paid under AFDC. Although the 
law permits State AFDC Programs to count as income the value of 
a family's food stamps to the extent that this duplicates the 
amount for food in the State's maximum payment schedule, no 
State does so. However, the Food Stamp Program does consider 
AFDC payments to be countable income and it reduces the food 
stamp benefit by about 30 cents for each extra AFDC dollar. At 
the same time, when AFDC payments decline, food stamps are 
increased by about 30 cents per lost AFDC dollar. Thus, if an 
AFDC recipient is penalized by one dollar for violating a 
program rule, food stamps reduce the net loss to 70 cents. The 
interaction between AFDC and the Food Stamp Program has 
important financial implications for a State that desires to 
increase the income of its AFDC recipients. The State must 
increase AFDC by $1.43 to obtain an effective $1 increase in 
the recipient's total income ($1.00/0.7 = $1.43).

                       Earned Income Credit (EIC)

    Parents with modest earnings, including AFDC parents who 
leave welfare because of work, are eligible for a cash 
supplement from the U.S. Treasury in the form of an earned 
income credit (EIC). For tax year 1996, the maximum credit for 
a tax filer with one child is $2,152, received for earnings 
between $6,330 and $11,610. For two or more children the 
maximum credit is $3,556, received for earnings between $8,890 
and $11,610. At higher levels credits are phased out, and they 
end at adjusted gross income of $25,078 (one child) and $28,495 
(two or more children). EIC is a refundable credit; persons 
with income below the taxation threshold receive the credit as 
a direct payment from the U.S. Treasury. In fact, about 85 
percent of the $25 billion the Federal Government expects to 
spend on the EIC in 1996 will be refunded.
    Federal law requires that EIC be ignored as income in 
determining eligibility and benefit amount in the programs of 
AFDC, food stamps, Medicaid, Supplemental Security Income (SSI) 
or some housing programs. (Lump sum EIC payments must be 
ignored as assets for 1 year by food stamps and for 2 months by 
the other programs.)
    Table 8-3 and chart 8-1 illustrate the interaction of AFDC 
with food stamps, Medicaid, and the earned income credit (EIC) 
for a mother with two children at various earning levels. The 
example assumes the family lives in Pennsylvania. Calculations 
are made after the mother has been working for 4 months and has 
lost the disregard of one-third of ``residual'' earnings (those 
remaining after subtraction of a $120 standard allowance).

                       Child Support Enforcement

    As a condition of eligibility for aid, Federal law requires 
AFDC families (and applicants) to assign their support rights 
to the State and to cooperate with the State in establishing 
the paternity of a child born outside of marriage and in 
obtaining support payments. Families receiving AFDC benefits 
automatically qualify (free of charge) for CSE services, and 
their cases are referred to the State child support agency. The 
provision requiring the AFDC applicant or recipient to assign 
to the State her rights to support covers both current support 
amounts and any accrued arrears, and lasts as long as the 
family receives AFDC. When the family no longer receives AFDC, 
the mother or caretaker relative regains her right to collect 
support, but if there are arrears, the State may claim those 
arrears up to the amount paid out as AFDC benefits.
    Child support payments made on behalf of a child receiving 
AFDC are paid to the child support agency rather than directly 
to the family. If the child support collection is insufficient 
to disqualify the family from receiving AFDC payments, the 
family receives its full monthly AFDC grant plus, pursuant to 
the 1984 Deficit Reduction Act, the first $50 of the child 
support payment made in the child's behalf for that month. This 
$50 is disregarded in AFDC benefit calculations. In several 
States where the need standard exceeds the maximum payment, 
additional amounts of child support are disregarded (see 
below). The remainder of the monthly child support payment is 
distributed to reimburse the State and Federal Governments in 
proportion to their assistance to the family.

       TABLE 8-3.--EARNINGS AND BENEFITS FOR A MOTHER WITH TWO CHILDREN WITH DAY CARE EXPENSES AFTER 4 MONTHS ON JOB, JANUARY 1996--(PENNSYLVANIA)      
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                          Taxes                                         
                                                              Food                           ------------------------------     Work      ``Disposable''
                Earnings                   EIC   AFDC \1\  stamps \2\         Medicaid         Social     Federal    State  expenses \4\      income    
                                                                                              Security  income \3\  income                              
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
$0.....................................      $0    $5,052     $2,722   Yes..................       $0         $0        $0          $0     \5\ $7,774   
2,000..................................     800     4,892      2,410   Yes..................      153          0         0         600      \5\ 9,349   
4,000..................................   1,600     3,292      2,530   Yes..................      306          0         0       1,200      \5\ 9,916   
5,000..................................   2,000     2,492      2,590   Yes..................      383          0         0       1,500     \5\ 10,199   
6,000..................................   2,400     1,692      2,650   Yes..................      459          0         0       1,800     \5\ 10,483   
7,000..................................   2,800       892      2,710   Yes..................      536          0         0       2,100     \5\ 10,766   
8,000..................................   3,200         0      2,798   Yes \6\..............      612          0         0       2,400     \5\ 10,986   
9,000..................................   3,556         0      2,618   Yes \7\..............      689          0         0       2,700     \5\ 11,785   
10,000.................................   3,556         0      2,438   No \7\...............      765          0         0       3,000         12,229   
15,000.................................   2,842         0      1,538   No \8\...............    1,148          0       420       4,200         13,612   
20,000.................................   1,789         0          0   No...................    1,530          0       560       5,200         14,499   
30,000.................................       0         0          0   No...................    2,295      1,628       840       5,400         19,837   
50,000.................................       0         0          0   No...................    3,825      5,187     1,400       5,400         34,188   
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Assumes these deductions: $120 monthly standard allowance (which would drop to $90 after 1 year on the job) and child care costs equal to 20 percent
  of earnings, up to maximum of $350 for two children.                                                                                                  
\2\ Assumes these deductions: 20 percent of earnings, $134 monthly standard deduction and child care costs equal to 20 percent of wages, up to maximum  
  of $320 for two children.                                                                                                                             
\3\ Head of household rates in effect for 1996. The dependent care tax credit reduces tax liability at earnings of $15,000 and above.                   
\4\ Assumed to equal 10 percent of earnings up to maximum of $100 monthly, plus child care costs equal to 20 percent of earnings up to a maximum of $350
  for two children.                                                                                                                                     
\5\ In addition, the benefits from Medicaid could be added, but are not, since the extent to which they increase disposable income is uncertain.        
\6\ Family would qualify for Medicaid because the mother, by law, would be deemed still an AFDC recipient, even though no AFDC would be paid; her       
  calculated benefit would be below the minimum amount ($10 monthly) payable.                                                                           
\7\ Family would qualify for Medicaid for 12 months after leaving AFDC under the 1988 Family Support Act. State must offer Medicaid to all children up  
  to age 6 whose family income is not above 133 percent of the Federal poverty guideline (ceiling of $17,290 for a family of three in 1996) and to      
  children over age 6 born after September 30, 1983 (up to age 10\1/3\ in January 1996), whose family income is below the poverty guideline ($12,600 for
  a family of three).                                                                                                                                   
\8\ After losing her Medicaid transitional benefits, to regain eligibility, mother must spend down on medical expenses to State's medically needy income
  limit ($5,604 in August 1995).                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                                                        
 Source: Congressional Research Service.                                                                                                                

    If the family's income, including the child support 
payment, is sufficient to make the family ineligible for AFDC 
payments, the family's AFDC benefits are ended, and future 
child support payments are paid from the noncustodial parent to 
the family, usually through an intermediary such as the local 
child support agency or office of the court clerk.

 CHART 8-1. DISPOSABLE INCOME AT VARIOUS WAGE LEVELS, MOTHER OF THREE, 
                          PENNSYLVANIA (1996)


    Note.--Net wages equal earnings minus taxes and assumed work 
expenses other than child care costs. Food stamps, AFDC, and the 
dependent care tax credit take account of child care costs.

    Source: Congressional Research Service.

    Before 1975, when the new child support law requiring child 
support payments to be made to the child support agency rather 
than the AFDC family took effect, AFDC families in States with 
fill-the-gap policies (discussed above) were permitted to use 
some or all of their child support or other income to fill the 
gap between the State's payment standard and need standard. 
Section 402(a)(28) of the Social Security Act requires States 
that had a fill-the-gap policy in 1975 and that currently have 
such a policy to add to the AFDC benefit all or part of the 
child support collection (the amount which would have caused no 
reduction in the AFDC benefit if it had been paid directly to 
the family).
    Information obtained from HHS indicates that eight States 
that had fill-the-gap policies in July 1975 still had them in 
February 1996 and thus must follow the benefit calculation 
rules of section 402(a)(28). They are: Alaska, Georgia, Maine, 
Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wyoming. 
Another 12 jurisdictions which had fill-the-gap policies in 
July 1975, no longer have them.

                        SSI and Social Security

    In AFDC, Social Security benefits are treated as unearned 
income and thus AFDC benefits are reduced by $1 for each $1 of 
Social Security benefits. Under 1984 law, Social Security 
survivor benefits received by one AFDC child are counted as 
income available to other members of the family. Supplemental 
Security Income 
benefits received by a member of the family are treated 
differently. The Supplemental Security Income recipient 
(whether a child or an adult) is not regarded as a part of the 
AFDC unit. Thus, his needs are not taken into account in 
determining the AFDC benefit level. At the same time, all 
income and resources of the Supplemental Security Income 
recipient are ignored in determining the AFDC benefit.

                         Other Benefit Programs

    AFDC enrollment qualifies children for free school meals 
(if their school has a meal program). Mothers enrolled in AFDC 
automatically meet income standards for benefits from the 
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and 
Children (WIC). AFDC recipients also are eligible for help from 
the Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA). States may grant 
automatic eligibility for the Low-Income Home Energy Assistance 
Program (LIHEAP) to AFDC families. Not all AFDC families 
receive benefits from these programs (see tables 16-1, 16-2, 
and 16-3).
    Some AFDC families receive housing subsidies (which reduce 
the family's rent to 30 percent of countable income). Thus, if 
a family's AFDC benefit rises (or falls), its public housing or 
section 8 housing subsidy generally declines (or rises) by 30 
cents per dollar of the AFDC change. Although the law permits 
AFDC State Programs to count a family's housing subsidy as 
income to the extent that it duplicates the amount for housing 
in the AFDC maximum payment schedule, all but four States 
ignore housing subsidies (October 1990 data). If the AFDC grant 
includes a sum designated for actual housing costs, the family 
in subsidized housing must pay that amount as rent even if it 
exceeds 30 percent of countable income.

            Participation in Multiple Means-Tested Programs

    In 1994, according to the Census Bureau (U.S. Bureau of the 
Census, 1995), 4.819 million households included a member who 
received AFDC (or State/local General Assistance (GA)). These 
cash welfare benefits averaged $3,995 per household ($333 
monthly). Noncash need-tested benefits received by members of 
some of these households were:
  --Food stamps, average household value $2,251 (received by 
        84.5 percent of AFDC households);
  --Free or reduced-price school lunches, average value $622 
        (53.8 percent of the households);
  --Housing assistance, average value $2,645 (29.7 percent of 
        the households);
  --Supplemental Security Income (SSI) cash aid, average 
        household value $4,983, (16.7 percent of the 
        households); and
  --Medicaid, average ``fungible'' value $1,886 (97.5 percent 
        of the households). The Census Bureau calculates the 
        fungible value of Medicaid by counting Medicaid 
        benefits to the extent that they free up resources that 
        could have been spent on medical care.
    The Census Bureau also reports that in 1994, 67.5 million 
persons, 25.8 percent of the population, lived in households in 
which a member received means-tested cash aid (excluding EIC 
payments) or noncash aid. By form of aid, they numbered: cash 
welfare (AFDC, GA, or Supplemental Security Income) 27 million 
persons, 10.3 percent of the population; food stamps, 29.2 
million persons, 11.2 percent; Medicaid, 42.9 million persons, 
16.4 percent; public or subsidized housing, 11.7 million 
persons, 4.5 percent.
    CRS calculations (Burke, 1995) of Census data indicate that 
7.5 million families with children were poor in 1993 before 
receiving cash aid from AFDC, general assistance, or the earned 
income credit (EIC)--4.6 million with a female householder and 
2.9 million with a male householder (these numbers include 
unrelated subfamilies). Some means-tested aid went to all but 5 
percent of the female-headed families and 8 percent of the 
male-present families. For male-present families, EIC was the 
dominant form of aid. In all, 67 percent of male-present 
families who were poor before transfers received the EIC; for 
27 percent it was the only aid. Among female-headed families 
who were poor before transfers, 38 percent received the EIC; 
for 9 percent it was the only aid. A combination of AFDC or GA 
cash, food stamps, and Medicaid went to 24 percent of female-
headed families and 11 percent of male-present families.

  Spending for Cash and Noncash Benefits for Persons of Limited Income

    More than 80 benefit programs provide cash and noncash aid 
that is directed primarily to persons who meet a test of low 
income. In fiscal year 1994 they cost almost $345 billion, of 
which Federal funds paid $246 billion. Section 18 lists these 
programs and shows how spending for them has grown since fiscal 
year 1968, in both current and inflation-adjusted dollars. It 
displays Federal and State-local expenditures separately and by 
form of benefit (medical aid, cash, food, housing, etc.). The 
section also shows changes over the last quarter century in the 
share of the Federal budget used for each form of income-tested 
aid. Again, not all families on AFDC receive benefits from 
these other means-tested programs.

       JOB OPPORTUNITIES AND BASIC SKILLS (JOBS) TRAINING PROGRAM

    The Family Support Act of 1988 established a new 
employment, education and training program for recipients of 
AFDC. This new program, called the Job Opportunities and Basic 
Skills (JOBS) Training Program, replaced the Work Incentive 
(WIN) Program.

                       Purpose and Administration

    The purpose of the JOBS Program is to assure that needy 
families with children obtain the education, training and 
employment that will help them avoid long-term welfare 
dependence. Each State is required to have a JOBS Program, 
under a State plan approved by the Secretary of the Department 
of Health and Human Services (HHS). States were required to 
implement the program no later than October 1, 1990. No later 
than October 1, 1992, the program had to be available in every 
subdivision of the State where it was feasible to operate the 
program. According to the DHHS publication, ``Characteristics 
of State Plans for the Job Opportunities and Basic Skills 
[JOBS] Training Program: 1995-96 Edition,'' 12 States have 
found it infeasible to operate JOBS in all political 
subdivisions. Nine of these States (Alaska, Colorado, Florida, 
Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Montana, Nevada, and West 
Virginia) meet a regulatory standard by offering a complete 
JOBS Program in all Metropolitan Statistical Areas and in 
political subdivisions with 75 percent of AFDC adults and a 
minimal program in areas where 95 percent of adults live. The 
other three States without a statewide program are Idaho, New 
Mexico, and Texas, which make JOBS available in certain 
counties and political subdivisions described in their plans.
    The JOBS Program is administered at the Federal level by 
the Assistant Secretary for Children and Families in HHS, and 
at the State level by the State welfare agency. The State 
welfare agency may offer services and activities directly, 
through Job Training Partnership Act (JTPA) administrative 
entities, through State and local educational agencies, and 
through other public agencies or private organizations 
(including community-based organizations).

    Assessment, Employability Plan, Case Management, and Orientation

    The State must make an initial assessment of the education, 
child care and other supportive service needs as well as the 
skills, prior work experience, and employability of each JOBS 
participant. On the basis of this assessment, the State must 
develop an employability plan for the participant. The State 
agency may require the participant to enter into an agreement 
with the State that specifies the participant's obligations 
under the program and the activities and services to be 
provided by the State. Table 8-4, based on JOBS State plans, 
shows that six States chose to require such an agreement 
(January 1994 data).
    The State agency may assign a case manager to each 
participant and the participant's family. The case manager must 
be responsible for assisting the family to obtain needed 
services to ensure effective participation in the JOBS Program. 
Table 8-4 shows that only two States--Iowa and Oklahoma--chose 
not to assign a case manager.
    Information about the JOBS Program and supportive services 
must be provided to applicants and recipients by the State 
agency. For example, the agency must inform AFDC applicants and 
recipients of the opportunities for which they are eligible, 
the obligations of the State agency, and the rights, 
responsibilities and obligations of participants. The agency 
must also provide detailed information about day care services 
and must inform applicants and recipients of all other 
supportive services, including transitional health care 
benefits (see below).

                                         TABLE 8-4.--SUMMARY OF JOBS PROGRAMS FROM STATE PLANS, JANUARY 1994 \1\                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             Exemption from           Allow                                             
                                                            Optional        participation if      postsecondary        Assign case       Require agency 
             State                   Name of program       components       child under age--    education? Any         manager?          participant   
                                                                                   \2\               limits?                               contract?    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama........................  JOBS................  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
Alaska.........................  JOBS................  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 30             Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS, other                         consecutive                                             
                                                        ed. & training.                         months limit.                                           
Arizona........................  JOBS................  Atl. work exp.,     1.................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        OJT, CWEP, JS,                                                                                  
                                                        other ed. &                                                                                     
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Arkansas.......................  Project Success.....  Alt. work exp.,     1.................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        JS, OJT.                                                                                        
California.....................  GAIN................  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  Yes              
                                                        CWEP, JS, alt.                                                                                  
                                                        work exp..                                                                                      
Colorado.......................  New Directions......  OJT, work supp.,    1.................  Yes; 24 month       Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, JS.                               limit.                                                  
Connecticut....................  JOBS................  OJT, JS, alt. work  2.................  Yes; 2 years; 3     Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp..                                   years for                                               
                                                                                                certified                                               
                                                                                                programs.                                               
Delaware.......................  First Step..........  OJT, CWEP, JS.....  ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
District of Columbia...........  ARC.................  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
Florida........................  Project Independence  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; 4 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, alt. work                                                                                 
                                                        exp., JS.                                                                                       
Georgia........................  PEACH...............  OJT, CWEP, alt.     ..................  Yes; 28 month       Yes...............  No               
                                                        work exp., JS,                          limit.                                                  
                                                        work supp..                                                                                     
Guam...........................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, JS.....  ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
Hawaii.........................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, JS,      ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        other ed. &                                                                                     
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Idaho..........................  JOBS................  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 4 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
Illinois.......................  Project Chance......  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; no limits....  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, alt. work                                                                                 
                                                        exp., JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
Indiana........................  IMPACT: JOBS........  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; 24 months....  Yes...............  No               
                                                        alt. work exp.,                                                                                 
                                                        CWEP, JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
Iowa...........................  Promise JOBS........  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 30 month       No................  No               
                                                        exp., JS, other                         limit for 2 year                                        
                                                        training.                               degree program;                                         
                                                                                                40 month limit                                          
                                                                                                for 3 or 4 year                                         
                                                                                                programs.                                               
Kansas.........................  Kan Work in 23        OJT, CWEP, JS,      ..................  Yes; up to BA/BS..  Yes...............  No               
                                  counties; minimal     alt. work exp..                                                                                 
                                  JOBS in balance of                                                                                                    
                                  State.                                                                                                                
Kentucky.......................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, alt.     ..................  Yes; limited to 6   Yes...............  No               
                                                        work exp., JS.                          semesters for 2                                         
                                                                                                and 3 year                                              
                                                                                                programs; 8                                             
                                                                                                semesters for 4                                         
                                                                                                year programs.                                          
Louisiana......................  Project Independence  OJT, CWEP, JS.....  1.................  Yes; 4 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
Maine..........................  ASPIRE/JOBS.........  OJT, CWEP, JS,      ..................  Yes; limited to 6   Yes...............  Yes              
                                                        other ed. &                             semesters for AA                                        
                                                        training, other                         degree, 12                                              
                                                        training..                              semesters for BA                                        
                                                                                                degree.                                                 
Maryland.......................  Project Independence  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS, work                                                                                  
                                                        supp., other ed.                                                                                
                                                        & training.                                                                                     
Massachusetts..................  Mass JOBS...........  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; limited to 3   Yes...............  No               
                                                        JS, alt. work                           years for 2-year                                        
                                                        exp..                                   degree, voc-tech                                        
                                                                                                programs; 6 years                                       
                                                                                                for 4-year                                              
                                                                                                programs.                                               
Michigan.......................  MOST................  OJT, work supp,     1.................  No................  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed..                                                                                            
Minnesota......................  Project STRIDE......  OJT, work supp,     ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP alt. work                                                                                  
                                                        exp., JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Mississippi....................  JOBS................  Alt. work exp., JS  ..................  Yes; 5 year limit,  Yes...............  No               
                                                                                                3 year vocational.                                      
Missouri.......................  FUTURES.............  OJT, CWEP, JS,      ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        work supp., alt.                                                                                
                                                        work exp.                                                                                       
Montana........................  JOBS................  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  Yes              
                                                        JS, CWEP, alt.                                                                                  
                                                        work exp.                                                                                       
Nebraska.......................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, alt.     1.................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        work exp., JS.                                                                                  
Nevada.........................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, JS,      ..................  No................  Yes...............  No               
                                                        alt. work exp..                                                                                 
New Hampshire..................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, JS.....  ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
New Jersey.....................  REACH...............  OJT, work supp,     2.................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
New Mexico.....................  Project Forward.....  OJT, CWEP, alt.     ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        work exp., JS,                                                                                  
                                                        other ed. &                                                                                     
                                                        training.                                                                                       
New York.......................  JOBS................  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes, 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
North Carolina.................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, JS.....  ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
North Dakota...................  JOBS................  OJT, CWEP, JS,      ..................  Yes; 45 months....  Yes...............  No               
                                                        work supp., alt.                                                                                
                                                        work exp..                                                                                      
Ohio...........................  JOBS................  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, alt. work                                                                                 
                                                        exp., JS.                                                                                       
Oklahoma.......................  Education, Training   OJT, work supp.,    1.................  Yes; 5 year limit.  No................  No               
                                  and Employment.       alt. work exp.,                                                                                 
                                                        JS, other ed. &                                                                                 
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Oregon.........................  JOBS................  OJT, work supp.,    1.................  No................  Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, alt. work                                                                                 
                                                        exp., JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Pennsylvania...................  New Directions......  OJT, CWEP, alt.     ..................  Yes...............  Yes...............  No               
                                                        work exp., JS,                                                                                  
                                                        other ed. &                                                                                     
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Puerto Rico....................  PASOS...............  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 2 years......  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., work supp.,                                                                               
                                                        JS, other ed. &                                                                                 
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Rhode Island...................  Pathways to           CWEP, work supp.,   ..................  Yes; 24 month       Yes...............  No               
                                  Independence.         OJT, JS, alt.                           limit.                                                  
                                                        work exp..                                                                                      
South Carolina.................  Work Support Program  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 4 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS, other                                                                                 
                                                        ed. & training.                                                                                 
South Dakota...................  FIND................  OJT, JS, alt. work  1.................  Yes; 4 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp..                                                                                           
Tennessee......................  JOBS/WORK...........  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 4 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS.                                                                                       
Texas..........................  JOBS................  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., JS.                                                                                       
Utah...........................  JOBS................  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; with limits..  Yes...............  Yes              
                                                        exp. (WEAT), JS.                                                                                
Vermont........................  Reach Up............  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; 3 year limit   Yes...............  No               
                                                        CWEP, JS.                               for AA                                                  
                                                                                                certificate, 5                                          
                                                                                                years for BA                                            
                                                                                                degree.                                                 
Virgin Islands.................  JOBS/HOPE...........  OJT, CWEP, work     2.................  Yes; with limits..  Yes...............  Yes              
                                                        supp., JS.                                                                                      
Virginia.......................  JOBS................  OJT, work supp.,    ..................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        alt. work exp.,                                                                                 
                                                        JS, other ed. &                                                                                 
                                                        training.                                                                                       
Washington.....................  JOBS/FIP............  OJT, alt. work      ..................  Yes; with limits    Yes...............  No               
                                                        exp., CWEP, work                        (BA/BS).                                                
                                                        supp., JS.                                                                                      
West Virginia..................  JOBS................  CWEP, OJT, JS,      ..................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        alt. work exp..                                                                                 
Wisconsin......................  JOBS................  CWEP, OJT, work     2.................  Yes; 2 year limit.  Yes...............  No               
                                                        supp., JS, alt.                                                                                 
                                                        work exp..                                                                                      
Wyoming........................  Wyoming               OJT, alt. work      1.................  Yes; 4 year limit   Yes...............  Yes              
                                  Opportunities for     exp, JS.                                for AA &                                                
                                  Work (WOW) Program.                                           vocational; 6                                           
                                                                                                year limit for BA.                                      
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Information based on State JOBS Plan, filed for the biennium beginning October 1, 1994.                                                             
\2\ Unless otherwise noted, State follows basic statutory approach and exempts the parent of a child under age 3.                                       
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--Optional components can include Job Search (JS), Alternative Work Experience, On-the-Job Training (OJT), Community Work Experience Program       
  (CWEP), Work Supplementation, Other Education, and other activities.                                                                                  
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         

                            JOBS Activities

    A range of services and activities must be offered by each 
State under the JOBS Program; however, States are not required 
to operate the JOBS Program uniformly throughout the State. The 
four mandatory services a State must offer are: (1) education 
activities, including high school or equivalent education, 
basic and remedial education to achieve a basic literacy level, 
and education for individuals with limited English proficiency; 
(2) job skills training; (3) job readiness activities; and (4) 
job development and job placement. Supportive services also are 
required.
    In addition to these required activities, States must offer 
two of the following four optional activities: (1) group and 
individual job search; (2) on-the-job training; (3) work 
supplementation; and (4) community work experience (CWEP) or 
any other work experience program approved by the Secretary. In 
addition, States may offer postsecondary education to JOBS 
participants and other State-determined education, employment, 
and training activities approved by the Secretary. All 
jurisdictions but three (Michigan, Nevada, and Oregon) offer 
postsecondary education under JOBS. Table 8-4 shows which 
activities the individual States are offering, as of January 
1994.
    A complete JOBS Program contains the four mandatory 
components above and at least two of the four optional 
components. A minimal program includes high school or 
equivalent education, one of the optional components, and 
information and referral to available non-JOBS employment 
services.
    When a parent aged 20 or over who lacks a high school 
diploma (or equivalent) is required to participate in JOBS, the 
State agency must include education services in her 
employability plan unless the individual demonstrates a basic 
literacy level or the plan identifies a long-term employment 
goal that does not require a high school diploma.
    Following is a more detailed discussion of the Federal 
requirements for job search, CWEP, and work supplementation 
programs.
Job search
    States may require AFDC applicants and recipients to 
participate in a job search program beginning at the time of 
application. States may require up to 8 weeks of job search for 
applicants and up to 8 weeks of job search for AFDC recipients 
each year. Thus, in the first year, up to 16 weeks of job 
search may be required; up to 8 weeks per year may be required 
thereafter. A person may not be required to undertake 
additional job search activities unless job search is used in 
combination with some other education, training or employment 
activity that is designed to improve the individual's prospects 
for employment. In no event may a State require a person to 
participate in more than 3 weeks of job search before it 
conducts an employability assessment for that individual. 
Finally, job search cannot be treated for any purpose as a JOBS 
activity if a person has participated in job search for 4 out 
of the preceding 12 months.
Community work experience
    The purpose of a CWEP Program is to provide experience and 
training for individuals not otherwise able to obtain 
employment. CWEP Programs must be designed to improve the 
employability of participants through actual work experience 
and training and to enable CWEP participants to move into 
regular employment. CWEP Programs must be limited to projects 
that serve a useful, public purpose in fields such as health, 
social service, environmental protection, education, urban and 
rural development and redevelopment, welfare, recreation, 
public facilities, public safety or day care.
    A State electing to operate a CWEP Program must ensure that 
a CWEP participant is not required to work more hours than the 
number derived by dividing the total AFDC benefit by the 
Federal minimum wage (or, if greater, the State minimum wage). 
Any AFDC benefit amount for which the State receives 
reimbursement through child support collection cannot be taken 
into account in making this calculation.
    After 9 months in a CWEP position, an individual cannot be 
required to continue in that assignment unless the maximum 
number of hours of required work is calculated on the basis of 
the rate of pay for individuals employed in the same or similar 
occupations by the same employer at the same site.
    At the conclusion of each CWEP assignment, but, in any 
event, after each 6 months of CWEP participation, the State 
agency must provide a reassessment, and revision, as 
appropriate, of the individual's employability plan.
Work supplementation
    A work supplementation program permits a State to 
``divert'' all or part of a family's AFDC grant to an employer 
to cover all or part of wages paid to the recipient. Recipients 
may be placed in jobs offered by private as well as nonprofit 
employers. Under JOBS, States may make work supplementation 
either mandatory or voluntary, and States are required to 
provide Medicaid to work supplementation participants.
    States operating a work supplementation program may adjust 
the level of their AFDC standard of need in order to carry out 
the program, and need standards may vary among areas of the 
State. Need standards may also vary among recipient categories, 
to the extent that the State determines the variation to be 
appropriate on the basis of the ability of the recipient to 
participate in the work supplementation program. States are 
able to make further adjustments to amounts paid to different 
categories of work supplementation participants in order to 
offset increases in benefits from non-AFDC means-tested 
programs.
    States also are permitted to reduce or eliminate the amount 
of earned income disregards for work supplementation families. 
On the other hand, States may offer them the $30 plus one-third 
earned income disregard for up to 9 months, 5 months longer 
than is allowed for other AFDC earners.
    Federal funding under the program is limited for each 
participant to the aggregate of 9 months' worth of the maximum 
AFDC grant that the participant family would have received if 
it had no income and were not participating in the work 
supplementation program.

                       Participation Requirements

Exemptions
    To the extent resources are available, a State must require 
nonexempt AFDC recipients to participate in the JOBS Program. 
Exempt applicants and recipients may participate on a voluntary 
basis. Exempt are persons who are: (1) ill, incapacitated, or 
of advanced age; (2) needed in the home because of the illness 
or incapacity of another family member (who need not be a 
member of the AFDC unit); (3) the parent or other relative of a 
child under age 3 who is personally providing care for the 
child (or, if provided in the State plan, any age that is less 
than 3 but not less than 1); (4) employed 30 or more hours a 
week; (5) a child under age 16 or attending, full time, an 
elementary, secondary or vocational school; (6) a woman who is 
in at least the second trimester of pregnancy; or (7) residing 
in an area where the program is not available. Table 8-4 shows 
that 40 jurisdictions exempt the parents of a child under 3; 
four lower the age threshold to age 2 (Connecticut, New Jersey, 
the Virgin Islands, and Wisconsin); and ten lower the threshold 
to age 1 (Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Louisiana, Michigan, 
Nebraska, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, and Wyoming). In 
fiscal year 1994, 40.5 percent of AFDC families had a child 
below age 3, and 12.6 percent had a child below age 1 
(including 1.8 percent who were unborn).
Special provisions
    The 1988 law conditions some participation rules on 
provision of child care. In general, the parent of a child 
under age 6 (but older than the age for an exemption) who is 
personally providing care for the child may be required to 
participate only if child care is guaranteed and required 
participation is limited to a maximum of 20 hours per week. In 
the case of an AFDC-UP family, the exemption relating to age of 
child applies to only one parent, unless child care is 
guaranteed.
    JOBS imposes a special educational requirement for high 
school dropouts. To the extent the JOBS Program is available 
and State resources permit, a State must require a custodial 
parent under age 20 who has not completed high school (or the 
equivalent) to participate in an educational activity. Even 
though such a parent is providing care for a child under 6 
years of age, the State agency may require her to participate 
in the educational activity on a full-time basis, if the State 
guarantees child care. Alternative work or training activities 
may be provided if the parent fails to make progress in an 
educational activity, or if an educational assessment 
determines that participation in an educational activity is 
inappropriate. Participation in alternative activities is 
limited to 20 hours per week.
    If an individual is attending school or a course of 
vocational training at least half time at the time she would 
otherwise begin to participate in the JOBS Program, and if she 
is making satisfactory progress, the attendance may meet her 
JOBS participation requirement, but the costs of the school or 
training are not eligible for Federal reimbursement.
    The law forbids a State to require a JOBS participant to 
accept a job that would result in a net loss of cash income 
unless the State makes a supplementary payment. Only one 
jurisdiction, the Virgin Islands, has chosen to make 
supplementary AFDC payments to those who otherwise would lose 
income by taking a job.
Minimum participation standards
    Certain minimum participation standards were established 
for fiscal years 1990-95 for the overall AFDC caseload (and for 
fiscal years 1994-98 for the unemployed-parent caseload). The 
minimum participation rates for the overall caseload were 7 
percent (of the nonexempt caseload) in fiscal years 1990-91, 11 
percent in fiscal years 1992-93, 15 percent in fiscal year 
1994, and 20 percent in fiscal year 1995 (none thereafter).
    Special participation rules apply to the unemployed-parent 
caseload. At least one parent in each AFDC-UP family must 
participate at least 16 hours a week in a work activity. 
However, in low-benefit States, fewer than 16 hours of weekly 
CWEP participation are required since work hours calculated at 
the minimum wage cannot exceed the number needed to yield the 
family's AFDC benefit. Participation must be in work 
supplementation, community work experience or other work 
experience program, on-the-job training, or a State-designed 
work program approved by the Secretary. Except for Florida, 
Georgia, Nebraska, and the Virgin Islands (which has not 
implemented AFDC-UP), all State JOBS plans treat unsubsidized 
employment as a countable activity for AFDC-UP families. The 
percentage of AFDC-UP families required to meet this work rule 
was 40 percent in fiscal year 1994, 50 percent in fiscal year 
1995, and 60 percent in fiscal year 1996, and is scheduled to 
rise to 75 percent in fiscal year 1997 and fiscal year 1998 and 
to end thereafter. A State may substitute participation in an 
educational program in the case of an AFDC-UP parent under age 
25 who has not completed high school.
    The prescribed penalty for failing to meet the general 
participation rate is a reduction in the Federal matching rate, 
but the penalty can be waived under certain conditions and, to 
date, always has been.
Definition of JOBS participant
    The law does not define ``participant,'' but Federal 
regulations require that JOBS participation rates be measured 
by a 20-hour-per-week standard. The welfare agency is to count 
as participants the largest number of persons whose combined 
and averaged hours in specified JOBS activities equal or exceed 
20 per week. Creditable activities include any component of the 
State's JOBS plan except job development and job placement. 
Persons who enter a job are counted as participants only if 
they engaged in a JOBS activity (or received job development 
and placement services) during the month of job entry or the 
preceding month.

                        Targeting of JOBS Funds

    As described in detail later, Federal matching for JOBS 
Program costs is available as a capped entitlement. The JOBS 
Program includes incentives for States to target funds toward 
certain populations. States face a reduced Federal match unless 
55 percent of JOBS funds is spent on the following populations: 
(1) families in which the custodial parent is under age 24 and 
has not completed high school or has little or no work 
experience in the preceding year; (2) families in which the 
youngest child is within 2 years of being ineligible for 
assistance because of age; (3) families that have received 
assistance for 36 or more months during the preceding 60-month 
period; and (4) applicants who have received AFDC for any 36 of 
the 60 months immediately preceding application. Wyoming 
targets an alternate group--households in which a member has 
received AFDC in 24-35 of the last 60 months. Volunteers must 
be given first consideration within target groups.

                Funding of JOBS and Supportive Services

    Federal matching for JOBS Program costs is available as a 
capped entitlement limited to $1 billion annually in fiscal 
year 1996 and thereafter. (Authorized for previous years were 
these sums: $600 million in fiscal year 1989, $800 million in 
fiscal year 1990, $1 billion in fiscal year 1991, 1992 and 
1993, $1.1 billion in fiscal year 1994, and $1.3 billion in 
fiscal year 1995.) The Federal match is 90 percent for 
expenditures up to the amount allotted to the States for the 
WIN Program in fiscal year 1987. Of additional amounts, the 
Federal match is at the Medicaid rate (between roughly 50 and 
78 percent), but with a minimum Federal match of 60 percent for 
nonadministrative costs and for personnel costs for full-time 
staff working on the JOBS Program. The match for other 
administrative costs is 50 percent. The law provides for a 
reduction in the JOBS Federal match rate to 50 percent unless 
(1) 55 percent of funds are spent on target populations listed 
above, and (2) the States meet participation rate requirements. 
The entitlement cap for JOBS is allocated as follows: States 
receive an amount equal to their WIN allotment for fiscal year 
1987 ($126 million across all States) and the remainder is 
allocated on the basis of each State's relative number of adult 
AFDC recipients. Federal program funds may not be used to 
supplant non-Federal funds for existing services and 
activities, and States must spend on JOBS, from State/local 
funds, at least as much as they did for comparable activities 
in fiscal year 1986.
    Child care during participation in JOBS and for employment 
is reimbursed as a separate, open-ended entitlement at the 
Medicaid matching rate. Transportation and other work-related 
expenses are reimbursed at a rate of 50 percent and are among 
expenditures subject to the JOBS entitlement cap.
    Table 8-5 provides information on fiscal year 1995 Federal 
allocations to the States for the JOBS Program, along with 
information on the amount of these funds States have expended 
and obligated. Authorized for JOBS was $1.3 billion; the 
Federal share of JOBS expenditures claimed by States as of 
March 29, 1996, however, was $875 million (only two-thirds of 
available Federal funds). Thirteen jurisdictions claimed all 
JOBS funds allocated to them after deduction of amounts set 
aside for Indians: (Alaska, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, 
Kansas, Louisiana, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, South 
Dakota, Virgin Islands, and Wisconsin). As of March 29, 1996, 
States had obligated another $137 million in fiscal year 1995 
Federal JOBS funds; they have until September 30, 1996 to claim 
these funds for actual expenditures. The table also includes 
information on federally reimbursed expenditures for child 
care. For AFDC/JOBS and transitional child care, States claimed 
Federal reimbursement of $700 million in fiscal year 1994, and 
$893 million in fiscal year 1995.

                         Indian Tribes and JOBS

    More than 80 Indian tribes and Alaska Native Organizations 
in 24 States conduct their own JOBS Programs. These programs, 
which are 100 percent federally funded, need not meet 
participation rules of the regular JOBS Program. Allocation of 
JOBS funds for Indian tribes and Alaska Native Organizations is 
based on the percentage of AFDC adult recipients within the 
State who live in their service area, and their grants are 
subtracted from the State's allocation. In fiscal year 1995, 
0.7 percent of authorized JOBS funds ($9.3 million) was set 
aside for them. (The list of tribal JOBS grantees is now 
closed; the deadline for tribes to conduct their own programs 
was 6 months after enactment of the JOBS Program in 1988.)

                  Supportive and Transitional Services

    State agencies must guarantee child care for a recipient if 
the care is necessary for the individual to work. In addition, 
the State must guarantee child care for education and training 
activities, including participation in the JOBS Program, if the 
State approves the activity and determines that the individual 
is participating satisfactorily. The State agency must also 
guarantee child care that is needed for an individual's 
employment in any case in which a family has ceased to receive 
AFDC assistance as a result of increased hours of, or increased 
income from, employment or as a result of the loss of earnings 
disregards. Transitional child care is limited to a period of 
12 months after the last month for which the family actually 
received AFDC assistance. Unlimited Federal matching funds, at 
Medicaid matching rates, are provided for AFDC/JOBS child care 
and transitional child care. (AFDC child care assistance 
programs are described in more detail in section 10.)
    The State must provide payment or reimbursement for 
necessary transportation and other work-related expenses, 
including other work-related supportive services that the State 
determines are necessary to enable an individual to participate 
in JOBS. Federal matching is 50 percent, subject to the overall 
JOBS funding cap (see ``Funding'' above). There is no Federal 
limit on reimbursable expenses for an individual.

