[The Army Cook] [From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov] \,35: /0-W& WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL Document Reserve NON-CIRCULATING THE ARMY COOK W A R DEPARTMENT AUGUST 1946 i M I O LJ L. $ r ft»\ S i !' K/ /. 3 TM 10-405 C 2 TO 56-10-4 3NG0,r" TECHNICAL MANUAL THE ARMY COOK Changes'! No. 2 | DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Washington 25, D. C., 17 December 1952 TM 10-405 28 August 1946, is changed as follows: 239. Kitchen Truck The kitchen truck * * * (See fig. 107®.) Rescinded. For information on the kitchen truck see C 1, TM 10-402. a. Truck equipment. Rescinded. b. Equipping the truck with a fly tent. Rescinded. c. Installing lighting equipment. Rescinded. ******* [AG 300.7 (29 Oct 52)] By order of the Secretary of the Army: Official: WM. E. BERGIN Major General, USA The Adjutant General J. LAWTON COLLINS Chiej ofl Staff, United States Army Distribution: Active Army: Tech Svc (1); Tech Svc Bd (1); AFF (5); AA Comd (5); OS Maj Comd (5); Base Comd (5); MDW (3); Log Comd (5); A (5); CHQ (1); Div (1); Brig (1); Regt (1); Bn (1); Co (1); FT (1); Sch (2) except 8 (10), 10 (10), USMA (5); Food Svc Sch (100) except Ft Meade & Ft Knox (500); Hosp (1); RTC (2); Pers Cen (1); Tng Cen (1); POE (1), OSD (1); Mil Dist (3). NG: Same as Active Army. ORC: Same as Active Army. For explanation of distribution formula, see SR 310-90-1. TAGO 1985A—Dec. 200480°—52 O. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1952 u3L55: i°'^sZ3/c^.a. Ablf- S 1W 2 6... - *C 3, TM 10-405 TO 56-10-4 TECHNICAL MANUAL THE ARMY COOK Changes 1 No. 3 | TM 10-405, 28 August 1946, is changed as follows: Figure 7 ® and @ is rescinded. 22. Cook’s Work Sheet (Superseded) a. General. The Cook’s Work Sheet (DD Form 407) 1 June 1953, is designed to assist mess personnel in scheduling the daily menu by setting forth information as to items to be prepared, quantity, recipe, special instructions, and other information pertinent to the preparation and serving of meals. Properly used, the cook’s work sheet will insure that the basic precepts of mess management are followed in the operation of the mess. 6. Preparation Instructions. DD Form 407 will be prepared daily by the mess steward in all messes operating on a field ration basis. It will be posted in an accessible place so that all mess personnel may refer to it. Specific instructions for its use are as follows: (1) Column a. Under tnis column list all food items in proper menu sequence to be served at the specific meal including “leftovers” from previous meals. (2) Column b. Indicate in this column the quantity to be prepared. This quantity will be based on the number of persons indicated in the “number to prepare for” column (k) located in the lower left corner of the cook’s work sheet. Food will not be prepared when it is known from experience to be above the required amount. (3) Column c. Show the recipe number appearing in either the Master Menu, SB 10-260, or in TM 10-412. (4) Column d. Instructions in this column should be brief, clear, and specific. Do not repeat previous reference to recipes in this column. When other recipes have been authorized they will be attached. (5) Column e. In this column state the actual time that preparation of the particu- [AG 300.7 (29 Oct 52) (27 Apr 53) ] DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY Washington 25, D. C., 15 September 1953 lar food item is to start. For example, if hot biscuits are to be served, indicate in column e the time mixing of ingredients is to start. (6) Column /. In this column indicate the time actual cooking will start. (7) Column g. The mess steward will indicate in this column the size of portion to be served each individual. Where the item is “pork chops” the portion will be in number of chops; milk in liquid measure etc. (8) Column h. Indicate quantity of “leftovers” by unit, i. e., pounds, quarts, etc., of edible food items. Bones, and other inedible waste will not be entered either in this column or in column i as described below. (9) Column i. Quantity of “leftovers” discarded (does not include plate waste) will be indicated in the appropriate unit, i. e., pounds, quarts, etc. (10) Column j. The mess steward will indicate in this column any comments such as favorable or unfavorable remarks on the quality of prepared food, reasons for portion shortage and excessive leftovers, etc. (11) Blocks k^l, and m. The blocks k, 1, and m at the bottom of the cook’s work sheet are self-explanatory and will be completed accordingly. 239. Kitchen Truck The kitchen truck * * * (See fig. 107®.) Rescinded by C 2, 17 December 1952. For information on the kitchen truck see C 1, TM 10-402. a. Truck equipment. Rescinded by C 2, 17 December 1952. b. Equipping the truck with a fly tent. Rescinded by C 2,17 December 1952. c. Installing lighting equipment. Rescinded by C 2,17 December 1952. ***** •These changes supersede C 2, 17 December 1952. TAGO 974A —Sept. 270467°—53 1 By order of the Secretary of the Army ; WM. E. BERGIN, Major General, United States Army, The Adjutant General. Official : M. B. RIDGWAY, General, United States Army, Chief of Staff. Distribution : Active Army: Tech Svc (1); Tech Svc Bd (1) ; AFF (5) : AA Comd (5) ; OS Maj Comd (5); Base Comd (5) ; MDW (3) ; Log Comd (5) ; A (5) ; CHQ (1) : Div (1) ; Brig (1) ; Regt (1) ; Bn (1) ; Co (1) ; FT (1) : Sch (2) except 8 (10), 10 (10), USMA (5) : Food Svc Sch (100) except Ft Meade & Ft Knox (500) ; Hosp (1) ; RTC (2) ; Pers Cen (1) ; Tng Cen (1) ; POE (1), OSD (1) ; Mil Dist (3). NG: Same as Active Army except one copy to each unit. Army Reserve: Same as Active Army except one copy to each unit. For explanation of distribution formula, see SR 310-90-1. TAGO 974A «. BE WT PBIITIBO OFFICEt 2 WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL T M 10-405 This, manual supersedes TM 10-405, 24 April 1042, including C 2, 18 June 1943; and C 3,2 February 1944; TM 10-406, 22 November 1943, including C 1, 14 December 1944; TM 10-411, 5 October 1943; TB QM 10, 28 April 1944; TB 10-405-1, 2 March 1944; TB 10-405-2, 29 April 1944; TB 10-406-1, 6 March 1944; and SB 10-122, 8 September 1944. THE ARMY COOK WAR DEPARTMENT • AUGUST 1946 United States Government Printing Office Washington: 1946 WAR DEPARTMENT Washington 25, D. C., 28 August 1946 TM 10-405, The Army Cook, is published for the information and guidance of all concerned. [AG 300.7 (3 Jul 45)] By order of the Secretary of War: Official: EDWARD F. WITSELL Major General The Adjutant General DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER Chief of Staff Distribution: AAF (10); AGF (5); ASF (2); T (5); Def Comds (1); AAF Comds (6); Arm& Sv Bd (1); S Div ASF (1); Tech Sv (1) except OQMG (5); ATSC (1); FC (1); Class III Instls (1); PE (1); Stg A (1); GH (1); RH (1); SH (1); SvC Parent Sch for Bakers & Cooks (100); Tng C (1) except 10 (5); Sep C (1); Rehab C (1); PW Cp (1); A (1); CHQ (1); D (1); B(l); R (1); Bn (1); C(1);AF (1); G (1); W (1); S (1). Refer to FM 21-6 for explanation of distribution formula. ii CONTENTS Paragraphs Page CHAPTER 1. GENERAL________________________________ 1-7 1 CHAPTER 2. FOOD—NUTRITION—HEALTH 8-11 3 CHAPTER 3. INSPECTION AND STORAGE OF SUBSISTENCE IN MESS 12-17 9 CHAPTER 4. KITCHEN MANAGEMENT 18-38 15 Section I. Planning work 18-23 15 II. Kitchen police 24-27 19 III. Leftovers 28-29 23 IV. Sanitation 30-38 24 CHAPTER 5. PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 39-130 29 Section I. General 39-40 29 II. Cooking processes 41-45 29 III. Fruits 46-49 32 IV. Cereals 50 35 V. Dairy products 51-55 35 VI. Soups 56-58 36 VII. Meat 59-62 37 ' VIII. Sea food 63 46 IX. Poultry 64-68 49 X. Eggs 69-70 53 XI. Vegetables—Paste products—Grain products 71-78 54 XII. Salads and salad dressings. 79-90 59 XIII. Desserts 91-98 70 XIV. Seasoning of foods 99-106 71 XV. Roux, sauces, gravies, dressings 107-110 75 XVI. Garnishings and accompaniments of food 111-115 78 XVII. Beverages 116-127 84 XVIII. Sandwiches 128-130 95 CHAPTER 6. PASTRY BAKING 1'31-153 96 CHAPTER 7. SERVICE OF PREPARED FOODS 154-161 112 CHAPTER 8. KITCHEN EQUIPMENT 162-190 118 CHAPTER 9. RATIONS 191-194 134 CHAPTER 10. FATS 195-199 136 CHAPTER 11. DEHYDRATED FOODS 200-226 138 Section /. Importance and preparation 200-202 138 II. Dehydrated eggs and milk 203-204 140 III. Dehydrated vegetables and their reconstitution 205-214 145 IV. Miscellaneous dehydrated products and their re- constitution \ _ 215-226 148 iii Paragraphs Page CHAPTER 12. MESS OPERATION IN FIELD 227-241 157 Section I. Methods of field messing 227-230 157 II. Organization and maintenance of kitchen area 231-237 159 III. Field equipment and field expedients 238-241 166 APPENDIX I. COOKERY TERMS__________________________________ 178 II. AVERAGE AMOUNTS ISSUED (CALCULATED PER 100 MEN PER MEAL)____________________________ 180 III. MEATS AND WHAT TO SERVE WITH THEM________ 187 INDEX 191 iv This manual supersedes TM 10-405, 24 April 1942, including C 2, 18 June 1943; and C 3, 2 February 19441 TM 10-406, 22 November 1943, including C 1, 14 December 19441 TM 10-411, 5 October 1943; TB QM 10, 28 April 19441 TB 10-405-1, 2 March 1944; TB 10-405-2, 29 April 1944; TB 10-406-1, 6 March 1944; and SB 10-122, 8 September 1944. CHAPTER 1 GENERAL 1. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD TO HEALTH. “Food makes the man.” The Army cook prepares the American soldier’s food. If he prepares it well, the soldier will eat food that gives him the nutrition he needs. If the cook prepares it without wasting either the food or its nutritional value, the soldier will have all that he needs to satisfy his appetite and to keep him in sound health and fighting trim. If the Army cook fails, he has taken away from the soldier the food that he requires. A ration is issued to each soldier. This is sufficient for his daily requirements, but each soldier depends upon some particular Army cook to make that ration into appetizing, healthful, and invigorating meals. 2. COOKING MAKES THE DIFFERENCE. The experiences of our Armed Forces have proved that well-cooked food has an important bearing on health and morale. Soldiers must be fed properly, during peace as well as war, in garrison and in the field. Although many courageous deeds have been performed on short rations, it is necessary for soldiers to have enough of the right kinds of food, made into well-cooked meals, for efficiency and endurance through combat. The spirit vital to victory is maintained by food. The disgruntled soldier is a menace to his unit. Well-cooked food is one of the chief means of keeping men contented and alert under the pressure of Army life. 3. WHAT MAKES A SUCCESSFUL ARMY COOK. The successful Army cook is a soldier who prepares food well, serves it properly, and takes pride in his work. His reward is the satisfaction of the men in his mess and his own personal satisfaction in work skillfully done. A good Army cook has imagination and enthusiasm; he is never satisfied with just “getting by”; he is constantly looking for better ways of preparing and serving food. A poor cook can spoil the best food in the mess hall, while a successful cook can make the most ordinary food taste good. 4. HOWTO ACHIEVE SUCCESS, a. The first step up the ladder of cooking success is learning the reasons why. There are reasons why butter and onions should not be stored together, why eggs are cooked at a low temperature and potatoes at a high temperature, why vegetables should not be overcooked, why meat is better when baked in a slow oven and biscuits in a hot oven. Every detail of cooking has its reasons. (See ch. 5.) b. The second step is learning to use the recipe. No one can carry in his head recipes for the dozens of menu dishes prepared during a month. Use TM 10-412, constantly. If the amount of ingredients and methods of combining them are followed, results should be uniformly good. After a recipe has been prepared successfully as it is written, liberties may be taken with the seasoning and garnishing. Experiment only if you are experienced in the practice of cooking and know that the changes will be acceptable to the men who eat the food. Vary the ways of preparing foods by selecting recipes which call for different methods of cooking: boiling, broiling, baking, stewing, frying. Alternate these methods. A deep fat fried potato tastes entirely different from a mashed potato; a baked biscuit is quite unlike a dumpling. Recipes will suggest many ways of varying the common foods as well as ways of preparing those less often used. c. The third step is learning to serve. The good cook dresses up his meal in the serving. The appearance of the food can create appetite appeal. The appearance can be so enticing that the anticipation of eating the food will cause the gastric juices to flow and thereby create better digestion. Poor serving can ruin the best prepared meal. Good 1 meals can be ruined by allowing hot foods to cool before serving, or by serving too large or too small helpings, or by throwing foods on the dish rather than carefully serving them. 5. CHOICE OF TOOLS. All mess kitchens are supplied with equipment adequate for the preparation of good meals. Some may have the minimum number of tools; others may have mechanical potato peelers, toasters, meat slicers and the like. Whatever the equipment, a good cook must be familiar with each piece and see that it is used and cared for properly. He understands that certain utensils are right to use for the recipe he is preparing. Potatoes mashed in too large a kettle will get cold more quickly than when the heat is confined to a smaller space. If eggs are beaten in too large a pan, there will be more waste than if the pan is the right size. Paring can be done more quickly with a small knife than with a large one. A large spoon is better than a small spoon for preventing lumps in gravy. The success of the recipe depends in part on the choice of utensils. The care of equipment is discussed in chapter 8. 6. ARMY COOK. Cleanliness and good health are essential requirements for the Army cook. No one wants to eat food prepared by a cook who is not clean and physically well. The men eating the meals conclude that a cook with a dirty appearance has produced meals that are unclean. They know that if the cook is ill or has any infection he may spread disease germs through the food. The Army cook must be clean and he must look clean. A good check list for the Army cook should include the following: a. Physically fit b. Clean shaven C. Short hair cut d. Clean hands and nails e. Clean clothes and cap f. Careful cooking and serving (1) Use special spoon for tasting (2) Handle food with fork or spoon (3) Use clean cloths (4) Time food preparation accurately (5) Serve food attractively 7. ARMY COOK AND ARMY MEALS. When the men file into the mess hall, their attitude toward the meal is formed as soon as they look at the food on the counter or table. If it looks good and smells good, they are ready to enjoy it and speak well of the cook. If it looks worn out, if the meat is dry and the salad wilted, the men make up their minds not to like it even before they taste anything. Their comments about the cook are descriptive although not complimentary. The cook’s first responsibility is the food on the range, but a further responsibility is the way it is served. Garnishing improves the serving. A smart cook enjoys seeing food look tempting. He knows that this makes for better morale, good appetites, and less waste—all of which help in making soldiers better fighting men. 2 CHAPTER 2 FOOD—NUTRITION—HEALTH 8. GENERAL. Food provides fuel, material for growth and repair, and the special things like vitamins which are necessary for good nutrition. To obtain everything needed for vigorous health, a variety of foods must be eaten, because each food has a special duty. To be well physically, a soldier must have sufficient kinds and sufficient quantities of the right foods. There is no one magic food that will keep people well. Just as salt and vinegar look different and taste different, so the food value of one food differs from another. Each food has its own specific nourishment value even though the various nourishments cannot be detected by their taste or appearance. Food is eaten; then during the process of digestion, food is changed so that it can be absorbed by the blood and carried to every part of the body. Certain foods give heat and energy, others build bones and teeth, others manufacture soft tissues (muscles, flesh, heart, lungs, etc.) and still others supply the vitamin necessary to make the human machine run. 9. CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS. Each food that a soldier eats can be classed in one of three general groups according to the work that it does in the body. Tables I and II lists foods found in each group, the method of cooking each one, and the proper way to store it. Proper cooking and storage are essential to preserve the nutritional values of the foods. Every meal should include food from the three groups. These are: a. Energy foods to provide heat and energy. Carbohydrates and fats are the chief energy producing foods. The carbohydrates are the starches and sugars, bread, macaroni, candy, pastry, and similar foods. The fats are found in such foods as butter and salad oil. b. Building foods to build up and repair body tissues. The proteins are also energy producing foods, but their primary function is in body building. Meat and eggs are examples of foods containing protein. C. Protective foods supply the special substances necessary to keep the body healthy. Fruits and vegetables and certain animal foods such as butter are examples of these protective foods. 10. THE COOK’S COURSE IN NUTRITION, a. Definition. Nutrition is the science of nourishing the body properly. This means providing the body with its required amount of energy, building and protective foods and the special substances such as vitamins. The requirements differ with the ages of people, their activities, their sex, and their physical make-up. b. Energy or Fuel Foods. An automobile having eight cylinders and driven every day at 60 miles an hour uses more gasoline than one with four cylinders, driven every day at 25 miles an hour. A soldier on heavy duty needs more energy food than one doing desk work. The energy that food yields when burned in the body is measured in calories. A calorie is the unit used to measure the amount of heat or energy released from food when it is used up in the body. Scientists have measured the number of calories of heat available from 1 pound of each food. They have found, for example, that the heating power or energy value of 1 pound of sugar is high and that the energy value of 1 pound of cabbage is low. Therefore, sugar is classed in the Energy Group. Cabbage is an example of a food which has little energy value but is high in vitamins and minerals. Other foods are classified in the same way according to the work that they do. C. Building Foods. (1) A body is built with different materials just as an airplane is manufactured from various metals. The foods which primarily supply a person with the essentials for growth and repair are called proteins. Proteins are made up of a number of “building stones” which scientists have named amino acids. Foods containing all the building stones needed for growth are called complete protein foods. In cookery terms they are milk, meat, eggs, fish, and cheese. These foods yield some heat and energy, but, since their main work is to build and repair, they are called building foods. (2) Minerals are included in the Protective Foods Group, but they are also building foods because the body is a bony framework and requires minerals to build and maintain it. d. Protective Foods. After an airplane is built it needs fuel to make it fly, and grease, oil, and water or air to keep the motor running smoothly. 3 Just so the body, having been provided with energy e. Vitamins. (1) General. In addition to the (fuel) foods and building-repair foods, needs other work done by the three groups of foods, the body foods to keep it in Grade A condition. The other also needs certain substances called vitamins, foods contain vitamins, minerals, and fiber; they Vitamins are absolutely necessary for normal growth are classified in the Protective Group. and maintenance of health. If enough of the right Table I. Energy foods and building foods ENERGY FOODS BUILDING FOODS Food Method of cooking Storage Food Method of cooking Storage Carbohydrates Cereals dry breakfast cereals hot breakfast cereals Flour and flour products bread, all kinds crackers hot breads biscuits corn bread griddle cakes muffins pan bread popovers Boiling Baking Baking Cool, dry Cool, dry, well-ventilated racks Proteins Cheese Eggs Fish Legumes Meat and poultry Milk Nuts Low temperature Low temperature Low temperature Boiling and simmering Low temperature Roasting, simmering Frying, broiling Low temperature Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Cool, dry Refrigeration Refrigeration Cool, dry Table II. Protective foods waffles macaroni, Boiling Cool, dry Cool, dry, ventilated Cool, dry Cool, dry, ventilated Cool, dry Refrigeration Cool, dry Cool, dry Refrigeration Cool, dry Cool, dry Refrigeration after opening or cooking Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Cool, dry Food Method of cooking Storage noodles, spaghetti Sweets cake candy cookies honey ice cream molasses pastries puddings sweet sauces syrups sugars Fruits, canned or cooked w/sugar Fats Butter Chocolate Cream Lard Margarine Meat fat Salad oil Salt pork Suet Nuts ■ Baking Baking Freezing Baking Boiling and baking Boiling Simmering or uncooked Used in cooking other foods Cereals, whole grain or restored dry hot Flour, enriched Fruits apples apricots avocados bananas berries cantaloupe cherries cranberries dates figs grapefruit grapes lemons limes melons oranges peaches pears pineapple plums prunes raisins rhubarb tomatoes Boiling High temperature Eaten raw, canned or cooked by simmering Cool, dry Cool, dry Cool, dry Cool, dry Ventilated or Refrigeration Room temperature Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Cool, dry Cool, dry Refrigeration Refrigeration Cool, dry Cool, dry Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Refrigeration Cool, dry Cool, dry Cool, dry Refrigeration 4 Table II. Protective foods (continued) Food Method of cooking Storage Food Method of cooking Storage Dairy products Low temperature Refrigeration Vegetables butter (continued) milk, fluid, evap- peas Boiling Cool, dry or re- orated, pow- frigeration dered peppers Raw Cool, dry Vegetables potatoes, sweet Boiling, baking or Cool, dry green and yellow Use as little boil- Cool, dry steaming ing water as pos- pumpkin Boiling or steaming Cool, dry sible and cook romaine Eat raw Cool, dry or re- only until ten- frigeration der. Use cook- spinach Boiling or steaming Cool, dry ing water on squash Boiling or steaming Refrigeration vegetables or in water cress Eat raw soup or sauce Other vegetables asparagus Boiling or steaming Cool, dry beets Boiling Cool, dry beans, string Boiling Cool, dry cauliflower Boiling or steaming Cool, dry beet greens Boiling or steaming Cool, dry celery Boiling or steam- Cool, dry or re- broccoli Boiling or steaming Cool, dry ing or raw frigeration brussels sprouts Boiling or steaming Cool, dry corn Boiling Cool, dry cabbage Boiling or steaming Cool, dry cucumbers Eat raw Refrigeration carrots Boiling or steam- Cool, dry eggplant Boiling or frying Cool, dry ing or eat raw lima beans Boiling Cool, dry ■chard Boiling or steaming Cool, dry mushrooms Boiling, frying or Cool, dry chicory Eat raw Cool, dry or re- broiling frigeration onions Boiling, frying dr Cool, dry endive Eat raw Cool, dry or re- baking frigeration parsnips Boiling Cool, dry greens Boiling or steaming Cool, dry or re- potatoes, white Boiling, baking, Cool, dry frigeration steaming lettuce Eat raw Cool, dry or re- radishes Eat raw Cool, dry frigeration rutabagas Boiling Cool, dry okra Boiling Cool, dry or re- tomatoes Eat raw, boiling, Cool, dry or re- frigeration baking frigeration kind of food is selected from the three food groups, and if the food is properly prepared, a soldier can get his quota of vitamins. Each vitamin has its particular mission in promoting good health. (2) Vitamin story. Night blindness is a condition which was recognized many centuries ago. In our own country over 100 years ago Lewis and Clark, on their exploration of the Northwest, observed a condition of night blindness among Idaho Indians. Later, in 1865, a man named Camo Lobo reported that this eye disease occurred in many countries. For the next 50 years, observers reported definite symptoms of the eye disease not to be explained by the medical knowledge of the time. At last, scientists agreed that there must be some unrecognized substances in food. When people failed to eat food that had these substances they suffered from night blindness. (a) Vitamin A. In 1913 it was found that certain- foods contained a substance which was dissolved in fat. A lack of this substance—later designated as Vitamin A—produced a condition of poor health evidenced by retarded growth, night blindness, and injury to the eyes with impaired vision. Some of the vitamin A is lost when foods are exposed to air over a period of time or when they are heated in the presence of air, or when cooked too long or in too much water. If you prepare food so that it retains its vitamin A, it will help to assure normal vision and healthy skin to the men of your organization. (6) Vitamin A is obtained from dairy products as butter, cheese, cream, and whole milk and from meats, as liver, fish roe, beef fat, and kidneys. (c) Vitamin B Complex. A disease called beriberi has existed for many years in countries where polished rice has been a large part of the daily food. Polished rice is rice from which the outer coat of the grain has been removed. Scientists found that if the outer coat of the grain was eaten, the disease could be checked. Apparently there was a healthful substance in the outer coat of the grain. Later, 5 scientists discovered the substance in other foods. The substance was named vitamin B. Further research disclosed that the B substance was made up of several vitamins. The best known ones are named niacin, thiamine (vitamin BO, and riboflavin (vitamin B2). 1. If the food you prepare has retained its niacin, the soldier you feed will avoid pellagra and other diseases which are due to the lack of niacin. Niacin is found in meat, liver, salmon, green vegetables, tomatoes, wheat germ, and yeast. 2. If the soldiers in your organization get enough thiamine (vitamin Bx) in their food, they will not suffer from loss of appetite or nerve trouble caused by lack of thiamine. Thiamine is found in bread and whole grain cereal, enriched or restored meat and fish, eggs, milk, potatoes, yeast, and legumes. 3. If the food you cook has not lost its riboflavin (vitamin B2), the men who eat that food will have more pep and clearer skin. Riboflavin is found in milk, cheese, meat, liver, peanuts, strawberries, wheat, yeast, and enriched cereals. (rf) Vitamin C. 1. Scurvy, a disease called “the plague of the sea” for hundreds of years, had been reported where only limited supplies of fresh fruits were available. Men on long sea voyages or on military expeditions, settlers in a new country, or people in a famine area can be afflicted with scurvy. Symptoms of this diease are frequently seen even in the United States. They occur where people eat very few fruits and vegetables. In 1795 lemon juice was issued to English sailors and the cases of scurvy decreased. (At that time lemon juice was known as lime juice and from that fact the English sailor became known as “Limey.”) The relation between citrus fruits and scurvy was established. CALORIES PROTEIN CONTENT SELECTED SERVING Edible Portion Calories RELATIVE NUMBER OF CALORIES PORK 4 oz 402 ^M^BBB^MMMBBI^^MMi BEEF LAMB FOWL LEAN MEAT oz 4 oz 367 ■■■MBBHMBBIi^HMBBaH 4 oz 269 4 oz 210 VEAL 4 oz 186 LIVER FISH (FAT) MILK (WHOLE) 7 oz 138 1 GLASS 1/2 oz 126 BUTTER, 1/2 oz 107 MARGARINE BEANS. PEAS. 1 oz 103 LENTILS (DRIED) NUTS 1/A oz 100 3 1/2 oz 96 BANANAS 1 MEDIUM BANANA FRUIT (DRIED) VEGETABLES i oz oy 3 1/2 oz 89 (FRESH) 2/3 oz 89 CHEESE 3/4 oz 78 CERE A Li 1/2 CUP COOKED BREAD 1 OZ 76 EGGS 1 SLICE 1 4/5 oz 75 SUGAR 1 EGG 1/3 oz 40 Chart 1. Calories. SELECTED SERVING Edible Portion RELATIVE AMOUNT OF PROTEIN LIVER 4 OZ VEAL 4 OZ LEAN MEAT 4 oz M^B^^M^BBH FOWL 4 OZ ^BIM^BBI^^M^^^BII^MBBi^^^^B FISH 4 oz ^^BI^B^BI^M^BMI^^B LAMB 4 OZ PORK 4 OZ GLANDULAR 4 oz MEATS (AND HEART) BEEF 4 OZ BBBMI^M^^BB^Hi CHEESE (COTTAGE) BEANS, LENTILS, 1 oz PEAS (DRIED) 1/2 CUP COOKED EGGS 1 4/5 OZ ^MBB^M MILK 1 EGG 7 OZ BMB^HBB CHEESE 1 GLASS 2/3 OZ BB^HBB NUTS 1/2 OZ BB BREAD 1 oz BBBI GREENS 1 SLICE 3 1/2 oz Bi CEREALS 3/4 OZ BB VEGETABLES 1/2 CUP COOKED 3 1/2 OZ SB (FRESH) FRUIT (DRIED) 1 oz B FRUIT (FRESH) 3 1/2 oz ■ Chart 2. Protein content. 6 Table III. Vitamins—common foods as sources of vitamins Food Selected serving A B c D Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Ounce Liver 4 C) (2) 0) (4) (3) (3) Heart 4 0) (2) (3) (3) (2) Kidneys 4 (3) (2) (3) (3) — Sweetbreads 4 (4) — (2) — Brains 4 (4) (2) (2) (3) (3) — Beef 4 (2) (2) (2) (3) — Lamb 4 (4) (2) (2) (3) — Veal 4 (4) (2) (2) 0) — Pork 4 (4) C) (2) (4) — Fowl 4 (4) (2) (2) (3) (2) — Oysters 3^ (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) Cod liver oil % 0) — 0) Eggs 1% (2) (2) (2) — (3) Milk 7 (2) (2) (2) (2) (’) (2) Butter Vs (2) — (2) Bread (Enriched) 1 (3) (2) (4) (2) — Cheese % (3) — (4) C) — Oatmeal % — (2) — (2) Apples 5 (2) (2) — (2) — Oranges (2) (2) 0) — BanAnas ._ 3^ (2) (2) (2) (2) (2) — Grapefruit 3^ (4) (2) (2) — (3) — Prunes 1 (3) (2) (2) — (2) — Spinach 3^ (l) (2) (2) (2) 0) — Potatoes 5^ (2) (2) (2) (2) (3) — Tomatoes VA (3) (2) — (2) (3) — Peas , 2 (3) (2) (2) (2) (3) — Carrots VA 0) (2) — (2) (2) — Cauliflower 3^ (2) (2) (2) (2) 0) — 1 Excellent source. 2 Fair source. 3 Good source. 4 Present, but in small amounts. found that when the sun shines directly on the skin, the body manufactures a substance that prevents rickets. That substance is named vitamin D. Other sources of vitamin D, in addition to the direct rays of the sun, are: fish oils, liver, fish, irradiated foods or foods enriched with vitamin D, and vitamin concentrates. Lack of vitamin D will cause bone deformities, dental defects and retarded growth. Enough vitamin D (calciferol) maintains stronger teeth and straighter bones. (f) Minerals. For a long time nutritionists have known that in addition to vitamins, the diet must contain adequate amounts of the minerals, calcium, phosphorus, sodium and iron. Calcium and phosphorus are supplied most easily by milk. Iron is supplied by cereals and meats, especially liver and other organs. It takes many different minerals to build a strong body. The most important ones are: calcium, for bones and teeth, phosphorus, for a role similar to calcium; and iron, for red blood cells. The body must also have the required amount of MILK CHEESE CALCIUM SELECTED SERVING Edible Portion RELATIVE AMOUNT OF CALCIUM OZ 1 GLASS 2/3 OZ CAULIFLOWER VEGETABLES GROUP A (FRESH) 3 1/2 oz aaaBBI OYSTERS 3 1/2 oz BEANS, NAVY 1 OZ ^^MBB (DRIED) 1/2 CUP COOKED 2. Vitamin C is found in fresh fruits, fresh vegetables, both fresh and canned citrus fruits, and fresh and canned tomatoes. 3. Much care must be used in handling food containing vitamin C as it is easily destroyed or lost by exposure to air or by too much cooking and by cooking in too much water. Foods containing vitamin C (ascorbic acid) should frequently be served raw. This will cause the men to have better teeth and bones and better gums, and their dispositions will be better. (e) Vitamin D. The disease called rickets has been recognized for many years. The first full description of it dates back to 1650. Among the early observations were the reports that it occurred most frequently in the north temperate zone during the winter. This led to the idea that sunshine played a part in the prevention of rickets. It was VEGETABLES GROUP B (FRESH) CELERY 3 1/2 oz BBBB 2 OZ BMBM FRUIT GROUP A (FRESH) 3 1/2 oz MMI NUTS 1/2 oz MMB CHEESE (COTTAGE) 1 4/5 oz BBB EGGS 1 4/5 oz aaaaa 1 EGG FRUIT (DRIED) 1 oz MM MOLASSES 1/2 oz FISH 4 oz aa LIMA BE ANS J PEAS 1 oz M (DRIED) 1/2 CUP COOKED BREAD 1 oz Bi 1 SLICE MEAT 4 oz a OATMEAL 1/2 + oz a 1/2 CUP COOKED FRUIT 3 1/2 oz ■ GROUP B (FRESH) Chart 3. Calcium. 7 salt (sodium chloride) in order to maintain normal efficiency. ( SUPPER DINNER BREAKFAST l PREPARE FOR ^78 PREPARE FOR ^OO PREPARE FOR MENU QUANTITY TO USE SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS TO COOKS COOKING TO START QUANTITY1 PREPARED IN UNITS LEFT TO BE USED JVERS DISCARDED EDIBLE PLATE WASTE remarks 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 GUfiPEFRU/T too SEPARATE SECTIONS- CHILL OVERNIGHT — 2oo 0 0 0 CEREAL, O«Y 8 LBS •/a. BRAN FLAKES 7* CORN FLAKES PLACE UPSIDE DOWN OU TABLE — at-0s. 20 Q 0 etruen ro stor eroom MILK, FRESH SOQTS — Soqrs. O O 0 E-GGS, FP/ED 3. SUTTEP. 5C8S. CUT INTO INDIVIDUAL PORTIONS DIVIDE ONE JAR BETWEEN TWO TABLES 06/3 SL0S ‘/h-a. O 0 RETURN TO REFRIGERATOR JAM 7.OLBS. HUBS 6lbs O 0 RETURN TO REFRIGERATOR COFFEE h LES. WATER ON STOVE ATOSN5 - A DD 6 LBS. SUGAR B CANS MILK BEFORE SERVING osrf tSGAL, fa GAL. O ‘/a gal. SAVE STOCK FOR. R./CE CHICKEN FK/CA.SSEE 65 LBS. Ofoo Igal. O O ‘/Lfl. RICE, STEAMED ICLBS. STEAM IN CHICKEN STOCK NEAT AND SEASON FOOD ^GAL. '/4gal O 0 SAVE FOR MEAT LOAF PEAS 6 /VO ID CANS H2.5 0 GAL. '/4 GAL. O c chill-serve with vegetable SALAD FZUI1\ salad 3 GAL. 60 ORANGES, GO APPLES, UO GRAPEFRU IT, LETTUCE, CHILL 0800 3 GAL. O 0 0 BREAD 2.OL.QS CUT SLICES IN HALF SERVE IN BOWL OF CHIPPED ICE H2O 3OL6S. 2LBS. O 0 SAVE FOR NEXT MEAL BUTTER GLBS. H3S (>LBS. O O 0 PEACH COBBL EH J2L0S /O LBS. FLOUR, 6 LBS. LARD, 6 CANS PEACHES 5 LBS. SUGAR -RAKE N/GHT BEFORE — 5 sheets /4'fnitr 0 0 5ER.VE FOR SUFFER COFFEE GL3S 5TART WATER UQO-ADD 6LBS. SUGAR. 8 CAPS MILH BEFOH.P SERVINS / 130 IS GAL. 'A. O '/xGAL. CUT LOIN INTO CH OPS - USE SAW POEK CHOPS no LBS. 161S 20? cHoFS 15 CHOP] O 3 CHOPS SAVE FOR. MEAT SAUCE CR.AVY 3 GAL. USE DR IP PINGS FROM PORK ~ 3 L 0S. FLOUR USE PLENTY OF SALT AND PEPPER tg4 s 3 GAL. O '/& GAL. DISCARD POTATOES, MASHED 1600 '/zCAi-. 0 O COOL-STORE REFRIGERATOR squash, baked SO lbs. SPRINKLE WITH BROWN SUGAR BEFORE BAKING /CIS ' L r- th *> 3 2 B & * b £ h 1 ' J: 2 * 5 tn i J b 0 h rt» Aj Ul tn to IJ.O U/ZSM.. — — 0 VEGETABLE SALAD 5GAL. 1530 0 GAL.. 0 O 0 I CELERY, 7 LBS. LETTUCE) ADD LEFTtrVKH PEAS CUT SLICES IN HALF BREAD 3OLBS W5 30 LBS. 7)lb. O 0 SAVE FOR NEXT MEAL BUTTERFLY ROLLS Yoi.as (IB LBS FLOUR , 272. LBS. SUGAR, /DO 7. EGGS, S CANS M/LK, J/JLBS. YEAST) ADD ICING 1330 5 PONS / Pon O , 0 serve for Breakfast COFFEE GL&$. START WATER i&4o, ADD 6 LBS. SUGAR, 7 CANS MILK BEFORE SERVING 1//O I5GAL.. 0 O 0 AG ASF FORM 10-19 1 0CT t^5 COOK'S work sheet Figure 7®. Cook's work sheet. (Front) 18 DAILY SUMMARY REPORTING DATA io 11 MEAL NUMBER MEN PREPARED FOR NUMBER MEN ACTUALLY FED EDIBLE WASTE IN POUNDS DATE (Day, Month, -Year) 4 ocTOPc-rr / Tv e. AVERAGE NUMBER OF MEN FED / VERIFIED BY (Warne A Grade) l«T LT. QU. MLSS Officer f. NUMBER OF RATIONS ACTUALLY DRAWN— 203 COLUMN TO BE FILLED IN BY 12. INSTRUCTIONS 1. M.S. Enter each item of the menu, including leftovers from previous meals which are to be served or are to be discarded. 2. M. S. Enter quantity of each item to be prepared. The first cook uses this column as a guide. 3. M. S. Enter specific cooking instructions concerning the preparation of food, i.e. preparation data, proper timing, recipe number, etc. 4. M.S. Enter actual "starting time" for each item to be cooked. 5. M.S. Enter quantity of each item after preparation orcooking. Enter quant ity in units, i. e. each, package, quarts, pounds, etc. 6. M. S. Enter t hose leftovers which will be used in some form in a subsequent meal. Quantity will be expressed as in Column 5. 7. M. S. At the completion of each meal, using pounds as the unit of measure, enter the quantity of food per item which is left over in choking containers, serving dishes, etc. and is discarded. This also includes items left over from previous meals and which are discarded. (See instruction 1 above). 8. M. S. At the completion of each meal, plate waste will be gathered at a central location in the mess (segregated by items where possible). Using pounds as the unit of measure, enter the edible plate waste per item. Inedible waste such as bones, rinds, gristle, etc. should not be included. 9. M.S. State the number of portions short, if any. Give comment as to the reason for excessive-amount of leftovers. Enter instructions for the use of the leftover as shown in Column 6. Leftovers must be utilized within 24 hours. 10. M. S. Enter figures in this table as follows: a. Number Men Prepared For d. Total "b" and "c" at end of day b. Number Men Actually Fed e. To arrive at "Average Number of Men Fed" divide total "Number Men Actually Fed" by 3. c. Edible Waste in Pounds (Total f. Enter number of rations actually drawn by the mess. (This figure appears on of Columns 7 and 8) shipping ticket) 11. M. S. Complete information called for, such as Organization, Mess Sergeant, etc. This form must be signed by a commissioned officer. (NOTE: M.S. indicates Mess Sergeant) Figure 7®. Cook’s work sheet. (Bach') SECTION II. KITCHEN POLICE AND MESS ATTENDANTS 24. GENERAL. Mess attendants or kitchen police are personnel appointed to assist the cooks. They are an important part in the efficient operation of an Army mess. Their efficiency depends largely on the instructions they receive. The cook must familiarize himself with the instructions and supervision of kitchen police. It is necessary to have a definite plan of job assignments for the kitchen police. It will be found very effective to assemble these men before starting the day’s work and explain to them just what is to be done and the part that each will take in performing these duties. If possible, the various kitchen police should be furnished a written list of routine duties they are to perform. In addition to this, the mess sergeant, assisted by the cooks, must supervise their work and require them to put forth their best effort. It is always good practice to demonstrate to the kitchen police the best methods of performing their duties. 25. DUTIES OF KP’S. The following is a list of duties ordinarily assigned to kitchen police in a company size mess. The same duties will apply in a larger mess, although the actual assignment of duties will differ. a. Kitchen Police No. 1 and No. 2. (1) Wash and sterlize dishes and silverware after each meal. 19 Figure 8. Steps ®. Use soapy water for washing. Fill the first compartment of the sink with hot water (120° to 140°F.) to insure proper cleaning. The second sink is for rinsing. The water in this sink should be 160 °F. for a 60 second rinse or 180 °F. for a 30 second rinse. The number 1 man washes the dishes and places them in the compartment containing rinsing water. The number 2 man rinses them and places them on the rinsing board. > The dishes are then sterilized in scalding water and returned to the drying racks. (2) Wash pots, pans, and kitchen untensils immediately after use. (3) Wash and scour sinks after use. (4) Clean and wash pan racks. (5) Clean and wash kitchen piping and metal wall guards of ranges. (6) Clean and wash kitchen tables, dish racks, and serving counter after each meal. (7) Care for and maintain meat block. (8) Wash mop boards and doors of kitchen. (9) Clean and scrub the kitchen floor frequently. b. Kitchen Police No. 3. (1) Clean and scrub garbage racks. (2) Wash and scour garbage cans and lids. (3) Clean and wash outside entrance steps, door screens, and doors to mess hall as required. (4) Clean grease trap frequently. (5) Police coal bins and outside area. (6) Supply coal for, and dispose of ashes from ranges and stoves as required. (7) Dust and clean fire extinguishers. (8) Dispose of trash and garbage as required. (9) Clean and rebait fly traps regularly. (10) Wash windows and screens of mess hall and kitchen weekly. in cleaning dishes. ®. Keep the rinse water clear. Sterilize after rinsing. c. Kitchen Police No. 4. (1) Remove to serving counter the remaining dishes and silverware to be washed after each meal. (2) Clean overhead lights, shades, and beams in mess hall. (3) Clean and scrub dining room tables after each meal. (See KP No. 5.) (4) Clean and mop dining room floor after each meal. (See KP No. 5.) (5) Wash mop boards and doors of dining room. (6) Set dishes and silverware on tables after they are washed. (7) Clean and wash sugar bowls, salt and pepper shakers, and other condiment containers on mess hall tables after each meal. (8) Polish stoves in dining room frequently. d. Kitchen Police No. 5. (1) Clean and scrub dining room tables after each meal. (See KP No. 4.) (2) Clean and mop dining room floor after each meal. (See KP No. 4.) (3) Clean icebox and arrange articles therein. (4) Clean bread box and sun frequently. (5) Clean vegetable bins or rack. (6) Clean and scrub stock room shelves and floors as required. (7) Care for and maintain kitchen ranges. (8) Care for and maintain deep-fat fryer. (9) Inspect, sort, and pick over . fruits and vegetables when received. 26. HOW TO ASSIGN DUTIES. Those items which require care and cleaning after each meal should be accomplished first. They should be completed by 0900, 1400, and 1900 hours. Units requiring care and cleaning once daily can be divided 20 between the morning and afternoon hours to equalize the time element. However, as much as possible should be accomplished in the morning. When the specific duties as outlined above have been completed, the kitchen police will be used for general mess hall work, such as paring of vegetables, setting food on the tables, and any other duties required by the mess officer, mess sergeant or cooks. KP’s should not leave the kitchen unless definitely permitted by those in authority. After the entire mess establishment is considered in an excellent condition, KP’s may be allowed time off to attend to personal affairs. If the work will require the attendance of KP’s all day, however, they should be given a definite rest period at least once in the morning and once in the afternoon. Kitchen police, as well as other mess personnel, should be instructed to be thorough and clean in their work, and to avoid dropping food particles, spilling water, coal dust, ashes, grease, etc. Such carelessness increases the work of cleaning. In some messes, permanent KP’s are employed. In most messes, however, it is impracticable to assign men to such duty on a perman ent basis and KP’s are selected daily from the roster by the first sergeant. Commanding officers should not assign men to KP duty as a punishment. 27. SEGREGATION OF WASTE, a. Even in the most efficiently operated Army mess there will be waste. Waste, however, must be kept at a minimum. In a permanent post, the government usually contracts with a hog farmer to haul away garbage, receiving in return free haulage and money. Thus, even garbage has cash value, aside, from the contribution it makes toward expanding our meat supply. A hog farmer, however, will not accept garbage that has not been segregated. Some types of garbage, such as citrus peelings, coffee grounds, onion skins, egg shells and indigestible solid garbage (bones, fruit pits), cannot be fed to hogs. A checklist of waste materials and miscellaneous salvage is provided in b below. This check list contains the various headings under which waste is segregated, and gives a brief description of each kind. Use the list as a check for making certain that waste is being cared for properly. Table VII. Separation of waste and miscellaneous salvage—Check list 1 'Trap grease 2 Clear 3 Bones 4 Edible food waste 5 Inedible food waste 6 Tin cans 7 Battles jars and jugs Skimmed weekly and free from trap sediment. Clear and spent frying fats. (All fats to be rendered.) Cooked and excess raw bones, fowl trimmings and entrails. Edible garbage including cooked meats free of all bones, all fit for hog food; all foreign matter to be removed, egg shells1, corn cobs, fish bones from plate waste. Citrus fruits, fruit rinds, coffee grounds, fish heads and scales, asparagus butts, onion skins, banana peels, corn husks, tea leaves, etc., egg shells.1 Properly washed and processed; flattened by stepping on them, not hammered. Tops and bottoms removed. Clear and colored; clean and labels removed. Keep clear and colored separate. 8 Ashes 9 Corrugated cartons 10 Magazines ami newspapers 11 Trash 12 Mixed metals 13 Egg crates 14 Bags Free from all trash. Flattened and tied in convenient bundles. To be bundled and tied. Usable waste paper to be placed in containers. Sweepings, soiled, greasy and wax paper, shoe polish containers, small jars unemptied, medicine bottles, broken crockery, etc. Iron, copper, aluminum, wire, bottle caps, jar lids. Carefully opened, fillers, separators and lids to be replaced. Baskets and crates to be placed at collecting points intact. Coffee, flour and sugar bags to be returned to salvage branch. 1 Egg shells are classed as edible or inedible at the discretion of garbage contractor. 21 b. Garbage must not be allowed to accumulate in the kitchen. As it accrues, garbage must be placed in GI cans or other containers on the garbage rack. All kitchen byproducts from food sources will be segregated in the manner prescribed below. (1) Edible garbage. This can takes garbage which animals can eat: table scrapings, vegetable and fruit (except citrus) peelings, cooked meat and vegetable scraps from plates, potato peelings, pea and bean pods. (2) Inedible garbage. This can holds garbage which hogs cannot eat: egg shells, citrus peels, onion skins, coffee grounds, fruit pits, etc. (3) Trap grease. GI sinks are equipped with grease traps, devices that filter from dishwater any grease which might clog the plumbing and complicate sewage disposal. These traps should be cleaned daily and the grease placed in a can for salvage, marked “Trap Grease.” (4) Clear grease. This can will hold kitchen fats, already rendered and used, and fat from the deep-fat fryer unfit for reuse. Do not contaminate these fats by mixing with bones or trap grease. (5) Raw. and cooked bones. Raw bones should be used for making soup and gravy stock. Raw bones in a garbage can indicate poor kitchen management. Cooked bones have many pses. They should be separated from other waste. No meat or fat should be left on the bones. C. Dry salvage must be disposed of. All of the items listed below should be segregated and placed out for pick-up as directed by the post commander. Most of the items have salvage value. (1) Tin cans. Remove labels, rinse, cut off both ends and flatten. A free space should be left inside the flattened can so that chemicals used to strip the tin will flow through the interior of the can. Flattening reduces the bulk of the material. The ends of the can should be included. Paint cans, cone-topped beer cans, and similar metal containers are not useful and should be disposed of as trash. (2) Mixed metals. Any copper, aluminum, or other metals that can be salvaged should be placed in a separate container. (3) Bottles, jars, jugs. Use them in the kitchen as refrigerator and kitchen storage containers. If they cannot be used in the kitchen, set them out for pick-up. They have a sale value. (4) Burlap bags, inner sacks, and rags. ‘ These can always be used to advantage, but if there is an excess supply turn them in for salvage. (5) Wooden crates and paper 'cartons. Those not required turn in for salvage. (6) Wrapping paper, newspaper, magazines. All paper except that rendered useless by moisture or impregnation with food, grease, or dirt, should be baled for pick-up. A divided bin-shed for these articles, with compartments for each variety, may be constructed easily. (7) Trash can. Floor sweeping, wet scrap paper, and other trash with no salvage value must be disposed of by burning or dumping. (8) Ashes. Keep ashes and clinkers separated from other waste. They can be used within the company area or by the post for bedding roadways and filling low areas. Figure 9. ® Garbage rack. (Front) 22 Jag* RS Figure 9 (continued). ®. Garbage rack. (Back) SECTION III. LEFTOVERS 28. GENERAL. Leftovers are caused primarily by cooks preparing excessive amounts or preparing improperly. Leftovers can be controlled by consulting the Cook’s Work Sheet. Some questions a cook must answer to find the cause and prescribe the cure for avoidable leftovers are: a. Were there clashing food combinations? b. Did I do a “halfway” job on the dish because I neglected to find out how to prepare it properly? c. Did I use all of an item issued, even though I knew it would yield too much? d. Did I overcook or undercook the food? e. Was the cooking temperature right? f. Did the dish contain ingredients that were improperly cleaned, cut, or mixed? g. Did I serve with “eye appeal”? h. Did I use methods in cooking that made for monotony? i. Did I observe the principles of timely preparation so that the food was served at its pinnacle of perfection? j. Did I serve hot foods hot and cold foods cold? 29. USE OF LEFTOVERS. The use of leftovers of any type may be carried out with assurance if a few common sense principles are kept in mind. The aim of leftover cooking is to satisfy men’s appetites while eliminating food waste. Leftover cooking calls for thrift and ingenuity to fit the food for reuse without extravagance. a. The following points should be remembered when using leftovers: (1) Leftovers must be “fit to eat.” They should be wholesome and palatable in their new form, and harmoniously blended with other ingredients or dishes. (2) Do not serve the leftover in its original form if it can be altered. Change it for variety and new appeal. (3) Store properly; refrigerate if necessary. (4) Do not overcook. Most leftovers require only brief cooking. (5) Season properly, but take into account the seasoning already in the food to avoid overseasoning or flavor clashes. b. There are many practical ways to use leftovers. Following are some valuable suggestions to the cook on the use of leftovers. When the leftover is: (1) Bread', use it as crumbs for coating foods to be pan fried, French toast, stuffing, bread cases, Melba toast, bread pudding, brown Betty, crumbs as extenders for hash and croquettes, scalloped tomatoes, oysters, cut in cubes and toasted or fried for soup extenders, omelets. (2) Egg whites: meringues, substitute for whipped cream in ice box desserts, thickening for custards, scrambled with home fried potatoes. (3) Egg yolks’, binder for filling or stuffings, homemade mayonnaise with cooking oils, eggnog, 23 Kones I 3^1 40 H I Ml scrambled with home fried potatoes, mixed with milk as coating for French toast. (4) Cooked cereals', sliced cold and fried as mush, mixed with chopped pork and fried as scrapple, extender for meat loaves, hamburgers, croquettes, add to stuffing. (5) Cooked vegetables: combined in a cooked vegetable salad, added to soup, vegetable scallops, added to sauces and gravies, combined with other vegetables being cooked, used in vegetable puddings, added to souffles; boiled potatoes may be home fried, or made into potato salad, or browned with roast or creamed; mashed potatoes may be made into fried potato cakes, or fluffed up and used as topping for meat, fish or vegetable pie, or used with meat or fish to make meat balls or cakes. (6) Raw vegetables: save outer leaves of leafy vegetables to use in soups; celery leaves may be dried and used for seasoning; turnip tops; beet tops, and mustard greens are valuable stewed or used in gelatin salads. (7) Cooked meats: omelets, souffles, scrambled eggs, hash, stew, meat pie, salads, ground in sandwich fillings, added to scrapple, combined with fresh meat for meat loaves, garnishes for soup, creamed and served on toast, barbecued meat slices, breaded and fried, chop suey, save bacon drippings for frying, and for flavoring sauces, gravies, soups. (8) Uncooked meats: large bones may be cut out and used for soup, meat trimming may be used for soup, trimmings may be chopped fine and mixed with com meal to make scrapple, hash, stews, meat loaves, baked beans. (9) Poultry: sliced cold, hash, pot pie, salad, creamed on toast or biscuits, sandwiches, scalloped with macaroni or rice, with noodles, croquettes, boil bones for broth, save fat for shortening and frying. (10) Fish: hash; fish cakes or croquettes, sandwiches, salads, creamed on toast or biscuit, cream soups, made into loaves or casseroles with macaroni, noodles, or spaghetti, and baked. (11) Fruits: fruit cups, salads, jellies and preserves, sauces, cobblers, stewed; baked apples, applesauce, or fried apple rings; short cakes, muffins, fritters, frozen desserts, and puddings. SECTION IV. SANITATION 30. GENERAL, a. Sanitation is one of the most important phases of good messing. The health of the soldier depends upon proper sanitation. One error or one case of carelessness on the part of the cook can be the medium by which diseases are spread with drastic consequences. Using serving spoons for every platter is only one small detail. Nine out of 10 men seated at a mess hall table may be in perfect health; the use of their own silver to serve themselves possibly would result in no harm to any one. Yet, the tenth man, with a bad cold, can cause the beginning of an epidemic. b. Sanitation must be considered throughout the preparation and service of meals; as a matter of fact, it is a 24-hour proposition. The first law of mess sanitation requires that the personal hygiene of the cooks and other mess personnel always be maintained at the highest standards. Even the best meals lose their appeal when served in an unsanitary manner. An organization gains nothing-in having its meals prepared on time and its service letter perfect if the mess sergeant and cooks neglect simple rules of cleanliness. Sanitation is achieved only by the observance of many points; most of them are easily carried out, but close attention must be paid to details. C. The mark of an efficient man in the kitchen is the neatness of his work, and his attention to details of sanitation. The less grease, oil, and food scraps spilled on work surfaces and floor, the less clean-up work is necessary. There is no need to let dirt accumulate. When a pot is dirtied or a table soiled, clean it up immediately. Spot scrub the floor, particularly around the ranges, as spillage occurs. 31. PERSONAL CLEANLINESS OF COOKS. The cook’s responsibility for sanitation begins with himself. It is of great importance that he keep himself scrupulously clean and in good physical condition. No one wants to eat food prepared by a cook who is not clean. A cook who suffers from a cold or any other sickness can easily transmit his ailment to others. If he does not keep himself clean, disease germs may be carried to the food. He must wash his hands frequently and always after visiting a latrine. He should shave and bathe daily and change his underwear frequently. His outer clothing must be changed as soon as it becomes soiled. Fingernails should be kept trimmed short and free from dirt. Hair should be cut regularly. The cook must be careful to avoid coughing or sneezing when this might carry germs into the food. 24 Any symptoms of illness or infection should be reported immediately for medical attention. All cuts, scalds, or burns, no matter how slight, should be treated immediately to prevent infection. The white caps provided for cooks are not merely for ornament; they are to prevent hair, dandruff, or dust from the cook’s hair from falling into the food. White caps must be worn when in the kitchen, and white caps and coats when serving meals. 