                                 TABLE 8-5.--FEDERAL ALLOCATIONS AND EXPENDITURES FOR THE JOBS PROGRAM BY STATE, 1993-95                                
                                                        [By fiscal year; in millions of dollars]                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              JOBS total  Indian set- Awarded to            Total obligated              Total    Title IV-A Child Care:
                   States                      authoriz.  aside 1995    States   ------------------------------------  expended  -----------------------
                                               1995 \1\       \2\      1995 \3\    1995 \5\    1994 \5\    1993 \5\    1995 \4\    1995 \6\    1994 \6\ 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.....................................        10.4         0.0        10.1        10.1         9.5         9.3         9.0        12.0        11.8
Alaska......................................         4.0         1.4         2.5         4.0         3.3         1.8         2.5         2.7         1.9
American Samoa..............................         0.1         0.0         0.0         0.0         0.0  ..........         0.0         0.0         0.0
Arizona.....................................        17.3         2.6        12.7        15.3        11.2         5.8        11.5        15.1        11.0
Arkansas....................................         5.8         0.0         5.8         5.8         5.1         5.0         3.9         2.4         1.5
                                                                                                                                                        
California..................................       228.9         0.7       137.7       138.4       133.2        96.8       110.3        44.7        30.3
Colorado....................................        12.2         0.0        10.8        10.8         8.0         6.7        10.5         6.0         5.7
Connecticut.................................        15.7         0.0        10.1        10.1         7.6         6.1        10.0        15.3        10.6
Delaware....................................         2.7         0.0         2.7         2.7         2.3         2.1         2.7         4.4         3.4
District of Columbia........................         7.0         0.0         5.5         5.5         4.7         4.7         5.4         4.0         3.2
                                                                                                                                                        
Florida.....................................        54.3         0.0        18.9        18.9        17.5        15.9        15.7        29.0        22.0
Georgia.....................................        32.2         0.0        32.2        32.2        20.7        10.3        23.6        36.3        33.9
Guam........................................         0.7         0.0         0.3         0.3         0.3         0.2         0.2         0.0         0.0
Hawaii......................................         6.0         0.0         6.0         6.0         4.7         4.1         6.0         3.6         1.7
Idaho.......................................         3.0       (\6\)         2.9         3.0         2.6         2.3         2.9         1.3         1.4
                                                                                                                                                        
Illinois....................................        63.6         0.0        44.0        44.0        30.9        25.9        35.4        43.4        22.0
Indiana.....................................        19.6         0.0        15.1        15.1        11.2         8.1        12.3        21.1        15.1
Iowa........................................        11.2         0.0        11.2        11.2         8.7         5.9        11.2         5.4         3.4
Kansas......................................         8.0       (\6\)         8.0         8.0         6.8         6.4         8.0         6.2         6.8
Kentucky....................................        19.3         0.0        16.4        16.4        15.3        13.7        10.4        12.5        12.6
                                                                                                                                                        
Louisiana...................................        18.3         0.0        18.3        18.3        16.6        16.5        18.3        11.7        10.7
Maine.......................................         6.8       (\6\)         4.0         4.0         3.1         3.7         5.8         1.7         1.3
Maryland....................................        20.4         0.0        13.7        13.7        16.0        14.1        10.7        17.7        17.5
Massachusetts...............................        32.0         0.0        21.7        21.7        20.5        20.5        23.0        38.7        31.8
Michigan....................................        66.6         0.2        66.4        66.6        59.4        35.2        50.3        21.2         9.0
                                                                                                                                                        
Minnesota...................................        18.5         1.1        14.1        15.2        14.7        11.7        15.1        18.0        16.6
Mississippi.................................        11.9       (\6\)        11.8        11.9        11.0        10.8        11.6         5.1         3.9
Missouri....................................        23.8         0.0        14.3        14.3        11.6         9.8        15.2        18.8        15.0
Montana.....................................         3.7         0.5         2.5         3.1         2.6         2.5         2.9         2.4         2.2
Nebraska....................................         4.1         0.1         3.7         3.8         2.5         2.7         2.8         7.9         8.7
                                                                                                                                                        
Nevada......................................         3.2       (\6\)         1.6         1.6         1.4         1.2         1.4         1.2         1.0
New Hampshire...............................         3.0         0.0         2.9         2.9         2.5         2.3         3.0         3.3         3.1
New Jersey..................................        32.1         0.0        30.4        30.4        26.6        21.0        32.1        18.0        10.6
New Mexico..................................         9.6         0.1         2.0         2.1         1.8         1.6         2.1         3.3         6.2
New York....................................       122.8       (\6\)       119.7       119.8        98.5        85.2        93.6        82.3        44.1
                                                                                                                                                        
North Carolina..............................        29.7         0.1        27.7        27.8        20.7        17.7        27.7        62.2        53.4
North Dakota................................         1.8         0.5         1.4         1.9         1.8         1.3         0.8         1.5         1.8
Ohio........................................        65.2         0.0        62.8        62.8        52.0        58.6        53.1        52.9        44.6
Oklahoma....................................        11.2         0.2         8.3         8.5         7.6         6.7         7.1        21.2        17.8
Oregon......................................        13.2         0.1        13.1        13.2        11.9        11.4        13.1        16.0        14.9
                                                                                                                                                        
Pennsylvania................................        57.1         0.0        56.5        56.5        48.0        34.7        43.1        42.9        32.8
Puerto Rico.................................        15.6         0.0        13.0        13.0        11.1         9.6        11.0         0.0         0.0
Rhode Island................................         6.2         0.0         5.3         5.3         5.1         4.8         4.3         5.6         4.9
South Carolina..............................        10.4         0.0         5.8         5.8         5.0         5.4         6.8         5.4         3.3
South Dakota................................         1.9         0.5         1.3         1.9         1.8         1.3         1.3         1.1         1.2
                                                                                                                                                        
Tennessee...................................        25.7         0.0        10.7        10.7         5.8         7.8        12.5        35.3        30.2
Texas.......................................        62.9         0.0        41.7        41.7        35.6        37.2        35.9        42.6        40.1
Utah........................................         5.3         0.0         5.1         5.1         4.8         4.5         5.0         9.6         9.8
Vermont.....................................         3.6         0.0         3.6         3.6         3.3         2.9         3.3         2.6         3.3
Virgin Islands..............................         0.4         0.0         0.3         0.3         0.3         0.3         0.3         0.0         0.0
                                                                                                                                                        
Virginia....................................        17.1         0.0        11.4        11.4        10.8         9.1        11.1        13.7        11.5
Washington..................................        31.6         0.6        16.4        17.0        18.2        23.9        21.8        35.8        30.4
West Virginia...............................        12.5         0.0         8.5         8.5         9.0         9.8         8.6         7.0         5.3
Wisconsin...................................        28.2         0.4        27.8        28.2        26.1        20.4        27.8        18.7        12.1
Wyoming.....................................         1.7         0.1         1.5         1.6         1.6         1.5         0.9         2.0         2.1
                                             -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      Totals................................     1,300.0         9.3     1,002.4     1,011.8       873.0       738.8       875.0       892.9       699.7
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ JOBS--total authorization: Total Federal funds available for the JOBS Program for fiscal year 1995.                                                 
\2\ Indian set-aside: Ratio of adult recipients in a tribal service area to the State's total of adult recipients multiplied by the State's total       
  allocation.                                                                                                                                           
\3\ Excludes the Indian set-aside.                                                                                                                      
\4\ Federal share of expenditures claimed by States for the JOBS Program.                                                                               
\5\ Total obligated: The amount of funds obligated by the State by September 30, 1995, 1994 and 1993. For example, if a contract is signed by the State 
  to provide services based on a set fee, the amount owed for those services is an obligation. That obligation becomes an expenditure only when the     
  invoice for the services is actually paid.                                                                                                            
\6\ Federal share of expenditures claimed by States for AFDC and Transitional Child Care.                                                               
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--Data as of March 29, 1996 and based on best available data reported by States.                                                                   
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         

    Table 8-6 displays the percentage of JOBS allocations, 
after Indian set-asides, claimed by each jurisdiction in fiscal 
years 1989-94. In fiscal years 1991-92, 10 jurisdictions used 
all available JOBS funds; in fiscal years 1993-94, 20 
jurisdictions did so. Florida, New Mexico, and Tennessee used 
less than 50 percent of their fiscal year 1994 allocations.

               TABLE 8-6.--JOBS GRANT AS A PERCENT OF JOBS CEILING BY STATE, FISCAL YEARS 1989-94               
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             Fiscal year--                      
                        State                        -----------------------------------------------------------
                                                        1989      1990      1991      1992      1993      1994  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.............................................      0.00     12.86     47.28     80.35    100.00    100.00
Alaska..............................................      0.00      0.00     99.96     91.92    100.00    100.00
Arizona.............................................      0.00      0.00     78.37     53.38     63.17     70.88
Arkansas............................................     88.97     92.64    100.00    100.00    100.00     99.99
California..........................................    100.00     93.34     72.34     64.70     87.22     75.01
Colorado............................................      0.00     40.68     57.31     58.47     73.94     73.35
Connecticut.........................................    100.00     99.03     96.56     71.33     59.68     58.20
Delaware............................................      0.00     98.79     98.50    100.00     96.91    100.00
District of Columbia................................      0.00     49.15     71.06     71.49     91.46     85.18
Florida.............................................      0.00     84.91     49.67     46.95     44.64     36.05
Georgia.............................................     40.28     70.55     53.07     48.07     65.84     74.22
Guam................................................      0.00      0.00    100.00     83.63     88.12     70.33
Hawaii..............................................      0.00      0.00     91.06     88.97    100.00    100.00
Idaho...............................................      0.00      0.00    100.00    100.00    100.00    100.00
Illinois............................................      0.00     33.29     45.94     39.96     52.76     59.43
Indiana.............................................      0.00      0.00     72.13     48.71     67.19     67.11
Iowa................................................     77.36     79.76     71.21     61.24     71.48    100.00
Kansas..............................................      0.00     84.21     61.81     73.15    100.00     96.32
Kentucky............................................      0.00      0.00     90.47     76.92     83.94     84.19
Louisiana...........................................      0.00      0.00     86.60     75.96    100.00    100.00
Maine...............................................      0.00      0.00     86.58     48.48     66.75     51.00
Maryland............................................    100.00     91.27     99.47    100.00     84.34     91.59
Masssachusetts......................................    100.00     99.11     85.67     80.63     84.04     71.01
Michigan............................................     76.35     73.59     45.00     45.58    100.00    100.00
Minnesota...........................................    100.00     89.66     76.52     66.09     86.57     88.74
Mississippi.........................................      0.00      0.00     46.97     27.88    100.00    100.00
Missouri............................................      0.00     24.87     34.44     31.60     53.22     55.69
Montana.............................................      0.00     16.29     83.53     99.99    100.00     78.92
Nebraska............................................      0.00     99.33     57.73     99.25     95.45     67.78
Nevada..............................................     18.86     74.60     29.78     58.06     68.16     51.22
New Hampshire.......................................      0.00     87.11    100.00    100.00    100.00    100.00
New Jersey..........................................    100.00     99.05    100.00     89.23    100.00     93.99
New Mexico..........................................      0.00     38.45     49.84     23.82     23.64     25.76
New York............................................      0.00      0.00     77.83     92.06    100.00    100.00
North Carolina......................................      0.00      0.00     77.02     76.10     84.82     81.51
North Dakota........................................      0.00     35.07    100.00    100.00     96.43    100.00
Ohio................................................     82.51     90.63     74.06     82.64     79.56     88.31
Oklahoma............................................     50.26     84.30     83.58     65.27    100.00     75.41
Oregon..............................................      0.00      0.00    100.00    100.00    100.00    100.00
Pennsylvania........................................      0.00     71.15     65.80     82.25     94.11    100.00
Puerto Rico.........................................      0.00      0.00     28.63     59.16     88.83     81.53
Rhode Island........................................    100.00     99.10     98.09     84.22     88.15     98.63
South Carolina......................................      0.00     75.12     67.08     40.72     56.18     52.45
South Dakota........................................      0.00     86.97     67.93     97.19    100.00    100.00
Tennessee...........................................      0.00      0.00     20.34     38.54     27.23     27.24
Texas...............................................      0.00      0.00     57.22     55.55     81.80     67.86
Utah................................................      0.00     98.11     75.59     82.39    100.00    100.00
Vermont.............................................      0.00      0.00     84.48     60.79    100.00    100.00
Virgin Islands......................................      0.00     48.98    100.00    100.00    100.00    100.00
Virginia............................................      0.00      0.00     82.43     73.28     59.36     73.59
Washington..........................................      0.00      0.00     43.88     60.54     83.36     66.94
West Virginia.......................................      0.00     56.95     68.62     82.39     92.63     79.97
Wisconsin...........................................    100.00     98.89    100.00    100.00    100.00    100.00
Wyoming.............................................      0.00     23.86    100.00    100.00     96.80    100.00
                                                     -----------------------------------------------------------
States at the JOBS Cap..............................         8         0        10        10        20        20
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Table prepared by Congressional Research Service based on data from the U.S. Department of Health and   
  Human Services (DHHS). JOBS data are as of May 19, 1995.                                                      

    Table 8-7 shows the average monthly number of JOBS 
participants reported by each State during fiscal year 1994 and 
their percentage distribution by program component. Overall, a 
monthly average of 579,213 persons were active JOBS 
participants, but about one-fourth were not ``countable'' for 
purposes of calculating official participation rates (see table 
8-9). The U.S. distribution:
  --Educational activities--42.7 percent of participants (23.9 
        percent in high school, GED, remedial education, or 
        English as a second language; 18.8 percent in higher 
        education).
  --Training--15.8 percent (8 percent in vocational training; 
        7.8 percent in job skills training).
  --Assessment and employability plan--12.5 percent.
  --Job entry (in survey month or preceding month)--10.6 
        percent.
  --Job search--5.5 percent.
  --Job readiness--5.2 percent.
  --Community Work Experience Program (CWEP), work 
        supplementation, and on-the-job training--4.3 percent.
  --Job development--0.8 percent.
  --Other--2.7 percent.
    Compared with fiscal year 1992, the percentages of JOBS 
participants engaged in education and job entry rose 
significantly while those in job search declined appreciably. 
State variations were large. For instance, the share of 
participants in higher education ranged from 3.7 percent in 
Oregon to 44.4 percent in New Hampshire. Those in job entry 
ranged from 1 percent in the District of Columbia and Oklahoma 
to above 30 percent in Utah, Massachusetts, and Oregon. 
Although 21 States placed no one in CWEP, more than 15 percent 
of JOBS participants in Hawaii and West Virginia were in CWEP.

                                              TABLE 8-7.--AVERAGE MONTHLY PERCENTAGE OF JOBS PARTICIPANTS BY STATE AND COMPONENT, FISCAL YEAR 1994                                              
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                             High                Self                                                                                           
                                                        Total       Job     school   Assigned    init.   Vocational     Job       Job       Job    Assess    Job            Work                
                       State                        participants   entry  and other   higher    higher    training    skills   readiness  develop   emp.   search    OJT    supp.   CWEP   Other
                                                                             \4\        ed.       ed.                training                       plan                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama...........................................       6,848       7.7      40.3       10.7       8.5        0.0        8.8       1.3       0.1    12.4     6.6     0.2     0.0     0.0    3.3
Alaska \1\........................................  ............  ......  .........  ........  ........  ..........  ........  .........  .......  ......  ......  ......  ......  ......  .....
Arizona...........................................       3,318      12.3      26.5        4.0       9.2        2.5        5.8       3.5       0.2    14.5    11.4     0.2     0.0     9.0    0.9
Arkansas..........................................       7,827       5.6      28.3        6.7       5.0        1.0        0.7       9.3       0.0    29.1     7.7     0.0     0.0     0.0    6.6
California........................................      70,529       9.9      35.1        7.5       5.5        5.0        2.9       8.0       0.6    16.6     2.8     1.0     0.0     4.6    0.5
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Colorado..........................................       5,342       8.9      21.6       12.5      10.2        0.0       12.0       4.3       0.1    12.6     7.5     0.2     1.9     8.2    0.0
Connecticut.......................................       5,700       4.7      33.4       12.2      12.5       15.1        5.5       3.3       2.6     2.7     4.3     2.7     0.0     1.0    0.0
Delaware..........................................         997       6.1      20.5        0.4      13.5        1.9        6.1       0.1       0.4    33.3     5.0     0.1     0.0     7.2    5.2
District of Columbia..............................       1,344       1.0      53.8        9.1      17.8        0.7        0.0       9.2       8.3     0.0     0.0     0.2     0.0     0.0    0.0
Florida...........................................      21,173      21.6      28.4        0.4       0.0       29.1        2.1      17.9       0.0     0.0     0.1     0.4     0.0     0.0    0.0
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Georgia...........................................      13,396      21.3      30.9       14.0       8.0        0.8        1.7       4.8       0.2     8.0     0.9     4.3     0.0     0.0    5.3
Guam \2\..........................................  ............  ......  .........  ........  ........  ..........  ........  .........  .......  ......  ......  ......  ......  ......  .....
Hawaii............................................       1,339       7.9      22.1       31.0       3.2        0.4        3.1       8.4       0.0     2.6     1.8     0.1     0.0    18.2    1.2
Idaho.............................................         998      12.5      19.4        3.6       9.5        7.7       10.8       7.7       0.0     9.6     6.8     0.1     0.0    11.9    0.1
Illinois..........................................      25,946       3.1      18.7       20.2       0.5        0.5       12.6       5.8       0.0     6.5    12.4     0.4     0.0     1.2   18.2
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Indiana...........................................       7,589       8.4      23.4       19.5      11.8        7.3        4.2       5.7       0.3     8.5     4.1     0.1     0.6     6.0    0.0
Iowa..............................................       9,276      23.8      11.4       17.1       3.4        1.4        2.0       2.9       0.0    32.6     2.8     0.0     0.0     0.0    2.5
Kansas............................................       7,168      12.6      18.0       27.4      12.1        2.1        2.5       2.5       1.9     7.4     4.1     1.0     0.0     6.5    1.8
Kentucky \3\......................................  ............  ......  .........  ........  ........  ..........  ........  .........  .......  ......  ......  ......  ......  ......  .....
Louisiana.........................................       8,190       8.9      40.3        2.5       4.1        9.2       15.0       2.7       0.0    10.0     3.6     0.1     0.0     3.5    0.0
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Maine.............................................       3,457      15.7      19.5       13.2       3.2        1.0        6.1       8.8       0.3     8.6    16.8     0.9     0.0     0.0    5.8
Maryland..........................................       8,436       7.4      14.9        4.3       7.8        1.6       14.7      12.6       6.0    16.5     3.9     0.2     0.5     0.0    9.6
Massachusetts.....................................      16,752      35.9      13.5        6.1       5.8        9.3       13.8       2.9       0.1     1.1    11.5     0.0     0.0     0.0    0.0
Michigan..........................................      48,774      10.2      19.1        0.1      16.1       11.7        2.4       2.8       2.2    27.3     5.3     0.2     0.0     2.7    0.0
Minnesota.........................................       6,003       9.1      16.1       20.8       0.0        0.0       33.6       4.0       0.0     0.9    11.3     0.2     0.3     3.8    0.0
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Mississippi.......................................       4,241       2.7      43.6       17.9       2.1        2.9       10.3       2.2       0.3     4.8     3.6     0.3     0.1     1.9    7.2
Missouri..........................................       5,813       4.0      18.9        7.2      22.1        0.0       18.2       0.0       0.0    12.9     3.5     0.0     0.1    11.7    1.4
Montana...........................................       4,478      28.7       9.3       16.7       6.7        0.0        5.3       6.4       0.0     1.5    11.1     0.2     0.0     0.0   14.2
Nebraska..........................................       5,685       0.8      28.0       18.9       0.0        0.0        5.5       9.5       0.0     9.5    22.5     0.1     0.0     0.5    4.7
Nevada............................................         738      13.8      25.5        3.1       4.5       11.4        4.2       5.8       1.2    13.6    11.7     0.1     0.0     5.3    0.0
                                                                                                                                                                                                
New Hampshire.....................................       1,688       2.0      23.3       42.4       2.0        0.5        3.7      12.9       0.0     1.7     7.8     0.2     0.0     0.0    3.3
New Jersey........................................      12,660       9.0      40.4       17.3       0.0       18.3        5.0       6.0       0.1     0.4     3.6     0.0     0.0     0.0    0.0
New Mexico........................................       7,623       5.6      21.7       34.4       3.9        3.3        0.0       0.0       0.0    12.1    11.6     0.1     0.0     0.2    7.0
New York..........................................      45,924       3.0      25.5        4.5      16.0       35.3        3.3       3.5       0.7     0.9     2.5     0.1     0.9     3.9    0.0
North Carolina....................................      10,623       6.1      25.1        0.0      20.8        0.0       20.1       8.2       0.0    16.0     1.3     0.3     0.0     2.1    0.0
                                                                                                                                                                                                
North Dakota......................................       1,599      17.1       9.1       13.6      17.3        6.5       10.4      16.6       0.0     4.1     2.2     0.4     0.1     2.0    0.6
Ohio..............................................      48,808       8.3      18.0       18.8       5.8        0.0        2.2       0.7       1.2    24.0     3.5     0.0     0.1    13.4    4.0
Oklahoma..........................................       4,706       1.1      31.6       18.3      17.0        4.7        1.9       4.4       0.4     0.2    10.3     0.7     0.0     0.6    8.9
Oregon............................................       2,264      31.0      13.3        0.1       3.6        0.1        6.9       7.4       0.0    10.2    22.4     0.1     0.1     0.0    4.8
Pennsylvania......................................      36,495       5.4      12.6        3.2       9.1       10.4       42.0       6.3       0.0     3.4     2.3     0.2     0.0     4.1    1.0
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Puerto Rico.......................................       6,919       9.5     21.23       14.6       9.7        4.7       26.6       0.4       0.1     7.9     3.0     0.3     0.0     0.0    2.1
Rhode Island \3\..................................  ............  ......  .........  ........  ........  ..........  ........  .........  .......  ......  ......  ......  ......  ......  .....
South Carolina....................................       7,423      13.4      25.2        6.8       2.2        0.6        8.7       1.5       5.8     8.8    20.2     0.0     0.0     0.0    6.8
South Dakota......................................       1,361      22.3      10.6        5.0      32.7        0.0        1.0       0.6       0.0     9.5    11.0     2.1     0.0     0.0    5.1
Tennessee.........................................       6,106       3.9      30.7       23.0       8.9        1.5        6.5       4.7       0.4    11.0     1.2     0.1     0.0     0.3    7.9
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Texas.............................................      22,376      13.0      24.2        6.7       7.4        6.4        1.6       7.1       0.0    25.6     7.8     0.3     0.0     0.0    0.0
Utah..............................................       7,117      38.7       8.4       10.4       1.2        0.0        9.5       2.3       0.0    15.0    10.4     0.0     0.0     0.0    3.9
Vermont...........................................       2,143       8.6      10.0       29.4       1.1        0.0        6.3       3.8       0.0     5.7    21.2     0.2     0.1    13.4    0.0
Virgin Islands \1\................................  ............  ......  .........  ........  ........  ..........  ........  .........  .......  ......  ......  ......  ......  ......  .....
Virginia..........................................       7,260       7.4      23.9       19.0       4.1        1.3        7.8       3.6       6.5     6.5    10.0     0.4     0.3     0.0    9.2
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Washington........................................      20,687       6.4      26.7       27.8      10.1        0.0        0.0       6.9       0.2    19.2     2.1     0.1     0.0     0.0    1.1
West Virginia.....................................       9,422      20.5      32.0        9.6       1.2       12.6        0.0       2.9       0.4     3.2     0.2     0.1     0.0    17.2    0.0
Wisconsin.........................................      13,578      15.1      14.6        8.1      17.6        0.0        3.7       3.5       1.8     8.2    15.8     0.5     2.3     4.9    3.7
Wyoming...........................................       1,074       6.9      36.2        3.5       0.0        6.7        5.1      12.3       0.1     0.0     0.0    29.0     0.0     0.0    0.0
                                                   ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      U.S. total..................................     579,213      10.6      23.9       10.6       8.2        8.0        7.8       5.2       0.8    12.5     5.5     0.5     0.2     3.6   2.7 
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Reported sample data did not meet sampling requirements for ACF-108.                                                                                                                        
\2\ Data not reported.                                                                                                                                                                          
\3\ Data reported in prior year format.                                                                                                                                                         
\4\ Includes high school, GED, remedial education, and English as a second language.                                                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services                                                                                                                                            

    Table 8-8 summarizes State reports on JOBS expenditures, by 
program component/activity. It indicates that $74.2 million 
(Federal and State funds) was spent monthly, on average, on 
program components. (This total excludes supportive services, 
administrative costs, and expenses that cannot be attributed to 
a component activity.) Educational activities, consisting of 
high school and related education, postsecondary education, and 
self-initiated education, accounted for 33.1 percent of the 
total ($24.6 million); assessment/employability plans, 23 
percent ($17.1 million); job skills training, plus on-the-job 
training and self-initiated training, 14.9 percent ($11.1 
million); job readiness, 9.3 percent ($6.9 million); job 
search, 7.8 percent ($5.8 million); job placement/development, 
4.5 percent ($3.3 million); CWEP, 2.9 percent ($2.2 million); 
work supplementation, 0.4 percent ($0.3 million); and other, 4 
percent ($3 million). There was wide variation among States in 
the distribution of reported JOBS expenditures by program 
component.
    Table 8-9 examines States' effort in fiscal year 1994 
regarding JOBS participation. It shows that nationwide, 44 
percent of AFDC adult recipients were classified as required to 
participate in JOBS (nonexempt from JOBS). Among the States the 
percentage of mandatory participants ranged from 19 percent in 
Arizona to 71 percent in Colorado.
    As noted above, the 1994 minimum JOBS participation 
standard was 15 percent of nonexempt adults (roughly equivalent 
to 7 percent of all adults that year). Column 6 of the table 
gives a rough approximation of participation rates achieved by 
States in 1994; official calculations are more exacting. The 
table indicates a U.S. participation rate of 21.6 percent, but 
shows wide variations among States. To date, although some 
States have failed to meet participation standards, none has 
been penalized by a reduced matching rate. The HHS Secretary 
has waived this penalty, as permitted by law if a State has 
made a good faith effort to meet the standard and has submitted 
a plan for improvement.
    A May 1993 report by the General Accounting Office (Welfare 
to Work. JOBS Participation Rate Data Unreliable for Assessing 
States' Performance, GAO/HRD No. 93-73) concluded that JOBS 
participation rates, calculated on the basis of data provided 
by States, were not accurate or comparably derived across 
States. The report recommended that HHS review reporting 
requirements with the aim of making them less complex and 
burdensome and increase oversight of States' development of 
participation rate data. In November 1993, the Department 
issued new guidelines on JOBS participant data collection that 
it said were intended ``to standardize the collection of data 
about sampled JOBS participants and their families and to 
support uniformity in reporting this data.''

                                      TABLE 8-8.--PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF JOBS COMPONENT/ACTIVITY EXPENDITURES (STATE AND FEDERAL), \1\ FISCAL YEAR 1994                                     
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                        Assess./                                                                                     Job      Self-      Self-         Total    
                         State                           employ.  Education    Job      Job        Post      Job    OJT    Work    CWEP    Other   dvpmnt/  initiated  initiated     component  
                                                          plan               skills  readiness  secondary  search          supp.                  placemnt  education   training   expenditures 
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama...............................................      26.0      38.5      8.8       4.8        3.6      6.7    0.2     0.0     0.0     6.7      1.2         1.9        1.7      $1,049,290
Alaska................................................       6.7      11.5      3.0      33.1        5.6      7.9    0.1     0.0     0.0    26.9      0.1         3.8        1.3         174,035
Arizona...............................................       4.2      77.2     14.3       0.0        0.0      4.3    0.0     0.0     0.0     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0         212,948
Arkansas..............................................      31.4      25.1      1.7       9.6        1.0      7.4    0.0     0.0     0.0    21.0      0.0         1.8        1.0         607,658
California............................................      27.0      27.7     11.2      10.9        0.0     10.4    0.3     0.2     4.8     0.0      7.4         0.0        0.0      11,182,176
Colorado..............................................      24.7      13.8      7.6       5.6       19.9      8.6    3.3     1.8     8.2     0.0      3.8         2.6        0.3         857,419
Connecticut...........................................      71.1       6.3      0.0       0.0        1.3      0.0   21.3     0.0     0.0     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0         574,151
Delaware..............................................      23.2      32.7      5.1       0.0        5.2     16.7    0.0     0.0     5.0     1.3      0.0         8.2        2.5         229,800
District of Columbia..................................      12.6      38.3     10.4       0.0        0.0      7.7    0.1     0.0     0.0    15.8      8.1         1.2        5.8         330,992
Florida...............................................      40.0      28.5      3.0       9.7        2.7      8.7    0.3     0.0     0.1     1.1      5.2         0.5        0.2         738,500
Georgia...............................................      33.3      25.4      1.2       8.5        3.9      6.8    0.0     0.0     0.0    13.7      3.9         0.8        2.5         897,580
Hawaii................................................      12.4      14.8      3.7       5.7       51.8      1.1    0.7     0.8     7.9     0.8      0.0         0.3        0.0         109,896
Idaho.................................................      50.7      15.1      0.3      13.6        0.2      9.0    1.0     0.0     0.0     8.8      0.7         0.6        0.0         300,753
Illinois..............................................       9.0      27.0     15.5       4.1       29.6      4.2    0.0     0.3     1.3     8.4      0.0         0.7        0.0       3,483,504
Indiana...............................................      27.0      14.9     21.5       7.1        7.7      3.7    0.3     0.0     0.9    14.9      2.0         0.0        0.0         458,493
Iowa..................................................      32.0       8.7     16.0       2.0       21.8      3.2    0.0     0.0     0.3     5.2      6.5         2.5        1.7       1,152,507
Kansas................................................      35.4      64.6      0.0       0.0        0.0      0.0    0.0     0.0     0.0     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0         132,672
Kentucky..............................................      22.9      48.5      3.4       5.8        1.5      2.4    0.4     0.0     9.9     3.0      0.0         2.3        0.0         644,905
Louisiana.............................................      13.3      50.5     15.5       5.1        1.4      3.6    0.1     0.0     1.7     7.1      1.8         0.0        0.0       1,290,690
Maine.................................................      50.8       3.1      5.0       6.0        2.9     14.0    1.1     0.0     1.0     2.0     12.0         1.1        1.0         328,683
Maryland..............................................      30.7      19.4     15.6      13.4        1.7      3.2    0.3     0.0     0.0    12.3      3.4         0.0        0.0       1,386,015
Massachusetts.........................................      40.4      21.5     25.0       3.1        3.1      6.7    0.0     0.1     0.0     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0       2,874,212
Michigan..............................................       7.3       0.0     74.1       6.3        0.0      1.8    1.2     0.0     0.0     0.0      9.3         0.0        0.0       1,261,919
Minnesota.............................................      13.2      20.0     24.3       7.4       16.5     16.1    0.8     0.0     1.6     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0       1,202,183
Mississippi...........................................      17.7      46.9      5.2       3.5        7.5      3.1    3.7    10.0     0.0     1.8      0.0         0.4        0.0       1,269,152
Missouri..............................................      50.5       6.3     14.5       6.4        1.3      5.4    0.1     0.0     5.2     2.1      3.1         3.1        2.0         838,400
Montana...............................................      23.1      10.8      6.5      14.7        7.3     20.1    1.0     0.0    12.3   0.0.0      0.0         0.0        4.2         209,253
Nebraska..............................................      11.2      20.4      2.3      21.4        8.7     23.1    0.0     0.0     0.1    11.7      0.0         1.1        0.0         293,947
Nevada................................................      26.7      24.8     10.9       5.0        0.0      9.9    0.8     0.0    15.7     0.0      0.0         0.8        5.4         139,739
New Hampshire.........................................       1.7      14.3      5.2      28.7       28.7     10.9    0.2     0.0     0.0     6.2      4.0         0.1        0.0         255,090
New Jersey............................................      11.0      35.8     24.4      12.6        0.0      9.2    0.2     0.9     1.3     1.4      3.2         0.0        0.0       1,775,151
New Mexico............................................       6.4      27.8     15.0       6.4       18.9     11.1    0.0     0.0     0.1     7.0      0.0         3.7        3.5         149,881
New York..............................................      27.5      31.1     10.1       7.6        5.7      2.1    0.8     0.5     3.2     0.0      7.8         1.2        2.3       9,335,314
North Carolina........................................       7.8      30.6     22.2      11.3        9.8      1.5    0.6     0.0     3.1     0.0      4.2         3.7        5.0       2,117,021
North Dakota..........................................      19.1       5.0      7.1      21.6        8.9     20.5    1.4     0.0     2.5     1.1      0.0        12.7        0.0          75,450
Ohio..................................................      17.8      12.4      5.6      11.2        7.7     16.1    0.2     0.3     7.6    14.9      5.0         1.3        0.0       7,113,369
Oklahoma..............................................       8.8      16.7      6.7       2.1        5.6      6.0    2.2     0.0     0.0    34.7     11.6         4.2        1.5         132,376
Oregon................................................       7.9      25.7      6.4      23.1        0.0     26.2    0.6     0.0     2.2     7.7      0.0         0.0        0.4         991,675
Pennsylvania..........................................       6.7      24.6     34.5      12.0        9.6      2.1    0.2     0.0     2.7     0.5      7.1         0.0        0.0       4,400,002
Rhode Island..........................................       6.7      28.7     20.8       7.0       19.5     13.5    0.0     3.3     0.5     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0         530,792
South Carolina........................................      18.5      32.5      8.7       5.8        3.6     10.4    0.0     0.0     0.0    12.1      6.6         1.4        0.4         626,942
South Dakota..........................................      63.6       2.8      1.4       2.1        4.0     14.9    4.3     0.0     5.2     0.0      0.0         1.7        0.0          86,474
Tennessee.............................................      13.1      37.1      5.9       4.2       20.9      1.0    0.7     0.0     0.6     0.6      0.5         6.2        9.3         603,282
Texas.................................................      19.8      30.1      1.5      12.2        6.1      7.6    0.1     0.0     0.0     3.7      6.9         5.6        6.6       4,617,137
Utah..................................................      26.1      10.5     12.7      11.6        5.7     25.2    0.1     0.0     0.0     6.8      1.4         0.0        0.0         443,930
Vermont...............................................       0.0     100.0      0.0       0.0        0.0      0.0    0.0     0.0     0.0     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0          11,111
Virginia..............................................      19.9      27.3     10.9       8.5       10.0      9.5    0.4     0.9     0.0    11.3      0.0         1.1        0.0       1,230,827
Washington............................................      32.6      16.5      6.7      12.3       14.7      7.5    1.0     0.0     0.2     1.4      1.5         3.7        1.9       1,535,242
West Virginia.........................................      25.7      33.0      2.1      23.9        3.4      1.2    1.1     0.0     8.0     0.0      1.5         0.0        0.0         846,072
Wisconsin.............................................      30.9      12.1      7.7       9.1        7.7     16.4    1.7     1.9     5.8     2.1      3.2         1.5        0.1       2,352,236
Wyoming...............................................       2.1      13.2      8.0       3.4       14.5     17.5    0.2     0.0     0.0    24.5      0.0        14.9        1.8         190,262
Guam..................................................      82.7       6.4      3.3       2.5        3.9      0.0    0.4     0.0     0.8     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0          20,854
Puerto Rico...........................................      93.9       0.0      0.0       6.1        0.0      0.0    0.0     0.0     0.0     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0         514,973
Virgin Islands........................................      78.1       2.2      1.6      18.1        0.0      0.0    0.0     0.0     0.0     0.0      0.0         0.0        0.0          16,891
                                                       -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      United States...................................      23.0      24.9     13.0       9.3        6.9      7.8    0.7     0.4     2.9     4.0      4.5         1.3        1.2      74,172,451
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ These expenditures include: (1) actual administrative expenditures associated with program components/activities and supportive services (excluding child care) and (2) actual program costs
  (excluding supportive services program costs).                                                                                                                                                
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Source: Office of Family Assistance, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                                                                              


                                                TABLE 8-9.--JOBS PARTICIPATION BY STATE, FISCAL YEAR 1994                                               
                                          [Data based on monthly averages from October 1993 to September 1994]                                          
                                                                                                                                                        
                                               Total adult recipients                Total JOBS participants                             Countable JOBS 
                                       ----------------------------------------------------------------------------  Percent of AFDC    participants, as
                 State                                                                                               adults mandatory     a percent of  
                                               AFDC         JOBS mandatories      Active \1\         Countable           for JOBS         mandatories   
                                                      (1)                (2)                (3)                (4)                (5)                (6)
                                                                                                                                                        
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama...............................             36,268              9,109              6,848              5,663               25.1               62.2
Alaska................................             13,937              3,772                 NA                890               27.1               23.6
Arizona...............................             64,872             12,205              3,318              2,105               18.8               17.3
Arkansas..............................             19,851              4,603              7,827                904               23.2               19.6
California \2\........................            835,137            355,476             70,529             67,389               42.6               19.0
Colorado..............................             38,692             27,306              5,342              4,158               70.6               15.2
Connecticut...........................             54,565             30,532              5,700              6,308               56.0               20.7
Delaware..............................              8,939              3,515                997                676               39.3               19.2
District of Columbia..................             23,140             11,084              1,344              1,094               47.9                9.9
Florida...............................            206,855             40,346             21,173             12,476               19.5               30.9
Georgia...............................            119,004             49,463             13,396             10,899               41.6               22.0
Guam..................................              2,186                563                 NR                 13               25.7                2.3
Hawaii................................             20,918              7,799              1,339              1,186               37.3               15.2
Idaho.................................              7,587              1,884                998                735               24.8               39.0
Illinois..............................            226,450            125,136             25,946             24,940               55.3               19.9
Indiana...............................             70,941             28,532              7,578              6,498               40.2               22.8
Iowa..................................             38,734             15,017              9,276              2,398               38.8               16.0
Kansas................................             27,949             16,524              7,168              5,971               59.1               36.1
Kentucky..............................             71,343             41,946              9,359              8,441               58.8               20.1
Louisiana.............................             68,466             27,471              8,190              6,313               40.1               23.0
Maine.................................             24,231             13,441              3,464              3,117               55.5               23.2
Maryland..............................             71,165             28,476              8,387              5,172               40.0               18.2
Massachusetts.........................            109,769             55,044             16,752              9,205               50.1               16.7
Michigan..............................            227,013            144,657             48,774             30,253               63.7               20.9
Minnesota.............................             62,959             22,291              6,003              4,274               35.4               19.2
Mississippi...........................             43,027             20,872              4,241              3,726               48.5               17.9
Missouri..............................             87,066             33,345              5,813              5,803               38.3               17.4
Montana...............................             12,132              6,322              4,478              1,790               52.1               28.3
Nebraska..............................             14,310              6,441              5,685              4,928               45.0               76.5
Nevada................................             11,317              4,156                738                722               36.7               17.4
New Hampshire.........................             10,986              4,459              1,688              1,847               40.6               41.4
New Jersey............................            107,878             66,134             12,660             11,761               61.3               17.8
New Mexico............................             35,951             11,792              7,623              3,268               32.8               27.7
New York..............................            441,745            201,818             45,970             39,240               45.7               19.4
North Carolina........................            109,976             45,209             10,661              9,018               41.1               19.9
North Dakota..........................              5,632              2,023              1,599                579               35.9               28.6
Ohio..................................            229,644            104,796             48,808             30,112               45.6               28.7
Oklahoma..............................             41,042             18,038              4,706              1,551               44.0                8.6
Oregon................................             38,103             21,579              2,264              6,489               56.6               30.1
Pennsylvania..........................            202,799             98,880             36,495             18,865               48.8               19.1
Puerto Rico...........................             58,415             24,465              6,919              3,314               41.9               13.5
Rhode Island..........................             21,452             15,017              3,863              2,474               70.0               16.5
South Carolina........................             37,513              9,826              7,417              2,858               26.2               29.1
South Dakota..........................              5,475              2,759              1,361              1,577               50.4               57.2
Tennessee.............................             96,471             21,497              6,106              5,071               22.3               23.6
Texas.................................            238,039             79,055             22,376             13,644               33.2               17.3
Utah..................................             16,743             11,516              7,117              5,825               68.8               50.6
Vermont...............................             10,624              5,338              2,143                804               50.2               15.1
Virginia..............................             60,539             23,223              7,260              4,529               38.4               19.5
Virgin Islands........................              1,006                597                667                138               59.4               23.0
Washington............................            104,810             37,263             20,687             13,899               35.6               37.3
West Virginia.........................             42,481             20,596              9,422              5,804               48.5               28.2
Wisconsin.............................             95,863             38,983             13,588             12,364               40.7               31.7
Wyoming...............................              5,275              2,735              1,074              1,419               51.8               51.9
                                       -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      Total...........................          4,637,281          2,014,924            593,137            434,492               43.5               21.6
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Totals represent the average number of monthly participants in the sample universe.                                                                 
\2\ State received approval to use a sample to estimate the number of AFDC recipients required to participate in JOBS for fiscal year 1993.             
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Data is not available.                                                                                                                              
NR--Data not reported.                                                                                                                                  
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--Table is based on the best available data reported by States.                                                                                    
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         

               Welfare-to-Work Efforts: Some Assessments

    JOBS Programs differ. The Manpower Demonstration Research 
Corporation (MDRC) has identified and analyzed two basic 
approaches: the labor force attachment approach (LFA) and the 
human capital development (HCD) approach. The LFA approach used 
job search, short-term education or training and other services 
to move parents quickly into jobs, and the HCD approach 
encouraged people to postpone work so as to build skills. Among 
2-year findings of impacts at three sites: The LFA approach 
increased the number employed by 24 percent, reduced the number 
still on AFDC by 16 percent, and increased earnings by 26 
percent. Even so, 57 percent of the LFA treatment group 
remained on AFDC, and the group's earnings averaged only $285 
monthly. Of the LFA control group, 68 percent remained on AFDC, 
and the group's earnings averaged $226. MDRC said the HCD 
approach failed to produce consistent gains in earnings or 
employment, but achieved AFDC savings of 14 percent (Freedman & 
Friedlander, 1995). However, MDRC also said that the 2-year 
followup period was not long enough to capture full effects of 
lengthy basic education or training activities.
    A survey made by the General Accounting Office (GAO) 
concluded that county JOBS Programs nationwide lack a strong 
employment focus. GAO surveyed a nationally representative 
random sample of 453 county JOBS administrators and visited 
programs in four States. Most of the administrators reported 
that fewer than one-half of their job-ready participants had 
become employed and that little use was made of subsidized jobs 
or work experience programs (U.S. General Accounting Office, 
1995).
    Another study of JOBS implementation concluded that the 
program holds promise for further development of ``meaningful 
welfare employment programs'' across the country and that it 
would best be served by incremental changes, not dramatic 
reform. The study urged more funding for services, including 
child care (Hagen and Lurie, 1994).
    A Congressional Research Service (CRS) report examined the 
types of jobs likely to be available to welfare recipients and 
concluded that some AFDC recipients who found work might still 
be poor (especially if the job were part time), even with 
supplementation of the EIC. For AFDC recipients to be able to 
compete for higher paying jobs, their productivity would have 
to be raised. However, experience with the Job Training 
Partnership Act Title II-A Training Program suggests that 
training alone might not be sufficient to enable the mothers to 
earn their way out of poverty (Levine, 1994).

                    TITLE IV-A EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE

    The Social Security Act offers States 50 percent Federal 
matching funds for emergency assistance (EA) to families with 
children if the aid is needed to avoid destitution of a child 
or to provide living arrangements in a home for him. The law 
makes unlimited EA funds available, but only for aid furnished 
for a period not in excess of 30 days in any 12-month period. 
From the program's beginning in fiscal year 1969, regulations 
have interpreted this to allow funding for EA that is 
authorized by the State during one period of 30 consecutive 
days in any 12 consecutive months. The rules explicitly allow 
funding to meet needs that arose before the 30-day 
authorization period, such as past-due rent, or needs that 
extend beyond it.
    State EA plans must specify eligibility conditions, which 
may be more liberal than those for AFDC, and must specify which 
emergency conditions they will meet and what services they will 
provide. The law allows EA for migrant families and for those 
excluded from AFDC because they live with both parents and 
neither is disabled or unemployed. In the mid-1970s, court 
suits challenged States' rights to restrict the kinds of 
emergencies for which EA could be paid, and some States dropped 
the program; but on June 6, 1978, the U.S. Supreme Court (Quern 
v. Mandley, 436 U.S. 725) held that States could limit EA 
eligibility more narrowly than the outer bounds set in the 
Social Security Act.
    Before 1980, fewer than half the States operated EA 
Programs and total expenditures averaged only about $50 million 
annually. In the 1980s the number of State programs rose to 
about 27, and expenditures averaged $170 million yearly. By 
1990, 32 jurisdictions offered EA; by 1995, the total was 51 
(all but Alaska, which dropped the program in 1975, and 
Mississippi and Guam, which never offered it). In the 1990s EA 
spending exploded, soaring from $378 million in 1990 to $1.6 
billion in 1994 and (preliminary figure based on State claims) 
$3.2 billion in 1995. In 1995, as shown in table 8-10, almost 
two-thirds of all EA expenditures were made by three States: 
New York, 39 percent of the total; California, 15 percent; and 
Pennsylvania, 12 percent. Table 8-11 presents the growth in 
total EA expenditures for selected fiscal years 1970-95. It 
shows that in the last 10 years, EA spending multiplied 20 
times.
    EA funds have been used to aid families affected by natural 
disasters, such as floods, fires, and storms, and other crises 
threatening family or living arrangements. Other qualifying 
causes for EA specified by various States include: eviction, 
potential eviction, or foreclosure; homelessness; utility 
shutoff or loss of heating energy supply or equipment; civil 
disorders or crimes of violence; child or spousal abuse; loss 
of employment or strike; health hazards/risks to health and 
safety; emergency medical needs; and illness, accident, or 
injury. Beginning around 1993, some States began using EA funds 
for child protection, family preservation, juvenile justice, 
and mental health.
    The recent surge in EA spending occurred after more States 
joined the program and some started using EA funds for the new, 
nontraditional purposes stated above. Services provided under 
these new categories include: prevention of child abuse, family 
reunification, counseling and referral, parenting education, 
case management, in-home family services, homemaker support, 
legal referrals, crisis intervention, and employment counseling 
(Solomon-Fears, 1995).
    On September 12, 1995, HHS gave notice to States that, 
effective January 1, 1996, it would rescind earlier approval of 
State plans that defined emergencies to include children in the 
juvenile justice system. The Department said a number of States 
had defined emergency situations to include children who were 
removed from home as a result of delinquent behavior or who 
were otherwise determined to be in need of State supervision 
because of their behavior. It said these States were using 
State or county-operated correctional facilities or group homes 
and claiming Federal matching for benefits and services such as 
room and board, counseling, and psychiatric evaluations. HHS 
said States covering these services must delete them from their 
State plans, effective January 1, 1996, stating: ``We believe 
that costs for services provided to children in the juvenile 
justice system . . . bear no . . . `valid relationship' to the 
context or purpose of the EA Program and, therefore, do not 
qualify for Federal matching under it.''
    As noted before, the law places a 30-day limit on 
furnishing EA, but regulations allow EA that is authorized 
during a 30-day period. As of July 1995, according to HHS, 25 
jurisdictions authorize EA payments for 12 months. Another 14 
States authorize payments for longer than 1 month. Concerns 
over use of EA funds for placement of homeless families in 
``welfare hotels,'' sometimes for many months, led HHS in 
September 1987 to issue a proposed rule (Federal Register, 
December 14, 1987, p. 47420) to establish an ``unambiguous'' 
time limit on use of EA funds. The proposal would have allowed 
EA matching funds only for aid furnished for one period of 30 
consecutive days, or less, in 12 consecutive months ``to meet 
the actual expenses of needs in existence during that period 
which arose from an emergency or unusual crisis situation, and 
which continue to exist until aid is furnished.'' It also 
proposed to forbid States from varying shelter allowances in 
the AFDC need standard, either as a basic or special need, 
according to the type of living accommodation occupied (for 
example: apartment or house versus hotel/motel, temporary 
shelter, permanent housing aid). However, Congress in December 
1987 placed a moratorium on implementation of these regulations 
until October 1, 1988 and subsequently extended the moratorium 
three times, until October 1, 1991. After expiration of the 
moratorium, HHS Secretary Sullivan in February 1992 submitted 
draft legislation to revise EA. It would have authorized use of 
Federal EA funds to meet needs for one 30-day period within 12 
months, plus payment for up to 3 months' arrearages for shelter 
and utilities to prevent eviction or utility cutoffs, or, if 
the family were homeless, for the first month's shelter cost 
and security deposit for permanent housing. Congress took no 
action on this proposal.

                         TABLE 8-10.--CASELOAD AND TOTAL EXPENDITURES IN THE EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE PROGRAM, FISCAL YEARS 1993-95                         
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                              Caseload              Total fiscal year expenditures     Average monthly  
                                                                 ---------------------------------   \2\  (dollars in thousands)       payment/family   
                              State                                                                                                ---------------------
                                                                     1993       1994     1995 \1\ ---------------------------------                     
                                                                                                      1993       1994     1995 \3\     1994       1995  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.........................................................          0          0          0          0     $7,525    $14,871          0          0
Alaska..........................................................          0          0          0          0          0          0          0          0
Arizona.........................................................        191        114        150     $3,675     13,541     23,396     $9,870    $12,998
Arkansas........................................................          0          0          0      2,557      3,103      6,167          0          0
California......................................................          0      9,116     13,898          0    292,035    486,231      2,670      2,915
Colorado........................................................          0          0      1,505         24     25,799     65,500          0      3,627
Connecticut.....................................................          0          0          0          0     19,076    117,689          0          0
Delaware........................................................        112        141        134        419        555     21,602        328     13,434
District of Columbia............................................      1,499        805        358     21,276     16,085      8,912      1,665      2,074
Florida.........................................................        921      1,860      2,967      3,884     11,300     58,329        506      1,638
Georgia.........................................................      1,454      1,436        732      9,529     14,784     17,195        858      1,958
Guam............................................................          0          0          0          0          0          0          0          0
Hawaii..........................................................         25          0          0        371        723      6,446          0          0
Idaho...........................................................          0          0          0          0      4,647      7,695          0          0
Illinois........................................................      1,177      1,263      4,380      4,152     23,378    111,147      1,543      2,115
Indiana.........................................................          0          0          0          0     60,115     33,021          0          0
Iowa............................................................        435        421        415      1,759      1,758     16,506        348      3,314
Kansas..........................................................        218        177        331        637     12,122     23,782      5,713      5,987
Kentucky........................................................          0          0          0          0          0      2,231          0          0
Louisiana.......................................................          0          0          0          0          0      6,260          0          0
Maine...........................................................        347        326        344        749        738      1,689        188        409
Maryland........................................................      2,169      2,141      2,063      7,156     10,194     17,425        397        704
Massachusetts...................................................      4,058      2,025      1,765     45,676     48,524     44,464      1,997      2,099
Michigan........................................................      1,490      1,135      1,100     23,767     18,313     22,697      1,344      1,719
Minnesota.......................................................      1,913      1,883      1,927     11,268     15,229     25,037        674      1,083
Mississippi.....................................................          0          0          0          0          0          0          0          0
Missouri........................................................          0          0      1,687      2,418     15,085     31,634          0      1,563
Montana.........................................................         39         33         19        227        386      3,331        980     14,610
Nebraska........................................................        172        151        154      1,396        912     20,203        505     10,932
Nevada..........................................................         19        174      1,597        117        675     16,060        323        838
New Hampshire...................................................        329        389        189      1,214      1,568      2,247        336        991
New Jersey......................................................      8,678      7,909      6,225     53,268     41,230     66,242        434        887
New Mexico......................................................          0          0          0          0          2      1,386          0          0
New York........................................................     14,750     15,911     12,526    542,806    837,710  1,232,551      4,387      8,200
North Carolina..................................................      2,293      3,211      5,407      5,464      7,977     79,481        207      1,225
North Dakota....................................................        445        549      1,028      1,335      3,004      9,906        456        803
Ohio............................................................      3,921      3,641      2,715      8,600      7,709     16,174        176        496
Oklahoma........................................................      2,205        574          2      3,591      1,027      4,729        149    197,042
Oregon..........................................................      1,567      1,583      1,527      4,763      9,007     19,340        474      1,055
Pennsylvania....................................................        702        801        622      5,157      5,749    390,088        598     52,263
Puerto Rico.....................................................        489        491        190        192        171        246         29        108
Rhode Island....................................................          0          0        269          0      2,011     15,763          0      4,883
South Carolina..................................................          0          0          0        545        774      9,204          0          0
South Dakota....................................................         63        227        199        359      1,803      2,965        662      1,242
Tennessee.......................................................          0          0          0      8,424      1,913     43,850          0          0
Texas...........................................................          0          0     10,937          0      3,529     17,170          0        131
Utah............................................................        120        120        182        320        506     13,541        351      6,200
Vermont.........................................................        298        267        184      1,450        963      3,828        301      1,734
Virgin Islands..................................................          0          0          0          0          0          0          0          0
Virginia........................................................         43         39         34         42         72         56        155        137
Washington......................................................        610        594        533      3,087      5,816     34,998        815      5,472
West Virginia...................................................      1,194      1,160      1,079      1,819      5,545      4,607        398        356
Wisconsin.......................................................        818        778        418      3,174      3,356      3,366        359        671
Wyoming.........................................................        217        231        242      2,001      5,216      4,249      1,886      1,463
                                                                 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      Total.....................................................     54,979     61,675     80,034    788,668  1,563,262  3,185,510      2,112      3,386
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Preliminary data.                                                                                                                                   
\2\ Represents total expenditures claimed by States and may include prior year claims; may also include amounts deferred or under the ACF.              
\3\ Revised data as of July 12, 1996.                                                                                                                   
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--Based on best available data reported by States.                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         


  TABLE 8-11.--TOTAL FEDERAL AND STATE EXPENDITURES UNDER THE EMERGENCY 
          ASSISTANCE PROGRAM, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1970-95 \1\         
                              [In millions]                             
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                        Fiscal year                             Amount  
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1970.......................................................          $14
1975.......................................................           70
1980.......................................................          109
1985.......................................................          157
1986.......................................................          175
1987.......................................................          203
1988.......................................................          256
1989.......................................................          310
1990.......................................................          378
1991.......................................................          306
1992.......................................................          627
1993.......................................................          789
1994.......................................................        1,563
1995.......................................................        3,252
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Represents total expenditures claimed by States and may include     
  prior year claims. May also include amounts deferred or under review  
  by the Administration for Children and Families.                      
                                                                        
Source: Administration of Children and Families, U.S. Department of     
  Health and Human Services.                                            

   WAIVERS FROM FEDERAL AFDC LAW--SECTION 1115 DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS

    Since 1962, Section 1115 of the Social Security Act has 
authorized the Secretary of HHS (and the predecessor Secretary 
of Health, Education, and Welfare) to waive specified 
requirements of the Act in order to enable a State to carry out 
any experimental, pilot, or demonstration project that the 
Secretary judges likely to assist in promoting the objectives 
of AFDC. The Reagan, Bush, and Clinton administrations all 
adopted a liberal policy of granting waivers for State reforms. 
President Reagan created an interagency group (the Low Income 
Opportunity Advisory Board) to facilitate action on waiver 
requests; President Bush stressed State innovations in his 
welfare reform strategy and required that demonstrations not 
increase annual Federal costs and that they provide for 
rigorous evaluation. President Clinton accelerated the waiver 
process and relaxed the cost neutrality rule by applying it 
over the life of the demonstration instead of each year. 
Between January 1, 1992, and August 15, 1995, 35 States 
received 53 waivers to test AFDC changes (Neisner, 1995). By 
May, 1996, the Clinton administration had approved 61 waivers 
in 38 States. However, several waivers had been disapproved and 
other waivers had been modified at administration request. Most 
waiver requests reflect one or more of these assumptions about 
present AFDC rules: that they discourage work and encourage 
long-term enrollment; that they discourage marriage and 
encourage out-of-wedlock births; and that they fail to promote 
personal responsibility.
    According to an HHS compilation, by mid-February 1996, all 
but 10 States (Alaska, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Nevada, 
New Hampshire, New Mexico, Rhode Island, Tennessee), the 
District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands 
had approval to test departures from specified provisions of 
AFDC. Many projects have required multiple waivers. Some States 
have received approval to operate some or all demonstration 
components statewide; but many waivers are limited to selected 
areas. AFDC waiver projects can be classified broadly as 
restricting or liberalizing some elements of the program. 
Examples of the former include:
  --Place time limit on benefit duration (24 States);
  --Tighten work requirements (31 States);
  --Link benefits to school attendance/performance (26 States);
  --Limit benefits for additional children (14 States);
  --Reduce benefits based on relocation (2 States);
  --Require fingerprinting as a condition of eligibility (1 
        State).
    Major waiver provisions that liberalize some terms of the 
program include:
  --Treat earnings more generously (30 States);
  --Expand eligibility for 2-parent (unemployed) families (25 
        States);
  --Increase resource limit (28 States);
  --Increase vehicle asset limit (25 States);
  --Expand transitional medical and child care benefits (21 
        States).

            CHILD CARE FOR FAMILIES AT RISK OF AFDC RECEIPT

    The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 established a 
new matching grant child care program, known as the ``At-Risk'' 
Program, for services to low-income, non-AFDC families that (1) 
need such care in order to work and (2) would otherwise be at 
risk of becoming eligible for AFDC.
    The law authorizes $300 million annually in entitlement 
funding for this program, allocated to States on the basis of 
their share of the child population. Rules relating to Federal 
matching rates, reimbursement, standards and fee schedules are 
the same as the rules for child care for AFDC families, except 
that all child care providers that receive at-risk funds must 
be licensed, regulated, or registered.
    The At-Risk Program is described in more detail in section 
10.

                     AFDC BENEFIT LEVELS AND TRENDS

    Each State establishes a ``need standard'' (the income the 
State decides is essential for basic consumption items) and a 
``payment standard,'' which in most States is below the need 
standard. Benefits generally are computed by subtracting 
countable (``net'') income from the State's payment standard. 
In a dozen States, actual maximum benefits are below payment 
standards.

                Maximum Benefits (State AFDC Guarantees)

    Maximum payments are made to those with no countable 
income. They vary sharply among the States, as shown by tables 
8-12 and 8-13. In January 1996, maximum benefits for AFDC 
families of three within the 48 contiguous States ranged from 
$120 in Mississippi to $703 in Suffolk County, New York. Under 
the assumptions of table 8-12, the Mississippi family would 
qualify for $313 in food stamps (maximum allotment) and the 
Suffolk County, New York family for $232 in food stamps. 
Resulting combined benefits of $433 in Mississippi and $935 in 
New York equaled 40 percent and 86 percent respectively, of the 
1996 poverty guidelines. (Poverty guidelines and food stamp 
allotments and allowable deductions are uniform in the 
contiguous States, but higher in Alaska and Hawaii). In the 
median State, ranked by AFDC benefit levels, maximum combined 
benefits were $699 ($389 in AFDC cash and $310 in food stamps), 
65 percent of the poverty guidelines.
    The food stamp benefits shown in table 8-12 were calculated 
by deducting from the family's AFDC benefits (its only cash 
income) a standard allowance and an allowance for excess 
shelter costs. If the family qualified only for the standard 
deduction, its monthly food stamp benefits would be cut by 
about $74 ($128 in Alaska and $105 in Hawaii). Food Stamp 
Program data show that most AFDC families do qualify for a 
deduction of some shelter costs in calculating their countable 
income.
    Table 8-13 shows how maximum AFDC benefits rise with family 
size, by State. In the median State, benefits increase from 
$215 for a one-person family to $389 for three persons (average 
size) and to $578 for six. One-person units are expectant 
mothers in the last trimester of pregnancy (about two-thirds of 
the States make them eligible) and children living with a 
nonneedy relative or otherwise ineligible relative. The 
incremental benefit rise for a second child (going from two-
person to three-person family) is $77 monthly in the median 
State.

                       Need and Payment Standards

    To receive AFDC payments, a family must pass two income 
tests: first, a gross income test, and second, a counted 
(``net'') income test. The gross income test is 185 percent of 
the State's need standard for the relevant family size; and it 
applies to both applicants and enrollees. This test was 
increased by Congress from 150 percent of the need standard by 
Public Law 98-369 in 1984. No one with gross income that 
exceeds 185 percent of the need standard can receive AFDC. For 
applicants, the net income test is 100 percent of the need 
standard and determines whether the family is deemed to be in 
``need'' (see table 8-12).
    However, to be eligible for an actual payment, the family's 
net income also must be below the State's payment standard, 
which in 30 jurisdictions is below the need standard. For 
example, New Hampshire's need standard for a family of three is 
$2,034 monthly, but its payment standard is $550. Further, a 
$10 minimum payment rule imposed by Public Law 97-35 requires 
that counted income be at least $10 below the payment standard 
for an actual payment to be made. Finally, in a dozen States 
actual maximum benefits are below payment standards. (Payment 
standards are presented later in table 8-17).

  TABLE 8-12.--GROSS INCOME LIMIT, NEED STANDARD, AND MAXIMUM MONTHLY POTENTIAL BENEFITS, AFDC AND FOOD STAMPS, ONE-PARENT FAMILY OF THREE PERSONS, \1\ 
                                                                      JANUARY 1996                                                                      
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                     Gross                                                                              
                                                                     income                                                  Combined      AFDC benefits
                                                                     limit       100     Maximum                           benefits as a   as a percent 
                              State                                   (185     percent     AFDC     Food stamp  Combined    percent of        of 1996   
                                                                    percent      of     grant \2\  benefit \3\  benefits   1996 poverty       poverty   
                                                                    of need   ``need''                                    guidelines \4\  guidelines \4\
                                                                   standard)                                                                            
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama..........................................................     $1,245      $673       $164        $313       $477           44              15   
Alaska...........................................................      1,902     1,028        923         321      1,244           92              68   
Arizona..........................................................      1,783       964        347         313        660           61              32   
Arkansas.........................................................      1,304       705        204         313        517           48              19   
California.......................................................      1,351       730        607         245        852           79              56   
Colorado.........................................................        779       421        421         301        722           67              39   
Connecticut......................................................      1,613       872        636         236        872           81              59   
Delaware.........................................................        625       338        338         313        651           60              31   
District of Columbia.............................................      1,317       712        420         301        721           67              39   
Florida..........................................................      1,943     1,050        303         313        616           57              28   
Georgia..........................................................        784       424        280         313        593           55              26   
Guam.............................................................        611       330        330         461        791           73              31   
Hawaii...........................................................      2,109     1,140        712         471      1,183           95              57   
Idaho............................................................      1,833       991        317         313        630           58              29   
Illinois.........................................................      1,782       963    \5\ 377         313        690           64              35   
Indiana..........................................................        592       320        288         313        601           56              27   
Iowa.............................................................      1,571       849        426         299        725           67              39   
Kansas...........................................................        794       429    \5\ 429         313        742           69              40   
Kentucky.........................................................        973       526        262         313        575           53              24   
Louisiana........................................................      1,217       658        190         313        503           47              18   
Maine............................................................      1,023       553        418         301        719           66              39   
Maryland.........................................................        956       517    \5\ 373         313        686           63              34   
Massachusetts....................................................      1,045       565        565         257        822           76              52   
Michigan:                                                                                                                                               
  (Washtenaw Co.)................................................      1,086       587        489         280        769           71              45   
  (Wayne Co.)....................................................      1,019       551        459         289        748           69              42   
Minnesota........................................................        984       532        532         267        799           74              49   
Mississippi......................................................        681       368        120         313        433           40              11   
Missouri.........................................................      1,565       846        292         313        605           56              27   
Montana..........................................................      1,001       541        425         299        724           67              39   
Nebraska.........................................................        673       364        364         313        677           63              34   
Nevada...........................................................      1,293       699        348         313        661           61              32   
New Hampshire....................................................      3,763     2,034        550         262        812           75              51   
New Jersey.......................................................      1,822       985    \5\ 424         307        731           68              39   
New Mexico.......................................................        720       389        389         310        699           65              36   
New York:                                                                                                                                               
  (New York City)................................................      1,067       577    \5\ 577         270        847           78              53   
  (Suffolk Co.)..................................................      1,301       703    \5\ 703         232        935           86              65   
North Carolina...................................................      1,006       544        272         313        585           54              25   
North Dakota.....................................................        797       431        431         298        729           67              40   
Ohio.............................................................      1,709       924    \5\ 341         313        654           60              32   
Oklahoma.........................................................      1,193       645        307         313        620           57              28   
Oregon...........................................................        851       460    \5\ 460         313        773           71              43   
Pennsylvania.....................................................      1,136       614        421         301        722           67              39   
Puerto Rico......................................................        666       360        180          NA        180           NA              17   
Rhode Island.....................................................      1,025       554    \5\ 554         299        853           79              51   
South Carolina...................................................        969       524        200         313        513           47              18   
South Dakota.....................................................        938       507        430         298        728           67              40   
Tennessee........................................................      1,079       583        185         313        498           46              17   
Texas............................................................      1,389       751        188         313        501           46              17   
Utah.............................................................      1,051       568        426         299        725           67              39   
Vermont..........................................................      2,124     1,148        650         232        882           82              60   
Virgin Islands...................................................        555       300        240         402        642           59              22   
Virginia.........................................................        727       393        354         313        667           62              33   
Washington.......................................................      2,316     1,252    \5\ 546         289        835           77              50   
West Virginia....................................................      1,833       991        253         313        566           52              23   
Wisconsin........................................................      1,197       647        517         272        789           73              48   
Wyoming..........................................................      1,247       674        360         313        673           62              33   
                                                                  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Median AFDC State............................................        720       389        389         310        699           65              36   
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ In most States these benefit amounts apply also to two-parent families of three (where the second parent is incapacitated or unemployed). Some,     
  however, increase benefits for such families.                                                                                                         
\2\ In States with area differentials, figure shown is for area with highest benefit.                                                                   
\3\ Food stamp benefits are based on maximum AFDC benefits shown and assume deductions of $381 monthly ($134 standard household deduction plus $247     
  maximum allowable deduction for excess shelter cost) in the 48 contiguous States and the District of Columbia. In the remaining four jurisdictions    
  these maximum allowable food stamp deductions are assumed: Alaska, $658, Hawaii, $542; Guam, $569; and Virgin Islands, $300. If only the standard     
  deduction were assumed, food stamp benefits would drop by about $74 monthly in most of the 48 contiguous States and the District of Columbia. Maximum 
  food stamp benefits from October 1995 through September 1996 are $313 for a family of three except in these four jurisdictions, where they are as     
  follows: (urban) Alaska, $401; Hawaii, $522; Guam, $461; and Virgin Islands, $402.                                                                    
\4\ This column is based on the 1996 poverty guideline for a family of three persons in the 48 contiguous States, $12,980, converted to a monthly rate  
  of $1,082. For Alaska, the guideline is $16,220; for Hawaii, $14,930.                                                                                 
\5\ In these States part of the AFDC cash payment has been designated as energy aid and is disregarded by the State in calculating food stamp benefits. 
  Illinois disregards $18. Kansas disregards $57. Maryland disregards $43. New Jersey disregards $25. New York disregards $53. Ohio disregards $14.     
  Oregon disregards $118. Rhode Island disregards $127.85. Washington disregards $86.                                                                   
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--Puerto Rico does not have a food stamp program; instead a cash nutritional assistance payment is given to recipients.                            
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Table prepared by Congressional Research Service from information provided by a telephone survey of the States.                                 


                       TABLE 8-13.--MAXIMUM AFDC BENEFITS BY FAMILY SIZE, JANUARY 1996 \1\                      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    Three-       Four-       Five-              
                  State                   One-person  Two-person    person      person      person    Six-person
                                            family      family      family      family      family      family  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.................................        $111        $137        $164        $194        $225        $252
Alaska \2\..............................         514         821         923       1,025       1,127       1,229
Arizona \3\.............................         204         275         347         418         489         561
Arkansas................................          81         162         204         247         286         331
California..............................         299         490         607         723         824         926
Colorado \2\ \16\.......................         253         331         421         510         605         697
Connecticut \4\.........................         402         513         636         741         835         935
Delaware \16\...........................         201         270         338         407         475         544
District of Columbia....................         265         330         420         513         591         695
Florida \3\.............................         180         241         303         364         426         487
Georgia.................................         155         235         280         330         378         410
Guam \16\...............................         151         258         330         417         497         592
Hawaii..................................         418         565         712         859       1,006       1,153
Idaho...................................         205         251         317         382         448         513
Illinois \2\ \5\........................         212         278         377         414         485         545
Indiana \2\.............................         139         229         288         346         405         463
Iowa....................................         183         361         426         495         548         610
Kansas \6\ \16\.........................         267         352         429         497         558         619
Kentucky................................         186         225         262         328         383         432
Louisiana \7\...........................          72         138         190         234         277         316
Maine \2\...............................         198         312         418         526         632         739
Maryland................................         165         292         373         450         521         573
Massachusetts \3\ \16\..................         383         474         565         651         741         832
Michigan: \2\ \8\                                                                                               
  (Washtenaw County)....................         305         401         489         593         689         822
  (Wayne County)........................         276         371         459         563         659         792
Minnesota \2\ \16\......................         250         437         532         621         697         773
Mississippi.............................          60          96         120         144         168         192
Missouri................................         136         234         292         342         388         431
Montana \3\.............................         252         338         425         511         597         684
Nebraska \16\...........................         222         293         364         435         506         577
Nevada..................................         229         288         348         408         468         527
New Hampshire...........................         414         481         550         613         673         754
New Jersey..............................         162         322         424         488         522         616
New Mexico \16\.........................         231         310         389         469         548         627
New York: \9\ \16\                                                                                              
  (New York City).......................         352         468         577         687         800         884
  (Suffolk Co.).........................         446         576         703         824         949       1,038
North Carolina..........................         181         236         272         297         324         349
North Dakota \2\ \16\...................         223         333         431         517         591         653
Ohio....................................         203         279         341         421         493         549
Oklahoma \2\............................         190         238         307         380         445         509
Oregon \2\ \16\.........................         310         395         460         565         660         755
Pennsylvania \10\.......................         215         330         421         514         607         687
Puerto Rico \14\........................         132         156         180         204         228         252
Rhode Island \16\.......................         327         449         554         632         710         800
South Carolina..........................         118         159         200         241         281         322
South Dakota............................         304         380         430         478         528         578
Tennessee...............................          95         142         185         226         264         305
Texas \2\...............................          78         163         188         226         251         288
Utah....................................         246         342         426         498         567         625
Vermont \11\............................         449         553         656         738         827         884
Virgin Islands..........................         120         180         240         300         360         420
Virginia \12\...........................         220         294         354         410         488         518
Washington..............................         349         440         546         642         740         841
West Virginia...........................         149         201         253         312         360         413
Wisconsin \13\..........................         248         440         517         617         708         766
Wyoming \3\.............................         195         320         360         390         450         510
                                         -----------------------------------------------------------------------
      Median State \15\.................         215         312         389         469         522         578
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Maximum benefit paid for a family of given size with no countable income. One-person units are children with
  an ineligible caretaker or pregnant women without a child. Families of two or more persons include one needy  
  adult caretaker.                                                                                              
\2\ Alaska, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Texas  
  also have a children-only schedule.                                                                           
\3\ Arizona, Florida, Massachusetts, Montana, and Wyoming have two payment schedules, one that includes shelter 
  expenses and one that does not.                                                                               
\4\ Connecticut has three rent regions. Data shown are for rent region A, which has the highest rents.          
\5\ Illinois divides itself into three distinct areas with regard to payment schedules. Data shown are from the 
  Cook County area, which includes Chicago.                                                                     
\6\ Kansas has five different area standards. The figures shown are from area five, which has the highest       
  benefits.                                                                                                     
\7\ Louisiana has a payment schedule for urban areas, from which our data were taken, and one for rural areas.  
\8\ Michigan has varied shelter maximums. Shown are benefits for Washtenaw County (Ann Arbor) and Wayne County  
  (Detroit).                                                                                                    
\9\ New York has payment schedules for each social service district. Shown are the Suffolk County and New York  
  City amounts.                                                                                                 
\10\ Pennsylvania has four regions. The figures in the table are from region one, which has the highest         
  benefits.                                                                                                     
\11\ Vermont has a base amount plus a housing maximum (including utilities) that depends on whether the         
  recipient lives inside or outside Chittenden County. The largest amount paid to a recipient with no other     
  countable income equals 60.6 percent of the base amount plus 60.6 percent of the housing allowance. The table 
  assumes that the recipient lives in Chittenden County, for which the maximum allowed for shelter is $400 per  
  month.                                                                                                        
\12\ Virginia has three payment schedules. The figures shown are from area 3, which has the highest benefits.   
\13\ Wisconsin has two regions--urban and rural. Our data were taken from the payment standard for urban areas. 
\14\ Effective July 1, 1991 the need standard in Puerto Rico includes a shelter allowance (of up to $200). The  
  maximum amount paid to a family with no other countable income is 50 percent of the base need standard plus 50
  percent of the shelter allowance.                                                                             
\15\ Among the 50 States and the District of Columbia.                                                          
\16\ These States pay 100 percent of the need standard.                                                         
                                                                                                                
Source: Table prepared by Congressional Research Service on the basis of a telephone survey of the States.      

                           Trends in Benefits

    Tables 8-14 and 8-15 show the changes in AFDC need 
standards and maximum benefits for a three-person family, by 
State, for selected years from 1970 to 1996. In current 
dollars, the need standard of the median AFDC State rose in the 
quarter-century from $232 to $645, and the maximum benefit, 
from $184 to $389. However, measured in constant value (1996) 
dollars, the need standard declined by 30 percent, and the 
maximum benefit by 51 percent. Thus, the ratio of maximum 
benefits to need standard in the median State has decreased, 
from 84 percent in 1975 to 68 percent in 1990 and 60 percent in 
1996. For some States, the shrinkage in this ratio has been 
dramatic. For example, the maximum benefit of Texas ($148) 
represented 75 percent of its need standard in 1970 ($198); 
today that ratio is 25 percent ($188/$751). Table 8-15 shows 
that maximum benefits in five States fell 60 percent or more in 
real value from 1970 to 1996 (Pennsylvania, Idaho, New Jersey, 
Texas, and Virginia).
    In six States (Alaska, Florida, Hawaii, New Hampshire, 
Vermont, and Washington) need standards now exceed $1,000 per 
month for a three-person family. In all but one of these States 
1996 need standards surpass their 1970 levels in real value. 
However, maximum benefits paid by all of these States fall 
short of their 1970 levels, in real terms. On average they are 
36 percent lower.
    AFDC benefit trends over time have been affected by the 
availability of food stamps, which are 100 percent federally 
funded. As was shown in table 8-12, food stamp benefits for a 
family of three add $310 to the AFDC maximum benefit of $389 in 
the median AFDC State. By themselves, AFDC benefits fall 64 
percent short of the 1996 poverty guidelines; addition of food 
stamps reduces this gap to 35 percent. Moreover, combined AFDC-
food stamp benefits in most States exceed AFDC need standards.
    Over the years, food stamp benefits have risen to offset 
part of the decline in the real value of AFDC benefits. Even 
so, combined AFDC-food stamp benefits for a three-person family 
without countable income on average dropped from $962 (1996 
dollars) in July 1972, when food stamps operated under uniform 
national rules, to $699 (1996 dollars) in January 1996. This 27 
percent drop was almost wholly due to shrinkage in AFDC benefit 
levels. Food stamp maximum benefits were virtually unchanged in 
real terms, since they were adjusted for food price inflation 
in all years except 1982 and 1993.
    Table 8-16 presents trends in AFDC average benefits for 
selected years from 1970 to 1995. Average benefits per family, 
measured in 1995 dollars, fell from $704 in 1970 to $377 in 
1995 (a drop of 46 percent). However, because average family 
size shrank, average benefits per person fell much less 
sharply, from $182 to $135 in 1995 dollars (a drop of 26 
percent).

                               TABLE 8-14.--AFDC NEED STANDARD FOR A THREE-PERSON FAMILY BY STATE, SELECTED YEARS 1970-96                               
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                               Percent  
                                               July      July     July     July   January   January   January   January   January   January   change in 
                   State                     1970 \1\    1975     1980     1985     1988   1990 \2\  1992 \2\  1994 \2\  1995 \2\  1996 \2\   real value
                                                                                                                                             1970-96 \3\
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama....................................      $184     $180     $192     $384     $384      $578      $637      $673      $673      $673         -8  
Alaska.....................................       350      350      457      719      779       846       924       975     1,022     1,028        -26  
Arizona....................................       212      233      233      233      621       621       928       964       964       964         15  
Arkansas...................................       149      245      234      234      695       705       705       705       705       705         20  
California.................................       351      316      480      587      633       694       694       715       715       730        -47  
Colorado...................................       193      217      290      421      421       421       421       421       421       421        -45  
Connecticut................................       283      346      475      569      601       649       680       680       872       872        -22  
Delaware...................................       245      245      266      287      319       333       338       338       338       338        -65  
District of Columbia.......................       229      286      394      654      712       712       712       712       712       712        -21  
Florida....................................       189      195      195      400      775       838       928       991       991     1,050         40  
Georgia....................................       177      193      193      366      366       414       424       424       424       424        -39  
Guam.......................................        NA        0      261      265      265       330       330       330       330       330         NA  
Hawaii.....................................       226      428      468      468      515       964     1,067     1,140     1,140     1,140         27  
Idaho......................................       238      345      371      554      554       554       554       991       991       991          5  
Illinois...................................       232      261      288      657      713       777       844       890       936       963          5  
Indiana....................................       272      307      307      307      320       320       320       320       320       320        -70  
Iowa.......................................       247      309      360      497      497       497       849       849       849       849        -13  
Kansas.....................................       243      321      345      391      409       409       422       429       429       429        -55  
Kentucky...................................       208      185      188      197      207       526       526       526       526       526        -36  
Louisiana..................................       172      164      402      579      632       658       658       658       658       658         -3  
Maine......................................       277      277      415      510      573       652       573       553       553       553        -50  
Maryland...................................       249      259      270      455      497       548       522       507       517       517        -48  
Massachusetts..............................       268      259      379      439      510       539       539       579       579       565        -47  
Michigan (Washtenaw Co.)...................        NA       NA       NA      592      576       611       587       587       587       587         NA  
Michigan (Wayne Co.).......................       219      333      425      557      540       575       551       551       551       551        -36  
Minnesota..................................       256      330      417      528      532       532       532       532       532       532        -48  
Mississippi................................       202      241      220      286      368       368       368       368       368       368        -54  
Missouri...................................       285      325      312      312      312       312       312       846       846       846        -25  
Montana....................................       221      201      259      428      434       434       478       511       530       541        -38  
Nebraska...................................       281      279      310      350      350       364       364       364       364       364        -67  
Nevada.....................................       269      279      285      285      550       550       620       699       699       699        -34  
New Hampshire..............................       262      308      346      389      486       506       516     1,648     1,674     2,034         96  
New Jersey.................................       302      310      360      404      424       424       424       985       985       985        -18  
New Mexico.................................       167      197      220      258      264       264       324       357       381       389        -41  
New York (New York City)...................       279      332      394      474      539       577       577       577       577       577        -48  
New York (Suffolk Co.).....................        NA       NA       NA      579      665       703       703       703       703       703         NA  
North Carolina.............................       168      183      192      492      532       544       544       544       544       544        -18  
North Dakota...............................       232      283      334      371      371       386       401       409       431       431        -53  
Ohio.......................................       207      346      346      652      685       739       817       879       901       924         13  
Oklahoma...................................       179      217      282      471      471       471       471       471       645       645         -9  
Oregon.....................................       229      369      282      386      412       432       460       460       460       460        -49  
Pennsylvania...............................       265      296      332      614      614       614       614       614       614       614        -41  
Puerto Rico................................       180      108      102      180      180       180       360       360       360       360        -49  
Rhode Island...............................       229      278      340      409      503       543       554       554       554       554        -39  
South Carolina.............................       162      178      187      187      388       419       440       440       440       524        -18  
South Dakota...............................       264      289      321      329      366       377       404       491       507       507        -51  
Tennessee..................................       179      179      179      339      353       387       426       426       500       583        -18  
Texas......................................       198      155      155      494      574       574       574       574       751       751         -4  
Utah.......................................       223      327      480      693      693       516       537       552       568       568        -36  
Vermont....................................       287      402      670      883      889       973     1,112     1,124     1,148     1,173          3  
Virgin Islands.............................        NA      131      209      209      209       300       300       300       300       300         NA  
Virgina....................................       240      298      344      393      393       393       393       393       393       393        -59  
Washington.................................       258      315      458      777      835       907     1,014     1,158     1,178     1,252         23  
West Virginia..............................       220      275      275      497      497       497       497       497       991       991         14  
Wisconsin..................................       214      383      522      628      647       647       647       647       647       647        -24  
Wyoming....................................       246      240      315      360      360       360       674       674       674       674        -31  
                                            ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Median State \4\.......................       232      279      321      401      503       539       544       579       645       645        -30  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Data on three-person families were not published or reported before 1975. Thus, the 1970 data were derived by reducing the reported four-person need
  standard by the proportional difference between three- and four-person AFDC need standards as shown in the July 1975 DHEW reports.                    
\2\ CRS survey data.                                                                                                                                    
\3\ Real percentage change, calculated assuming a January 1996 CPI-U value of 154.4 relative to the July 1970 value of 39.0.                            
\4\ Among 50 States and the District of Columbia.                                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Table compiled by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) on the basis of data from the Department of Health and Human Services and CRS.       


                              TABLE 8-15.--AFDC MAXIMUM BENEFIT FOR A THREE-PERSON FAMILY BY STATE, SELECTED YEARS 1970-96                              
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                     Year                                               
                                                     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                               Percent  
                        State                                                                                                                 change in 
                                                        July      July     July     July    January   January   January   January   January  real value,
                                                      1970 \1\    1975     1980     1985   1990 \2\  1992 \2\  1994 \2\  1995 \2\  1996 \2\     1970-96 
                                                                                                                                                 \3\    
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.............................................       $65     $108     $118     $118      $118      $149      $164      $164      $164        -36  
Alaska..............................................       328      350      457      719       846       924       923       923       923        -29  
Arizona.............................................       138      163      202      233       293       334       347       347       347        -36  
Arkansas............................................        89      125      161      192       204       204       204       204       204        -42  
California..........................................       186      293      473      587       694       663       607       607       607        -18  
Colorado............................................       193      217      290      346       356       356       356       356       421        -45  
Connecticut.........................................       283      346      475      569       649       680       680       680       636        -43  
Delaware............................................       160      221      266      287       333       338       338       338       338        -47  
District of Columbia................................       195      243      286      327       409       409       420       420       420        -46  
Florida.............................................       114      144      195      240       294       303       303       303       303        -33  
Georgia.............................................       107      123      164      223       273       280       280       280       280        -34  
Hawaii..............................................       226      428      468      468       602       666       712       712       712        -20  
Idaho...............................................       211      300      323      304       317       315       317       317       317        -62  
Illinois............................................       232      261      288      341       367       367       367       377       377        -59  
Indiana.............................................       120      200      255      256       288       288       288       288       288        -39  
Iowa................................................       201      294      360      360       410       426       426       426       426        -46  
Kansas..............................................       222      321      345      391       409       422       429       429       429        -51  
Kentucky............................................       147      185      188      197       228       228       228       228       262        -55  
Louisiana...........................................        88      128      152      190       190       190       190       190       190        -45  
Maine...............................................       135      176      280      370       453       453       418       418       418        -22  
Maryland............................................       162      200      270      329       396       377       366       373       373        -42  
Massachusetts.......................................       268      259      379      432       539       539       579       579       565        -47  
Michigan (Washtenaw Co.)............................        NA       NA       NA      447       546       489       489       489       489         NA  
Michigan (Wayne Co.)................................       219      333      425      417       516       459       459       459       459        -47  
Minnesota...........................................       256      330      417      528       532       532       532       532       532        -48  
Mississippi.........................................        56       48       96       96       120       120       120       120       120        -46  
Missouri............................................       104      120      248      274       289       292       292       292       292        -29  
Montana.............................................       202      201      259      354       359       390       401       416       425        -47  
Nebraska............................................       171      210      310      350       364       364       364       364       364        -46  
Nevada..............................................       121      195      262      285       330       372       348       348       348        -27  
New Hampshire.......................................       262      308      346      389       506       516       550       550       550        -47  
New Jersey..........................................       302      310      360      404       424       424       424       424       424        -65  
New Mexico..........................................       149      169      220      258       264       324       357       381       389        -34  
New York (Suffolk Co.)..............................        NA       NA       NA      579       703       703       703       703       703         NA  
New York (New York City)............................       279      332      394      474       577       577       577       577       577        -48  
North Carolina......................................       145      183      192      246       272       272       272       272       272        -53  
North Dakota........................................       213      283      334      371       386       401       409       431       431        -49  
Ohio................................................       161      204      263      290       334       334       341       341       341        -47  
Oklahoma............................................       152      217      282      282       325       341       324       324       307        -49  
Oregon..............................................       184      337      282      386       432       460       460       460       460        -37  
Pennsylvania........................................       265      296      332      364       421       421       421       421       421        -60  
Puerto Rico.........................................        43       43       44       90        90       180       180       180       180          6  
Rhode Island........................................       229      278      340      409       543       554       554       554       554        -39  
South Carolina......................................        85       96      129      187       206       210       200       200       200        -41  
South Dakota........................................       264      289      321      329       377       404       417       430       430        -59  
Tennessee...........................................       112      115      122      153       184       185       185       185       185        -58  
Texas...............................................       148      116      116      167       184       184       184       188       188        -68  
Utah................................................       175      252      360      376       387       402       414       426       426        -39  
Vermont.............................................       267      322      492      583       662       673       638       650       656        -38  
Virginia............................................       225      268      310      354       354       354       354       354       354        -60  
Washington..........................................       258      315      458      476       501       531       546       546       546        -47  
West Virginia.......................................       114      206      206      249       249       249       249       253       253        -44  
Wisconsin...........................................       184      342      444      533       517       517       517       517       517        -29  
Wyoming.............................................       213      235      315      360       360       360       360       360       360        -57  
Guam................................................        NA       NA      261      265       330       330       330       330       330         NA  
Virgin Islands......................................        NA      131      209      171       240       240       240       240       240         NA  
                                                     ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Median State \4\................................       184      235      288      332       364       372       366       377       389        -51  
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Data on three-person families were not published or reported before 1975. Thus, the 1970 data were derived by reducing the reported four-person     
  maximum benefit amount by the proportional difference between three- and four-person AFDC maximum benefit as shown in the July 1975 DHEW reports.     
\2\ CRS survey data.                                                                                                                                    
\3\ Real percentage change, calculated assuming a January 1996 CPI-U value of 154.4 relative to the July 1970 value of 39.0.                            
\4\ Among 50 States and the District of Columbia.                                                                                                       
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Table compiled by Congressional Research Service (CRS) on the basis of data from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and CRS.      