32. CLEANING CHINA, UTENSILS, SILVERWARE. Dishwashing requires plenty of hot water, both soapy and clear, and should be drawn into clean sinks. The dishes should be rinsed or brushed free of food particles before going into the dish laundry. The final clear water rinse washes away soapsuds and puts a sparkle on the china. Scrub out the sinks between changes of water. (See ch. 8.) All china and utensils should be air-dried. Army regulations prohibit the use of a drying cloth. (See AR 40-205.) Most messes are provided with wooden racks for drying dishes. The racks should be removable so that they too may be scrubbed and air-dried daily. Chinaware must be stacked neatly after it is washed. A rack is most satisfactory for this. Racks may be moveable or stationary. A moveable rack for chinaware is illustrated in figure 10. After compartment trays are washed they may be piled in stacks or placed in racks. A suitable rack for trays is illustrated in figure 11. When trays are piled they must be placed bottom side up, each turned around in the opposite direction from the one below. With the exception of griddles, wash all utensils after every use. Griddles usually may be kept in cooking condition by thorough scraping and cleaning after each use. Pots and utensils are washed in the same manner as dishes, except that scouring agents may be used. These cleaning agents make a clean water rinse all the more necessary. Pans may be dried by placing them on the coolest section of a range for a few minutes. Silver comes under the critical eye of inspectors more than any other single item and for health’s sake it must be sparkling clean. Instructions for washing silver follow: a. Have a boiler of hot, soapy water where soiled silver can be placed by the men. (Some mess halls set out three dishpans, one each for knives, forks and spoons, making it easy to segregate later.) b. When all the silverware is received, pour off the water and add a new, hot, soapy rinse. C. After the soapy rinse, place a small quantity of silver in a dishpan. The dishpans should be about two-thirds full of soapy water as hot as the KP’s can put their hands into. Each piece should be washed separately. Figure 10. Chinaware in racks. 25 Figure 11. In this rack, the trays slant down. d. As the silver is washed it should be placed in the “basket” sterilizer, a perforated metal container with high handles, issued to each kitchen. When about half full, the basket should be agitated for 30 seconds in a boiler of clear water kept on the stove at scalding temperature. e. Then drain the silver and spread it out on a clean surface. 33. CLEANING TABLES, WALLS AND KITCHEN FAN INSTALLATIONS. Work tables and serving counters should be scrubbed and dried by room heat or sunlight. Kitchen walls should be kept clean. The kitchen fan installation should be cleaned out weekly since its mechanism and screen inclosure gather grease and dust. Windows should be washed every week, inside and out. A mixture of hot water and vinegar (about a tablespoon of vinegar to,a quart of water) makes a good window cleaner and newspapers are satisfactory for drying and polishing the glass. Pipe racks and other metal fixtures should be polished daily. Most kitchen and dining room tables are constructed of parallel boards laid on a framework. The center board should be removable so that all sides of the boards may be scrubbed. Dining room tables should be washed after each meal and sunned weekly, weather permitting. The uprights and supports of all tables should be kept clean. Always clean tables, walls, windows, and kitchen installations before cleaning floors. 34. CLEANING FLOORS. The first impression of a mess usually is received from the appearance of its floors. There are, of course, right and wrong ways to scrub floors. The wrong way usually consists of floods of water splashed recklessly over the whole surface. Easier and much more effective is the right way. It follows: a. Divide the floor area into sections. Scrub them one at a time and finish drying each section before going on to the next. b. Have one bucket of soapy water and one of clear water. Make the’ soapy water by chipping the soap very thin and stirring it into the water until it dissolves. If a bar of soap is used, place it in a perforated, metal container and agitate it in the water until a suds forms. C. Put only enough soapy water on the floor to wet the section to be scrubbed. d. Scrub with a GI brush or broom working with the direction of the boards, not across them. 26 e. Use a clean dry mop to take up the soapy water. Rinse the mop frequently in the clear water, and wring it out thoroughly. The mopping will remove all excess moisture and will clean the floor. Do not slosh rinse water over the floor. This does not clean the floor as well as mopping and it will leave excess moisture that causes warping and shrinking of floor boards. 35. CLEANING AND CARE OF GARBAGE RACKS AND OUTSIDE AREA. The company garbage rack gives the first or last impression of an organization mess because it is the first or last installation that is inspected. It is the key to an efficiently operated mess. If it is kept clean and the area around it is free of miscellaneous bits of food, trash, and other material, usually the mess itself is in the same order. If the opposite is true, the mess can be expected to be disorderly and unsanitary. The following rules are aids for maintaining garbage racks: a. Instruct and supervise kitchen police in placing garbage and trash in cans. Insist that care must be taken not to slop refuse over the cans and racks, and on the surrounding ground. b. Garbage racks and cans must be washed at least once daily with hot soapy water. c. Keep lids on the cans when not actually placing garbage in them or washing them. d. Keep the surrounding area clean by placing sand or cinders on the ground and raking frequently. The ground around the garbage rack may be sprayed or soaked with refuse oil. e. Keep a sufficient number of freshly baited fly traps around the racks during the fly season. Figure 12. Tank for washing garbage cans. Figure 13. Steam jet for sterilizing garbage cans. f. Mark all cans plainly as to type of refuse each contains and insist that only the proper refuse is put in each can. 36. WASHING AND STERILIZING GARBAGE CANS. Cans used for garbage must be cleaned after every emptying. The cleaning of garbage cans involves two steps: washing and sterilizing. a. Cans should be washed inside and out with hot, soapy water and scrubbed with a stiff GI brush. All particles of waste must be removed. Bits of food remaining in cans quickly create an offensive odor and becomes sources for spreading disease and infection. When cans are very dirty, a period of soaking before washing is required. Figure 12 shows a tank for soaking cans. This tank can be used advantageously both for washing and soaking. b. Sterilization is important because it acts as a purifier. A steam jet or a jet of extremely hot water can be used satisfactorily. Figure 13 illustrates a sterilizer. This should adjoin the soaking tank for convenience. 37. CONTROL OF INSECTS. Finally, insect pests should be controlled. Spray may be applied with an ordinary pump spray gun. If it is necessary to cope with any unusual pest conditions, the post surgeon should be consulted. When insecticides are used in the mess hall, make certain that they are kept away from foodstuffs. Insecticides are poisonous. Fly traps should be installed outside and near all mess hall entrances, and near garbage racks. Bait recipe: Cook 2 cups of oatmeal or cornmeal in 1 quart of water. While cooling, stir in 2 pounds of sugar or two pints of sorghum syrup. When the mixture is lukewarm, add 2 ounces of yeast dissolved in a little warm water. 27 38. SUMMARY, a. General. The cook has certain definite responsibilities in the mess hall. In order to carry out these, he must understand the fundamentals of kitchen management; he must know the proper segregation and disposition of waste; he must know how to account for leftovers and what to do with them; he must know how to assign duties to the kitchen police and how to see that their work is done properly; he must be extremely careful on all matters of sanitation. b. Kitchen Check List. The kitchen check list in table VIII should serve as a guide to cooks and mess sergeants, and as a constant reminder of various details for which they are responsible. The cook must check each day to see that proper care has been taken of the garbage rack, the rear entrance, the kitchen storeroom, and the other places for which he is responsible. The cook must personally inspect these areas and check each on the list if it has been properly cared for. Table VIII. Kitchen check list 1. Garbage rack a. Waste segregation___________________.______ b. Amount of edible waste_____________________ c. Cleanliness________________________________ d. Fly control________________________________ 2. Rear entrance a. Coal bin___________________________________ b. Mop and broom rack_________________________ c. Back steps and door________________________ 3. Kitchen store room a. Appearance_________________________________ b. Stock arrangement__________________________ c. Surplus stock______________________________ 4. Meat block and work table a. Condition of top___________________________ b. Orderliness________________________________ c. Racks nearby to hold tools_________________ 5. Pots-pans-utensils a. Arrangements_______._______________________ b. Cleanliness________________________________ c. Condition__________________________________ 6. Menu and cook’s work sheet a. Record of preparation on work sheet properly used. b. Waste record_______________________________ c. Adherence to Army recipes__________________ 7. Cooks a. Training progress__________________________ b. Personal appearance________________________ 8. Range a. Proper firing______________________________ b. General condition__________________________ c. Cleanliness______________________._________ 9. Food in preparation a. Conformity to menu and work sheet__________ b. Instructions on timing_____________________ c. Appearance and taste of food_______________ d. Methods of cooking_________________________ 10. Kitchen sinks and dishwasher a. Water temperature__________________________ b. Cleanliness________________________________ c. Timing_____________________________________ 11. Refrigerator a. Odor________________________________________ b. Arrangemen__________________________________ c. Proper use__________________________________ d. Excess stock and leftovers__________________ e. Cleanliness_________________________________ f. Temperature_________________________________ 12. Bread storage a. Cleanliness_________________________________ b. Air circulation_____________________________ c. Arrangement_________________________________ d. Freshness of bread__________________________ 13. Serving counter a. Order of food service_______________________ b. Appearance of food and servers______________ c. Method of service___________________________ 14. Mess hall general appearance a. Windows_____________________________________ b. Attractive surroundings_____________________ c. Floors..____________________________________ d. Decorations_________________________________ 15. Mess tables a. Condition___________________________________ b. Arrangement_________________________________ c. Condiment containers________________________ d. China and silver____________________________ e. Cleanliness_________________________________ 16. Food conservation measures a. Plate scrapings_____________:_______________ b. Food posters________________________________ c. Waste segregation___________________________ d. Proper portions_____________________________ 17. Mess officer and sergeant a. Ration requirement forecast_________________ b. Head count_____.____________________________ c. Daily meeting_______________________________ d. Weekly drives_______________________________ e. Fat conservation____________________________ f. Waste in preparing food_____________________ g. Mess organization___________________________ h. Job assignment______________________________ i. Early chow__________________________________ j. Money collected for meals___________________ 28 CHAPTER 5 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY SECTION I. GENERAL 39. COOKERY DEFINED. Cookery is the science of preparing food for the table in such a way that it will appeal to the eye, be tasty, be easily digested, and furnish nourishment to the body. Cookery includes the choice of proper food combinations, the preparation of foods, their cooking, seasoning and garnishing. Preparation means sorting good items from bad, washing, trimming, cutting, grinding, thawing as necessary, and combining one food with another. Cooking changes the original appearance of foods, brings out flavor and aroma, makes the food more appetizing, tender, and digestible, and destroys many bacteria found in raw food. Proper temperature must be maintained in the cooking process to protect the value of food and to prevent shrinkage in cooking. The cook’s concern with temperature does not end until the food is served; it is served at its best only when the temperature is most appealing. Seasoning is the skillful use of spices and condiments to give foods a more pleasing flavor. Garnishing is the final touch added to food before serving to improve its appearance. 40. AIMS IN COOKERY. The aim in cookery is to put the foods served in the Army into the best possible combinations. Factors to be considered in making the finest food combinations are nutritional value, flavor, appearance, color, contrast, and variety. A cook can meet the aim of cookery if he brings to bear on his work his knowledge of foods available, the effects of the season of the year, troop preference, and the limitations and possibilities of his cooking equipment. The knowledge and skill the cook uses in preparing these foods directly affects his value in the organization. Each meal should represent his best effort. He should take pride in his work rather than be satisfied with merely slipping by; he should take advantage of every opportunity to find new and pleasing ways to prepare food, and he should use this book and related War Department publications to improve his skill. Before a cook begins the actual preparation of dishes from recipes, he must know the different foods, how they are used, what care must be taken to prepare them for cooking, and methods of cooking that will make them tasty and nutritious. This chapter gives the cook the information he needs to follow the Army recipes. After becoming an accomplished cook, this will serve him as a reference to improve his work. SECTION II. COOKING PROCESSES 41. MOIST HEAT. Cooking is performed by two basic methods, moist heat and dry heat. Moist heat means that the food is cooked in a liquid, usually water. Moist heat is generally used for less tender cuts of meat and for vegetables. There are four types of cooking with moist heat: Table IX. Temperature chart for cooking with moist and dry heat Kind of heat Degrees of temperature Kind of heat Degrees of temperature Dry heat: Broiling Baking (Pie) , Frying Roasting 450-500 450 375 325 Moist heat: Pressure cooking ' Boiling Simmering Braising 275 212 200 185-200 29 a. Simmering. Simmering is cooking in water below the boiling point, between 180° F. and 210° F. The usual temperature is 185° F. When the temperature is right for simmering, bubbles of steam will rise from the bottom of the dish but will disappear before reaching the surface of the water. Beef stew is an example of a food that is simmered. b. Braising. Braising is similar to simmering. The food is browned first in a small amount of fat and is then simmered in a small amount of liquid until done. Braising provides long, slow cooking, and, therefore, is very good for less tender cuts of meat. All of the less tender cuts may be braised. C. Boiling. Boiling means heating a liquid until it bubbles; the bubbles rise to the surface and pass off in the form of steam. If the dish is uncovered and the steam passes off, the temperature of the liquid will never be higher than its boiling point. The boiling point of water is 212° F. except at high altitudes in which case it is lower. (1) Meat is never boiled. (2) Vegetables and other foods are boiled. (3) Slow and rapid boiling. In boiling any food, liquid that boils slowly is as effective as one that boils rapidly. d. Steaming. Steaming is cooking in the steam rising from boiling water or other liquids. In the Army kitchen steaming is usually done in special equipment such as the pressure cooker and the steam-jacketed kettle. Table X gives the time for cooking various foods with steam. 42. DRY HEAT. When cooking with dry heat there is no liquid added. In most dry heat, cooking fats cook out of the food itself and prevent burning. Dry heat is used only for cooking the tender cuts of meat. There are five methods of cooking with dry heat. a. Roasting. Roasting is cooking with dry heat in an oven. The dish must be uncovered; otherwise, the food will steam instead of roast. Roasting is essentially the same as baking. Originally, roasting meant cooking before an open fire or by covering with hot coals. Although the same methods are used, roasting usually applies only to meats, and baking applies to bread and similar products. b. Broiling. Broiling is cooking by direct heat over coals or under a gas flame or electric unit. Broiling is usually used only with meats. It is extremely simple and very quick but is limited to more tender cuts of meat, steaks, and chops. c. Pan or griddle broiling. Pan broiling is cooking on top of the stove in a frying pan or griddle, using for grease only the fat of the meat itself. d. Frying. Frying differs from pan broiling in the amount of fat used. Pan frying is done with enough added fat definitely to cook the food in fat. It should be emphasized that certain foods are particularly adapted to pan frying, as noted below, while others are suited only for deep-fat frying. Examples are: potatoes, chicken, large fish, steak, vegetables (not breaded or batter covered), beef or pork liver, meat specialties (kidneys, sweetbreads, etc.), eggs, ham, bacon. e. Deep-Fat Frying. (1) Deep-fat frying is the cooking of food by completely surrounding it with fat heated from 350° to 380° F. In deep-fat frying the foods are cooked quickly enough to prevent their absorbing fat. Deep-fat fried foods are popular in the Army kitchen because of their crisp, tasty crusts. This same condition cannot be reproduced by any other method of cooking. Foods adapted to deep-fat frying are: croquettes, fritters, vegetables (batter covered or breaded), sea foods (breaded, excepting large, whole fish), chops (breaded), cutlets (breaded), chickens (small, disjointed fryers or precooked, steamed fowl, never deep-fat fry large pieces unless precooked), doughnuts, French-fried potatoes, French toast. Table X. Timetable for cooking with steam Item Time Apples 4 8 to 12 minutes. Asparagus 15 to 20 minutes. Green beans 20 to 30 minutes. Beets (Young) ’ Beets (Old, large) 30 minutes. 30 to 150 minutes. Broccoli 20 to 25 minutes. Brussels sprouts 15 to 25 minutes. Cabbage. 20 to 30 minutes. Carrots 20 to 40 minutes. Cauliflower 12 to 18 minutes. Cereals Until tender. Corn-on-cob 7 to 15 minutes. Dried fruits 20 to 30 minutes. Fish 20 to 40 minutes. Meats and fowl Until tender. Onions 20 to 35 minutes. Parsnips 30 to 40 minutes. Peas 10 to 15 minutes. Potatoes (White) 25 to 40 minutes. Potatoes (Sweet) 35 to 40 minutes. Rice 20 to 30 minutes. Rutabaga 50 to 60 minutes. Spinach 7 to 10 minutes. Squash (Summer) 10 to 20 minutes. Squash (Winter) 20 to 30 minutes. Turnips 30 to 40 minutes. 30 (2) The following suggestions should be helpful in the successful preparation of foods by this cookery method: (a) Keep equipment clean. (6) Use a thermometer if possible. (c) Do not hold fat in the kettle. Drain, filter, and store it in the refrigerator or other cool place. (d) Avoid overheating. All fats will smoke at ordinary frying temperatures after about 2 hours’ use. Care should be taken never to fry at a temperature higher than required by the particular food being fried. All fried foods have a better flavor if not fried at too high a temperature. (e) Taste the fat and the fried foods every day to see that the flavor of the fat is still satisfactory. (J) Discard off-flavored fat and start with fresh fat. (g) Precook large pieces of meat, large chickens, etc. before breading. Finish in deep fat at 360° to 370° F. (A) In frying raw, wet foods, such as potato chips, dry them as much as possible before placing them in the hot fat. This can be accomplished by allowing the water to drain off, or the water can be removed with dry towels. This will conserve heat and make for improvement through more uniform frying temperatures. (f) Always keep the frying kettle filled to the proper level with fat. (j) Excessive breading should be avoided because it results both in inferior food products and in contaminated frying fat. (A-) A hood located over the frying unit and equipped with a satisfactory exhaust fan will make the entire kitchen more comfortable. (/) Serve fried foods as soon as possible. They are best immediately after removal from the frying fat. (m) Potatoes used for frying purposes should be kept out of the refrigerator and away from cold storage. Storing the potatoes at 70° to 80° F. helps to obtain a more even color and a better flavor in the fried product. It is preferable to use older potatoes for frying. (n) Strain the frying fat several times each day when frying clams, oysters, and other highly breaded foods. The fat should always be strained after each day’s work. (o) When doughnuts are fried there is a deposit of dusting flour and small dough particles in the hot frying fat. If these particles are allowed to remain in the fat, they will become scorched and will give off unpleasant flavors and odors. Occasionally cinnamon rolls are deep-fat fried. This results in a lowering of the quality of the frying fat because absorption of cinnamon immediately produces a dark and bitter flavor. (p) Never salt fried foods over kettle. (g) Do not hold the frying fat at high temperatures when it is not in use. This is not only fuel consuming but it unnecessarily breaks down (impairs the quality of) the frying fat. (r) Certain metals as brass and copper are injurious to the fat. It is therefore essential that only the equipment furnished for deep-fat frying be used. 43. CARE AND USE OF DEEP-FAT FRYERS. The fryers which have been installed in some mess kitchens are constructed on a scientific principle which practically assures good products. Heat is applied above the bottom of the cooking vessel. This results in having hot fat above the heating unit and much cooler fat below the heating unit. All sediment and particles drop into the lower portion of the fat, thus preventing burning which hastens the “break-down” of the fat. The thermostat should keep the fat at a constant temperature. Too much food should not be placed in the fryer at one time because this results in lowering the temperature too much, and the fried product will be greasier than necessary. Good care and intelligent use of a fryer insure its longer life, prolongs frying life of the fat and assures fried products of better flavor and quality. a. Cleaning Before Use. Before using fryer it is essential that it be cleaned. Fill the kettle with cleaning solution. Baking soda or dishwashing compound type I or II may be used. Set thermostat to 250° F. Boil for 10 minutes. Rinse several times with clean, hot water and dry thoroughly. Caution: Unless cleaning solution is completely removed from kettle, the frying fat will be ruined quickly. b. How Much Fat to Use. Fill kettle with fat to a level just high enough to cover food being fried. C. Reuse of Fat. Put strained fat into kettle and add enough fresh fat to bring it to proper level. There should be enough fat to allow the temperature to remain reasonably constant during use. 44. DIRECTIONS FOR DEEP-FAT FRYING. Set thermostat of deep-fat fryer at the temperature given in the formula being used. When the fat has reached this temperature, place the food in wire basket, then lower into the fat. When browned and properly cooked, lift up basket, allow food to drain in order to remove excess fat. Certain products require special directions to cook them well. 31 a. Dough Products. (1) Richness. A rich dough is one with more fat content. A rich dough will soak more fat than a leaner dough. Unless the cook is careful in weights and measures, fat absorption will vary from batch to batch. It is recommended, therefore, that extreme care be taken when measuring ingredients. Small variations in sugar content will appreciably affect the fat absorption. (2) Dough temperature. If dough temperature is too warm, the product will be tough and knotty. It is recommended that cool water be used in mixing dough. (3) Frying temperature. Fat absorption of dough is affected by the frying temperature. A low frying temperature will mean a slow cook and a grease-soaked doughnut. A high frying temperature will brown the crust too fast and will cause cracks on the surface. A temperature of 360° to 370° F., inclusive is recommended. This should be carefully controlled. (4) Flavor of dough. . Since absorbed frying fat represents nearly 20 percent of the weight of the finished dough, it is essential that the frying fat have a desirable flavor. (5) Toughness of dough. Toughness may be caused by variations in flour strength. This may be overcome by increasing slightly the amounts of either sugar or lard in formula. If dough is too tender and thereby becomes grease-soaked, reduce the sugar or fat slightly. b. Fried Potatoes and Other Vegetables. There are several products obtained by cooking potatoes in deep fat. The essential difference between them is the way in which they are cut for frying. These include French-fried, Long branch and julienne potatoes, and potato chips. French-fried potatoes are cut the long way of the potato into strips about jkg- to ^2- inch square. Long branch potatoes are cut in strips about ^4-inch, and julienne about inch, thick. Potato chips are cut into thin even slices. For best results select uniform No. 1 potatoes. Always keep potatoes at room temperature for several days before frying. Potatoes which are Table XI. Times and temperatures for deep-fat frying Product Temperature Time Degrees Fahrenheit Minutes Croquettes _ _ _ 350 12-15 Breaded cutlets and chops 350 7-10 Chicken (small, raw and disjointed). 325 20-25 Chicken (precooked or steamed) 350 7-10 Chicken (in batter, precooked) 365-375 7-10 Oysters _ __ _ 360-375 3 Scallops 360-375 4 Fish fillets 350-370 5-7 Perch and smelts 365-375 5-7 Fritters 365-375 4-5 French toast 350-360 2-3 Julienne potatoes 325 335 4-8 Potato chips. 325-350 5-6 Breaded vegetables 350 4-6 Doughnuts 360 3-5 taken directly from cold storage will be dark brown, soggy, and sometimes bitter when cooked. 45. LARD AS A FRYING FAT. The clarity, whiteness, and goodness of lard are evident the minute it is melted in the frying kettle. Lard will withstand temperatures necessary for deep-fat frying for long periods of time. It has foam resistance. If strained and kept free from food particles, lard will retain its natural flavor. All frying fats will smoke if heated to extremely high temperatures. The automatic frying kettles are usually thermostatically controlled in order to eliminate this danger. Lacking a thermostat, a deep-fat frying thermometer should be used to check the temperature of the fat. A thermometer also can be used to check the thermostat occasionally to see that it is working properly. Careful control of the frying temperature is recommended. This will pay big dividends in the form of fresher frying fat and better-tasting products. SECTION III. FRUITS 46. FRESH FRUITS, a. General. Fruit has a definite place in the daily diet. It is a reliable source of many nutritional elements. Vitamin C is probably the most important nutrient provided although significant amounts of vitamin A and minerals are present in many of the fruits. Fruit provides much of the “bulk” or “roughage” which the body requires. The importance of eating fruit every day cannot be overemphasized. All fruit for messes is classified by the Army and is purchased by established specifications. In most cases only U. S. Grade No. 1 is used in the mess. 32 b. Types. Fruits are classified as follows: (1) Citrus. Oranges, tangerines, grapefruit, lemons, and limes. (2) Pomaceous. Apples, pears, and quinces. (3) Stone fruits. Peaches, plums, cherries, and apricots. (4) Bananas. They should be used as soon as ripe to avoid spoilage and waste. They should be rejected if over-ripe or if bruised excessively. If under-ripe, store them at room temperature until the skin is flecked with brown. (5) Grapes. Some of the many types of grapes are: white grapes, Tokay, red muscat, American red grapes, muscadine grapes, Concord grapes, etc. (6) Miscellaneous fruits. Figs, strawberries, blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, loganberries, dewberries, and cranberries. c. Preparation and Cooking. (1) In paring fruit, as little as possible of the pulp should be removed. The parings should be thin. If they are thick, food values will be lost. Any other preparation, such as coring in the case of apples, should be done carefully to avoid waste. Table XII shows the percent of waste and edible portions of the most commonly used fruits. This should guide the cook in understanding the amount of edible fruit expected and in exercising care in the preparation to keep within the percent of waste normally expected. (2) Citrus fruit. Oranges, grapefruit, and lemons are the most commonly used citrus fruits. These Table XII. Waste and edible portions of fruit Name of fruit Waste Edible Citrus fruits, fresh Percent Percent Grapefruit 34 66 Lemons 38 62 Limes 24 76 Oranges 28 72 Tangerines 29 71 Fruits other than citrus, fresh Apples 12 88 Apricots 6 94 Bananas 33 67 Blackberries • 100 Cantaloupes _ 53 47 Cherries 6 94 Honeydew Melons 37 63 Peaches 12 88 Pears 17 83 Pineapple 47 53 Rhubarb 32 68 Strawberries 4 96 Watermelon 54 46 fruits are always served raw. They are very seldom cooked except in some instances for use as flavoring. The peeling can be candied and used for a number of purposes such as fruit cake, eat like candy, garnishing, puddings, and other desserts. (3) Other than citrus. Pears, grapes, peaches, bananas, and most berries are served raw. In the raw state these fruits provide more of the nitritious elements needed by the body than when they are cooked. (4) Cooking fruit. If fresh fruits, such as apples, are cooked, care must be taken to preserve their values. They should be cooked quickly in a small amount of water. The juice from the fruit should always be served as a part of the dish or served as a juice, because it contains nutrients and is appetizing. 47. DRIED FRUITS, a. General. Dried fruit has certain advantages. Drying is an economical method of preserving food. The dried fruit is packed without the addition of sugar or other preservatives. It retains the color and flavor of the fresh fruit. Dried fruit occupies less shipping space than fresh products and will remain in a good state of preservation over long periods of time. These are great advantages in the field and overseas where transportation and storage facilities are at a premium. Dried fruit has an important place in Army meals. It is easily prepared, provides many food values and adds variety to the menu. Almost all of the nourishment found in fresh fruit is contained in the dried product. b. Types. All dried fruits have had moisture removed in the process of drying, but the drying is done by three different methods. The differences in the processes of drying account for the different names given to the products. There are three different names: (1) Sun-dried. Fruits that have had moisture removed by exposure to the rays of the sun. (2) Evaporated. Fruits that have been dried by the application of artificial heat but without control of heat and humidity. (3) Dehydrated. Fruits that have been dried in a dehydrator which has controlled temperature, air flow, and humidity. In the Army, fruits that have been dried by sun-drying and by evaporation are commonly called “dried fruits.” Those dried by dehydration are commonly called “dehydrated fruits.” c. Cooking Dried Fruit. The purpose of cooking dried fruit is to restore the moisture content and improve the flavor. Before cooking, dried fruit should be soaked until it returns to approximately 33 its original size. Then the fruit should be cooked in the water in which it is soaked. This procedure preserves the nutrients that have been dissolved in the water. Simmer, rather than boil, until tender. Simmering preserves the food value, shape, color, and flavor to a greater degree. Sugar may be added if a sweet dish is desired. d. Serving Dried Fruit. Dried fruit should be served in moderate portions, and some of the water in which the fruit is cooked should be included with each serving. The fruit may be used at breakfast or as dessert for the dinner or supper meals. Many dried fruits are used to advantage as sauces or in pies. There are many interesting ways of serving them. Full advantage should be taken of all possible methods of preparation. 48. CANNED FRUIT, a. General. Fruits for canning are usually harvested at their prime, immediately sorted, graded, cleaned and prepared for canning. They are cooked in permanently-sealed containers at temperatures sufficiently high to destroy the bacteria that spoil fruit. Fruit is canned either in syrup or water. Fruit packed in syrup is ready to eat as it comes from the can; that packed in water is usually used in cooked dishes. The ease of serving syrup-packed fruit is a great help in feeding large messes. The canner has done all of the hard work of preparation. Canned fruits are economical and convenient for troop feeding. b. Keeping Qualities. Commercially canned fruit will keep for extended periods of time without spoilage because the heat processing and the sealing of the cans make conditions unfavorable for growth and reproduction of bacteria. Canned products will normally keep without refrigeration. C. Nutritive Value. Canned fruit has its greatest nutritive value if eaten soon after the can is opened. If the fruit is to be stored after having been opened, it should be kept in its own syrup and the can should be covered and refrigerated. This helps to preserve the nutrients. The rule to remember is “keep it cool and keep it covered.” d. Serving. There are numerous ways to serve canned fruit in the mess. Variety may be added to the menu by using many different canned fruits prepared in a number of ways, sometimes combining mixtures of other different varieties of fresh fruits if available. 49. QUICK-FROZEN FRUITS, a. General. The preliminary steps in freezing fruit are much more difficult than in freezing vegetables. If not frozen properly, changes occur in the appearance, texture and flavor of fruit: blackberries turn brown, become soft and flavorless; fruits such as peaches and apples darken before freezing and on thawing, fl hey must be packed in sugar or syrup, or given other special treatment which will reduce exposure of the product to the air and retard these undesirable changes. Quick-frozen foods are frozen at extremely low temperatures and retain most of the food values of the fresh foods. b. Types. Fruits for freezing are generally divided into two classes: (1) Small fruits and berries which are cleaned and prepared whole without excessive injury to the skin or leakage of juice. (2) Fruits which are pitted or peeled and oxidize quickly when the cut surfaces are exposed to the air. c. Sugar Packing. Fruit packed with sugar may be whole, sliced, chopped, or crushed. One pound of sugar to three, four or five pounds of fruit is used, depending on the taste and acidity of the fruit. Sugar serves as both a preservative and a sweetener. d. Thawing and Serving. Frozen fruits can be used to advantage in the mess because they are practically ready to use. There is no waste, and accurate measurements for various purposes are easy to make because of the package sizes. Frozen fruits must be thawed before using unless it is desired to serve them in a semifrozen condition. For best results, frozen fruit should be thawed in the refrigerator with the container closed. They should be served promptly after thawing or they will discolor. e. Cooking Frozen Fruit. Frozen fruits yield more food value if they are not cooked. However, they are often found in baked products. The following rules should be followed in preparing frozen fruits for pastries: (1) Permit the loose syrup (sugar) packed fruit to thaw so that the fruit will bleed or drain. (2) Use this juice as you would the juice from canned fruit. (3) Add sugar if the directions on the container indicate that sugar has not been included in the packing. (4) Thicken with cornstarch or other thickener. (5) Add fruit. Allow fruit to cool before placing in crust to prevent the crust from becoming soggy and to keep the fruit from boiling over. (6) Bring to the simmering point—do not boil— and remove from fire. The fruit is cooked later when the pie or cobbler is placed in the oven. (7) For preserves or stewed fruit, cook until tender. 34 SECTION IV. CEREALS 50. GENERAL, a. Definition. The term “cereal” means the edible products made from grains, such as wheat, corn, rice, oats, barley and rye. Cereals are fuel foods and are generally served with milk. They are very popular as breakfast food in the Army mess. They are also used in the preparation of many other foods on the daily menu. b. Types. There are many types and kinds of cereals available on the market. They fall into three main groups, as follows: (1) Cooked. There are many cereals in this class. Some of the most common in the Army are cornmeal, hominy grits, cracked wheat, rolled oats, and cracked oats. (2) Quick-cooking. These are cereals that have been partially cooked before packing or have been “milled” in such a manner that they require but a few (3 to 5) minutes for preparation. Instant oats and instant whole wheat are examples of quickcooking cereals commonly used in the Army. (3) Ready-to-eat. These cereals have been processed and are ready to serve without further preparation. Examples are cornflakes, puffed wheat, puffed rice, and shredded wheat. These can be served without further preparation by the cook. There are many different kinds available. (4) Cooked and quick-cooking. The cooked ana quick-cooking types are the lowest in cost, and those made from the whole grains have the greatest food value. They are of especial value on cold days or when a considerable length of time elapses between the morning meal and the noon meal. (5) Variety. Cooked, quick-cooked, and ready-to-eat cereals add variety to the menu. c. Preparing Cereals. The cereals requiring cooking should be added slowly to boiling, salted water while stirring or whipping. The cooking time will depend on the kind of cereal being prepared. A double boiler is best for the cooking because it prevents scorching or burning. Raisins or other dried fruits‘may be added to cooked cereals to improve their flavor and add variety to the menu. A combination of fresh fruit and ready-to-eat cereals makes a very appetizing and nutritious dish. Ready-to-eat cereals are also useful in the preparation of muffins or for breading chops, steaks, chicken, and fish and as ,a binder or filler for meat loaf, hamburger, sausage, fish cakes, and croquettes. They may be used in dressings or stuffings and in puddings and cookies. SECTION V. DAIRY PRODUCTS 51. General. Dairy products are among the most popular and important foods. Records of the U. S. Department of Agriculture show that 16 percent of the American diet consists of milk and its products. Dairy products include milk, butter, and cheese. Butter and cheese are processed forms of milk. 52. MILK. a. The term “milk” means cow’s milk. Raw milk is unprocessed milk. Fresh whole milk should be served daily. Some advantages of milk as a food are: (1) It is highly nutritious. (2) It requires no cooking. (3) It is easily digested. (4) It contains no waste. (5) It is economical. (6) It is easily obtained. b. There are three kinds of processed milk any or all of which may be found in the Army mess. (1) Pasteurized milk. Pasteurizing is the process in which raw milk is subjected to a temperature of 143° F. for at least 30 minutes to kill germs. It is then cooled quickly to 50° F. or lower. Milk used by the Army is required to be pasteurized. (2) Homogenized milk. Homogenizing is the mechanical process in which fat particles in milk are broken up and evenly distributed throughout the milk. A cream layer will not form and it cannot be churned. Butter and cheese cannot be made from homogenized milk. (3) Concentrated milk. Concentrated milk is made from pasteurized milk. It has had from 33 percent to 97 percent of the moisture removed. There are four kinds of concentrated milk: (a) Evaporated milk has about 50 percent of the moisture removed and is sterilized. (5) Condensed milk has 60 percent to 70 percent of the moisture removed. It is not sterilized. To supplement a limited supply of fresh milk, the Army 35 uses canned, evaporated, and condensed milk. These two kinds of milk are easily transported. Their good keeping qualities make them ideally suited for Army use. When reconstituted, a can of milk is added to a can of water; it is equivalent to fresh milk. To improve the flavor for drinking, add salt and vanilla to taste. (c) Sweetened condensed milk is condensed milk with sugar added to sweeten it and to act as a preservative. This type of milk is not used to any great extent in the Army kitchen. (d) Powdered milk is of two kinds: 1. Powdered whole milk is fresh milk reduced to a powder by evaporating about 97 percent of the moisture. Powdered whole milk is widely used by the Army. When reconstituted, 1 pound of milk to 7 pounds of water is equal to nearly 1 gallon of fresh milk. Salt and vanilla may be added to improve the flavor when reconstituted milk is served as a beverage. 2. Powdered skim milk is the product resulting from the removal of 95 percent of the moisture from skim milk. 53. CREAM. Cream is that portion of milk, rich in energy, which rises to the surface of milk on standing or is separated from it by a mechanical method. Ice cream is one of the frozen products in which cream is included in the recipe. 54. BUTTER. Butter is made from pasteurized cream. The process of making it is called churning. a. Grading by U. S. Department of Agriculture. The U. S. Department of Agriculture has set up a scoring system for butter, employing numbers from 85 to 93 inclusive. Butter scored below 85 is classified “no grade.” Butter for the Army must score 90 or above. b. Flavor. Butter has a fine flavor which cannot be duplicated. When butter is an ingredient in baking and cooking, its fine flavor is imparted to the finished product. 55. CHEESE, a. General. Cheese is a product made from milk curd. The curd is obtained by the addition of rennet which curdles the milk, forming a mass. The curd may be treated by heat or pressure. Cheese may contain coloring matter. b. Types. Cheeses are of the following types: (1) Whole milk cheese is made from milk which has the same fat content as the raw milk. Examples are cheddar or American cheese, Limburger, and cream cheese. (2) Partially skimmed milk cheese is made from milk which has a portion of the fat removed. Edam, Camembert, Parmesan and Brie are examples. (3) Skimmed milk cheese is made from milk which has practically all of the butterfat removed. Cottage cheese and whey cheese are skimmed milk type cheeses. c. Use of Cheese. The most widely used cheese in the Army mess is American, either natural or processed. Cottage cheese is also served when available. Cheese is used as a supplement to meat, for flavoring a great many dishes and as an ingredient of salads. It may be served as a combination with vegetables. Cheese with noodles, rice, or macaroni are favorite dishes in the Army. An occasional cheese omelet is a welcome treat for the men. Cheese is included in the Army emergency ration both in natural and in dehydrated form. SECTION VI. SOUPS 56. GENERAL. Tasty soup stimulates the appetite and is high in nutritional value. It should be served at least once a day during cold weather and occasionally in warm weather. Soups may be served more often than called for on the menu. 57. STOCK, a. General. Good soup requires a good stock. Stock is the liquid that remains after meat, bones and vegetables are simmered in water. The stock resulting from one type of meat boiled in water is known as a broth. A very strong clear stock of one or more meats or meat and vegetables is known as consomme. b. Serving Stock. Stock is perishable. If not used immediately after preparation, it should be allowed to cool. It is then strained, poured into a covered container and placed in the refrigerator. Before stock is served it should be brought to the boiling point to sterilize it. The temperature is then reduced and the stock allowed to simmer until served'. C. Meat Stock. Stock is started in fresh, cold water. The proper proportion is 1 quart of water 36 to each pound of bones. Bones should be sawed in pieces not over 6 inches long. Meat should be cut into 1 inch pieces and added with the vegetables to the stock pot. The stock is then brought to the boiling point and placed on the back of the stove to simmer. During the simmering process the meat, bones, and vegetables should be completely submerged in water. Stock containing bones should be simmered for at least 6 hours. While the stock is simmering, the meat gives off fat which rises to the surface. When thoroughly cooked, the stock should be allowed to cool and the thick grease skimmed off, or a greasy stock will result. d. Vegetable Stock. Stock may also be prepared by boiling vegetables in water. The cooking water is used with the pulp of the vegetables rubbed through a strainer. This type of soup may be combined with milk, the proportion usually being half, though less milk may be used if the liquor or stock contains a large quantity of pulp. e. Chicken Stock. Chicken stock is made by simmering chicken in water with the addition of a few vegetables and seasoning. For this purpose, a fat hen is best. During the long period of sim mering the meat is tenderized and may be used later in such dishes as chicken a la king, chicken pie, and chicken fricassee. The chicken, if whole; may be placed in the oven and browned. (1) Chicken broth. Chicken stock, when strained and clarified, becomes chicken broth. It may be served clear or with rice, noodles, barley, etc. (2) Increasing flavor and nutritional value. The juices of canned vegetables or the cooking water of fresh vegetables should be added to meat or chicken stock to increase its flavor and nutritional value. 58. THIN AND THICK SOUPS. Soups are of two kinds: thin or clear soups and thick or heavy soups. Soup stock when strained and served clear is the thin type. a. Preparation of Thick Soups. Any stock may be thickened by adding butter, milk, fat, flour or cooked vegetables mashed through a strainer. b. Serving. The proper time to serve a heavy soup is when the meal is light. A typical example is pea soup. Fish or shellfish may be combined with vegetables and milk to make chowder. SECTION VII. MEAT 59. DEFINITION. Meat is the flesh of any animal used for human food. It consists of muscle tissues, connective tissues, fat, and bone. Edible glands and organs from animals are also classed as meat, but are generally referred to as meat specialities, sundry meats, fancy meat, or variety meats. The most common meats are beef, pork, lamb, mutton, and veal. Beef comes from cattle, veal from calves, pork from hogs, lamb from young sheep, and mutton from mature sheep. 60. MEAT ANIMALS, a. Beef. Army specifications normally call for the purchase of steer beef only and the carcass may weigh from 450 to 900 pounds. If the side is cut with a twelve rib forequarter the average forequarter represents about 52 percent of the weight and the hindquarter about 48 percent of the weight. The classes of beef are: (1) Steers, males castrated when young. (2) Cows, females that have calved. (3) Bulls, fully developed males. (4) Stags, males castrated after maturity. b. Veal. Veal is the flesh of calves. The minimum dressed weight of veal for the Army is 75 pounds and the heaviest 190 pounds. c. Lamb. Spring lamb is considered best for the mess. It has certain characteristics that distinguish it from older lamb. The flesh is light colored and fine in texture; the bones are small and red in color. d. Pork. Pork is sold in separate cuts and seldom in carcass form. The average hog is 1 year old when slaughtered. 61. CLASSES OF MEATS, a. Fresh Meats. Fresh meats include beef, pork loins, pork butts, ground meat, lamb, and veal. Fresh meats may be in two forms: carcass and wholesale cuts. Carcass meat must be cut or boned or otherwise prepared for cooking after it is received in the mess. Examples of carcass meats are quarters of beef and lamb. Wholesale cuts, sometimes called primal cuts, are prepared in part or entirely for cooking before they are delivered to the mess; they are not in carcass form. Examples of wholesale cuts are boneless beef, pork loins, and pork butts. Frozen meats are classed as fresh meats. b. Meat Specialties. Meat specialties are sometimes called variety meats. They are the parts of beef, veal, pork, and lamb not classed with the 37 regular cuts. They include brains, heart, kidneys, liver, oxtails, sweetbreads, tripe, pig’s feet, and tongue. C. Prepared Meats. Prepared meats are also known as ready-to-serve meats. They are made from finely chopped or ground meats, usually seasoned with condiments and spices, either fresh, cooked, or smoked, marketed in bulk or stuffed into casings. They include luncheon meats, liverwurst, frankfurters, Bologna and other sausages of different kinds, and like products. d. Cured and Smoked Meats. Cured meats are those meats that have been cured with salt or other curing agents. Examples are salt pork, corned beef, pickled tongue, and pickled ham. Smoked CUTS OF BEEF BEEF FOREQUARTER Tender Cut Cut Use 7 Inside chuck Roasts, steaks 2 Rib section (prime rib) Roasts, steaks Less tender cuts BEEF HINDQUARTER Tender Cuts Cut Use 7 Tenderloin Roasts, steaks 9 Loin strip Roasts, steaks 8 Sirloin-rump butt Roasts, steaks 3 Knuckle (tip) Roasts, steaks 6 Inside round (top) Roasts, steaks 4 Shoulder clod 8 Neck 5 Chuck tender 1 Plate 6 Brisket 3 Shank Braise, stew, roast if necessary Braise, stew, roast if necessary Braise, stew, roast if necessary Braise, stew, ground meat Braise, stew, ground meat Stew, ground meat Fats and bones Surplus fats Render and use for cooking purposes Bones Use for soups and gravies Less tender cuts 6 Outside (bottom) round Braise, stew, roast if necessary 4 Heel Braise, stew, ground beef 2 Flank Braise, stew, ground beef 5 Shank meat Stew, ground beef 1 Kidney Stew Fat and Bones Cod Fat Slice and lay on lean cuts during cooking Other fat Render and use for cooking purposes Bones Use for soups and gravies Table XIII. Meat shrinkage is affected by oven temperatures Meat cut Temperature Weight before Weight after Shrinkage, pounds During cooking, Remarks Used cooking cooking percentage Pork loins 300° F. 33 lbs. 16% lbs. 16% 50 Three loins were 350° F. 33 lbs. 14% 18% 56 cooked in each 500° F. 32% 13% 18% 58 pan. Cured hams 250° F. 14 12 2 15 One ham to each 300° F. 14 11 3 21 pan. 375° F. 14 10 4 28 Leg of lamb 250° F. w% 12 4% 26 Three lamb legs 300° F. 16 11 5 31 in each pan. 350° F. 15% 10% 5 33 500-300° F. 16 10% 5% 33 7-Rib beef 250° F. 24% 21% 2% 10 Medium done. 250° F. 23% 19% 3% 16 Well done. 300° F. 25% 19% 5% 23 Well done. 350° F. 28 20 Vi 7% 27 Well done. 450° F. 24 y2 17% 7 29 Medium done. Beef rounds 200° F. 43% 24% 18% 43 Well done. 245° F. 49% 25% 23% 48 Well done. 300° F. 45% 22% 22% 50 Well done. 450-300° F. 52 24 28 54 Well done. — (seared) _ 38 Figure 14- Cuts of beef. ®. Fore quarter. @. Hind quarter. meats are cured meats treated with smoke to add to their keeping qualities and flavor. The principal smoked meats are hams, bacon, briskets, and dried beef. Most dried beef is smoked, but some is not. Cured and smoked meats are especially valuable in the field because they are less perishable than fresh meats. 62. COOKING OF MEAT. a. General. Flavor is about equally distributed in all the cuts of a given animal. Connective tissues are largely responsible for the toughness of meat and if heated with water at 158° to 194° F., are softened and changed. Tender and less tender cuts of beef are given in figure 14. In cooking, meat falls into two groups: (1) The tender cuts. (2) The less tender cuts. b. Shrinkage. Shrinkage is important in the cooking of meat. Meat should be cooked slowly at liable XIV. Meal cuts for roasting with timetable Beef Pork (Fresh) Inside (Top) round Outside (Bottom) round Knuckle (Tip) Tenderloin Sirloin-rump butt Loin strip Boneless rib Inside chuck Shoulder clod Loaf (Ground beef) Boneless leg Boneless loin Boston butt Boneless picnic Spareribs Pork (smoked) Ham Picnic Shoulder butt Boneless leg Boneless loin Boneless rack Boneless shoulder Loaf (Ground lamb) Lamb Boneless leg Boneless loin Boneless rib Boneless shoulder Veal Timetable for roasting -meal (Oven temperalure 32-5° F.) Kind of meat Weight Approximate cooking time per pound Rare Medium Well done Pounds Minutes Beef, boneless _ _ __ __ 6-8 25-30 min. 30-35 min. 35-40 Lamb, boneless 3-6 Never rare 35-40 min. 40-45 Pork, boneless _ 4-6 Always well done 45-50 Veal ham 4-6 Always well done 40-45 Smoked ham 8-10 Always well done 30 Smoked ham _ 10-12 Always well done 25 Smoked ham 12-14 Always well done.. 20 Smoked ham 14-16 Always well done.. 20 Smoked picnic । 4-8 Always well done.. 35-45 39 a medium temperature rather than in a shorter time at a high temperature. Quick cooking at high temperatures shrinks meat very greatly. Excessive shrinkage means that fewer servings are available, important nutritional values have been lost, juiciness, tenderness and flavor have been decreased, and the meat has a less desirable appearance. Table XIII shows the amount of shrinkage of meats cooked in the oven at various temperatures. It can be observed readily that high temperatures produce high shrinkage. This table should serve the cook as a guide to temperatures for oven cooking of meat. Figure 33 presents further proof of the value of moderate oven temperatures in roasting beef. Figure 15. Roasting test. ® and ®. Two roasts of exactly same weight and measure. ®. This roast was cooked at 500° F. for 2ff> hours. ®. This roast was cooked at 325° F. for 4 hours. Note the difference in weight, size, waste and appearance. 40 Table XV. Meat cuts for broiling and pan or griddle-broiling with timetable Beef Top round steak (inside) Tip steak (knuckle) Filet mignon (tenderloin) Boneless sirloin steak (sirloin butt) Boneless rib steak Inside chuck steak Patties (Ground beef) Lamb Leg chops Loin chops Rib chops Shoulder chops Patties (Ground lamb) Pork (Fresh) Fresh pork is not broiled or griddle-broiled Pork (Smoked) Sliced ham Sliced bacon Sliced shoulder butt Veal Veal is not broiled or griddle-broiled. Variety meats Sliced liver (Beef, Iamb, pork, veal) Timetable for broiling meat (Moderate broiling temperature') 1 Meat cut Beef: Individual boneless steaks_____________________■ Patties________________________________________ Lamb: Leg chops____________________________________ Shoulder chops_______________________________ Double loin and rib chops____________________ Patties______________________________________ Pork: Ham slice____________________________________ Bacon________________________________________ Thickness Approximate cooking time Rare Medium Well done Inches Minutes Minutes y2 6 min.