TABLE 8-16.--HISTORIC TRENDS IN AVERAGE PAYMENT PER RECIPIENT AND PER FAMILY AND MAXIMUM AND MEDIAN BENEFITS FOR
                                  A FAMILY OF FOUR, SELECTED YEARS 1970-95 \1\                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       Year                                     
          AFDC payments          -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   1970    1975    1980    1985    1987    1989    1991    1992    1993    1995 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average monthly benefit per                                                                                     
 family.........................    $178    $210    $274    $331    $359    $381    $388    $389    $373    $377
    In 1995 dollars \2\.........     704     601     518     470     484     471     434     423     394     377
Average monthly benefit per                                                                                     
 person.........................      46      63      94     113     123     131     135     136     131     135
    In 1995 dollars \2\.........     182     180     178     160     166     162     151     148     138     135
Median State benefit in July for                                                                                
 a family unit of four with no                                                                                  
 income \1\.....................     221     264     350     399     420     432     435     435     435     435
    In 1995 dollars \2\.........     874     756     662     566     566     534     487     473     459     435
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Among 50 States and the District of Columbia.                                                               
\2\ The constant dollar numbers were calculated using the CPI-U.                                                
                                                                                                                
Note.--AFDC benefit amounts have not been reduced by child support enforcement collections.                     
                                                                                                                
Source: Family Support Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the Congressional       
  Research Service.                                                                                             

                       Income Eligibility Limits

    Table 8-17 presents, by State, the earnings levels at which 
AFDC eligibility for a family of three ends. As the table 
shows, when a mother with two children works her way off AFDC, 
after 1 year on the job, her earnings (seventh column of table) 
will be below the poverty guideline, and in all but six States, 
below full-time minimum earnings. In all States, the mother 
remains eligible for another cash supplement to low wages, the 
earned income credit (EIC). EIC would add 40 percent to monthly 
earnings below $740 and lesser amounts to higher earnings. 
Examples, Maryland, EIC of $185 added to earnings of $463; 
Maine, $257 added to earnings of $643; Alaska, $265 added to 
earnings of $1,118.
    The table also shows that the earnings limits (sometimes 
called breakevens) are much lower after 1 year on a job than 
during the first 4 months of a job. This is because Federal law 
requires States to count against the AFDC grant all but $90 in 
monthly earnings after 1 year on the job; that is, $90 in 
earnings is disregarded. In contrast, for a new worker, the 
required disregard is $120 monthly plus one-third of remaining 
earnings. (Also disregarded in both cases are actual child care 
expenses, but the table assumes that the worker does not have 
to pay for child care.) Note: Table 8-17 is based on regular 
AFDC rules. Some States have been granted waivers to test more 
generous treatment of earnings. Earnings limits would be higher 
for families in these demonstrations.

                    AFDC Benefits for Special Needs

    In general, the AFDC need standard provides for basic 
consumption items such as food, clothing, shelter, fuel and 
utilities, personal care items, and household supplies that are 
essential to recipients. The need standard may also provide for 
special (recurrent or nonrecurrent) needs, such as special 
dietary requirements, pregnancy allowance, training and/or 
educational expenses, and expenses caused by catastrophe or 
eviction.
    ``Special needs,'' which may be recurring or nonrecurring, 
are usually defined as needs that are recognized by the State 
as essential for some persons but not for all, and thus must be 
determined on an individual basis. They are part of the total 
``need standard'' used to measure AFDC eligibility and 
determine benefits for those families for whom such special 
needs items are appropriate. Federal funds pay at least 50 
percent of each State's AFDC benefit expenditures, including 
funds spent on special need items. As noted before, the average 
Federal reimbursement across all States is about 55 percent. 
Maximum AFDC benefit amount information elsewhere in this 
section does not take into account payments for special needs 
of particular individuals.

           TABLE 8-17.--EARNINGS LEVELS AT WHICH AFDC ELIGIBILITY ENDS FOR A FAMILY OF THREE BY STATE AND PERIOD OF RECEIPT, JANUARY 1996 \1\           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                         First 4 months                       After 12 months           
                                                                             ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                              185                                          Eligibility level as a                 Eligibility level as a
                  State                   percent of    Payment     Maximum    Effective        percent of--         Effective         percent of--     
                                           ``need''    standard     benefit   eligibility ------------------------  eligibility  -----------------------
                                           standard                            level \2\     Poverty     Minimum   level \2\ \3\    Poverty     Minimum 
                                                                                           guidelines     wage                    guidelines     wage   
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.................................      $1,245        $164        $164         $366          34          50          $254           23          34
Alaska..................................       1,902       1,028         923        1,662         123         226         1,118           83         152
Arizona.................................       1,783         347         347          641          59          87           437           40          59
Arkansas................................       1,304         204         204          426          39          58           294           27          40
California..............................       1,351         730         607        1,215         112         165           820           76         111
Colorado................................         779         421         421          752          69         102           511           47          69
Connecticut.............................       1,613         872         636        1,428         132         194           962           89         131
Delaware................................         625         338         338          627          58          85           428           40          58
District of Columbia....................       1,317         420         420          750          69         102           510           47          69
Florida.................................       1,943         303         303          575          53          78           393           36          53
Georgia.................................         784         424         280          756          70         103           514           48          70
Guam....................................         611         330         330          615          57          83           420           39          57
Hawaii..................................       2,109         712         712        1,188          95         161           802           64         109
Idaho...................................       1,833         317         317          596          55          81           407           38          55
Illinois................................       1,782         377         377          686          63          93           467           43          63
Indiana.................................         592         288         288          552          51          75           378           35          51
Iowa....................................       1,571         426         426          759          70         103           516           48          70
Kansas..................................         794         429         429          764          71         104           519           48          70
Kentucky................................         973         526         262          909          84         123           616           57          84
Louisiana...............................       1,217         190         190          405          37          55           280           26          38
Maine...................................       1,023         553         418          950          88         129           643           59          87
Maryland................................         956         373         373          680          63          92           463           43          63
Massachusetts...........................       1,045         565         565          968          89         131           655           61          89
Michigan (Washtenaw Co.)................       1,086         489         489          854          79         116           579           54          79
Michigan (Wayne Co.)....................       1,019         459         459          809          75         110           549           51          74
Minnesota...............................         984         532         532          918          85         125           622           58          84
Mississippi.............................         681         368         120          672          62          91           458           42          62
Missouri................................       1,565         292         292          558          52          76           382           35          52
Montana.................................       1,001         541         425          932          86         126           631           58          86
Nebraska................................         673         364         364          666          62          90           454           42          62
Nevada..................................       1,293         348         348          642          59          87           438           40          59
New Hampshire...........................       3,763         550         550          945          87         128           640           59          87
New Jersey..............................       1,822         443         424          785          73         106           533           49          72
New Mexico..............................         720         389         389          704          65          95           479           44          65
New York (New York City)................       1,067         577         577          986          91         134           667           62          91
New York (Suffolk Co.)..................       1,301         703         703        1,175         109         159           793           73         108
North Carolina..........................       1,006         544         272          936          87         127           634           59          86
North Dakota............................         797         431         431          767          71         104           521           48          71
Ohio....................................       1,709         341         341          632          58          86           431           40          58
Oklahoma................................       1,193         307         307          581          54          79           397           37          54
Oregon..................................         851         460         460          810          75         110           550           51          75
Pennsylvania............................       1,136         421         421          752          69         102           511           47          69
Puerto Rico.............................         666         180         180          390          36          53           270           25          37
Rhode Island............................       1,025         554         554          951          88         129           644           60          87
South Carolina..........................         969         200         200          420          39          57           290           27          39
South Dakota............................         938         507         430          881          81         119           597           55          81
Tennessee...............................       1,079         583         185          995          92         135           673           62          91
Texas...................................       1,389         188         188          402          37          55           278           26          38
Utah....................................       1,051         568         426          972          90         132           658           61          89
Vermont.................................       2,124         650         650        1,095         101         149           740           68         100
Virginia................................         555         240         240          480          44          65           330           31          45
Virgin Islands..........................         727         354         354          651          60          88           444           41          60
Washington..............................       2,316         546         546          939          87         127           636           59          86
West Virginia...........................       1,833         253         253          500          46          68           343           32          47
Wisconsin...............................       1,197         517         517          896          83         122           607           56          82
Wyoming.................................       1,247         590         360        1,005          93         136           680           63          92
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ These calculations assume no child care expenses. Disregarded earnings during the first 4 months of work are $120 monthly plus one-third; between 4 
  and 12 months, $120; after one year, $90. The breakevens for 5-12 months can be obtained by adding $30 to the breakeven for ``After 12 months.'' The  
  calculations are based on a 1996 poverty guideline of $12,980 ($1,082 monthly) in the 48 contiguous States and the District of Columbia (higher in    
  Alaska and Hawaii) for a family of three, and a 1996 minimum wage salary of $8,840 ($737 per month).                                                  
\2\ Because of $10 minimum payment rule, actual AFDC benefit eligibility would end at a lower level ($15 lower during first 4 months, $10 lower         
  afterward).                                                                                                                                           
\3\ This column also is the general earnings eligibility limit for an applicant.                                                                        
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Congressional Research Service.                                                                                                                 

    Regulations require that if a State includes ``special 
need'' items in its standard of need, it must describe them and 
the circumstances under which they will be taken into account. 
Work expenses and child care/dependent care costs resulting 
from work, job search, or participation in a Community Work 
Experience Program cannot be defined as special needs. Nor can 
specified expenses, including tuition, books, and fees, arising 
from participation in JOBS or any other education or training 
activity be defined as special needs.
    As of March 1996, according to the Department of Health and 
Human Services, 26 jurisdictions included special need items in 
their State standard. Examples of the special need items 
specified by States follow: child care that was not related to 
employment; training and/or educational expenses; special 
transportation; pregnancy allowance; special clothing and 
clothing replacement; expenses caused by catastrophe or 
eviction; excess shelter, fuel, or utilities costs; repair of 
property, appliances, or furnishings; special diets; telephone 
or special telephone services; fees and/or deposits; funeral 
and burial expenses; temporary shelter; and moving and/or 
storage expenses. Excess cost of shelter, fuel, or utilities, 
pregnancy allowance, and child care costs (not employment 
related) were the most frequently cited special need items.

 FEDERAL AND STATE FUNDING OF AFDC BENEFIT PAYMENTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE 
                                 COSTS

    The Federal share of a State's AFDC benefit payments is 
determined by the matching formula specified for Medicaid in 
title XIX of the Social Security Act (States may choose an 
alternate formula, but it sets a limit on matchable benefit 
levels, and no State uses it). The Federal Medicaid matching 
rate is inversely related to State per capita income squared; 
thus, Federal matching for AFDC benefit payments varies from 
State to State, ranging (1996) from 50 percent in States with 
high per capita incomes to 78 percent in Mississippi, a State 
with relatively low per capita income. Table 8-18 provides 
Federal medical assistance percentages by State, which equal 
the Federal share of AFDC benefit payments. It shows that 11 
States plus the District of Columbia now receive the minimum 
Federal share of 50 percent.
    For the outlying areas--Guam, Puerto Rico and the Virgin 
Islands--75 percent Federal matching is provided for AFDC 
benefits, but the law imposes a ceiling on total Federal funds 
for AFDC and several other programs, including aid for aged, 
blind, or disabled adults. The ceilings are as follows: Puerto 
Rico, $82 million; Guam, $3.8 million; and the Virgin Islands, 
$2.8 million.
    The Federal Government pays 50 percent of the costs of 
administering the AFDC Program in all jurisdictions.
    Some States require their localities to finance a portion 
of the non-Federal share of benefit payments (see table 8-19), 
and the non-Federal share of administrative costs (see table 8-
20).

               TABLE 8-18.--FEDERAL MEDICAL ASSISTANCE PERCENTAGES, SELECTED FISCAL YEARS 1984-97               
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    Fiscal year                                 
              State              -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                   1984-85    1988      1990      1992      1994      1995      1996      1997  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.........................     72.14     73.29     73.21     72.93     71.22     70.45     69.85     69.54
Alaska..........................     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
Arizona.........................     61.21     62.12     60.99     62.61     65.90     66.40     66.85     65.53
Arkansas........................     73.65     74.21     74.58     75.66     74.46     73.75     73.61     73.29
California......................     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.23
Colorado........................     50.00     50.00     52.11     54.79     54.30     53.10     52.44     52.32
Connecticut.....................     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
Delaware........................     50.00     51.90     50.00     50.12     50.00     50.00     50.33     50.00
District of Columbia............     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
Florida.........................     58.41     55.39     54.70     54.69     54.78     56.28     55.76     55.79
Georgia.........................     67.43     63.84     62.09     61.78     62.47     62.23     61.90     61.52
Guam \1\........................     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00
Hawaii..........................     50.00     53.71     54.50     52.57     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
Idaho...........................     67.28     70.47     73.32     73.24     70.92     70.14     68.78     67.97
Illinois........................     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
Indiana.........................     59.93     63.71     63.76     63.85     63.49     63.03     62.57     61.58
Iowa............................     55.24     62.75     62.52     65.04     63.33     62.62     64.22     62.94
Kansas..........................     50.67     55.20     56.07     59.23     59.52     58.90     59.04     58.87
Kentucky........................     70.72     72.27     72.95     72.82     70.91     69.58     70.30     70.09
Louisiana.......................     64.65     68.26     73.12     75.44     73.49     72.65     71.89     71.36
Maine...........................     70.63     67.08     65.20     62.40     61.96     63.30     63.32     63.72
Maryland........................     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
Massachusetts...................     50.13     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
Michigan........................     50.70     56.48     54.54     55.41     56.37     56.84     56.77     55.20
Minnesota.......................     52.67     53.98     52.74     54.43     54.65     54.27     53.84     53.60
Mississippi.....................     77.63     79.65     80.18     79.99     78.85     78.58     78.07     77.22
Missouri........................     61.40     59.27     59.18     60.84     60.64     59.86     60.06     60.04
Montana.........................     64.41     69.40     71.35     71.70     71.05     70.81     69.38     69.01
Nebraska........................     57.13     59.73     61.12     64.50     61.98     60.40     59.49     59.13
Nevada..........................     50.00     50.25     50.00     50.00     50.31     50.00     50.00     50.00
New Hampshire...................     59.45     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
New Jersey......................     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
New Mexico......................     69.39     71.52     72.25     74.33     74.17     73.31     72.87     72.66
New York........................     50.88     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00
North Carolina..................     69.54     68.68     67.46     66.52     65.14     64.71     64.59     63.89
North Dakota....................     61.32     64.87     67.52     72.75     71.13     68.73     69.06     67.73
Ohio............................     55.44     59.10     59.57     60.63     60.83     60.69     60.17     59.28
Oklahoma........................     58.47     63.33     68.29     70.74     70.39     70.05     69.89     70.01
Oregon..........................     57.12     62.11     62.95     63.55     62.12     62.36     61.01     60.52
Pennsylvania....................     56.04     57.35     56.86     56.84     54.61     54.27     52.93     52.85
Puerto Rico \1\.................     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00
Rhode Island....................     58.17     54.85     55.15     53.29     53.87     55.49     53.84     53.90
South Carolina..................     73.51     73.49     73.07     72.66     71.08     70.71     70.77     70.43
South Dakota....................     68.31     70.43     70.90     72.59     69.50     68.06     66.66     64.89
Tennessee.......................     70.66     70.64     69.64     68.41     67.15     66.52     65.64     64.58
Texas...........................     54.37     56.91     61.23     64.18     64.18     63.31     62.30     62.56
Utah............................     70.84     73.73     74.70     75.11     74.35     73.48     73.21     72.33
Vermont.........................     69.37     66.23     62.77     61.37     59.55     60.82     60.87     61.05
Virgin Islands \1\..............     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00     75.00
Virginia........................     56.53     51.34     50.00     50.00     50.00     50.00     51.37     51.45
Washington......................     50.00     53.21     53.88     54.98     54.24     51.97     50.19     50.52
West Virginia...................     70.57     74.84     76.61     77.68     75.72     74.60     73.26     72.60
Wisconsin.......................     56.87     58.98     59.28     60.38     60.47     59.81     59.67     59.00
Wyoming.........................     50.00     57.96     65.95     69.10     65.63     62.87     59.69     59.88
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Federal funds limited.                                                                                      
                                                                                                                
Source: Federal Register.                                                                                       


   TABLE 8-19.--FINANCING OF NONFEDERAL SHARE OF BENEFIT PAYMENTS, FOR  
            STATES USING STATE AND LOCAL FUNDS, OCTOBER 1994            
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 Percent       Percent  
                    State                      State funds   local funds
------------------------------------------------------------------------
California \1\..............................         95.00           5.0
Colorado....................................         57.30          42.7
Indiana.....................................         60.00          40.0
Minnesota \2\...............................         85.00          15.0
Montana \3\.................................         77.50          22.5
New Jersey..................................         75.00          25.0
New York \4\................................         50.00          50.0
North Carolina \5\..........................         50.00          50.0
North Dakota \5\............................         75.00          25.0
Ohio \6\....................................         36.07           4.0
Wisconsin \7\...............................        100.00  ............
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Counties pay up to 100 percent of some types of emergency assistance
  costs.                                                                
\2\ Counties finance 90 percent of the non-Federal costs of the         
  Emergency Assistance Program.                                         
\3\ For all cases in State-administered counties and Indian cases in    
  State-supervised counties, State funds only.                          
\4\ For persons with State residence. For persons without State         
  residence, for persons eligible for public assistance and care under  
  AFDC and who are released from a State mental hygiene facility after a
  stay of 5 or more years, and for Indians living on reservations, State
  pays 100 percent of assistance.                                       
\5\ State pays 100 percent for Indians living on reservations.          
\6\ Percentage of total costs before deduction of Federal share.        
\7\ State pays State costs and up to 100 percent of local costs.        
  Localities pay foster care and institutional costs in excess of State 
  appropriations.                                                       
                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of    
  Health and Human Services.                                            

    Table 8-21 provides information on total Federal and State 
benefit payments under the Single Parent and Unemployed Parent 
Programs for fiscal years 1970-95, and HHS projections for 
fiscal years 1996-2001 (for State-level data on benefit 
payments, see table 8-23). Table 8-22 breaks these data down 
into their Federal and State shares, and also includes 
information on administrative costs for the AFDC Program.

                           AFDC CASELOAD DATA

    Table 8-23 presents State-specific information on caseloads 
and benefit payments under the AFDC Single Parent and 
Unemployed Parent Programs. Average monthly benefits per AFDC 
family were $377 in fiscal year 1995; among States they ranged 
from $120 in Mississippi to $721 in Alaska and $649 in Hawaii. 
Together, California and New York accounted for 28 percent of 
AFDC families (19 percent and 9 percent, respectively); but 
their share of total AFDC payments was 42 percent (28 percent 
and 14 percent), reflecting their higher than average benefits. 
The table also shows wide variation in administrative costs per 
AFDC family, which averaged $724 per year ($60 per month). 
Yearly administrative costs ranged from $230 in West Virginia 
to $1,638 in Maryland and exceeded $1,000 in 10 States. Table 
8-24 provides similar information for the Unemployed Parents 
Program only.

  TABLE 8-20.--FINANCING OF NONFEDERAL SHARE OF COSTS OF ADMINISTRATION 
          FOR STATES USING STATE AND LOCAL FUNDS, OCTOBER 1994          
------------------------------------------------------------------------
             State              Percent State funds  Percent local funds
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Arkansas......................  100% in 50           25 counties        
                                 counties; lesser     participate in    
                                 proportion in 25     maintenance costs.
                                 counties.                              
California \1\................  100% of State        30% of local costs.
                                 costs; 70% of                          
                                 local costs.                           
Colorado......................  60%................  40%                
Indiana.......................  100% of State        50% or more of     
                                 costs, plus up to    specified local   
                                 50% of specified     costs.            
                                 local costs.                           
Iowa..........................  100% of State and    100% of local      
                                 district costs.      costs.            
Maryland......................  100% of State        100% of local and  
                                 budgeted positions.  nonbudgeted       
                                                      positions.        
Minnesota.....................  Varies with          Varies with State  
                                 appropriations.      appropriations.   
Mississippi...................  Varies according to  Varies according to
                                 county population.   county population.
Montana \2\...................  50%................  50%.               
Nebraska......................  Varies.............  Local funds used   
                                                      for some travel,  
                                                      rent, and         
                                                      equipment.        
New Jersey....................  100% of State costs  100% of local      
                                                      costs.            
New York......................  50% (or 100% for     50%.               
                                 Indians living on                      
                                 reservations).                         
North Carolina................  100% of State costs  Portion of local   
                                 and varying          costs not covered 
                                 proportion of        by State          
                                 local costs, based   appropriation.    
                                 on prior actual                        
                                 expenditures.                          
North Dakota..................  100% of State costs  100% of local costs
                                                      if able.          
Ohio..........................  45.5% \3\..........  4.5%.              
South Dakota..................  100% of State costs  100% of local      
                                                      costs.            
Virginia......................  60%................  40%.               
Wisconsin.....................  100% of State costs  Any costs in excess
                                 and up to 100% of    of State          
                                 local costs.         appropriation.    
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Counties pay 100 percent of non-Federal share of costs for emergency
  assistance cases involving removal of a child from the home.          
\2\ State pays all administrative costs in State-administered counties. 
\3\ Percentage of total cost before deduction of Federal share (50.0    
  percent).                                                             
                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of    
  Health and Human Services.                                            


  TABLE 8-21.--FEDERAL AND STATE AFDC BENEFIT PAYMENTS UNDER THE SINGLE PARENT AND UNEMPLOYED PARENT PROGRAMS,  
                                             FISCAL YEARS 1970-2001                                             
                                                  [In millions]                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                    Single    Unemployed     Child              
                           Fiscal year                            parent \1\    parent    support \2\  Total \3\
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1970............................................................       3,851         231           0       4,082
1971............................................................       4,993         412           0       5,405
1972............................................................       5,972         422           0       6,394
1973............................................................       6,459         414           0       6,873
1974............................................................       6,881         324           0       7,205
1975............................................................       7,791         362           0       8,153
1976............................................................       8,825         525         286       9,064
1977............................................................       9,420         617         423       9,614
1978............................................................       9,624         565         472       9,717
1979............................................................       9,865         522         597       9,790
1980............................................................      10,847         693         593      10,947
1981............................................................      11,769       1,075         659      12,185
1982............................................................      11,601       1,256         771      12,086
1983............................................................      12,136       1,471         865      12,742
1984............................................................      12,759       1,612         983      13,388
1985............................................................      13,024       1,556         901      13,679
1986............................................................      13,672       1,563         951      14,284
1987............................................................      14,807       1,516       1,071      15,252
1988............................................................      15,243       1,420       1,197      15,466
1989............................................................      15,889       1,350       1,287      15,952
1990............................................................      17,059       1,480       1,416      17,123
1991............................................................      18,529       1,827       1,603      18,753
1992............................................................      20,121       2,119       1,822      20,418
1993............................................................      19,988       2,298       1,963      20,323
1994............................................................      20,393       2,404       2,060      20,737
1995............................................................      19,820       2,212       2,165      19,867
1996 \4\........................................................      19,068       2,051       2,301      18,818
1997 \4\........................................................      19,562       2,079       2,461      19,180
1998 \4\........................................................      20,094       2,104       2,660      19,538
1999 \4\........................................................      20,627       2,128       2,878      19,877
2000 \4\........................................................      21,130       2,152       3,114      20,168
2001 \4\........................................................      21,643       2,175       3,362      20,456
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Includes payments to two-parent families where one adult is incapitated.                                    
\2\ Total AFDC collections (including collections on behalf of Foster Care children) less payments to           
  recipients.                                                                                                   
\3\ Net AFDC benefits--Gross benefits less those reimbursed by child support collections.                       
\4\ Administration projection under current law.                                                                
                                                                                                                
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                 


                TABLE 8-22.--TOTAL, FEDERAL, AND STATE AFDC EXPENDITURES, FISCAL YEARS 1970-2001                
                                            [In millions of dollars]                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                          Federal share              State share                  Total         
            Fiscal year            -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                    Benefits  Administrative  Benefits  Administrative  Benefits  Administrative
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1970..............................     2,187      \1\ 572        1,443          186        4,082      \1\ 881   
1971..............................     3,008          271        2,469          254        5,477          525   
1972..............................     3,612      \2\ 240        2,942          241        6,554           NA   
1973..............................     3,865          313        3,138          296        7,003          610   
1974..............................     4,071          379        3,300          362        7,371          740   
                                                                                                                
1975..............................     4,625          552        3,787          529        8,412        1,082   
1976..............................     5,258          541        4,418          527        9,676        1,069   
1977..............................     5,626          595        4,762          583       10,388        1,177   
1978..............................     5,701          631        4,890          617       10,591        1,248   
1979..............................     5,825          683        4,954          668       10,779        1,350   
                                                                                                                
1980..............................     6,448          750        5,508          729       11,956        1,479   
1981..............................     6,928          835        5,917          814       12,845        1,648   
1982..............................     6,922          878        5,934          878       12,857        1,756   
1983..............................     7,332          915        6,275          915       13,607        1,830   
1984..............................     7,707          876        6,664          822       14,371        1,698   
                                                                                                                
1985..............................     7,817          890        6,763          889       14,580        1,779   
1986..............................     8,239          993        6,996          967       15,235        1,960   
1987..............................     8,914        1,081        7,409        1,052       16,323        2,133   
1988..............................     9,125        1,194        7,538        1,159       16,663        2,353   
1989..............................     9,433        1,211        7,807        1,206       17,240        2,417   
                                                                                                                
1990..............................    10,149        1,358        8,390        1,303       18,539        2,661   
1991..............................    11,165        1,373        9,191        1,300       20,356        2,673   
1992..............................    12,252        1,422        9,988        1,342       22,240        2,764   
1993..............................    12,270        1,518       10,016        1,438       22,286        2,956   
1994..............................    12,511        1,670       10,286        1,612       22,797        3,282   
                                                                                                                
1995..............................    12,018        1,770       10,014        1,754       22,032        3,524   
1996 \3\..........................    11,506        1,796        9,613        1,796       21,119        3,592   
1997 \3\..........................    11,760        1,852        9,881        1,852       21,641        3,704   
1998 \3\..........................    12,062        1,910       10,136        1,910       22,198        3,819   
1999 \3\..........................    12,365        1,967       10,390        1,967       22,755        3,934   
2000 \3\..........................    12,651        2,023       10,631        2,023       23,282        4,046   
2001 \3\..........................    12,943        2,081       10,875        2,081       23,818        4,162   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Includes expenditures for services.                                                                         
\2\ Administrative expenditures only.                                                                           
\3\ Administration projection under current law.                                                                
                                                                                                                
NA--Not available.                                                                                              
                                                                                                                
Note.--Benefits include AFDC-Basic and AFDC-UP expenditures; child support reimbursement is not included. Foster
  care payments are included from 1971 to 1980. Beginning in fiscal year 1984, the cost of certifying AFDC      
  households for food stamps are shown in the food stamp appropriation, U.S. Department of Agriculture.         
  Administrative costs include child care administration, work program, ADP, FAMIS, fraud control, SAVE and     
  other State and local administrative expenditures.                                                            
                                                                                                                
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                 


TABLE 8-23.--AVERAGE MONTHLY NUMBER OF AFDC FAMILIES AND RECIPIENTS, TOTAL BENEFIT PAYMENTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS, AND AVERAGE PAYMENT PER FAMILY AND
                                                               RECIPIENT, FISCAL YEAR 1995                                                              
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                     Total        Average        Average        Average monthly      Total      Admin.  
                                                                   assistance     monthly        monthly          payment per        admin.    cost per 
                              State                                 payments   caseload \1\  recipients \1\ ----------------------  cost \2\     AFDC   
                                                                    (mill.)       (thous.)       (thous.)      Family   Recipient   (mill.)   family \3\
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.........................................................        $82.6           47            118         $148        $58      $22.4        $482
Alaska..........................................................        107.3           12             37          721        241        9.9         798
Arizona.........................................................        251.2           70            190          299        110       43.9         626
Arkansas........................................................         48.8           24             63          168         64       12.7         525
California......................................................      6,125.4          919          2,678          555        191      587.5         639
                                                                                                                                                        
Colorado........................................................        142.8           39            109          305        109       24.9         638
Connecticut.....................................................        383.1           61            170          520        187       32.7         533
Delaware........................................................         36.4           11             25          268        119        7.5         664
District of Columbia............................................        124.1           27             73          379        141       24.1         883
Florida.........................................................        763.8          229            618          277        103      153.0         667
                                                                                                                                                        
Georgia.........................................................        414.4          139            382          248         90       58.1         417
Guam............................................................         13.7            2              8          544        141        2.0         952
Hawaii..........................................................        172.8           22             66          649        218       11.2         505
Idaho...........................................................         31.6            9             24          286        108        8.8         957
Illinois........................................................        882.1          236            696          311        106      119.4         506
                                                                                                                                                        
Indiana.........................................................        196.6           66            189          248         87       36.5         553
Iowa............................................................        149.4           36            100          342        124       27.9         766
Kansas..........................................................        113.6           28             80          336        118       11.1         394
Kentucky........................................................        182.6           75            188          203         81       32.5         433
Lousiana........................................................        151.1           80            251          157         50       19.2         240
                                                                                                                                                        
Maine...........................................................        101.1           22             60          380        140        6.9         311
Maryland........................................................        307.9           74            223          345        115      121.7       1,638
Massachusetts...................................................        646.1          100            271          537        199       88.5         882
Michigan........................................................        999.8          201            597          414        140      166.2         826
Minnesota.......................................................        356.0           57            167          520        177       63.8       1,117
                                                                                                                                                        
Mississippi.....................................................         75.1           52            143          120         44       14.6         280
Missouri........................................................        275.6           89            254          257         90       30.3         340
Montana.........................................................         48.3           12             33          350        121       11.9       1,035
Nebraska........................................................         56.7           15             41          309        114       25.0       1,634
Nevada..........................................................         51.6           16             41          267        106       15.3         950
                                                                                                                                                        
New Hampshire...................................................         56.9           11             28          420        167       10.9         965
New Jersey......................................................        509.8          119            316          356        134      170.0       1,424
New Mexico......................................................        154.1           35            104          372        123       25.3         733
New York........................................................      3,042.3          457          1,255          554        202      587.2       1,284
North Carolina..................................................        334.4          126            313          221         89       75.8         602
                                                                                                                                                        
North Dakota....................................................         22.6            5             14          362        131        8.3       1,596
Ohio............................................................        849.1          228            612          310        116       92.0         403
Oklahoma........................................................        152.0           45            123          280        103       36.3         803
Oregon..........................................................        180.8           39            104          383        145       64.2       1,634
Pennsylvania....................................................        904.7          205            596          368        126      125.4         611
                                                                                                                                                        
Puerto Rico.....................................................         68.3           55            168          103         34       13.6         246
Rhode Island....................................................        133.6           22             61          504        182       12.2         552
South Carolina..................................................        107.1           49            128          181         70       20.0         407
South Dakota....................................................         22.7            6             17          300        111        4.4         698
Tennessee.......................................................        198.7           96            255          172         65       38.0         394
                                                                                                                                                        
Texas...........................................................        519.8          273            742          159         58      202.3         742
Utah............................................................         69.7           17             46          340        126       17.6       1,029
Vermont.........................................................         61.9           10             27          511        190        6.1         604
Virgin Islands..................................................          4.3            1              5          276         70        0.8         615
Virginia........................................................        222.4           72            184          257        101       42.4         588
                                                                                                                                                        
Washington......................................................        605.7          102            286          493        176       82.9         810
West Virginia...................................................        108.9           38            104          238         87        8.8         230
Wisconsin.......................................................        389.4           74            213          439        152       85.6       1,157
Wyoming.........................................................         20.8            5             15          333        115        4.1         788
                                                                 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    U.S. total..................................................     22,031.5        4,869         13,619          377        135    3,523.8         724
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Preliminary data.                                                                                                                                   
\2\ Administrative costs include child care administration, Work Program, ADP, FAMIS, fraud control, SAVE, and other State and local administrative     
  expenditures.                                                                                                                                         
\3\ Average annual administrative cost per family.                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         


       TABLE 8-24.--AFDC-UP RECIPIENTS OF CASH PAYMENTS AND AMOUNTS OF PAYMENTS BY STATE, FISCAL YEAR 1995      
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                UP money       Average    Average number   Average payment per: 
                    State                       payments      number of    of recipients -----------------------
                                               (thousand)   families \1\        \1\         Family     Recipient
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.....................................          $184           137            570         $112         $27
Alaska......................................        17,669         1,882          8,590          782         171
Arizona.....................................         5,292         1,166          5,017          378          88
Arkansas....................................           976           276          1,118          295          73
California..................................     1,292,749       163,960        670,225          657         161
                                                                                                                
Colorado....................................         2,554           750          2,371          284          90
Connecticut.................................        21,297         3,013         12,571          589         141
Delaware....................................           308            78            323          329          79
District of Columbia........................         1,315           210            950          522         115
Florida.....................................        16,597         3,624         14,307          382          97
                                                                                                                
Georgia.....................................         2,025           562          2,247          300          75
Guam........................................         1,312           189          1,022          578         107
Hawaii......................................        14,346         1,484          6,836          806         175
Idaho.......................................         2,764           623          2,630          370          88
Illinois....................................        46,715        11,257         47,741          346          82
                                                                                                                
Indiana.....................................         8,523         2,234          9,690          318          73
Iowa........................................        14,926         3,429         13,955          363          89
Kansas......................................         7,997         1,667          6,779          400          98
Kentucky....................................        11,971         3,981         14,921          251          67
Lousiana....................................         1,795           703          3,302          213          45
                                                                                                                
Maine.......................................        12,308         1,901          7,946          540         129
Maryland....................................         3,113         1,069          2,917          243          89
Massachusetts...............................        26,129         3,401         14,320          640         152
Michigan....................................       134,860        23,047         99,341          488         113
Minnesota...................................        33,551         4,784         22,668          584         123
                                                                                                                
Mississippi.................................            71            42            175          141          34
Missouri....................................         9,161         2,365          9,339          323          82
Montana.....................................         5,424           972          4,262          465         106
Nebraska....................................         3,471           746          3,245          388          89
Nevada......................................         1,500           306          1,203          408         104
                                                                                                                
New Hampshire...............................         1,584           278          1,189          475         111
New Jersey..................................        19,894         3,533         15,467          469         107
New Mexico..................................         9,018         1,440          6,696          522         112
New York....................................       130,642        20,033         81,462          543         134
North Carolina..............................         8,197         2,696         10,428          253          66
                                                                                                                
North Dakota................................           714           135            614          441          97
Ohio........................................        73,860        16,551         64,535          372          95
Oklahoma....................................         1,844           417          1,632          369          94
Oregon......................................        17,001         3,040         12,256          466         116
Pennsylvania................................        39,941         8,243         34,927          404          95
                                                                                                                
Rhode Island................................         4,235           611          2,494          578         141
South Carolina..............................           948           374          1,479          211          53
South Dakota................................           101            21            108          400          78
Tennessee...................................         4,454         1,760          6,772          211          55
Texas.......................................        17,891         6,788         27,860          220          54
                                                                                                                
Utah........................................           395            87            383          379          86
Vermont.....................................         8,143         1,386          5,510          490         123
Virginia....................................         1,824           439          1,799          346          84
Washington..................................       113,884        15,523         66,230          611         143
West Virginia...............................        18,444         5,320         20,795          289          74
                                                                                                                
Wisconsin...................................        37,842         6,059         29,330          520         108
Wyoming.....................................           262            67            286          325          76
                                             -------------------------------------------------------------------
    U.S. total..............................     2,212,020       334,659      1,382,833          551         133
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Preliminary data.                                                                                           
                                                                                                                
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                 

    Table 8-25 presents data on the average monthly number of 
families and individuals receiving AFDC benefits since 1970. 
The U.S. caseload peaked in 1994 (but in half the States 
numbers were below record levels of 1992 or 1993). The number 
of two-parent families also set a national record in 1994; 
however, these unemployed-parent families were a smaller share 
of total AFDC enrollment (7.2 percent) than a decade earlier 
(7.7 percent), before all States were required to operate AFDC-
UP Programs.
    The number of AFDC families almost doubled (91-percent 
increase) from 1970 to 1980, and the share of all families with 
children who received AFDC climbed from 6.6 to 11.5 percent 
(Table 8-1). In 1981, the AFDC caseload increased another 6 
percent; and Congress enacted some eligibility cutbacks (OBRA 
1981). From 1983 to 1988, the caseload remained relatively 
stable, but in 1989 it began a sharp rise. Between July 1989 
and August 1992, almost 1 million families were added to the 
AFDC basic (one-parent) caseload, a 27-percent increase; and by 
1992 about one in seven families with children was enrolled in 
the program. The Congressional Research Service (CRS) and the 
Congressional Budget Office (CBO) undertook studies of recent 
caseload growth. The CRS study (Gabe, 1992) found that never-
married mothers accounted for 71 percent of the increase in the 
number of families receiving AFDC between 1987 and 1991 and 
noted that the caseload expansion began a year before the 1990-
91 recession began. The CBO study (Peskin, et al., 1993) 
concluded that just over half of the 1989-93 caseload growth 
could be explained by the increase in the number of families 
headed by women, and about a quarter, by the recession's effect 
on employment and the weak economy before and after the 
recession.
    Table 8-26 presents State-by-State data on total AFDC 
expenditures for the years 1989-95.
    Table 8-27 shows the number of total AFDC recipients and 
the number of child recipients for 1970 to 1994 (calendar year 
data, unlike table 8-1, which presents fiscal year data). The 
table shows total recipients as percentages of the total 
population and (for 1979-91) as a percentage of the number of 
persons in families with children whose prewelfare, pretax cash 
incomes fell short of the poverty threshold (column 6). AFDC 
recipients have ranged from 4.1 percent of the total population 
in 1970 to a peak percentage of 5.4 in 1993 and 1994. The 
percentage of children (column 5) receiving AFDC remained 
relatively constant at around 11 percent between 1972 and 1989, 
but climbed above 12 percent in 1990 and reached 14 percent in 
1993. As a percentage of children in poverty (column 7), child 
AFDC recipients have fallen from a high of 80.5 percent in 1973 
to a low of 49.6 percent in 1982, but since have climbed to 
61.7 percent in 1995.

                                   TABLE 8-25.--HISTORICAL TRENDS IN AFDC ENROLLMENTS AND AVERAGE PAYMENTS, 1970-2001                                   
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                               Average monthly number of:  (in thousands)               Average monthly 
                                                                  --------------------------------------------------------------------      benefit     
                           Fiscal year                                                                         Unemployed  Unemployed ------------------
                                                                   Families \1\  Recipients \1\  Children \1\    parent      parent                     
                                                                                                                families   recipients  Family  Recipient
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1970.............................................................      1,909           7,429          5,494          78         420      $178       $46 
1971.............................................................      2,532           9,556          6,963         143         726       180        48 
1972.............................................................      2,918          10,632          7,698         134         639       187        51 
1973.............................................................      3,123          11,038          7,965         120         557       187        53 
1974.............................................................      3,170          10,845          7,824          95         434       194        57 
1975.............................................................      3,342          11,067          7,928         101         451       210        63 
1976.............................................................      3,561          11,339          8,156         135         593       226        71 
1977.............................................................      3,575          11,108          7,818         149         659       242        78 
1978.............................................................      3,528          10,663          7,475         127         567       250        83 
1979.............................................................      3,493          10,311          7,193         113         504       257        87 
1980.............................................................      3,642          10,597          7,320         141         612       274        94 
1981.............................................................      3,871          11,160          7,615         209         881       277        96 
1982.............................................................      3,569          10,431          6,975         232         976       300       103 
1983.............................................................      3,651          10,659          7,051         272       1,144       311       106 
1984.............................................................      3,725          10,866          7,153         287       1,222       322       110 
1985.............................................................      3,692          10,813          7,165         261       1,131       339       116 
1986.............................................................      3,747          10,995          7,294         253       1,101       352       120 
1987.............................................................      3,784          11,065          7,381         236       1,035       359       123 
1988.............................................................      3,748          10.920          7,326         210         929       370       127 
1989.............................................................      3,771          10,935          7,370         193         856       381       131 
1990.............................................................      3,974          11,460          7,755         204         899       389       135 
1991.............................................................      4,375          12,595          8,515         268       1,148       388       135 
1992.............................................................      4,769          13,625          9,225         322       1,348       389       136 
1993.............................................................      4,981          14,144          9,539         359       1,489       373       131 
1994.............................................................      5,046          14,226          9,590         363       1,509       376       134 
1995 \2\.........................................................      4,869          13,619          9,275         335       1,383       377       135 
1996 \3\.........................................................      4,618          12,941          8,796         308       1,273       381       136 
1997 \3\.........................................................      4,684          13,111          8,922         309       1,275       385       138 
1998 \3\.........................................................      4,750          13,284          9,048         309       1,274       389       139 
1999 \3\.........................................................      4,817          13,459          9,175         309       1,272       393       141 
2000 \3\.........................................................      4,876          13,612          9,288         309       1,271       397       143 
2001 \3\.........................................................      4,935          13,765          9,400         309       1,269       402       144 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Includes unemployed parent families.                                                                                                                
\2\ Preliminary data.                                                                                                                                   
\3\ Administration projection under current law.                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--AFDC benefit amounts have not been reduced by child support collections.                                                                         
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         


                       TABLE 8-26.--TOTAL AFDC EXPENDITURES BY STATE, FISCAL YEARS 1989-95                      
                                            [In millions of dollars]                                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                  Fiscal year                                   
           States            -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                 1989        1990        1991        1992        1993        1994        1995   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.....................       $61.1       $61.5       $67.5       $85.1       $95.5       $91.9       $82.6
Alaska......................        54.8        59.5        76.8        96.3       110.6       112.5       107.3
Arizona.....................       117.0       138.4       177.8       242.6       268.7       265.9       251.2
Arkansas....................        55.4        57.0        60.0        61.1        59.8        57.4        48.8
California..................     4,436.5     4,954.9     5,519.8     5,828.3     5,855.0     6,088.3     6,125.4
                                                                                                                
Colorado....................       131.0       136.7       149.9       162.5       164.0       158.2       142.8
Connecticut.................       241.4       295.2       347.2       376.9       386.3       397.0       383.1
Delaware....................        25.1        28.7        32.6        37.3        39.7        39.7        36.4
District of Columbia........        77.5        84.0        97.5       102.4       112.6       126.3       124.1
Florida.....................       354.6       417.5       515.1       733.1       804.7       806.2       763.8
                                                                                                                
Georgia.....................       289.3       320.7       376.4       420.3       432.1       427.9       414.4
Guam........................         3.1         5.0         7.1         7.8         9.2        12.1        13.7
Hawaii......................        89.1        98.8       107.9       125.3       143.4       163.0       172.8
Idaho.......................        18.4        19.5        22.2        24.0        28.5        30.3        31.6
Illinois....................       786.5       838.7       892.2       882.6       882.9       913.5       882.1
                                                                                                                
Indiana.....................       162.2       169.9       193.2       218.2       224.8       228.2       196.6
Iowa........................       149.0       152.4       160.2       164.3       163.3       169.2       149.4
Kansas......................       104.3       105.1       108.7       119.2       125.9       123.1       113.6
Kentucky....................       155.4       179.1       204.1       213.1       210.0       198.3       182.6
Louisiana...................       184.8       188.0       188.1       181.8       176.9       168.4       151.1
                                                                                                                
Maine.......................        86.1       101.3       113.2       118.3       117.1       107.5       101.1
Maryland....................       265.5       295.8       330.4       333.3       316.5       313.8       307.9
Massachusetts...............       592.2       630.3       665.6       750.9       749.9       729.7       646.1
Michigan....................     1,226.4     1,211.3     1,184.1     1,162.0     1,190.1     1,132.2       999.8
Minnesota...................       343.4       355.0       370.7       387.0       384.0       379.4       356.0
                                                                                                                
Mississippi.................        84.9        86.3        87.9        88.8        86.9        81.7        75.1
Missouri....................       220.0       228.0       250.6       273.9       283.8       286.9       275.6
Montana.....................        40.6        40.4        42.0        45.7        49.1        48.9        48.3
Nebraska....................        56.6        58.6        61.2        65.3        65.6        61.6        56.7
Nevada......................        24.2        27.2        32.1        41.0        44.0        48.1        51.6
                                                                                                                
New Hampshire...............        24.3        31.8        45.3        54.5        56.0        61.9        56.9
New Jersey..................       440.1       451.4       488.7       515.0       538.2       531.3       509.8
New Mexico..................        55.0        60.6        86.2       105.9       119.1       143.9       154.1
New York....................     2,153.7     2,254.4     2,480.9     2,944.4     2,658.4     2,913.1     3,042.3
North Carolina..............       220.5       246.7       303.6       335.3       353.4       352.5       334.4
                                                                                                                
North Dakota................        24.0        24.3        25.0        27.5        28.1        25.6        22.6
Ohio........................       826.6       877.2       935.1       984.0       980.5     1,015.8       849.1
Oklahoma....................       124.3       132.1       152.2       169.2       172.0       165.2       152.0
Oregon......................       137.5       145.2       177.2       200.1       202.4       196.7       180.8
Pennsylvania................       738.5       798.3       827.3       906.1       917.7       934.8       904.7
                                                                                                                
Puerto Rico.................        70.6        71.5        75.2        76.9        76.8        73.9        68.3
Rhode Island................        85.8        99.0       117.2       128.4       134.2       136.0       133.6
South Carolina..............        91.3        95.7       107.4       119.2       118.0       115.1       107.1
South Dakota................        21.6        21.7        23.6        25.2        25.0        24.6        22.7
Tennesee....................       142.0       167.9       196.6       205.8       219.8       215.1       198.7
                                                                                                                
Texas.......................       367.5       415.9       473.3       516.5       532.3       544.3       519.8
Utah........................        63.5        64.1        70.7        75.5        78.0        77.3        69.7
Vermont.....................        41.4        48.1        54.6        67.0        65.7        64.9        61.9
Virgin Islands..............         2.9         2.9         3.3         3.5         3.5         3.5         4.3
Virginia....................       168.4       177.4       199.6       224.8       231.2       253.0       222.4
                                                                                                                
Washington..................       420.7       437.9       485.8       605.9       605.5       609.9       605.7
West Virginia...............       110.0       110.0       113.6       120.1       121.6       125.9       108.9
Wisconsin...................       454.2       440.4       447.1       453.3       441.2       424.7       389.4
Wyoming.....................        18.8        19.3        24.9        27.2        26.5        21.4        20.8
                             -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    U.S. total..............    17,240.0    18,538.5    20,356.2    22,239.7    22,286.0    22,797.4    22,031.5
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                 


                       TABLE 8-27.--NUMBER OF AFDC RECIPIENTS AND RECIPIENTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF VARIOUS POPULATION GROUPS, 1970-94                      
                                                                     [In thousands]                                                                     
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                   AFDC                 
                                                                                                                                recipients              
                                                                                                                   AFDC child  as a percent   AFDC child
                                                                                          Total         AFDC       recipients       of        recipients
                                                         Total AFDC      AFDC child    population   recipients as     as a      prewelfare       as a   
                    Calendar year                      recipients \1\  recipients \1\   ages 0-17   a percent of   percent of      poor       percent of
                                                                                           \2\          total         total     population   children in
                                                                                                   population \2\     child     in families  poverty \4\
                                                                                                                   population      with                 
                                                                                                                               children \3\             
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1970.................................................        8,303           6,104        69,759           4.07          8.75           NA         58.5 
1971.................................................       10,043           7,303        69,806           4.86         10.46           NA         69.2 
1972.................................................       10,736           7,766        69,417           5.13         11.19           NA         75.5 
1973.................................................       10,738           7,763        68,762           5.08         11.29           NA         80.5 
1974.................................................       10,621           7,684        67,984           4.98         11.30           NA         75.7 
1975.................................................       11,131           7,952        67,164           5.17         11.84           NA         71.6 
1976.................................................       11,098           7,850        66,250           5.10         11.85           NA         76.4 
1977.................................................       10,856           7,632        65,461           4.94         11.66           NA         74.2 
1978.................................................       10,387           7,270        64,773           4.68         11.22           NA         73.2 
1979.................................................       10,140           7,057        64,106           4.52         11.01         54.5         68.0 
1980.................................................       10,599           7,295        63,684           4.66         11.45         49.2         63.2 
1981.................................................       10,893           7,397        63,212           4.75         11.70         47.1         59.2 
1982.................................................       10,161           6,767        62,812           4.39         10.77         40.6         49.6 
1983.................................................       10,569           6,967        62,566           4.52         11.14         41.9         50.1 
1984.................................................       10,643           7,017        62,482           4.51         11.23         43.6         52.3 
1985.................................................       10,672           7,073        62,623           4.49         11.30         45.0         54.4 
1986.................................................       10,850           7,206        62,865           4.52         11.46         46.6         56.0 
1987.................................................       10,841           7,240        63,056           4.47         11.48         46.7         56.4 
1988.................................................       10,728           7,201        63,246           4.39         11.39         47.7         57.8 
1989.................................................       10,798           7,286        63,457           4.37         11.48         47.6         57.9 
1990.................................................       11,497           7,781        63,923           4.62         12.17         47.1         57.9 
1991.................................................       12,728           8,595        65,110           5.05         13.20         49.1         60.0 
1992.................................................       13,571           9,165        66,162           5.32         13.85           NA         60.0 
1993.................................................       14,007           9,440        67,110           5.43         14.07           NA         60.0 
1994.................................................       13,974           9,440        68,018           5.37         13.88           NA         61.7 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Annual numbers from Health and Human Services. In calculating the number of AFDC recipients, data for Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands was 
  subtracted from the total AFDC population. Data for these territories were not available for 1970-76, so an estimate was used based on the ratio in   
  later years (1977-87) of the number of recipients in these areas to the total number of recipients.                                                   
\2\ Population numbers represent U.S. resident population, not including Armed Forces overseas.                                                         
\3\ Based on the number of persons in families with related children whose prewelfare, pretax cash income (including Social Security) falls below the   
  appropriate poverty threshold. This information for 1970-90 can be found in appendix J, table 20, 1992 Green Book; for 1991, in table 15 of appendix J
  of the 1993 Green Book.                                                                                                                               
\4\ Column is based on the U.S. Census count of all persons under age 18 (including unrelated children) with income below the poverty threshold.        
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Poverty population data are not available for this time period.                                                                                     
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--These data are for calendar years, unlike table 8-1, which relates to fiscal years.                                                              
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Table prepared by the Congressional Research Service.                                                                                           

                    CHARACTERISTICS OF AFDC FAMILIES

                   National Data About AFDC Families

    This section describes the characteristics of AFDC 
families, using two main sources of data. For years 1967-79, 
the sources were individual sample surveys of similar design 
conducted to gather information from agency case files. For 
1983 and later years, data were derived from information 
collected from cases within the National Integrated Quality 
Control System's (NIQCS) monthly sample of cases.
    Table 8-28 shows that the share of AFDC families with 
earnings fell 30 percent from March 1979 to 1994, from 12.8 to 
8.9 percent (but was 20 percent higher than in 1992). The share 
of families with no reported income other than AFDC climbed 
from 80.6 percent in 1979 to 86.8 percent in 1983, and fell to 
77.5 percent by 1994. The decline since 1979 in the percentage 
of AFDC families with reported earnings probably resulted from 
the 1981 repeal by Congress of a financial work reward: 
disregard of a fraction of every dollar earned.
    Some studies suggest that the actual percentage of AFDC 
mothers with other income is higher than Table 8-28 shows. The 
Institute for Women's Policy Research (IWPR) studied data for 
mothers from four panels of the Survey of Income and Program 
Participation (SIPP), those for 1984, 1986, 1987, and 1988. The 
data set comprised women who were single mothers for at least 
12 out of 24 survey months and who received AFDC benefits for 
at least 2 of the 24 months. On average, women in the sample 
received AFDC for 18 months and were single for 23 months. The 
study found that 43 percent of the mothers worked at least 300 
hours during the 2 years: 20 percent combined work with welfare 
part of the time (on average, for 9 out of 24 months), and the 
remaining 23 percent ``cycled'' between work and welfare. In 
all, 57 percent did not work: 26 percent were totally dependent 
on means-tested benefits and 31 percent ``packaged'' AFDC with 
income from other family members (Spalter-Roth et al., 1995).
    Other research has found that many welfare mothers make 
ends meet by supplementing AFDC with unreported earnings and 
contributions. In a study of single AFDC mothers in four sites 
(Chicago, Boston, San Antonio, and Charleston), Edin (1995) 
found that 46 percent engaged in covert work to meet their 
expenses, and that 86 percent received covert contributions 
from family or friends, boyfriends, absent fathers, or from 
other sources. They obtained covert earnings by working for 
cash or under a false identity in the informal economy (39 
percent of the sample) or by selling sex, drugs, or stolen 
goods (8 percent). This research relied on intensive interviews 
with a broad range of AFDC recipients who were identified 
through a trusted third party.

                                                TABLE 8-28.--AFDC CHARACTERISTICS, SELECTED YEARS 1969-94                                               
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            May    January    May     March                                                             
                     Characteristic                         1969     1973     1975     1979   1983 \1\  1986 \1\  1988 \1\  1990 \1\  1992 \1\  1994 \1\
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average family size (persons)...........................      4.0      3.6      3.2      3.0       3.0       3.0       3.0       2.9       2.9       2.8
Number of child recipients (percent of AFDC cases):                                                                                                     
    One.................................................     26.6       NA     37.9     42.3      43.4      42.7      42.5      42.2      42.5      42.6
    Two.................................................     23.0       NA     26.0     28.1      29.8      30.8      30.2      30.3      30.2      30.0
    Three...............................................     17.7       NA     16.1     15.6      15.2      15.9      15.8      15.8      15.5      15.6
    Four or more........................................     32.5       NA     20.0     13.9      10.1       9.8       9.9       9.9      10.1       9.6
    Unknown.............................................  .......       NA  .......  .......       1.5       0.8       1.7       1.4       0.7       2.1
Basis for eligibility (percent children):                                                                                                               
    Parents present:                                                                                                                                    
      Incapacitated.....................................  \2\ 11.                                                                                       
                                                                7     10.2      7.7      5.3       3.4       3.2       3.7       3.6       4.1       3.9
      Unemployed........................................  \2\ 4.6      4.1      3.7      4.1       8.7       7.4       6.5       6.4       8.2       8.7
    Parents absent:                                                                                                                                     
      Death.............................................  \2\ 5.5      5.0      3.7      2.2       1.8       1.9       1.8       1.6       1.6       1.7
      Divorce or separation.............................  \2\ 43.                                                                                       
                                                                3     46.5     48.3     44.7      38.5      36.3      34.6      32.9      30.0      26.5
      No marriage tie...................................  \2\ 27.                                                                                       
                                                                9     31.5     31.0     37.8      44.3      48.9      51.9      54.0      53.1      55.7
      Other reason......................................  \2\ 3.5      3.6      4.0      5.9       1.4       2.4       1.6       1.9       2.0       2.0
      Unknown...........................................  .......  .......  .......  .......       1.7  ........  ........  ........       0.9       1.4
Education of mother (percent of mothers): \3\                                                                                                           
    8th grade or less...................................     29.4       NA     16.7      9.5        NA       4.8       5.5       5.8       4.9       4.0
    1-3 years of HS.....................................     30.7       NA     31.7     20.8        NA      14.3      14.7      16.5      18.8      17.6
    High school degree..................................     16.0       NA     23.7     18.8        NA      17.3      17.5      19.3      22.4      24.1
    Some college........................................      2.0       NA      3.9      2.7        NA       3.4       3.9       5.7       6.8       7.7
    College graduate....................................      0.2       NA      0.7      0.4        NA       0.5       0.6       0.4       0.5       0.5
    Unknown.............................................     21.6       NA     23.3     47.8        NA      59.7      58.3      52.3      46.6      46.0
Age of mother (percent of mothers): \3\                                                                                                                 
    Under 20............................................      6.6       NA      8.3  \4\ 4.1   \4\ 3.6   \4\ 3.3   \4\ 3.4       7.9       7.6       6.3
    20-24...............................................     16.7       NA    (\5\)  \6\ 28.                                                            
                                                                                           0  \6\ 28.6  \7\ 33.6  \7\ 32.2      23.8      24.5      24.6
    25-29...............................................     17.6       NA    (\5\)     21.4      23.8  \8\ 20.0  \8\ 19.4      24.6      23.3      22.6
    30-39...............................................     30.4       NA     27.9     27.2      27.9      30.1      31.5      32.0      32.7      34.9
    40 or over..........................................     25.0       NA     17.6     15.4      15.7      13.0      13.4      11.7      11.8      11.5
    Unknown.............................................      3.6       NA      3.0      4.0       0.3  ........  ........  ........       0.1          
Ages of children (percent of recipient children):                                                                                                       
    Under 3.............................................     14.9       NA     16.5     18.9      22.5      21.9      21.1      24.2      24.6      23.8
    3-5.................................................     17.6       NA     18.1     17.5      20.1      21.1      21.0      21.5      21.7      22.1
    6-11................................................     36.5       NA     33.7     33.0      31.5      32.4      33.3      27.5      32.4      31.7
    12 and over.........................................     31.0       NA     30.9     29.8      25.5      24.3      22.4      21.3      21.2      22.2
    Unknown.............................................  .......       NA      0.8      0.9       0.3       0.1       1.3       0.0       0.0       0.3
Mother's employment status (percent): \3\                                                                                                               
    Full-time job.......................................      8.2      9.8     10.4      8.7       1.5       1.6       2.2       2.5       2.2       3.3
    Part-time job.......................................      6.3      6.3      5.7      5.4       3.4       4.2       4.2       4.2       4.2       4.6
Presence of income (percent families):                                                                                                                  
    With earnings.......................................       NA     16.3     14.6     12.8       5.7       7.5       8.4       8.2       7.4       8.9
    No non-AFDC income..................................     56.0     66.9     71.1  \9\ 80.                                                            
                                                                                           6  \9\ 86.8  \9\ 81.3  \9\ 79.6  \9\ 80.1  \9\ 78.9  \9\ 77.5
Median months on AFDC since most recent opening.........     23.0     27.0     31.0     29.0      26.0      27.0      26.3      23.0      22.5      22.8
Race (percent parents): \10\                                                                                                                            
    White...............................................       NA     38.0     39.9     40.4      41.8      39.7      38.8      38.1      38.9      37.4
    Black...............................................     45.2     45.8     44.3     43.1      43.8      40.7      39.8      39.7      37.2      36.4
    Hispanic............................................       NA     13.4     12.2     13.6      12.0      14.4      15.7      16.6      17.8      19.9
    Native American.....................................      1.3      1.1      1.1      1.4       1.0       1.3       1.4       1.3       1.4       1.3
    Asian...............................................       NA       NA      0.5      1.0       1.5       2.3       2.4       2.8       2.8       2.9
    Other and unknown...................................      4.8      1.7      2.0      0.4        NA       1.4       1.9       1.5       2.0       2.1
Incidence of households (percent):                                                                                                                      
    Living in public housing............................     12.8     13.6     14.6       NA      10.0       9.6       9.6       9.6       9.2       8.3
    Participating in food stamp or donated food program.     52.9     68.4     75.1     75.1      83.0      80.7      84.6      85.6      87.3      88.6
    Including nonrecipient members......................     33.1     34.9     34.8       NA      36.9      36.7      36.8      37.7      38.9      46.4
Father's relationship to youngest child (percent):                                                                                                      
    No father...........................................       NA       NA       NA     84.7      89.8      91.2      91.6      92.0      89.4      89.4
    Natural father......................................       NA       NA       NA      9.6        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA
    Adoptive father.....................................       NA       NA       NA      0.0        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA
    Stepfather..........................................       NA       NA       NA      5.6        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Data are for the Federal fiscal year October through September. All percentages are based on the average monthly caseload during the year. Hawaii   
  and the territories are not included in 1983. Data for 1986 include Hawaii, but not the territories. Data after 1986 include the territories and      
  Hawaii.    \2\ Calculated on the basis of total number of families.    \3\ For years after 1983, data are for adult female recipients.    \4\ Under   
  age 19.    \5\ The percentage for 20 to 29 year olds was 43.1.    \6\ The ages were 19-24 in 1979, 1983 and 1990.    \7\ In 1986 and 1988 this age    
  group was 19-25.    \8\ In 1986 and 1988 this age group was 26-29.    \9\ State collected child support directly beginning in 1975, removing one      
  source of non-AFDC income.    \10\ For 1983, 12.6 percentage points where race was unknown were allocated proportionately across all categories.      
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Note.--In 1994, 0.7 percent of AFDC cases had zero children (they were expectant mothers).                                                              
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         

    Table 8-28 shows that from 1969 to 1994, the average size 
of AFDC families decreased from 4 to 2.8 persons; the 
percentage of AFDC children with unwed parents almost doubled, 
from 27.9 to 55.7 percent; the percentage of AFDC mothers with 
some college education climbed from 2 to 7.7 percent; and the 
percentage of AFDC children whose parents were divorced or 
separated dropped from 43.3 to 26.5 percent. The table also 
shows a marked increase in the share of AFDC households that 
include a nonrecipient of AFDC, suggesting an acceleration in 
the trend to double-up to reduce housing costs. In 1994, almost 
half (46.4 percent) of AFDC households included a nonrecipient. 
This compares with 33.1 percent in 1969, 34.8 percent in 1975, 
and an average of 37.4 percent in 1983-92.
    Table 8-29 presents data about the work status of AFDC 
mothers (or other caretaker). It reports that the share of 
mothers needed at home or not actively seeking work climbed to 
72 percent in 1994, compared to a recent low of 56 percent in 
1988. Table 8-30 provides information about various sources of 
non-AFDC income received by AFDC families. In 1994, 1.3 percent 
of AFDC families received SSI and 8.5 percent, other public 
assistance or State SSI supplements. Non-AFDC income averaged 
$282 monthly per family among families with such income. For 
selected years, table 8-31 shows disregarded income of AFDC 
families, by type.
    The AFDC recipient population is a diverse group of 
families and individuals. Table 8-32 divides the 1994 AFDC 
caseload into seven mutually exclusive groups. Column 1 
contains data on the entire caseload. Column 2 describes AFDC 
units with no adult recipient. They represent 17.2 percent of 
the AFDC units and 12.5 percent of total payments. The average 
payment per case was $269 per month. These children-only cases 
comprise needy children with nonneedy or otherwise ineligible 
adult caretakers. They include children born in the United 
States to illegal alien parents and children whose caretaker is 
not one of 14 relatives specified in the law.
    Columns 3 through 6 present characteristics of more typical 
AFDC units--one adult with children. The one-adult caseload is 
split into four groups based on the reason for deprivation of 
the youngest child. Column 3 shows the most numerous group, 
unwed parents (usually mothers) with children. They account for 
45 percent of all AFDC units and expenditures. Column 4 shows 
cases of a divorced or legally separated parent, 13 percent of 
the total.
    Columns 7 and 8 present characteristics of cases with two 
adult recipients. Column 7 presents data on the unemployed 
parent (AFDC-UP) Program caseload; column 8 contains other two-
parent cases, most of which have an incapacitated parent. AFDC-
UP cases represent 6 percent of the total caseload and receive 
about 9 percent of total payments. The cases in which one 
parent is incapacitated tend to be older, as demonstrated by 
both the age of the mother and the age of the youngest child.
    The table indicates that white parents constitute a 
majority of the AFDC-UP caseload (57 percent). Hispanic parents 
represent 20 percent and blacks, 9 percent, of these cases. 
Half of the unwed parent cases are black. Of the overall 
caseload, 37 percent of parents are white, 36 percent black, 20 
percent Hispanic, 3 percent Asian, and 1 percent Native 
American.

                         TABLE 8-29.--EMPLOYMENT STATUS OF AFDC MOTHERS AND TENURE OF AFDC FAMILIES, \1\ SELECTED YEARS 1979-94                         
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                           Percent of total caseload                                    
                                                      --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                  Employment status                      March                                                                                          
                                                        1979 \2\   May 1982   1983 \3\   1986 \3\   1988 \3\   1990 \3\   1991 \3\   1992 \3\   1994 \3\
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Employment status of mother (or other caretaker): \4\                                                                                                   
    No mother (caretaker)............................        8.3       12.2        8.7  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........
    Full-time work, 30 or more hours per week........    \5\ 8.0    \5\ 1.3        1.5        1.6        2.1        2.5        2.2        2.2        3.2
    Part-time work, fewer than 30 hours per week.....    \5\ 5.0    \5\ 4.3        3.4        4.2        4.2        4.2        4.2        4.2        4.5
    Incapacitated....................................        6.0         NA        4.1        3.4        3.8  .........  .........  .........        4.1
    At school or training............................        2.6         NA        2.0        1.9        2.2       11.5       12.5       16.1       13.8
    On layoff........................................        0.5         NA        0.8        0.2        0.2        0.2        0.1        0.2        0.2
    Seeking work.....................................        9.1         NA         NA       27.3       27.6   \6\ 10.5   \6\ 11.2   \6\ 11.8        1.7
    Other--needed at home or not actively seeking                                                                                                       
     work............................................       60.5       82.2       64.8       58.3       55.5   \7\ 68.6   \7\ 68.8   \7\ 65.1       71.7
    Unknown..........................................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........        2.6        0.8        0.6        0.7
Number of months on AFDC since most recent opening                                                                                                      
 (percent of cases):                                                                                                                                    
    1-6 months.......................................       16.4       20.0       18.9       17.2       18.2       19.8       20.4       19.0       19.5
    7-12 months......................................       12.5       12.4       13.1       12.6       13.2       14.4       14.8       15.2       13.8
    13-24 months.....................................       16.7       16.2       16.6       17.2       17.3       18.4       19.2       19.3       18.0
    25-36 months.....................................       11.4       12.6       12.0       11.8       11.2       11.9       12.2       12.8       11.8
    37-60 months.....................................       15.3       14.2       15.4       14.9       15.0       13.7       12.8       14.1       15.4
    61+ months.......................................       26.9       23.5       23.7       25.9       24.9       21.7       20.5       19.6       18.6
    Unknown..........................................        0.8        1.1        0.3        0.4        0.2       0.01        0.1        0.1        0.1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ See text about difference in data sources for 1979 and 1983 and later years. Note: 1982 data are from interim study.                                
\2\ Source: Committee staff tabulation of March 1979 AFDC recipients' data base.                                                                        
\3\ Fiscal year average monthly. 1983 does not include Hawaii or the territories. 1986 data do not include the territories. 1988-92 data include the    
  territories and Hawaii.                                                                                                                               
\4\ Since 1986, the data are percent of female adult recipients.                                                                                        
\5\ Full-time work, 35 hours or more per week; part-time work, fewer than 35 hours per week.                                                            
\6\ For 1990-92, unemployed, not on layoff or strike.                                                                                                   
\7\ For 1990-92, not employed, not participating in any educational or training activities.                                                             
                                                                                                                                                        
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Based on National Integrated Quality Control System's monthly sample of cases surveyed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.     


                                          TABLE 8-30.--PERCENTAGE OF AFDC FAMILIES WITH VARIOUS SOURCES OF NON-AFDC INCOME, \1\ SELECTED YEARS 1979-94                                          
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          Percentage of caseload with income type                           Average amount for those with income type           
                                                           -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                       Income source                                                             Fiscal year                                                       Fiscal year                  
                                                              March     May  --------------------------------------------------  March    May  -------------------------------------------------
                                                            1979 \2\   1982   1986 \3\  1988 \3\  1990 \3\  1992 \3\  1994 \3\   1979    1982   1986 \3\  1988 \3\  1990 \3\  1992 \3\  1994 \3\
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Earned income:                                                                                                                                                                                  
  Mother (or caretaker relative)..........................     12.0      5.3      6.2       7.0       6.9       6.1       7.0     $382    $261     $264      $276      $318      $330      $379 
  Father (or spouse of caretaker relative)................      0.6      0.4      1.0       1.1       1.1       1.1       1.6      323     244      271       316       332       325       434 
  Children (14 or older)..................................      0.1    (\4\)      0.3       0.3       0.3       0.2       0.4      206     398      323       299       301       358       300 
  Other adults............................................      0.1       NA      0.2       0.2       0.1       0.1       0.1      265      NA      420       450       285       252       392 
  Public service..........................................      0.1       NA       NA        NA        NA        NA        NA      246      NA       NA        NA        NA        NA        NA 
OASDI.....................................................      3.1      2.5      2.0       2.5       2.4       2.1       2.3      134     145      207       211       235       226       248 
Veterans' benefits........................................      0.4       NA      0.2       0.2       0.2       0.1       0.1      128      NA      139       122       135       182       352 
Other government income...................................      0.4      0.4      0.3       0.3       0.3       0.7       0.9      143     134      131       109       105        96       129 
Unemployment compensation.................................      0.7      1.0      0.7       0.6       0.6       0.9       1.0      238     255      289       285       310       354       349 
Workmen's compensation....................................      0.1    (\4\)      0.1       0.1       0.1       0.1       1.0      237     200      299       267       396       348       360 
Deemed income.............................................      0.2      0.3      0.1       0.1       0.1       0.2       1.0       63     159      153       143       132       186       349 
Contributions from other persons..........................      0.6      0.9       NA       1.3       1.5       1.6       1.0       72      79       NA        92       105       109       349 
Other cash income:........................................      1.9      2.5  \5\ 2.0   \5\ 2.0   \5\ 2.0   \5\ 4.2       9.6       81     251      128        83       105       162       410 
  SSI (Federal)...........................................       NA       NA      3.0       1.9       1.1       1.3       1.3       NA      NA      334       369       442       436       742 
  Other public assistance or State SSI....................       NA       NA      1.1       0.8       0.6       0.3       8.5       NA      NA      374       299       299       315       352 
In-kind income............................................      0.4       NA       NA        NA   \6\ 0.0        NA        NA       71      NA       NA        NA   \6\ 125        NA        NA 
                                                           -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      Total...............................................     19.4       NA     18.7      20.4      19.9      21.1      22.5      299      NA      228   ........      239       246       282 
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ See text about differences in data sources for 1979, 1983, and later years (1982 data are from interim study).                                                                              
\2\ Source: Committee staff tabulation of March 1979 AFDC recipients' data base.                                                                                                                
\3\ Fiscal year average monthly. 1986 data do not include the territories. 1988-94 data include both Hawaii and the territories.                                                                
\4\ Less than 0.05 percent.                                                                                                                                                                     
\5\ Includes Federal SSI, State SSI, general assistance, income from assets and property and other unearned income.                                                                             
\6\ EIC.                                                                                                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                                                                                                
                                                                                                                                                                                                
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                                                              
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Source: Based on National Integrated Quality Control System's monthly sample of cases surveyed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                             


                                                          TABLE 8-31.--DISREGARDED INCOME FOR AFDC FAMILIES, \1\ SELECTED YEARS 1979-94                                                         
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                Percent of caseload with disregard                                       Average amount for those with disregard                
                                          ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                Disregards                                                          Fiscal year                                                               Fiscal year                       
                                             March    May  ------------------------------------------------------------ March   May  -----------------------------------------------------------
                                           1979 \2\   1982  1986 \3\  1989 \3\  1990 \3\  1991 \3\  1992 \3\  1994 \3\   1979   1982  1986 \3\  1989 \3\  1990 \3\  1991 \3\  1992 \3\  1994 \3\
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Optional $5 disregard....................      1.1   (\4\)    (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\)      $6  (\4\)    (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\)     (\4\) 
$30 and one-third of earned income \5\...     12.5     2.5      3.8       4.0       4.0       4.0       3.8       5.7     147    $62      $76       $83       $92       $89       $89      $130 
Child care...............................      3.9     1.3      1.5       1.7       1.2       1.6       1.4       1.5     101     86      106       119       128       132       153       154 
Other work expenses......................      8.4     5.2      6.2       6.9       6.7       6.8       6.3       7.1      95     54       76        77        89        92        92        98 
Cases with child care and other work                                                                                                                                                            
 expenses \6\............................      3.0      NA       NA        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA     100     NA       NA        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA 
Child support............................      0.1   (\7\)      3.0       5.1       4.9       4.5       4.7       5.1      93     NA   \8\ 47    \8\ 48    \8\ 48    \8\ 48    \8\ 48        48 
Other....................................      1.6     0.4       NA        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA      77    100       NA        NA        NA        NA        NA        NA 
                                          ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Total................................     13.8      NA      6.3       7.0       6.8       7.0       6.4      12.6     250     NA      146       153       171       172       177       152 
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ See text about differences in data sources for March 1979, 1983 and later years. Note: 1982 data are from interim study.                                                                    
\2\ Source: Committee staff tabulation of March 1979 AFDC recipients' data base.                                                                                                                
\3\ Average monthly for fiscal years.                                                                                                                                                           
\4\ Repealed by 1981 law.                                                                                                                                                                       
\5\ Limited to 4 months' duration by 1981 law; 1984 law extended $30 disregard to 12 months.                                                                                                    
\6\ In these cases, there was insufficient information in the data file to distinguish between child care and other work expenses.                                                              
\7\ Less than 0.05 percent.                                                                                                                                                                     
\8\ Average amount of $50 child support passthrough.                                                                                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                                                                
NA--Not available.                                                                                                                                                                              
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Note.--The child support passthrough is not included in the total amount disregarded. It is part of unearned income rather than earned income.                                                  
                                                                                                                                                                                                
Source: Based on National Integrated Quality Control System's monthly sample of cases surveyed by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                             


                                                 TABLE 8-32.--1994 AFDC CHARACTERISTICS BY UNIT TYPE \1\                                                
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                             One adult                        Two adult                 
                                                                           -------------------------------------------------------------------          
                                                                                                     Not                                                
                      Characteristic                         Total    No                Divorced   legally                                      Unknown 
                                                                     adult     Not         or     separated    Other    Unemployed    Other             
                                                                             married    legally       or      reasons     parent                        
                                                                                       separated   divorced                                             
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of units (in thousands)............................   5,046     868    2,254        646        525        332        310         111          1  
Percent of total..........................................   100.0    17.2       44.7       12.8       10.4        6.6        6.1         2.2        0.0
Average monthly payment...................................    $369    $269     $368       $379       $394       $361       $567        $484       $378  
Percent of total dollars paid out.........................   100.0    12.5       44.5       13.1       11.1        6.4        9.4         2.9        0.0
Average number in assistance unit.........................     3.0     2.0        3.0        3.0        3.0        3.0        5.0         4.0        1.0
Food stamps:                                                                                                                                            
    Percent participating.................................    88.8    70.1       93.1       92.3       92.9       87.2       96.3        91.1       94.3
                                                           ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                               Percentage Distribution                                  
                                                           ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of recipients:                                                                                                                                   
    One...................................................    11.2    54.4        0.1        0.1        0.0       27.8        0.0         0.0        0.0
    Two...................................................    36.4    28.4       49.9       32.2       29.4       26.9    (\2\)          11.6        0.0
    Three.................................................    26.5    11.1       29.2       36.2       33.9       20.6       22.7        26.5        0.0
    Four..................................................    15.3     4.0       13.5       21.1       22.1       13.8       31.8        28.9        0.0
    Five..................................................     6.5     1.2        4.7        7.4        9.4        7.4       22.6        17.0        0.0
    Six...................................................     2.5     0.7        1.5        2.1        3.5        2.0       12.4         9.0        0.0
    Seven or more.........................................     1.7     0.1        1.0        1.0        1.7        1.5       10.5         7.0      100.0
Number of nonrecipients:                                                                                                                                
    Zero..................................................    57.6     1.2       67.8       66.6       71.1       41.2       80.8        80.2  .........
    One...................................................    19.8    43.6       14.4       17.7       13.8       33.9       10.9        11.5  .........
    Two...................................................    10.7    24.2        8.3        9.2        7.9       13.1        4.5         3.5  .........
    Three.................................................     5.3    12.2        4.5        3.5        3.8        5.7        1.5         1.2  .........
     Four or more.........................................     6.5    18.8        5.0        3.0        3.4        6.2        2.2         3.6  .........
Shelter:                                                                                                                                                
    Owns or buying........................................     4.2     5.4        1.9        6.4        3.4        6.3        8.3        13.8        0.0
    Homeless/emergency shelter............................     0.2     0.1        0.2        0.2        0.1        0.2        0.1         0.4        0.0
    Public housing........................................     8.3     5.7       10.3        6.6        7.9        9.5        4.0         8.2       47.2
    HUD rent subsidy......................................    12.0     6.9       14.0       15.0       11.1       10.1       10.7         8.7        0.0
    Other subsidy.........................................     2.0     1.1        2.5        2.2        1.9        1.8        0.8         1.4        0.0
    Private housing.......................................    64.2    67.5       61.5       62.5       66.9       65.3       73.2        63.2       47.2
    Rents free............................................     7.0    11.0        7.1        5.4        7.1        4.7        2.4         3.1        0.0
    Group quarters........................................     1.6     1.9        2.0        1.3        1.2        1.4        0.4         0.2        5.7
Number of child recipients:                                                                                                                             
    Zero..................................................     2.2     0.1        0.1        0.1        0.0       27.8        0.5        13.9  .........
    One...................................................    42.6    54.4       49.9       32.2       29.4       26.9       23.3        25.3  .........
    Two...................................................    30.0    28.4       29.2       36.2       33.9       20.6       31.2        28.7  .........
    Three.................................................    15.6    11.1       13.5       21.1       22.1       13.8       22.2        16.4  .........
    Four or more..........................................    10.6     7.0        7.2       10.5       14.6       10.9       22.8        15.8  .........
Race of caretaker:                                                                                                                                      
    White.................................................    37.4    28.0       28.4       66.6       40.9       39.3       56.6        47.5        0.0
    Black.................................................    36.4    38.0       50.1       15.3       28.7       26.5        8.6        15.0       47.2
    Hispanic..............................................    19.9    28.1       16.1       14.4       25.2       23.2       19.5        29.8        0.0
    Asian.................................................     2.9     2.0        1.8        1.7        2.2        6.5       11.9         4.1        0.0
    Native American.......................................     1.3     1.2        1.3        1.1        1.2        1.3        1.5         0.7        5.7
    Unknown...............................................     2.1     2.7        2.2        0.9        1.7        3.2        1.9         2.9       47.2
Age of youngest child in AFDC unit:                                                                                                                     
    Under 3...............................................    40.8    33.0       49.5       23.0       39.2       37.6       48.5        25.5  .........
    3-5...................................................    21.8    19.1       22.8       23.6       25.2       15.4       21.5        16.7  .........
    6-11..................................................    22.9    25.3       18.5       34.0       24.2       23.5       21.1        26.1  .........
    12-15.................................................    10.0    15.9        6.7       14.9        8.3       12.0        5.2        15.0  .........
    16-18.................................................     3.6     6.6        2.1        4.4        3.0        5.3        3.1         4.5  .........
    Unknown...............................................     0.9     0.1        0.4        0.1        0.1        6.3        0.6        12.3  .........
Number of months continuously on AFDC:                                                                                                                  
    6 or less.............................................    22.3    20.3       19.4       23.4       27.0       29.0       28.9        28.8        0.0
    7-12..................................................    13.8    14.5       13.7       13.6       15.0       11.7       14.3        11.9        0.0
    13-18.................................................     9.8     9.9       10.2        9.1       10.0        7.3        9.8        10.6        0.0
    19-24.................................................     8.2     8.9        8.2        9.2        7.3        7.6        7.9         5.2        5.7
    25-36.................................................    11.8    11.5       12.3       12.4       11.5        9.3       11.7        10.2        0.0
    37-48.................................................     9.0     9.0        9.6        8.5        8.1        9.2        8.1         6.4       47.2
    49-60.................................................     6.4     6.3        6.7        6.2        6.2        6.8        5.0         6.2        0.0
    61-120................................................    13.2    13.5       13.8       12.9       11.1       13.8       10.5        13.7       47.2
    121-180...............................................     0.8     1.1        0.7        0.8        0.7        0.8        0.9         1.2        0.0
    181 and up............................................     1.6     1.6        2.1        1.1        1.1        1.4        0.3         3.4        0.0
    Unknown...............................................     3.0     3.3        3.2        2.9        2.0        3.1        2.7         2.3        0.0
Age of female adult recipient:                                                                                                                          
    11-18.................................................     2.6  ......        3.7        0.2        0.7        3.7        1.4         1.7  .........
    19-21.................................................    12.8  ......       17.6        2.9        6.4       13.3        9.1        11.0  .........
    22-25.................................................    19.6  ......       23.6       11.9       17.5       14.2       18.0         9.1  .........
    26-29.................................................    17.7  ......       17.9       19.2       20.5       13.9       16.1        10.6  .........
    30-34.................................................    20.4  ......       18.3       27.6       23.9       16.2       22.6        14.0  .........
    35-39.................................................    13.9  ......       10.2       22.2       17.4       15.5       15.7        17.7  .........
    40 and up.............................................    12.9  ......        8.7       16.1       13.5       23.2       17.2        35.9  .........
    Unknown--.............................................   (\2\)  ......    (\2\)          0.0        0.0        0.0  ..........  .........  .........
AFDC female adults employment status:                                                                                                                   
    Employed full time....................................     3.2  ......        2.9        5.0        3.4        1.9        3.2         2.2  .........
    Employed part time....................................     3.4  ......        3.2        4.9        2.9        2.3        4.1         3.0  .........
    Employed other........................................     1.1  ......        0.9        1.8        0.9        0.7        1.4         0.6  .........
    Not employed..........................................    80.3  ......       81.3       74.6       80.6       85.6       79.6        79.5  .........
    Unemployed............................................    11.1  ......       11.0       13.3       11.7        9.0       10.6         8.0  .........
Percent with non-AFDC income..............................    22.5     3.9       22.2       37.9       23.2       26.6       36.9        29.7  .........
Average monthly amount of income..........................    $280    $179     $252       $249       $270       $309       $443        $431    .........
Percent with earned income................................     8.9     0.7        8.4       13.4        9.3        7.6       25.9        11.7  .........
Average monthly earned income.............................    $394    $248     $376       $374       $393       $351       $471        $457    .........
Percent of earned income disregarded......................     0.0    22.9       52.3       48.6       49.0       40.6       40.7        34.4  .........
Percent with unearned income..............................    15.1     3.3       15.2       27.9       15.6       20.1       13.3        20.1  .........
Average amount of unearned income.........................    $183    $159     $157       $157       $169       $273       $297        $367    .........
Percent with countable assets.............................    17.6     6.7       14.3       30.6       18.2       19.9       39.5        25.9  .........
Income of persons not in assistance unit:                                                                                                               
    Percent with income...................................    37.5    54.2       23.0       28.8       22.7       45.6       24.1        25.4      100.0
    Average monthly amount................................    $489    $481     $491       $581       $485       $493       $505        $444       $469  
    Percent with earned income............................     9.3     9.8        9.1       11.9       10.2        5.3        6.7         5.3        0.0
    Percent with public assistance income.................    26.7    45.3       11.1       12.9        9.2       36.8       13.9        19.2      100.0
    Percent with other unearned income....................     7.7    11.3        4.2        6.6        6.1        9.8        4.0         1.4        0.0
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Characteristics information was not always available for 100 percent of cases. The number of missing cases, to the extent there were any with       
  respect to a particular characteristic, was small as a percent of the AFDC family caseload (usually below 3 percent).                                 
\2\ 0.05 percent or less.                                                                                                                               
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, Department of Health and Human Services.                                                              

                     State Data About AFDC Families

    Tables 8-33 through 8-36 present selected 1994 
characteristics of the AFDC population by State. Table 8-33 
presents selected demographic characteristics, including the 
number of persons in the AFDC unit and household, the percent 
of units with household members not in the unit, the percent of 
units with no adult recipients and with one adult recipient, 
and the percentage distribution of the units by age of youngest 
child and race of parent. For some of these elements, there is 
marked variation among the States. For example, the percentage 
of cases living in households with nonrecipients ranges from 17 
percent in Hawaii and 20 percent in New Hampshire to above 65 
percent in Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. The percentage 
of Native American cases, 1 percent for the United States as a 
whole, exceeds 50 percent in South Dakota. Table 8-34 presents 
selected income characteristics, including the percent of units 
with earned income, unearned income, and various income 
disregards. This table also supplies the average monthly amount 
of these sources of income as well as information on the 
percent of units participating in the Food Stamp Program. Table 
8-35 gives a detailed percentage distribution of AFDC units by 
shelter arrangement. Table 8-36 provides a detailed percentage 
distribution of AFDC units by the reason for deprivation of the 
youngest child. It shows that 58 percent of the children had 
unwed parents (up from 56 percent in 1992) and that paternity 
was established for only 39 percent of these children. However, 
in some jurisdictions paternity was established for most of the 
children of unwed parents (these include Alaska, Connecticut, 
Delaware, Georgia, Maine, New Hampshire, New York, North 
Dakota, Puerto Rico, Vermont, Virgin Islands, and Wisconsin).