__ __ 10 15 1 15 min _ _ 20 25 \y2 25 min. _ 30 35 2 35 min. 46 50 1 15 min. 20 25 Never rare 10 15 1 Never rare 20 25 V/2 Never rare _ 25 30 1 Never rare _ _ 20 25 y2 Always well done 20 1 Always well done 25 Vs Always well done — 4-5 1 Time for pan or griddle-broiling is approximately one-half the time for broiling. c. Cooking with Dry Heat. The methods of cooking with dry heat are roasting, broiling, pan or griddle broiling, and frying. (1) Roasting. Roasting is one of the most popular methods of cooking meat. The oven should be hot before the meat is placed in it and should be kept at a constant temperature throughout the roasting period. This practice will increase the flavor, juiciness, and tenderness of roasted meat. There should be no initial searing of the meat. Searing does not keep the juices in and does not improve the flavor of the interior of the meat. Seasoning with salt and pepper may take place at the start, during, or at the end of roasting. (2) Broiling. In broiling meat, a moderate temperature is used which is controlled by keeping the meat on the broiling rack at the proper distance from the heat. The first side is seasoned with salt and pepper after it is browned, and the bottom side is seasoned when it is turned. Broiling time will vary with the size and thickness of the meat. Broiled meats should be served on hot plates immediately after cooking. (3) Pan or griddle broiling. Meat is pan or griddle broiled in an ungreased pan, or on an ungreased griddle. A moderate temperature retains meat juices and prevents the meat from over browning. Enough fat cooks out to keep the meat from 41 sticking. Extra fat should be removed as it collects to prevent the meat from frying. Meat is turned occasionally while pan broiling to insure even cooking. It is seasoned after browning. Pan-broiled meat should not be covered, and water should not be added during the cooking. To pan broil bacon, place it in a cold pan, broil it slowly, and pour off the fat as it collects. (4) Frying. Meat for frying should be sliced thin, browned on one side, then on the other; turn it occasionally to insure even cooking, and fry in an uncovered utensil. Each side of the meat is seasoned after browning. Meat is fried at a moderate temperature until done. (5) Deep-fat frying. The chief advantage of deep-fat frying is that the meat is entirely surrounded by hot fat. Therefore, it is cooked so quickly that there is no time for fat absorption. d. Cooking with Moist Heat. Less tender cuts of meat with considerable amounts of connective tissue must be cooked by moist heat, which softens connective tissue while dry heat toughens it. (1) Braising. Meat for braising should be cut quite thin. Braising is a method of cooking meat Table XVI. Meat cuts for braising with timetable Beef Outside (Bottom) round Heel of round Rump butt Boneless flank Shoulder clod Inside chuck Boneless neck Chuck tender Boneless plate Boneless brisket Shank meat Lamb Shoulder (Boneless or bone in) Breast (Boneless or bone in) Shank (Boneless or bone in) Neck (Boneless or bone in) Pork (Fresh) Loin chops Leg steaks Shoulder steaks Spareribs Hocks Veal Shoulder, (Boneless or bone in) Breast (Boneless or bone in) Shank (Boneless or bone in) Neck (Boneless or bone in) Liver Heart Kidneys Variety meats Timetable for braising meat {Low cooking temperature) Meat cut Beef Steaks, boneless Average weight or thickness Vz to % inch Approximate cooking time 1 to IL? hours 2 to 3 hours 3 to 4 hours 2 to 3 hours 45 to 60 minutes 45 to 60 minutes IL? to 2 hours 45 to 60 minutes IL? to 2 hours 45 to 60 minutes 1L? to 2 hours IL? t° 2 hours Swiss steak 1 to 1L? inches Pot-roast or “soft” roast 6 to 8 pounds Fricassee __ 2 inch pieces Veal Cutlets (chops or steaks) x/z to % inch Breaded slices fiz to % inch Fricassee ________ _ _ 2 inch pieces Lamb Chops _ _ _ _ L? to Li inch Fricassee _ __ 2 inch pieces Pork Chops and steaks _ _ x/z to % inch Fricassee __ _ __ 2 inch pieces Spareribs Individual servings 42 Table XVII. Meal cuts for cooking in water with timetable Beef Flank Shank meat Boneless neck Boneless brisket Boneless plate Rib fingers Hanging tender Lamb Shoulder (Boneless or bone in) Breast (Boneless or bone in) Shank (Boneless or bone in) Neck (Boneless or bone in) (Large cuts of lamb are not cooked in water) Variety (organ) meats Heart Tongue Kidneys Pork (Fresh) Spareribs Pig feet Hocks Pork (Smoked) Bacon Ham Picnic Shoulder butt Veal Shoulder (Boneless or bone in) Breast (Boneless or bone in) Neck (Boneless or bone in) Shank (Boneless or bone in) (Large cuts of veal are not cooked in water) Timetable for cooking meat in waler Meat cut Average weight Approximate cooking time per pound Pounds Minutes Smoked ham 8 to 10 30 Smoked ham 10 to 12 25 Smoked ham 12 to 14 20 Smoked ham 14 to 16 20 Smoked picnic _ 4 to 8 _ 35 to 45 Corned beef 4 to 6 40 to 50 Fresh beef 4 to 6 40 to 50 in a small amount of water or steam. Herbs, spices, and vegetables may be combined with the meat for variety in flavor. First, the meat is browned quickly on all sides in hot fat, then the meat is placed in a covered utensil containing a small amount of liquid and simmered at a low temperature until tender. (2) Cooking in water. Meat is never boiled. It is simmered. Simmering temperature ranges from 180° to 210° F. This is an excellent way to utilize trimmings and less tender cuts of meat. Stew is made of meat and vegetables simmered a long time. Know the time required to cook vegetables. Add them to the liquid and allow time for their cooking with the least loss of nutritive value and still impart flavor to the stew. There are three methods of making stews: (a) The meat may be browned before the water is added. This gives the meat a “roast” flavor and the gravy a rich color. (6) The meat may be placed in simmering water. This method of stewing lacks the richer flavor of the browned meat, but the vegetables cooked with the stew will have more of a meat flavor. (c) The meat may be placed in cold water and brought to a simmer. The broth in which the meat is cooked will have a rich flavor. e. Cooking Beef and Lamb. Tables XVIII and XIX give the cookery methods for beef and lamb. f. Cooking Frozen Meat. It is not necessary to thaw meat completely before cooking. However, a more uniform product is likely to result if meat is at least partially thawed before cooking. (1) Thawing, (a) Whatever method of thawing is most convenient may be used. If time and space are available, meat may be thawed at room temperature. When defrosting at room temperature such meats as quarters and wholesale cuts of beef carcasses and wholesale cuts of lamb and veal, pork loins, smoked hams, etc., the meat should be hung up or spread out in such a way that there will be a good circulation of air around it. It can be 43 Table XVIII. Beef cooking methods Roasting 1. Season with salt and pepper. 2. Place roast on rack in pan, fat side up. 3. Do not sear. 4. Do not add water. 5. Do not cover. 6. Roast at constant temperature—325° F. 7. Turn boneless roast. 8. Roast until done. Griddle-broiling 1. Place meat on ungreased griddle. 2. Brown, turn and brown. 3. Season each side after browning. 4. Turn occasionally. 5. Cook at moderate temperature. 6. Scrape away surplus fat as it collects. 7. Do not add water. Do not cover. 8. Cook to desired degree of doneness. 9. Serve hot on a hot plate. Braising 1. Season with salt and pepper. 2. Brown meat on all sides in hot fat. 3. Add very little liquid. 4. Cover closely to retain steam. 5. Use oven or top of range. 6. Cook at simmering temperature—185° to 200° F. 7. Cook until tender. Simmering 1. Cut meat in small pieces. 2. Season with salt and pepper. 3. If desired, brown on all sides in hot fat. 4. Cover meat with hot or cold water. 5. Cover kettle and cook meat until tender. 6. Cook at a simmering temperature—185° to 200° F. 7. Add vegetables before meat is done. Frying 1. Dredge thin slice of meat in flour if desired. 2. Brown quickly on both sides in small amount of hot fat. 3. Season each side after browning. 4. Turn occasionally. 5. Do not cover. 6. Cook at moderate temperature until done. protected from dust and dirt with a paper. If there is space in the refrigerator and the meat is not needed for a few days, let it thaw in the refrigerator. Different methods of thawing seem to give the same results in the finished product and about the same loss in weight during thawing and cooking. If meat can be thawed in pans in which it is to be cooked, there will be no loss of drippings. If there is not time to thaw the meat, put it in pans while still frozen, being sure to allow extra time for cooking. (6) Thin cuts of frozen meat, that is, cuts not more than 1 inch thick, may be satisfactorily pan fried by putting the frozen cuts directly into the hot pan without first thawing them. In pieces of this size, the frost is quickly driven out and the interior becomes cooked before the outside is overcooked. However, if the thin cuts are to be fried in deep fat, they must first be thawed. If this is not done, the cold in these cuts will cool the fat below the proper frying temperature. About the only thin frozen cuts used in Army messes are frozen fish fillets,and when cooked without being first thawed they are more palatable. (c) When frozen meats are supplied to troops in the field as part of the field ration, usually there will be no refrigerator in which to thaw them. They must be thawed in the open, the rapidity of thawing depending on weather conditions. In hot weather the surface of the meat will begin to spoil before the meat is thawed at the center. This spoilage may be prevented by hanging wet cloths or sacks around the thawing meat. The wind blowing on these wet sacks will keep the meat cooler than the surrounding atmosphere. Sometimes frozen meat will be received in the field only a short time before it must be cooked for the next meal. In such a case, a stew may be made, using the chuck, shanks, or round. The meat saw and cleaver must be used to cut off these cuts. In hot weather cooked meats will keep longer than chilled fresh meat, and when necessary to save meat to prevent loss through spoilage, the cook should not hesitate to cook more meat than is needed for immediate service. (2) Spoilage. It should be borne in mind that thawed meat is always moist and provides an ideal place for development of bacteria and molds. Therefore, thawed meat should be cooked promptly. Thin cuts of meat expose greater surface area to spoilage than thick cuts, such as roasts. (3) Cooking time. One principal common to both tender and less tender cuts of meat is a low cooking temperature. This applies whether roasting, broiling, stewing or braising. Thawed meat should be cooked in the same way as meat that has 44 Table XIX. Lamb cooking methods Dry heat Roasting 1. Season with salt and pepper. 2. Place roast on rack in pan, fat side up. 3. Do not sear. 4. Do not add water. 5. Do not cover. 6. Roast at constant temperature (325° F. or 16 counts). 7. Turn boneless roast. 8. Cook until meat is as well done as desired. Broiling 1. Turn heat to highest point. 2. Put chops in broiler. 3. Broil until top side is nicely browned. 4. Season browned side with salt and pepper. 5. Turn, brown, and season second side. 6. Cook until meat is as well done as desired. Griddle-broiling 1. Place meat on ungreased griddle. 2. Brown, turn and brown on the other side. 3. Season with salt and pepper. 4. Turn occasionally. 5. Scrape away surplus fat as it collects on the griddle. 6. Do not add water and do not cover. 7. Cook until meat is as well done as desired. 8. Serve hot on hot plates. Moist heat Stewing 1. Cut lamb into small pieces. 2. Season meat with salt and pepper. 3. Brown meat on all sides in hot fat. 4. Cover meat with hot or cold water. 5. Cover kettle and cook at simmering temperature until tender. 6. Add vegetables before meat is done. not been frozen. If cooked without thawing, extra time must be allowed for cooking, or otherwise it may appear to be done by outside appearance, but, when cut, found to be cold and raw in the interior. Allow 15 to 20 minutes more per pound for cooking frozen meat, and cook at extremely low temperatures; for roasting frozen cut, the temperatures should not exceed 250° F. However, overcooking should be avoided. In cooking more tender cuts, the meat should be prepared as follows: use a low, constant temperature, add neither water nor flour, and cook uncovered. The method for preparing less tender cuts is: use a low, constant temperature, add moisture, and cover the utensil. (4) Frozen boneless beef, (a) Frozen boneless beef that has not been partially defrosted prior to issue should be thawed in the original container whenever practicable. The box becomes the equivalent of a refrigerator, due to the frost in the meat, and keeps the outside portions refrigerated while defrosting is taking place. The surface of the meat is not exposed to the air and heat of the room, and surface deterioration (slime) does not develop. Table XX. Approximate thawing time for meat in army mess refrigerator Hours Frozen beef, quarters, chucks, or rounds---------- 36 to 48 Frozen beef, loins, ribs__________________________ 36 to 48 Frozen veal, mutton, or lamb carcasses---------- 24 to 36 Frozen veal, mutton, or lamb cuts_____________ 18 to 30 Frozen pork, cuts_________________________________ 18 to 30 Frozen poultry or whole fish______________________ 18 to 24 When packed and defrosted in the original containers, 24 hours or more will be required to thaw the meat. When it is impracticable to follow the above method of defrosting, due to insufficient time between issue and cooking, remove the frozen meat from the cartons 16 to 24 hours before preparation. Do not remove the wrapping paper. Place the meat in a clean pan and cover with a clean cloth to protect the meat from dirt and insects. Never defrost meat in water, either hot or cold. Deterioration can be avoided by keeping the product wrapped and defrosting at the slowest rate practicable. (&) Equivalent issues of carcass and boneless beef. During the process of boning the beef carcass in the packing plant, the boneless meat is divided into the following portions: Percent Roast and frying______________ 40 Stewing________________________ 30 Ground_________________________ 30 Issues of boneless beef must be correlated to prevent the accumulation of any of the above classes. There is a yield of approximately 70 pounds of boneless beef from every 100 pounds of carcass beef. 45 SECTION VIII. SEA FOOD 63. TYPES. Sea food may be classed as finfish and shellfish. A finfish is an animal that has a spine, scales, and gills. Cod, haddock, trout and white fish are examples. A shellfish is a spineless animal, protected by a shell. Examples are oysters, clams, and crabs. a. Delivery. Fish may be delivered as fresh, canned, frozen, quick-frozen, dried, smoked, and salted. Fresh fish must always be packed in ice; unless properly iced, this type of fish spoils easily. Frozen or quick-frozen fish must be delivered in a solidly-frozen condition. Evidence of thawing or refreezing is cause for rejection. Dried, smoked, and salted fish will be handled in covered containers. Keeping quality depends on the degree of dryness and salt penetration of the fish. b. How to Determine Quality of Sea Food. (1) Fresh fish. Fresh fish has a bright appearance, firm flesh, closed mouth and gills, and sinks when placed in water. Blood of a fresh fish is bright red. (2) Stale fish. Stale fish has a dull appearance, soft and flabby flesh, and will float when placed in water. (3) Putrid fish. The body is withered and flabby, dull in appearance and the blood is of a dirty brown color. Such fish has an offensive odor and will float when placed in water. C. Storage. (1) Fresh fish. This fish will not keep; it must be used promptly. From the time it is received until it is used, the fish must be kept under ice in the coolest part of the refrigerator. (2) Frozen fish. Containers of frozen fish should be stacked together and stored in the coolest part of the refrigerator; this fish should be used promptly. It must be carefully handled to avoid bruising and loss of juice. (3) Sailed fish. This fish depends on the degree of salt penetration for preservation. It must be kept under refrigeration. Hard salted fish keeps well, but must be covered as it has a tendency to darken if exposed to the air. Fish in brine may be kept long periods of time if held in temperature below 40° F. (4) Smoked fish. The keeping qualities of smoked fish depends on the degree of salting, smoking, and weather conditions. Moisture hastens spoilage. Smoked fish keeps best in a cool, dry atmosphere of 60° F. or below. (5) Canned sea food. Canned sea food must be stored in the same manner as canned meats. High temperature and humidity must be avoided, but under ordinary conditions canned fish will keep safely from 6 months to a year and under ideal conditions, it may be kept longer. d. Processed Fish. The Army receives the following types of processed fish: (1) Dressed fish. Head, tail, and guts removed. Large dressed fish are received in chunks or pieces. Figure 16. Cuts of fish. ® Dressed or pan dressed. ® Steaks ® Single fillets @ Butterfly fillets. Figure 17. Cleaning and dressing finfish. ® Cut a slit on each side of the fin. 46 ® Pull fin toward the head. ® Cut off head and tail. ® Scrape scales from tail toward head. ® Slit the belly. ® Remove the guts. ® Pull out backbone. 47 (2) Pan dressed fish. These are the smaller sizes which have been cleaned. The tail, head, fins, and guts removed. They may be split open along the belly or the back, and sometimes the backbone is removed. (3) Steaks. Steaks are crosscuts of the larger sizes of dressed fish. Each steak is % inch thick or more and equals one or more servings. (4) Single fillets. Single fillets are meaty slices of the fish, cut lengthwise away from the backbone. (5) Butterfly fillets. Butterfly fillets are single fillets held together by the uncut belly of the fish. e. Preparation of Finfish. Make a slit on each side of the fin, then grasp fin at rear and pull toward the head. Remove head and tail with a sharp knife. To remove scales, scrape with the back of the knife held at a 45° angle, beginning at the tail end and working toward the head, placing the knife firmly against the skin. Slit the belly and remove the guts, then with pliers or hand grasp the backbone at the top and pull out. To remove skin, cut between it and flesh with a sharp knife on each side of the backbone and carefully work the skin away from the flesh, moving from head to tail. f. Cooking. Sea food is both an appetizing and healthful food. Sea food must be completely cooked but not overdone. Sea food prepared too far in advance, even though properly cooked, becomes dry and hard, and loses its flavor and taste. Fish is cooked sufficiently when the flesh separates easily. Table XXI. Cooking sea food Fish Type Baked Boiled, steamed, poached Broiled Fried, sauteed Seasons, months, inclusive All fillets Good.- Fair Best Barracuda Fat Best.. — Good Fair February to June Bluefish Fat Best — Good Fair All year Butterfish Fat Fair — Good Best April to December Carp__ Lean Best — Good Fair All year Clams Lean — Best — Good- All year Cod Lean Good Fair Best — All year Flounder Lean Fair — Good Best All year Haddock Lean Good Fair Best All year Hake Lean Best Good Fair — All year Halibut Fat Good Fair Best — All year Herring Fat Fair . Best Good All year Lobster Lean — Good Best — All year Mackerel Fat Good Fair Best — April to November Oysters Lean Fair Good — Best September to April Perch Lean Fair — Good Best All year Pickerel Lean Good — Fair Best----- All year Pike Lean Good — Fair Best All year Pompano Fat; Good — Best Fair All year Porgies Fat Fair — Good Best All year Salmon Fat Best Fair.. Good — All year Scallops Lean — Fair Good Best All year Sea bass Fat Fair — Best Good All year Sea trout Fat Fair — Best Good November to May Shad Fat Best — Good Fair December to July Shrimp Lean Fair Best — Good All year Smelts Lean Fair — Good Best September to May Snappers Lean Best Fair Good All year Sole Lean Fair — Best Good All year Spanish mackerel Fat Good — Good Fair November to April Swordfish Fat Good — Good Fair July to September Trout Lean Fair — Good Best April to November Tuna Fat___ Best Good Fair — All year Weakfish Lean Good — Best----- Fair April to December Whitefish Fat Best — Good Fair April to December Whiting Lean — Fair Best — All year 48 ~ TEXAS £7.r „„ j.~ . WOMSW SECTION IX. POULTRY^^^RiT 64. GENERAL Poultry is one of the most popular kinds of meat in the Army diet. Poultry includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowl, and pigeons. Chickens are the most widely used in the Army, but turkeys and ducks are also used to some extent. 65. CHICKENS, a. Classes of Dressed Chickens. A cook should be able to recognize the different classes of birds in order that he may determine the best manner of cooking and serving. Before cooking, determine the class the birds are in. There are four classes of young chickens and three classes of old chickens. The young class includes: broilers, capons, fryers, and roasters. The old class includes: fowl, roosters, and stags. (1) Broilers are the youngest and smallest chickens fit to eat. They may be of either sex, and are usually marketed from 8 to 15 weeks old. (2) Capons are castrated cockerels. They are known for their large bodies and tender flesh. (3) Fryers, sometimes known as “spring chickens,” are young birds of either sex, a little larger than broilers. They are 3 to 4 months old. (4) Roasters are quick-grown, large-sized cockerels. Their flesh is of a high quality. (5) Fowl or hens are female birds more than 1 year old. They have more fat than any other class of chickens. (6) Roosters or cocks are male chickens 1 year old or more. They are not desirable because of toughness and lack of quality. (7) Stags are male birds that have begun to develop definite male characteristics. The flesh is usually dark and tough. Their age may be from 6 months to a year or over. Stags should never be included with roasters or fryers. b. Age Characteristics. Age is determined by the size and development of the bird. Young birds are usually lankier and rangier than old birds. The head, comb, and wattles are undeveloped. The shanks (lower leg) of the young bird are smooth and bright. With increasing age the shanks become roughened, scaly, and dull colored. On broilers, spurs are hardly noticeable; on fryers a small rounded knob appears; on staggy birds the spur begins to lengthen and become hard; on cocks they are long, hard and pointed. The claws of young birds are short, slender and pointed. On old birds they are long, stubby and dull. In young birds the end of the breast bone is soft and pliable. As the bird grows older this soft bone becomes firm and hard. c. Chickens Received in the Army Mess. Chickens are either dressed or drawn when received in the Army mess. (1) Dressed chickens. Birds that have been bled and have had their feathers removed are known as dressed chickens. (2) Drawn chickens. Chickens that are drawn have had the head, feet, crop, windpipe and guts removed. Most chickens received in the Army mess are dressed but not drawn and are either chilled or frozen. Figure 18. Dressed chicken. Figure 19. Drawn chicken. 49 ® Cut off the head. ® Cut and open across the vent and remove intestines, heart, liver, and lungs. ® Cut off the tail and oil bag. ® Cut off the legs. ® Remove crop through neck opening. ® Rinse in cold water and dry. 50 Figure 20. Drawing poultry. ® Remove pin feathers. d. To Draw or Clean Chickens. The following is the method of drawing poultry: (1) Remove pin feathers by singeing or plucking. (2) Remove the head. (3) On large birds, the tendons must be removed. Scrape the skin below the hock joint (shank). The tendons (long, fibre-like, flexible bone) will be exposed. Pull each tendon until it is free of the drum stick. Then cut through the hock joint and remove the leg. (4) Remove the crop or food bag from the neck opening. (5) Make a small cross cut at the vent. Remove the guts, heart, and liver, being careful not to break the gall bag. The gall is attached to the liver. If broken, it spreads its bitter contents on every part of the bird it touches. If this should occur, wash the bird immediately in cold water. (6) Remove the lungs which are closely attached to the rear side of the backbone. (7) Turn the bird breast down and cut the oil bag which is found at the tip of the tail. This sac contains a thick yellow deposit, strong in both odor and taste. (8) Rinse the bird in cold water and allow to dry. e. HowtoCook Young Chickens. (1) Broiling. The chicken is first split down the back or halved. Each half makes a serving. It is then broiled in a moderate oven for slow, even cooking. The larger type of broiler when served in the Army mess is generally disjointed and served as a fryer. (2) Frying, (a) Shallow frying. To fry chicken, disjoint and cut into portions suitable for serving. This will depend upon the size of the bird. Wipe the pieces of chicken as dry as possible. Dredge pieces of chicken in flour, seasoned with salt and pepper. Have a pan ready with inch of fat that is hot but not smoky. Leave space for the fat to come up around each piece. Do not crowd. (6) Deep fat. Follow the same method of preparing the chicken for shallow frying. Have ready a pan of hot fat heated to 350° F. Lower the chicken carefully into the deep fat. Do not crowd the pieces. Some cooks prefer to take out the chicken when it is very lightly browned. The chicken is then placed on slices of leftover bread in a ration pan. After the bread is moistened with a little stock, the chicken is put in the oven and cooking is completed at a temperature of 325° F. This method of preparing fried chicken enables the cook to complete the cooking of all the chicken at one time. It also makes the chicken more tender and juicy. (3) Roasting. For roasting a young bird, place it breast down in a shallow, uncovered pan with a rack in the bottom. In a shallow pan, a bird cooks more evenly than in a pan with high sides which retard the circulation of heat. The rack keeps the bird from sticking. Inverted pie tins can act as an improvised rack when using a 100 ration pan. Do not use a cover because it will steam the bird. Steaming is not necessary for young chickens. Figure 21. Cuts of chicken. ® Cut for broiling and for frying. @ Cut for fricassee. 51 Moreover, steaming breaks the skin, forces juices out of the meat, and results in loss of flavor and weight. f. How to Cook Old Birds. (1) Brown smothered chicken. This is a good method of cooking well-fatted birds past their prime for roasting, but not necessarily in stewing class. An example is fowl from 1 year to years old. Place the chicken on a rack in a pan. Cover and cook at a temperature of 325° F. The cover makes the difference. A small amount of stock should be added for basting during cooking. After the bird has been three-quarters cooked, remove it and stuff. Coat the outside with fat and sprinkle a little paprika for coloring. Place in oven until browned. (2) Stewing. Old birds need long, slow cooking in water or steam. This will soften the tissue and make it tender. Birds cooked in steam or water give off juices and flavor. These are saved in the broth, made into a savory gravy, and served with the meat. Chickens may be stewed either whole or in pieces. Always simmer; do not boil. (3) Fricassee. Disjoint chicken. Make two pieces of each wing by cutting at the joint. Cut neck into two pieces, split breast in half and cut into eight pieces. Place in pot with onions, carrots, celery and seasoning. Cover with cold water. Place a tight cover on the boiler. Simmer 2^ hours. Skim fat and blend it into the flour. Strain the chicken stock and add it to the blended flour to make a sauce. Add the cooked chicken to the sauce, and serve. Table XXII. Timetable for roasting turkey Size of turkey Weight of stuffed birds in pounds Average total cooking time in hours Average time per pound in minutes Small Medium Large _ 6 to 10 10 to 16 18 to 30 3 to 3;H> 34^ to 44^- -44^ to 8 20 to 25 18 to 20 16 to 18 66. TURKEYS, a. Classes. Army specifications prescribe the following classes of turkey for use in the mess: (1 ) Classes I and II, young hens and toms, are soft-meated, with flexible breastbone, and less than 1 year old. (2 ) Classes III and IV, old hens and toms, are mature turkeys, with toughened flesh, hardened breastbone, and more than 1 year old. It is the Army policy to buy class I and II type turkeys whenever possible. Classes III and IV are purchased only when the supply of class I and II is exhausted. b. Age Characteristics. The age of turkeys is reflected by the same characteristics as chickens, except that the feet of turkeys indicate age. The feet of turkeys are dark or black up to about 1 year. From 1 year up to 3 years they are a pink color. Then they gradually turn gray and dull. c. Method of Cooking Turkey. Turkey has become the number one Thanksgiving Day and Christmas Day requirement in the Army mess. It is always served stuffed and roasted. Table XXII gives the roasting time for turkeys. The time shown is the requirement for cooking stuffed turkeys at 300° F. 67. DUCKS, a. General. Ducks represent only a small fraction of the poultry grown in the U. S. They are marketed from 8 to 12 weeks of age and weigh from to 6 pounds. b. Types. Ducks are divided into three types: Meat, egg, and ornamental. C. Classes. Ducks may be purchased by the Army in the following classes: (1) Class I, young ducks 8 to 13 weeks old, and specially fed, weighing not less than 4 pounds and not more than 6 with pliable cartilages (soft bone). (2) Class II, ducks not included in the above, weighing not less than 4 pounds and not more than 7. d. Age Characteristics. The age of ducks is indicated by the condition of the windpipe. In the young birds, the windpipe is flexible, while in the old birds it is hard and rigid. By grasping the windpipe between the thumb and forefinger and squeezing, the degree of softness or hardness can be determined. e. Cleaning. Duck feathers are much harder to remove than chicken feathers, especially the small downy feathers next to the skin. In dry picking, they are usually removed by rubbing them with moistened hands or by shaving the skin with a sharp knife. Steaming, not scalding, makes plucking easier. It is accomplished by hanging the birds in a closed chamber (a GI can) and subjecting them to steam vapor for from to 2 minutes. This loosens the feathers, and makes them easy to remove. f. Method of Cooking Duck. w Duck is roasted the same as chicken, except that a longer roasting time is required. 52 68. Frozen Poultry. Chickens, turkeys and ducks are often received frozen in the mess. It is best to thaw them completely in the refrigerator. If possible, they should be hung on a rack while defrosting to permit circulation of air. A frozen roasting chicken, for example, will require from 18 to 24 hours to thaw sufficiently in a refrigerator to permit it to be drawn. A quicker method of thawing is to place the frozen poultry in a receptacle containing cold water until defrosted. Hot water should never be used. After poultry is thawed, it may then be cooked in the same manner as freshly killed birds. SECTION X. ECGS 69. CLASSES OF EGGS. a. Fresh eggs are not over 30 days old, have never been in cold storage, and are held at a temperature between 40° to 50° F. The term “eggs,” when unqualified, means hens’ eggs. Their quality may be determined by candling, which consists of holding an egg before an artificial light, so the condition of the contents may be seen. b. Storage Eggs. Storage eggs are those placed in storage at 29° to 30° F. They keep well at this temperature for 9 months. c. Processed Eggs. Processed eggs are dipped in hot mineral oil at 220 °F. for 6 seconds to preserve the fresh quality. The hot oil seals the pores of the shell, retards shrinkage by evaporation, and destroys molds and bacteria, thus prolonging the keeping qualities. d. Washed and Sandblasted Eggs. Washed eggs are undesirable in that they have limited keeping qualities. Water penetrates the pores of the shell and carries with it any bacteria which may be in the water or on the shell of the egg. Sandblasting wears away the outer shell of the egg. The shell becomes weakened and is less resistant to bacteria. e. Frozen Eggs. Eggs that are broken, mixed, and then frozen at 10° to 15° below zero are called frozen eggs. Frozen eggs are also packed as whole eggs, as whites and as yolks. f. Dried Eggs. There are several methods of drying eggs. Sometimes the yolks and whites are dried separately. It requires 3^ pounds of liquid whole eggs to produce 1 pound of whole dried eggs. 70. COOKING, a. Uses. Eggs are used in the mess in many ways, such as boiled, poached, fried, scrambled, or in cooked and baked dishes. They are also used in custards, meat loaf, croquettes, French toast, etc. Aside from their food value and flavor, eggs serve the following purposes: (1) Binding. To avoid crumbling of muffins, cookies, and meat loaves. (2) Coating. To give an attractive color to chops and other meats and the top of baked goods. (3) Coloring. To give desirable yellow or white color to a product. (4) Decorating. Used as a garnish. (5) Leavening. To give lightness to cakes and pastry. (6) Separation of oils. In mayonnaise, the eggs surround particles of oil, thus keeping them from joining. This makes the mixture smooth. (7) Texture. Eliminates lumps in frozen mixtures. (8) Whites. The whites may be whipped for sauces, pie fillings, and custards. b. Eggs for Immediate Eating. These eggs present special problems to the cook. They can be served in as tempting and appetizing a condition in a mess hall as in any other place. Special care must be taken, however. (1) Poached, fried, or scrambled eggs should be ready for serving only at the time the men are ready to eat them, not before. If a cafeteria line is used, keep the supply of freshly cooked eggs only a little ahead of the men who pass through the line and always serve the first-cooked eggs first. Do not let the eggs stand. If not eaten soon after cooking, they cool, harden, and lose their taste. (2) Boiled eggs are easily served either too soft or too hard. Cooking small batches at frequent intervals makes it possible to serve boiled eggs at the right consistency. c. Precaution. When eggs are used in a dish with other ingredients or when eggs are to be broken together, each egg. should be broken separately in a small dish. If an egg has a bad odor or appearance, it can then be discarded without spoiling the remainder of the eggs. 53 SECTION XI. VEGETABLES—PASTE PRODUCTS—GRAIN PRODUCTS 71. GENERAL. a. Vegetables. Vegetables used in the Army are of two classes: leafy green and yellow, and other than leafy green and yellow. This does not mean that when two or more vegetables are classified together the same cooking methods are adaptable for each. Vegetables are of great importance in the diet because of their health protective value. Most vegetables are best in appearance and flavor and richest in vitamin value when freshly gathered. Vegetables are frequently left uneaten because they are poorly prepared and unattractive. b. Types. There are five types of vegetables: leafy green and yellow, vegetables other than leafy green and yellow, tomatoes, potatoes and legumes. The vegetables in each type are listed in table in figure 1, chapter 2. C. Waste. Most raw vegetables have waste. Certain portions are not edible. In taking off the waste, by peeling, scraping, brushing, or cutting, care must be exercised to prevent destroying edible portions. The table in figure 49 shows the percentage of waste and edible parts of certain vegetables. This will help the cook in estimating the average amount of waste to be expected with various vegetables. Efforts should be made to prevent waste beyond the percentage that is considered normal. 72. COOKING VEGETABLES. Vegetables must be cooked in the shortest time possible, using a minimum of water. Vitamin and flavor loss increases with the amount of liquid used and the length of time cooked. A vegetable is sufficiently cooked when it is tender. Add vegetables to boiling water. Do not use soda to preserve the color because it destroys vitamins. Cook until just done. Undercook rather than overcook. Table in figure 50 will guide the cook in the preparation of vegetables and the cooking time under different methods of cooking. Press pieces between the thumb and forefinger to determine whether or not a vegetable is done. Do not let vegetables stand in water because soaking removes vitamins. Cover all vegetables while cooking, except those of the cabbage family, such as cabbage, cauliflower, brussels sprouts, and turnips. Never use too much water. Add soup stock, diced bacon or rinds, ham or pork bones for flavor. Taste before serving, and add more seasoning if necessary. Boil root vegetables whole with skins on unless they are too strong or tough. To Table XXIII. Waste and edible portions of vegetables Name of vegetable W aste Edible Potatoes, fresh: Percent Percent Potatoes, white 16 84 Potatoes, sweet 14 86 Vegetables, leafy, green and yellow, fresh: Asparagus 25 75 Beans, string 10 90 Broccoli 53 47 Brussel sprouts 23 77 Cabbage 27 73 Carrots, without tops 12 88 with tops 37 63 Greens: Collards, leaves only. _ 100 with stalks 55 45 Kale, leaves only. 100 with stalks, etc 36 64 Mustard greens, leaves 100 with stalks 27 73 Spinach 18 82 Lettuce 31 69 Peas in shells 55 45 Pumpkin 31 69 Squash, summer 35 65 winter 26 74 Tomatoes, fresh: Tomatoes - 2 98 Vegetables, other than leafy, green and yellow, fresh: Beans, lima in shells 60 40 Beets, without tops 25 75 with tops 47 53 Cauliflower, main stalks 43 57 with leaves and stalks. _ 55 45 Celery 37 63 Corn, with husks 62 38 without husks 43 57 Onions, dry 6 94 young 59 41 Parsnips 22 78 Sauerkraut, canned _ 100 Turnips, roots only 13 87 with tops 34 66 keep beets from losing their bright red color, leave on the long taproot and an inch or more of the stems. A quick dip into cold water loosens the skin on a cooked beet so it will slip off very easily. 54 Table XXIV. Time required for cooking the more common vegetables by different methods Time of cooking when vegetables are— Vegetable • Preparation for cooking Baked Steamed Boiled Hours Minutes Minutes Artichokes globe or French Whole 35 Artichokes, Jerusalem 1 Pared, whole 2-1 35 30 In bunches 15-20 Asparagus V/2 inch pieces 12 12-15 Beans, lima, dried Soaked overnight 6-8 180 Beans, lima, fresh Shelled P. 30 Beans, navy, dried Soaked overnight 6-8 180 Beans, snap (In pieces 25-30 20-30 (With stems 15-20 Beet greens No stems 10 Beets mature Whole.. _ 60-90 Beets, young Whole 60 30-45 Broccoli Cut in strips 20-45 Brussel sprouts (Whole. _ 15-20 (Quartered 15 10-15 Cabbage Shredded 10 5-10 Carrots, mature Diced or sliced 25-30 20-25 Carrots, young (Whole _ 20-30 15-20 (Separated 10-15 10-15 Cauliflower Whole 25-30 20-30 Celeriac Diced 25 15-20 Celery 1 Lo inch nieces 25-30 15-20 Chayotes Sliced • 20 15 Collards 30 20 Corn On cob. 10 6-15 Dandelion greens 10-20 Fggplant Diced 15 10 Fennell 25 15-20 Kale 30 20-25 Kohlrabi Pared sliced 30 25-30 Lentils dried Soaked overnight 6-8 180-240 Mushrooms Whole 5 (in own juice) Okra Whole 20 10-20 Onions Bermuda? Peeled, whole. 1 30 Onions Spanish Peeled, cut in half 1 35-40 Parsnips Whole 30-40 20-30 Peas dried Soaked overnight. 6-8 180 Pp^s frpsh Shelled 10-20 Potatoes Whole % 40 35 Rhubarb 1-inch pieces 5 5 Rutah agas 1 Parftd. nuartftrftd 20-30 (With stems... 5-6 5-8 Spinach No stems 10 Squash summer Pared, sliced 20 15 Squash winter 2-inch pieces. %-i 30-40 20 Swftftt pota tofts Whole % 30-35 25-30 10 20-30 30 HP nm fl toPR Quartered yz-Vi 10-20 20-30 20 25 15 20 Vegetable oyster, or salsify — 20 20 55 73. COOKING QUICK-FROZEN VEGETABLES. All quick-frozen vegetables, except spinach, kale, other leafy greens and corn, should be kept in a completely frozen condition up to the time of cooking. Spinach, kale, other leafy greens and corn should be thawed out prior to cooking. To cook other vegetables, remove from cartons and drop into boiling, salted water. If products are “solid packed” in the shape of “bricks,” each brick should be broken into four or five pieces before it is placed in the water. This will hasten defrosting in the water. If they are “loose-packed” or “loose-frozen,” they will separate readily. Vegetables should be stirred frequently while thawing in the water. Boiling will stop when frozen foods are placed in the water; therefore cooking time will start when water comes to a second boil. Approximate cooking times for frozen vegetables are shown in fig. 51, Table XXV. Quick-frozen vegetables cook in a much shorter time than “fresh.” Cook each item only until just tender. Caution should be exercised to avoid overcooking. When cooking is completed, drain, season, and serve vegetables in the usual manner. Use cooking water for gravies, sauces and soups. Table XXV. Cooking time for frozen vegetables Item Amount of water Cooking time 1 2 25 to 30 pounds of vegetables 1 (from 2d boil) Asparagus 2 gal 6 to 9 min. Asparagus cuts 2 gal 6 to 9 min. Beans, green 2 gal 8 to 13 min. Beans, lima 2 gal 10 to 13 min. Beans, wax 2 gal 8 to 13 min. Broccoli Enough to cover 5 to 7 min. Brussels sprouts Enough to cover ¥2 min. or less Cauliflower Enough to cover 3 to 5 min. Cut corn 2 gal ¥2 min. or less Peas 2 gal 4 to 6 min. Spinach 1 gal 4 to 6 min. 1 Use same proportion for larger or small quantities of vegetables. 2 These are approximate cooking times and subject to considerable variation. 74. COOKING POTATOES. Potatoes are used more than any other vegetable, and generally form a part of every day’s menu. They are one of the cheapest and most available vegetables on the market. They are valued chiefly as an energy food, but they also furnish vitamins and minerals. They may be served in many ways: baked, boiled, fried, mashed, creamed, au gratin, escalloped, in soups, and in combinations with other foods. In salads they are first boiled or steamed and then chilled. They may be added to fish cakes, meat loaf, and croquettes. They should be cooked in a variety of ways to be attractive and appetizing. Heat bursts the starch cells and gives them that mealy appetizing appearance. The best results require more heat than can be obtained by boiling. Baking in the oven or frying in hot fat will give the best results. When baked or boiled with the “jackets” on, there is little water. When they are boiled, care should be taken to pour off all the water as soon as they have been cooked. Then they should be placed on the back of the stove. This will make them mealy. In order that they will be uniformly cooked, they must be of uniform size. When paring, potato paring knives should be used to prevent waste. 75. MACARONI, SPAGHETTI AND NOODLES, a. General. These products are shaped and dried dough. They are called “paste products.” The paste from which all of the products are made is simply flour and water; sometimes salt is added. The flour is not the same as used for baking; it is semolina or farina. After the paste is processed, it is usually packaged in wooden or cardboard boxes. The four basic types of paste products are macaroni, spaghetti, egg noodles, and plain noodles. The finished product contains not more than 13 percent moisture. The various forms and sizes are merely a matter of using different molds in the machinery and cutting to different sizes. Noodles are made of the same kind of paste as macaroni and spaghetti except that eggs are sometimes added. The product is then known as egg noodles. b. Cooking. When properly cooked, these products are enjoyable main dishes. They have eye appeal and are nutritious. They require no preparation before cooking. Regardless of the finished dish, paste products are always boiled first in water. Egg noodles are an exception to this rule; they may be boiled in stock or in a thin gravy instead of waiter. Due to the various sizes and shapes, there is no hard and fast rule for time required to cook paste. The degree of tenderness is the determining factor. Overcooking will produce an undesirable mushiness. After the pastes have been boiled to the desired degree of tenderness, blanch them. Pastes may then be prepared in many ways. 56 Figure 22. Preparation of rice for cooking. ® Rinse until the water is clear. ® Drain thoroughly. (1) Buttered, salted, and served. (2) Baked with diced or grated cheese and a white sauce. (3) Baked in a cream sauce to which a cheese sauce is added. (4) Creamed with hardboiled eggs. (5) Served with Spanish or Italian sauce. (6) Diced and served with a salad. (7) Added to soup. (8) Combined with tomato sauce and meat balls. c. Tips on Cooking Pastes. The water must be boiling vigorously before placing the paste in the pot. If more water is needed, be sure it is boiling when used. Paste usually swells to twice the size during cooking and absorbs three times its weight. Allow plenty of water for cooking; the proper proportion is eight times more water than the original product. Adding salt to the water is optional, but is usually desirable. When baking paste, allow enough time to melt the ingredients and brown the top. Prolonged baking will cause toughness. 76. RICE. a. General. Rice is a grain product produced in warm climates, chiefly in the Orient and in southern United States. It is used extensively as a food. It is supplied to the Army in the milled or white form. Regulations require that brown or unpolished rice be issued to Phillipino scouts because it contains vitamin “B” which polished rice lacks. Polished rice simply means that the outer surface or bran is removed, and the result produced is white, milled or polished rice. b. Cooking Rice. Rice requires rinsing or washing prior to cooking. This removes the thin coat of starch. Rice should be washed several times in water until the last rinse is clear. Then drain thoroughly before cooking. If rice is to be used as an ingredient for another dish, it should be cooked first. In cooking, rice is placed in rapidly boiling water, then it is allowed to simmer. If more water is needed, use only boiling water. One and one half times as much water as rice by volume is the proper proportion for cooking. Rice, like paste products, swells during cooking. c. Serving Rice. Rice is an all-purpose food and can be served in any of the following forms: (1) Served as a cereal with cream and sugar. A little cinnamon improves the taste and adds color. (2) Base for such dishes as chop suey and stew. (3) Added to soups. (4) Rice pudding as a dessert. (5) As a change in place of potatoes. (6) Combined with meat and sauces. 77. BARLEY, a. General. Barley was probably the first grain crop produced by the human race. Wheat and rye have largely replaced it. As recently as the eighteenth century, it was the chief grain food of England and is still widely used 57 in northern Europe for bread making. The type of barley used in the mess may be compared to rice. It is the inner seed from which the outside husk has been removed. The seed is then polished by means of a mechanical process and is known as pearl barley. b. Cooking Barley. Barley is limited in its use. It is used principally as an ingredient in soup. There are three methods of preparing barley: (1) Barley is washed and cooked in boiling salted water until done. It is then strained and washed thoroughly in cold water. It is given a final hot water rinse to reheat it and then it is added to a broth or soup. (2) The barley may be soaked in cold water, strained and then added to the soup and cooked in the soup. (3) Barley may be cooked in the soup, without any previous preparation. 78. BEANS, PEAS AND LENTILS, a. General. There are several types of dry beans that are used in the Army mess. They may be used in place of meat or as a side dish. One of the most popular is the “Navy” or “Pea” bean. The cooking qualities of beans differ. Therefore, the issues should be of one variety, not mixed. If large navy beans are mixed with small pea beans, the small bean will be overcooked and the large bean undercooked. b. Preparation for Cooking. In preparing beans for cooking it is necessary to remove all stones, sticks, dirt, or other foreign matter and wash thoroughly. They should be soaked overnight before cooking. This will shorten the cooking time. In hot weather it may become necessary to shorten the soaking time to prevent souring, unless they can be soaked under refrigeration. C. Types. The various types of dried beans, peas, and lentils commonly used are: (1) Pea or navy bean. 'The pea or navy bean is white in color and is the smallest in size of any of the beans. It is commonly used for baked beans or canned pork and beans. It is grown in California and Michigan; the California pea bean differs in flavor and cooking time from the Michigan variety. (2) White or great northern bean. This is approximately twice as large as the pea bean and flatter. It is used like the pea bean, except that it is not canned commercially because of its tendency to lose shape when cooked. (3) Kidney bean. This bean is kidney shaped and is larger than the pea bean. It is produced in different colors and sizes. (a) The red kidney has a distinctive flavor and is commonly used for chili con carne and other Mexican dishes. It is also popular as a canned product. (&) The mahogany kidney is especially popular in New England. (c) The southern black or “turtle” is used for making an especially rich and excellent soup. (d) Flageolots or haricots flageolets are shelled kidney beans of a special strain, generally put up in bottles or cans, but also sold dried. (e) The red bean looks like the small red kidney and is difficult to handle because of its tender skin. (/) The frijole or Mexican bean is popular in the South. It is a special strain of kidney bean. It is small and flat and is used as a string bean, shelled and cooked green, or dried. (With corn it forms the principal part of the Mexican diet.) (g) The marrow bean is one of the larger varieties and may be either white or red in color. d. Lima or Butter Bean. This bean is marketed fresh, dried or canned in “regular” or “baby” size. Fresh limas are picked from vines while young and green; limas for drying are allowed to mature on the vine. The color of the bean is lost as it ripens; hence, dried limas are white in color. “Speckled Cranberry” is a variety which has red spots, is cultivated in New England and is popular for succotash. e. Pinto or Indian Bean. This bean is buff color, speckled with brown, and about the size of the navy beam It cooks more easily than the navy bean and is more tender. It is especially popular in the Southwest. f. Pink Bean. Its color is pink. It ranks between the pea bean and the white bean in size. It is closely related to the pinto bean. Sometimes it is used for chili con carne. g. Blackeye Bean or Cowpea. This is a small bean with an oval of black around the “eye” or germ of the bean. It is especially popular in the South. It may be eaten as string, shelled, or dried. Its original use was as forage and soil enrichment. h. Peas. Mature fresh peas are dried in evaporators, marketed whole or split, in green or yellow varieties, and used especially for soups and puree. i. Lentil. The lentil is related to the bean family. They are smaller in size than beans. Then-greatest use is in soups and stews. j. Soy Bean. Soy beans vary in color according to varieties. There is much interest in developing it as a human food. It is only within the last decade that the soy beans have been used for food purposes in this country. 58 SECTION XII. SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS 79. GENERAL. Formerly salads were looked upon as only leafy greens. Dressings were plain, often containing just vinegar and sugar. Today, salads vary from simple foods to elaborate combinations. The more complicated salads are served on lettuce or some other salad green and are usually garnished with a fancy dressing. Many ingredients are used today in salad-making. They incude greens, vegetables, fruits, meat, poultry, eggs, fish, sea food, gelatin, nuts, cheeses, rice, and other raw, cooked, dried, salted or pickled foods. Salads used to be served following the main course as a general rule. More and more, however, they have come to take other forms, such as relishes or appetizers, hearty salads which are served as a main course, and salads which constitute a vegetable course. a. General. Salads are desirable for the diet. Raw salad greens, raw vegetables, and raw fruits are very rich in vitamins. Salad dressings contain oil which furnishes heat and energy. Salads also include a large proportion of water and mild acid which are beneficial to the digestive tract. Salads are a means of serving a variety of greens, vegetables, fruits and other foods. If possible, a salad should be made and served at least once each day. b. Hot Salads. A few hot salads are sometimes served but the greatest majority are cold. It is important to the success of a cold salad to have all ingredients well chilled and served from cold plates or utensils. C. Salad Success. This depends on the judgment with which the salad is chosen. Among the requirements of a good salad are: freshness, crispness, appetizing flavor, pleasing color combinations, and a proper dressing. 80. SALAD AS A FIRST COURSE. A salad as a first course takes the salad out of its accustomed role. On holidays, a tart fruit, fish, or vegetable salad is most appropriate. Servings should be small and colorful. Sections of grapefruit or orange, or both; grapefruit sections and thin slices of pared avacado; small tomatoes stuffed with mixed vegetables; stuffed beets, avacado, mixed green salads, or tomato, any of these served with an appropriate dressing in cups of crisp lettuce make a tempting first course. One or two anchovies, shrimps, or sardines for each serving add a pleasing touch to a simple green salad. Serve with melba toast or crackers. 81. GREEN SALADS, a. General. A considerable variety of greens is available for salad use. They are seldom in perfect condition when received in the mess. It should be kept in mind that wilted greens have lost much of their vitamin content. If only the outer leaves are wilted or bruised, or the leaf tips sunburned or nipped by frost, the greens can still be made into perfect salads. Discard the soiled outer leaves. Cut away the blemished tips and other imperfections and freshen the heads by cutting off the root and plunging the cut end into ice-cold water for half an hour. Wilted greens may be more readily revived if cup of vinegar is added for 1 gallon of water and the greens allowed to remain in the mixture until refreshed. If there are leaves which, after this treatment, still do not look good enough for the salad plate, save them to cook with spinach, for use in a vegetable soup or for a chopped salad if they are tender enough. If a variety of different ingredients, all crisp, are cut up neatly and uniformly, and lightly combined, a very attractive salad may be made of them. b. Varieties of Green Salad. (1) Lettuce. The most frequently used and the most abundant salad green is lettuce, which can be used in a number of ways. The leaves may be separated, leaving the cupped heart leaves as a foundation of the salad. Other leaves may be shredded. The head, after trimming, may be cut in wedges or slices. For use in the salad bowl, breaking the leaves apart rather than cutting the head into chunks produces the best flavored salad. Lettuce has a very mild flavor of its own. There are various types of lettuce on the market. (a) Iceberg. Probably the most widely used type of lettuce is iceberg. It is a large head variety and extremely crisp and brittle. Although it has a distinct lettuce flavor, it suggests cabbage in its formation. (6) Boston. This lettuce has a greener and smoother leaf than the crisp head and varies from a semiformed to a tight cabbage-like head. (c) Leaf or bunch. This is a form of lettuce that that is not allowed to come to a head, but is cut directly from the little lettuce plants. It has a crisp texture and either a much-curled or a smooth leaf. (2) Romaine. Romaine differs from lettuce and is stronger in flavor. It has an elongated head of long, straight, upright leaves, generally inclined to spoon shape and with thick crisp midribs. 