                    THE AFDC QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEM

               Description of AFDC Quality Control System

    The AFDC quality control system has two goals: correcting 
faults in program administration that contribute to erroneous 
payments and reducing the extent of misspent benefit dollars. 
To these ends, it attempts to: (1) measure the extent and 
dollar value of ``errors'' in administration; (2) identify the 
types and causes of error; and (3) specify and monitor 
corrective actions taken to eliminate or reduce errors. 
Sanctions are also imposed on States that have error rates 
above the national average. Table 8-37 provides a hypothetical 
example of a State quality control disallowance computation.
    The ``errors'' identified and measured in the quality 
control system range from simple arithmetical mistakes to 
incomplete or inaccurate reporting of income to recipient 
fraud. Although quality control error rates and the information 
behind them give a picture of the extent to which improper 
payments are made and help pinpoint areas where improvement is 
needed, only part of the error rate can be attributed to 
recipient fraud. In fact, ``agency-caused'' errors make up 
nearly half the errors typically identified in quality control 
surveys, and ``recipient-caused'' errors may often be simple 
mistakes in understanding what is required or failure to 
provide correct information on a timely basis.

                               TABLE 8-33.--SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AFDC UNITS BY STATE, FISCAL YEAR 1994                               
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                            Percent of units              Percentage        Percentage distribution by race of natural/ 
                                                   ---------------------------------  distribution by age             adoptive  parent \1\ \2\          
                                          Average                                      of youngest child  ----------------------------------------------
                                Average  number in     With                                   \1\                                                       
             State               number  household  household   With no    With one ----------------------                                              
                                in unit   of unit    members     adult      adult                    6 or   White    Black   Hispanic   Asian    Native 
                                                      not in   recipient  recipient    0-2    3-5    more                                       American
                                                       unit                           yrs.    yrs.   yrs.                                               
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.......................      2.6       3.9        61.2      32.1       66.1     38.3   21.9   38.2     24.7     75.1       0.1      0.1       0.0
Alaska........................      3.0       3.6        33.0       6.6       76.9     33.6   29.6   35.9     51.9     10.0       2.6      1.1      33.9
Arizona.......................      2.8       4.4        63.3      21.0       75.9     42.1   23.2   33.1     39.5      9.3      35.7      0.5      14.6
Arkansas......................      2.7       4.2        67.2      26.4       71.8     37.3   21.9   39.2     42.6     56.8       0.6      0.0       0.0
California....................      3.0       4.5        58.1      25.1       62.3     45.4   20.7   31.9     25.9     17.4      41.5      9.0       0.7
Colorado......................      2.9       3.3        27.6      15.3       81.4     43.6   22.3   32.4     43.1     16.6      37.8      1.7       0.8
Connecticut...................      2.8       3.4        35.6      11.0       84.6     39.1   21.1   38.9     32.0     31.1      35.0      0.9       0.1
Delaware......................      2.7       3.3        35.7      24.3       74.9     38.3   22.9   38.0     30.6     64.0       5.1      0.0       0.0
District of Columbia..........      2.7       3.8        55.5      16.5       82.1     43.2   22.6   31.5      0.6     97.1       1.3      0.4       0.0
Florida.......................      2.7       3.8        54.3      19.4       78.0     41.6   21.6   35.3     36.6     47.5      15.1      0.4       0.1
Georgia.......................      2.7       3.9        50.9      18.8       79.6     38.6   22.1   38.9     23.9     74.4       1.0      0.7       0.0
Hawaii........................      3.1       3.3        17.3       8.8       79.9     40.5   21.8   37.1     24.8      1.0       0.8     68.2       0.3
Idaho.........................      2.8       3.4        35.3      16.7       75.0     40.0   21.1   36.4     82.5      1.1      10.8      0.6       5.0
Illinois......................      3.0       3.9        47.2      13.4       80.8     44.6   20.0   34.5     30.7     57.6      11.0      0.6       0.2
Indiana.......................      2.8       3.6        43.9      14.1       80.5     36.5   23.3   35.5     60.9     35.1       3.2      0.2       0.1
Iowa..........................      2.8       3.2        26.0      13.4       75.6     41.3   21.9   35.8     83.5     13.6       1.8      0.6       0.5
Kansas........................      3.0       3.7        40.6      13.8       75.1     42.5   23.4   32.8     64.2     26.6       6.5      1.6       1.0
Kentucky......................      2.6       3.7        54.9      18.5       73.1     33.1   20.2   45.1     79.6     19.6       0.5      0.3       0.1
Louisiana.....................      2.9       4.5        66.9      22.3       76.1     39.6   22.4   36.7     17.1     81.3       0.6      0.4       0.2
Maine.........................      2.9       3.5        35.5       6.8       79.7     31.8   22.8   44.9     95.2      0.9       1.1      1.8       1.1
Maryland......................      2.8       3.6        49.3      15.1       82.6     33.2   23.9   38.6     24.1     72.1       1.1      0.6       0.0
Massachusetts.................      2.8       3.3        29.8      13.3       80.7     38.4   24.9   35.6     47.9     17.0      25.0      4.4       0.5
Michigan......................      3.0       3.5        28.8       9.8       77.0     39.4   23.3   32.1     45.7     49.6       3.2      0.6       0.6
Minnesota.....................      2.9       3.5        33.7      10.2       80.5     39.0   21.8   37.9     62.6     20.8       5.3      6.1       5.1
Mississippi...................      2.8       4.5        68.0      26.3       73.4     40.7   19.6   39.0     16.6     82.7       0.2      0.2       0.2
Missouri......................      2.8       3.7        46.3      13.3       81.0     39.4   22.1   37.1     55.4     42.9       0.8      0.8       0.2
Montana.......................      2.9       3.2        20.3       6.9       81.9     38.1   20.5   40.8     70.9      0.0       0.8      0.5      26.9
Nebraska......................      2.7       3.6        49.1      25.5       69.2     49.6   19.1   31.2     62.9     20.9       7.5      2.7       5.6
Nevada........................      2.6       2.9        27.0      24.6       72.2     44.1   21.4   33.0     56.5     28.1      11.1      2.2       2.2
New Hampshire.................      2.6       2.9        20.0      13.1       80.9     39.4   23.8   35.9     92.2      1.3       0.0      0.0       0.0
New Jersey....................      2.8       3.0        22.0      16.4       78.4     35.2   24.5   39.4     21.4     51.1      26.4      0.9       0.2
New Mexico....................      2.8       3.1        20.3      15.8       77.8     37.7   21.8   39.1     23.5      4.6      57.7      0.1      13.8
New York......................      2.8       3.4        34.8      13.6       76.1     37.2   22.1   35.6     23.4     32.3      34.8      0.7       0.2
North Carolina................      2.6       3.9        58.2      19.9       76.7     42.6   21.9   34.3     35.5     60.8       1.3      0.3       2.0
North Dakota..................      2.9       3.2        21.8       9.0       85.6     45.2   20.2   34.3     55.8      1.0       2.2      1.9      38.8
Ohio..........................      2.7       3.7        47.9      17.4       73.2     41.3   19.4   37.6     57.7     39.8       2.1      0.3       0.0
Oklahoma......................      2.9       3.6        40.4      13.6       84.0     37.4   22.1   39.3     55.9     30.0       2.2      0.1      11.7
Oregon........................      2.7       3.8        53.8      19.0       73.9     40.8   21.6   36.6     81.0      7.4       7.1      2.1       2.2
Pennsylvania..................      3.0       3.4        26.2      11.7       76.9     38.5   21.8   38.2     45.9     42.9       9.3      1.3       0.3
Rhode Island..................      2.8       3.2        25.3      10.6       84.8     38.1   23.8   37.7     58.9     15.6      14.7     10.0       0.4
South Carolina................      2.7       4.0        62.0      29.5       68.8     37.9   21.6   39.5     23.5     72.9       0.1      0.1       0.1
South Dakota..................      2.8       3.6        45.1      21.8       77.6     42.5   21.4   34.4     40.9      1.0       1.0      0.3      56.8
Tennesee......................      2.7       3.8        53.1      17.6       79.1     35.6   21.8   41.5     49.4     49.8       0.3      0.4       0.0
Texas.........................      2.8       3.9        51.2      18.9       77.4     45.6   18.7   35.2     22.3     32.7      43.5      1.3       0.1
Utah..........................      2.7       3.3        33.8      15.1       80.5     39.2   24.1   35.7     74.1      3.5      13.8      1.6       7.0
Vermont.......................      2.8       3.2        29.6       7.6       77.0     35.9   23.4   39.5     99.0      0.3       0.3      0.3       0.0
Virginia......................      2.6       3.9        62.9      21.7       76.1     37.9   23.6   37.8     30.7     65.1       2.7      1.4       0.1
Washington....................      2.8       3.8        46.3      14.7       70.5     39.1   21.9   38.1     69.9     10.4       8.7      6.2       4.3
West Virginia.................      2.8       3.5        43.3      13.3       67.3     32.5   23.1   42.8     90.5      6.8       0.2      0.0       0.0
Wisconsin.....................      3.0       3.8        45.7      17.8       74.5     45.8   20.6   32.4     46.4     38.2       6.7      4.8       3.4
Wyoming.......................      2.7       3.3        36.3      11.5       87.0     32.3   27.7   38.9     75.5      1.4      12.1      0.0      11.0
Guam..........................      3.6       5.4        53.3       4.1       81.5     59.7   18.3   22.0      3.7      0.9       0.5     94.9       0.0
Puerto Rico...................      3.1       4.0        43.1      11.4       78.1     20.7   20.8   58.3      0.3      0.0      99.3      0.0       0.1
Virgin Islands................      3.6       4.3        35.0       9.4       89.5     27.4   26.4   45.4      0.0     37.0      22.8      0.0       0.0
                               -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    U.S. total................      2.8       3.8        46.4      17.2       74.5     40.5   21.6   36.0     37.4     36.4      19.9      2.9       1.3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Percentages will not add to total as ``unknown'' and ``other'' not included.                                                                        
\2\ All race categories are mutually exclusive.                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         


                                      TABLE 8-34.--INCOME CHARACTERISTICS OF AFDC UNITS BY STATE, FISCAL YEAR 1994                                      
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                            Units with earned      Units with unearned    Units with child care    Units with $30 + \1/3\               
                                                 income                  income                 disregard                disregard                      
                                        --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------   Percent of 
                 State                    Percent                 Percent                                                                    food stamp 
                                           of all   Average \1\    of all   Average \1\  Percent of  Average \1\  Percent of  Average \1\  participation
                                           units      dollars      units      dollars     all units     dollars    all units    dollars                 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama................................        3.2     $199.00        14.7     $103.29          0.5      $121.67         1.2      $71.27           89.8 
Alaska.................................       21.1      452.78        20.8      679.15          1.4       144.40        13.1      137.00           72.6 
Arizona................................        6.0      378.70         5.9      135.71          1.1       124.14         4.1      100.46           92.0 
Arkansas...............................        4.6      224.55        16.0      147.74          0.9       186.67         2.4       67.26           88.9 
California.............................       12.8      494.28        12.5      346.41          2.0       172.40         9.5      125.31           87.2 
Colorado...............................        9.9      385.55        10.9      144.74          1.5       150.03         3.9      101.25           90.9 
Connecticut............................        7.6      381.05        15.4      218.46          0.6       183.14         3.4      109.31           89.6 
Delaware...............................        5.4      318.47        16.0       96.32            0  ...........         4.0      108.00           84.3 
District of Columbia...................        0.6      350.67         3.1      337.06            0  ...........         0.4       58.50           92.5 
Florida................................        8.7      379.52        13.0      154.38          2.0       160.62         6.9       99.89           93.4 
Georgia................................        7.8      344.33        28.3      179.86          2.5       122.00         4.3      100.06           86.8 
Guam...................................        3.9      328.73         8.0      136.47          0.9       162.50         2.1      140.35           86.8 
Hawaii.................................       12.1      445.85         9.3      256.06          0.5       100.50         5.0      157.59           92.4 
Idaho..................................       11.4      386.10        19.7       87.90          2.8       144.60         8.9      100.34           81.9 
Illinois...............................        7.3      499.40        10.7      208.30          0.7       165.10         6.0      339.13           93.8 
Indiana................................        6.8      315.03        22.5      120.03          1.4       172.95         4.3       76.18           93.3 
Iowa...................................       18.8      524.67        20.3      125.37          5.1       184.12        15.7      193.64           89.4 
Kansas.................................       10.3      274.75        10.7       94.18          0.5        99.67         5.7       94.87           90.3 
Kentucky...............................       11.9      383.98        26.6      165.47          3.0       163.46         5.0       91.68           89.5 
Louisiana..............................        2.7      232.76        15.1      106.04          0.2        81.00         1.7       62.80           95.5 
Maine..................................       17.4      397.08        89.6      276.41          5.7       147.00         8.6       98.67           91.4 
Maryland...............................        3.4      308.43        30.9       52.43          0.7       143.22         2.4       80.83           92.4 
Massachusetts..........................        6.2      321.58        19.8      160.79          0.7        56.25         3.5      107.64           78.0 
Michigan...............................       19.3      396.98        13.7      149.19          3.8       144.01        13.0      208.64           94.1 
Minnesota..............................       12.2      335.06        27.0      207.90          2.8       160.06         5.5      100.83           91.6 
Mississippi............................       10.2      294.60        23.1      137.27          1.7       100.29         5.2       96.78           93.9 
Missouri...............................        5.9      337.26        16.7       95.68          0.8       179.40         2.6      104.03           90.2 
Montana................................       15.7      306.81        33.6      110.29          4.3       151.19        10.1       89.76           87.2 
Nebraska...............................       11.6      311.36         4.5      218.30          0.2       200.00         6.8      102.37           88.1 
Nevada.................................        5.1      386.26        22.4       90.28          0.8       221.67         4.1       97.67           76.5 
New Hampshire..........................        8.8      394.64        27.2      139.08          0.6       229.00         6.6      126.81           87.5 
New Jersey.............................        2.5      332.13         7.8      180.45          0.2        75.00         1.8       90.64           89.6 
New Mexico.............................        8.0      281.22         9.0      180.45          1.1       101.56         4.7       82.34           89.0 
New York...............................        4.9      390.17        10.8      197.43          0.5       226.50         2.1      111.15           94.3 
North Carolina.........................       13.0      314.74        25.4      217.01          1.7       133.90         6.1       92.64           79.9 
North Dakota...........................       18.9      308.80        22.4       84.03          6.1       128.37        11.5       80.44           91.0 
Ohio...................................        7.8      288.94        24.9       85.84          1.0        97.50         3.5       94.29           92.9 
Oklahoma...............................        7.0      329.22         7.9      223.73            0  ...........         4.8      101.20           92.1 
Oregon.................................       11.9      283.82        19.9      126.62          0.1        22.00         7.0       79.92           92.7 
Pennsylvania...........................        6.3      320.42         4.9      231.82          1.0       186.58         3.8       92.52           92.7 
Puerto Rico............................        1.0      154.19         4.0      101.15          0.2        67.33         0.3       30.00            0   
Rhode Island...........................        8.6      396.87        22.1      243.53          2.0       145.45         3.9       47.19           95.5 
South Carolina.........................        9.1      412.29        19.1      159.07          2.0       165.59         5.4      105.11           86.8 
South Dakota...........................       15.6      362.17        42.9      142.98          4.9       114.80         9.4       94.48           85.1 
Tennessee..............................       10.8      395.81        17.0      211.03          1.9       150.48         5.2       89.38           94.0 
Texas..................................        4.5      189.79         5.9      101.10          0.9       114.27         2.9       52.61           97.0 
Utah...................................       16.2      392.75        17.8      164.43          0.6        96.00         9.4      117.03           88.1 
Vermont................................       16.1      265.51        27.0      133.29            0  ...........         8.2       90.32           91.1 
Virgin Islands.........................        2.3      278.29         4.7      108.47          1.0       133.33         2.0       55.83           92.6 
Virginia...............................        4.8      316.20        14.4      120.98          0.7       183.28         2.4       93.41           84.9 
Washington.............................        7.9      334.51        15.7      231.47          0.1       330.05         4.4      122.64           88.8 
West Virginia..........................        2.6       76.62        21.1      126.47          0.1        50.00         0    ...........          93.3 
Wisconsin..............................       15.2      392.33        23.3      147.42          5.6       172.46        10.2       81.66           85.9 
Wyoming................................       24.8      409.23         9.8      100.56          0.6       212.00        15.0      121.54           92.2 
                                        ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
      U.S. total.......................        8.9     $394.14        15.1     $187.27          1.5      $155.49         5.6     $130.62           88.7 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Average per unit with this item. Unearned income includes SSI.                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Deparment of Health and Human Services.                                                          


                                  TABLE 8-35.--AFDC FAMILIES BY TYPE OF SHELTER ARRANGEMENT BY STATE, FISCAL YEAR 1994                                  
                                                           [In percent except total families]                                                           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                    Rent subsidy    Rents in                            
                                                                     Homeless     Owns   Rents in ----------------   private    Shares                  
                         State                            Total      shelter/     or is   public                     housing     group    Rents  Unknown
                                                         families    emergency   buying   housing    HUD    Other    with no   quarters   free          
                                                                      housing                                        subsidy                            
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama...............................................     50,340           0.1     6.2      20.2    10.7     0.7        36.6       3.2    22.3      0.0
Alaska................................................     12,759           0.6     9.7      18.8    11.4     5.1        42.5       1.1    10.8      0.0
Arizona...............................................     71,948           0.2     2.7       6.9     9.3     1.0        69.0       0.2    10.6      0.0
Arkansas..............................................     26,014           0.0     5.8      11.5    20.4     0.6        25.4       3.9    32.4      0.0
California............................................    908,999           0.0     0.7       1.6     6.4     0.6        89.8       0.3     0.5      0.0
Colorado..............................................     41,614           0.1     1.6       4.6    14.5     6.7        66.5       5.2     0.7      0.2
Connecticut...........................................     59,201           0.2     1.0      13.3    22.5     1.3        55.5       3.8     2.5      0.0
Delaware..............................................     11,460           0.3     4.0      11.7    18.9     1.1        58.6       3.4     2.0      0.0
District of Columbia..................................     27,117           1.0     1.2      24.8    23.2     2.7        37.8       6.5     1.2      1.7
Florida...............................................    247,087           0.2     1.9       5.9     9.9     0.3        75.7       1.4     4.3      0.2
Georgia...............................................    141,451           0.2     3.4      16.3    10.7     0.5        52.3       4.0    12.0      0.7
Hawaii................................................     20,420           1.1     2.9      10.3    17.0     2.3        43.7      10.6    12.1      0.0
Idaho.................................................      8,676           0.0     8.6       5.3    26.9     4.7        39.4       4.7    10.0      0.3
Illinois..............................................    240,319           0.0     2.4      10.5     8.0     1.4        70.5       1.4     5.8      0.0
Indiana...............................................     73,803           0.0     6.1       7.1     7.6     4.1        59.5       0.2    12.2      3.1
Iowa..................................................     39,555           0.0    10.6       2.3    19.7     2.6        56.6       2.4     5.8      0.0
Kansas................................................     30,102           0.0     4.9       7.0    11.2     0.3        67.1       0.9     8.5      0.3
Kentucky..............................................     79,840           0.2    11.5       9.1    16.7     0.0        43.0       0.0    19.7      0.0
Louisiana.............................................     86,915           0.1     5.9      12.7    14.7     2.5        34.5       2.8    26.7      0.0
Maine.................................................     22,934           0.2    17.6      11.0    13.5    10.8        40.8       1.3     5.0      0.0
Maryland..............................................     80,123           0.0     1.0       8.1    19.6     0.4        70.0       0.2     0.7      0.0
Massachusetts.........................................    111,783           0.7     1.1      15.3    20.2     8.9        51.4       1.9     0.5      0.0
Michigan..............................................    223,950         (\1\)     9.3       2.7     8.3     0.9        71.2     (\1\)     5.6      2.0
Minnesota.............................................     62,979           0.1    10.9      10.8    18.8     9.4        45.0       0.6     4.2      0.4
Mississippi...........................................     56,785           0.1     7.9       4.5    15.7     0.9        28.9       0.2    41.8      0.1
Missouri..............................................     92,110           0.6     5.6       4.9    19.8     1.2        57.6       0.9     9.5      0.0
Montana...............................................     11,908           0.3     5.9      16.3    25.3     5.6        41.6       4.3     0.8      0.0
Nebraska..............................................     15,934           0.2     8.3       7.8    25.0     1.7        48.6       4.5     4.0      0.0
Nevada................................................     14,047           0.0     0.8       0.0    22.2     0.0        53.0       0.3    23.8      0.0
New Hampshire.........................................     11,475           0.0     1.6      11.3     7.8     4.7        67.5       5.0     1.6      0.6
New Jersey............................................    122,427           0.3     1.5       5.5     7.0     5.1        73.2       6.2     1.2      0.0
New Mexico............................................     33,633           0.0    11.6      12.1    22.1     1.0        41.0       6.1     6.1      0.0
New York..............................................    454,951           0.2     0.5      15.9    12.2     4.3        65.0       0.5     1.4      0.0
North Carolina........................................    131,220           0.1     0.7      12.0    10.4     2.8        67.0       2.4     4.7      0.0
North Dakota..........................................      5,877           0.3     4.8       3.8    42.6     9.3        26.0       7.1     6.1      0.0
Ohio..................................................    250,208           0.5     5.8       6.8    15.1     3.1        59.7       2.0     7.1      0.0
Oklahoma..............................................     46,971           0.1     4.6       3.1    28.0     5.0        37.7       3.1    18.3      0.0
Oregon................................................     42,135           0.6     4.0       1.6    19.9     2.8        66.0       3.4     1.7      0.0
Pennsylvania..........................................    210,155           0.4     5.2      12.7     6.6     0.0        69.5       4.3     1.3      0.0
Rhode Island..........................................     22,654           0.4     1.5       9.7    19.0     2.6        59.3       5.8     1.9      0.0
South Carolina........................................     51,925           0.3     5.7       8.8    19.9     0.2        39.7       1.4    24.2      0.0
South Dakota..........................................      6,926           0.3     4.9       1.6    26.3    14.3        45.5       0.0     7.1      0.0
Tennessee.............................................    110,766           0.1     7.0      16.5    12.3     0.8        54.4       0.6     8.3      0.0
Texas.................................................    283,744           0.3     7.0       6.2    15.8     0.8        43.8       0.3    25.7      0.0
Utah..................................................     17,801           0.3     2.4       1.3    19.7     1.7        67.9       3.2     3.5      0.0
Vermont...............................................      9,883           0.0     6.6       5.9    11.5     1.0        67.1       5.6     2.3      0.0
Virginia..............................................     74,818           0.0     1.3      12.9    13.5     0.3        45.8       1.2     8.3     16.7
Washington............................................    102,952           0.5     3.3       7.1    13.3     1.8        72.8       0.5     0.7    (\1\)
West Virginia.........................................     40,729           0.4    13.9       6.3    16.0     0.5        44.2       2.9    15.7      0.1
Wisconsin.............................................     77,188           0.2     4.8       5.2    10.8     2.4        67.2       5.9     3.4      0.0
Wyoming...............................................      5,739           0.0    10.1      13.0    19.9     3.5        49.0       3.2     1.4      0.0
Guam..................................................      1,955           0.0     2.8       0.0    31.4     2.9        10.5       6.0    46.3      0.0
Puerto Rico...........................................     58,827           0.0    36.8      18.9     5.7     2.5        21.7       1.7    12.7      0.0
Virgin Islands........................................      1,098           0.3     3.4      61.3     2.4     0.0        13.3       0.0    19.3      0.0
                                                       -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    U.S. total........................................  5,046,263           0.2     4.2       8.3    12.0     2.0        64.2       1.6     7.0      0.4
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Less than 0.05 percent.                                                                                                                             
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         


                              TABLE 8-36.--AFDC FAMILIES BY REASON FOR DEPRIVATION OF THE YOUNGEST CHILD, FISCAL YEAR 1994                              
                                                           [In percent except total families]                                                           
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                              Parent absent                             
                                                                                        --------------------------------------------------------        
                                          Total      Parent       Parent       Parent     Divorced                     Paternity                        
                State                    families   deceased  incapacitated  unemployed      or        Not    --------------------------         Unknown
                                                                                          legally    legally                    Not       Other         
                                                                                         separated  separated  Established  established                 
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama..............................       50,340      1.0          2.8          0.7         14.3        7.3       19.1         51.0       1.7      2.2
Alaska...............................       12,759      2.0          3.7         15.7         23.1       10.3       21.1         19.9       3.4      0.9
Arizona..............................       71,984      1.5          3.1          1.7         12.3       17.5       17.8         42.6       1.9      1.7
Arkansas.............................       26,014      1.6          3.0          2.0         12.7       11.6       32.8         32.0       2.1      2.2
California...........................      908,999      2.4          4.2         16.9          9.7        8.8       14.2         36.8       4.9      2.0
Colorado.............................       41,614      0.6          3.6          2.0         16.2        8.2       19.8         42.0       5.7      1.9
Connecticut..........................       59,201      2.0          2.0          7.1          8.4       10.4       38.6         27.2       3.3      1.0
Delaware.............................       11,460      1.4          0.6          0.9         14.3        6.9       39.1         32.9       2.6      1.4
District of Columbia.................       27,117      2.1          1.3          1.7          3.6        5.0       14.6         66.0       1.9      3.6
Florida..............................      247,087      1.1          1.3          2.2         14.1       15.5       17.3         41.8       4.7      2.0
Georgia..............................      141,451      1.9          2.4          0.8         10.4       13.1       63.7          6.2       0.9      0.5
Hawaii...............................       20,420      2.6          6.1          6.3         13.5       14.7       17.0         35.4       3.6      0.8
Idaho................................        8,676      \1\          5.3          6.1         21.9       18.6       20.8         20.3       4.4      2.5
Illinois.............................      240,319      0.7          2.0          5.2          7.8       11.4       16.9         52.1       2.8      1.1
Indiana..............................       73,803      0.7          2.3          4.8         17.3        8.1       24.1         34.8       2.9      5.1
Iowa.................................       39,555      0.9          4.1          8.4         23.2        8.3       23.7         29.2       1.3      1.0
Kansas...............................       30,102      0.5          3.5          8.5         20.9        8.5       19.2         34.1       3.1      1.8
Kentucky.............................       79,840      0.8         10.5          7.8         17.9       12.2       17.1         30.8       1.0      1.9
Louisiana............................       86,915      1.6          3.9          1.1          6.9       10.2       16.9         56.6       1.3      1.5
Maine................................       22,934      0.9          4.7         10.1         23.3       14.4       27.3         17.1       1.6      0.7
Maryland.............................       80,123      1.9          1.2          1.4          4.3        9.7       31.4         31.0      10.1      9.0
Massachusetts........................      111,783      1.7          3.6          4.6          9.3       13.6       28.2         35.7       2.1      1.2
Michigan.............................      223,950      1.1          1.7         11.8         12.4        6.2       27.4         29.9       3.6      5.9
Minnesota............................       62,979      1.5          3.0          9.0         20.0        7.8       25.2         30.3       1.7      1.5
Mississippi..........................       56,785      1.1          2.5          0.3          7.9       17.2       22.2         46.6       1.4      0.8
Missouri.............................       92,110      0.8          3.6          4.7         15.5       11.1       29.4         31.5       1.8      1.5
Montana..............................       11,908      0.5          4.0          8.3         22.7       10.9       20.0         29.6       3.5      0.5
Nebraska.............................       15,934      0.3          2.7          5.3         12.1       11.3       19.6         43.0       5.7      0.2
Nevada...............................       14,047      1.9          1.9          3.8         12.4       13.2       13.8         47.6       3.0      2.4
New Hampshire........................       11,475      1.3          3.1          4.4         21.3       15.0       28.4         22.8       2.8      0.9
New Jersey...........................      122,427      3.2          0.9          5.4          7.0       10.1       30.1         41.2       1.0      1.0
New Mexico...........................       33,633      1.2          3.1          5.4         14.3       14.5       21.9         35.0       1.6      2.0
New York.............................      454,951      1.4          2.5          4.8          7.6       14.8       31.6         24.0       3.7      9.7
North Carolina.......................      131,220      1.1          2.7          2.8          9.9       14.6       28.9         34.2       3.1      2.7
North Dakota.........................        5,877      0.3          3.2          4.2         26.3        4.8       34.6         22.8       3.5      0.3
Ohio.................................      250,208      0.8          3.3          8.4         16.7        9.3       18.6         35.4       5.5      2.0
Oklahoma.............................       46,971      0.9          3.4          1.1         20.7       19.7       11.7         40.4       0.7      1.4
Oregon...............................       42,135      1.0          3.3          7.8         17.9       14.3       24.7         27.6       2.2      1.2
Pennsylvania.........................      210,155      1.2          5.5          5.3         10.0       10.0       25.2         39.7       1.6      1.6
Rhode Island.........................       22,654      2.2          1.9          3.7         14.5       18.8       27.0         29.6       1.3      1.1
South Carolina.......................       51,925      1.0          1.9          1.0          9.3       17.3       25.2         42.1       0.3      2.0
South Dakota.........................        6,926      0.3          4.2        (\1\)         26.6        3.2       24.0         36.4       2.3      2.9
Tennessee............................      110,766      1.6          3.4          2.6         14.5       13.4       20.5         38.1       4.5      1.5
Texas................................      283,744      1.8          3.5          3.1         11.5       17.6        8.8         49.7       3.2      0.8
Utah.................................       17,801      1.7          5.7          1.4         25.9       17.3       15.6         26.2       5.1      1.1
Vermont..............................        9,883      0.3         10.5         12.5         31.3        3.0       19.1         15.5       3.9      3.9
Virginia.............................       74,818      0.7          4.2          0.8          8.3       14.4       26.2         43.3       1.5      0.8
Washington...........................      102,952      1.2          3.4         13.8         19.0       12.6       21.1         23.1       4.7      1.1
West Virginia........................       40,729      0.9         12.2         16.2         22.0       13.6       11.9         20.4       0.9      2.0
Wisconsin............................       77,188      0.9          3.9          7.0         12.7        6.1       32.7         28.4       6.6      1.7
Wyoming..............................        5,739      1.7          1.7          0.9         36.0       10.4       17.0         28.0       2.9      1.4
Guam.................................        1,955      0.7          3.0         10.1         10.1        7.7       29.1         36.6       2.8      0.0
Puerto Rico..........................       58,827      3.4         10.9        (\1\)         12.7       17.3       46.2          6.2       2.8      0.4
Virgin Islands.......................        1,098      0.3          1.4        (\1\)          9.7        1.1       56.8         29.2       0.3      1.1
                                      ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    U.S. total.......................    5,046,263      1.5          3.4          7.1         11.8       11.8       22.8         35.4       3.5      2.7
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Less than 0.05 percent.                                                                                                                             
                                                                                                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                                                         

    The AFDC quality control system, as revised under the 
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1989 (Public Law 101-239), 
has these features:
 1. Imposes penalties on States whose payment error rates are 
        above the national average.
 2. Establishes penalties on the basis of a sliding scale that 
        reflects the degree to which a State's error rate 
        exceeds the national average.
 3. Takes into account both overpayments and underpayments made 
        to AFDC recipients, and gives States an incentive to 
        improve their overpayment recoveries and AFDC child 
        support collection programs.
 4. Establishes a Quality Control Review Panel to assure that 
        quality control review cases that are in dispute 
        between States and the Federal Government are resolved 
        in a uniform and fair manner.
 5. Retains the Departmental Appeals Board to resolve all other 
        issues in dispute between the States and the Federal 
        Government.
Error measurement
    The core of the quality control system is the quality 
control case survey. The system annually compiles the results 
of a statistically valid sample of cases. Each selected case is 
subjected to a thorough review by quality control personnel, 
including a full field investigation. This review identifies 
payments to ineligibles, overpayments, underpayments, the type 
of error made, the responsibility (recipient versus 
administering agency) for the error, and, to a limited degree, 
incorrect denials of aid. The sample of cases is then 
extrapolated into error ``rates'' for that review period for 
each State; ``caseload'' error rates indicate the proportion of 
ineligible cases, overpaid cases, underpaid cases, and, in some 
cases, improperly denied cases in the sample caseload; 
``payment'' error rates indicate the extent of erroneous 
payments as a proportion of total dollars paid out to the 
sampled caseload.
    Before the official error rate is determined, States may 
challenge the Federal review decisions by requesting 
reconsideration by a Quality Control Review Panel of any 
decisions on cases that differ from their own (``difference'' 
cases). Decisions by the Quality Control Review Panel are on 
the record and are not appealable to the Departmental Appeals 
Board. Decisions on difference cases may not be appealed to 
Federal court until and unless any disallowance becomes final. 
A disallowance becomes final if a State does not appeal the 
disallowance determination to the Departmental Appeals Board, 
or, if the State does appeal, once the Board has made a 
decision.
    In establishing a State's error rate, certain types of 
errors are excluded: (1) errors based on failure to properly 
carry out changes in Federal legislation for a period of 6 
months after the effective date of the legislation or the 
issuance of interim final or final regulations, whichever is 
later (however, States are not relieved of the obligations to 
implement new legislation); (2) errors resulting from a State 
agency's correct use of erroneous information received from 
Federal agencies; (3) errors resulting from a State agency's 
action based on written Federal policies (e.g., Federal written 
advisories made in response to State inquiries); (4) errors due 
to an event that results in a declaration of a state of 
emergency or major disaster by the Governor or the President; 
and (5) errors due to monthly reporting that do not affect the 
amount of payment. Among counted errors: lack of a Social 
Security number in the file (unless an application for a number 
has been filed) and failure to assign child support rights.
    The decision whether a case is in error is made by 
comparison against permissible State practice (i.e., policies 
consistent with the approved State plan). However, if the State 
plan is inconsistent with Federal regulations and the Secretary 
has informed the State of the inconsistency, Federal 
regulations prevail. If a change in State law is required, the 
Secretary may allow a reasonable time for the State to make the 
change. A case that is at variance with Federal law and 
regulations because of compliance with a court order is 
reviewed against the court order.
    In consultation with the States, the Secretary was required 
by the 1989 law to establish regulations setting forth the time 
periods in which: reviews must be completed and findings 
reported; difference cases must be resolved; and error rates 
must be issued. The Secretary was charged with issuing 
regulations establishing the sample size necessary to obtain a 
statistically valid error rate and required to report annually 
to the Senate Committee on Finance and the House Committee on 
Ways and Means as to whether the timetables have been met. If a 
State fails to complete its reviews on a timely basis, the 
Secretary may conduct the reviews on her own initiative and is 
to charge the State for any costs incurred in making the 
reviews.
Determination of disallowances
    In general, the Federal Government provides matching funds 
for all approvable State expenditures except those in excess of 
the error tolerance level (see table 8-37). The error tolerance 
level is the national average error rate or 4 percent, 
whichever is higher, computed by determining the overpayment 
error rate for each State and determining the average for all 
States.
    Disallowances for States with error rates above the error 
tolerance level are assessed on a sliding scale, reflecting the 
degree to which the State's error rate exceeds the tolerance 
level. For example, a State with an error rate of 7.8 percent 
is 20 percent above a 6.5 percent average tolerance level and 
would owe 20 percent of the sanction on the entire amount of 
overpayments above the tolerance level (20 percent  
1.3 percent  the Federal share of benefits). In no 
case, however, is a State required to repay more than 100 
percent of its overpayments above the tolerance level.

    TABLE 8-37.--HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE OF QUALITY CONTROL DISALLOWANCE   
                               COMPUTATION                              
 [Assumes: State overpayment rate: 8%, underpayment rate: 2.8%; National
             overpayment rate: 6%, underpayment rate: 3.0%]             
1. Calculation of State error rate:                                     
    a. National underpayment rate..........................         3.0%
    (less) State underpayment rate.........................         2.8%
                                                            ------------
      Underpayment ``bonus''...............................         0.2%
                                                            ============
    b. State overpayment rate..............................         8.0%
    (less) Underpayment ``bonus''..........................         0.2%
                                                            ------------
      ``Error rate''.......................................         7.8%
                                                            ============
2. Calculation of ``basic'' disallowance:                               
    State's AFDC payments..................................  $10,000,000
    (times) Federal match rate.............................          50%
                                                            ------------
      Gross Federal cost...................................   $5,000,000
    (times) Excess error rate (7.8% is 1.8 percentage                   
     points above 6% national average).....................         1.8%
                                                            ------------
      Excess erroneous payment.............................      $90,000
    (times) Percent by which error rate exceeds national                
     average. (7.8% is 30% above 6%).......................          30%
                                                            ------------
      ``Basic'' disallowance...............................      $27,000
                                                            ============
3. Adjustment for overpayment recoveries:                               
    Overpayment recoveries (Federal share).................       $5,000
    (times) State error rate above national average (1.8%)              
     as a percent of total State error rate (7.8%). (1.8%               
     is 23% of 7.8%).......................................          23%
                                                            ------------
      Overpayment adjustment...............................       $1,150
                                                            ============
4. Adjustment for child support improvement:                            
    a. Percent by which AFDC child support collection rate              
     (e.g., 16%) exceeds national AFDC child support                    
     collection rate (e.g., 12%). (16% is 33% higher than               
     12%)..................................................          33%
    b. Percent by which AFDC child support collection rate              
     (e.g., 16%) exceeds State average over 3 prior years               
     (e.g., 14%). (16% is 14% higher than 14%).............          14%
                                                            ============
    c. ``Basic'' disallowance from step 2..................      $27,000
    (less) Overpayment adjustment (step 3).................       $1,150
                                                            ------------
      Adjusted disallowance................................      $25,850
    (times) Child support adjustment percent (higher of                 
     4.a. or 4.b.).........................................          33%
                                                            ------------
      Child support adjustment.............................       $8,530
                                                            ============
5. Final calculation:                                                   
    Adjusted disallowance (4.c.)...........................      $25,850
    (less) Child support adjustment........................       $8,530
                                                            ------------
      Final disallowance amount............................      $17,320
                                                            ============
                                                                        
                                                                        
Source: Congressional Research Service.                                 

    Any sanction amount owed by a State is due upon issuance by 
the Secretary of the notice of a disallowance. The State may 
pay immediately, or the Secretary and the State may negotiate 
an agreement for repayment over a period of up to 2\1/2\ years. 
Interest accrues beginning 45 days after the date the State 
receives the notice of disallowance. If a subsequent appeal is 
decided in the State's favor, the Federal Government repays all 
payments with interest.
    Before repayment to the Federal Government, several 
adjustments must be made (see table 8-37):
 1. If a State's error rate for underpayments is below the 
        national average, its repayment amount is reduced by 
        reducing its overpayment error rate. For example, if 
        the underpayment rate were 0.1 percentage point below 
        the national average, the overpayment error rate would 
        be reduced by 0.1 percentage point. This reduction 
        could be applied to any penalty due for the measurement 
        year or for either of the following 2 years. The 
        Secretary is required to conduct a study and report to 
        Congress on negative case actions--improper denials and 
        terminations.
 2. A State's repayment amount also is reduced by a percentage 
        equal to the percentage improvement in its AFDC child 
        support collection rate (the number of AFDC cases for 
        which a child support collection is made over the total 
        number of AFDC cases) measured against the average 
        collection rate for the State in the preceding 3 years, 
        or the percentage by which the State's AFDC child 
        support collection rate exceeds the national average, 
        whichever is greater.
 3. The amount to be repaid is further reduced to reflect 
        overpayments recovered by the State.
Appeal procedures
    If a State decides to appeal its disallowance to the 
Departmental Appeals Board, it must do so within 60 days of the 
notice of disallowance. In deciding whether to uphold the 
disallowance or any portion of it, the Board must conduct a 
thorough review of the issues and take into account all 
relevant evidence. With respect to difference cases, the 
Departmental Appeals Board will adopt the decision of the 
Quality Control Review Panel.
    If an appeal is not completed by the Board within 90 days, 
interest is suspended until the appeal is completed. A State 
may appeal a decision by the Departmental Appeals Board 
(including a decision adopted by the Board with respect to a 
difference case) to Federal district court within 90 days of 
the decision by the Board. Court review shall be on the record 
established in the Departmental Appeals Board review in 
accordance with the standard of review prescribed by section 
706(2)(A)-(E) of title 5 of the U.S. Code.
Other features
    The revised quality control system took effect beginning 
with fiscal year 1991. All sanctions for error rates determined 
for earlier years were waived permanently under the provisions 
of OBRA 1989.
    The AFDC system is operated by State quality control staff 
under Federal instructions and guidelines. A State's error rate 
is determined by using findings from both the State's full 
sample and a Federal subsample. The cost of operating quality 
control systems is treated as a regular administrative cost and 
is shared equally by the States and Federal Government, like 
any other administrative expense.
    The basic goal of quality control systems is to reduce, 
over time, the extent and cost of errors in program 
administration. As part of the system, ``corrective action 
plans'' for error reduction are regularly formulated based on 
the findings of the quality control sample surveys. Corrective 
actions can range from personnel policy changes or new computer 
systems, to substantive changes in eligibility rules or 
procedures for verifying information provided by recipients. 
Very often, ``error-prone'' profiles are drawn up from the 
results of quality control surveys to assist administrators in 
identifying cases to which particular attention should be paid.

             Quality Control and JOBS Performance Standards

    In a 1994 report to Congress (U.S. Department of Health and 
Human Services, 1994) on JOBS performance standards, HHS said 
it had begun exploring expansion of the AFDC-QC system to 
incorporate information needed to track participation in JOBS, 
track receipt of AFDC and related program services such as 
child care, assess the quality and ensure the accuracy of 
State-reported JOBS data, and ensure that ``other'' performance 
standards defined by the Secretary are met. In order to 
accommodate extra data elements and performance measures data, 
the report said that the current QC system would have to be 
streamlined and that the Secretary in doing so would consider 
collapsing categories of eligibility and payment and targeting 
resources on information most crucial to payment accuracy and 
eligibility determination. In the case of outcome-based 
measures of performance, HHS said it planned to look at 
potential data sources outside AFDC, such as earnings records, 
State employment security records, State unemployment insurance 
records, and Social Security records. (Note: this report 
included a schedule for developing performance standards. The 
schedule assumed passage in October 1995 of the Clinton 
administration June 1995 welfare bill, which proposed to expand 
JOBS funding.)

                   Recent Quality Control Statistics

    Table 8-38 summarizes national overpayment error rates for 
the AFDC Program over recent quality control review periods. 
Table 8-39 provides a State-by-State comparison of payment 
error rates in fiscal years 1991, 1992, and 1993. It also ranks 
the States by payment error rate (number 1 signifying the 
lowest rate) and provides an estimate of AFDC erroneous 
expenditures in fiscal year 1993. Fiscal year 1993 payment 
error rates ranged from a low of 0.65 percent in South Dakota 
to a peak of 13.95 percent in Florida. Half the States achieved 
a payment error rate below 5.43 percent, but the average was 
6.08 percent. Erroneous AFDC expenditures were reported to 
total $1.346 billion. Table 8-40 provides underpayment error 
rates for fiscal years 1991, 1992, and 1993 by State. In fiscal 
year 1993 these rates ranged from a low of 0.11 percent in 
Alaska (and 0.12 percent in Rhode Island) to a peak of 2.29 
percent in Guam. Nationally, the underpayment error rate 
averaged 0.93 percent. Table 8-41 depicts the estimated 
sanction amounts and estimated collection schedule, according 
to the Department of Health and Human Services. Table 8-42 
provides information on negative case actions, improper denials 
and terminations of aid.

  TABLE 8-38.--SUMMARY OF NATIONAL OVERPAYMENT DOLLAR ERROR RATES UNDER 
                        THE AFDC PROGRAM, 1979-93                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                  Error 
                             Period                                rate 
------------------------------------------------------------------------
October 1979 to March 1980.....................................      8.3
April 1980 to September 1980...................................      7.3
October 1980 to March 1981.....................................      8.3
April 1981 to September 1981...................................      7.0
October 1981 to March 1982.....................................      7.2
April 1982 to September 1982...................................      6.6
October 1982 to March 1983.....................................      6.2
April 1983 to September 1983...................................      6.8
October 1983 to March 1984.....................................      6.2
April 1984 to September 1984...................................      5.7
Fiscal year 1985...............................................      6.1
Fiscal year 1986...............................................      7.1
Fiscal year 1987...............................................      6.3
Fiscal year 1988...............................................      6.8
Fiscal year 1989...............................................      5.7
Fiscal year 1990...............................................      6.0
Fiscal year 1991...............................................  \1\ 5.0
Fiscal year 1992...............................................      5.7
Fiscal year 1993...............................................      6.1
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ This is the lowest national overpayment error rate achieved under   
  the AFDC-QC system.                                                   
                                                                        
Note.--Overpayment errors include payments made to ineligible families  
  but do not include underpayments.                                     
                                                                        
Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                   


 TABLE 8-39.--OVERPAYMENT ERROR RATES IN FISCAL YEARS 1991, 1992 AND 1993, AND ERRONEOUS EXPENDITURES IN FISCAL 
                                                    YEAR 1993                                                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 Fiscal year--                 Federal and State
                                                          ---------------------------              amount of    
                                                                                        1993       erroneous    
                          State                              1991     1992     1993     rank    expenditures in 
                                                             rate     rate     rate             fiscal year 1993
                                                                                                 (in thousands) 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama..................................................     6.29     5.78     4.55       19             $4,342
Alaska...................................................     2.88     3.45     2.39        4              2,638
Arizona..................................................     8.31     6.03     7.50       43             19,892
Arkansas.................................................     3.76     4.99     6.05       33              3,617
California...............................................     3.49     4.01     5.05       22            295,641
Colorado.................................................     2.67     3.19     6.30       37             10,245
Connecticut..............................................     2.74     5.26     5.39       24             20,721
Delaware.................................................     6.68     6.33     8.95       50              3,557
District of Columbia.....................................     5.98     6.07     6.75       40              7,566
Florida..................................................     9.66    14.53    13.95       54            112,279
Georgia..................................................     3.37     5.71     5.91       30             25,542
Guam.....................................................     7.55     9.17     8.10       46                750
Hawaii...................................................     3.18     3.45     2.41        5              3,454
Idaho....................................................     4.17     1.98     4.19       13              1,197
Illinois.................................................     4.99     4.71     5.43       26             47,957
Indiana..................................................     5.80     7.67     9.59       51             21,550
Iowa.....................................................     5.22     7.61     6.25       35             10,159
Kansas...................................................     4.36     4.40     5.43       25              6,810
Kentucky.................................................     3.10     3.51     4.25       15              8,924
Louisiana................................................     7.14     6.94     7.70       45             13,585
Maine....................................................     3.27     3.46     4.52       18              5,289
Maryland.................................................     6.88     6.59     8.82       49             27,811
Massachusetts............................................     3.99     3.55     2.89        7             21,666
Michigan.................................................     4.14     5.77     4.74       21             56,372
Minnesota................................................     2.80     3.17     2.89        8             11,066
Mississippi..............................................     7.47     5.79     6.75       39              5,860
Missouri.................................................     5.27     7.66     7.53       44             21,245
Montana..................................................     4.36     3.08     4.27       16              2,098
Nebraska.................................................     6.89     5.56     5.71       27              3,698
Nevada...................................................     3.97     4.13     5.90       29              2,596
New Hampshire............................................     3.74     6.42     6.84       41              3,836
New Jersey...............................................     4.69     6.53     4.68       20             25,194
New Mexico...............................................     4.92     6.40     5.26       23              6,181
New York.................................................     6.73     7.50     6.95       42            177,071
North Carolina...........................................     3.68     3.91     6.26       36             22,127
North Dakota.............................................     1.65     1.38     3.91       11              1,089
Ohio.....................................................     8.36     8.35     8.55       48             83,516
Oklahoma.................................................     3.86     3.21     4.19       14              7,184
Oregon...................................................     3.74     4.30     4.44       17              8,978
Pennsylvania.............................................     4.92     4.84     5.85       28             53,616
Puerto Rico..............................................     6.10     5.40     5.92       31              4,540
Rhode Island.............................................     3.46     2.03     1.62        2              2,176
South Carolina...........................................     6.56     4.90     6.03       32              7,117
South Dakota.............................................     1.18     1.70     0.65        1                163
Tennessee................................................     6.71     7.42    10.52       52             23,126
Texas....................................................     8.02     8.69    10.57       53             56,256
Utah.....................................................     3.64     2.91     3.51       10              2,726
Vermont..................................................     1.96     2.43     1.92        3              1,260
Virgin Islands...........................................     1.49     1.76     2.63        6                 91
Virginia.................................................     3.39     4.66     6.37       38             14,734
Washington...............................................     5.83     5.57     6.21       34             37,604
West Virginia............................................     8.17     6.58     8.48       47             10,289
Wisconsin................................................     4.77     4.24     4.17       12             18,245
Wyoming..................................................     4.27     2.90     3.14        9                828
                                                          ------------------------------------------------------
    U.S. total \1\.......................................     4.96     5.65     6.08  .......          1,346,077
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Weighted average.                                                                                           
                                                                                                                
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                 


 TABLE 8-40.--UNDERPAYMENT ERROR RATES, STATE RANKING, AND ERRONEOUS EXPENDITURES BY STATE IN FISCAL YEARS 1991,
                                                  1992 AND 1993                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                   Fiscal year--                
                              State                              -----------------------------------------------
                                                                     1991 rate       1992 rate       1993 rate  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama.........................................................            0.77            0.51            0.68
Alaska..........................................................            1.31            0.50            0.11
Arizona.........................................................            1.18            0.96            1.20
Arkansas........................................................            0.76            1.08            0.48
California......................................................            0.54            0.65            1.11
Colorado........................................................            1.72            0.44            0.20
Connecticut.....................................................            0.34            0.31            0.46
Delaware........................................................            0.19            0.89            0.55
District of Columbia............................................            1.01            0.75            0.58
Florida.........................................................            1.21            1.33            1.31
Georgia.........................................................            0.88            2.14            1.05
Guam............................................................            1.88            1.97            2.29
Hawaii..........................................................            0.68            0.26            0.36
Idaho...........................................................            1.50            1.05            1.06
Illinois........................................................            0.54            0.63            0.47
Indiana.........................................................            0.42            0.59            0.84
Iowa............................................................            0.44            0.71            0.60
Kansas..........................................................            0.35            0.40            0.66
Kentucky........................................................            0.72            0.57            0.69
Louisiana.......................................................            0.78            0.91            1.01
Maine...........................................................            0.06            0.47            0.37
Maryland........................................................            0.54            0.32            0.95
Massachusetts...................................................            0.66            0.37            0.39
Michigan........................................................            0.86            0.43            0.79
Minnesota.......................................................            0.56            0.43            0.45
Mississippi.....................................................            0.94            0.79            0.64
Missouri........................................................            0.49            0.10            0.66
Montana.........................................................            1.08            0.52            0.27
Nebraska........................................................            0.37            0.56            0.68
Nevada..........................................................            0.45            0.33            0.57
New Hampshire...................................................            1.77            0.36            1.00
New Jersey......................................................            0.29            0.32            0.51
New Mexico......................................................            1.05            0.81            1.09
New York........................................................            2.08            1.91            1.80
North Carolina..................................................            0.86            0.71            0.94
North Dakota....................................................            0.42            0.44            0.12
Ohio............................................................            0.77            0.65            0.55
Oklahoma........................................................            0.82            0.45            0.97
Oregon..........................................................            0.37            0.40            0.46
Pennsylvania....................................................            0.18            0.62            0.41
Puerto Rico.....................................................            1.25            1.09            0.81
Rhode Island....................................................            0.16            0.09            0.12
South Carolina..................................................            0.90            0.82            1.33
South Dakota....................................................            1.05            0.72            0.44
Tennessee.......................................................            0.31            1.28            1.02
Texas...........................................................            0.63            1.56            1.16
Utah............................................................            0.57            0.45            0.38
Vermont.........................................................            0.22            0.36            0.18
Virgin Islands..................................................            0.00            0.32            0.25
Virginia........................................................            0.31            0.70            0.44
Washington......................................................            0.51            0.62            0.20
West Virginia...................................................            0.53            0.55            0.72
Wisconsin.......................................................            0.82            0.61            1.35
Wyoming.........................................................            0.68            0.72            0.94
                                                                 -----------------------------------------------
    U.S. total \1\..............................................            0.80            0.83           0.93 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Weighted average.                                                                                           
                                                                                                                
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.                 


  TABLE 8-41.--ESTIMATED AFDC SANCTION AMOUNTS AND COLLECTION SCHEDULE, 
                                1991-2001                               
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                 HHS    
                                                              projected 
                                       HHS          HHS        schedule 
                                    estimated    estimated       for    
           Fiscal year              error rate    sanction    collecting
                                    (percent)   amounts (in   sanctions 
                                                 millions)       (in    
                                                              millions) 
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1991.............................          5.0        $32.6         $0.0
1992.............................          5.6         48.0          0.0
1993.............................          6.1         56.0          0.0
1994.............................          6.1         57.2     \1\ 17.2
1995.............................          6.1         54.6          0.0
1996.............................          6.0         51.1         40.7
1997.............................          5.9         51.2         52.0
1998.............................          5.9         52.3         56.7
1999.............................          5.9         53.3         55.9
2000.............................          5.8         53.3         52.8
2001.............................          5.8         54.3         51.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Actual amount collected.                                            
                                                                        
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of    
  Health and Human Services.                                            

                            WELFARE DYNAMICS

    The question of how long families receive AFDC has more 
than one answer. The answer is affected by characteristics of 
the parent, whether repeat episodes of enrollment are taken 
into account, and whether annual or monthly data are examined. 
But some general answers are possible (see Pavetti, 1993, 
1995):
  --Most episodes of AFDC enrollment end within 12 months, but 
        most who exit AFDC come back within 24 months.
  --New enrollees can be expected to spend an average of 6 
        years, including repeat spells, on AFDC.
  --For families on AFDC at any given moment, the average 
        length of AFDC receipt, counting repeat spells, is 13 
        years.

                TABLE 8-42. DATA ON AFDC QUALITY CONTROL NEGATIVE CASE ACTIONS, FISCAL YEAR 1993                
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                          Negative case action error   Total number of incorrect
                                                                     rates               negative case actions  
                                                Total    -------------------------------------------------------
                                              number of                    Advance                     Advance  
                   State                       negative                    notice/                     notice/  
                                                 case      Eligibility     hearing     Eligibility     hearing  
                                               actions    requirements  requirements  requirements  requirements
                                                                            only                        only    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alabama....................................       45,769         1.00          1.50           458           687 
Alaska.....................................       13,347         1.65          0.00           220             0 
Arizona....................................      101,729         1.14          0.95         1,156           963 
Arkansas...................................       40,770         0.00          0.35             0           144 
California.................................      746,946         2.03          2.63        15,153        19,610 
Colorado...................................       89,066         0.24          1.08           213           958 
Connecticut................................       35,015         0.00          0.00             0             0 
Delaware...................................        9,368         0.00          0.00             0             0 
District of Columbia.......................        9,324         9.47          1.05           883            98 
Florida....................................      376,653         3.77          0.65        14,213         2,443 
Georgia....................................      143,558         3.88          2.48         5,564         3,561 
Guam.......................................          810         2.60          2.16            21            18 
Hawaii.....................................       14,554         1.43          2.38           208           347 
Idaho......................................       20,449         1.59          3.70           325           757 
Illinois...................................      167,390         1.73          0.16         2,900           264 
Indiana....................................       35,856         0.76          4.20           274         1,505 
Iowa.......................................       21,031         5.05          0.00         1,061             0 
Kansas.....................................       21,891         0.41          0.83            91           182 
Kentucky...................................       57,778         2.59          3.16         1,494         1,826 
Louisiana..................................       73,581         0.23          0.23           166           166 
Maine......................................       16,752         0.00          0.00             0             0 
Maryland...................................       43,425         0.00          2.45             0         1,063 
Massachusetts..............................       59,158         0.28          1.69           166           997 
Michigan...................................      154,978         3.86          1.23         5,987         1,905 
Minnesota..................................       66,830         0.00          0.00             0             0 
Mississippi................................       33,184         1.12          2.62           373           870 
Missouri...................................       72,518         2.60          0.43         1,888           315 
Montana....................................       17,638         1.44          4.31           253           760 
Nebraska...................................        7,406         0.98          0.00            73             0 
Nevada.....................................       19,843         0.00          0.00             0             0 
New Hampshire..............................       15,475         2.04          0.51           316            79 
New Jersey.................................       68,730         0.26          1.03           177           709 
New Mexico.................................       40,725         4.91          0.38         1,998           154 
New York...................................      285,795         2.63          0.13         7,512           358 
North Carolina.............................       94,062         0.45          0.00           422             0 
North Dakota...............................        8,607         0.44          0.44            38            38 
Ohio.......................................      490,163         2.32          0.53        11,375         2,585 
Oklahoma...................................       50,465         0.00          0.00             0             0 
Oregon.....................................       39,173         1.39          2.08           544           816 
Pennsylvania...............................      134,257         0.95         10.80         1,271        14,494 
Puerto Rico................................       24,482         7.41          2.47         1,813           604 
Rhode Island...............................       13,421         0.00          1.49             0           199 
South Carolina.............................       56,503         6.29          5.69         3,553         3,214 
South Dakota...............................        8,339         0.00          0.57             0            47 
Tennessee..................................      385,219         0.70          0.28         2,679         1,072 
Texas......................................      399,947         3.62          2.42        14,491         9,661 
Utah.......................................       24,119         0.97          8.74           234         2,107 
Vermont....................................       12,668         0.53          0.00            67             0 
Virgin Islands.............................          661         0.00          0.65             0             4 
Virginia...................................       79,377         2.58          1.55         2,046         1,227 
Washington.................................      100,648         1.47          1.29         1,483         1,297 
West Virginia..............................       28,654         3.95          1.32         1,131           337 
Wisconsin..................................       79,267         1.76          0.00         1,394             0 
Wyoming....................................        9,599         1.10          0.73           105            70 
                                            --------------------------------------------------------------------
    United States \1\......................    4,966,973         2.13          1.58       105,789        78,551 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Weighted average excluding the Virgin Islands.                                                              
                                                                                                                
NA--Data not available.                                                                                         
                                                                                                                
Source: Administration for Children and Families, U.S Department of Health and Human Services.                  

  --Almost half of the persons now on the rolls have received 
        benefits, counting repeat spells, for more than 5 
        years.
  --Overrepresented among long-term recipients are parents who 
        entered the program before age 24, those with less than 
        12 years of education, and those with no recent work 
        experience.

                       Exits and Returns to AFDC

    Movement on and off the AFDC rolls is frequent. Exits are 
portrayed in table 8-43; and returns, in table 8-44. Both 
tables are based on monthly caseload data. Table 8-43 shows 
that 56 percent of episodes of AFDC end within 12 months; 70 
percent within 24 months; and almost 85 percent within 4 years. 
The table also shows that work exits from AFDC generally 
account for slightly less than half of all exits within a 5-
year period.
    Table 8-44 shows that many who leave AFDC return to the 
rolls very quickly. Within 1 year of their exit, 45 percent of 
ex-recipients return to AFDC; within 2 years, 58 percent; 
within 4 years, 69 percent. Those who leave AFDC because of 
employment remain off the program somewhat longer than those 
who leave for other reasons.

                 Endings and Beginnings of AFDC Spells

    A study by Ellwood (1986), based on annual rather than 
monthly data, found that the most common route out of AFDC was 
by way of a change in family structure (see table 8-45, column 
1). Some 46 percent of endings occurred this way, 35 percent 
when a female head became a wife and 11 percent when the 
household no longer contained a child under 18. Increased 
earnings were much more significant in ending AFDC than 
decreased earnings were in starting it. Some 26 percent of 
endings occurred this way, 21 percent when the female head 
herself earned more money and 5 percent when another member of 
the family increased earnings.

 TABLE 8-43.--CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN LEAVING WELFARE BY DURATION
                   OF TIME ON WELFARE AND TYPE OF EXIT                  
------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Duration (months)           Work exits  Other exits   All exits 
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1-12.............................         25.4         30.4         55.8
13-24............................         31.7         38.3         70.0
25-36............................         35.9         42.3         78.2
37-48............................         39.0         43.6         82.6
49-60............................         40.9         45.4         86.3
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Pavetti (1993, p. 46).                                          


    TABLE 8-44.--CUMULATIVE PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN RETURNING TO AFDC BY    
               DURATION OF TIME OFF AFDC AND TYPE OF EXIT               
------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Duration (months)           Work exits  Other exits   All exits 
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1-12.............................         39.4         49.5         44.9
13-24............................         52.5         61.8         57.6
25-36............................         57.8         69.3         64.2
37-48............................         62.5         74.3         69.1
49-60............................         65.0         76.6         71.5
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Pavetti (1995).                                                 

    Pavetti's 1993 analysis, based on monthly data, found that 
exits for work outnumbered all others (see table 8-45, column 
2). Work exits represented 46 percent of all exits, and 
accounted for more than three times as many exits as changes in 
family structure (14 percent). The author of the 1993 study 
said at least four factors could explain all or some of the 
difference in the findings of the two studies: use of annual 
versus monthly data; differences in time periods covered; 
differences in data sources, and differences in population 
studied. After scrutiny, Pavetti estimated that more than 70 
percent of the difference could be attributed to the use of 
monthly rather than annual data, just under 20 percent to an 
increase in work exits over time, about 8 percent to 
differences in data sources, and 3 percent to differences in 
the behavior of young women.
    Bane and Ellwood (1983, p. 55) found that about 40 percent 
of those who left AFDC were poor after their exit. About 52 
percent of those whose AFDC eligibility ended because they no 
longer had an eligible child were poor in the following year. 
For those who earned their way off AFDC, about 32 percent were 
poor in the year after their welfare spell; their poverty 
reflected the subpoverty gross income eligibility limits of 
AFDC in many States.
    The same study found that three-fourths of AFDC spells 
began with a relationship change that created a female-headed 
family with children (45 percent when a wife became a female 
head; 30 percent when an unmarried woman acquired a child); 
only 15 percent of beginnings were traced to reductions in 
earnings (Bane and Ellwood, 1983, p. 18). Almost half (48 
percent) of the families who entered AFDC had income below the 
poverty threshold in the previous year (and 75 percent were 
poor in the first year of AFDC receipt).

       TABLE 8-45.--EVENTS ASSOCIATED WITH ENDINGS OF AFDC SPELLS       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                 1986 study   1993 study
                     Event                        (annual      (monthly 
                                                   data)        data)   
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Marriage, remarriage, or reconciliation.......         34.6         11.4
No eligible child left in household...........         11.2          3.1
Increase in earnings of female head...........         21.3         45.9
Increase in earnings in others in family......          4.9  ...........
Increase in transfer income...................         14.2      \1\ 7.3
Disability....................................  ...........          1.5
Move..........................................          1.8      \2\ 6.9
Other, including unidentified.................      \3\11.8         24.1
    Total \4\.................................        100.0        100.0
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Increase in non-work-related income (assumed to be transfer income).
\2\ Move in with family, 2.5 percent; move in with nonrelatives, 2.4    
  percent; and move between States, 2 percent.                          
\3\ Includes decrease in number of eligible family members (other than a
  child's reaching age 18), 2.4 percent.                                
\4\ Columns do not add to 100 percent due to rounding.                  
                                                                        
Source: Ellwood (1986); Pavetti (1993).                                 

    A new study based on 168 months (14 years) of data about 
AFDC receipt from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 
(NLSY) examines both a parent's first AFDC experience and any 
subsequent reentry to the rolls after an exit (Cao, 1996). It 
found that among females under the age of 21 as of January 
1979, having a newborn was the most important reason for first 
entering welfare and also for recidivism, other things being 
equal. Highlights:
  --The most common cause for first entering AFDC was having a 
        baby within the last 6 months (74 percent).
  --Giving birth again appeared to be a major cause for 
        reentering AFDC after leaving the program (54 percent 
        among persons making a first return to AFDC; 45 percent 
        and 40 percent among those returning a second and third 
        time, respectively).
  --A decline in earnings accounted for only about 4 percent of 
        cases first entering AFDC and between 8 and 10 percent 
        of those returning to the program after an exit.
  --``Becoming unmarried'' accounted for less than 2 percent of 
        first spells of AFDC and for less than 4 percent of 
        first returns to AFDC after an exit. The study noted 
        that these low percentages might reflect the relative 
        youth of AFDC recipients in the sample, many of whom 
        became mothers as teens and never married.

    Length of Time on Welfare and Turnover Within the AFDC Caseload

Annual data
    A 1983 study by Bane and Ellwood (p. 55) of AFDC families, 
based on annual data, found that although most ``spells'' of 
AFDC are relatively short, most persons enrolled in the program 
at any point in time are in the midst of spells that last at 
least 8 years. As the first column of table 8-46 illustrates, 
the study reported that 48 percent of AFDC spells lasted less 
than 2 years and 62 percent lasted less than 4 years. At the 
same time, the study reported (column two) that 50 percent of 
the persons enrolled at a point in time were in the midst of 
very long episodes (eight or more years) of AFDC receipt. 
Column two can be used to estimate the proportion of all 
person-years of AFDC accounted for by persons with single 
welfare spells of different length. Because the study found 
that the average amount of AFDC received did not vary 
systematically by spell length, this column also provides the 
distribution of program resources by length of time on AFDC. It 
shows that 50 percent of resources are spent on persons with 
very long single episodes of AFDC (at least 8 years).

           TABLE 8-46.--DISTRIBUTION OF LENGTH OF TIME ON AFDC          
                              [In percent]                              
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                  Single spell         Multiple spell   
                                    analysis              analysis      
                             -------------------------------------------
                                          Persons    Persons    Persons 
    Expected time on AFDC      Persons    on AFDC   beginning   on AFDC 
                              beginning     at a      first       at a  
                               a spell    point in     AFDC     point in
                                            time      spell       time  
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1-2 years...................         48         14         30          7
3-4 years...................         14         10         20         11
5-7 years...................         20         25         19         17
8 or more years.............         17         50         30         65
                             -------------------------------------------
      All...................        100        100        100        100
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Bane & Ellwood (1983); Ellwood (1986).                          

    Because the 1983 study understated the extent of long-term 
welfare dependence by neglecting to take into account that 
multiple spells of welfare receipt are common, Ellwood updated 
the study in 1986. Accounting for multiple spells alters the 
distribution of total expected time on welfare, as the last two 
columns of table 8-46 illustrate. The fact remains, however, 
that while a significant percent of all persons on welfare will 
be enrolled for less than 2 years (30 percent) or less than 4 
years (50 percent), almost two-thirds of persons enrolled in 
AFDC at a point in time are in the midst of what will be long 
periods of welfare receipt (8 years or more). Accounting for 
multiple spells increases average AFDC duration for new 
entrants to 6.6 years (from 4.7 years for single spells) and 
for recipients at a point in time to 11.6 years (from 10 
years).
    This seemingly paradoxical finding that there are large 
differences between point-in-time and ever-begun estimates of 
welfare dependency highlights a crucial element of welfare 
dynamics that is characteristic of the dynamics of spells of 
poverty and unemployment as well. The differences in the 
estimates occur because the probability of being on welfare at 
a given time is necessarily higher for long-term recipients 
than for those who have short welfare spells. The large number 
of persons who use welfare for a short time come and go, but 
the long-term users remain on the rolls.
Monthly data
    More recent research has used monthly data to examine 
length of AFDC receipt, including repeat spells. Results are 
shown in table 8-47. Column 1 indicates that 35 percent of new 
entrants (beginning cohort) can be expected over their 
lifetimes to spend more than 5 years on AFDC. Column two 
indicates that 76 percent of persons now on the rolls can be 
expected to spend more than 5 years in the program, and column 
three, that 48 percent of current recipients already have spent 
more than 5 years on AFDC. Estimated average durations are 6.1 
years over lifetime for new entrants, 13 years over lifetime 
for current recipients, and 6.5 years already received by 
current recipients. These estimates are based on behavior of 
recipients under the current AFDC system. Policy changes might 
alter the length of time spent on cash assistance.

 TABLE 8-47.--DISTRIBUTION OF TIME ON AFDC FOR A BEGINNING COHORT OF RECIPIENTS AND FOR THE CASELOAD AT A POINT 
                                                     IN TIME                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                          Current recipients    
                                                                 Beginning cohort--  ---------------------------
                                                                   distribution of    Distribution              
                     Time on AFDC (months)                        expected lifetime    of expected  Distribution
                                                                        total           lifetime    of AFDC time
                                                                                          total        to date  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1-12..........................................................              27.4               4.5          16.4
13-24.........................................................              14.8               4.8          11.9
25-36.........................................................              10.0               4.9           9.5
37-48.........................................................               7.7               5.0           7.8
49-60.........................................................               5.5               4.5           6.6
More than 60..................................................              34.8              76.2          47.8
    Total.....................................................             100.0             100.0         100.0
    Average duration (years)..................................               6.1             12.98          6.49
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Pavetti (1995).                                                                                         

      Relationship of Personal Characteristics to Duration of AFDC

    Some groups are likely to spend more time than average on 
AFDC. As was seen in Table 8-47, 58 percent of first-time 
recipients are expected to spend over 24 months and 35 percent 
to spend longer than 60 months on the program over their 
lifetime. Table 8-48 presents findings about personal 
characteristics associated with long AFDC use. Likely to use 
AFDC longer than average during their lifetimes are persons 
who, when they enter the program, have less than 12 years of 
education, have no recent work experience, are under age 24, 
are Hispanic or black, are never married, have a child below 
age 3, or have 3 or more children. For example, AFDC duration 
longer than 60 months is expected for 40 percent of those with 
fewer than 12 years of education (and 63 percent of those with 
fewer than 9 years of education), 45 percent of those without 
recent work experience, and 43 percent of those who never 
married.

          TABLE 8-48.--TIME ON WELFARE AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS FOR A BEGINNING COHORT OF RESIDENTS         
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                    Percent          Percent    
                                                                Percent of all    expected to      expected to  
       Characteristics at beginning of first AFDC spell           first-time      spend longer     spend longer 
                                                                  recipients     than 24 months   than 60 months
                                                                                    on AFDC          on AFDC    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
All recipients...............................................            100.0             57.8             34.8
Education:                                                                                                      
    <9 years.................................................             13.0             75.3             63.4
    9-11 years...............................................             34.0             66.2             40.0
    12+ years................................................             53.0             48.2             24.3
Work experience:                                                                                                
    No recent................................................             38.7             67.1             44.9
    Recent...................................................             61.3             52.0             28.3
Age:                                                                                                            
    Under 24.................................................             52.7             64.5             41.9
    25-30....................................................             24.9             51.9             25.6
    31-40....................................................             19.3             48.4             28.3
    Over 40..................................................              3.1             51.1             25.2
Race:                                                                                                           
    White/other..............................................             55.6             50.9             26.7
    Black....................................................             28.4             66.4             41.4
    Hispanic.................................................             16.0             66.9             50.7
Marital status:                                                                                                 
    Never married............................................             58.2             65.5             43.1
    Ever married.............................................             41.8             47.2             23.0
Age of youngest child:                                                                                          
    <12 months...............................................             52.1             64.8             39.2
    13-36 months.............................................             16.6             55.5             37.9
    37-60 months.............................................             10.9             54.3             29.5
    61-120 months............................................             11.2             49.7             29.9
    121+ months..............................................              9.3             37.1             15.2
Number of children:                                                                                             
    1........................................................             57.2             57.0             35.8
    2........................................................             33.2             58.2             31.9
    3........................................................              7.5             58.7             35.9
    Over 3...................................................              2.2             71.0            43.1 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Pavetti (1995).                                                                                         

    Table 8-49 presents data on the average number of years of 
AFDC receipt expected over their lifetimes for groups with 
various characteristics. The table shows that the most powerful 
predictor of long-term AFDC use is marital status. Never-
married women average 9 years of AFDC, and 39 percent of them 
are predicted to receive AFDC for at least 10 years. Other 
groups with average AFDC duration of at least 8 years include 
those who, when they first entered the program, were under age 
22, were black, had a child under age 3, or had not worked in 
the previous 2 years.

   TABLE 8-49.--PERCENTAGE OF AFDC RECIPIENTS WITH VARIOUS CHARACTERISTICS AND AVERAGE TOTAL DURATIONS OF AFDC  
                                                     RECEIPT                                                    
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                               Percent of                 Average      Percent  
                                                               all first-   Percent of    expected   expected to
                                                                  time      recipients   number of    have AFDC 
         Characteristic at beginning of first spell            recipients     at any      years of    spells of 
                                                                  (new       point in       AFDC      10 or more
                                                              beginnings)    time \1\     receipt       years   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Age:                                                                                                            
  Under 22..................................................         30.0         35.9         8.23         32.8
  22-30.....................................................         40.7         41.9         7.08         25.8
  31-40.....................................................         11.8          8.8         5.15         15.0
  Over 40...................................................         17.6         13.4         5.23         15.8
Race/ethnicity:                                                                                                 
  White.....................................................         55.2         47.7         5.95         19.6
  Black.....................................................         40.1         47.4         8.14         32.0
  Other.....................................................          4.8          4.8         6.94         25.5
Years of education:                                                                                             
  Under 9...................................................          9.7          9.6         6.81         24.5
  9-11......................................................         37.6         41.9         7.65         29.2
  Over 11...................................................         52.7         48.5         6.33         21.8
Marital status:                                                                                                 
  Never-married.............................................         29.5         40.0         9.33         39.3
  Divorced..................................................         28.1         20.2         4.94         13.7
  Separated.................................................         32.3         31.9         6.80         24.4
  Widowed...................................................          8.4          5.3         4.37         10.2
Number of children:                                                                                             
  0-1.......................................................         43.4         48.7         7.71         29.7
  2-3.......................................................         42.8         37.3         6.04         20.1
  Over 3....................................................         13.8         13.7         6.83         24.5
Age of youngest child:                                                                                          
  Under 3...................................................         51.3         60.4         8.09         31.9
  3-5.......................................................         22.5         22.3         6.79         24.2
  6-10......................................................         19.7         12.9         4.51         11.3
  Over 10...................................................          6.5          4.4         4.71         12.4
Work experience:                                                                                                
  Worked in the last 2 years................................         65.8         59.6         6.53         23.0
  Did not work in the last 2 years..........................         34.2         39.8         8.00         31.2
Disability status:                                                                                              
  No disability.............................................         81.6         81.4         6.85         24.8
  Disability limits work....................................         18.4         18.6         6.97         25.0
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ These figures assume that the AFDC caseload is a ``steady state.''                                          
                                                                                                                
Note.--For each individual who began a first spell on or after the third sample year of the longitudinal study, 
  probabilities are predicted for exiting from first spell, for recidivism, and for exiting from later spells,  
  based on logic models.                                                                                        
                                                                                                                
Source: Ellwood (1986, p. 57).                                                                                  

                           Welfare Dependency

    Table 8-50 examines the proportion of certain population 
groups that received any AFDC during the decade of the 1980s, 
and for how many years. The table shows that 88 percent of the 
population received no AFDC (93 percent of whites and 66 
percent of nonwhites). Among children age 0-5 in 1980, 80 
percent received no AFDC (88 percent of whites and 42 percent 
of blacks). Of persons who lived in households in which some 
AFDC was received (at least $1), 5.5 percent were enrolled for 
1-2 years, 4.3 percent for 3-7 years, and 2 percent for 8-10 
years.

                    TABLE 8-50.--WELFARE DEPENDENCY BY TWO DEFINITIONS OF DEPENDENCY, 1980-89                   
                                                  [In percent]                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                              Fraction living in          Fraction living in    
                                                            households in which at      households in which the 
                                                             least $1 of AFDC was        sum of AFDC and food   
                                                           received by head or wife    stamps received by either
                                                         ----------------------------  head or wife was at least
                                                                                      50 percent of total family
                    Years on welfare                                                            income          
                                                                   Children   Women, ---------------------------
                                                            All     age 0-5  age 18-                      Women,
                                                                    in 1980   55 in            Children  age 18-
                                                                               1980     All     age 0-5   55 in 
                                                                                                in 1980    1980 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
All races:                                                                                                      
    0 years.............................................     88.2      80.2     86.3     93.6      87.7     92.8
    1-2 years...........................................      5.5       8.1      6.2      3.1       5.6      3.4
    3-7 years...........................................      4.3       6.3      5.6      2.3       3.6      2.8
    8-10 years..........................................      2.0       5.4      2.6      0.9       3.1      1.1
                                                         -------------------------------------------------------
      Total.............................................    100.0     100.0    100.0    100.0     100.0    100.0
                                                         =======================================================
White:                                                                                                          
    0 years.............................................     92.6      88.2     92.2     96.1      92.3     96.0
    1-2 years...........................................      3.9       5.1      4.1      2.2       4.6      2.1
    3-7 years...........................................      2.6       3.8      2.7      1.3       2.1      1.4
    8-10 years..........................................      0.9       2.7      1.2      0.3       1.0      0.3
                                                         -------------------------------------------------------
      Total.............................................    100.0     100.0    100.0    100.0     100.0    100.0
                                                         =======================================================
Nonwhite:                                                                                                       
    0 years.............................................     66.3      41.8     65.7     81.2      65.2     81.3
    1-2 years...........................................     13.8      22.4     13.5      7.6      10.8      7.5
    3-7 years...........................................     12.6      18.1     13.0      7.4      11.1      7.5
    8-10 years..........................................      7.2      17.7      7.7      3.7      12.8      3.7
                                                         -------------------------------------------------------
      Total.............................................    100.0     100.0    100.0    100.0     100.0    100.0
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table reads: 88.2 percent of the population lived in households in which no AFDC income was received during the 
  1980-89 period.                                                                                               
                                                                                                                
Source: Special tabulation of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics by Greg J. Duncan and Kavitha Sitaram.         