59 (3) Cabbage. While cabbage is a vegetable, it is so well adapted in varying forms to salad making that it is considered under this heading. The green, white, and red cabbage varieties are used as a salad. (4) Chinese cabbage. Chinese cabbage forms a close, erect, elongated head, 10 to 16 inches in height, pale green to white in color, inclosed in outer leaves of cabbage style. Stripped of its cabbage-like wrapper, its length and general appearance suggest a cross between lettuce and celery. The inner leaves are crisp and delicate and are fully equal to the best lettuce as a salad. (5) Kohlrabi. Kohlrabi is a variety of cabbage with a turnip-like root, growing just above the ground. The leaves, when green and tender, are eaten as a salad. (6) Savoy cabbage. This is a kind of cabbage with rough, curly or crimpled leaves and generally loose-centered. The flavor is usually milder than that of the ordinary cabbage. (7) Some additional forms of cabbage used for salads are broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower. (8) Chicory or American endive. The common salad chicory has narrow, curled, feathery leaves. The leaves around the base of the plant resemble dandelion greens. Chicory is obtainable in both summer and winter. (9) Escarole. Escarole has broad leaves that are generally twisted and waved, with white midribs. Escarole is more highly considered as a winter than a summer salad. Both chicory and escarole are sandy plants and need careful soaking and cleaning. (10) French or Belgian endive. French or Belgian endive consists typically of a number of thick, creamy-white leaves from 4 to 6 inches in length and 1 to 2 inches in width, tapering to a point. The leaves form into close and often tight heads like Chinese cabbage or celery. For many years this type of endive was imported from France and Belgium. Belgian or French endive is generally used alone as a salad and not as a foundation or part of a salad mixture. (11) Dandelion. Dandelion is a common and familiar plant and is entitled to a higher place than it holds at present in salad use. Dandelion is gathered wild in the early spring. It is cultivated by some gardeners and is also raised in hot houses between seasons. For salad use, dandelion must be cut when the leaves are young and tender. (12) Water cress. Water cress grows wild in many parts, flourishing best in running waters with sandy bottoms. Under cultivation it is generally raised in fields of slowly moving water. Water cress has a pungent and peppery taste and is especially. suitable for salad use. Water cress is sometimes known as pepper grass. (13) Young spinach. Only young leaves should be used for salads. Spinach needs very thorough cleansing as its round low-lying, leaves generally collect sand and other soil particles. The French call spinach “belly broom” because of its value as “roughage.” (14) Wild salads. Under this heading can be mentioned sorrels and docks, purslane, mustard greens, and marsh marigold or cow slip. Figure 23. Preparation of salad greens. CO IT ash under the faucet. @ Inspect carefully, trim off imperfection. 60 Figure 23. Preparation of salad greens—Continued @ Shake off excess water. ® Place in hydrator in refrigerator. (15) Other salad greens. Other salad greens are young turnip tops, young onion tops, bean sprouts, young tender kale, salsify or oyster plant top and corn salad in its many varied forms. Tender celery tops may be used as a salad background. Whole celery, diced, shredded or introduced in other ways is a welcome addition to almost any other salad. (c) Preparation of salad greens for use. Various kinds of salad greens may be used, either as a salad background or as the main part of a salad. A single green may be used or greens in combination. In every case, wash the plants carefully in cold water to remove dirt. Separate the bunch or head to facilitate washing. The simplest method of separating iceberg lettuce into leaves is to cut out the core with a pointed knife. After coring, hold the head downward under running water so that the water will force its way through the leaves and separate them. Romaine, endive, escarole, dandelion and other leaves may be separated leaf by leaf and then washed well. To clean water cress, untie the bunch, place into a generous-sized container of cold water and let it soak for at least 1 hour, when all the sand will have settled to the bottom. The large-leafed variety has as good a flavor as the small-leafed water cress and is much easier to clean. Cabbage may be cut on a kraut cutter to best advantage. All greens should be well inspected after washing to insure removal of any insects or worms. Trim off imperfect portions. Drain in a colander. Dry by shaking in a wire basket, if available, and, if not, shake by hand. Then place the greens in a refrigerator to chill and crisp. If there is no hydrator, the cleaned greens may be placed loosely in a mechanical refrigerator in a cheesecloth bag kept for the purpose. As an alternate method, they may be wrapped in a damp cloth, or the heads of leaves wrapped lightly in waxed paper. An improvised hydrator is a utensil with the cover slightly elevated to allow for air circulation, or the utensil is covered with a damp towel. Some measure of precaution is desirable to protect the greens against drying out during a short period of storage. If ice is present in the refrigerator, place the greens close to the ice, but avoid contact with it. If there is no refrigerator, place the greens in a utensil as described and let it stand in a current of cool air or in a cool cellar. Greens are extremely poor keepers. Care is necessary to insure their freshness, crispness, tenderness, and firmness. If it is necessary to hold original containers for a short time, keep them in a cool damp place, or spinkle crushed ice on the greens. d. Making Salad Greens Attractive. Because salad greens are used frequently, care should be taken to guard against monotony. Varying the dressing, the method of service and the garnish also help to make the greens more interesting. A few combinations will illustrate some of the possibilities. (1) Iceberg lettuce. Cut into quarters with horse-radish and mayonnaise. (2) Boston lettuce. Cut crosswise in thick slices with cooked salad dressing. 61 ® Cooked vegetable salad @ Fruit salad Figure 24. ® Fresh vegetable salad THESE SALADS ARE GOOD; THEY TASTE GOOD; THEY LOOK GOOD; THEY ARE NUTRITIONALLY GOOD ® Tomato aspic salad ® Coleslaw ® Salmon salad (3) Leaf of bunch lettuce, with bacon dressing. (4) Romaine, with Thousand Island dressing. (5) Cole slaw, with celery seed and cream cheese dressing. (6) Chinese cabbage, with savory dressing. (7) Chicory, with chiffonade dressing. (8) Escarole, with grated yellow cheese and French dressing. (9) Water cress, with India relish dressing. (10) Bowl salad. Rub a wooden or china bowl with a cut clove of garlic. A typical bowl salad combination is made of lettuce, water cress and romaine. Have greens very crisp and separate leaf by leaf. Slice onions, radishes and cucumbers. Add to greens. Last, add tomatoes peeled and cut into quarters. Cover salad with crumbled cheese and toss lightly with French dressing at time of service. e. Some Suitable Combinations for Mixed Greens are: (1) Chicory, dandelion greens, garlic, diced bacon. (2) Green peppers, green and ripe olives, diced pimientb, romaine. (3) Dandelion greens, sliced radishes, romaine, chopped scallions, water cress. (4) Cucumber slices, radish slices, romaine. (5) Cucumber slices, garlic slices, green pepper slices, lettuce, sliced radishes, chopped scallions. (6) Chicory, endive, tomato quarters. (7) Chilled, cooked broccoli on mixed salad greens. (8) Stuffed celery on salad greens. (9) Chopped, cooked dandelion greens and scallions on tomato slices with lettuce. (10) Cooked or canned asparagus tips and grated cheese on lettuce. 82. VEGETABLE SALAD, a. General. Vegetable salad for service with the main course consists of one or more vegetables in combination with salad green. Portions are moderate in size. The dressing is usually French dressing or one of its variations. The small salad offers a golden opportunity to use leftover vegetables, either raw or cooked. Raw vegetables for salad should be very fresh and crisp, not only because they are more attractive and appetizing that way, but because the fresher the foods are, the greater the vitamin content. Like salad greens, raw vegetables are a superior source of vitamins. When vegetables are cooked for a salad they are usually simmered or steamed. Cooked vegetables which have been mixed with butter or a.. sauce may be rinsed in hot water and then chilled for use as a salad. The flavor of all vegetables is improved by mixing them with French dressing and allowing them to stand for at least y2 hour. This process is called marinating. b. Raw Vegetable Salad. Toss crisp salad greens or shredded raw cabbage with two or more of the following: carrot or turnip slices, cauliflower flowerets, celery (diced or slivered), cucumber (diced, sliced or slivered), white or purple onions (minced or in rings), radishes (white or red, sliced or whole), scallions (whole or sliced), leeks (sliced), raw tomatoes (skinned or not, diced, or in sections), green peppers (small red peppers, diced or in rings). Add one or two herbs, or crumbled or slivered cheese, as desired. Then add enough French dressing or one of its variations to moisten the salad, tossing lightly. Serve from a chilled bowl or platter, which may or may not be rubbed with garlic. c. Cooked Vegetable Salad. Use one, two, or more of the following freshly cooked, canned, or leftover vegetables: peas, lima beansj, string beans, kidney beans, beets (diced, julienne or sliced), carrots (sliced, diced or slivered), asparagus tips, Brussel sprouts, corn, canned mixed vegetables, cauliflower, potatoes (white or sweet, diced). Chill the vegetables well. Then toss them with crisp salad greens, raw vegetables and salad dressing. Serve from a bowl or platter, or in lettuce nests on individual plates. The cooked vegetables may be marinated in French dressing a few minutes before adding to the salad if preferred. d. Combination Vegetable Salads. (1) Asparagus tips, cooked or canned, in a bundle with a band of green pepper or pimiento, or a thick slice of tomato with vinaigrette dressing. (2) Celery and raw carrot, match-like strips of celery and raw carrot, piled on a base of leaves of romaine, with cream cheese dressing. (3) Cooked lima beans and cooked caluiflower, on lettuce, chiffonade dressing. (4) Onion and pepper, rings of mild onion, green pepper and sweet red pepper on lettuce with sour cream dressing. (5) Combination vegetable salads, sliced tomatoes, sliced cucumbers, thinly sliced radishes, green pepper rings and diced celery and onion on lettuce with French dressing. (6) Vegetable macedoine salad. Arrange a base of lettuce leaves. Marinate three or four vegetables separately with French dressing. Serve small mounds of each vegetable separately or mix together. Each portion of salad when served may be garnished with an asparagus tip, chopped egg 64 white, or sieved egg yolk and topped with mayonnaise. Some suitable vegetables are: cooked baby lima beans, chopped cooked beets, cooked cauliflower and strips of raw or cooked carrots. (7) Celeriac salad. The roots of celery, when washed and pared, may be diced, chopped or cut into thin slices or strips and used as a salad. (8) Red and white cabbage salad. Select firm red and white cabbage. Wash. Cut off wilted leaves, quarter and soak in cold water. Drain. Cut into thin slices and chop each kind separately. Prepare hot salad dressing and divide into two parts. Mix the red and the white cabbage separately with each part while the dressing is hot. Take of the white mixture and place it in the center of the platter. Make a border of the red all around the white. Reserve of the red, place in the center on top of white and place a ball of the reserved % of the white on top of the whole. (9) Cabbage and corn slaw. Shredded raw green or red cabbage, canned whole grain com, onions finely sliced, stuffed olives, toss well and serve with French dressing. 83. FRUIT SALAD, a. Fruit is a daily must in meals, so do not overlook fruit salad as an appetizer, salad course, or dessert. Of course, oranges and grapefruit, lemons, tangerines, and strawberries are especially good vitamin C sources. However, bananas, apples, canned pineapple, peaches and pears, prunes, apricots—in fact, all fresh, canned and dried fruits—lend a helping hand, too. b. In selecting fruit to combine in a mixed fruit salad, it is desirable to provide contrast in color, flavor and texture. Small whole fruits, as strawberries, raspberries and cherries, add an attractive touch. It is better, however, not to use too many fruits in any one fruit salad. C. Fruits of soft texture, as bananas, peaches and grapes, should be combined with foods of firmer texture as apples and fresh pineapple, celery, nuts and crisp greens. Variety may be attained in cutting fruit by using fancy shaped cutters. Balls, cubes, and wedge-shaped pieces are always attractive. What pleases the eye helps to please the taste. Whatever form is used, the pieces should be uniform. In a mixed fruit salad there should be no large sections of oranges with small cubes of apple. Both should be of equal size. French dressing made with lemon juice or juices drained from the fruit is especially good with fruit salads. d. Some Successful Fruit Salads are: (1) Unpeeled apples sliced with grapefruit and orange segments on lettuce. (2) Diced apple and celery with raisins and chopped walnuts on water cress. (3) Fresh or canned apricot halves, filled with cream cheese and chopped nuts or celery, on lettuce. (4) Cut bananas in thirds, crosswise and lengthwise, roll in minced peanuts and serve on lettuce with orange slices. (5) Fresh or canned peach halves, filled with chopped celery or cream cheese and nuts, on salad greens. (6) Sliced fresh peaches and oranges on water cress. (7) Fresh pear halves filled with cut up grapefruit on salad greens. (8) Pineapple and cheese. Sliced canned pineapple sprinkled with grated yellow cheese on lettuce. (9) Pineapple, orange and grapefruit salad, arranged with alternate sections of grapefruit and orange like a dome on a slice of canned pineapple and topped with a cherry. (10) Mixed fruit salad. Combinations of drained canned or fresh fruits, of soft and hard texture, uniform sizes, pleasing flavor and color harmony. 84. MAIN COURSE SALADS, a. General. The salad which is served as the main dish is usually built around meat, fish, sea food, and eggs. Vegetable and fruit salads may be suitable for main dish service with certain modifications. The portions for main dish salads are comparatively large. The dressing is usually mayonnaise rather than French dressing. b. Meat Salads. Some meat salads are chicken, ham, beef, tongue, turkey, duck, sweetbread, veal, roast meat, and variations such as chicken and ham julienne, ham and Swiss cheese, ham and tomato salad, tongue and ham, veal, bacon and tomato salad. c. Fish Salads. Some fish salads are sardine, anchovy, halibut, herring, fish flakes, shad roe and kippered herring. d. Sea Food Salads. Some sea food salads are shrimp, crabmeat, lobster, salmon, tunafish, sea scallop, and mixed sea food salads. Accompaniments of fish and sea foods salads are cucumbers, cole slaw, green peppers, onions, avocado, tomato salad and rice salad. e. Egg Salads. Some egg salads are egg and chopped bacon salad; egg, tomato, anchovy and sardine platter; egg and salmon platter; and egg and crabmeat platter. Eggs may take the form of slices, stuffed eggs, or whole cooked eggs with various garnishes and dressings. 65 85. MOLDED OR JELLIED SALADS, a. General. Molded salads are a convenience in that they can be made early in the day or the previous evening and the serving demands little attention at the last minute. They can be a medium for serving attractively various leftovers of vegetables, fruit, meat, poultry and combinations of foods. The salads may be made in individual molds, in a large mold, in muffin pans, or in a shallow pan to be cut into squares for serving. The time required for gelatin to set depends upon the size of the mold and the temperature of the refrigerator. Allow 2 hours as the minimum, but 4 hours is a safer time for the gelatin to congeal. b. Jelly for Molded Salads. Jelly for molded salads is made of gelatin, lemon juice, water, salt, sugar, and vinegar. The gelatin is soaked in cold water for about 5 minutes. Boiling water is added and the mixture stirred until the gelatin is dissolved. Set aside and when the jelly begins to harden, add salad ingredients. Any sweet syrup may be used in place of boiling water. c. Flavored Jelly Powder. With flavored jelly powder, follow directions on package as to quantities of powder and water to be used, as well as procedure. Fruit juices may be used in place of water, in part or entirely. When jelly powder and liquid are combined, let stand in a cool place. When the jelly begins to harden, add any mixture desired. Put in refrigerator to firm. Rinse molds or pans in cold water. Shake but do not dry. Fill evenly with gelatin and ingredients. Wipe outside of molds or pans with cloth wrung out of hot water to facilitate dishing up molded salad. d. Jellied Vegetable Salad Combinations. Some jellied vegetable salad combinations are celery, cabbage and peppers, tomato aspic, cucumber jelly, jellied vegetable ring, and red and white cabbage in jelly. e. Jellied Fruit Salad Combinations. Among jellied fruit salad combinations are grapefruit jelly salad, mixed fruit jelly salad, cranberry jelly salad, apples or cherries, celery, and nuts, and pineapple and carrots. f. Other Jellied Salads. Other jellied salads are jellied salmon and celery salad, eggs in aspic, diced ham or tongue with pimientos, chicken salad mold, and shrimp aspic. g. Aspic Jelly. Aspic jelly is made of clear strong soup stock or bouillon cubes, water, and granulated gelatin with various seasonings as salt, pepper, celery seed, herbs, lemon peel and wine. The utensil used as a mold is placed on ice or in a refrigerator and the jelly poured in to a depth of Vz inch. When hard, garnish with fancy vegetables of different colors, slices of hard cooked eggs and the like. When set, add enough jelly and additional ingredients to fill. 86. FROZEN SALADS. Frozen salad mixtures consist of whipped cream and mayonnaise, combined with diced fruits, fresh or canned, with occasional introduction of cream cheese, nuts, and a flavoring vegetable such as celery. Frozen salads are most easily prepared in the trays of a mechanical refrigerator or ice cube refrigerator with the metal grid in position. An alternative method is to use souffle cups as a mold. If the cups are used, the trays of the refrigerator should be wiped dry so that the cup will not stick. The paper cups are peeled from the frozen mixture at serving time. The time of freezing varies, but 4 hours should be allowed as a minimum. In the absence of mechanical refrigeration, frozen salads can be made by freezing a mold packed in ice and salt. A mold with a tightly fitting cover is essential. Baking powder cans, coffee cans^ or similar cans will serve. After the chilling mixture has been poured into the mold and the cover adjusted, wipe off any moisture and seal the seam with adhesive tape, or with a thin strip of cloth which has been spread generously with softened fat. The greased side of the cloth should be next to the tin. When the outdoor temperature is 25° F. a frozen salad may be made merely by exposure to the cold air for about 4 hours. In a milder climate the mold must be buried in a mixture of salt and ice; one part of salt to three parts of ice. A good container for the salt and ice is a wooden butter tub or wooden barrel. The improvised container should be large enough to allow 3 inches of packing around the mold. Do not freeze so long that the fruits are frozen. 87. GARNISHES FOR SALADS, a. Various garnishes add to the attractive appearance of individual salads. If other relishes are to be served, such as olives, pickles or radishes, they may often be placed on the salad plate rather than on a separate plate or relish dish. If the plate for the salad is large enough, cheese sticks or salty crackers may be placed on the edge for garnish. A bit of mayonnaise on top of the salad, with a dash of paprika on top of the mayonnaise, adds pleasing color to many mixed salads. These are practical hints for boosting a desire for salads. b. Raw cranberries chopped and mixed with chopped apples make an appetizing garnish for fowl, meat, fish or green salad. 66 C. Radish roses are easily and quickly made by cutting through the skin of red radishes to form petals. They add a decorative garnish to vegetable, fish and meat salads. d. Toppings for fruit salads are chopped peanuts, raisins, shredded cocoanut, chopped candied fruit peels or shredded cherries. e. Vegetable salads are more attractive with very thin slices of red or green peppers. Wash peppers, remove seeds, and slice crosswise. f. Canned fruits for fruit salads can be improved by the aid of cubes or slices of fully ripe bananas. g. Crisp young carrots cut into slivers dress up the plainest salad and make it more acceptable. h. Some crisp bits of bacon or a few flaked sardines in the greens add variety to a green salad. i. A fruit gelatine, cut into glistening cubes, gives an enticing effect. j. Sliced tomatoes, cut into wedges, taste good, look good, and are good with greens, meat, fish, poultry, or vegetable salads. k. Vegetable salads and cole slaw get into the preferred class by adding a few sliced stuffed olives. To flavor fish salads, add horseradish and chopped pimientos. Crisp, crunchy flowerets of raw cauliflower perk up a salad, especially a green one. All beans used for salads have a fuller flavor if allowed to stand in French dressing for a little while before serving. I. Try using warm potatoes when making potato salad as the dressing penetrates and the flavor is better. m. The deep red color of canned beets goes a long way toward satisfying the eye appeal that is so essential in food serving. Diced, sliced, whole and julienne style beets offer many salad color possibilities. 88. SALAD ACCOMPANIMENTS. For the salad served as an appetizer or with the main course, crisp crackers are the ideal accompaniment. The crackers should be crisp from a freshly opened package or from reheating in the oven. Spreading the crackers with butter and toasting in the oven makes the most commonplace variety appealing. Variety is afforded by using plain crackers, Boston or St. Johnsbury crackers split and toasted, the hard and dense water biscuits, rye crisps, round flaky wafers, and whole wheat wafers. Cheese balls and cheese straws are also appropriate. Cheese balls are formed by rolling softened cheese, such as cream cheese, between the palms of the hands. The cheese, unless very creamy, is softened by mixing with cream or a salad dressing. As a variation, the balls may be rolled in finely chopped nuts, minced parsley or paprika. Cheese straws are made by piling scraps of pastry in layers, rolled X inch thick, sprinkled with grated yellow cheese and dusted very sparingly with cayenne pepper or more generously with paprika. Fold in halves, pinch the edges together, roll out, sprinkle with cheese, fold and repeat this process two more times. Cut in strips not more than inch wide and of any length desired. Bake in a shallow pan in a hot oven, 450° F., for about 10 minutes or until golden brown. The list of other salad accompaniments which follows is suggestive rather than complete: a. Hot breads, such as tiny muffins, baking powder biscuits, cheese biscuits, com bread and spoon bread. b. Reheated rolls, toasted rolls or toasted English muffins are also suitable. C. Cold breads, such as hard water rolls, Italian bread sticks, and melba toast. d. Fancy breads, as Boston brown bread, nut bread, orange bread, date bread. e. Sandwiches, as bread and butter, brown bread, lettuce, water cress, celery, pimiento butter, parsley butter and sandwich sticks. f. For the salad served as dessert a slightly sweet cracker or sandwich is appropriate. Thin sandwiches made from date bread, orange bread or Boston brown bread are especially good. 89. SOME SALAD HINTS. It is important to the success of a cold salad to have all the ingredients well chilled. The vegetables and salad greens must be crisp and well dried. a. Mixing of salad ingredients should be done lightly. Fruit and vegetable salads especially are more attractive and more pleasing to eat if care is taken to keep the pieces whole and fairly good-sized, as well as the foods fresh and of good color. b. With a few exceptions, such as potato salad, which should stand in the refrigerator long enough to absorb flavor from the dressing, and molded salads, which must be made several hours ahead of time in order to firm, salads should be served promptly after they are made and eaten as soon as they are served. A wilted-looking salad which has been standing for some time awaiting serving is not appetizing. This applies particularly to the green part of the salad. A fruit, vegetable, meat, or fish mixture may often be made up a little in advance and kept in a covered dish in the refrigerator, ready to be served on a salad green. C. Salad dressing should not be added to any crisp green salad until just before serving, as it 67 tends to destroy the crispness. The amount of dressing should be just sufficient to coat all the ingredients with a thin film. Free dressing in the bottom of the dish is an indication that too much dressing was added. d. Never wash a wooden salad bowl. Simply wipe it clean with a cold, damp cloth. e. Many fruits turn dark when cut. Accordingly, slice them at the latest possible time or sprinkle them with lemon juice to preserve natural color. f. Many standard salads can be varied by serving on shredded cabbage instead of lettuce. 9- Use taste and care in arranging salads. The appearance is almost as important as taste in keen enjoyment of food. h. Use originality in the selection of dressings. The “same old salad” will give new pleasure with a different dressing. i. Many green and vegetable salads and salad dressings gain new distinction with a sprinkling of such minced herbs as chervil, thyme, basil, tarragon, dill, etc. j. Brighten up the borders of lettuce leaves or pineapple rings by dipping them in paprika. Pineapple looks tempting, too, when the edge is rolled in finely chopped parsley or chopped nut meat. k. Grated walnuts are a pleasant surprise, either in the dressing or sprinkled on the salad. I. Lettuce and greens of a similar nature should not be marinated as this will cause wilting. m. All meat, vegetables or fish must be diced, not put through the food chopper. n. Salads to be attractive must be varied. Try never to serve the same kind twice in the same week. 90. SALAD DRESSING, a. General. Salad dressings not only lubricate the greens and make them easier to eat, but they also add flavor. There are three principal types of salad dressing, each of the three having many variations. b. French Dressing. (1) Preparation. French dressing is the simplest and most widely used of all salad dressings. It is a combination of oil, acid and seasoning. The seasonings always include salt and pepper and frequently paprika to give color, mustard, sugar, tabasco or other table sauce, cayenne pepper, and other condiments. French dressing is temporarily emulsified by shaking in a bottle or beating vigorously just before using. It must be shaken every time it is used if a quantity is made at one time. The oil may be olive oil, cottonseed oil, com oil, peanut oil or any other edible salad oil. The acid may be plain vinegar, flavored vinegar, lemon juice, lime juice, or grapefruit juice, flavored vinegars include: (a) Tarragon, mint and marjoram vinegars, which may be prepared by adding dried herbs to plain vinegar, usually the cider or wine type, and letting them stand until a definite flavor is imparted to the vinegar. (6) Garlic vinegar, made by cutting a clove of garlic in crosswise slices and covering with vinegar, allowing the mixture to stand for at least 15 minutes before removing the garlic. (c) Spiced vinegar drained from bottled pickles. (2) Kinds of French dressing. Variations of French dressing are: (a) Sour cream dressing. Add sour or sweet cream to French dressing. (6) Savory French dressing. Add catsup or chutney or Worcestershire sauce to French dressing. (c) Relish dressing. Add to French dressing any of the following relishes or a mixture of two or more: green peppers, pimientos, stuffed olives, parsley, chives, sweet or sour pickle, pickled beets, horseradish, catsup, chili sauce or tomato pickle. The relish should be finely chopped or minced. (d) Chiffonade dressing. Add to French dressing chopped hard-cooked egg, chopped onion, finely chopped parsley or green pepper, chopped pimiento or pickled beets. (e) Cream cheese dressing. Mash cream cheese. Stir in French dressing to form a smooth paste. Add this mixture to the remainder of the dressing. (/) Roquefort cheese dressing. Mash Roquefort cheese and combine with French dressing as in the preceding recipe, or crumble the cheese into small bits and shake with the dressing. (g) Currant jelly dressing. Mak« French dressing with lemon juice. Add beaten currant jelly. (A) Maraschino dressing. Use. lemon juice for acid in French dressing. Add maraschino juice to color. Sweeten with sugar. (t) Tomato dressing. Peel and mash ripe tomatoes. Combine with French dressing. C. Mayonnaise. True mayonnaise is an emulsion of salad oil, vinegar, water, seasoning and egg yolks as the emulsifying agent. Any change in these ingredients make a mayonnaise variation and there are many. Dressings on the market which do not meet these specifications are “salad dressings ’ or “whips.” Some variations of mayonnaise dressing are: cream dressing, ham dressing, marmalade dressing, Thousand Island dressing, Russian dressing and many others. Recipes may be found in TM 10-412. 68 (1) Mayonnaise, unlike French dressing, is a stable or permanent emulsion. When appreciable amounts of oil and water alone are mixed, separate layers form. In making mayonnaise, it is necessary, therefore, to keep the tiny drops of oil suspended and separated from the water in the dressing. This is brought about by the use of egg yolks which coat and hold the oil droplets and prevent them from separating and forming layers of oil. “Salad dressings” or “whips” may contain gelatin, starch paste or gums as emulsifying agents and for this reason they are less expensive to make or buy. (2) In making mayonnaise, an oil, as olive, cottonseed, corn or peanut, is preferred, but a solid fat may be used. The solid fat, if used, should be softened before it is added to the mixture. (3) Much beating is required to secure a good mayonnaise. It is important at the beginning of the process that the mixture be emulsified with very little oil. As the volume of the emulsion increases, a larger volume of oil can be added each time without danger of breaking the emulsion. The bowl and beater should be of a shape and size that allow the mixture to be well beaten. The beater should be placed well down in the mixture. The beating of the mayonnaise may be continuous or intermittent. Pausing a short time during the process of making the mayonnaise is not harmful to the product. (4) There are various ways of combining the egg and oil. The aim is to beat the oil in the liquid so as to separate it into fine droplets which become coated with the protein solution and the oil droplets are prevented from running together. (5) Chilled oil does not emulsify as readily as oil at room temperature, since it is thinner at room temperature. After the emulsion is once made, however, chilling is helpful, in that the cold oil is thicker and the droplets will not run together so readily. Mayonnaise separates on freezing, and, therefore, should not be stored in the coldest part of the mechanical refrigerator. d. Cooked Salad Dressings. Cooked salad dressings usually contain whole eggs or egg yolks, seasonings, flour, vinegar or lemon juice and sometimes milk or cream. Frequently no oil or other fat is used, but butter may be added for flavor and richness. Variations of cooked salad dressing: (1) Cole slaw dressing. Add prepared mustard to cooled, cooked salad dressing. (2) Peanut butter dressing. Add peanut butter to cooled, cooked salad dressing. e. Some Salad Dressing Hints. (1) Ripe olives are good in salad dressing served with banana and orange salads. A tart French dressing should be used for the base. (2) Use the fruit juices or salad fruits for fruit cocktail to thin mayonnaise and to mix with French dressing. (3) Grated walnuts are a pleasant surprise in a salad dressing. (4) To make sour cream, just add a little lemon juice or vinegar to sweet cream. It is good for salad dressings. (5) Save all liquid from mustard pickles and add it to salad dressing in place of fresh vinegar and mustard. (6) Bacon salad dressing is made by dicing bacon and cooking it until crisp and stirring in vinegar, salt and sugar. On reheating, the mixture is excellent poured over lettuce, spinach or any salad green. (7) A simple vinaigrette dressing is made of oil, vinegar, riced-hard-cooked egg, paprika, minced chives or onion juice, salt, chopped parsley, chopped red pepper or canned pimiento mixed together and stirred well. (8) Green mayonnaise is made by pressing cooked spinach through a sieve or by pounding chopped parsley leaves with a little lemon juice and squeezing through cheesecloth. Red mayonnaise is made by adding thick tomato sauce to mayonnaise and adding whipped cream. (9) When a cook adds celery seed to finely chopped coleslaw, he creates an entirely different dish. When he adds certain sauces and chopped vegetables with hard-cooked eggs to a dressing, he produces an entirely new salad dressing, now widely accepted as Thousand Island dressing. It was no accident that a certain cook discovered that the addition of a little catsup to ordinary mayonnaise would alter the taste completely. The cook who made that discovery was constantly thinking of ways and means of improving even the simplest dishes. The preparation of food requires the cook to use his imagination and intelligence. 69 SECTION XIII. DESSERTS 91. GENERAL. Dessert is the topping that squares off a dinner or supper, fills in the crevices, tamps down the meal, and makes it complete. A good dessert may make an indifferent meal better and a good meal perfect. Dessert should not be considered as merely something extra which is added to a meal with no relation to the other foods. Dessert is a definite part of the menu, nutritionally and otherwise. In desserts are found the entire range of nutritional elements. With this in mind, one should always select the dessert according to the body of the meal. Never, for example, serve a heavy dessert, such as bread pudding or corn starch pudding, after a heavy, starchy meal. Neither should a fruit dessert be served in conjunction with a light meal featuring salads. Puddings should not appear on the menu with a sweet, heavy drink like chocolate. Since dessert is the last food that is eaten during the meal, it may leave the most vivid and lasting impression of the entire meal. Take at least as much care in the preparation of desserts as with other foods. There is a large variety of desserts to choose from and most of them are easily made. (See TM 10-412 for detailed recipes for all types of desserts.) 92. PUDDINGS. Puddings are one of the most economical and can be one of the most appetizing of desserts. Puddings make a particularly good way of using leftover canned fruits. By utilizing the juices in which the fruits are packed, especially if they come in a heavy syrup as do peaches and figs, less sugar is needed in the pudding and thus an important part of the ration is conserved. Fruit juices or syrups can make the pudding rich enough so that no sauce is needed. Puddings should be fairly rich, contain plenty of eggs, milk, and fruit or whatever the recipe may require. If puddings have a tendency to be dry, a well flavored sauce should be served with them. Puddings should be served at the temperature that is correct for each. Rice pudding, for example, should be cold or piping hot, but not lukewarm. 93. DESSERT POWDERS, a. Concentrated dessert powders are an item of issue. It is advisable to follow the directions that come with the packages. With experience, however, changes may be made to produce better results. Be especially careful in heating prepared chocolate, vanilla or butter scotch puddings. Too much heat will thicken the mixture to such an extent that when cooled it becomes hard and rubbery. If the first batch shows that the mixture needs “edge” on its flavor, blend in a little vanilla extract, fresh lemon juice or another flavoring. b. Make any such pudding far enough before mealtime to give it a chance to cool or chill. This type of dessert is flat when served lukewarm. C. Gelatin can be given more appeal by adding fruit after it has partially set, or by serving it with a topping of Army whipped cream made by whipping a few cans of chilled evaporated milk and mixing it with beaten egg whites, sugar and vanilla. The jello itself may be whipped in order to change the entire texture of the product, giving it a creamy consistency. 94. SWEET DOUGH. A sweet dough is an ordinary flour dough made rich and sweet by using large quantities of sugar and shortening and the addition of milk, eggs, spices and occasionally a little fruit. Some sweet dough products are cinnamon buns, hot cross buns, coffee cake, doughnuts. These represent the wide variety of tempting desserts that can be made from sweet dough. The variety of products that may be made from the basic sweet dough depends upon the resourcefulness of the cook. A variety of shapes and the use of additional flavors, ingredients, etc., will improve the finished product. 95. CAKE. The term cake means a sweetened mixture of flour, liquids and other ingredients, leavened without yeast. In general there are two classifications of cake: the first, cakes containing shortening such as the white or yellow layer cakes, fudge cakes and chocolate cakes; second, cakes without shortening, for example, sponge cake and angel food cake. All of the above mentioned cakes when finished with numerous kinds of icings and toppings are made into tasty, satisfying, eye-appealing desserts. 96. COOKIES. Cookies are easily prepared. The batter is mixed and then either rolled and cut and placed on pans or dropped on cookie sheets. Once the batter or mixture is prepared the finished product is easily produced. Cookies require short baking periods. Syrups are frequently used in 70 cookie making, because they add moisture which aids in preserving freshness. Molasses and malt syrup should be used extensively. There are many cookie formulas available, but these should not prevent the cook from inventing new formulas and designs. 97. PIE. Pie is a combination of two food products, the crust and filling. A high proportion of shortening is used in the crust and the dough is made up quickly. Overhandling produces a tough crust. The old fashioned homemade pie crust has a rough surface and flaky texture. This is obtained by mixing the fat and flour lightly. This type of crust is difficult to cut and serve to large numbers of men. a. For Army purposes, the best crust is the short flaky crust. This is a cross between homemade and commercial pie crust. This quality is obtained by thoroughly mixing all of the flour with one-half the fat. Then mix lightly the remainder of the fat. The first mixing results in fat particles covered with flour which gives shortness. The second mixing incorporates in the dough many small, free fatlumps which cause flakiness. The proper proportion of water is important. The water, when added, should produce a dough ball which is easy to handle, neither sticky nor crumbly. Too much water will cause the crust to shrink during baking. The shortening and water should be chilled in order to produce the flakiness. b. The fruit used for pie filling may be fresh, canned or dried. Common fruit pies are apple, apricot, berry (all kinds), cherry, peach, mince, raisin, and rhubarb. Care should be exercised not to overthicken the filling. 98. OTHER DESSERTS. Other desserts with which the menu may be varied are fruit cobblers, baked apples, prune whips, stewed fruits, ice cream, and raw fruits such as grapes, pears, and apples. Shortcakes may be made with baking powder biscuits or sponge cake covered with crushed fruits. If sponge cake is used, part of the fruit juice should be drained off, otherwise the cake will be juice-soaked and unattractive. a. Fruit sauces, such as apple sauce and rhubarb sauce, may be improved by combining with other fruits. For example, pineapple juice or crushed pineapple added to rhubarb sauce makes a delicious combination. A small amount of cinnamon-flavored hard candy improves apple sauce; lemon slices help out, too. Many such combinations are possible. b. Dried fruits, if skillfully prepared and served in a variety of ways, may be made as popular as fresh or canned fruits. When dried fruits are served stewed, water and sugar are added to form a syrup. The fruit should soak and cook in the syrup sufficiently long to become tender and for the syrup to take up the flavor of the fruit. SECTION XIV. SEASONING OF FOODS 99. GENERAL. The primary purpose of seasoning is to bring out the natural flavor of foods. Unseasoned food is tasteless and monotonous. Seasoning gives flavor and affords variety. The senses of taste and smell are pleasantly stimulated by the proper use of seasoning. It adds to the enjoyment of food. On the other hand, overseasoning spoils food. Inexperienced cooks usually overseason. The way to know if food is seasoned correctly is to taste it. Seasoning, once in food, cannot be removed. It is better to use too little than too much. As a general rule most food should be seasoned twice, once while cooking and then at the table by the soldier. Salt, spices, herbs, green condiments, vinegar, and extracts are used to season while cooking. Salt, pepper, and sauces are found on the table. a. Use of Seasoning. Monotonous foods take on new zest when seasoning is discreetly added. The less experienced cook should master the use of salt, pepper, and onion before graduation into the higher school which calls for the expert use of all seasoning. b. Seasoning Meats. Broiled steaks or chops and roasts should be seasoned after they are done. Pot roasts and stews should be seasoned while cooking. Ground meats should be seasoned in preparation. c. Leftover Foods. Leftover foods usually have been previously seasoned. Taste to determine if added seasoning is necessary. 100. SPICES, a. From earliest times, appetite appeal has been given to food by the use of spices. Spices are aromatic seeds, buds, barks, roots and leaves of various plants. Every spice depends upon delicate volatile oils for its ability to give off aroma 71 and impart flavor. In no two spices are these oils exactly the same even when, as in nutmeg and mace, the aroma is almost identical. The oil can be chemically separated from its plant form, but it then loses its distinctive aroma and flavor. This is why untreated spices, either in whole form or powdered, are the most satisfactory for food seasoning. b. In addition to the large number of spices which the cook may blend to suit his uses, spice mixtures are available that are particularly suited for certain types of cooking. Among such blends are cakespice, curry powder, chili powder, pumpkinpie spice, and poultry seasoning. C. For best results in flavor and aroma, spices should be strong and fresh. Do not open more than one box of a specific spice at a time. Spices should be kept tightly covered when not in actual use. Spices will lose their strength if exposed to the air because their oils will evaporate. Even in covered cans, spices eventually lose strength. d. The cook should understand thoroughly the uses of spices. Table XXVI will assist the cook in the use of the proper spice. 101. HERBS. Herbs are usually dried seasoning products which add new taste thrills to everyday dishes. Add only a pinch of herbs at a time in cooking. Heat and moisture bring out their fragrance and flavor. If particles of herbs are objectionable in a finished dish, tie the herbs up in a cheese cloth before using and remove before serving. Herbs should improve, not hide the flavor of a dish Use them sparingly. The table in figure 56 will aid the cook in using dried herbs. Table XX VI. Spices Name Description and source Uses Allspice (spice) Dried berry of the pimiento tree, grown in West Indies. Named Allspice because flavor resembles blend of cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves. Whole for pickling, spicing meats, seasoning gravies, boiling fish. Ground; in boiled foods, puddings, relishes, etc. Cake spice (Blend) __ Caraway seed (Spice). A blend of spices Dried seeds of plant grown in North Europe, notably Holland. Cayenne (Spice) Ground small hot red pepper. Grown in Africa. Celery seed (Spice). A tiny, seed-like fruit. Grown in many countries, including France, India, Holland and the United States. Chili powder (Blend). Ground Chili peppers (grown in Mexico, California, the east, Carolinas, Louisiana) and blended spices. Two varieties: mild, or “hot.” Cinnamon Dried aromatic bark of cinnamon tree. Mostly from Ceylon. Cloves Nail-shaped flower bud of the clove tree. From Dutch East Indies, Madagascar, Zanzibar. Curry powder (Blend). Blend of many spices, originating in India Ginger Root of plant grown mainly in Jamaica, West Africa, India and the Orient. Useful in mince meat and dark spice cakes. Used in rye bread; to season sauerkraut, new cabbage; on pork, liver, kidney before cooling. Also to season cream cheese and other soft mild cheese. Good with meat, fish, sauces, egg dishes, used in moderation as a stimulant for the stomach. Good for fish, potato salad, tomato dishes, tomato soup. Used in pickling and salad dressing. Excellent for Irish stews. Gives variety to hamburgers. For such Mexican dishes as Chili con carne. Good in shell fish and oyster cocktail sauces; for boiled and , scrambled eggs, gravy and stew seasoning, canned corn. Used whole in pickling, preserving, stewed fruits. Used ground in baked goods and to season mincemeat. Whole for roast ham garnish, pickling, preserving, spiced syrups and drinks. Ground in baked goods, puddings and stews. In Currying meat, fish, eggs, chicken; to make Curry sauce. Try a dash in French dressing; fine in scalloped tomatoes, clam and fish chowder. Used ground in cakes, puddings, pumpkin pie, cookies, etc. Many canned fruits benefit by a dash of ginger, especially canned pears. Used also in preserved, candied or crystalized and dried forms. 72 102. GREEN CONDIMENTS OR FLAVOR VEGETABLES. The green condiments are strong-flavored fresh vegetables. Various parts of the plants are used; the bulbs, roots, fruit, and leafy upper part. Onions, garlic, chives, shallots, and leeks are bulbs. Radishes and horse-radish are roots. Peppers are fruit. Parsley, chervil, celery, sorrel, water cress, mustard and mint consist of most of the upper parts of plants. 103. SALT. a. Salt is an essential seasoning. Man must have salt to live. Nature has wisely implanted in man a craving for salt that must be satisfied. b. Salts are of two kinds: common and free-running. Free-running salt is common salt kept in a finely divided state by the use of fillers and dryers. Salt is marketed in other forms such as iodized salt, celery salt, garlic salt, onion salt, and smoked salt. c. The cook must be careful in adding salt, as a little excess will ruin a product. Salt can be put in food after it is prepared, but once added it cannot be removed. d. Salt all vegetables just before they are removed from the fire. Never salt vegetables for salad, but use the salt in the sauce or dressing. Broiled or roasted meats should be salted after they are done. Salt added in advance will draw out the juices and toughen the fibres of the meat. Meat used in soup, stock or stews needs salt before cooking so that the meat juice will flavor the liquid. e. Salt should be kept in a dry place. Its qualities are such that it will absorb moisture. Table XXVI. Spices — Continued Name Description and source Uses Mace Part of nutmeg between shell and outer husk, orange-red in color; flavor resembles nutmeg. From East and West Indies. Blades used in pickling, preserving, fish sauces, Welsh rarebit. Used ground in pound cake and other yellow dishes, chocolate dishes; oyster stew. Use sparingly. Mustard Seed of mustard plant grown in England Dry ground mustard used as flavoring for sauces and gravy. Prepared mustard, blended with other spices and vinegar, used in salad dressing, with ham, frankfurters, cheese, etc. Nutmeg Kernel of a fruit of that name, grown in Dutch East Indies and British West Indies. Whole—to be grated as needed. Ground—used in baked sauces, puddings. Good sprinkled over certain vegetables, such as cauliflower. Merges well with spinach. Topping for eggnog and custards. Favorite spice for doughnuts. Paprika Ground sweet red pepper, grown chiefly in Spain and Hungary. Used for color and mild flavor in, and sprinkled on, fish, shell fish, salad dressing. Used lavishly as a garnish, also with sweet corn on the cob. Mixed with butter to make paprika butter. Enriches the flavor and color of catsup and other tomato condiments, and tomato juice. Pepper Most generally used of all spices. A small round berry picked before ripe; grows on a climbing vine. Grown in Dutch East Indies and India. White pepper is the mature berry with hull removed. Whole—(black and white)—used in pickling, soups and meats. Ground—-(black and white)—used in meat sauces, gravies, vegetables and egg dishes. Poppy Seed Tiny seeds of poppy plant imported from Holland. About 900,000 seeds to the pound. Used whole as topping for breads, rolls, cookies. Oil used in salad dressing and margarine. Poultry seasoning.-. A mixture of several herbs and spices Used in poultry, pork and veal stuffings, also for fish and to season meat loaf. Pumpkin pie spice. _ Blend of spices For pumpkin cookery and in spice cookies. Varies gingerbread, cookies and breakfast buns. Sausage seasoning. _ A blend of herbs and spices Used in sausage making and is good in meat loaf, veal, birds and similar dishes. 73 104. SEASONING SAUCES. Seasoning sauces are distinctively flavored, prepared sauces, usually placed’ on the table to be used by the individual soldier. Classified according to type, they are: Tomato sauces Mustard sauces Worcestershire type Fruit sauces sauces Chop suey sauces Chutney sauces Pepper sauces In the Army mess these products are familiar as catsup, chili sauce, Worcestershire sauce, soy sauce, tobasco sauce, chow chow sauce, apple sauce, cranberry sauce, and similar preparations. All of these seasoning sauces have the same purpose: to enhance flavor and add zest to the enjoyment of food. 105. EXTRACTS. Extracts are flavoring agents, dissolved in alcohol, oils or glycerine. The cook who appreciates the importance of extracts in food preparation will, with other food knowledge and skills, add gratifying flavor touches to cooking. Extracts are grouped in three general classes: a. True extracts are solutions obtained from aromatic plants and from fruits and flavors of fruits. A true extract contains a specific amount of the flavor from which it is named. b. Imitation extracts are solutions of synthetic products that correspond to the flavors of the true product. The true extracts have a more delicate flavor and aroma than the imitation flavors. C. Compound extracts are those containing a mixture of true and synthetic products. d. Vanilla and lemon are the extracts most commonly used in the Army. (1) True vanilla extract is made from cut vanilla beans steeped in alcohol. The imitation may contain an extract from the seed of a tropical South American tree, from coal tar, from oil of chives and other sources. (2) True lemon extract is made from oil of lemon, obtained from lemon peel. Imitation lemon may be made from a grass grown in India called lemongrass or citral. e. Flavoring tablets have come into use as a substitute for alcoholic or nonalcoholic extracts. The tablets are crushed into a fine powder and combined with other dry ingredients, or dissolved in a portion of the liquid, called for by the recipe, preferably the latter method. 106. VINEGAR. Vinegar appears on the market under names indicating the product from which it was made, as cider, grape or wine, malt, grain or Table XXVII. Herbs Name Description and source Uses Bay Leaves... Dried aromatic leaves of the laurel tree. Come from Eastern Mediterran-ean countries. Used in pickling stews, spiced vinegar, soups. Combines well with fish, boiled or in chowder. Use with any tomato mixture. Marjoram Herb of the mint family. Imported mostly from France, Germany and Hungary. Dried leaf used with lamb in poultry stuffing, sau- sage products, stews, soups, etc., usually in combination with others. Rosemary A spiky herb, rather sweetish. Grows in Southern Europe. Sprinkle on roast before serving. Use in lamb dishes, in soups and stews. Flavor fish and meat stocks. Sage Dried leaf of a shrub of the mint family. Grows in United States, Jugoslavia and Greece. Used in poultry and meat stuffings, pork,sausage, head cheese, etc. Savory._ Dried herb of the mint family. Grown in many climates. Often combined with other herbs as seasoning for mints. Used in scrambled eggs, in saladg and soups. Used in stews, soups, and stuffings for poultry, clam and fish chowders. Thyme Leaves and tender stems of the garden herb, grown in all temperate climates. Often combined with other herbs. spirit, white vinegar made from sugars, syrup and molasses, etc. a. Tarragon, garlic, shallot and chili are added to flavor vinegar sold under these names and are used for salads where the special flavors add a distinctive note. b. Vinegars are used in barbecue sauce, mint sauce, sweet-sour sauce, in marinating various foods, and as the base of most salad dressings. 74 ROUX. A roux is a cooked mixture of flour of fat is used, the product will become separated and the fat will come to the top of the food. Such cooking is of poor quality as it makes greasy food. If the flour is browned (for making brown gravy), more of the browned flour will be required as the heat will cause the flour to lose some of its thickening qualities. The more the flour is browned, the more flour is required. 108. SAUCES, a. Utilization. Sauces go particularly well with meat, fish, vegetables, egg dishes and desserts. Sauces have several purposes: (1) Sauces make food more attractive by adding color. (As creole sauce with an omelette.) 107. and fat used to thicken soups, sauces, and gravies. A good roux will result in a good product. The fat for*roux may be fat drippings from meats, plain lard or lard substitute, butter, or a combination of any of these. The best proportion of the ingredients to use are 1 pound of flour to 2 pounds of fat, and this applies to all recipes whether it is for a thin cream soup or for a very thick cream sauce. The thickness of a sauce or gravy is determined by the quantity of roux combined with the liquid. When fat is not available in sufficient quantities, the ratio can be reduced to 1 pound of flour to 1 pound of fat but this makes a pastier type of product. If a ratio of fat higher than 1 pound of flour to 2 pounds Mixing sauce. ® Add the liquid with the dish away from the direct heat. Figure 25. ® Melt the fat preferably in a double boiler; blend in the flour. SECTION XV. ROUX, SAUCES, GRAVIES, DRESSINGS ® To keep until serving time, cover tightly and remove from direct heat. ® Return to boils. direct heat and stir until the sauce 75 (2) Sauces add to the acceptance of an otherwise ordinary dish. (Barbecue sauce with spareribs.) (3) Sauces add flavor to food: either the same flavor as brown gravy with pot roast; or a contrasting flavor as lemon sauce with raisin Betty pudding. (4) Sauces add to the nutritive value of a dish. (As cheese sauce with asparagus.) (5) Sauces make possible the converting of a single dish into a number of appetizing dishes. (As different sauces served with spaghetti.) b. Special Sauces for Special Foods. (1) Barbecue sauce is served with spare ribs, pork chops, ham, boiled tongue and other cuts of beef and pork. (2) Creole sauce is excellent served with frankfurters, meat loaf, boiled beef, croquettes, rice, macaroni or spaghetti and with fish. (3) Tomato sauce is an accompaniment of meat balls, ravioli, spaghetti, meat loaf, fish, fish cakes, and any number of other dishes. (4) Italian sauce is most commonly used for spaghetti, macaroni, meat balls and fish. (5) Salmon sauce is ideal with fish or sea food, fish croquettes, fish balls, fish loaves and othc” preparations of a like nature. (6) Raisin sauce is popular with tongue. (7) Mint sauce with roas't lamb or broiled lamb chops is considered an almost inseparable combination. (8) Tartar sauce is served chilled, frequently in tiny lettuce leaves, with fish and sea food. c. Making Sauces. (1) Almost all sauces require a gentle heat and the individual attention of the maker. They should never be left alone while cooking. They must be stirred almost constantly. Cooking vessels with thick bottoms to distribute the heat evenly are desirable. Double boilers are best in making all milk sauces as there is less danger of scorching. If a sauce has been thickened with eggs, avoid boiling. (2) It is necessary to know something of the behavior of flour to understand the reasons for the steps in making sauces thickened with this cereal. When flour is heated with a liquid, the starch grains, making up a large part of the flour, burst, releasing minute particles which combine with the liquid and produce a thickened mixture. In order that the mixture will be smooth, that is, thickened evenly, it is necessary that the starch grains be evenly distributed through every part of the liquid. (3) There are different methods of mixing sauces. This is a quick and easy one: (a ) Melt the fat in a pan or the top of a double boiler. Stir in the flour. (6 ) Remove from direct heat and pour in the liquid. Cold liquids may be added all at once. Stir in hot liquids gradually in order to distribute the starch of the flour evenly. (c ) Stir slowly and steadily over direct heat until the sauce boils. Season to taste. (. ® t f/, oil \ 3 I- Ho COFFEE FAUCET 1) \ j ~ WATER INLET VALVE Figure 33. Battery of coffee urns, gravity type. Figure 34- Combination urn. 89 the coffee grounds in the basket. Fit the metal basket containing the grounds into the top of the crock, making certain the crock is clean and contains no water. When the water in the boiler comes to a vigorous boil, the safety valve in the pressure type battery will blow steam, or in the gravity type battery, the thermometer attached to the boiler will register 212° F. As soon as the water boils, open the faucet on the boiler and draw the required amount of boiling water from the boiler in a gallon measure, 1 gallon at a time. Pour the water into the metal basket slowly, being careful not to overflow the basket. Water should not be transferred into the metal basket through the syphon that leads from the boiler to the top of the crock of the urn, unless there is an extension on this pipe allowing the water to flow into the center of the basket. If the equipment is provided with such an extension, the operator may transfer the water by opening the valve on this pipe. Amount of water transferred is measured by watching the gauge glass on the boiler. The level of water and grounds in the metal basket must be watched to avoid an overflow of the basket. When the correct amount of water has been transferred from the boiler to the metal basket, and all of the water has dripped through the grounds, remove the basket entirely from the urn. Draw off of the brewed coffee and repour this amount directly into the crock. This serves to equalize the strength of the finished brew. Use a circulatory pump if the coffee-making device is so equipped. Be certain to remove the basket before repouring. In this method of brewing it is not necessary to repour any coffee back through the grounds. Empty the used grounds and the filter paper from the metal basket immediately after it is removed from the urn. Serve coffee at once. fl- Dunking Method. In this method, a filter sack is part of the equipment. If possible, use as a filter the 50-pound muslin sack in which coffee has been shipped from the roasting plant to the mess hall. If sacks of this type are not available, a 100-pound sugar sack may be substituted. In the event that neither coffee nor sugar sacks are available, flour, bean, rice or any sacks of similar material can be used. Sacks must be thoroughly washed and rinsed before coffee is put into them. Never use burlap sacks. After closing all other valves and faucets, fill the boiler with freshly drawn cold water by opening the valve from the cold water supply. When gauge glass on boiler registers that the boiler is full, close inlet valve and turn on heat. Do not turn on heat under the boiler before it contains water. By opening valves on lower pipes connecting boiler to urns, fill urn jackets % full of water. (In gravity type battery fill outer jackets by opening inlet valves.) Turn on heat so that inner liners of the urns will be well heated when coffee is ready to be brewed. Do not fill urn jackets to capacity; expansion from the heat will cause the water to overflow. Measure ground coffee and place in filter sack. Tie top of sack securely with a cord long enough to facilitate removal. (See fig. 28.) When the water in the boiler comes to a vigorous boil, the safety valve in the pressure type battery will blow steam, or in the gravity type battery the thermometer attached to the boiler will register 212° F. As soon as this happens, insert the sack containing the grounds into the inner liner or crock of the urn, making certain the crock contains no water and is clean. Open the faucet on the boiler and draw the required amount of boiling water from the boiler in a gallon measure, 1 gallon at a time. Pour the water into the crock of the urn. The boiling water may also be transferred into the crock through the syphon leading from the boiler to the top of the crock of the urn. In this method, the operator measures the amount of water transferred by watching the gauge glass on the boiler. As the water is being transferred into the crock, dunk the sack containing the grounds up and down in the water. Use a stick or paddle, forcing the water through the grounds. Do this frequently during the brewing period, otherwise full extraction cannot be reached and a weak brew results. In 12 to 15 minutes, raise sack out of the brew, permitting all water to drain off. Then remove sack entirely. Serve coffee at once. Empty sack containing the grounds immediately after it is removed from the crock. Wash the sack thoroughly in cold water and keep it submerged in cold water until the next time it is used. 120. MAKING COFFEE IN SMALL QUANTITIES. a. General. A small utensil should be used in every mess for making hot coffee for cooks, members of the guard, and small details who desire coffee earlier or later than the regular serving time for the mess. In order to insure coffee for small details, some cooks make coffee for the mess as soon as the fire is started in the morning. The use of a small utensil does away with this necessity, and permits the cook to follow the time table correctly and to serve coffee to the mess as soon as it is made. b. Drip Method. Preheat the device with hot water. Measure drip grind coffee into the upper 90 chamber, using 1 heaping tablespoonful of coffee for each cup of water, and 1 extra tablespoonful. Pour proper quantity of briskly boiling water over the grounds. When dripping is completed, remove the upper chamber, dispose of the coffee grounds, and serve the brew at once. The coffee-brewing device must be cleaned thoroughly and rinsed after each brew. If this is not done, the next brew will have a disagreeable taste. c. Vacuum Glass Method. Fill lower bowl with fresh cold water to within 1 inch of the neck and place on heat. Insert filter cloth into upper bowl and add measured quantity of finely ground coffee, using 1 heaping tablespoonful of coffee for each cup of water, and 1 extra tablespoonful of coffee. When water in the lower bowl boils (bubbles briskly), insert upper bowl with a slight twist to insure tight connection. When half the water has risen into upper bowl, reduce heat, stir water and grounds in upper bowl. Remove from heat when all but about 1 inch of water has risen into upper bowl. Remove upper bowl as soon as all the coffee has been drawn into lower bowl. Serve coffee at once. d. Percolator Method. Fill device with proper quantity of fresh cold water and place on heat.. Measure regular grind coffee into the basket, using 1 heaping tablespoonful of coffee for each cup of water, and 1 extra tablespoonful. When water boils, insert basket into percolator and allow brew to percolate for 6 minutes. e. Coffee Pot Method. Measure proper quantity of ground coffee into preheated coffee pot. Use 1 heaping tablespoonful of coffee for each cup of water, and 1 extra tablespoonful. Pour on measured quantity of fresh, briskly-boiling water. Stir contents for 1 minute. Allow to settle 3 minutes, then pour the brew through a filter into a preheated container. Serve coffee at once. Table XXXI. Proportions for iced coffee Hot coffee Water Iced coffee 1 lb gal 2 lb. 2 lb 5 gal 4 1b. 3 lb 7^gal..__ 6 lb. Remove coffee brew from urn or kettle and place in a dispenser with sufficient ice to keep coffee well chilled until served. 121. ICED COFFEE. Iced coffee is made exactly like hot coffee, but twice as strong. For making iced coffee, use twice as much ground coffee to the same amount of water as is used for hot coffee. Making coffee double strength for iced coffee is to compensate for the dilution caused by melting ice. 122. TEA. a. Kinds of tea. There are three classes of tea: (1) Black tea (2) Green tea (3) Oolong tea Each of these is further subdivided according to the portion of the plant that is used and the part of the world it grows in. The kind of tea—black, green, or oolong—is made in the process of treating the tea leaves. Green tea has more of its own flavor, black tea is changed considerably in its processing and oolong is a cross between the two. b. Color of Brew. The color of the finished brew is no indication of the strength. It may vary from pale green or amber to a dark mahogany red, depending upon the variety of tea being used. 123. GENERAL RULES FOR MAKING TEA. a. Proper Measurement. The proper quantities of both water and tea should always be measured carefully. Do not guess at the correct amounts but stick rigidly to the formula. One ounce of tea to 1 gallon of boiling water should be used in making hot tea. Seven gallons of tea are sufficient for one hundred servings. b. Prepare Only Amount Needed. First determine the the number of men to be served and govern the preparation accordingly. Leftover tea should never be held to be served hot for the next meal. Leftover tea can be served as iced tea, however, provided it is chilled without adding ice to it, because ice weakens the tea too much when it melts. A new brew should never be mixed with a leftover brew. c. Timely Preparation. Time preparation of the tea accurately so that it will be ready not more than fifteen minutes before it is served. Maintain a temperature of between 175° and 185° F. throughout the entire period of service. d. Keep Equipment Clean. All tea-making equipment must be cleaned carefully immediately after it is used. If a filter cloth, bag, or sack is used in making the brew, it must be washed out in clear, cold water immediately after use. The sack should then be stored in cold water until it is used again. This keeps the filter sweet. Never use soap or other cleaning agents when cleaning the filter. e. Avoid Iron Receptacles. A very annoying chemical change takes place when the tea is brewed 91 in iron utensils or ir agate or porcelain utensils which have become chipped and which cause the tea solution to come in contact with the iron. Where the tannin in the tea comes in contact with the iron, it forms a blackish liquid that is nothing more than ordinary ink.. The chemical action that occurs Figure 35. Making cocoa. ® Mix the cocoa with other dry ingredients. gives the brew a very undesirable appearance and taste. Therefore, under no conditions should tea be brewed in an iron receptacle or a container where part of the iron surface is exposed. 124. METHODS OF BREWING TEA. a. General. Tea must never be boiled. It is the process of water circulating through the tea leaves that makes the tea. If it is boiled, it becomes bitter. The water that is used for making the tea should be boiling, but as soon as the tea has been added, the boiling must stop. b. Making Tea in an Urn. In making tea in an urn, the boiling water from the tank is poured over the bag containing the tea. During the brewing, the bag is dipped in the water to force the water through the leaves. In this process, the water works through the tea leaves thoroughly. c. Making Tea in a Kettle. Tea may be made with a bag to hold the tea leaves or without it. If a bag, is used, it is plunged into the kettle of boiling water and the boiling is stopped immediately. If the bag is not used, and the tea is put directly into the boiling water, the liquid must be strained as soon as the brewing is completed. d. Making Iced Tea. In making iced tea the brew should be stronger to allow for subsequent dilution, either by ice or iced water. It is important to know before starting whether the tea will be cooled by adding ice or iced water, because that makes a difference in the amount of cooling water that is added. When tea is cooled down, in making iced tea, it frequently becomes cloudy. The substances that make this cloudiness are in the tea before it is cooled. Therefore, it is just as harmless in the iced tea as in the hot brew. The cloudiness is unsightly, however, and it detracts from the appearance of the beverage when served. That is the only reason to be concerned about it. This clouding is most likely to occur when the tea is very strong and then cooled down. It occurs most frequently in teas that have a heavy body and are especially desirable for hot tea. Any cloudiness occurring in teas when they are cooled down can be dispersed immediately by a dash of hot water or by slightly reheating the tea. Teas that are brewed for a very short length of time and then cooled generally do not show the cloudiness. 125. COCOA. a. General. Cocoa may be served either hot or cold. The liquid used is milk with a small proportion of water. Cocoa is considered a heavy drink and for this reason should not be served with heavy meals. 92 ® Add correct amount of water. b. Preparation. Whether cocoa is prepared iced or hot, it must be cooked because of its starch content. Some cooks make cocoa by placing it in a pot, then adding hot water. The mixture is brought to a boil and milk and sugar are added. The more acceptable method which produces a smoother, richer effect is to mix the cocoa with other dry ingredients, add the correct amount of water, bring the mixture to the boiling point and cook for five minutes. Then hot or cold milk may be added. Never boil cocoa after the milk has been added. 126. ICED FRUIT DRINKS, a. General. Oranges, grapefruit, lemons, and limes make excellent fruit drinks, used individually or in combinations. The added juices or syrups from canned fruits improve the flavor and taste. The amount of effort put forth by the cook in preparing iced fruit drinks will be clearly shown. The word clearly is used be-caused that is the way an iced fruit drink should be served. b. Preparing Iced Fruit Drinks. The following steps will produce a clear, cool drink. (1) Dissolve sugar in hot water and allow to cool. (2) Extract the juice from the fruit; then strain to remove pulp and seeds. (3) Combine the juice and cold water in proper proportions. (4) Add the cooled syrup obtained by dissolving sugar in hot water. (5) Use two-thirds of the ice required, chopped in small pieces. (6) Add the last one-third of ice in large pieces. (7) Stir frequently while serving. (8) A few pieces of the fruit cut lengthwise floating across the top will give eye appeal. 127. USE OF ICE. a. Method. If there is any scarcity of ice, do not pour hot liquids over it. This practice uses up the ice too quickly without making the drink actually cold. A better method follows: (1) Prepare the liquid in advance to allow for cooling. (2) When the beverage has cooled, crack about two-thirds of the ice and drop it into the liquid. Cracked ice will lower the temperature of the liquid more quickly than large chunks. (3) Stir the beverage. (4) Drop in the remaining one-third of ice, but don’t chop it. Leave it in several large chunks. This will keep the beverage cold until the last man is served, without making the drink watery. b. Preventing Dilution. The drink will become watery, if a few precautions are not followed: (1) Ice weakens any drink. Allow extra strength to make up for the melting ice. (2) Eight pounds of ice equals 1 gallon of water since all the ice will not melt, a safe figure is 12 pounds of ice is equal to a gallon of water in an iced beverage. Figure 35. Making cocoa (continued). ® Bring to boil and cook for 5 minutes. ® Add milk. 93 Figure 36. Sandwich making. ® First step: Four rows, nine stacks to a row, two slices to a stack. ® Second step: Put the butter and filler on top slice of each stack. ® Third step: Lay the first stack in the front row on top of the stack directly behind it. ® When fourth row is reached, take bottom slice, S place it on top. Result: Four sandwiches. 94 SECTION XVIII. SANDWICHES 128. GENERAL, a. Sandwich Making. Sandwich making is an important function in the Army mess. It often becomes necessary to serve sandwiches to personnel in the field, on troop trains, and to small detachments of personnel isolated from regular messing facilities. Sandwiches may be served as a change to regular meals. In making sandwiches, consider the people wrho will eat them. The cook’s best efforts and skill are required. Make sandwiches attractive, nourishing and appetizing. Do not prepare further in advance than is absolutely necessary. Never regard their preparation as a troublesome chore to be done hastily and carelessly. Remember, sandwiches constitute the main part of the meal, and, therefore, the same care and skill are required in their preparation as in a regular meal. Be on the alert to find new ways to prepare sandwiches. Variety is essential. b. Types of Sandwiches. Sandwiches are generally classed in two groups as follows: (1) Sweet. These are made from jellies, jams, preserves, marmalades, or mixtures of any of the above with peanut butter, cheese, etc. (2) Nonsweet. Nonsweet sandwiches may be made from meats, cheeses, fish, chicken, eggs, and vegetables or a combination of any of the above, such as, bacon and celery, ham and carrots, fish salad and egg. PRECAUTION. Ground meat and egg or cheese spreads are dangerous as sandwich fillers unless prepared just prior to serving. Sandwiches to be issued to troops in the field for future consumption should be generally of nonprotein foods unless generous amounts of ground pickle mixture containing vinegar are used as a filler with them. No mayonnaise or other cooked dressing should be used. 129. PREPARING SANDWICHES. The following are important rules to apply in sandwich preparation : a. Seek new ways to prepare sandwiches by using combinations that are both appetizing and pleasing to the eye. b. Do not prepare any sooner than is absolutely necessary. c. Use fresh ingredients. d. When using butter, soften and spread both slices of bread, if possible. e. Use fresh bread, slice it evenly and not more than inch thick. f. Season the fillings so they will be ready to eat. g. Do not be stingy with the filling. Spread the filler evenly and generously. h. Leaves of leafy vegetables should be fresh and crisp. i. Wrap each sandwich individually in waxed paper. 130. QUANTITY PRODUCTION. When the cook is faced with an order for a large number of sandwiches, he must use the most efficient means possible to prepare them. Quantity production of sandwiches can be accomplished in the following manner: a. Lay the bread on the table to form stacks two slices high. Place nine of these stacks in a row across the table directly in front of the sandwich maker. Then lay down three more rows exactly like the first one, and directly behind the first row. This will enable the cook to make thirty-six sandwiches at one time. b. If butter is used, butter each top slice before the filler is spread on. In using butter in the quantity production of sandwiches, only one slice of each sandwich is spread with butter. Then cover the top slice of each stack with the sandwich filler. c. Now put the stacks together in such a way that there will be nine piles of sandwiches with four sandwiches to each pile. In order to do this, lift the first stack in the front row and lay it on the stack directly behind it; then lift the two stacks squarely on the fourth. When the fourth stack is reached, there will be one unused slice of bread on the bottom of the pile and one-filler-covered slice on top of the pile. Take out the bottom slice, place it on the top, and there will be four sandwiches. d. Slide the pile of four sandwiches along the table to the man who is doing the cutting and’wrap-ping. He will cut the sandwiches diagonally. Pile up all of the other sandwiches in the same way. The sandwich maker may alter this procedure in any way that will operate more efficiently for him. 95 CHAPTER 6 PASTRY BAKING 131. BASIC DOUGH. No great amount of skill is required in making hot rolls. With the aid of recipes, any cook with a reasonable amount of practice can produce tasty rolls. Proper planning is essential. For best results it is desirable to have the hot rolls coming from the oven just prior to service. The amount of labor actually expended in making rolls is small, but the time required to ferment and proof the dough is lengthy; therefore, it is necessary to set up a timetable or schedule to assure rolls being ready to serve at the proper time. In the following table only 45 minutes are allowed for the actual labor of mixing and make-up. The remainder of the time is for fermentation, proofing and baking. A typical timetable of operations for services at 1800 hours follows: 132. INGREDIENTS. The ingredients used for breads and rolls of nearly all types are available in every kitchen. Sugar, salt, yeast, shortening, flour and water are the materials required. Milk can be used to increase the food value, although its use is optional. One gallon of liquid, either water or milk will make enough rolls for 100 men. 133. MIXING THE BASIC DOUGH. First, dissolve the yeast in portions of water; mix salt and sugar in remaining portions of water. Second, add milk, lard and one half of flour and mix. The shortening should be in a soft or semisolid condition. Add the dissolved yeast and water. Then add the remaining half of flour, and mix either by hand or Table XXXII. Timetable for pastry baking Operations Hours Assembling of ingredients 1345-1400 Mixing dough 1400 1540 Punching of dough 1540 1600 Dividing and make-up 1600-1630 Rising or proofing. 1630 1700 Place in oven 1700 1725 Remove from oven 1725 Serve 1800 machine until it is smooth and pliable. If undermixed, it will be short and appear lumpy. .A properly mixed dough will not be sticky and adhere to the surface of the mixing bowl. The temperature of the dough is important. If too hot, the dough will ferment too rapidly, and the rolls will be sour or yeasty. If too cold, the rolls will be heavy and tough. A temperature of 78° to 82° F. is recommended. 134. FERMENTING THE DOUGH. After the dough has been mixed, a fermentation or aging period is required. The amount of time needed is determined by: a. Amount of yeast used. b. The temperature of the dough. C. The type of flour used. An old dough will make a pale, sour-tasting roll. Keep the dough on the young side for the best results. Average fermentation time is 1% hours. 135. TESTING FOR PUNCHING TIME. Insert the fingers into the dough to a depth of about 3 inches. If the dough puckers or starts falling at the point of insertion, it is ready for punching. If the dough is tight and does not fall, but tends to come back, longer fermentation should be given. a. Recovery Period After Punching. After the punching process let dough stand about 15 to 20 minutes. The dough is then ready for the make-up bench, where it may be made into the desired type of roll. b. Dividing the Dough. After the recovery period, the dough is ready for division into pieces. The best method for dividing the dough is to cut into pieces of about 3 to 4 pounds each and then roll each piece into elongated strips inches in diameter. The strips may then be divided into portions by cutting with a knife or dough scraper into pieces about one inch thick. A piece of about 1^ to ounces is suitable for the average roll. 136. MAKE-UP PERIOD. Round the pieces of dough into smooth-surfaced balls by the simple process of rolling them with a circular motion in the cupped palm of the hands against the workbench. 96 Figure 37. Mixing the dough. ® Handling the dough. ® Properly mixed dough. These rounded pieces of dough can be shaped into various forms for rolls such as Parker House rolls, finger rolls, sandwich buns, plain rolls, and butter biscuits. These are shown in figures 38, 39, 40, 41 and 42. 137. PROOFING AND BAKING. All rolls should be proofed until doubled in size, then baked for about 15 to 20 minutes in a hot oven (425° to 450° F.) or to a golden brown. If overproofed the rolls will appear blistered and will fall when placed in the oven. The rolls should be carefully handled after proofing because jarring or rough treatment will cause them to fall. They should be protected from drafts during the proofing period to prevent the formation of an unsightly crust. ® Testing for the punching time. 138. BASIC SWEET DOUGH. Contrary to popular belief, the making of sweet dough does not require unusual skill. Sweet rolls of almost any kind may be easily prepared in the average Army kitchen. The richness of the dough used for sweet rolls, coffee cakes, etc., makes these products very desirable as a concentrated energy food. This richness gives the finished product a taste palata-bility far superior to that from the average basic roll dough formula. The sweet dough is adaptable to many baked items. Dozens of assorted rolls, coffee cakes, etc. can be prepared from a basic sweet dough formula. Fruits, nuts, and spices can be used in various types of sweet rolls and coffee cakes. 139. INGREDIENTS. All ingredients necessary for preparation of the sweet dough products are available in the Army kitchen. Sweet yeast-raised doughs contain more sugar and lard than plain ® Basic dough ready for make-up. Figure 38. Making up dough. Rounding the rolls. Figure 39. Parker House rolls. Greasing to form Parker House rolls. Figure Ifi. Sandwich buns. ® Forming sandwich buns. doughs. Eggs are also used when available. Eggs add richness and produce superior texture and volume in the finished product. Dried or dehydrated whole eggs, in proportion, may be substituted for fresh eggs. One-half ounce (two mess kit spoons) of dehydrated whole eggs is equivalent to one fresh egg. 140. MIXING THE BASIC SWEET DOUGH. Dissolve the yeast in a portion of water. Cream the lard, sugar and salt to a smooth paste. Be sure that all lumps have been worked out of both lard and sugar. Add the eggs a few at a time and mix with creamed lard and sugar. After the eggs have been thoroughly mixed, add the milk, water and dissolved yeast, and mix thoroughly. Flavors such as vanilla and lemon extract, mace and nutmeg should be added at this time. Add the flour all at one time, and mix or knead until a smooth dough is obtained. The consistency of the dough should be soft and slightly sticky, making it easy to roll out during make-up. The dough temperature should be from 78° to 82° F. Fermentation time will be about to 2 hours. Test for punching time is the same as described for the basic dough. After punching allow dough to rest for 15 to 20 minutes before making up. Following are shown sugar twists, cinnamon rolls, sugared snails, butterfly rolls, fruit coffee cake, Streussel coffee ® Flattening the buns. Figure 41. Finger rolls. Shaping finger rolls. Figure J$- Butter biscuits. ® Divide the basic dough into four pieces and form each into an elongated shape; allow to stand 15 to 20 minutes. cake, old fashioned cake, and butter-cinnamon coffee cake. These are all made with basic sweet dough. The principles are illustrated here; the recipes appear in TM 10-412. 141. QUICK BREADS. There is a wide variety of baked products in which baking powder and baking soda are the leavening agents. These are commonly called quick breads. They include biscuits, corn bread, and muffins. The batters and doughs from which they are made are mixtures of flour and liquids with other ingredients, such as lard, eggs, salt, sugar, and flavoring to provide tenderness, texture, and distinctive flavor. A batter is a mixture of such consistency that it can be beaten or stirred. Batters are designated as pour or drop batters. A pour batter is thin enough to pour; a drop batter is slightly thicker than a pour batter and is generally dropped from a spoon or pastry bag. A dough contains a greater portion of flour than liquid and is of such consistency that it can be kneaded or handled. There are both soft and stiff doughs. Biscuits usually are made from soft doughs. Blending flour and baking powder is always necessary to insure an equal distribution of the leavening agent in the batter or dough. These two ingredients should be sifted together two or three times. This will avoid excessive mixing of the dough. Quick bread doughs should not be mixed too much after liquid is added, as over-mixing will tend to make a heavy and tough product. ® Dock the dough with a fork or a regular docker. ® Grease the dough. ® Roll the dough to a thickness of about % inch. ® Fold the greased dough to make two layers. ® Mixing milk, water and yeast. ® Adding eggs. ® Mixing in flour. Figure 43. Mixing the basic sweet dough. ® Cream lard, sugar and salt. ® Ready for fermentation. 100 ® Punching the sweet dough. Figure 44. Sugar twists. ® Form dough into oblong pieces; allow 10 to 15 minutes recovery; roll out and fold the dough, forming three layers. ® Then cut the folded dough strips crosswise into pieces about one inch wide and twist them. Complete the sugar twists by rolling the dough in one direction with the left hand and in the opposite direction with the right hand. Figure j5. Cinnamon rolls. Brush until butter, add sugar, cinnamon and raisins. ® Coil the dough into a fairly tight roll and cut off pieces about % inch thick. 101 Figure 46. Sugared snails. Sugar one side and place in the pan with the sugar side up. Figure 47 - Butterfly rolls. ® Roll out into a wide sheet arid coil into a dough ® Cut into pieces 11/j, inches thick and crease each strip. roll across the center. Figure 48. Fruit coffee cake. ® Roll out 4 pounds of dough to 1/2 inch thickness, large enough for the sheet pan; coil the dough on the rolling pin. 102 Figure 48—(Continued) ® Uncoil the dough, laying it in the pan. ® Place fruit over the dough. Figure 49- Old fashioned coffee cake. ® Form the dough into oblong shapes; allow for recovery; then roll each piece into a, sheet 1/4 inch thick and 16 inches wide; grease thoroughly, cover with sugar and dried fruit. @ Coil the dough into a loose roll. ® Cut the strip into pieces 8 inches long. 103 142. PIE CRUSTS AND FILLINGS. A pie is a combination of crust and filling. The quality of the finished pie will depend on these two component parts; the pie will be good only if the crust and filling are properly prepared. Many of the difficulties encountered in making good pies may be overcome by careful handling in mixing and by following a few simple rules in baking the pie. The information given below tells how to correct the common faults in pie making. a. Shrinkage of Pie Crust During Baking. One of the piincipal causes of shrinkage is the improper coating of the flour with lard or shortening. When the flour is improperly coated, it takes on or absorbs water during the mixing period. This allows the gluten of the flour to develop and results in shrinkage of the crust in the oven. An excessively hot oven also causes the crust to shrink. Excessive amounts of water used in mixing dough causes a separation of the flour and water which, in turn, will cause shrinkage during baking. b. Tough Crusts. A tough crust will result if an insufficient amount of shortening is used in the pie dough. A tough crust may be due to improper coating of the lard with flour. Excessive mixing after the water has been added to the flour and shortening will cause a tough crust. Toughness can be caused by using excessive amounts of water. A “strong” flour or flour with a high tolerance tends to make the crust tough; a “strong” flour has a high protein content. As a general rule, all the factors that cause shrinkage also cause toughness of crust. c. Doughy Spots on Bottom of Crusts. Doughy spots will result if the pie dough is not mixed enough to develop smoothness. If the water is added in a streaky manner, spots containing excessive amounts of moisture will appear. This will bake more slowly and be doughy when the rest of the pie is baked. Mixing cold dough with warm dough often results in doughy spots. Doughy spots can be caused, also, by water spots remaining on the pie pan from improper drying. d. Underbaked Bottom Crusts. The lack of heat in the lower part of the oven is a common cause of underbaked bottom crust. If the oven is too hot, the top crust will bake much faster than the bottom crust. If a hot filling is used, there is a marked tendency for the filling to boil more quickly, and the pie is often removed from the oven too soon on the assumption that it is done. Underbaked bottom crust will result if wet pie pans are used. Excessive moisture in the dough prolongs the baking period and will cause the filling to boil out before the crust is baked. e. Fillings Boiling Out. The boiling point of pie fillings is determined by the percentage of sugar in the finished fruit mixture. The more sugar in the mixture, the higher will be the boiling point. Consequently, the sweeter the pie, the longer the time it can stay in the oven without boiling out. Boiling out may be caused by too hot a filling. The colder the filling, the longer the time required for the filling to be heated to the boiling point before the crust is thoroughly baked; the filling should not reach the boiling point before the pie crust is properly baked. f. Control of Temperatures in Pie-baking. The importance of the right oven temperature in piebaking cannot be overemphasized. (1) Pie crust browns at a lower temperature if sugar or a carmelizing ingredient is added. (2) Two-crust pies should be baked at a temperature of 400° to 450° F. (3) Custard type pies should be baked at 400° to 425° F. (4) Pie shells should be baked at 400 ° to 425 ° F. (5) An excessively hot oven causes the pie crust to shrink. (6) Underbaked bottom crust results from insufficient heat in bottom of oven. (7) Low oven temperatures will cause the filling to boil out. g. Ingredients. A good pie crust can be made from flour, shortening, water and salt. Other ingredients may be added to impart desirable characteristics to the crust. Baking powder sometimes is used to make a lighter and more tender crust. Sugar, syrup, honey, or dried milk may be added to give a crust more color. In other words, when any of these materials are added, the crust browns at a much lower temperature. Lard produces a tender crust. If the pie dough is mixed properly, the tenderness of the crust will depend on the amount of shortening used. The amount of shoitening varies from ^2 to M pound to each pound of flour; M pound of lard per pound of flour makes a very rich pie crust. Flour is the principal ingredient of pie dough. In the listing of ingredients below, the amount of flour is called 100 percent. Phe percents given for the other ingredients show their range in relation to the total quantity of flour. Phus, the amount of shortening is 50 percent to 75 percent of the amount of flour. 143. MIXING THE DOUGH, a. Weigh or measure the flour and shortening and place in a mixing bowl. Rub the shortening into the flour, by rubbing between the fingers and palms of the Table XXXIII. Pie crust ingredients Ingredients Percent Flour _ 100 Shortening. 50 to 75 Salt Water. _ 20 to 50 Baking powder _ One of the following (optional): Dried milk 1 to 5 Invert sugar or honey _ _ 1 to 5 White corn syrup 5 to 10 Granulated sugar 5 to 10 hands until all the shortening particles are reduced to the size of a small pea. The way the flour and shortening are mixed determines the tenderness of the finished pie crust and the way it will shrink when placed in the oven. If a mealy crust is desired, the flour and shortening will require more thorough mixing than for a flaky crust. b. Weigh or measure the water and salt, and dissolve the salt in the water. If sugar is used it, also, should be dissolved in the water. This is then added to the flour and shortening mixture. It may be necessary to vary the amount of water due to the difference in flour absorption. Mix together with the hands just enough to make a smooth dough. The liquid must be incorporated into the flour and shortening mixture evenly. The most satisfactory results will be obtained if the dough is used as soon as it is mixed. Divide it, roll it, and place it in the pan. Then wash the rim with water or egg wash. 144. PIE FILLINGS. There are essentially three types of pie fillings. These are: a. Fruit fillings, cooked or fresh. b. Custard fillings which are placed in the unbaked pie shell and the two baked together. 0. Soft filling or creams which are cooked separately and are poured into the baked shell. 145. PREPARATION OF FRUIT FILLINGS. Fruit filling is prepared in the following manner: a. Separate the juice from the fruit. b. Thicken the juice with cornstarch. C. Add sugar and salt to the thickened juice. d. Add the fruit. As a general rule, 2 to 3 pounds of sugar are needed for each No. 10 can of fruit, depending on its acidity. More starch is required for the juicier fruits. When more sugar is used more starch is required. f. If the filling is to be held for any length of time, it is best to place it in a crock or wooden container. Fillings tend to pick up metallic flavors if stored in metal containers. g. The amount of starch necessary to produce the desired thickening depends on several factors: (1) The amount of acid in the fruit. All fruits are acid, and acid tends to liquify the starch; therefore, the more acid in the fruit, the more starch required to thicken the juice. (2) All fruit fillings should be chilled in the refrigerator before they are placed in the pie. They should be chilled as rapidly as possible. Chilling helps to preserve the natural color of the fruit and a cool filling increases the time before the filling boils in the oven. 146. CUSTARD PIE FILLINGS. Custard type pie fillings usually are made by placing sugar, salt, and spice in a mixing bowl, adding the eggs and stirring briskly with a wire whip to dissolve the sugar and cut up stringiness of the eggs. The milk is then added and stirred well; and, finally, the melted butter or fat is added. The filling should be allowed to set long enough to permit the foam that has been developed by mixing to settle. Otherwise, if the pie shells are filled and baked right away, an undesirable surface will result on the finished product. In making pumpkin pie, the pumpkin is added after the eggs have been mixed with the sugar. Soft pies are not recommended for hot summer months, as they are more apt to sour and cause food poisoning. 147. COBBLERS. A cobbler is nothing more than a large pie. The same crust and fillings which are used in ordinary pies are used to make cobblers. The cook or baker quite often finds himself in a situation where it is impossible to make small pies, but he can make cobblers without difficulty. a. Use a regular sheet pan or other shallow pan. Roll out M/2 pounds of pie dough to a size slightly larger than the size of the pan to be used. Roll the dough around the rolling pin and place on the pan. Wash the edges of the dough, as when making ordinary pies. b. Place 6 to 6^2 No. 56 dippers of filling in the pan. c. Roll out the top crust and dock with a fork before placing over filling. This is necessary to allow vapors to escape. 105 ® Washing the rim. d. The top crust may be a full crust or a series of two inch strips placed lengthwise and crosswise on top of the filling. e. The cobbler is baked in a hot oven (400° to 425° F.) from 50 to 60 minutes. 148. CAKES AND ICINGS. Cake is baked batter made from sugar, eggs, shortening, milk, flour, and chemical leavening mixed together in such a way as to produce a fluffy, fine-grained baked product. In order to make cakes satisfactorily it is first essential that the action of the ingredients be known. A brief discussion of the ingredients follows: a. Sugar in Batter and in Baked Cake. There are two sources of sugar commonly used in cake: one, the sugar cane; two, the sugar beet. Either cane or beet sugar works equally well in cake making. Several different granulations are used as well as powdered sugars. A fine granulated sugar is best for making cakes because the sugar must be dissolved completely. Sugar has several functions I in cake making: (1) It sweetens the cake. (2) Since sugar crystals are perfect cubes, the j sharp corners of these cubes have a tendency ' help cut air into the cake batter during the mixing period, thus helping to make the cake light. (3) Sugar controls the consistency of the batter the more sugar used, the softer the batter will be. 106 Figure 50. ® Placing dough in pan. ® Building rim of pie for custard filling. ® Placing top crust. (4) Sugar has a tenderizing effect on the gluten developed in the flour, and thus should be classified as a tenderizing ingredient. (5) Sugar helps retain the moisture in the finished cake. (6) Sugar helps control the color of the crust in the finished cake. (7) Sugar adds food value. b. Shortening. Lard may be used with excellent results as the shortening in cake making. It contains a considerable amount of low-melting-point fatty acids which help produce very moist, tender cakes of good flavor and keeping qualities. Shortening performs several functions in cake batter: (1) It makes the cake tender because it has a softening action on the gluten developed in the flour during mixing of the cake batter. (2) Shortening helps to incorporate air in the batter by taking on air during the mixing period. The amount of air in the batter governs the fineness of grain, as well as the tenderness, and helps to control the volume of the finished cake. (3) Shortening helps to emulsify the liquids added to the cake batter. (4) Keeping qualities of the finished cake are increased by shortening. (5) If shortening such as butter or lard is used, flavor is added. A neutral shortening does not affect the flavor. (6) Food values of the finished cake are strengthened by shortening. c. Eggs Add Structure to the Finished Cake. Contrary to the common belief, eggs do not cause a cake to rise—the air that has been whipped into them causes that action. The function of eggs in cake is: (1) To help build the structure of the cake; this structure helps to carry the tenderizing ingredients, such as sugar and shortening and chemical leavening. (2) To add moisture to the finished cake. (3) To add color. Whole eggs and yolks definitely add color to the finished cake. (4) To help bind the other ingredients together, causing an even distribution of the ingredients. An even distribution produces the smooth batter essential for a good cake; if the batter separates, the results obtained in the finished cake will not be satisfactory. (5) To add food value to the cake. d. Liquid milk. Liquid milk has a prominent part in cake making, especially in white and yellow layer cakes. In devil’s food cake, the milk solids are not desirable, due to the fact that they lower the caramelization point of the cake batter, and have a tendency to affect the crust color of the finished cake. If the color of the finished cake is not important, then milk can be used very satisfactorily, but it is much easier to obtain a red color in devil’s food cake without the use of milk solids. The following are the functions of milk in cake making: (1) To control the consistency of the finished cake batter. (2) To dissolve the sugar which is added to the cake. If the sugar is not dissolved, a spreading action from the sugar results during the baking period, causing the structure of the cake to overstretch and the finished cake to collapse in the center. When too little milk is used in the cake batter, there is not enough liquid to develop properly the gluten in the flour and thus obtain the desired structure. Based on the flour as 100 percent, the combined weight of the eggs and liquid milk in white and yellow layer or sheet cake should be 20 to 30 percent more than the sugar. In devil’s food cake, it should be 40 to 60 percent more than the sugar. (3) To impart color to the crust. By regulating the amount of milk solids in the cake batter, the crust can be controlled, because milk solids contain a high percentage of lactose (milk sugar) which caramelizes at approximately 270° to 275° F. The caramelizing temperature is well below that required to bake the cake. (4) To improve the keeping qualities of the finished cake, because the milk solids help to retain moisture. (5) To add food value to the cake. (6) To add flavor to the cake. e. Flour Helps to Furnish the Cell Structure of the Finished Cake. This is brought about by mixing the flour with the liquids in the cake. This develops the gluten or protein in the flour. f. Salt and Flavoring. (1) Salt is used in cake to bring out the flavors which are added to the batter. If a cake seems too sweet, a slight addition of salt will tone down sweetness. (2) Flavoring materials are added to give the cake a predominant flavor. Often a blend of flavors produces a very desirable finished flavor. g. Leavening. (1) A chemical leavening controls the volume of the finished cake. The chemical leavening agents may be baking powder, baking soda and buttermilk, or baking soda and some acidreacting material common to baking powder. During the baking period, the baking powder gives off carbon dioxide gas and the gelatinous material in the cake, such as the egg and the gluten developed 107 in the flour, holds this gas and causes the cake to rise. When baking is done at high altitudes the amount of leavening should be reduced because of decreased atmospheric pressure. (2) Air which is incorporated in the batter has a leavening effect. When the air is warm, it has a tendency to expand, and this expansion causes the cake to rise. The air mixed into the cake batter carries the vapor which is developed during the baking period and allows it to circulate through the top crust. If the cake batter does not contain enough air and does not rise properly, this vapor cannot work out through the cake properly during the baking period. It finally will work out through the bottom of the cake and build up pressure, forcing the cake up and forming a pocket on the bottom. It is apparent, therefore, that a certain amount of air in the cake batter is necessary. The air in layer cake is responsible for 40 to 50 percent of the finished cake volume. (3) Vapor pressure also causes the cake to rise. The reason this is called vapor pressure, rather than steam is that during the baking period the inside of a cake never reaches a temperature higher than 210° F., and steam is developed at 212° F. 149. CAKE FAULTS AND REMEDIES. The inexperienced cook may encounter certain difficulties in making cake. These may be overcome, however, with practice and by using a good formula, good ingredients and care in mixing and baking. Some of the causes for cake failures and suggestions for avoiding them follow: a. Factors Responsible for Cakes Falling in the Center: (1) Too much baking powder will cause a cake to dip in the center. To guard against this, check the formula to be sure that the amount of baking powder is correct. In the average layer cake the baking powder should be 5 to 6 percent, based on the weight of the flour as 100 percent. If over 7 percent is used, the cake will collapse in the center. Decrease the baking powder if the amount called for is found to be excessive. Too much baking powder may be detected by tasting the cake, if one is experienced in cake work. (2) An excess of sugar will cause the cake to dip in the center. The combined percentage of egg and milk should exceed the percentage of sugar by 20 to 30 percent in white and yellow cake, and by 40 to 60 percent in devil’s food cake. Even the proper amount of sugar will be excessive if too little liquid is used. Too much sugar shows in the form of white spots on the top of the cake, and on tasting the cake will be very sweet. (3) Too much air in the batter will cause a cake to dip in the center, however, this will happen very rarely. In this case, the grain will be very compact, especially tight on the bottom and open on the top, and the cells of the cake will be very fine. b. Why Cakes Peak in the Center. (1) An excessive amount of structure-building material such as eggs. (2) Too little sugar in the batter. Based on flour as 100 percent, the sugar may vary from 100 to 120 percent. (3) Too little baking powder. The baking powder may vary from 5 to 6 percent, based on flour as 100 percent. (4) Oven too hot. This can be detected by looking at the bottom of the cake to see if it is too brown. Darkness around the edges of the cake and the smoothness with which it lets go or shrinks away from the pan during the baking period are other signs of too hot an oven. c. A Cake Which is Too Tender Will be Very Flat on Top. It will rise excessively in the oven and will tend to break away from the sides of the pan, leaving considerable crust hanging to the sides. This will give a rough finished side to the cake. Furthermore, the cake usually has a coarse grain. This can be corrected. (1) Check the oven temperature. Most layer or sheet cake formulas are for baking at 380° F. A low oven temperature will cause a cake to be too tender. (2) If the oven temperature is correct, check the percentage of baking powder. Excessive baking powder will cause the cake to be too tender. The baking powder should be 5 to 6 percent, based on flour as 100 percent. In the case of devil’s food cake, the combined percentage of baking powder and soda should be approximately this figure. (3) Excess of sugar will cause the cake to be too tender. Check the ratio of sugar to moisture to see that there is enough moisture to dissolve the sugar. The combined eggs and milk should be 20 to 30 percent more than the sugar in the case of yellow and white layer cakes, and 40 to 60 percent in the case of devil’s food cake. (4) Check the ratio of eggs to shortening. There should be at least 10 percent more eggs than shortening. This percentage may be as high as 35 percent more eggs than shortening. If fewer eggs than this are used, very crumbly, tender cake will be produced. d. Shrinkage of the Cake. This shrinkage may occur in the oven or after removal from the oven. 108 The following factors affect the shrinkage of cake in the oven: (1) If the percentage of milk added to the batter is too high, shrinkage will result. When the cake is cut, heavy streaks usually will appear along the bottom. (2) The temperature of the oven is important. An excessively hot oven will cause the cake to peak and crack on top, and can be verified by examining the bottom crust which will be dark. A hot oven produces very smooth edges on the finished cake. Too low an oven temperature will cause the cake to flatten out, being very flat on top and with ragged edges where the crust has clung to the edge of the pan as the shrinkage has occurred. (3) Certain characteristics of a cake during baking indicate that it may shrink after removal from the oven. These include excessive puffing, entire lack of structure and an underbaked appearance at all times. The two principal causes of shrinkage in a cake after it is removed from the oven are: («) Too high a percentage of shortening. All flours have certain shortening-carrying properties. An excessive amount of shortening, which makes the gluten in the flour elastic, causes it to overstretch during the baking period. On removing the cake from the oven the vapor escapes, causing an almost complete collapse of the structure of the cake. This will occur within the first 3 or 4 minutes after the cake is out of the oven. Less shortening may be used in making cake when the flour contains a poor quality gluten. (6) The type of flour used. Short patent flours produce the finest cakes, straight flours the next best, and clear flours the least desirable. A bleached flour has greater moisture and shortening-carrying properties. A poorly bleached or an unbleached flour will carry only about two-thirds the amount of shortening of a well-bleached flour. A green flour (one which has not had the proper aging) also will cause shrinkage. The baking properties of a cake flour can be measured by its performance in yellow layer cake which contains high percentages of sugar, liquid and shortening. e. Pockets in the Bottom of a Cake. Pockets in the bottom of a cake are the result of several conditions. (1) Lack of air in a cake batter prevents the vapor from working out properly and it collects at the bottom of the cake, forming a pocket. This can be corrected by increasing the leavening or by incorporating more air into the batter. The latter may be accomplished by longer creaming or by whipping the egg whites with some of the sugar to increase the lightness of the finished product. (2) An excessive amount of milk in the batter may cause a pocket to form, even though the correct amount of chemical leavening has been used and sufficient air incorporated in the batter. (3) A pocket may be caused by too much heat in the bottom of the oven. If it is not possible to adjust the baking conditions of the oven, the cake may be double-panned (first pan placed in a second). A slight increase in baking powder also will help under these conditions. f. Several Factors are Responsible for a Cake being too Dry. (1) A dry cake results when there is too little moisture in the batter. The percentage of baking loss is the same in cakes which are scaled the same weight, baked in the same size pans for the same period of time and at the same temperature. In other words, the baking loss is in the crust of the exposed surface. The inside of the cake after baking will test within 1 percent of the actual moisture content of the cake batter. The ratio of the eggs and milk to sugar should be studied in the formula to be sure that the amounts given are the same as specified in this section. (2) Excessive baking powder will produce a cake with a coarse grain, which will have a tendency to dry out rapidly. This may be corrected by reducing the baking powder slightly or by increasing the milk slightly. (3) The type of shortening will influence the degree of dryness. A cake made with lard usually is moist and tender. g. Control of Temperature. (1) If the oven temperature is too low, the cake will be excessively tender. (2) If the oven is too hot, the cake may pack in the center. (3) Shrinkage is caused by an excessively hot oven. (4) Too low a temperature also causes shrinkage. (5) Too hot an oven causes very smooth edges on the finished cake. (6) Too low a temperature causes the cake to flatten out on top. (7) Too low a temperature causes ragged edges on the finished cake. (8) Too much oven heat may cause pockets in bottom of cake. 150. ICINGS. Icings bring out the fine flavors developed in the cake. A good icing can improve a poor cake. When the cake is cool, it is ready for icing. Place a paper over the top of the cake, 109 put the bottom of a pan over the paper and turn the cake completely over and onto the second pan. Lift off the original pan and remove the paper sticking to the bottom of cake. Place 3 pounds, or 1 No. 56 dipper, of icing on each cake. Spread evenly. By dipping a sharp knife into hot water, a clean cut can be made. To obtain pieces 3 inches square, make 12 cuts lengthwise and 9 crosswise of the cake; the yield will be 108 pieces per sheet cake. If larger pieces of cake are desired, make 6 cuts in length and 6 cuts in width. This gives a serving 4 inches long by 3 inches wide, or 36 pieces per cake. 151. COOKIES. Cookies are always popular and should be very satisfactory as summer desserts for the Army. Unlike most other desserts, cookies will keep almost indefinitely and can be made ahead of time and used as needed. This is a decided advantage to the Army cook. Cookies fall into two general classifications—the soft type and the hard, brittle type. The proportion of sugar and moisture determines whether the cookies will be soft or brittle; the more sugar and the less moisture, the more brittle the cookie. Soft batter cookies may be dropped by hand in pieces the size of a walnut on a greased and flour-dusted pan. Stiff batter cookies may be rolled out in long strips and cut into pieces of about the same size. Then these pieces are placed on the pan and flattened before baking. Table XXXIV. Cookie ingredients Item Sugar_________ Lard__________ Salt__________ Soda__________ Baking powder Molasses______ Eggs---------- Liquid milk___ Oatmeal_______ Fruit-raisins_ Spices________ Flavor________ Flour_________ Percent 40 to 70 20 to 40 1^2 to 0 to 0 to 0 to 0 to 0 to 0 to 2 1H 5 40 25 40 30 0 to 100 (to taste) (to taste) 100 152. INGREDIENTS FOR COOKIES. A study of cookie-making shows that the ingredients used will vary as follows, based on the flour as 100 percent: For the brittle type cookies made by hand, the combined percentage of eggs and milk should be 25 to 35 percent, with the sugar varying from 50 to 60 percent under normal conditions. In the soft type cookies, the sugar will run approximately 40 percent and the moisture (eggs and milk) will be approximately 60 to 65 percent. Figure 51. Making molasses cookies. Place the small pieces of dough in the pan and flatten until each is about 3 inches in diameter. 