    The table also examines the proportion of certain 
population groups for whom AFDC plus food stamps represented at 
least 50 percent of total family income for some years during 
1980-89. This degree of AFDC/food stamp dependence was found 
among 6.3 percent of the total population (3.8 percent of 
whites and 18.7 percent of nonwhites). Moreover, 3.1 percent 
were enrolled in AFDC for 1-2 years; 2.3 percent for 3-7 years, 
and 0.9 percent for 8-10 years. Among children aged 0-5 in 
1980, 12.3 percent were in households that depended on AFDC and 
food stamps for at least 50 percent of income during some years 
during the decade (7.7 percent of whites and 34.7 percent of 
nonwhites).
    A comparison of similar data for the decade of the 1970s 
shows an increase in the 1980s of long-term enrollment in AFDC 
by persons in households that received half their income from 
AFDC and food stamps. For children, the fraction with this 
degree of welfare dependence for 8-10 years rose from 1.6 
percent in the 1970s to 3.1 percent in the 1980s (from 6.8 to 
12.8 percent for nonwhite children). For women (age 18-55 at 
the start of each decade) the comparable fraction rose from 
0.07 to 1.1 percent. A major factor in the increased AFDC-food 
stamp dependence in the 1980s probably was the elimination of 
the food stamp purchase price requirement at the very end of 
the 1970s. That change in law dramatically increased enrollment 
in food stamps among persons already eligible.

             Intergenerational Transmission of AFDC Receipt

    Several researchers have examined the question of 
intergenerational transmission of receipt of AFDC. In general, 
using panel data, they have measured AFDC income in parental 
families and then examined its correlation with later behavior 
of their daughters, either through simple cross-tabulations or 
multivariate statistical analyses. A 1990 review of seven 
studies made between 1986 and 1990 (Moffitt, 1990) concluded 
that their results provide consistent evidence of strong 
correlations between parental welfare receipt and later 
behavior of the daughters. Moffitt concluded that the research 
showed that daughters from welfare families are much more 
likely to participate in the welfare system themselves at a 
later date, and are more likely to have births in general and 
premarital births in particular. Evidence was weaker for the 
one study that examined the effect of parental welfare receipt 
on later work effort by sons.
    The studies do not answer the question of whether growing 
up in a family that receives AFDC ``causes'' a daughter to 
later become an AFDC mother. Many omitted variables, such as 
the human capital characteristics of the parental family, could 
be responsible for the observed correlation. Children from 
AFDC-dependent homes generally have fewer parental resources 
available to them, live in worse neighborhoods, and go to lower 
quality schools. All of these factors could have an independent 
effect on the probability of their receiving AFDC in adulthood. 
Further, if there is any transmission of AFDC receipt from one 
generation to the next, it could operate in a number of ways: 
for example, by lowering the stigma of welfare, by acquainting 
the AFDC child with rules of the system, by affecting the work 
effort of the AFDC family or its investments in human capital 
(Moffitt, 1990).
    Table 8-51 presents findings from a 1984 study, based on 
data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics. The table shows 
that 58 percent of daughters in families that received some 
welfare later received welfare themselves as young adults, 
compared with 27 percent of daughters who grew up with no 
welfare. On the other hand, only 19 percent of black daughters 
and 26 percent of white daughters in ``highly dependent'' 
welfare families became ``highly dependent'' themselves.
    Table 8-52 summarizes findings from a 1988 study that 
surveyed a sample of daughters whose economic status was 
observed when the daughters were between the ages of 13 and 15 
and later when they were between the ages of 21 and 23. For 
each of the periods, AFDC dependence was defined as: no 
dependence--no AFDC income reported; moderate dependence--AFDC 
reported in 1 or 2 years; high dependence--AFDC in all 3 years. 
Daughters from highly dependent homes were several times more 
likely to become highly dependent themselves (20 percent) than 
were daughters from nonrecipient homes (3 percent). At the same 
time, 64 percent of the daughters from highly dependent homes 
received no AFDC as young adults.
    A more recent study (Gottschalk, 1992) distinguished 
between parents who were eligible for AFDC and those who were 
not, noting that some of the positive correlation found between 
mothers' and daughters' AFDC use might reflect the low 
probability that adult daughters of high-income parents would 
meet the AFDC income test. Gottschalk also controlled for 
differences between parents who, though AFDC-eligible, did not 
participate, and those who did. Finally, he used event history 
analysis to lengthen the observation period (since a short 
period is likely to miss many mothers and daughters who at some 
point receive AFDC).
    The study showed that daughters raised in AFDC households 
had different economic and demographic characteristics from 
those raised in nonrecipient households. They were 
disproportionately nonwhite and came from more disadvantaged 
backgrounds, as measured by family income, mother's education, 
or the proportion of disadvantaged students in their school. 
Households eligible for AFDC that did not enroll in the program 
also were more disadvantaged than recipient households.
    This study reached three broad conclusions: (1) parental 
enrollment in AFDC is correlated with daughters' later 
participation in AFDC; (2) the parents' participation does not 
seem to be capturing solely the effects of low income; the 
intergenerational correlation seems to reflect more than a 
simple statistical artifact; and (3) the loss of income if the 
parent does not receive AFDC, even though eligible, raises the 
probability that the daughter will receive AFDC; the effect of 
this income loss offsets nearly half of the participation 
effect for whites.
    Daughters who grew up in AFDC had a higher overall 
probability of giving birth by the end of the survey than 
daughters of eligible parents who did not participate in AFDC 
(53 percent versus 33.4 percent). Further, more than half (55.8 
percent) of the young mothers who were raised in AFDC families 
also received AFDC for their children. In comparison, the 
probability of a daughter's receiving AFDC for her own child 
was less than one-third (32.9 percent) if her eligible parent 
had not participated in AFDC.

                        TABLE 8-51.--INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF WELFARE DEPENDENCY                       
                                                  [In percent]                                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                        Status of daughters as young adults                                     
                                 ------------------------------------------------  Some welfare      Number of  
     Parental welfare status        Received no     Low welfare    High welfare     dependence     observations 
                                      welfare       dependence      dependence                                  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Received no welfare:                                                                                            
    Black.......................              53              33              14              47             108
    White.......................              79              19               2              21             354
    All women...................              73              22               5              27             462
Low welfare dependence:                                                                                         
    Black.......................              31              49              20              69             130
    White.......................              63              31               5              36              75
    All women...................              42              42              15              57             205
High welfare dependence:                                                                                        
    Black.......................              42              39              19              58              92
    White.......................              27              47              26              73              25
    All women...................              41              41              21              61             117
Some welfare dependence:                                                                                        
    Black.......................              36              45              19              64             222
    White.......................              54              35              11              45             100
    All women...................              42              42              16              58             322
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note.--``High welfare dependence'' is defined as receiving at least 25 percent of average family income as cash 
  welfare payments. ``Some welfare dependence'' accounts for all women with either low or high welfare          
  dependence.                                                                                                   
                                                                                                                
Source: Reanalysis by Committee on Ways and Means staff based on data from Hill & Ponza (1984).                 


                             TABLE 8-52.--INTERGENERATIONAL PATTERNS OF AFDC RECEIPT                            
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                               Dependence of daughters (percent)      Unweighted
            Dependence of parents  (percent)             --------------------------------------------  number of
                                                              No      Moderate     High      Total       cases  
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
No......................................................         91          6          3        100         811
Moderate................................................         62         22         16        100         127
High....................................................         64         16         20        100         147
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Duncan, Hill, & Hoffman (1988).                                                                         

       ADOLESCENT AND OUT-OF-WEDLOCK CHILDBEARING AND USE OF AFDC

                            Trends Over Time

    Adolescent pregnancy, declining marriage rates, and 
increased childbearing among unmarried women have contributed 
to the rising share of children being born to unwed mothers. 
Out-of-wedlock birth rates, slowly but steadily moving upward 
since at least the 1940s, took a sharp upward turn in the mid-
1980s. The diminishing fertility of married women coincident 
with the growing fertility of unmarried women has increased the 
likelihood that children born today will be born outside 
marriage. These trends have placed children at increased risk 
of being poor and have placed increased demands on the Nation's 
welfare programs. Among children whose mother has never 
married, 64.3 percent were poor in 1993. Nearly half of never-
married mothers reported receiving AFDC (47.5 percent) in 1993.
    The rate of childbearing by unmarried women age 15-44 
increased by 54 percent from 1980-91, but has remained stable 
at about 45.3 births per 1,000 unmarried women over the last 3 
years. As chart 8-2 depicts, the birth rate of unmarried 
adolescent women closely tracks that of all unmarried women of 
childbearing age. Almost one-third (31 percent) of all births 
in 1993 were out of wedlock (the most recent year for which 
fertility data are available).
    Most teen births were out of wedlock. Specifically, 71.3 
percent of the 501,093 births to adolescents in 1993 were out 
of wedlock (Wasem, 1995). On the other hand, the age group that 
comprises the largest portion of out-of-wedlock births in 1993 
was women in their early twenties (35.4 percent). While these 
two statistics imply that adolescent childbearing is only an 
overlapping portion of nonmarital births, the following 
analysis of the birth order patterns (e.g., how many previous 
births the mother has had) reveals a more complex relationship. 
Although adolescent childbearing should not be viewed as 
synonymous with out-of-wedlock births, adolescence appears to 
be the time in life that most unmarried women start having 
children.

CHART 8-2. BIRTH RATES FOR ALL WOMEN, ADOLESCENTS, UNMARRIED WOMEN, AND 
                     UNMARRIED ADOLESCENTS, 1940-93


    Source: Congressional Research Service analysis of National 
Center for Health Statistics natality data.

                    First Births to Unmarried Women

    Not only has the sheer number of births to unmarried women 
increased sharply over the past 25 years, but the birth order 
patterns of unmarried women have changed as well. As chart 8-3 
depicts, 60 percent of the 318,100 births to unmarried women in 
1967 were their first child. By 1993, just under half (48.3 
percent) of the 1.2 million births to unmarried women were 
their first child. In other words, more than half of the 
unmarried women who had a baby in 1993 had given birth 
previously. Some of these unmarried women, however, may have 
been previously married.
    When the birth order patterns of unmarried women are broken 
down by age in chart 8-4, it becomes clear that many of the 
young women in the largest category (20-24 age group) had 
previously given birth before they had this child out of 
wedlock. Only 45 percent of these births are the first births 
these young women have had, suggesting that many of these 
unmarried mothers began their families as adolescents. Although 
births to adolescents are only 30 percent of the 1.2 million 
births to unmarried women, they make up almost half of all 
first births to unmarried women (47.9 percent).

CHART 8-3. BIRTHS TO UNMARRIED WOMEN IN 1967 AND 1993: FIRST BIRTHS AND 
                            PREVIOUS BIRTHS



    Source: Congressional Research Service analysis of National 
Center for Health Statistics natality data.

  CHART 8-4. BIRTHS TO UNMARRIED WOMEN IN 1993: LIVE BIRTHS BY AGE OF 
                       MOTHER AND PREVIOUS BIRTHS



    Source: Congressional Research Service analysis of National 
Center for Health Statistics natality data.

                           Links to AFDC Use

    The Congressional Budget Office (Adams & Williams, 1990) 
analyzed data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 
and found that almost half of all adolescent mothers began 
receiving AFDC within 5 years of the birth of their first 
child. Over three-fourths of unmarried adolescent mothers began 
receiving AFDC within 5 years of the birth of their first 
child. Moreover, CBO found that observed differences in receipt 
of AFDC by age and race were largely explained by the marital 
status of the adolescent mother.
    In addition to the role of adolescent childbearing, the 
links between out-of-wedlock childbearing and AFDC use are also 
being documented. Analysis of Current Population Survey data by 
the Congressional Research Service found that perhaps as much 
as half of caseload growth in recent years could be attributed 
to the increased number of mother-only families (Gabe, 1992).
    Similarly, an analysis of data from the Survey of Income 
and Program Participation (SIPP) done by Amara Bachu and Martin 
O'Connell (1995) of the Bureau of the Census found that nearly 
half (47.5 percent) of AFDC mothers have never been married. As 
shown in chart 8-5, this study, which compares the demographic 
traits of AFDC mothers with non-AFDC mothers as of 1993, found 
further that the percent of AFDC mothers who had never been 
married was double the percent of non-AFDC mothers who had 
never been married (23.6 percent).

  CHART 8-5. MARITAL STATUS OF AFDC MOTHERS AND NON-AFDC MOTHERS, 1993


    Source: Congressional Research Service analysis of data 
from the March 1995 Survey of Income and Program Participation 
(SIPP).

    As chart 8-6 depicts, an analysis of the SIPP by Nicholas 
Zill of Westat (1996) revealed that 68 percent of AFDC mothers 
were unmarried at the time their first child was born, while 
only 27 percent of non-AFDC mothers were. Over half (55 
percent) of AFDC mothers were adolescents at the time of their 
first birth in comparison with just under one-third (31 
percent) of non-AFDC mothers. Zill also found that 44 percent 
of AFDC mothers were unmarried adolescents at the time of their 
first birth while only 17 percent of non-AFDC mothers were 
unmarried adolescents at the time of their first birth.

 CHART 8-6. MARITAL STATUS OF AFDC MOTHERS AND NON-AFDC MOTHERS AT THE 
                  TIME OF THEIR FIRST CHILDBIRTH, 1993


    Source: Zill (1996).


    Preliminary NCHS data indicate that the number of teenage 
mothers was 907,368 in 1983, of whom 652,678 were unmarried.
    The differences in the welfare recipiency patterns of 
adolescent mothers of different ages could be due to a number 
of factors. In particular, they are likely to be partially due 
to marital status differences between the two groups--the 
younger mothers in this sample were much less likely to be 
married than were older mothers. Other factors that might play 
a role include differences in living arrangements and in the 
likelihood of having a subsequent birth.

                          LEGISLATIVE HISTORY

                   [Legislative History Since 1980.]

The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1981
    The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1981, 
signed into law on August 31, 1981 made extensive changes in 
AFDC. The law imposed a gross income limit for AFDC eligibility 
(150 percent of a State's need standard), capped the deduction 
for child care costs ($160 monthly per child), set a standard 
deduction for other work expenses ($75 monthly), and ended the 
work incentive disregard for working recipients after their 
first 4 months on a job. These provisions affected AFDC parents 
with jobs by reducing or ending their benefits. They also had 
potential effects on welfare mothers without jobs by reducing 
the gains possible from work, and on nonwelfare mothers with 
low earnings. Under previous law, a person in the latter group 
could increase total income by decreasing 
or ending earnings, enrolling in AFDC, and then resuming work. 
OBRA also required States to count part of the income of a 
stepparent as available to an AFDC child.
    Former HHS Assistant Secretary Rubin reported in testimony 
that 408,000 families lost eligibility and 299,000 lost 
benefits as a result of the OBRA changes.
    GAO evaluation of the 1981 amendments.--At the request of 
the House Committee on Ways and Means, the U.S. General 
Accounting Office conducted an in-depth evaluation of the 
effect of the 1981 amendments on individual AFDC families in 
five cities: Boston, Dallas, Memphis, Milwaukee, and Syracuse. 
GAO examined case records, analyzed 10 years of HHS program 
data, and interviewed former working AFDC recipients more than 
1 year after their termination from AFDC due to the 1981 
amendments.
    Findings include:
  --Once the declines in caseload and outlays stabilized, OBRA 
        had decreased the national AFDC-basic monthly caseload 
        by 493,000 cases and monthly outlays by $93 million. 
        However, because the caseload rose faster than 
        predicted after this point, long-term effects are less 
        certain.
  --Working AFDC recipients who lost eligibility due to the 
        OBRA cuts were more likely to be nonwhite, younger than 
        those who remained on AFDC (28-33) and had been working 
        for their current employer between 1.7 and 3.4 years.
  --Recipients who lost AFDC eligibility suffered a substantial 
        loss of income which they could not make up by 
        increased earnings or other means. The average monthly 
        income loss for working single-parent families who lost 
        AFDC eligibility was $186 in Memphis, $229 in Dallas, 
        $180 in Milwaukee, $151 in Syracuse, and $115 in 
        Boston.
  --Lack of health coverage was common among these former AFDC 
        recipients. In Dallas, 59.2 percent of those families 
        who lost AFDC did not have any health coverage. In 
        Memphis, 45 percent, in Boston, 27.5 percent, in 
        Syracuse, 17.1 percent and in Milwaukee, 13.9 percent 
        had no health coverage at all. Private health insurance 
        coverage was more common in high AFDC benefit States.
The Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (DEFRA)
    The Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (Public Law 98-369), 
signed into law on July 18, 1984, includes 22 AFDC amendments 
and an income and asset verification amendment that affected 
several programs. They are summarized below:
    1. Gross income limitation.--The act increases the gross 
income limitation for AFDC from 150 to 185 percent of the State 
standard of need.
    2. Work expense deduction.--The act requires States to 
disregard the first $75 monthly for full- and part-time 
workers; previously, a lower disregard applied to part-time 
workers.
    3. Continuation of $30 disregard.--Under prior law, the $30 
plus one-third of remaining earnings disregard was limited to 4 
months. The act retains the 4-month limit on the one-third 
disregard but extends the $30 disregard for an additional 8 
months for a total of 12 months.
    4. Work transition status.--The act provides that families 
who lose AFDC because of the termination of the (4-month) 
earnings disregard will be eligible for 9 months of Medicaid 
coverage. At State option, an additional 6 months of Medicaid 
coverage can be provided. In addition, families who lost AFDC 
eligibility before enactment of the work transition will also 
be eligible for Medicaid under certain specified circumstances.
    5. Clarification of earned income provisions.--The act 
clarifies that the term ``earned income'' as used in the AFDC 
Program means the gross amount of earnings, before payroll or 
other deductions.
    6. Burial plots, funeral agreements and certain property.--
The act exempts burial plots and funeral agreements from the 
$1,000 AFDC resources limitation. An AFDC policy on real 
property that is similar to SSI policy is also established.
    7. Federal matching for Community Work Experience Program 
(CWEP) expenses.--Under prior law, States were required to 
reimburse a CWEP participant for necessary transportation and 
other expenses. Federal matching for this reimbursement was by 
regulation, limited to $25 per month. The act requires States 
to reimburse a CWEP participant for costs incurred if the State 
is unable to provide directly any transportation or day care 
services. Reimbursement of day care expenses is limited to 
those determined by the State to be reasonable, necessary and 
cost effective up to $160 per month per child.
    8. Retrospective budgeting and monthly reporting.--The act 
mandates retrospective budgeting for cases filing a monthly 
report. Monthly reporting is required when cost effective; 
cases with earned income and recent work history must report 
monthly.
    Previously, monthly reporting and retrospective budgeting 
were required for all AFDC cases; however, the Secretary of 
Health and Human Services could waive the reporting requirement 
if it was not cost effective.
    9. Earned income credit (EIC).--The act requires States to 
count the EIC only when actually received. Prior law required 
States to assume that an individual was receiving the earned 
income credit on an advance basis regardless of when or if it 
was received.
    10. Demonstrations of one-stop service delivery.--The act 
authorizes from three to five federally-assisted demonstration 
projects designed to test the effectiveness and efficiency of 
integrating the delivery of human services.
    11. Work requirements for pregnant women.--The act exempts 
from work registration a woman who is in the third trimester of 
pregnancy.
    12. Recalculation of lump sum income.--Under prior law, 
States could recalculate ineligibility caused by receipt of 
lump sum income only if a life-threatening circumstance 
occurred. The act allows States to recalculate the 
ineligibility period under three specified circumstances: (1) 
an event occurs that would have changed the amount of AFDC 
paid; (2) the income becomes unavailable for reasons beyond the 
family's control; and (3) the family incurs, becomes 
responsible for and pays medical bills which offset the lump 
sum income.
    13. Overpayment recoupment.--The act permits States to 
waive recovery of benefit overpayments when it is not cost 
effective. States will be permitted to automatically waive 
overpayments of less than $35. Larger overpayments must be 
collected unless the State determines, after attempting to 
collect the overpayment, that the cost to collect would exceed 
the amount owed. Previously, States were required to attempt to 
recover all benefit overpayments.
    14. Protective payments.--Under prior law, States were 
required to make protective payments to a third party when a 
parent on AFDC failed to meet certain statutory procedural 
requirements. The act permits States to make the payment to the 
parent if, after all reasonable efforts have been made, a 
suitable protective payee cannot be found.
    15. Eligibility requirements for aliens.--Under prior law 
the income of an individual who sponsors a nonrefugee alien was 
deemed to be available to the alien for 3 years after entry 
into the United States. The act establishes a similar policy 
for aliens who are sponsored by organizations or agencies.
    16. Fugitive felons.--The act permits States to disclose 
the current address of an AFDC recipient if a law enforcement 
agency provides the correct Social Security number and 
demonstrates that the recipient is a fugitive felon.
    17. Payment schedule for back claims.--The act establishes 
a payment schedule for court-ordered reimbursements and certain 
other back claims owed by the Federal Government to the States 
that have been allowed or are pending.
    18. Work Supplementation Program.--The act modifies the 
existing Work Supplementation Program to provide additional 
flexibility to States in operating grant diversion programs in 
which all or part of the AFDC grant can be used to subsidize a 
job.
    19. Disregard of in-kind income.--The act extends, until 
October 1, 1987, the disregard of certain in-kind assistance 
provided on the basis of need.
    20. Standard filing unit/child support payments.--There was 
no requirement in prior law that parents and all siblings be 
included in the AFDC unit. The act requires States to include 
in the filing unit the parents and all minor siblings (but not 
any SSI recipient) living with a dependent child who applies 
for or receives AFDC. In addition, a monthly disregard of $50 
of child support received by a family is established.
    21. CWEP work for Federal agencies.--The act permits 
Federal agencies or offices to serve as Community Work 
Experience Program (CWEP) sites under the same requirements as 
apply to other sites.
    22. Earned income of full-time students.--For purposes of 
applying the gross income limitation, the act allows States to 
disregard the income of an AFDC child who is a full-time 
student.
    23. Income and eligibility verification procedures.--Public 
Law 98-369 provides for the IRS to disclose return information 
with respect to unearned income to Federal, State, or local 
agencies administering AFDC, SSI, Medicaid, food stamps, and 
the cash assistance programs administered in Puerto Rico, Guam, 
and the Virgin Islands.
    Disclosure can be made only to agencies that meet the 
requirements to safeguard this confidential information against 
disclosure, and verification of the unearned income information 
is required prior to taking action to reduce or terminate 
benefits.
    Under previous law, IRS wage information furnished by 
employers to IRS was available to State welfare agencies for 
use in their AFDC and Food Stamp Programs, and to the Social 
Security Administration for administering the SSI Program. 
However, IRS unearned income information (filed by a financial 
institution or corporation with respect to payments to 
individuals in the form of interest, dividends, etc.) was not 
available to Federal and State agencies for use in the 
administration of these programs. Quarterly wage information 
from the Unemployment Compensation Program was available to 
State welfare agencies in most States.
    The new law also amends provisions about use (for AFDC 
purposes) of return and other wage information and use of 
Social Security numbers, by adding a new section to the Social 
Security Act requiring States to have in effect an income and 
eligibility verification system for use in administering the 
AFDC, Medicaid, Unemployment Compensation, and Food Stamp 
Programs (and the adult assistance programs in the 
territories). State agencies must request and make use of: (1) 
wage and other income information available under the Internal 
Revenue Code; and (2) quarterly wage information. Each State is 
required as of September 30, 1988, to maintain a quarterly wage 
reporting system, although not necessarily through its 
unemployment compensation system.
    The income and eligibility system requires use of 
standardized data formats to facilitate exchange of 
information, for the purpose of identifying and reducing 
ineligibility and incorrect payments.
The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1987
    The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1987 (Public Law 
100-203), signed into law on December 21, 1987, made four AFDC 
amendments, summarized below:
    1. Fraud control under AFDC Program.--Effective April 1, 
1988, authorizes 75 percent Federal funding for the costs of a 
State's fraud control program.
    2. Assistance to homeless families.--Prohibits the 
Secretary of Health and Human Services, before October 1, 1988, 
from taking any action that would have the effect of 
implementing the proposed regulations published in the Federal 
Register on December 14, 1987. These regulations would have 
restricted the use of AFDC emergency assistance funds for 
homeless families and would have limited States' authority to 
make payments for special needs of AFDC recipients. The 
moratorium on promulgation of regulations is intended to give 
Congress an opportunity to determine whether and how the 
current AFDC statute should be amended to respond to the 
problems of homeless families.
    3. Washington State Demonstration Program.--Allows the 
State of Washington to conduct a demonstration of its proposed 
Family Independence Program.
    4. New York State Demonstration Program.--Allows the State 
of New York to test a child support supplement demonstration 
program as an alternative to the present AFDC Program.
The Family Support Act of 1988
    Summary of provisions.--The Family Support Act of 1988 
(Public Law 100-485), signed into law on October 13, 1988, 
makes extensive changes to AFDC. The major elements of the 
JOBS, Child Care Transition, and Medicaid Transition Programs 
are summarized in table 8-53. CBO estimated at time of 
enactment that the new law would increase Federal costs by $3.3 
billion and State/local costs by $0.7 billion over 5 years, 
1989 through 1993 (for detailed cost estimates, see 1994 Green 
Book, pp. 433-435).
The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1990
    The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (Public Law 
101-508), signed into law on November 5, 1990, made these AFDC 
changes:
    State option to require monthly reporting and retrospective 
budgeting.--OBRA 1990 gives States the option of specifying 
from which categories of families, if any, monthly reports will 
be required. States also may choose to apply retrospective 
budgeting procedures to any category from whom it requires 
monthly reports.

 TABLE 8-53.--IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF JOBS AND THE TRANSITIONAL CHILD CARE
                          AND MEDICAID PROGRAMS                         
Important elements of JOBS:                                             
    Funding provisions..........................  Federal match rates:  
                                                   90 percent for $126  
                                                   million (equal to    
                                                   1987 WIN funding);   
                                                   AFDC benefit match   
                                                   rate with a floor of 
                                                   60 percent for most  
                                                   expenditures (the    
                                                   highest State benefit
                                                   match in 1993 will be
                                                   79 percent); AFDC    
                                                   benefit match rate   
                                                   for child care; 50   
                                                   percent for most     
                                                   administrative costs 
                                                   and other services.  
                                                  Entitlement caps      
                                                   (excluding child     
                                                   care).               


                                 [fiscal year, in millions of dollars]  
                                           1989............        600  
                                           1990............        800  
                                           1991............      1,000  
                                           1992............      1,000  
                                           1993............      1,000  
                                           1994............      1,100  
                                           1995............      1,300  
                                           1996 and after..      1,000  
                                                                        


                                                                        
    Work-related activities.....................  States must include   
                                                   these activities:    
                                                   education, job skills
                                                   training, job        
                                                   readiness, job       
                                                   development and job  
                                                   placement.           
                                                  States must include   
                                                   two of the following 
                                                   activities: group and
                                                   individual job       
                                                   search, on-the-job   
                                                   training, work       
                                                   supplementation,     
                                                   community work       
                                                   experience or other  
                                                   approved work        
                                                   experience.          
    Priority groups.............................  States must spend 55  
                                                   percent of their     
                                                   funds on:            
                                                    (1) Recipients or   
                                                     applicants who have
                                                     received AFDC for  
                                                     any 36 of the      
                                                     preceding 60       
                                                     months.            
                                                    (2) Parents under   
                                                     age 24 who have not
                                                     completed high     
                                                     school or had      
                                                     little or no work  
                                                     experience in the  
                                                     preceding year.    
                                                    (3) Members of      
                                                     families whose     
                                                     youngest child is  
                                                     within 2 years of  
                                                     being ineligible   
                                                     for AFDC.          
                                                  States must give      
                                                   priority to          
                                                   volunteers within    
                                                   these three groups.  
Participation requirements:                                             
                                                                        


                                           [fiscal year, in             
                                                percent]                
                                                                        
                                           General:                     
                                               1990 \1\....         7   
                                               1991........         7   
                                               1992........        11   
                                               1993........        11   
                                               1994........        15   
                                               1995........        20   
                                           AFDC-UP:                     
                                               1994........        40   
                                               1995........        50   
                                               1996........        60   
                                               1997........        75   
                                               1998........        75   
Important elements of the Transitional                                  
 Child Care Program:                                                    
    Funding provisions...................  Uncapped                     
                                            entitlement at              
                                            AFDC benefit                
                                            match rate (50              
                                            to 79 percent).             
    Eligibility..........................  Families who                 
                                            leave AFDC                  
                                            because of                  
                                            increased                   
                                            earnings, hours             
                                            of work, or                 
                                            loss of the                 
                                            earnings                    
                                            disregards.                 
                                            Families must               
                                            have received               
                                            AFDC in at                  
                                            least 3 of the              
                                            preceding 6                 
                                            months. No                  
                                            income limits.              
    Benefits.............................  Direct child                 
                                            care services,              
                                            vouchers, cash,             
                                            reimbursements,             
                                            or other                    
                                            arrangements                
                                            adopted by                  
                                            State agency.               
                                            Care must meet              
                                            State and local             
                                            standards. Last             
                                            for 12 months.              
    Maximum payments.....................  Reimbursements               
                                            are limited to              
                                            actual costs,               
                                            up to local                 
                                            market rates.               
                                            States may set              
                                            payment                     
                                            maximums below              
                                            market rates.               
                                            These caps may              
                                            not be less                 
                                            than the AFDC               
                                            child care                  
                                            disregards of               
                                            $175 a month                
                                            for children 2              
                                            years and older             
                                            and $200 a                  
                                            month for                   
                                            children under              
                                            age 2 unless                
                                            local market                
                                            rates are lower             
                                            than these                  
                                            levels.                     
    Family copayments....................  Vary with                    
                                            family's                    
                                            ability to pay              
                                            as determined               
                                            by States in                
                                            sliding scale               
                                            formulas.                   
    Effective dates......................  Program begins               
                                            April 1, 1990.              
                                           Program ends                 
                                            September 30,               
                                            1998.                       
Important elements of the Transitional                                  
 Medicaid Program:                                                      
    Funding provisions...................  Uncapped                     
                                            entitlement at              
                                            Medicaid match              
                                            rate (50 to 79              
                                            percent).                   
    Eligibility..........................  Families who                 
                                            leave AFDC                  
                                            because of                  
                                            increased                   
                                            earnings, hours             
                                            of work, or                 
                                            loss of the                 
                                            earnings                    
                                            disregards.                 
                                            Families must               
                                            have received               
                                            AFDC in at                  
                                            least 3 of the              
                                            preceding 6                 
                                            months.                     
                                            Families whose              
                                            average gross               
                                            monthly                     
                                            earnings (less              
                                            necessary child             
                                            care expenses)              
                                            are below 185               
                                            percent of the              
                                            poverty                     
                                            thresholds.                 
    Benefits.............................  Last for 12                  
                                            months. Second              
                                            6 months are                
                                            contingent on               
                                            payment of a                
                                            premium, which              
                                            is at State                 
                                            option.                     
    Premiums.............................  States allowed               
                                            to charge a                 
                                            premium after 6             
                                            months to                   
                                            families whose              
                                            average gross               
                                            monthly                     
                                            earnings (less              
                                            necessary child             
                                            care expenses)              
                                            are above the               
                                            poverty                     
                                            thresholds.                 
                                            Premiums                    
                                            limited to no               
                                            more than 3                 
                                            percent of a                
                                            family's                    
                                            average gross               
                                            monthly                     
                                            earnings.                   
    Effective dates......................  Program begins               
                                            April 1, 1990.              
                                           Program ends                 
                                            September 30,               
                                            1998.                       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ There is no penalty for failing to meet the 1990 requirements.      
                                                                        
Source: Congressional Budget Office.                                    

    ``At-Risk'' Child Care Program.--OBRA 1990 establishes a 
matching grant program ($300 million annually) for subsidized 
child care for low-income persons who need child care in order 
to work and who would be at risk of becoming eligible for AFDC 
without it.
    Treatment of foster care maintenance payments and adoption 
assistance.--OBRA 1990 requires that State and/or local foster 
care maintenance payments not be counted in determining the 
family's income or resources. Similarly, State and/or local 
adoption assistance payments are not to be counted, unless the 
family would benefit from their inclusion.
    Eliminating the term ``legal guardian.''--OBRA 1990 deletes 
all references in AFDC law to legal guardians.
    Reporting of child abuse and neglect.--OBRA 1990 mandates 
State agencies to report to an appropriate agency known or 
suspected instances of child abuse and neglect of children 
receiving AFDC, foster care, or adoption assistance.
    Permissible uses of AFDC information.--OBRA 1990 allows 
title IV-E Foster Care and Adoption Assistance Programs to 
access information about AFDC applicants and recipients.
    Moratorium on final regulations for emergency assistance.--
OBRA 1990 extends the prohibition of issuance of final 
regulations, and the prohibition on modifying current policy to 
October 1, 1991.
    Allow good cause exception to required cooperation for 
child care transition benefits.--OBRA 1990 corrects an 
oversight of previous law by adopting a good cause exception to 
the requirement that a parent cooperate in establishing and 
enforcing his/her ``child support obligations'' as a condition 
of eligibility for transitional child care benefits.
    Technical correction to the JOBS Program regarding failure 
to participate.--OBRA 1990 repeals penalty language that denied 
AFDC to children of a principal earner who fails to participate 
in the JOBS Program without good cause. Thus, the children of 
such parents continue to receive benefits.
    Technical correction regarding AFDC-UP eligibility 
requirements.--OBRA 1990 amended previous law to allow 
participation in WIN and CWEP before October 1, 1990 to count 
toward the quarter of work requirement for AFDC-UP eligibility.
    Technical correction to community development 
demonstration.--OBRA 1990 amends previous law to specify that 
DHHS can enter into agreements with up to 10 nonprofit 
organizations each year.
    GAO study of JOBS funding for Indian tribes.--OBRA 1990 
directs GAO to conduct a study of the implementation of the 
JOBS Program with respect to Indian Tribes and Alaska Native 
organizations.
The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) of 1993
    The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 (Public Law 
103-66), signed into law on August 10, 1993, made these AFDC 
changes:
    Limit all AFDC administrative cost matching rates to 50 
percent.--OBRA 1993 reduces the 90-percent matching rate for 
automated systems to 50 percent, reduces the 75-percent 
matching rate for fraud control programs to 50 percent, and 
reduces the 100-percent matching rate for immigration 
verification systems to 50 percent.
    Increase in disregard of stepparents income.--OBRA 1993 
increases the earnings disregard for stepparents to $90 
monthly, from $75 monthly. This amount of earnings is not to be 
counted in determining the eligibility or benefit amounts of 
AFDC applicants and recipients.
The Social Security amendments of 1994
    The Social Security amendments of 1994 (Public Law 103-
432), signed into law on October 31, 1994, included these 
provisions affecting AFDC:
    Retrospective budgeting.--Permits States to decide whether 
to apply monthly reporting requirements, retrospective 
accounting rules, or a combination of the two to a category of 
families. Previous law allowed retrospective budgeting only for 
families required to provide monthly reports.
    Delay in AFDC-UP mandate for outlying jurisdictions.--
Delays the requirement for implementation of AFDC-UP in Puerto 
Rico, Guam, the Virgin Islands (and American Samoa, should it 
choose to offer AFDC) until Congress has repealed the funding 
limits on Federal matching payments to these areas for AFDC 
benefit payments. Makes this amendment effective as if it had 
been included in the original provision of the Family Support 
Act that set a deadline of October 1, 1992 for AFDC-UP in these 
areas.
    Verification of status of citizens and aliens.--Allows one 
adult member of an AFDC family to sign, under penalty of 
perjury, a declaration as to the citizenship or satisfactory 
immigration status of all family members. Previously, each 
adult member had to sign on his own behalf and the adult 
caretaker had to sign for a child.
    Welfare indicators and predictors.--Requires the Secretary 
of HHS, in consultation with the Secretary of Agriculture, to 
develop predictors of welfare receipt and indicators of the 
rate at which families depend on income from welfare programs 
(and, to the extent possible, their degree of dependence), and 
the duration of welfare receipt. Requires interim report by 
October 1, 1996, to include assessment of needed data. 
Establishes an advisory board on welfare indicators (12 
members, to be chosen equally by the House of Representatives, 
the Senate, and the President). Requires the Secretary to 
submit annual reports on welfare receipt (first report due on 
October 31, 1997) covering AFDC, food stamps, SSI, and programs 
of State/locally funded general assistance. Reports are to 
include trends in indicators, causes and predictors of welfare 
receipt, patterns of multiple program receipt, and 
recommendations for legislation (other than cuts in eligibility 
levels or barriers to program access) that the Secretary finds 
necessary or desirable to reduce the rate of welfare receipt 
and its duration.
    New Hope Demonstration Project.--Requires the HHS Secretary 
to provide for a demonstration project to be operated by The 
New Hope Project, Inc., offering low-income residents of 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin employment, wage supplements, child care, 
health care, and counseling and training for job retention or 
advancement. For up to 5 years, Secretary is to pay the 
operator an amount equal to aggregate Federal funds that 
otherwise would have been payable to the State on behalf of New 
Hope participants for AFDC benefits, administration, and child 
care and for Medicaid. Requires an evaluation design.

                               REFERENCES

Adams, G., & Williams, R.C. (1990). Sources of support for 
        adolescent mothers. Washington, DC: Congressional 
        Budget Office.
Bachu, A., & O'Connell, M. (1995). Mothers who receive AFDC 
        payments: Fertility and socioeconomic characteristics. 
        Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of 
        the Census.
Bane, M.J., & Ellwood, D.T. (1983). The dynamics of dependence: 
        The routes to self-sufficiency (Department of Health 
        and Human Services Contract No. HHS-100-82-0038). 
        Cambridge: Urban Systems Research and Engineering.
Burke, V. (1995).  Cash and noncash benefits for persons with 
        limited income: Eligibility rules, recipient and 
        expenditure data, fiscal years 1992-94 (96-159 EPW). 
        Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
Cao, J. (1996, March).  Welfare recipiency and welfare 
        recidivism: An analysis of the NLSY data (Discussion 
        Paper No. 1081-96). Madison: University of Wisconsin, 
        Institute for Research on Poverty.
Duncan, G.J., Hill, M.S., & Hoffman, S.D. (1988). Welfare 
        dependence within and across generations. Science, Vol. 
        239.
Edin, K.J. (1995). The myths of dependence and self-
        sufficiency: Women, welfare, and low-wage work. Focus, 
        17(2), pp. 1-9. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 
        Institute for Research on Poverty.
Ellwood, D.T. (1986). Targeting would-be long-term recipients 
        of AFDC (Department of Health and Human Services 
        Contract No. 100-84-0059). Princeton, New Jersey: 
        Mathematica Policy Research.
Freedman, S., & Friedlander, D. (1995). The JOBS evaluation: 
        Early findings on program impacts in three sites. 
        Executive summary. New York: Manpower Demonstration 
        Research Corporation.
Gabe, T. (1992). Demographic trends affecting aid to families 
        with dependent children (AFDC) caseload growth (93-7 
        EPW). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
Gabe, T., & Falk, G. (1995). Welfare: Work (dis)incentives in 
        the welfare system (95-105 EPW). Washington, DC: 
        Congressional Research Service.
Gottschalk, P. (1992). The intergenerational transmission of 
        welfare participation: Facts and possible causes. 
        Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 11(2), pp. 
        254-72.
Hagen, J.L., & Lurie, I. (1994). Implementing JOBS: Progress 
        and promise. Albany, New York: Nelson A. Rockefeller 
        Institute of Government.
Hill, M.S., & Ponza, M. (1984, Fall). Does welfare dependency 
        beget dependency? Ann Arbor, MI: University of 
        Michigan, Institute for Social Research.
Levine, L. (1994). Jobs for welfare recipients (94-457 E). 
        Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
Moffitt, R. (1990, March). Incentive effects of the U.S. 
        welfare system: A review (Special Report Series No. 
        48). Madison: University of Wisconsin, Institute for 
        Research on Poverty.
Neisner, J. (1995). State welfare initiatives (94-183 EPW). 
        Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
Pavetti, L. (1993). The dynamics of welfare and work: Exploring 
        the process by which women work their way off welfare. 
        Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University.
Pavetti, L. (1995, September 11). Questions and answers on 
        welfare dynamics. Paper presented at a research meeting 
        on welfare dynamics, Urban Institute, Washington, DC.
Peskin, J., Tapogna, J., & Marcotte, D. (1993, July). 
        Forecasting AFDC caseloads with an emphasis on economic 
        factors [CBO Staff Memorandum]. Washington, DC: 
        Congressional Budget Office.
Solomon-Fears, C.D. (1995). Emergency assistance for children 
        and their families under the Social Security Act (95-
        1052 EPW). Washington, DC: Congressional Research 
        Service.
Spalter-Roth, R., Burr, B., Hartmann, H., & Shaw, L. (1995). 
        Welfare that works: The working lives of AFDC 
        recipients. Washington, DC: Institute for Women's 
        Policy Research.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1994). Report to 
        Congress: Recommendations on performance standards for 
        the JOBS program. Washington, DC: Author.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1995). 
        Characteristics of State plans for the job 
        opportunities and basic skills [JOBS] training program: 
        1995-96 edition. Washington, DC: Author.
U.S. General Accounting Office. (1993). Welfare to work: JOBS 
        participation rate data unreliable in assessing states' 
        performance (GAO/HRD No. 93-73). Washington, DC: 
        Author.
U.S. General Accounting Office. (1995). Welfare to work: Most 
        AFDC training programs not emphasizing job placements 
        (GAO/HEHS, 95-113). Washington, DC: Author.
Wasem, R.E. (1995). Adolescent childbearing: Fact sheet on 
        trends and consequences (94-983 EPW). Washington, DC: 
        Congressional Research Service.
Zill, N. (1996). Tabulation of unpublished data from the Survey 
        of Income and Program Participation. Rockville, MD: 
        Westat, Inc.