110 153. FAULTS AND REMEDIES. a. Why cookies stick to pan. (1) Cookies will stick if pans are not greased sufficiently. (2) If the pans are not properly cleaned the cookies may stick. (3) When materials which caramelize excessively such as milk solids, milk or sugars, are used, the cookies brown (caramelize) at a low temperature, causing them to stick. (4) Excessive heat in bottom of oven causes the cookies to burn on the bottom, with the result that they will stick. b. Why Cookies Spread. (1) When the formula contains a high percentage of sugar and, the cookies are baked at a high temperature, excessive spreading will result. Cookies of this type usually contain very little moisture and most of the sugar is in the crystalline state (has not been dissolved) in the cookies. When it heats in the oven, the sugar melts and produces a spreading action. (2) Too much baking soda will cause excessive spreading. (3) Greasing the pans too heavily also will cause spreading. This will result in thin edges on the cookies. C. Illustrations. The following illustrations show the manner of placing dough in pans for baking cookies and fruit bars. ® Flattening the bars. Figure 52. Fruit bars. ® Placing strips in pan. Ill CHAPTER 7 SERVICE OF PREPARED FOODS 154. GENERAL. Time and exacting care spent in making food nutritious and appetizing can be wasted by indifferent service and careless handling on the part of mess personnel. Good service plays an important part in the proper enjoyment of food. Food served at the right time, at correct temperatures, and displayed and garnished to convey appetite appeal are elements of service to be remembered. Pleasant surroundings also contribute to an appreciation of well prepared food. Attractive mess hall decorations, window curtains, flowers, good ventilation and cleanliness, improve the atmosphere. A cheerful and obliging attitude on the part of food servers contributes to the enjoyment of a meal. Serving personnel should be pleasant, respectful and quiet of voice. A constant desire to provide better service should be the goal of all soldiers engaged in messing activities. Figure 53. Plate waste segregation stand. 155. BASIC STANDARDS, a. Food handlers should always present a neat appearance. Hands and fingernails should be clean. Cooks’ caps should be worn. When it is necessary to use a handkerchief turn away from the food. Any mannerism which might be objectionable to persons being served should be avoided. b. Dishes and condiments, placed on tables, should be aligned in an orderly manner. They should be checked daily for cleanliness and should be refilled or replaced when necessary. c. Food service should be coordinated with food preparation to eliminate any unnecessary lapse of time between the preparation of the food and the serving of the meal. Many foods, cooked too far in advance of serving, will lose a large part of their nutritional value before being consumed. They will be less attractive, and will lose flavor. Concerted efforts should be made to eliminate servings of “early chow” to a few, substituting “late chow” where necessary. The serving of “early chow” for about 5 percent of the organization means that about 95 percent of the men must eat meals prepared long in advance to accommodate only a few men. d. In garrison mess halls, a dining room orderly (DRO) should be on duty at each meal to see that the soldiers are seated properly to avoid wasting table space. e. When finished eating, the men should scrape their own plates into the proper containers. Plate scraping should be conducted in a clean and sightly manner, out of view of persons eating. Figure 53 illustrates a stand with suitable containers for the various garbage scrapings from plates. The stand has several advantages: (1) It permits two lines of men for scraping plates. (2) It gives the cook a quick way of noting the food preferences of the men. (3) It makes it possible to weigh various types of garbage more readily. (4) It will assure keeping edible garbage segregated from inedible. 112 156. RULES FOR SERVING. There are certain practices that apply to any style of serving. These are: a. Vegetables should be drained before serving. b. Soft foods, as mush, mashed potatoes, and turnips, should be neatly rounded off, not merely thrown into the dish. C. Roast meats, as beef, veal, pork, and lamb, should be of uniform thickness and the slices should be laid evenly and neatly on the dish or platter. If gravy is spilled on the edges of the platter, it should be wiped away. d. If possible, provide a stock or gravy for meat and potatoes. e. Foods intended to be served hot, as soups, meats, vegetables and beverages should be actually hot. Nothing is so disappointing as lukewarm soup or coffee. Serving dishes should be kept warm, either by being placed on the range mantel or by other means. Cold food should be thoroughly chilled and the cook must use foresight to chill them sufficiently in advance of serving to accomplish this. Hot or cold foods should not be placed on the tables until just before the men are seated; other foods may be set out earlier. f. Pies and cakes should be cut neatly. Pieces of cake should be arranged neatly on the serving dish without excess loose crumbs. g. A little cracked ice added to butter, olives, etc., and to fresh raw vegetables, as radishes, green onions, lettuce, celery and sliced tomatoes, before they are sent to the tables makes these foods much more appetizing. h. Fresh fruits, as apples, oranges, pears, grapes and bananas, are much tastier when cold, and therefore, should be thoroughly chilled before serving. ® Vegetable drained properly before serving. Figure 5V ® Mashed potatoes, appetizing in the serving dish and well rounded off for the individual portion. ® Gravy served skillfully and in the right amount. ® Meat laid evenly on the serving dish and served carefully. 113 ® Soup intended to be hot is served hot. ® Pie that has been cut with care is served in the same way. ® Cracked ice makes these fresh, raw vegetables more pleasing. ® A tray with food properly arranged and well served. Some fresh fruits require a little further preparation; large bunches of grapes, for example, should be cut into smaller portions; fruit should be washed. 157. CARVING, a. General. Food carving is an important part of the appearance of a meal. Carving affects both the appearance and the texture of meat. Poor carving can seriously damage fine meat. Carving is a skill that every cook should develop. To become skillful, a few principles must be mastered. Carving requires practice and a knowledge of muscle structure and the location of the bones and joints. Good carving depends to a great degree on good cooking. If meat is underdone it is difficult to carve it; if it is overdone, the slices fall apart. Carving in the Army mess is largely a matter of slicing. b. Slicing. To make good slices of meat, the » carver must use the proper knife, have it well sharpened, and follow his knowledge of slicing. Knowing the direction in which the muscles run is essential, because, in making a slice, the carver should cut across the grain, for this shortens the fibers and makes better slices. In carving most cuts, such as roasts and pot roasts, carving across the grain may be accomplished by making the slices parallel to the cut surface because the meat was originally prepared by cutting across the grain. Steaks, however, are carved with the grain. C. Procedure. Slicing must be done on a wood surface because metal will turn the cutting edge of the knife. Use a carving board placed in a sheet pan to catch the meat drippings. The meat should be held firmly with a large fork. After the 114 first cut is made, the angle at which the knife is held should never be changed, or a jagged, uneven slice will result. In all slicing, each stroke with the knife should be drawn the full length of the blade, eliminating the sawing motion. This gives a smooth slice. The most attractive slice is the one cut just the right thickness for the particular kind of meat. A paper-thin slice seems ungenerous; too thick a slice is unappetizing. Good carving, then, means knowing where to make the first cut, and continuing to make parallel cuts until enough portions have been secured to serve everyone. 158. STYLES OF SERVICE. There are two types of service in general use in the garrison mess hall: “cafeteria” service and “family style” service. Each type has its value. The cafeteria service usually is preferred because of the ease and speed of serving, the control of portions and the reduction of waste. There are conditions, however, under which the family style service, or a combination of the two, is advisable. 159. CAFETERIA SERVICE. In cafeteria style service, the men form a line by the serving counter. They pick up trays or plates, and the servers at the counter dish out the portions to them. a. Menu Displays. The soldier should know what is being served before he arrives at the items in the line. A good practice is to post a legible menu over the serving line or in front of the line. This may be in the form of a small blackboard or a new sheet of paper for each meal, with the menu neatly lettered on it. Another form is a menu board. This is a board with grooves that will hold cards bearing the names of various dishes for the meal. Any method gives the soldier time to decide on the size of portions he desires, or to refuse a food that he will not eat. It is found, too, that service is speeded up when the soldier knows what food is being served before he reaches it. b. Preparation for Service. After making sure that the steam table is clean, see that it is filled with hot water to the right level and that the proper temperature is maintained. Remember, the purpose of a steam table is to keep food hot but not to cook it. Foods should remain on the steam table as short a time as possible. If the mess hall does not have a steam table, foods should not be brought to the serving counter until the time they are to be served. See that the dishes and equipment required for the day’s menu are placed before serving time. Compartment trays, plates and silverware should be carefully inspected for dirt and for stains. A man receiving a dirty fork or tray is inclined to feel that his food is dirty. Stack plates and trays neatly. Place the silverware so that the handles will be grasped first. A plan for construction of silver boxes is shown in figure 56. See that the food is arranged on the serving counter in proper order. An ideal order of food on the serving line is: vegetables, potatoes, meat, gravy, salads, bread and butter, desserts, soups and beverage. An important part of the preparation for service is deciding where each food item will be placed on the tray or plate. Each server should know where to place the food he is serving. This knowledge speeds up the service and gives a better appearance to the tray or plate. c. Heating Dishes. Whenever chinaware is used for the service of hot foods, meal satisfaction will be increased if the dishes are heated before the service of foods. Warming to insure against foods being unduly cooled before consumption is all that is needed. Compartment trays that are unusually cold should be warmed to about room temperature. Since both cold and hot foods are served on the same tray, the trays should not be excessively hot or cold. d. Duties of the Server. The main duty and responsibility of the server at the counter is to serve standard portions of hot and cold foods, neatly, quickly, and quietly. This can be done if he will plan his work in advance and make every effort to Figure 55. Slicing roast beef. 115 Figure 56. Compartmented silverware box. ® Silver so placed that the handles are grasped first. The box is thirty-four and three-quarters (SJS/jf) inches long by fourteen and three-quarters (14%) inches wide. It consists of eight compartments for knives, sixteen for forks, and eight for spoons. The section for spoons is at the front of the box and is four inches. The section for knives and forks is six and one-eighth (61/g)inches high. ® In the bottom of the box are removable partitions, two (2) inches high, which fit together like the parts of an egg carton. ® On top of the box is a crosswork of dowels which holds the handles in place. Partitions and top crosswork are removable for cleaning. serve as well as he can. The server can profit by observing the following directions: (1) Check the food on the serving counter with the menu to insure that nothing has been omitted. (2) Never touch food with the hands; use fork, knife, or spoon or combinations of these. (3) Serve vegetables with a spoon that will drain juices. Place the helping on the plate carefully. Spinach and other greens should be served with tongs and the excess water squeezed out. (4) Do not mash foods in serving them. (5) In serving meat, use a fork, spatula, or pancake turner, and lift the pieces carefully to prevent their breaking up. Arrange the meat in the pan so it is attractive in appearance. Beware of stacking. (6) If meat is dry, a small amount of stock should be poured over it. (7) Roasts will have a greater appeal if they are sliced on the serving line. A good meat slicing man can begin 10 minutes before the line starts, and keep up with it. (8) When necessary to replenish trays of food, the small amount remaining should be combined with the new supply. (9) Refills should never be dumped into the old serving pan on the serving counter. This detracts from the appearance of the food. 116 (10) Do not dish up hot foods ahead of time, as the soldier wishes to see his food served and does not like to find that it has been standing. By serving food only when the soldier reaches it in the line, portions can be adjusted better to satisfy the individual. (11) When serving foods that are browned on top, such as baked macaroni, the server should see that some of the brown remains on the top of each portion. (12) In serving soup, make sure that the grease has been skimmed off the top and the soup stirred before serving; stir it frequently during the process of serving. (13) To avoid spilling, do not fill a bowl or cup too full. (14) Never serve a food that has a questionable odor or appearance. If there is doubt about its being good or appetizing, report it to a superior. (15) Do not lean on the counter. Maintain good posture. (16) If there is a lull in serving, use this time for checking and replenishing food supplies and wiping up any spots on the serving counter caused by food dropping, spilling, etc. A clean towel should be kept handy for this purpose. It is the server’s responsibility to keep his station clean. (17) Never stir food when not busy, or handle the food unnecessarily. (18) Do not taste food at the counter. e. Portion Control. With a little figuring, a mess sergeant can make sure that portions are properly controlled in his mess. He takes the amount of each food allotted for the number of men eating, subtracts the wastage or shrinkage caused by peeling and cooking, and converts the quantity into slices, ounces, or other easy serving measures. Table XXXV. Portion control table (1) Bacon—for 100 men: Quantity issued per 100 men------------ No. of slices per lb (machine)---- No. of slices per 100 men...______ Each man’s share (375 4- 100)----- (2) Roast beef—for 100 men: Quantity issued per 100 men------------ Shrinkage in preparation and cooking Each man’s share (33 4- 100)______ (3) Canned corn—for 100 men: Quantity issued per 100 men_______ 1 can_____________________________ Total weight______________________ Each man’s share (20 4- 100)------ 15 lb. 25 375 3% slices 55 lb. 40% (22 lb.) .33 lb or 5 oz. 3 No. 10 cans 6% lb. 20 lb. 0.2 lb or oz. This figure is divided by the number of men, and the result is the size of an average portion. This method is illustrated in table XXXV. With such dishes as canned corn, the mess sergeant will help the server determine how large a spoonful will give the required number of ounces for the average portion ; the server may increase or decrease this amount to suit individual requirements, but he must always keep in mind the size of the average portion in order to give everyone in line a fair serving. 160. FAMILY STYLE SERVICE. In family style service, the men are seated at the dining tables and the food is placed on each table in serving dishes or platters. The men help themselves to the dishes. Family style service requires closer attention to timing than is necessary in cafeteria service. If foods are placed in serving dishes on mess hall tables too early, they will cool rapidly with consequent loss of appearance and nutritive value. 161. SERVICE TO TABLES. The following rules should be followed in supplying food to tables: a. Prewarm dishes to be used for the service of hot foods. b. Hold cold foods in refrigerators until serving time. Place on tables just prior to meal period. C. Arrange food neatly on serving dishes. Garnish as appropriate. d. Do not fill service dishes excessively on initial dish-up. Supply enough for a good portion for each man, but hold back sufficient food in the kitchen to supply “seconds.” e. The following procedure should be used in the service of hot foods: As the men are entering the dining room, the soup should be carried from the kitchen in serving dishes provided for that purpose. After everyone has been served soup, proceed to the kitchen and bring in the rest of the food in the following sequence vegetables, potatoes, meat, gravy and beverage. This procedure should increase the consumption of soup and provide the men with important vitamins and minerals. f. When dishes come back for refilling, clean off the edges and replenish with reasonably small servings. g. If trouble is experienced with “chow hounds,” arrange to seat a noncommissioned officer at each table for the control of helpings. To make this system work, the noncommissioned officer should serve himself last. h. Immediately after meal periods, all food left in serving dishes should be segregated, and returned to the kitchen for use as leftovers. 117 CHAPTER 8 KITCHEN EQUIPMENT 162. GENERAL. Kitchen utensils and equipment are the tools that make it possible for the cook to do his work efficiently. Each implement has a particular purpose and requires special care. The good cook knows his equipment; he knows what he can do with it, how he should use it, and how to keep it in the best working condition. 163. UTENSILS, a. Potsand Pans. Potsand pans include kettles, measures, pans of all varieties, and pots. To be in good working order they must be cleaned thoroughly after each use, and stored properly. (1) Wash thoroughly with plenty of hot, soapy water; rinse with clear, scalding water and then air-dry. (2) Remove burned food or grease that sticks to the pot by putting water in the pot, covering it, and boiling hard for a few minutes. Then, leave a little hot water in the pot and scour the inside with a stiff-bristle brush. (3) Store pots and pans in a dry place, bottoms up. Don’t put one utensil inside the other. (4) Never scour blued pots and pans with abrasives except as a last resort. If the blueing is removed, reblue. b. Woodenware. Wooden bowls, spatulas and other wooden utensils require special attention. (1) Clean wooden utensils with warm, soapy water and a brush, and rinse with clean water. After they have been dried thoroughly, wipe with an oiled cloth to preserve the finish. (2) Never soak wooden utensils in water. 164. KNIVES, CLEAVERS, MEAT HOOKS, SAWS. a. General. Different sizes and shapes of these tools are required for different uses. Be sure to understand them. Do not use them for purposes for which they are not intended. Pay special attention to bladed tools (knives and cleavers) to prevent their being used in work that will ruin their edges. Keep in mind that each piece of cutlery was designed to do a certain job. For example, the short, narrow, stiff blades of boning knives were designed especially for cutting through joints and for cutting close around bones in order to separate them from the meat. Steak knives with long, wide blades were designed to cut steaks and roasts. Knives with thin blades, such as the roast beef slicer, are best suited for carving cooked meat. b. Handles of Tools. The wooden handles found on many of these tools can be easily abused by standing in water. The seams where the handle is joined to the steel are ready resting places for dirt. Hot water soaks into the wood, causing it to expand. As the wood dries, it shrinks. In a short time the handles are loose and the seams are enlarged. There is no need for leaving a wooden handled implement in water. It can be cleaned properly without soaking. C. Knives. Sharp knives are essential for efficient work. One way to keep them sharp is to use them only for the work they were intended to do. For instance, a boning knife has a comparatively narrow bevel along the edge. It will stand much more abuse and hard work than a properly ground steak knife, which has a wide bevel and a thin edge. Rule number one should be: “Never use a steak knife for boning meat.” A good job of cutting cannot be done with dull tools. Saws, knives, and cleavers should be sharp. A butcher’s steel is used only to keep the edges of knives straight, not to sharpen them. Saws are sharpened by filing. Frequently the teeth of the saw need setting to give them the proper angle. This requires special equipment. Unless he is properly trained, the average person is not competent to set and sharpen meat saws. (1) Sharpening. Knives should never be sharpened on a power or hand driven dry stone since this will remove the temper from the cutting edge. A water stone or carborundum oilstone is best. Both of these make good sharpening units. The knife is first put on a rough stone, then on a smoother one. Use the entire stone for sharpening the knife. In this manner, the stone will not “hollow out” at a particular point. It is best to draw the full blade, from heel to tip, across the full length of the stone in each movement. Turn the knife over and pull back in the same manner from the opposite end of the stone. In this fashion, the knife is sharpened 118 ® Place the heel of the knife at the upper end of the stone Figure 57. Sharpening. ® Draw the full blade from heel to tip across the full length of the stone ® Turn the knife over and repeat starting with the heel at the opposite end of the stone. Figure 58 Steeling. ® The heel against the far side of the tip of the steel. ® Bring entire blade edge down across the steel. ® Repeat with the other edge of the blade against the near side of the steel. 119 evenly and smoothly and the stone is worn uniformly. When the knife has sufficient edge, clean the blade and handle thoroughly before using. (2) Steeling. After the knife has been sharpened on a stone, true the edge with the standard issue steel. Do not use a rough steel for this purpose. Imagine putting a razor on a rough steel and you will realize why a smooth steel is better than a coarse one for keeping a keen edge on a knife blade. The steel is used to true the blade and keep the edge in peifect condition. Although there is a technique to handling the steel, it is easily mastered with practice. The following shows the easiest and most effective method of steeling a knife: (a) Hold the steel firmly in the left hand, thumb on top of the handle, with the point upward and slightly away from the body. (6) Place the heel of the blade against the far side of the tip of the steel, (See figure 58®.) The steel and the blade should meet at a slight angle about 25°. (c) Bring the blade down across the steel toward the left hand with a quick swinging motion of the right wrist and forearm. The entire blade edge should pass lightly over the steel (figure 58®). (d) Bring the knife into position again but with the blade against the near side of the steel (See figure 58®.) Repeat the same motion, passing the blade over the steel. (e) Alternating from side to side, a dozen strokes will true the edge. (/) Put the knife on the steel as often as the edge needs it. Aim to have the blade sharp always. (3) Care of knives. Every first-class meat cutter takes a personal interest in keeping his equipment in numbei one condition at all times. The sharp edge of a knife, like a razor, can be dulled easily. Knives should never be thrown into a drawer with other tools. A wood strip (1 by 2 by 12 to 20 inches long) can be made secure to the bottom of a table drawer, first sawing slots into it at intervals of 2 to 3 inches. (See fig. 59.) These cuts (slots) should be made about inches deep and of such width that a knife blade will fit easily into them. Arranged in order in these slots, the knives are readily available and at the same time the edges are protected. A knife holder may be fastened to the side of the meat block with the knife handles below the edge of the block, or a holder may be put up in some other convenient place in the kitchen. Whatever method is followed, it is essential that tools should receive the care and attention they deserve. Government specifications provide good knives. If cared for, they will give satisfactory service for a long time. d. Cleaver. Use this piece of cutlery as little as possible. Unless it is very sharp and used properly, the cleaver will shatter the bone and fill the surrounding meat with tiny bone splinters. These splinters not only cause inconvenience in eating but they are dangerous. e. Meat Hand-hook. Although a meathook is inconvenient to one not accustomed to its use, it is in reality a valuable aid in boning meat. It not only saves time but it eliminates most of the danger of cutting fingers in the boning operation, since it enables one to get a firm grip on slippery meat. f. Metal Mesh Glove. When meat is cut on a mass production scale, as in central meat-cutting plants, workers will wear a metal mesh glove on the left hand, as a protection against fingers being cut while boning meat. The glove is made of a fine metal mesh which is flexible and interferes in no way with the action of the fingers. It covers the thumb and the first and second fingers. A strap on the wrist holds the glove in place. It is a practical safeguard for anyone who is boning meat. This item is issued only to Central Meat-Cutting Plants. g. Saws. A saw with a dull blade will not do satisfactory work. Three blades should be available at all times for each saw, one in use and two in leseive. When a blade loses its edge and set, it should be replaced with a sharp one. Figure 59. A wood strip to hold knives. 120 165. MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS. Egg whips, potato mashers, vegetable graters, butter cutters, sieves, can openers, and colanders gather food particles very easily. A brush and free-running water will help in cleaning them. 166. SPECIAL TREATMENT FOR VARIOUS METALS. Different kinds of metals require different care. Be sure to know the kind of metal with which you are working, and follow the tips on cleaning that are listed below. a. Stainless steel. Harsh scouring powders should not be used on these utensils. If there is a mild discoloration, remove it with vinegar and salt or with lemon juice. More severe discolorations call for the use of very fine, uniform scouring powders. But use these only as a last resort. b. Tin. Never use sharp implements to aid in scraping food from tin equipment. It is too easy to scrape off some of the tin and expose the base metal. Using coarse scouring powder has the same effect. The result is rusted utensils (which you should replace or have retinned.) Tin should have the following care: (1) If food has stuck to a tin pan, remove it by heating the pan a few minutes in a solution of baking soda. (2) If tin utensils are to be stored for periods of time without use, they should be coated with a thin film of unsalted fat or oil to prevent rusting. c. Aluminum. Do not use soda, lye, or washing powders containing strong alkalies when washing aluminum utensils. d. Chromium Plate. Do not use steel wool, coarse scouring powder, or any other abrasive material on chromium-plated equipment. e. Cast Iron. Heat cast iron utensils to dry. f. Sheet Iron. Do not expose sheet iron utensils to extreme heat. 167. BLUEING UTENSILS, a. General. The purpose of blueing is to prevent rust. When new, black iron roasting and baking pans are received for use, wash them in warm, soapy water, with a little soda added, to remove the manufacturer’s protective coating. Then blue them. Never blue aluminum utensils; just keep them clean. Never grease heavy tinned sheet pans and bake pans before they are burned out. After utensils have been put into use, they should be reblued whenever the blueing wears off and bright spots of rust show through. Figure 60. Work or cook’s table. b. Method of Blueing. (1) To blue a utensil, wash and dry it thoroughly, removing any food or grease deposited under rolled rims or in any crevices. Then place the pans over a wood fire that has both flames and live coals. This burns out the remaining residue and opens the tiny pores of the metal. Quench the utensil in hot water and again scrub and dry thoroughly. Coat the utensil inside and out with a thin film of pure grease; the film must be very thin; rub the grease in rather than leave any residue. The best grease to use is lard; never use rendered bacon fat, for it contains salt that will corrode the metal. Then place the utensil for about 1 hour in a hot oven at 325° to 400° F. If no oven is available, the utensil may be placed upside down over an Ml937 fire unit at a very low flame. Be careful not to burn away the film of grease. (2) The metal will slowly turn blue as the heat does its work. The spread of color is a guide in judging the progress of blueing. This heat treatment melts the lard into the surface, closes the tiny pores, and gives the utensils a smooth, glazed surface which resists rust. (3) Blueing should not be confused with “burning out.” Burning out is a process for preparing utensils such as new bake pans for baking bread. Bake pans for bread are made of iron covered with tin. To improve the baking process, the pans must be burned out. In burning out the bake pans, first wipe with a clean cloth and then place in an oven with a hearth temperature from 375° to 425° F. for 3 to 4 hours. Never place bake pans in an oven above 425° F. or the tin will melt. Never grease 121 Figure 61. Butcher block. Figure 62. Refrigerator. tin coated pans before placing in oven. Grease after they have been taken from the oven and are still warm. 168. EQUIPMENT. A description of each piece of kitchen equipment follows. This includes its method of operation, the proper cleaning process and special pointers on operation, care and maintenance that are important for the cook to know. 169. WORK OR COOK’S TABLE, a. Description. (1) Work or cook’s table is constructed of wood or steel. If made of wood, the top is planed and sanded and except for top, finished with waterproof filler. The tops of some work tables are constructed of steel. The shelf below table top is used for pots and large pans too heavy to hang. Drawers provide space for knives, spoons, ladles, etc. This table is 3 feet wide and may be 4, 6 or 8 feet long. (2) Cook’s table and pan rack is the same table as the work table with the addition of a wooden rack running lengthwise of the table about four feet above table top. Hardwood pegs, malleable or cast iron hooks are provided for suspending pots and pans. b. Cleaning. The table top should be washed with hot, soapy water after each using. Do not allow water to stand on the table. 170. BUTCHER BLOCKS, a. Description. Butcher blocks are used for cutting meat. The standard size used in messes is 30" x 30" x 10". It has a working height of 34 inches. The block is constructed of hard wood either white hard maple, beech, hackberry, sycamore or ash. Only one species is used in any one block. The block consists of kiln dried strips ranging in thickness from 1% to 3 inches which are assembled with the end grain exposed on top and are fastened together with at least 3 bolts. It is finished with a saturated coat of waterproof sealer, applied to all surfaces except the top, which is sanded smooth and left untreated. b. Operation. To prevent an uneven surface, give the block one quarter turn each week and try to use entire cutting surface as much as possible. c. Cleaning. (1) Before placing meat on block, brush or wipe off the top. (2) After each using, clean the top with a steel scraper and wire brush. Never wash or bleach top of block or wash tools on the block. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Do not use salt or cornmeal to cover block. (2) Maintaining a bevel on top edge of the block will keep the edges from chipping or splintering. (3) Never use block for storage space. (4) Excessive drying and cracking will occur if block is kept close to any heating device. (5) If cutting has badly pitted or dished top of block, have the post engineer saw it down to a smooth level. (6) Use special board, not the meat block when cleaning and cutting poultry, liver, fish, hot meats, fruits and vegetables. (7) Never allow fresh meat to lay on block longer than necessary and never thaw frozen meat on the block. 171. REFRIGERATOR, a. Description. There are two types of kitchen refrigerators—walk-in and reach-in. 122 (1) The walk-in type is usually installed in consolidated messes. It consists of one or more compartments maintained at different temperatures depending upon the product stored. (2) The reach-in type refrigerator is found in unit messes. Its normal capacity ranges from 20 to 65 cubic feet. b. Operation—Automatic. c. Cleaning. (1) Clean the outside daily with hot, soapy water. (2) Daily remove food and clean the inside by starting at the top and working downward with hot, soapy water. A little soda added to the water imparts sweetness. (3) When cleaning, do not open all doors. Open only the door of the compartment being cleaned. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Keep doors closed when not placing or removing food. (2) Store foods so that the cold circulating air will reach each article. Pieces of fresh meat should be hung and should not touch each other. (3) Foods that are most perishable should be placed in coldest part of refrigerator. (4) Defrost when the fan coils are covered % inch with frost and the bare pipe coils are covered ^2 inch. (5) Have refrigerator inspected periodically by post engineer. 172. BAIN MARIE, a. Description. A bain marie is an open rectangular tank containing hot water. It is used to hold utensils containing cooked food at a proper temperature until they are ready to be placed in the serving table. The only difference between a bain marie and a steam table is that the steam table has fixed openings of a specified size which require inserts to fit. b. Operation. Three types of heating units are used—steam, electricity and gas. c. Cleaning. (1) After each using remove food particles from the water before draining. (2) After each using, drain the water and wash the pan with soapy water. Clean and polish the outside of the pan. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Keep dry when not in use. (2) Do not use for storage. (3) Never turn on heating unit unless bain marie is partially full of water. (4) Always turn off heat before removing water. (5) Inspect joints and connections frequently for leaks. (6) If heating units are faulty, call the post engineer. . 173. SINK. a. Description. (1) Cook's sink has a single compartment without drain boards and is fitted with hot and cold water faucets, overflow pipe and drain. Since this is placed close to the cook’s work table, it provides the cook with either hot or cold water for adding to food. No grease interceptor is necessary. (2) Glass washing sink has two compartments without drain boards. Fittings, faucets, overflow pipe, etc. are the same as cook’s sink. This sink is used for washing glasses only. (3) Scullery sink may have one or two compartments, with or without drain boards. Fittings vary 123 Figure 63. Bain marie. Figure 64- The sink. Figure 65. Dishwasher. according to type of sink. Scullery sinks are used both for preparation of vegetables and dishwashing. b. Cleaning. (1) After each using remove all food particles. (2) After each using wash dirty and greasy compartment and drain board with soap and water. Rinse thoroughly. c. Care and Maintenance. When preparing vegetables, be sure all soap is thoroughly rinsed off sides of sink. 174. DISHWASHING MACHINE, a. Description. Dishwashing machines wash and rinse dishes, silverware and other items. Proper temperature of water is maintained by gas, electricity or steam. There are two types—immersion and spray. (1) Immersion type consists of two tanks into which the racks of dishes are placed. Water pumped at a rapid rate, washes the dishes. After washing is completed, racks are transferred to rinse and sterilizing tank by the operator, then removed to drain and air dry. This type is not practicable for Army use. (2) Spray type. Dishwashers have wash and rinse tanks. Hot water is pumped into wash arms and sprayed through the nozzles located above and below the tracks which guide the racks of dishes through the machine.' Automatic controls convey racks from wash tank into rinse tank, then out of machine on the opposite side. Dishes are air dried. Never dry dishes with towel. b. Operation. Spray type. Put the strainer pans in place and add correct amount of washing compound. To fill wash tank, close the drain valve and open fill valve until the water level in the tank reaches the overflow slot. Turn on heat. Turn on motor switch when ready to wash dishes. After scraping dishes clean, place edgewise in rack. Place glasses, cups and bowls bottom up and never stack them one on top of another. Silverware and small articles may be scattered loosely over the bottom of a similar rack. When rack is loaded, slide it into the machine. In automatic machines, each rack moves through the wash chambers and into the rinse chamber and then past a final rinse arm which sprays clean hot water drawn directly from the hot water supply of the building. When there are no automatic controls, each rack must be put in and taken out of the tanks by the operator. When dishwashing is completed, turn off heat, stop motor and drain wash tank by moving drain handle to “OPEN.” C. Cleaning. (1) After each meal, remove refuse in strainer pans. Remove pans carefully so as not to spill anything into tank. Clean thoroughly. (2) Scrub, rinse, and air dry the curtains after each meal. (3) After each meal, wash the interior of machine with hose if possible. Leave the hood open so that the interior will dry. (4) Clean the inside of the pipes with wire brush after each meal. To do this, remove the wash arms or the caps at the ends of the arms. Flush out scale or sediment. Figure 66. Exhaust fan. 124 Figure 67. Grease trap. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Watch thermometers for correct temperature of water. Wash water should not be below 120° F. or higher than 140° F. Rinse water should be 180° F. or more. Final rinse must also be 180° F. or higher. (2) Remove all food scraps from dishes. Rack correctly. Do not mix glasses and dishes together. (3) Never overload rack. (4) Use correct amount of dishwashing compound. Do not use soap. Compound must be added from time to time depending on condition and number of dishes, hardness of water and strength of compound. (5) If sprayers stop up frequently due to sediment in water supply, a strainer can be installed in the water supply line to machine. (6) Never allow wash or rinse water to remain in tanks. Empty machines when finished. Always turn off heat before emptying tank. (7) Clean curtains insure sanitation and materially lengthen life of curtains. (8) Inspect periodically for leaks in valves, squeaks, and packings. (9) Keep motors dry and clean. (10) When using gas for heating water, be sure tank is full before turning on gas. (11) Have motors serviced periodically by post engineer. 175. EXHAUST FAN. a. Description. The exhaust fan is part of the ventilating system. It draws cooking odors and smoke through a vent to the outside of the kitchen. b. Operation. Turn on when cooking. c. Cleaning. (1) Weekly, clean the hood with hot, soapy water. (2) Once a week, turn the switch off and clean the vent. (3) Dust thoroughly every week. d. Care and Maintenance. The post engineer should be called when the fan needs repair. It is dangerous for mess personnel to attempt any minor repairs. The ventilating system is a very great fire hazard if grease is allowed to collect in it. Keep it clean. 176. GREASE TRAP. a. Description. A grease trap is a porcelain or cast iron box containing baffles to trap grease. Grease traps are attached to the drain of pot washing and prewashing sinks to prevent clogging of plumbing by trapping grease and food particles before they reach sewer pipes. The top is removable to allow the skimming of trapped grease and the cleaning of baffle plates. b. Operation. Automatic. C. Cleaning. (1) Check daily to make sure grease is not escaping into sewer. The entire purpose of the trap will be defeated unless the baffles when removed are replaced in their proper position. (2) Remove cover and scrub thoroughly once a week with hot, soapy water. (3) Every other day skim grease and place in salvage container. (4) Remove and scrub baffles with hot, soapy water as often as necessary. d. Care and Maintenance. The outlet orifice should be inspected occasionally for partial closure. If the clean-out plug is removed, replace it by hand, never use a wrench. Figure 68. Toaster. 125 177. TOASTERS, a. Description. A toaster is a machine either electrically or gas heated for toasting bread. It is equipped with a motor driven conveyor. The oven heat is controlled by a thermostat. The sliced bread is placed on the conveyor, carried through the toasting zone and is dropped from the conveyor when toasted. b. Operation. Set thermostat to desired degree of heat, light oven, turn on conveyor switch and place bread on conveyor rack. c. Cleaning. (1) Use a small brush to remove crumbs from toaster. (2) ’Wipe off daily with a damp cloth. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Turn off heat when toaster is not in use. (2) Do not turn heat up or down by hand if heat is controlled by a thermostat. (3) Do not use knife, fork or other metal object to dislodge jammed toast. (4) Disconnect electric plug before working on conveyor or other parts. If conveyor becomes jammed, free it with cardboard or other pliable material to prevent damage to toaster. (5) Have toaster checked periodically by post engineer. 178. FRYERS, a. Description. Deep fat fryers, consist of a deep vessel for holding the melted fat, a wire basket, or baskets depending on size, gas or electric heating units, automatic heat controls, splash back. It is mounted on legs or in a Figure 69. Fryer. cabinet. The bottom of the vessel slopes to center and is equipped with drain valve. Heating units are tubular immersion or insertable steel type which run from front to back of vessel about an inch or two above drain thus providing a “cool” zone. b. Operation. Fill vessel so that fat is up to proper level; turn thermostat to temperature desired and allow about 10 minutes for preheating. Do not turn to highest point when preheating. Heating elements should not be turned on until they are covered with fat or liquid. Turn off thermostat about 10 minutes before fat is drained from fry kettle. C. Cleaning. (1) Once a day drain fat and loosen crumbs by pressing blade of spatula along sides and bottom. (2) With types that have a drain at the bottom, open valve and remove crumbs from valve seat with stiff wire, bent L-shaped at one end. Types with drain in front may be cleaned by unscrewing handle of valve until it comes completely out. Watch for film of fat deposited on sides and tubes and remove this daily. (3) Clean fryer thoroughly. Strain fat. Use a grease filter if it is an authorized item of issue, otherwise use a cloth. (4) Once a week boil out kettle with caustic or cleaning compound for about 25 minutes. Let stand over night if possible. Drain and refill with water, boil and drain again. Add 1 to 2 ounces of vinegar to final cold rinse. Wipe dry. (5) Remove any black carbon stain left after cleaning by a suitable abrasive. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) “Cool” zone below heating units prevents scorching of loose food particles which fall to the bottom. (2) Turning thermostat to highest position when preheating does not increase speed but definitely decreases life of fat. Frying range is generally between 350° and 375° F. (3) Have fryer inspected periodically by post engineers. 179. RANGE NO. 5. a. Description. The outside of the range is made of open hearth range steel. The entire exterior including bottom of range body and metal is painted with black baking japan. It is fired through the fire door and may be fired with coal or wood. There are eight eyes on the cooking surface of the range. It is equipped with a bake oven and a warming chamber directly below the bake oven. 126 SHELF PANELS OVEN DOOR VENTILATOR REGISTER COVER EYE OR LID WARMING . OVEN DOOR CLEAN OUT DOOR OVEN DOOR CATCH FIRE DOOR ASH PAN FLUE SCRAPER POKFR DRAFT DOOR REGISTER DIRECT DRAFT CONTROL SHAKER AND RANGE COVER LIFTER GRATE LOCKING KEY Figure 70. Army field range No. 5. ARMY RANGE ojl NS 5 ||o CHIMNEY PIPE b. Operation. Open draft-door register in the draft door in front of the range, open the direct-draft damper at end of range. See that ventilator register directly below mantel is closed. The flue damper should be open. Fill the hot water system before starting fire. Start the fire by laying crumpled paper on the grate and add enough dry kindling to hold the fire for several minutes. Then open the draft door register, the direct draft damper, and the flue stopper, and close the ventilator register. Ignite the paper and replace the range panels and covers. When the wood is ignited and holding fire, about one small shovelful of coal should be added. After this coal has ignited, more coal should be added to build up the fire. When fire burns briskly, close the direct-draft damper at the end of range and leave it closed; this damper is opened only when starting the fire. If it is left opened, heat will not circulate around the oven. The fire bed should be maintained at 45 ° angle sloping downward towards the front of the fire box. Hot coals should be kept 2 or 3 inches below the top of the fire bricks. Small amounts of coal should be fed to the range at one time and should be added frequently. Fuel should be added only through the fire door. This method of firing produces an efficient fire bed and lengthens the life of fire bricks, grates and top plates. Smoke and soot are eliminated from the range top and from the bottom and sides of cooking utensils. Never fire through the eyes. c. Care and Maintenance. (1) Point grates down for coal and up for wood. (2) After each firing remove ashes and clinkers from grate. Unburned coal in ashes means poor firing. (3) Twice each week inspect fire box lining. If fire bricks need replacement, call post engineer. (4) A warped top indicates improper firing. Eyes should be rotated daily to prevent warping. (5) Clean daily. Remove eyes and top to scrape out ashes, dirt and soot. (6) Uneven heat usually means improper firing. (7) Clean away food as soon as spilled. (8) Wash exterior when cool with hot, soapy water. Then rub the range with a greased rag then wipe off excess grease with a dry rag. Grease containing salt should not be used. (9) Do not stand with your head over the range top or door when starting fire. (10) Do not try to start fire by throwing burning waste paper into vapor-filled fire box. This practice is dangerous. 127 Figure 71. Oil burning range. Figure 72. Gas range with attachment. (11) Do not attempt to burn rubbish. Never allow ashes to accumulate and come in contact with the grates as this will cause grates to warp and sag. (12) Never place heavy objects on the oven doors. The weight will warp the door allowing heat to escape. 180. OIL BURNER ATTACHMENT, a. Description. An oil burner attached to the No. 5 range is a unit installed on the right front panel which converts the range from a coal to oil burner. It is a permanent attachment. The fire box is equipped with a special lining to reflect the heat. The unit consists of a pump to draw oil from a storage tank outside the mess hall, an ignition system which ignites the oil when it is forced through the spray nozzle. This same type of unit may be attached to bake ovens. An oil burner range is more efficient than the converted coal range. b. Operation. (1) Manual lighting. Open the valve in the oil line, start motor by turning on switch, ignite a good sized piece of paper or use a kerosene torch, next turn on oil regulation valve to proper fuel burning ratio for the cooking temperature desired. Adjust the flame for red orange color. (2) Automatic lighting. Turn on switch. c. Cleaning. (1) Clean spray nozzle of all soot accumulation at regular intervals. (2) If oil leaks occur, if fire box smokes, or if faulty mechanism occurs, call post engineer. d. Care and Maintenance. Oil burners generally require little maintenance provided the proper fuel and the proper mixture of oil and air is obtained. 181. GAS RANGE, a. Description. There are three types of gas ranges—open top, griddle top, and closed top. Ranges are heated by two types of gas burner—the luminous flame burner and the more widely used blue flame or Bunsen burner. Each burner has a separate control gas cock. When the gas cock is opened the pressure of the gas forces it through an orifice into the mixing tube, creates a suction, and draws air through the front opening. This mixture is then forced through the small holes or ports in the burner. b. Operation. When the range is not equipped with a pilot light, hold a burning match with one hand over the burner while with the other hand, slowly open the control or gas cock until the burner is ignited. c. Cleaning. (1) If food is spilled in burner, remove the burner, clean in hot, soapy water. Air dry. (2) Inspect air intake for clogging or burning with yellow flame. If it cannot be readily cleaned, call the post engineer. 128 d. Ignition. If the gas does not ignite at the instant it is turned on, it is because the mixing tube and burner are full of air. The pressure of the gas should force the air through the tube. The burner will then ignite. This delay is particularly noticeable if the burners have long mixing tubes. 182. OVENS, a. Description. The two types of bake ovens are cabinet and sectional. (1) A cabinet oven is a series of baking compartments placed one above the other with a coal, gas or oil heating unit in bottom of the cabinet. (2) A sectional oven is complete in itself with gas or electric heating units. Oven sections may be placed one above the other—cabinet style. (3) Broiler and roasting oven consists of a roasting oven, and a broiler oven with grease pan and adjustable 2-piece sliding grid, gas or electric heating unit and automatic controls. The roasting oven is located above broiler oven—cabinet style. (4) Roasting oven consists of an oven, oven shelves, gas or electric heating unit and automatic control. Oven sections can be placed one above the other as bake ovens. Roasting ovens are approximately 6 inches higher inside than bake ovens. b. Operation. (1) Preheat oven to desired temperature. Set automatic controls (if gas or electric). (2) Inspect dampers if using coal or oil and watch thermometer for proper temperature. c. Cleaning. (1) Remove boil-overs and spillovers before material has time to carbonize. (2) Wipe interior with damp cloth daily, when oven is cool. Scrape bottom if necessary. Never throw water on oven decks to cool them. Swab with damp cloth. (3) Wipe the exterior daily with damp cloth. (4) After each using remove grid, wash thoroughly, rinse and air dry. (5) After each using, empty broiler grease pan, wash, rinse and air dry. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Learn exact time required to preheat. (2) Schedule roasting and baking to take full advantages of “receding” heat. Bake first, then roast meats. (3) If possible, plan baking so that oven is not brought to full heat more than twice a day. (4) Have ovens checked periodically by post engineer. 183. GRIDDLES, a. Description. Griddles are made of cast metal. They are equipped with handles. The electric or gas heated griddle has a three or four sided gutter which drains to a grease container. Figure 73. Bake oven. Figure 74- Roasting and baking oven. 129 Figure 75. Griddle. b. Operation. (1) The griddle used on the No. 5 range is placed over the eyes of the range and is heated by contact with the stove. The electric or gas griddle must be preheated gradually before using. (2) Always turn off heat on electric or gas griddles, when not in use. C. Cleaning. (1) When encrusted matter is found on surface, scrape off with a dough scraper. (2) Wipe greasy surface with heavy, grease absorbent cloth. (3) Wipe body and legs with damp cloth after each using. (4) After each using remove grease container, empty contents into fat container. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Do not overheat. (2) Do not allow grease receptacle to overflow. 184. PRESSURE COOKER, a. Description. Vegetable steamers or pressure cookers are specially made devices principally employed for cooking vegetables. The steamer consists of an insulated body equipped with shelves to hold several perforated baskets in which the food is placed. Tight fitting doors retain pressure and prevent the escape of cooking odors. b. Operation. Insert perforated basket into compartment. Close door. In most cookers the steam pressure automatically goes on when the door is sealed. Opening the door shuts off the pressure. To remove vegetables from the cooker, open the door slowly in order to allow the pressure to escape gradually. c. Cleaning. Clean the interior and exterior with hot, soapy water after each using. d. Care and Maintenance. Vegetable steamers should be inspected periodically by the post engineer. 185. STEAM JACKETED KETTLE, a. Description. In a steam jacketed kettle, the steam circulates between an inner and outer shell or jacket. A full jacketed kettle has a steam shell the same height as the kettle, while the other type has a shell running % the height of the kettle. A vent collar is fitted to stationary portion of the cover. Safety valves are set at proper operating pressure to insure safety of operation. Pressure per square inch is registered on pressure gauge. A removable strainer in bottom of kettle prevents particles of food from draining into draw-off pipe. This kettle is stationary and supported by three stationary steel legs. Sizes are determined by number of gallons capacity— 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100. b. Operation. Place required amount of food in the kettle. Turn on steam. Operate on correct pressure. When food is cooked, remove. Turn off steam. Open valves at steam outlet and drain. With the diversified proportions of water in different vegetables and the varying weights per No. 56 dipper, it can be readily understood that no one rule can be applied for the reconstitution of all dehydrated vegetables. The table should be consulted for proper amount of water for each reconstitution. C. Cleaning. (1) After each using, remove carefully the clogged strainer, empty, wash and rinse thoroughly. Air dry. (2) After each using wash the interior of kettle well with soap and water, dry thoroughly, heat empty kettle for five or ten minutes with covers Figure 76. Pressure cooker. 130 Table XXXVI. Weight of several dehydrated vegetables by No. 56 dippers Dehydrated product Approximate weight per No. 56 Dipper Pounds Ounces Beets 0 14 Cabbage 0 4 Carrots. 1 0 Onions 0 10 Potatoes, white 0 11 Potatoes, white, precooked 0 10 shreds. Potatoes, sweet 0 12 Turnips 0 10 down, dry thoroughly. Use soap and a stiff brush if spots appear on cover or kettle wall. (3) After each using, wipe exterior of kettle wall and legs, with damp cloth. (4) After each using, remove any food particles from draw-off pipe and valves with a rod that has a flexible wire brush. (5) Remove and clean valve if possible. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Leave cover open when not in use. (2) Inspect steam pressure and see that there are no steam leaks in the fittings, piping and valves. (3) Lift safety valve regularly in order to make certain that the disk is not sticking to its seat. 186. MIXER, a. Description. Mixer consists of a one piece casting frame with a three or four speed inclosed electric motor, a bowl, bowl holder and various attachments. Bowls are usually made of tinned steel and have handles and lugs. Each mixer has a bowl holder of two metal arms that extend outward from the frame and upon which the bowl rests. The bowl holder can be raised or lowered easily and gradually by means of a hand operated lever. A list of attachments include: wire whip, dough arm, heavy beater, meat and food chopper, vegetable and fruit slicer, coffee and spice grinder, juice extractor, poppy seed grinder. b. Operation. Place bowl on holder and lock in position, put correct attachment in hub, put ingredients in bowl, raise bowl to correct level, select speed and start motor. When shifting to different speeds use care to avoid slipping gears. When through, turn off motor, lower bowl. c. Cleaning. (1) After each using, remove bowl and attachments, wash in soap and water, rinse thoroughly and air dry. (2) After each using, wipe off exterior of unit with damp cloth. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Mixers can operate at capacity continuously for one hour without overheating or damaging mixer. (2) Do not overload or overheat motor. (3) Mixing bowl is either turned upside down or covered with a cloth when not in use. (4) Avoid excess lubrication but see that all parts are properly lubricated. (5) Certain bowls are interchangeable and it may prove convenient to have several. (6) Raise and lower bowl holder gradually. Never spin handwheel rapidly. Don’t allow bowls to become dented. (7) Do not drop bowls on floor. 187. MEAT GRINDER, a. Description. Each meat grinder consists of a metal body with a hopper. A feed worm is provided within the body, which, when rotated, will force meat fed into the hopper against the blades of a knife. The blades rotate against a perforated end plate. The small grinder has a capacity of approximately eight pounds of meat per minute. Twenty pounds per minute is the approximate capacity of the medium mixer. The large size has a capacity of 50 pounds per minute. Each grinder is run by a motor which is mounted on the grinder and has a readily accessible manually operated controller. Various kinds of knives or attachments can be used. Figure 77. Steam jacketed kettle. 131 b. Operation. Always put a drop of oil in the oil cup at the hub before starting motor. Turn on motor. Drop strips of meat into hopper using stomper to force meat into worm. Never try to force meat into the hopper with your fingers. c. Cleaning. (1) After each grinding job, wash all parts in warm, not boiling, soapy water. Rinse thoroughly and air dry. Be sure to remove dirt and grease in hopper, plate, feed worm and/or knives. (2) After each grinding job, wipe all stationary parts with damp cloth. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Keep hands away from hopper as much as possible. (2) Better results are obtained if meat is cut into strips instead of squares or cubes. (3) Never let parts stand in boiling water as it is injurious to their plating. 188. MEAT SLICER, a. Description. A meat slicer is a machine used for slicing raw, cooked, and prepared meat and other food items. It is either electrically or manually operated. On mechanical feed slicers, the meat is placed on a platform and then pushed towards the slicing knife by hand or by pusher plate. On gravity type meat slicers the meat is placed in a V-shaped holder and fed to the cutting knife by gravity. The slicing is accomplished by the second action of the platform or V-shaped holder moving from front to rear passing the revolving blade. A tray receives the cut meat. Figure 78. Mixer. b. Operation. Place the product to be cut on the platform or in the chute of the gravity type slicer. Set gauge for desired thickness of slices. Turn on motor or crank flywheel and start slicing. End cuts should not be fed by hand, use the feed grip. c. Cleaning. (1) After each using, if electrically operated, disconnect plug, remove all parts and wash them with damp cloth and mild soap. (2) Area around slicer must be kept clean. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) All guards should be in proper repair to protect the operator from the blade and other moving parts. (2) Do not allow water to come in contact with motor. Keep electric cord dry and free from grease. (3) Keep blade sharp. Remove all grease from blade before sharpening. (4) Keep slide rods oiled with a mineral oil. 189. MEAT SAW. a. Description. The electric meat saw is designed to cut both carcass and frozen boneless meat. Carcass meat may be cut into sizes convenient for boning as well as cut into final cooking sizes as chops, roast, etc. b. Operation. Turn on motor. Place the meat on the table against the guide and feed it past the saw blade until the cutting has been completed. c. Cleaning. After each using clean with damp cloth and mild soap. d. Care and maintenance. Operators of this equipment should use all safety devices. Carelessness may result in the loss of a finger, hand, or arm. 190. POTATO PEELER, a. Description. Potato peeler consists of a hopper, disk, peel trap, and motor. The smallest size, 15 pound capacity, is Figure 79. Meat grinder. 132 table mounted while the other two sizes, 25 pound and 45 pound, are pedestal mounted. The hopper is round in shape and has a funnel shaped top opening to permit dumping vegetables without spilling. Entire inner surface is covered with an abrasive substance. Outlet for removal of vegetables has hinged door with locking device and chute for discharging vegetables. Potatoes are peeled by the action of a revolving abrasive disk. Peel traps are either built-in or portable. The strainer in peel traps collects sediment and peelings. b. Operation. Start motor. Close outlet doors and lock before pouring in vegetables. Turn on water. Open outlet door to discharge vegetables when peeling is completed. If peel trap is not provided, place a pail under drain plug and draw off peeling refuse from time to time. Replace plug after each emptying. If removable strainer is used, remove and empty waste. Empty peel traps after every three or four charges. c. Cleaning. (1) After each using, wash and rinse disk. Dash hot water into peeler until no sediment or peelings drain through outlet pipe. (2) After each using wipe all exterior surfaces with damp cloth. (3) After each using empty peel trap and rinse thoroughly. Wash and rinse strainer. d. Care and Maintenance. (1) Watch for stones when pouring vegetables into hopper. (2) Running water cleans vegetables as they are being peeled and helps to prevent the sewer from Figure 81. Meat saw. becoming clogged. (3) Peeler must be level for proper results. (4) If the revolving disk becomes smooth call the post engineer to change the wiring in order to renew the cutting surface. Figure 82. Potato peeler. Figure 80. Meat slicer. 133 CHAPTER 9 RATIONS 191. DEFINITION OF RATION. A ration is the allowance of food for the subsistence of one person for 1 day. The following kinds of rations are provided for the Army: a. Garrison ration. b. Field rations c. Troop train ration 192. GARRISON RATION. The garrison ration is prescribed in time of peace for all persons entitled to a ration, except under specific conditions for which other rations are prescribed. In time of war or national emergency the garrison ration may be prescribed for hospitals and other units as directed by the War Department from time to time or under special circumstances. (a) The garrison ration is issued as a money allowance and not as a quantity of food for a given day or meal. A company, battery, troop or similar unit authorized to subsist on the garrison ration is credited with the value of the ration for each man messing with the unit. The mess officer of the unit makes his own menu and purchases from the sales officer (commissary) such foods as he deems necessary to feed the men of his unit. For example: The ration strength of the unit on the 1st of July is 200 men and the value of the garrison ration for that month is 8 .50. Therefore, the unit will receive a cash credit of 200 multiplied by 8 .50, or 8100.00 for that day. If the ration strength of the unit remains the same throughout the month of July, the unit will have a credit of 83,100 for the month. It is found in this way: 200 (number of men each day) multiplied by 31 (number of days in July) = 6200 6200 multiplied by 8 .50 (value of ration for July) =83,100. The 83,100 is called the “Ration Credit” for July. During that month the company may purchase 83,100 worth of food from the sales officer. If this amount is not spent, the balance will be paid to the unit in cash and the unit will keep it as “Ration Savings.” The ration savings may be spent at a later date for the purchase of food. If the unit in this example purchases food during July that costs more than 83,100, the difference is paid out of the ration savings from earlier months. For convenience, ration accounts are settled monthly. (b) To control and establish the value of the garrison ration, or the money allowance, given to the unit to feed the men, the War Department has published in AR 30-2210 a list of foods, known as the components of the garrison ration. The cost of this list of foods is figured monthly, and this cost is the value of the garrison ration, or the money allowance, given to the unit for the purchase of foods. This list of foods, common everyday food items, serves as a measure of the cost of feeding. When the market value of these items rises, the value of the garrison ration goes up; when the market value goes down, the value of the garrison ration goes down. The items are not issued to the mess; they are used only to determine the value of the garrison ration. 193. FIELD RATIONS, a. Field Ration. The field ration is prescribed for use only in time of war, national emergency, or for training purposes when the garrison ration is not used. It will be issued in kind. That is, a menu is compiled and the food items required to feed men from this menu are issued by the quartermaster through the ration breakdown officer to the company, troop, or battery. There is no money credit established for the unit as in the case of the garrison ration. The cost of the field ration is controlled by regulations and the unit is not burdened with the tasks of making menus, requisitioning foods or maintaining accounts. The components, food items issued, and their substitutes are prescribed in the menus prepared by the War Department or the commander of the field forces. b. Field Ration “A” and “B.” (1) Field Ration “A” will consist of fresh and processed foods and will be issued as often as the circumstances permit. The issue of the field ration “A” is based on the master menu. In the preparation of this menu, forecasts of market conditions, availability of subsistence items, and troop preferences are considered. This menu is then adjusted to meet local market conditions. 134 (2) Field Ration “B” will correspond as practicable to field ration “A” with the exception that nonperishable processed or canned products will replace perishable items. The issue of field ration “B” is based on the expeditionary forces menu. Theater commanders frequently change field ration “B” by substituting fresh items for canned and processed components. This modification is dependent upon the availability of refrigeration shipping, storage space, and local supplies. Troops stationed in food producing areas outside of the United States are often supplied with a modified field ration “B”. Every effort is directed toward providing the Armed Forces with the best food available under prevailing circumstances. c. Emergency Rations. (1) In addition to the regular field ration, whether perishable or nonperishable, there has always existed in war a need for one or more special types of rations for troops temporarily cut off from their normal source of supply and under conditions of combat. The tremendously increased mobility of modern warfare, with its tactics of penetration, encirclement, and infiltration, has made the satisfactory solution of the problem of special rations a matter of prime importance. (2) Special rations must meet certain standards and requirements. Although standards are set, it must be borne in mind that special rations are not intended for use over long periods of time. Among the factors to consider for a satisfactory ration are: 1. Taste. 2. Nutritional value. 3. Stability under severe conditions of transportation and storage. 4- Size and weight. 5. Ease of preparation in the field. 6. Availability. (3) Normally, emergency rations are issued to the soldiers for their own preparation and use. However, under extreme circumstances it may be desirable for these rations to be prepared as meals in the unit kitchen. In this event the utmost skill and initiative must be utilized. The recipes in TM 10-412, Army Recipes, will be helpful. 194. TROOP TRAIN RATION. The troop train ration is issued to detachments or larger units of enlisted men directed to travel on trains provided with kitchen car facilities. The troop train rations are issued in kind (that is, the actual food is issued), based on an allowance of one ration per man per day, plus an additional allowance of a special non-perishable ration to provide subsistence for unfor-seen delays en route. The allowance of the special ration is one-third ration per man for each day’s travel time up to 3 days. The maximum issue of the nonperishable ration, therefore, is one full ration per man regardless of the number of days planned for the journey. The components of both the regular and the special troop train rations are prescribed by The Quartermaster General. The cost of the ration is established by the War Department. Seven menus are furnished for use with the troop train rations. Any nonperishable items that are not consumed during the troop train movement are turned in at destination for reissue. 135 CHAPTER 10 CONSERVATION OF FATS 195. WHY SAVE FATS. Fat should be conserved because of its essential use in cooking for frying, baking, and browning and because all fat saved in the kitchen releases other fats for making glycerine for munitions in wartime. For cooking save fat from uncooked meat of beef, lamb, veal, fresh pork and smoked hams. Fat drippings from bacon and ham, roast drippings from beef, lamb, pork and veal, steak and chops are also suitable for cooking use. For salvage fat, save grease from stock pot, sausage drippings, frying fat no longer suitable for cooking, fat-trimmings and trap grease. 196. RENDERING FAT. It is necessary that only fresh fat be used for rendering. It should be rendered daily but if it must be kept overnight it must be stored in large pieces in the refrigerator. Ground fat and small pieces of fat are highly perishable and should be rendered promptly. To prepare for rendering, remove all lean meat, tough membranes, bones, cartilages, blood, and dirt. Only sweet fat is suitable for rendering. Cut into strips as strips feed more easily through the grinder. Do not cut until ready to use. Then grind through coarse plate. Ground fat will render more quickly, more uniformly and provide 10 to 15 percent more rendered fat. Small quantities of fat should be rendered on top of any range. For large quantities of fat it is best to render in steam kettle with lid off and steam valve wide open. Fat may be rendered in roast pan on top rack while food is being prepared in cook pot on bottom rack in the Ml937 field range. 197. HOW TO RENDER FAT. Place fat loosely in container. Do not pack as loose fat renders more quickly. Beef, lamb, pork and veal fat may be rendered separately or together in any proportions available. Avoid hot spots on stove where fat would be likely to scorch. Low temperature, not over 250° F. provides a high-quality rendered fat. Stirring while cooking prevents fat from sticking, shortens time required for rendering and assures a higher quality product. When completely rendered, the cracklings (which are a crisp residue that rises to the surface) have separated, are a mixture of grayish white and light brown and will gradually sink to the bottom. Do not overcook as this will impair the flavor and lower the smoking point of the rendered fat. Pour off immediately after using. The rendered fat may take a roast meat flavor if allowed to remain with the cracklings too long after rendering. Strain the fat through a cloth in a colander over broiler. Press crackling to remove fat. When two or more kinds of fat are poured into the same container, they should be mixed thoroughly. Allow fat to cool at room temperature in boiler or other clean container. Stir rendered fat a few times while hardening to improve its texture. If there is water in the fat it will settle to the bottom. The straight fat can then be removed. Be careful to avoid accidents and painful burns when handling hot fat. Cover fat to keep out light and air. Store in a cool place. Fat can be kept for short periods at room temperature below 75° F., but for long periods it must be kept in refrigerator. Use kitchen rendered fat as soon as possible to prevent accumulation of old stock. Keep salvage fat separate from kitchen rendered fat. Do not add water. Put in proper container to insure delivery. 198. ADDITIONAL AIDS IN RENDERING FAT. Prime the rendering container with a little water to prevent fat from sticking or burning. A few whole peeled white potatoes placed in the container during rendering will help to remove impurities. Each batch of fat to be rendered should be heated separately. After rendered fat has cooled to room temperature, whip-up fat in a mixer, with the bowl two-thirds full. Continue the mixing process until the product is white, clear and fluffy. Then put it in ration pans and stow it in the refrigerator. 199. SOAP MAKING, a. Boiled Hard Soap. Dissolve 1 pound of soda lye (sodium hydroxide, ordinary issue lye) in 2 quarts of water. In another container (5-gallon capacity) melt 5 pounds of clean fat or tallow, scraps or drippings, in 2 gallons of water. As soon as all the fat is melted add about one quarter pint of the dissolved lye. Boil I over a slow fire. Add water to replace that boiled ■ 136 away. Add another % pint of lye as before and continue boiling and adding lye and water in the same manner until the lye is consumed. Experience will tell a person the right consistency by feeling it between the fingers. The liquid will then become like honey in consistency and will be transparent as it drops from a spoon. Add about y2 pound of salt. Boil until the soap separates from the lye water, has lost its honeylike appearance, and drops off a spoon or wooden paddle like greasy water. A small quantity pressed between the thumb and first finger will not feel greasy but will flatten into thin scales if the soap is finished. Simmer about ten minutes and the process is complete. When soap is ready for pouring, it should be of the consistency of softened jelly. It will not pour like a liquid nor will it stay in the pot. Skim off the soap which floats on the surface, place in a suitable mold or molds, and set aside to harden. b. Soft Soap. Use 1 quart of the soap made according to the above formula but not hardened. Boil in a large kettle with four gallons of water until clear and uniform in appearance. Cool. c. Inspection of Soap. (1) Cut a piece of soap in two and touch the tongue to the fresh surface. (a) If the soap is very sharp to the taste, not enough grease has been used. (6) If the soap feels very greasy, too much grease has been used. (c) If the soap tastes sharp and also feels greasy, it has not been mixed or boiled properly. (2) A soap that is sharp to the taste and makes a good lather is much preferred for scrubbing purposes. d. Harden Soap with Steam. If the hard soap in process of setting is slightly soft and it appears that it will not harden, this difficulty may be overcome by attaching a short piece of rubber hose to the spout of an ordinary teakettle and placing the other end of the hose in the bottom of the soap kettle, thus introducing steam. In this way, heat is obtained by using wet steam instead of the heat being applied to the bottom of the kettle. Available steam may also be drawn from boilers in lieu of the kettle method. A drier mixture and a harder soap result. 137 CHAPTER II DEHYDRATED FOODS Section I. Importance and Preparation 200. GENERAL, a. Dehydrated Foods are fresh foods scientifically preserved under precisely controlled methods of drying. All inedible portions are removed. The finished product is powdered, or subdivided into slices, cubes, strips, flakes, shreds or other forms. By dehydration, the preponderance of water in fresh foods is reduced to an extremely low content. Present-day dehydrated foods retain much of the natural flavor, color and texture of the fresh food. b. Nutritive Value. As a result of the principles of manufacture and exacting procurement specifications, the dehydrated vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs, and other dehydrated products used by the Army retain most of their nutritive value. If stored for long periods, appreciable amounts of certain of the vitamins will be lost, especially if the temperature exceeds 68° F. The actual length of time depends upon the particular food, its processing and moisture content. Further vitamin loss can occur during the cooking procedure in the same Figure 83. Savings by the use of dehydrated foods. manner that fresh foods lose vitamins. Maximum vitamin retention is obtained when best cooking procedures are followed as: (1) By cooking in a minimum amount of water. (2) By completely utilizing cooking liquids. (3) By preventing a long holding period following cooking. C. Advantages. (1) Weight and bulk reduced. Marked reductions in weight and bulk are accomplished by dehydration of fresh foods. (2) Preparation time lessened. Dehydrated foods need no washing, peeling or other preliminary treatment. The only preparation required is a soaking and cooking period, and in some formulas, the soaking and cooking are combined. This saving in time can release many men from KP assignments for other duties. (3) Keeping qualities. If held in airtight and insect-proof containers and stored at moderate temperatures, dehydrated foods will keep for extended periods of time. Many foods will keep up to 2 years. Dehydrated foods remain in a state of preservation primarily because of their low moisture content. The micro-organisms responsible for spoilage (yeast, molds and bacteria) commonly present in foods are unable to carry on their usual activities when the water residue is sufficiently low. Some of these organisms are killed by the dehydrating processes, but the others remain dormant in the dehydrated foods, only to renew their activities at a later time when water is restored. (4) Convenience in storing. Foods must be stored. Food preserved by dehydration has an advantage over other preserved foods because it can be stored in a minimum of space. (5) Reduced shipping weight. The final shipping weight of a dehydrated food is only a fraction of that of the original article. This is of particular advantage during periods of war, when shipping tonnage and space must be conserved. (6) Elimination of food loss variation. Everyone who has prepared fresh foods for cooking knows that peeling, trimming and spoilage losses are exceedingly 138 BrTsHtZlN RAW STATe| H IN DEHYDRATED STATE SPACE WEIGHT TIME LABOR variable. Size irregularities alone make tremendous differences in the yield of the final product. The trimming, peeling and spoilage losses are often abnormally high and relatively unpredictable of small apples, potatoes and eggs. Dehydrated foods do not cause such difficulties because the manufacturer has accounted for peeling, trimming and spoilage losses. (7) Other advantages. Some other advantages of dehydrated foods are: (a) No refrigeration required for practically all items. (5) No protection needed against freezing. (c) May be used as needed. (d) Minimum of critical metals required for packaging. (e) Handling of waste eliminated. 201. RECONSTITUTION OF DEHYDRATED FOODS, a. General. All methods of reconstitution should be designed to secure the maximum soakage of moisture within a necessarily limited length of time. Several methods of reconstitution of dehydrated foods are as follows: (1) Soaking the dehydrated product in cool water, as with vegetables. (2) Making a paste with a portion of the cool water and all the product, gradually adding the remaining water, as with eggs. (3) Sprinkling the product on the surface of water and reconstituting by vigorous whipping, as with milk. (4) Mixing boiling water with the product, as with precooked potato shreds. (5) Combining the product and water and cooking without a preliminary soaking period, as with cfanberry sauce. (6) Combining several dehydrated products, with or without a preliminary soaking period, and cooking, as with vegetable soup (made with dehydrated vegetables and beef shank). b. Program of Reconstitution. (1) Water and product. Before reconstituting any dehydrated product, measurement of the water and the product must be made very accurately. All measurements should be level. Guesswork as to measures or weight, results in mistakes and waste. An insufficient quantity of water will not permit the product to absorb the maximum amount of moisture, and the finished product will be of poor texture. Too much water will result in a loss of nutritive value through the necessity of pouring off the surplus water. Large quantities of surplus water should not be used when reconstituting dehydrated foods. For proper reconstitution, only a small amount is necessary. A little surplus water has the advantage of protecting against scorching during the simmer-ing-to-a boil process. Keep the surplus water to a minimum. A good rule to follow is “Keep the water at a minimum but never skimp.” The water should be either cool or normal room temperature. Hot water should never be used unless so stipulated in a specific recipe. Attempts to force reconstitution by the use of boiling water generally results in an unsatisfactory product. (2) Soaking step. A soaking period of 20 to 45 minutes at room temperature is the approximate range for most dehydrated foods. Vegetables should be soaked for such limited periods of time as will cause the product to swell and reach the desired degree of moisture absorption. In those rare circumstances when conditions are of such urgency that a soaking period presents a serious time problem, the soaking step may be eliminated. In this case, the water with the product should be put on a slow heat and allowance made for a somewhat longer cooking time. After the addition of water it is important to handle dehydrated foods rapidly. Prolonged cookings should be avoided. The practice may result in off flavors, and in some instances complete spoilage is possible. Do not soak overnight. (3) Simmering. After the soaking time, the product should be brought slowly to a boil. Strong-flavored vegetables such as cabbage, turnips and rutabagas should be cooked without a cover; others, in a covered vessel. If the time factor is controlled so that when cooking a 100-portion recipe, 35 to 45 minutes will elapse before the boiling point is reached, maximum water absorption will be effected. Smaller portions require less time. After products requiring cooking in water have reached the boiling point, they should then be slowly simmered until they become soft and tender. Most vegetables become tender when simmered ten to fifteen minutes after being brought to a boil. Sweet potatoes, however, require 45 to 50 minutes simmering to reach a tender and moist stage. Vigorous boiling is not recommended at any time. If a dehydrated product is overcooked, it will become mushy and disintegrate into the water. This is especially apt to happen when it is boiled vigorously or too long, because dehydrated materials are already cut into the small sizes in which they are to be finally used. The cooking of dehydrated foods may be handled satisfactory inside the Army Field Range. A temperature of 180° to 210° F., or just below the boiling point is required. 139 202. FINISHED PRODUCT, a. Testing with Fork. The finished reconstituted product should be tested for tenderness by cutting with a fork. If the product is firm and rubbery, additional simmering is required. When it becomes tender and moist, a satisfactory reconstitution has been accomplished. The food must be completely reconstituted and cooked before it is used as an ingredient of other dishes, as in the example of potatoes for use in potato salad. b. Use of Left-over Water. Use left-over water after reconstitution; it contains valuable nutrients in the form of water-soluble mineral salts and vitamins, which would be lost if the water should be discarded. The small surplus should be concentrated during the cooking so that it can be served as a natural juice such as would accompany cooked fresh vegetables under normal circumstances. Any surplus can be drained from vegetables and used as stock in the preparation of soups, gravies, meat loaves, and croquettes, or as the water ingredient for other cooked foods. Surplus water from potatoes can be used to reconstitute the milk for whipping mashed potatoes. Do not discard vegetable juices. However, avoid holding them overnight as souring may result. c. Reconstitution of Precooked Dehydrated Foods. (1) Difference in procedure. Some dehydrated foods are completely cooked before dehydration. These are called “precooked” dehydrated foods. The method of reconstitution for this class of dehydrated materials is different from that for a food that has not been cooked before dehydration. An example is potatoes. A julienne-style potato has been blanched and then dehydrated. This product is soaked in cold water, simmered slowly to a boil and then simmered until tender. Precooked potato shreds, however, are precooked and do not require all of this procedure. It is only necessary to add boiling water to the potato shreds, cover, let stand over slow heat for 10 to 15 minutes and then whip with hot, reconstituted milk and melted butter until all lumps have been removed. (2) Other precooked products. Other precooked products are dehydrated precooked corned-beef hash and dehydrated precooked soups. The method of reconstitution differs with each of these articles. Therefore, general rules will not apply. Specific instructions are necessary for each product. Packages for the Army carry printed directions on the containers. (3) Dehydrated foods not precooked that require no cooking. There are other dehydrated foods that cannot be classified as precooked products, but, nevertheless, require no cooking. These products are usually in the form of powders or flakes. Dehydrated milk and dehydrated cabbage used for cole slaw are examples. These items are reconstituted with a designated quantity of cold water and may then be used as the fresh food in cooking. SECTION II. DEHYDRATED ECGS AND MILK 203. DEHYDRATED WHOLE EGGS. a. General. Whole eggs in dried form for the armed forces are high-quality, carefully inspected and dehydrated under the most exacting standards. “Dried” and “powdered” are two terms for dehydrated eggs, and they mean the same. Cans of dried whole egg powder are hermetically sealed, gas-packed and under a partial vacuum. b. Advantages. Dried whole eggs are exported without refrigeration or special handling in transit. They do not require the low storage temperatures necessary with shell eggs. After removal from the shell, an egg contains approximately 73.5 percent of water. Dried whole eggs contain only 2 percent of water. The space conservation and weight reduction effected by the use of dehydrated eggs are important considerations. c. Reconstitution. The directions for reconstituting powdered eggs should be followed exactly. Flavorful, wholesome and acceptable egg dishes will be obtained if directions are followed carefully. Careless preparation, however, will result in a poor product. (1) The dried egg powder should be sifted before being measured. If no sifter is available and improvising one is impossible the powder should be stirred with a fork or wire whip. This makes the product fluffy and easier to reconstitute. Just one lump of unreconstituted egg powder may spoil an entire meal for a particular man. (2) Pour one-third of the required amount of water in a suitable, deep container. Add the powdered eggs. Stir vigorously with a whip or slit spoon until all lumps are eliminated. 140 Figure 84- Fluff up the powder with a wire whip or put it through a sieve. Figure 85. Pour one-third of the water into a container. Figure 86. Add the powdered eggs. Figure 88. Add remaining water and seasoning. Figure 87. Stir vigorously, keeping utensil tipped. Figure 89. Swirl the mixture. 141 Figure 90. Dehydrated eggs properly reconstituted, well cooked and attractively served. (3) Tip the utensil while stirring in order to obtain a smooth mix. When the mix is perfectly smooth, add slowly the remaining two-thirds of the water and the seasoning. Keep the container tilted and stir the contents until the egg powder is. completely in suspension in the water and the liquid is a smooth consistency. Pouring the reconstituted eggs through a fine mesh wire will assist in breaking up any obstinate lumps. (4) Complete the reconstitution by swirling the pot containing the egg mixture. d. Use. (1) Prompt use after reconstitution. Use eggs within a very short time after they have been reconstituted. Do not hold them longer than several hours after reconstitution, and then only if under refrigeration. If refrigerated, vigorously stir the cold eggs when taken out for use. If refrigeration is not available, use reconstituted eggs within 1 hour after mixing the powder with the water. Never hold liquid eggs overnight. (2) Dehydrated egg dishes. Men who like fresh eggs will likewise relish the dehydrated product if it is properly handled by the cook. Powdered eggs may be scrambled, made into omelettes, used in preparing French toast, fritters, croquettes, hot cakes and generally in cooking in place of fresh eggs. Powdered eggs may be substituted for fresh eggs in making pastries, cakes, cookies, pudding and other baked goods. (3) Scrambled eggs and omelettes. Scrambled eggs and omelettes made from powdered eggs should always be prepared in batches to serve not more than 25 men. Large amounts are difficult to reconstitute and cook satisfactorily. A recipe for 25 men will yield a good-tasting, tender and moist product. Remove egg preparations from the heat while the eggs are still soft as they will continue to thicken due to the retained heat. To allow eggs to cook completely over heat will result in serving an overcooked product of inferior flavor and texture. Serve dehydrated eggs in a soft and moist state. Reconstituted powdered whole milk or evaporated milk may be used instead of all or part of the water in the recipes for scrambled eggs and omelettes, and will give a superior product. Seasonings, meats, cheese, tomatoes, onions or Spanish sauce add flavor and variety to egg dishes, and lend variety. e. Egg Dehydration. Shell eggs for dehydration are held under refrigeration at least 4 days before they are candled. In the candling, any objectionable eggs are rejected. The eggs are broken out by hand and placed in a cup. After every two or three eggs are opened they are smelled to make sure no bad eggs get by. Before going to the dehy 142 drator, the eggs are homogenized and clarified. The liquid eggs are sprayed into the dehydrator under pressure which atomizes the product into finely divided particles. Inside the dehydrator, the particles encounter a stream of heated air, rapidly evaporating their moisture, leaving a dry powder which falls to the bottom of the chamber. The powder is removed from the drier without delay, quickly cooled and sifted. f. Storage. Dried whole egg powder is PERISHABLE. Keep stored as cool as possible for best results, but it need not be stored under the exacting conditions of fresh eggs. 204. DEHYDRATED WHOLE MILK. a. General. Dehydrated whole milk is the product result-ting from the removal of water from milk. It contains not less than 26 percent milk fat. "Premium” and "extra” are the two grades of dry whole milk procured by the Army. "Premium” contains not more than 2.25 percent and "extra” not more than 2.50 percent moisture. "Dry,” "dried,” and "powdered” are the three terms for "dehydrated” in their application to whole milk. Cans of powdered dry whole milk are hermetically sealed, gas-packed and under a partial vacuum. b. Advantages. Liquid whole milk consists of approximately 87.3 percent water and 12.7 percent of solids in the form of lactose, casein, fat, albumen and ash. By dehydration, the 87.3 percent of water content of liquid whole milk is reduced to two and a fraction percent. It is evident that great savings are possible in transportation, storage, man hours and critical packaging materials by the use of powdered dry whole milk. The product will not freeze and can withstand heat better than fresh or canned milk. c. Nutritional Properties. (1) So far as food value is concerned, reconstituted dehydrated whole milk compares favorably with pasteurized liquid whole milk. Milk powder made by the spray process retains practically the whole vitamin content of fresh milk. Reconstituted dry whole milk is easily and completely digestible. (2) There are general calculations that can be followed in reconstituting milk as: (a) Volume or quantity ratio: 1 part whole milk powder to 4 parts water, by measure. (b) Weight ratio: 1 part whole milk powder to 8 parts water, by use of scales. d. Reconstitution. When reconstituting dehydrated milk, water is added in quantity so that the resulting product is equivalent to fresh milk. The reconstituted liquid may then be used exactly as fresh milk. The water should be cold, or normal room temperature and not hot. (1) The dried milk powder should be stirred with a fork or wire whip before being measured. This makes the product fluffy and easier to reconstitute. (2) To the previously measured or weighed water, add the measured or weighed dehydrated whole milk powder, slowly sprinkling the powder over the surface of the water. Mix vigorously with a wire whip. Scrape the caked powder from the wire whip occasionally. As additional quantities of milk powder are gradually added, continue the mixing until the dried milk is thoroughly dissolved. If a mechanical mixer is available, add the powdered milk gradually to the water in the mixing bowl and mix at low speed. When completely in solution, the reconstituted product will have the flavor and appearance of fresh milk. Keep the reconstituted milk cold. (3) Dehydrated whole milk may also be reconstituted by following the paste procedure described for reconstituting eggs. (4) When dehydrated milk is reconstituted for drinking, the addition of salt and vanilla will improve the flavor. Add level mess kit spoon of vanilla and level mess kit spoon of salt for every gallon of reconstituted milk. (5) In reconstituting dehydrated whole milk for use with coffee, tea or cereal, double the quantity 100 n—— ._ 60 ~ ■ il ft ■ • ” 75 § _r & -2 a S £ ® 5 o ~ ’g g ® c o -c 2 2 « i -a S » 2 g o . ® S 2 2.-PSJ ?E S “§s.aiS2|| Mb «-s=j-g3 = S ■thymol rithbiJ F.n8^ 3 'O>ga-.2o c ro 03 £ g 3 a x -| £ .8 a 03 ® -2m 10 o ~ o c .« g, | Sr°Q< flOaS,cS^ S L 2 ® „ a P 44 >> CM £ jy CO "M 03 £ M § m H o o 5 c S g ,g s b ” § *£ o .22 04 ® o c 2 J o .2 ® f £ -B d § £ .t3 -2 75 § j-g i ® a a 2 g § " ® 7 ’* c 8 g ■« -g £ - * ® g 5 p c«§ ° ME .8 < o t •£ 1 ” H ! ®’ ? c > ® I S § o m 2 .2 _o & £ .2 •- . .8 -S § a 3 'o -g 8 — ® £ a ? g hj —« ’”1 -2 rr73 aS tj ° 2 03 ° be 8 ° 03 ? a? fc o 03 ■£ § al Ji ” •~’ ^®2^c^s§«.g o % « » ® _ 73 b ®aaa®§g'g'3gM § o ^^c?2<28To 2 -p £ g 03 g ’43 -5 -8 £ c -g | -S & S § a § a > a s g -S a 00 2 3 § ” .£ t>$ § 3 1 W Q Q § Special characteristics i£ §b 22 0 .2 ® cT .2 g ’SS c g -o .A fi 0 * c O -5 .2 s§ g i w i l mi a? ’5 d _fs 0 0 O'3 8 •-< cS ~ -O^ £ 2 t? « "SS “X! ® w T5 2 * 5tT° 1 ^.2 -.2 § § “a« -S Z a £a-£~i. “ «« '£ g 03 s -o' 0 o& 2 t; 0 ’60 .<» " g .-S > - 0 a >> 0.’ <3 _- 7 te m 2 0 0 5 jj - r- cn co c .2 O S ® 'l c- 3 ce U C .gw 03 © 2 a g -° £ £wog®-2 * -Q - G « ■1-2 mo x^8 S^.SK a§ -s oo^-o M g 0 0 ® •£ 2 g .0, 73^ -Q 0 O - s . -0 s 0 lr Q m § g S - f? 2 -H O ® m 2 0 co d •"2 -2 £ a~4 •• ■£ X 'a i§£3 8 8^ 1^.27 w« | 11° . 2 if ® I s g £ £ M 'SoS^’S-^^O £ 73 8 75 -8 W g>’s°> «§3 &.§Sa l—l H-1 H-1 S |5 Moisture content *O § M w _; co ft. Other units 5-lb. cans 10-lb. cans or spiral wound metal and fibre cans. 12-oz. cans 5-gal. cans 12-oz. cans Individual units 1 i ■ 1 ;—;—■—r ; ; 1 2 2 : J J J J ‘ 0 0 1 a a a a • ,2 । 0000 : : ! > > 1 £ 2 2 2 J ; § § 1 ss ft c c : : - § 1 : 2 s 2 g ; । n £ £ । g cs is cs ; ; ? V5 : “jfjft?5 Used in rations II III J ; ; ; 1 1 l.'l • ! ! ! a 1 CM © 1 1 , 45 : 73 . : : : ; : g g § : : 0 : 8 ® _ ; j g : : ; g . 1 7 P 1 1 T & J : :•? / : :.s g3 S « 2 a Q M 1 Product 0 M c & i-8 4 75 - « £ ® 5 c3 .8 -Q ® l? 0 >. a ’43 X cj z-s ® 7 a ® ® 75 -Q co 0 g ^’So .2 M co® 73 •- a C^a: pg ra ’g * p p K 7 2 s’ 0 Q 0 E 0 154 155 Malted milk dex- Hospital 2-oz. pkg______ 14-oz. cans_ 3 Ingredients: dextrose, cocoa, malt- Eaten as issued trose tablets. parachute. ed milk, citric acid, salt. K__________ 2-oz pkg___________ Meat and rice de- 10-in-1- 13-oz. cans---------------- 9 Ingredients: 50/50 mixture dehy- Individual use. Place % of contents into hydrated. Lunch, combat, 13-oz. cans-- drated beef and pork, dehy- individual mess kit. Add about AAF. drated cooked rice, dehydrated canteen cup hot or cold water. Let onions, salt and spices. soak at least 10 minutes, with occasional stirring. May be eaten in this form, or if preferred, fried to a brown color in a slightly greased skillet. Shake the skillet to prevent sticking. Malted milk, dry._ EF menus, No. -------- 16-oz. lots or 3.5 Ingredients: dehydrated whole Reconstitute same as dehydrated whole 1. tins, 4|^ lb. milk powder, dehydrated liquid milk, tins. separated from mash of ground barley and wheat, with or without the addition of sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. Orange juice pow- C------- 7-gram envelope- 12-oz. can- 1.5 Ingredients: dried pure orange Dissolve contents of individual envelope der, synthetic. K------- 7-gram envelope- juice with corn syrup, citric in % canteen cup, 1 pint, hot or cold 10-in-l---- 7-gram envelope- acid, dried pure lemon juice water, add sugar and stir well. Lunch, combat, 7-gram envelope- with corn syrup, ascorbic acid Mix 1 12-ounce can with 5 pounds sugar AAF. (vitamin C), oil of orange, color- and dissolve in 6 gallons cold water. ing, tricalcium phosphate (op- Allow water just chemically purified to tional). stand 30 minutes before adding powder. Table XL. Dehydrated products as components of special rations Component dehydrated product Ration product Used in ration Individual units Other units Special characteristics How eaten Dehydrated APPLE NUGGETS are a component of. Corned pork loaf. Pork and apple sauce. Pork sausage, K Lifeboat, air-borne. 10-in-l do 4-oz. cans 6-oz. cans —do__ __ — Processed ready to eat. Ready to eat. Already seasoned. Hot or cold Do. Do. Dehydrated POW- DERED ONIONS are a patties, apples. Meat and noodles. C Lifeboat, 12-oz. cans.. do . do Do. Do. component of. Frankfurters and beans. air-borne. C Lifeboat, _ do do 34-oz. cans.. do _ . . do do Do. Do. Do. Pork and rice air-borne. C do. Meat, ground, and spaghetti. Pork and corn Pork and gravy. Meat balls and C Lifeboat, air-borne. 10-in-l _ ..do . ..do. do _ . ..do.. 6-oz. cans 34-oz. cans.. do Processed ready to eat. Already seasoned. (Powdered dehydrated garlic may be used in product.) Ready to eat. Already seasoned. — do. . . _ Do. Do. Do. Do. Dehydrated POTATO CUBES are a compo- spaghetti. Stew meat and vegetable. C Lifeboat, 12-oz. cans.. ..do do do. ... ... Do. nent of (Optional for fresh white potatoes). Dehydrated POTATO CUBES (optional for fresh white potatoes) and dehydrated POW- Hash, corned beef. Hash, meat and air-borne. EF menus, Nos. 1, 2. EF menus, N o s . 1 and 2. EF menus, 30-oz. cans.. 5-lb. 12-oz. cans. .. .do __ _ Processed ready to eat. Already seasoned, .do Do. Do. DERED ONIONS (optional for fresh or storage onions) are components of. vegetable. Stew, English style. Nos. 1 and 2. 10-in-l — 3Loz. cans.. _ .do Do. Dehydrated SKIM MILK POWDER is a com- Fruit bars and caramel con- K 10-in-l 2-oz. pkg do — Eaten as issued ponent of. fection. Lunch, com- _do._ Fig pudding Fruit pudding... bat, AAF. do. do do__ 346 oz. can. do — Eaten as issued Do. Do. Dehydrated SKIM MILK POWDER and POWDERED DEHYDRATED ONIONS (optional for fresh or storage onions) are components of. Dehydrated WHOLE Plum pudding... _ do. do Do. Ham and eggs with potatoes. Pineapple and C 10-in-l 12-oz. cans.. 3% oz. cans. Processed ready to eat. Already seasoned. Eaten as issued Do. Do. MILK POWDER is a component of. rice pudding. Dehydrated SWEET POTATO SLICES are a component of. Ham and sweet potato slices. -. .do 34-oz. cans.. Processed ready to eat. Already seasoned. Do. 156 CHAPTER 12 MESS OPERATION IN FIELD SECTION I. METHODS OF FIELD MESSING 227. GENERAL. The cook who has learned to do his job well in the garrison mess hall has learned the first lesson in successful field operations. He has gained the knowledge and skills necessary for the preparation of food and the use of garrison equipment. When he is transferred to field duty, he will find that the basic principles remain the same. However, it will be necessary for him to apply his knowledge and skills to new situations. He will have different equipment. He will find different problems of operation. This is the greatest test of the Army cook, and he must call upon his imagination and initiative to meet every problem as it confronts him. If he is to complete his mission under varying combat conditions, he must become familiar with the use and care of field equipment and learn to make and use field expedients. While he will later improvise and develop ideas of his own, there is much he can learn beforehand from the practical experience of other mess personnel in active theaters of operations. 228. METHODS OF MESS OPERATION IN THE FIELD. There are three distinct types of mess operations in the field. a. The first type is the mess in areas far enough to the rear to be relatively safe from ground attack. This type of installation is called a semipermanent installation. (See fig. 94.) While it will be moved from time to time as the areas of battle change, it may stay in one place for days or even weeks or months, depending upon the conditions and progress of battle. Mess operations here will be relatively permanent when compared with the forward area operation. Men are served in the semipermanent mess with little difficulty, because there is usually sufficient time for improving facilities in the kitchen area. They are not concerned with conditions of continuous combat, but only with the immediate possibility of occasional air attack. At times it is practicable here to have a combined mess for two or more companies. b. A new and more difficult situation arises close to the front lines. Here, nothing is permanent; all kitchen units are continually on the move. The regiment or other comparable administrative unit picks up supplies from truckheads or supply points and the rations are distributed to each company. Positions are likely to be in a state of constant change, and mess personnel must make adjustments daily in order to serve the men in their outfits. Under such circumstances food is prepared during the later afternoon at some point to the rear of the combat troops. Meals are then transported under cover of darkness to the men at the front. For this purpose, a kitchen truck is the best piece of equipment. The cook should know kitchen truck equipment thoroughly. Although he will not always have such equipment available, nevertheless he will be able to improvise if he understands it. Valuable time can be saved if cooks are skilled in preparing meals en route. The conditions of roads will limit this activity, but often there are jobs that can be done while the truck is moving. When the truck arrives at the forward areas, a chow line is usually set up as well as circumstances permit. In some cases it may be best to serve directly from the truck. In any event, the men will be sent to the mess in groups, usually by platoons or sections, to avoid congestion and to facilitate serving. Sometimes it may be necessary for the truck to make two or more stops, if the company is deployed in widely separated groups. A detail of two or three men may be served by sending hot food up to their advanced position by other men in the company. In this case, food can be delivered in cans or other closed containers, and these men will not have to go without their hot meals. The important thing here is to get hot coffee to the men in the fox holes at least twice each day. If they are using “C” rations, the meat components should be heated before they are sent up. C. The third type of operation is best illustrated by the usual mess procedure in the jungle areas. The lack of roads and the necessity for slow movement often make the use of kitchen trucks impracticable close to the front. Under such circumstances, the kitchen must be set up for operations 157 BIVOUAC AREA MESSING AREA LYSTER BAGS .. A \ 11 V \ \ \ i i ( \ \ \ CHOW LINE ♦ | \ _E E] 0 E 0 CD 0 □ ®Y^rinTingTmesFskits i i --------*—---------------■»-----------«--------" ' 1 ' I SALAD + * 2 POTATOES 4 l ' 3 VEGETABLE , 4 ' I M-I93T | UTENSILS | 4 MEAT ' I LINE FOR 2O'-25, . V777 5 BREAD / / P nn c = hSe t -i / /GARBAGE CANS H || II I—-I ice ------------ ■ ► ' = '------1 eox ' / ► shelf | A’V WATER 1 / / K? TRAILER » ' x<^*^*r‘’FIRE TRENCH „ \ I-SOAPY WATER ______--------""Lr----- ' \ <^Qs^>'2.CLEAR WATER ~~~ I Ml R00T 3. CLEAR WATER >, AwA. CELLAR «/ _______________________________________________________________________________ I I ^gasoline}. Figure 94- Layout for semipermanent mess area. near enough to the front lines to serve the troops on the spot. Tent flys are erected or temporary shacks are hurriedly constructed even though they may be used for only a few days before moving on to an advanced position. The principles involved are much the same as those which apply to the semipermanent kitchen, except that the extremely temporary nature of these set-ups require the use of hastily improvised expedients. Special problems involved in this type of area will be discussed in connection with different kinds of equipment for the field. d. The ration cycle used in these advanced sectors normally is supper, breakfast, and dinner. Supper will be prepared in the late afternoon, if practicable, so that it can be brought up and served after dark. When the supper has been served and the details of clean-up completed, the kitchen prepares for the next meal. Breakfast is served early in the morning in time for the mess personnel to finish their job and retire before daylight. At breakfast time, box dinners, or one of the emergency type field rations are issued to the troops. This dinner meal is eaten individually or in small groups whenever it is convenient during the day. e. In studying the various types of equipment issued and recommended for expedients in the field, it is well to recognize the special problem involved. All of the equipment discussed in this chapter has been tried and has proven effective in meeting the conditions of field operations. 229. SERVING IN THE FIELD. Rules outlined for cafeteria service are generally applicable to mess kit feeding in the field. The equipment in the field is not as convenient as in the garrison mess hall, but most of the basic practices of serving remain the same. The following differences should be observed in the field: a. A large container of boiling water should be available at the head of the serving line for the predipping of mess kits. Predipping partially sterilizes the mess kits and in cold weather it gives them a desirable warmth. b. If soup is served, it should be of a thin variety and served before the other hot foods in order to allow the soldier to consume his soup before being served his beverage. Facilities must be provided for him to wash his cup before having the beverage served. c. Coffee should be served black. A table may be placed a little distance beyond the serving line for the service of cream, sugar and condiments. 158 d. In areas where flies are prevalent, especial care is required. Only the bottom of the mess kit should be used for food. The top must cover the food even between mouthfuls. Therefore, if dessert is served, the men must go through the serving line twice. e. A very important part of the mess service in the field is the care of mess kits after the soldiers have finished eating. Arrange the receptacles, for washing the mess equipment so that two lines may be formed, one on each side of the receptacles. This permits two men to use each container at the same time. Three large containers (32 gal. GI cans are the best) must be provided for washing and rinsing the mess kits, and at least one other receptacle must be furnished for garbage. The soldiers should reach the garbage receptacle first, in order to scrape their equipment as clean as possible before washing. The three large containers should follow in this order: (1) In the first, have hot, soapy water for washing the mess gear. Provide clean GI brushes to help the soldiers in washing their mess kits thoroughly. (2) In the second, have clear, boiling water and keep it boiling until all of the men have finished their washing. This is the first rinse. (3) In the third can, keep clear, boiling water to serve as the final rinse. Do not permit the men to dry their equipment with cloths of any kind. The mess equipment must be air-dried. In cases where water cannot be boiled, a sterilizing agent will be provided. SECTION II. ORGANIZATION AND 231. GENERAL. No definite rules are established for the detailed lay-out of a kitchen area. However, there are three main requirements which must be met: there must be plenty of good storage space for food, rules of sanitation must be enforced, and the chow line must be handled efficiently. 232. STORAGE OF FOOD. Under all circumstances, in a semipermanent kitchen, means must be provided for the safe storage of food. Although the turnover will be rapid, it will be necessary to keep supplies in good condition for at least 24 hours and some food will be stored for several days. A limited quantity of reserve must be kept on hand. If mechanical refrigeration is available, and if sufficient space is provided, little difficulty will f. In the field, care must be exercised to prevent scraps from being left on the ground. Refuse on the ground in a kitchen area can quickly become unpleasant and unsanitary. By giving proper instructions to the men, and by having the line for washing and waste disposal efficiently operated, this can be largely prevented. 230. SELECTION OF A SEMIPERMANENT SITE. Units far enough to the rear to be fairly safe from enemy ground attack can take advantage of their favorable positions by setting up semipermanent kitchen areas. While the general area for such an installation will be determined by the commanding officer on the basis of the current tactical situation, the job of arranging the various elements of the installation will usually fall to mess personnel. Every mess sergeant and every cook must be prepared to carry out this mission when the occasion arises. These are the important things to look for when picking out a site: a. It should have good natural cover in a defiladed, wooded section, well-shielded from observation. b. It should have sufficient road network to accommodate the free movement and use of mess vehicles. C. It should be on high, dry ground near a slope that provides good drainage. d. It should be as near to the troops to be served as local conditions will permit. e. It should be near a natural water supply, such as a lake, stream or spring. MAINTENANCE OF KITCHEN AREA be involved. However, provision should be made for taking care of supplies in case of the failure of the equipment. In the absence of mechanical refrigeration, food can be safely stored in underground food boxes and in root cellars. a. Underground Food Box. (1) Figure 95 shows the underground type food box which, if properly built, will serve well for storage of perishables. The simplest type is made by digging a pit the size of a packing box and lowering the box into the pit. If well covered, this will be a cool box. If frozen meats are stored in the box, they will give sufficient refrigeration, since they are about 20° colder than ice when received. During the 24 hours required for these meats to thaw, other perishables can be kept at suitable temperatures in the food box. 159 (2) Another type can be constructed from a large packing box. Punch a number of holes in the bottom of the box. Cover the outer sides with waterproof paper or other waterproofing material. Dig a pit slightly larger than the box and fill the bottom with loose rocks and gravel. Sink the box in the pit, with the top of the box several inches below the level of the ground. Inside this box, place a smaller box which will allow a space of 3 or 4 inches between the two boxes, place straw, grass, saw dust or similar material for insulation. A reasonably heavy door should be built and attached by hinges. This door should be large enough to cover the tops of both boxes. The door can be further covered with a wet blanket or with dry leaves or branches if camouflage is needed. It may be advisable, depending on the terrain and the type of soil, to dig a drainage ditch around the box to prevent seepage during heavy rains. This box may be used for fruits, vegetables, milk, butter and other perishables without the aid of frozen meats for refrigeration. Lower tempera- Figure 95. Underground food box. Figure 96. Root cellar. tures may be obtained by keeping the insulation material damp by pouring water around the sides from time to time. This box may be constructed of different sizes and for different uses. Similar boxes can be used for highly perishable storage if cooled with ice or by the use of frozen meats. If ice is used, a separate compartment should be made for the food. (3) In hot, humid climates, underground storage is usually impossible because of the extremely low elevation; seepage becomes too great a problem to make such storage efficient. In some localities, the difficulties involved in excavating prohibit the use of underground storage. In such cases, use must be made of other expedients. b. Root Cellar. For the storage of most fruits and vegetables, the root cellar is recommended. (See figure 96.) This cellar should be dug into the side of a hill on a slope because of the convenience of approach and because drainage will be better. After the required space has been excavated, the sides are lined, preferably with waterproof material and reinforced to prevent caving in. The top should be covered with heavy boards or logs and canvas in a way that will give complete protection from the elements. Top ventilation must be provided, drainage must be assured, and plenty of dunnage should be used. Finally, a door may be added. Be sure that the door is large enough to admit containers without too much crowding. When the door is not in use, it should be kept securely closed and covered with canvas. Care must be taken to check temperatures in extremely hot or cold weather to prevent spoilage and freezing. Figure 97. Suspended food container. 160 c. Other Storage Expedients. There are many other ways food may be stored in the field. In temporary camps, food can be stored in watertight containers and placed in springs or streams. For a short time, supplies may be simply buried in the ground, by digging a hole, lining it with burlap sacks and boards and covering it over with soil, straw or leaves. A food box (figure 97), screened with wire or cloth netting, can be suspended from the branch of a shade tree. This provides plenty of ventilation and will also act as a protection against insects and rodents. The cooling effect can be increased by wrapping the box in cloth material which can be kept damp by sprinkling frequently with cold water. Meats, dairy products, fruits and vegetables can be stored temporarily in such a container. This type is used in areas where underground storage is impracticable. Another improvised means of keeping food cool in the desert, known as the desert cooler, is constructed with a square or rectangular frame of any desired size with a pyramidal-shaped top sloping from the center. This frame is covered with wire mesh and then covered with burlap or other similar available material. A door covered with burlap overlapping the burlap covering of the frame is constructed to open on one side. A can containing water is suspended above the box to provide a constant dripping of water over the cooler. The flow of water keeps the burlap damp and by evaporation keeps the contents cooler. (See fig. 98.) d. Storing Nonperishables. When canned, packaged or bagged goods are stored in the field, especial attention must be given to the conditions Figure 98. Desert cooler. of the particular climate. In cold climates, care must be exercised to prevent freezing. In tropical areas, constant attention is required to prevent spoilage. In hot, humid climates, goods must always be stored with plentiful dunnage. High shelves made of an open framework are particularly valuable. In storing goods, allow sufficient room between containers for full circulation of air. e. Inspecting Edibles. In tropical climates, canned goods must be inspected every day. Spoilage can occur very quickly. All other food products should be inspected constantly and contaminated goods disposed of promptly. 233. COMPLETE FIELD KITCHEN. Illustrated in figure 99 is an example of a field kitchen which is a model of efficiency. If time and materials are available, this type of kitchen is the best to build in semipermanent areas. a. First, a large storage pit is dug to serve as a combination cellar and refrigerator. (See fig. 100.) Space is provided on one side for fresh fruits and Figure 99. Kitchen shack. ® Exterior. ® Interior. 161 Figure 100. Underground storage pit. ® Doors. ® Interior. vegetables and on the other side for frozen meats and dairy products. The result is an adaptation of the root cellar and the underground ice box. The principles of construction explained above can be applied here. Steps can be built leading down into the pit. The greatest problem is drainage. The cellar must be located on high ground, and a foundation of rock and gravel should be laid at the bottom to absorb seepage. This storage area is covered over by heavily insulated trap doors. b. The next step is constructing the kitchen shack. A frame work of two-by-fours is erected in such a manner that the flooring can be laid around the trap door, leaving the storage pit in the middle 162 of the floor. There should be plenty of space under the flooring for ventilation and surface drainage. After the framework is completed and the flooring laid, the sides are boarded up about 2^2 feet and the openings at the sides and both ends are covered with wire screening. A tent fly or other canvas is then stretched across the top for a roof and the kitchen is ready for use. Ranges, tables and racks are arranged in the most convenient manner. A gasoline lantern provides light for the entire kitchen. Best of all, food supplies can be taken from the cellar through the trap door, without having to go outside the kitchen. The materials shown in this model field kitchen may or may not be available for use under actual field conditions. However, substitute materials can be used, and the general plan of the kitchen can be followed and adapted to the particular situation. In hot, wet climates, ordinary wire screening is not practicable because it is destroyed quickly by rust. Proper screening is available, however, which because of its rust resisting qualities is long lasting. 234. SANITATION. One of the most vital considerations in the organization and maintenance of equipment in the field is that of securing proper sanitary conditions. A sanitary mess can be a strong factor in the prevention of disease. Sanitation is especially important in the field. a. Cleanliness of Cooking Equipment. All eating and cooking equipment should be cleaned and sterilized immediately after use by washing in hot soapy water, followed by rinsing in boiling, clear water. This is necessary to destroy any disease germs which might be present. The equipment should then be air dried. When not in use, utensils should be protected from dust and from flies. To aid individual soldiers in the cleaning of mess kits, water may be heated by the M1937 field range or the immersion type water heater. In many cases there will not be enough fuel to operate these units. It will then be necessary to improvise a means of doing the job. The fire trench is the best and easiest expedient (See fig. 101.) Dig a trench about 8 feet long, 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep. Build a fire in the trench. Place four or five angle irons or pieces of 1 inch pipe across the top and then set over the fire three GI cans filled three-fourths full of water. The water in all three cans can be kept at the boiling point. These cans must be emptied and thoroughly cleaned after each meal. b. Soakage Pit. Liquid kitchen wastes are best disposed of by the use of a soakage pit (See fig. 102.) These pits may be dug as deep and as large as the occasion demands. For an ordinary company mess, the following pit is usually sufficient. Dig a hole 4 feet deep and 4 feet square, and fill it with broken rock, bricks or very coarse gravel. A grease and garbage trap must be used with this pit to collect grease and avoid stoppage. This trap can be made from an ordinary salvage pail by punching holes in the bottom. The pail is then filled with layers of straw and ashes or gravel. A suitable grease trap can be made also from a halfbarrel or a wooden box. (See fig. 103.) A rocket ammunition box is suitable. The barrel (or box) is divided into unequal chambers by placing a wooden baffle or board extending to within one inch of the bottom. The large chamber is the place where liquids are poured in, and the smaller chamber is the side that grease-free water flows out. The trap has a hinged removable lid. A metal strainer, 8 inches square and 6 inches deep, is put into the larger chamber. The bottom of the strainer is filled with holes and is removable, so that it can be easily cleaned and kept in working order. A 1-inch pipe is placed in the upper third of the small chamber. This pipe carries the greaseless water to the soakage pit. The trap should be drained and cleaned daily to prevent sour odors. c. Garbage Disposal. In bivouacs, overnight camps and areas near combat, garbage or solid waste is generally disposed of by burial in shallow trenches. These trenches should be dug about 1 foot wide and 2 or 3 feet deep. The garbage should be covered immediately after being deposited. In some sections, coral or rock formations prevent digging. In such cases, pits can be formed by blasting or garbage can be disposed of by having a chute that will carry it into the sea, if it will not be unsanitary, or it may be dumped into the sea from barges. If garbage is disposed of in the sea, perforate all cans that may be included to make certain that they sink. If seepage is prevalent, do not attempt to bury garbage. Either send it out to sea or bum it. If pits are formed use two; one for dry garbage and one for wet. Cover each pit with a mesh that will hold sod or other suitable covering, leaving an opening through which the garbage can be poured. Cover the opening with a box or boards. Burning is a very satisfactory means of destroying garbage. The cross trench incinerator provides one of the best methods of burning. (See fig. 104.) It is constructed by digging two trenches, each 8 feet long, 1 foot wide and 1 foot deep, crossing at their centers. A grate, made of pieces of scrap iron or pipe about 24 inches Figure 101. Fire trench with can for washing mess kits. _______ PAIL ENDSCUTOUT 3ROKEN STONES OR BRICKS Figure 102. Kitchen soakage pit. Figure 103. Baffle grease trap, half-barrel type, made from wooden box. 163 Figure 104- Cross trench incinerator. long, is built over the center. Over the grate, is a stack which may be erected in many different ways, using brick or stones and clay or metal. The simplest stack is an old GI can or oil drum from which the top and bottom have been removed. This stack is placed over the grate and the fire is started on the grate. Do not allow fire in the trenches. Rubbish and drained garbage are used as fuel after the fire has become hot enough. It is necessary to keep the burning mass loosened so that all parts may continue to receive oxygen and keep burning. This incinerator will function best if three of the four sides of the trenches are blocked off, leaving the one open toward the direction from which the wind is blowing. d. Lister Bags. In semipermanent areas, lister bags should be installed with special attention to drainage and to overhead protection. (See fig. 105.) A small sump pit will prevent the accumulation of water in small puddles. If a suitable branch of a tree is not available, two trees or uprights to provide a support for the bag and the unit can be covered with a strip of canvas or camouflage. e. Police Of Mess Area. A kitchen area may be set up with care and skill but unless constant attention is paid to policing of the grounds, the mess operations cannot be satisfactory. Bits of food and garbage, paper and grease must be cleaned up continually in order to keep the area in a sanitary condition. The mess personnel should see to it that the field area assigned to them is thoroughly clean. Special attention should be paid to the 164 Figure 105. Lister bag with sump pit. areas near the kitchen, serving tables, soakage pit, incinerators and water cans for cleaning equipment. In these places, food waste which is not thoroughly cleaned up will create unpleasant odors and will offer a breeding place for insects and germs. 235. DANGER OF FOOD CONTAMINATION. a. It should be remembered that the principal reason for the safe storage of food, the thorough cleaning of equipment, the careful disposal of waste is to avoid any chance of food contamination. In the busy performance of daily duties, it is easy for personnel to become careless in matters of sanitation, but every man concerned should be constantly aware of his own responsibility in the preservation of health and the prevention of disease among the members of his unit. b. The most persistent enemy of pure food is the fly. These insects breed on warm, moist places polluted by animal and vegetable waste, and may travel long distances in search of food. Therefore, even if the immediate area is kept thoroughly clean, flies from nearby sections favorable to breeding may find their way to the kitchen and to the food. Because the fly can contaminate food and spread typhoid, dysentery, diarrhea, and many other diseases, it is necessary to keep him away from the cooking and serving. Fly control can be aided by observing the following rules: (1) Keep all food covered as much as possible. (2) Keep garbage cans tight. (3) Dispose promptly of all stale food and waste. (4) Use fly paper, fly tape and fly traps. (5) Use sprays. (6) Keep swatting. (7) Discourage the fly by making it impossible for him to find particles of food anywhere in the mess area. C. Other common pests can be disposed of more easily if proper methods are used. Roaches can be controlled by the use of issue liquid insecticide, but care should be taken to avoid spoiling food with the spray. Ants can be destroyed by locating their nests and saturating them with kerosene or boiling water. Rodents may be controlled best by the use of traps. The best preventives and the best cures for any pest trouble, however, are constant cleanliness and persistant care. d. The only way to be sure that all these conditions of proper storage and sanitation are being maintained is to conduct frequent inspections. The mess officer will make his own inspections, but inspections must be continually made by the mess personnel if everything is to be kept in order. Checkups on the cleanliness of equipment and of the general area should be made after every meal. Be sure that all waste is disposed of and that all supplies are safely put away. Frequent inspections should be made of all food in storage, and any spoilage or contamination of any kind should receive prompt attention. 236. SANITATION IN THE TROPICS. In tropical climates, sanitation is an especially serious problem. Mess personnel must fight an unending battle against flies and various kinds of insects and rodents. These pests are so numerous and so persistent that no time can be wasted in disposing of garbage and spoiled foods. There are several expedients which have been used successfully in these areas. All foods must be kept in closed cans for protection against insects and rodents. As soon as sacked or loosely packaged food is received, it must be transferred to cans, because it may be destroyed in a few hours if left exposed. Because of the great prevalence of flies in the tropics, traps must be used at all times, and the bait (canned salmon or jelly) must be changed daily, because of its rapid spoilage. Boards should be used around the traps to protect against wind and to make the interior of the trap warmer and more attractive to the flies. This is illustrated in figure 106. Since the fly trap has such importance in the control of sanitation, the following is presented as a means of constructing a trap very quickly from salvaged scrap. a. Take a piece of 12 by 12 by 2-inch wood. Place the lid of a mayonnaise jar in the center of this board and draw a line around it. Using an auger with an expansion bit (this is the best tool to use if you can get one) cut a hole the size of the lid three-quarters of the way into the board, or about an inch and a half deep. In the center of this “well,” drill another hole which is inches less in diameter and all the way through the wood. Fit four pegs for legs into the corners, making a stand 2 inches high. b. In the center of the lid of the jar, cut a hole exactly the size of the hole that goes all the way through the board. C. Make a cone out of screen wire by cutting the wire according to the pattern shown. (See fig. 106.) Leave a three-quarter inch allowance for tacking the wire onto the stand. The base of the cone, not counting the allowance, should be the same size as the hole in the jar lid. d. Form the cone from the wire and then fasten it. Spread the three-quarter inch allowance at the base of the cone flat for tacking. Next, fit the cone into the hole in the inverted jar lid. Tack the trap (in lid) into the “well” in the wooden base. The tacks go through the lid and the wire and into the wood base. Figure 106. Fly trap. 165 e. Screw the inverted gallon jar into the lid on the stand, place some bait underneath the opening. 237. CHOW LINE. In the field, certain precautions must be taken and certain principles must be observed in the organization and control of the chow line. Camouflage discipline must be enforced. Mess kits are excellent reflectors of light, and should be kept covered until troops actually reach the serving tables. Space should be provided under cover of trees for the men to eat their meals and they should be restricted to that area. Suf ficient space must be used to allow the necessary dispersion of men while they are eating. Dispersion should also be required in the chow line for security. Serving pots should be far enough apart to prevent crowding of troops. Serving the men is an important function which tired and hurried mess personnel can easily overlook. Care should be taken to make servings as attractive as possible. Food should be placed in the mess kits in a uniform and reasonable fashion. For each meal, a routine should be established for the placing of each portion. All portions should be of the same quantity. SECTION III. FIELD EQUIPMENT AND FIELD EXPEDIENTS 238. GENERAL. Special equipment is issued to company messes in the field to meet the special problems of cooking and serving under combat conditions. Mess personnel must be skilled in the use and care of this equipment and in the art of improvising the tools for cooking they must have as the needs arise. Below are noted various items that will be helpful to the cook. 239. KITCHEN TRUCK. The kitchen truck is a 2)%-ton, 6x6 cargo truck, appropriately converted for this special purpose. Although not always available, nevertheless the cook should know how to arrange and use a truck for kitchen purposes. In order to convert the truck, first remove the tarpaulin and raise the bows fourteen inches above their normal height. Drill a hole in each end of the bow at a point whefe it emerges from its stake-and-plate assembly on the truck. Insert a nail or bolt in each hole so that it rests securely upon the stake-and-plate assembly. It is necessary to raise the bows in order to provide the overhead space needed while working in the truck. (See fig. 107.) Troop seats are then removed from the inside and attached to the outside of the truck. This gives more working room inside and provides more shelf space when the truck is stationary. During the serving of meals, these seats afford a convenient place for pots, pans and food. When the vehicle is in motion, seats are folded against the outside of the truck. To attach seats to the outside, remove the bows. Remove the side rack assembly, with seats attached, by extracting the side rack stakes from their plates. The seat which is on the left on the inside of the truck goes on the right on the outside of the truck. Therefore, move the right assembly to the left side of the truck and insert stakes into the plates, allowing the seats to face outside of the truck. Similarly, move the left side rack assembly to the right side. Replace bows. (See fig. 107®.) a. Truck Equipment. Three M1937 ranges are placed in a row and chained at the front of the truck. The ice box is placed at the side. A utility shelf is attached to the side opposite the ice box. A collapsible serving table is kept next to the utility shelf near the tail gate. The utensil cabinet goes in the side space between the ice box and the range. Room remains for several 5-gallon water cans. This arrangement gives plenty of room for cooking on the move or in bivouac. A plan of the most efficient arrangement of kitchen-truck equipment is shown in figure 107®. (1) The multipurpose ice box. This improvised ice box provides storage space and refrigeration. Make it a convenient height so that the top can be used for a cutting table. The top must be leakproof to prevent seepage into the box, and if it has an overlapping top, a meat grinder or a can opener can be attached. (See fig. 108®.) An improvement can be made by constructing a tight-fitting door in the upper part of the front of the box. This makes it easier to remove or replace food without moving the work being done on top of the box. (2) Improvised serving table. This table offers a firm base on which to place serving vessels. When meals are ready to be served, open the table and place it on the ground close to the truck. It makes a firm stand for stock pots. When the truck is stationary, the table can be used as an auxiliary cutting table. It is collapsible and can be quickly 166 Figure 107. Converting the 21/% ton, 6x6 cargo truck for use as a kitchen truck. ® Bows raised for kitchen use. ® Troop seats on outside of truck, opened for use. ® Equipment in the truck. © Same seats folded while truck is in motion. FRONT ---- 24 _________________________________L ------ FIRE EXTINGUISHER . COMBINED <-----------46 ---------► ICE-BOX AND CUTTING 144„ TABLE 37r X 26 4------- UTILITY SHELF 72" X 8" /czz / FIVE - GALLON / --------, ----a WATER CANS ( (_______, \ «- \ I----- i COLLAPSED SERVING \ I-------------- TABLE 132- X 5-◄----------------- 80 ----------------- © Ground plan of truck. 167 Figure 108. Field expedients of kitchen truck. ® Multipurpose ice box. ® Serving table. ® Step ladder. ® Placement of utensils in utensil cabinet. ® Utensil cabinet with door and rod to hold utensils in place. ® Utility shelf. ® Fly tent. ® Safety bars. ----------TRUCK TARPAULIN — EXTENSION REINFORCEMENT togc S5\rod 168 and easily folded. When carried on the truck, it occupies very little space. (See fig. 108®.)* (3) Improvised step ladder. A step ladder is a convenience that can make field operations run more smoothly. Placed against the tailboard, as in figure 108®, it facilitates the movement of heavy pots and hot food to the ground and permits cooks to enter and leave the truck without soiling their hands in climbing. It is carried in the trailer when the truck is moving. (4) Utensil cabinet. The utensil cabinet is improvised from available lumber. It is hung by metal hooks on the side of the truck and is removable. (See fig. 108®.) A sliding door keeps out dust and dirt and prevents utensils from falling to the floor. Inside the cabinet, racks should be constructed in a manner that will provide a space for each individual utensil so that it will stay in place while the truck is moving. The cabinet should be removed and cleaned frequently. (See fig. 108®.) (5) The utility shelf is built of wood, and is divided into bins. The dimensions are 72“ x 8". (See fig. 108®.) This is a handy place for condiments, sugar, flour and cooking oils as well as for those cleaning supplies and miscellaneous items which are in constant use. The bins should be built with a specific use in mind and items should be restricted to their assigned place. (6) Safety bars, for the protection of mess personnel, are made of scrap metal and bolted into place between the bows of the truck. (See fig. 108®.) When the truck swerves or stops suddenly, men can grab these safety bars to keep from being thrown against the hot ranges. b. Equipping the truck with a fly tent. A fly can be used in inclement weather to provide working and serving space outside of the truck. Every truck should be equipped with materials for this emergency. To set up the fly, remove the tarpaulin and sew an additional eight feet of canvas on the under part of each side. Adding the canvas to the under part prevents seepage of rain. Flatten each end of two twelve-foot reinforcement rods and drill a hole through the flattened part. Sew a seam in the extended canvas approximately nine inches from each end and insert reinforcement rods, sewing them in securely. Insert seven grommets, 2 feet apart, in the edge of the canvas. The fly is pitched by using four 6-foot tent poles, fourteen tent pegs and the necessary ropes. Use two poles and seven pegs to each side (See fig. 108®.) c. Installing Lighting Equipment. A single interior light is sufficient for all operations. To install attach interior lamp to the top of the front bow, using a piece of angle iron as a bracket. Put in a switch on the right, inside the vehicle near the rear, so it can be operated from the ground. Install a conduit from under the front, right corner of the truck floors to a point just above the height of the ranges. A thin-walled, steel tube, )4 inch conduit is satisfactory. Connect the wire to the truck battery and run it through the conduit. Split the wire above the conduit and run the negative side directly up the front bow to the lamp. Run the positive side along the right side of the truck to the switch. Connect the wire and run it back a long the right side of the truck and then up the front bow to the lamp. Attach both sides of wire to the lamp. If the headlight socket is grounded through the lamp frame, attach negative wire to any metal piece in contact with the lamp frame. d. The trailer holds equipment and supplies not needed while the truck is in motion. Water heaters, water containers (not in use), lister bags, cleaning equipment, rations (to be distributed for the dinner meal), tent poles and pins are items which are usually stored in the trailer. (See fig. 109.) e. Range, Field, M1937 is now the most widely used range in the field. This range, with its fire units, is the most complete and efficient equipment yet devised for cooking in the field. This cooking and heating equipment is described in complete detail in TM 10-701. A knowledge of its care and operation is essential to field cooking. In emergencies, the Army field r^nge M1937 may be adapted, with improvised materials, for baking on an extensive scale. In areas where other bakery facilities are not provided, the range will be found to be very satisfactory as a bake oven substitute. (1) Method No. 1 (Bread and Pastry). The most satisfactory method of adapting the range for baking bread and pastry is to construct three solid shelves and fit them to the rails in the range. (See fig. 110.) This method triples the ordinary baking capacity of the range. Construct the bottom shelf in the form of a “sandwich,” consisting of a piece of )4 inch black iron plate, a % inch layer of asbestos (or sand), and a top sheet of 22-gauge iron plate. The shelf is 19 by 23)4 inches, with two oblong circulation slots, 9)4 by 2 inches, cut on each side, % inch from the side and 1)4 inches from the ends. Cut the front corners 1)4 inches from front and side, as illustrated in figure 191. Construct the center shelf also in the form of a “sandwich,” with 2 pieces of 22-gauge black iron, 19 x 23)4 inches, separated by a %6 inch layer of asbestos or sand. Cut the shelf with the same slots as the bottom shelf and cut the front corners similarly. Construct the top 169 shelf of one piece of 16-gauge black iron, 17J/8 x 23)4 inches, with 2 oblong slots at each side, 9)4 inches x 1 inch. In order for the oven to reach the proper baking temperature of 425° to 450° F. without excess flash heat, light the firing unit 30 minutes before baking is started. Temperature can be determined by the hand count method. Be sure that the burner maintains a green flame throughout the baking process. The oven will bake 24 pounds of regular field bread or 30 pounds of field sheet bread at one time. During baking, shift the pans from bottom shelf to top, from top to middle, and from middle to bottom at least four times. Approximately 60 minutes are required to bake the sheet bread and from 100 to 110 minutes to bake the field bread. Besides bread, such products as biscuits, rolls, cobblers, and pies can be baked successfully with the range when it is adapted in this manner. (2) Method No. 2 {Pastry). (See fig. 111.) A simpler method of increasing the baking capacity of the range is to construct only pan rests instead of solid shelves. When adapted in this manner the range will bake pastry very well but will not bake bread satisfactorily. For the bottom shelf, cut two angle irons, 19 inches long (®, fig. 112). Place these on the middle burner rails in the cabinet and lay on them any large flattened can (®, fig. 112). This can serves to distribute the heat evenly and will be found more satisfactory than a single piece of metal. For the center shelf, construct an angle iron pan rest in the shape of an H (®, fig. 112). Make the rest 19 inches wide and not more than 23 inches deep. In order to fit the rest to the top burner rails, cut a notch from each end of the front iron, % inch from each end, as illustrated. For the top shelf, construct an H rest similar to that described above. (See ®, fig. 112.) Make the rest 17)4 inches wide and cut a notch 24 inch from each end of the front iron. Fit the rest onto the rails in the cabinet which are normally used for the roasting pan. f. Gasoline Pressure Lantern. The Army cook in the field will find the gasoline lantern very useful because much of the work will be done at night. It produces a brilliant light and is the most practical type of lantern for use in the field. A complete knowledge of the lantern is necessary to operate it most efficiently. Consult War Department publications for detailed instructions. To keep the lantern in operating condition it will be necessary to keep the fount clean, the valve packing nut tight, the leather well-oiled and the generator clean. Figure 109. Trailer with equipment in place. 170 SINGLE Z- METAL PLATE ^ASBESTOS OR LAYER O SAND BETWEEN METAL PLATES HEAT CONDUCTING SLOTS Figure 111. Range, field, Ml937, adapted for baking pastry. Figure 112. Parts necessary for adapting Range, Field M1937 for pastry baking. REFLECTOR OVEN REFLECTOR OVEN SAND AND GASOLINE Figure 113. Reflector oven. Figure 115. Gasoline stove. 171 SAND AND ^GASOLINE^ Figure 114. Washtub stove. / SYRUP OR OIL CAN Figure 116. The underground oven. ® The first step is to mark off the ground plan as a guide. @ The initial excavation is then made to provide enough space for easy approach to the oven itself. To save time and effort, descending steps should be provided for at this point. 240. MISCELLANEOUS FIELD EXPEDIENTS. Following are a few of the many improvised items which have been employed in the field. A knowledge of these expedients should suggest many other variations which the cook can develop for his own use. a. Tinware. In the field, many foods are received in metal containers that may be put to use for cooking and serving. Often, when a particular piece of equipment is needed such as a measuring cup, a candle-holder or a dipper, a tin can may be made to do the job. The standard tin can is made of sheet metal bearing a coating of tin so thin that it amounts to less than 1.5 percent of the finished can. Never heat the can without liquid or food in it as this will crack the film and cause it to burn away. This is a protective coating and should remain on the can. Some cans are enameled and have a gold-colored interior. If used for cooking, this enamel lining should first be burned off and the metal cleaned thoroughly. There are no essential tools for tin can improvising. Just use what is available. A can opener, a nail, a jackknife, a screwdriver, and tin “snip” or shears will all serve the purpose in working with tin. A skillet or dipper may be made by cutting off a section of a can and leaving as a handle the seam section where the sheet of metal was joined and soldered to form the cylindrical body of the can. Wooden handles can be improvised by nailing or wiring the seam section to @ With the original ground plan as a guide, the space for the oven and fire boxes is dug out and the three sections are built up and supported by bricks or stones and cement or clay. Tin or any kind of sheet metal can be used for sides and top. The fire boxes should run back for a depth of about 2^2 feet or more depending upon the size of oven desired. ® The bottom of the oven should then be lined with the same type of material used for the sides and top. Note how the oven is raised and supported by bricks. 172 a piece of wood. A reflector oven can be made from large cans either round or rectangular. (See fig. 113.) A shelf is provided upon which baking can be done by reflected heat. The fire should be placed so that the food is cooked indirectly. A number of other easy-to-make items may be constructed. b. Improvised Stoves. Any large metal container such as a washtub can easily be made into a stove. (See fig. 114.) It is only necessary to provide an opening for tending the fire and for bottom draft and to make a chimney at the top. A tin can, with both ends removed, makes a good chimney. A surprisingly efficient gasoline stove can be made from two cans. (See fig. 115.) The outer can, a No. 10 can, is pierced with nail holes from the top to within about 1 inches from the bottom. Clean sand is put into the can, filling it up to the level of the holes. The sand is then saturated with gasoline. The inner can, which may be any type can of smaller size, is punctured with holes in the body and top, and placed in the center of the larger can, top up. The nail holes furnish a draft and upward direction of heat. C. Ovens. The principles of oven-building are simple and there are many ways by which expedients may be constructed. Ovens may be of widely differing styles, and of materials ranging all the way from common clay to gas mask cans. Remembering the few elementary principles of oven construction which are described here, the ingenious baker may use whatever materials he finds available and construct an emergency oven. (1) General. There are two general types of improvised ovens, those constructed in the manner of the M1942 oven, with both a firing chamber and a baking chamber and those consisting of a single baking chamber only (dutch oven). In the latter type the fire is removed after the baking chamber is sufficiently heated to carry through the baking period. Walls of an earth oven must be about 8 inches thick in order for the oven to retain enough heat for baking. The tops of earth oven should not ordinarily be much thicker than 8 inches or they may cave in. A slow fire is needed for heating an improvised oven. An intense fire of short duration will heat only the lining. If the soil surrounding the baking chamber is damp, dry it out thoroughly before attempting any baking. Keep up the fire for several hours before the first charge and preheat the oven from 45 minutes to 1 hour for each successive charge. If necessary, construct a hearth of stone or brick to control excessive ground moisture (2) Underground oven. The first step is to mark off the ground plan as a guide: The initial excavation is then made to provide enough space for easy approach to the oven itself. To save time and effort, descending steps should be provided for at this point. With the original ground plan as a guide, the space for the oven and fire boxes is dug out and the three sections are built up and © The oven shelf is completed and holes are made for the smoke stacks. These holes are cut at an angle so that the stacks will slant away from the ovens. © Stacks sealed in, wooden steps in place, and metal covers provided for the oven and the fire boxes. 173 Figure 117. Earth oven. supported by bricks or stones and cement or clay. Tin or any kind of sheet metal can be used for sides and top. The fire boxes should be run back for a depth of about 2A/2 feet or more depending upon the size of oven desired. The bottom of the oven should then be lined with the same type of material used for the sides and top. Note how the oven is raised and supported by bricks. The oven shelf is completed and holes are made for the smoke stacks. These holes are cut at an angle so that the stacks will slant away from the ovens. The next illustration shows the complete oven, with stacks sealed in, wooden steps in place, and metal covers provided for the oven and the fire boxes. (3) Earth oven. A simple type of oven may be improvised by digging horizontally into a steep bank of earth 4 to 6 feet high. (See fig. 117.) The best tools for the purpose are a spade and a longhandled shovel. Make the face of the bank as nearly vertical as possible. Excavate an area in the bank 4 or 5 feet wide, 2^ feet deep, with an arched roof about 16 inches high at the center. The top covering of the oven should be about \y2 feet thick. Keep the opening as small as possible. Dig a hole for a draft at the rear of the oven and if possible attach a piece of stovepipe. If for any reason, however, material suitable for a stack cannot be obtained, the oven will function almost as well without it. To keep heat in the oven, salvage scrap metal suitable for a door. Regulate the temperature in the oven by using the door and by adjusting the length of the flue. Oven temperature may be determined by the hand count method, as follows: Hold your hand in the oven 1 inch from the bottom and count slowly; if you can hold your Figure 119. Single barrel oven. Figure 120. Two barrel oven. 174 OVEN CHAMBER GROUND LEVEL CLAY-COVERED -PIPE •SOD 2'8" H hearth H-----------3'8"-------- Figure 118. Sod oven. Figure 121. Excavation for oil drum oven. Figure 122. ® Oil drum oven, front view. hand in this position for seven counts, the temperature is right for baking. If the count is less than seven, the oven is too hot; if it is more than nine, the oven is too cold. (4) Sod oven. Prepare a hearth of brick, stone, or hard clay, 3 feet 8 inches by 6 feet or more. Cut pieces of sod about 12 inches by 10 inches and build the oven by overlapping the layers of sod to a height of 2 feet 8 inches. Insert a piece of stovepipe and then cover the sod framework with a heavy layer of clay or firm soil. Leave an opening at the front for the door. Fit a suitable metal door. (5) Barrel oven. A very satisfactory oven may be constructed by using wooden barrels as a framework. Knock the top or bottom from a barrel and place the barrel on level ground, with the closed end at the rear. If bricks or flat stones are available, lay a floor and place the barrel on this. If sand is available, cover the barrel with a layer sloping from a thickness of 2 inches at the top to 4 inches at the sides. Cover the layer of sand or the barrel with a heavy mixture of clay and grass or hay. Work from the sides upward and make the layer of clay about 12 inches thick at the sides and 6 or 8 inches thick at the top. If the barrel is not covered by sand, make this layer of clay somewhat heavier. If a brick floor has been laid, extend the clay walls beyond the floor. Allow the form to stand for 48 hours; then start a small fire in the barrel and burn it out. When the barrel is completely burned, scrape out the sand and loose material. For convenience in handling the bread, dig a 2-foot trench in front of the oven. Use a suitable piece of metal for the door, fitting it as tightly as possible. Keep up a moderate fire in the oven for about 2 hours. ® Oil drum oven, side view. Figure 123. Metal steam table, front. 175 While the dough is being punched down, spread the coals evenly over the floor of the oven and close the door as tightly as possible. When the dough is ready for the pans, draw all the coals from the oven. Seal it up again for half an hour and then test the temperature by the hand count method. If the temperature is correct, put in the bread. Before baking a second run, fire the oven for 45 minutes and then draw the coals. Close the oven for 15 minutes. To construct a two-barrel oven, knock the top and bottom from one barrel and the top from another. Place the two barrels end to end on level ground, with the closed end at the rear. If bricks or flat stones are available, lay a floor and place the barrels on this. For a still larger oven, two additional barrels may be placed beside the first two. (6) Oil drum oven. To construct an oil drum oven, dig a trench as illustrated. (See fig. 121.) The narrow part of the trench, near the smokestack, is designed for a hot plate, or improvised stove, and may be eliminated if this is not desired. Place a 55-gallon drum crosswise over the trench, making sure that it is secure at both ends. Install a sheet of metal (stove lid or any improvised material) over the narrow part of the trench, to serve as a hot plate. Cover the drum with a layer of IMMERSION NEATER. IO OR IS GAL. M- 37 RANGE POT Figure 124- ® Wooden steam table. @ Detail. _____________________________8 9_______________ I I'O" 2'0" 2'0" 2'0" i'q" ... ’ .-—HINGES BENT TO SHAPE—x" " *~?2 |42 -----Jl.-----------JL____________a F T A / A / A A ( A) ( A) ( -A f -A IJK g e W ir ~ ^REMOVABLE BOARD 1'0" , - 2'0" . _ I'O" 9" _ TOP VIEW 4'9" LENGTH OF OPTIONAL 2-POT TABLE. r____________________________8‘9"____________________________ “ N-|<0 , n b. o a ■ ]___________________________________________________________ | SIDE VIEW Uco mud or clay and fill in the spaces around the hot plate and the smokestacks. Improvise a metal door for the oven and see that it fits tightly. Using the firing pit as a convenient place to work, build a slow, steady fire in the fire trench, to dry out the hearth and the covering of the oven. d. Steam tables. (1) An improvised steam table can be made of sheet metal if welding materials are available. (See fig. 123.) The table consists of two essential parts, a water container and a compartment for the M1937 fire unit. A roasting pan is placed in the top section and hot water is poured in around it. The frame should be raised to a height convenient for serving. (2) A wooden steam table can be made to accommodate the Ml937 range pots in the field. (See fig. 124.) A waterproof box is constructed with the aid of tar or roofing cement. The cover is then made with round openings to hold the pots and the immersion type heater which is used to heat the water. Hinges are attached to each side for the purpose of holding the pots in place. e. Hot Water for Emergency Rations. A long hot-water trough can be improvised for the purpose of heating the meat component emergency ration cans. (See fig. 125.) The construction of the metal trough is similar to that of the metal steam table. A compartment for the fire unit should be built in, and the height should be made convenient for serving. If metal materials are not available, a similar trough can be made of wood and the water can be heated with the immersion type heater, or boiling water can be poured in from other cans. This type of trough makes it possible to heat cans for an entire company. f. Ammunition Box Grill. Using an empty 50-caliber machine gun ammunition box as a framework, an efficient grill can be constructed using NOTES- TOP TO BE OF g BOARDS BOTTOM.SIDES a ENDS TO BE OF l| MATERIAL. INTERIOR TO BE WATERPROOFED WITH TAR OR ROOFING CEMENT. LENGTH OF OPTIONAL 2-POT TABLE SHOWING 4'9" DIMENSION. END VIEW 176 Figure 125. Trough for heating emergency rations. Figure 126. Ammunition box grill. materials usually available in combat areas. (See fig. 126.) The cover of the box is removed. A short length of % inch water pipe, which is easily obtainable from abandoned buildings, is bent to form a “U” shape. Plug one end of the pipe and drill a /32-inch hole in the pipe a few inches from the plugged end, on the inside of the “U.” Place the bent pipe into the ammunition box with the plugged end in the bottom of the box so that both ends of the pipe run parallel to each other and in a horizontal position. Attach one end of a section of 50-caliber machine gun water hose to the upper portion and open end of the “U” pipe. At this junction, place a valve. Raise the other end of the water hose and attach it to any convenient support. Attach a can or funnel to the upper end of the base. With the valve closed, pour 80-octane gas into the can or funnel, filling the water hose. Open the valve slightly to allow gasoline to run Figure 127. Table for cleaning pots. down into the pipe. The gasoline can be ignited at the small hole on the bottom side of the pipe, producing a thin flame that heats the upper end of the pipe. Place a grill over the top of the ammunition box, and over the upper end of the pipe. This expedient has been tried in the field and has been found to be very successful. It produces a great amount of heat, and because the parts are easily obtainable, it can be left behind without much sacrifice. g. Pot-Cleaning Table. A table for cleaning pots, pans and cooking utensils can be easily constructed in the field. (See fig. 127.) The sides are inclined toward the center so that water will run into the trough. The trough slants toward one end, which is provided with a drain pipe. The opposite end is closed off. The drain pipe can be run directly into a sump pit to save time and extra work. Care should be taken to see that bits of food do not accumulate in the pipe. It should be constructed to that it can be removed for thorough cleaning at least once a day. 241. CAMOUFLAGE. Mess personnel must be prepared at all times to take the security measures required by the particular tactical situation of their unit. Camouflage will be a constant problem. All installations and equipment must be hidden from air observation, and camouflage discipline must be strictly enforced in the mess area. These precautions are of first importance when feeding troops in forward areas close to the front. Most of this feeding will take place under cover of darkness, and practice in working under blackout conditions is essential. For full information on camouflage, see FM 5-20 and TM 5-267. 177 ♦--FUNNEL V«-50-CAL MACHINE GUN WATER HOSE V. VALVE GRILL V Z 1 ' WATER PIPE APPENDIX I COOKERY TERMS 1. TERMS USED IN COOKERY PROCESS Bake. To cook in an oven. Applies to all oven-cooked foods except meats, which, when baked, are usually known as roasts. Baste. To pour liquids over food while cooking especially over roasting meat. Beat. To whip by lifting mixture rapidly up and over with fork, spoon, wire whip, rotary or electric beater. Blanch. To dip in boiling water, generally in order to loosen skin. Boil. To cook in a liquid which should bubble actively during the time indicated. Just enough heat should be applied to keep the liquid in this state, unless rapid boiling is designated in the recipe. Bouillon. Soup stock clarified by straining. Braise. To brown meat or vegetables in a small amount of shortening and then to cook covered in the oven or on top of the stove, sometimes adding a small amount of liquid. Broil. To cook under or over direct heat. Broth. Liquid in which meat has been simmered. Chop. To cut in small pieces with a sharp knife or chopper. Cream. To soften shortening and to blend with sugar by rubbing and beating with a spoon or electric beater. Cube. To cut in small square pieces. Cut in shortening. To blend cold shortening with flour by means of pastry blender or two knives. Dice. See Cube. Dot. To scatter bits, such as butter, over surface of dish to be cooked. Drawn butter. Butter melted. Flour and water may be added to form a sauce, with seasoning as desired. Dredge. To cover with a thin coating of a dry ingredient such as sugar or flour. Drip. Way of making coffee in a utensil designed for such method. Flour: Strong flour is a flour with high, 13 percent, protein. Flour with 11 percent protein is not strong. High tolerance is a flour that comes up gradually and goes down gradually during fermentation. Short patent is a term used to describe the best flour. Fold. To add ingredients such as whipped cream or beaten egg whites or sugar carefully with a cutting and folding motion to preserve air bubbles. Fry. To cook in hot fat. When a small amount is used, process is known as sauteeing or pan frying. When food is partially covered with fat, process is known as shallow frying; when food is surrounded with hot fat, process is known as deepfat frying. Garnish. To add an accessory for sake of appearance or flavor. Grate. To rub on a grater, a utensil with a rough surface. Grill. To broil on a rack. Knead. To fold and press dough firmly with palms of hands, turning between foldings. Lard. To cover meat with strips of fat, or to insert strips of fat with skewer or larding needle. Lardoon. Long strip of salt pork, bacon, or suet used for larding. Leavening. Ingredient needed to make mixture rise such as baking powder, soda, yeast. Marinate. To suspend in oils, cream, milk, vinegar, or lemon juice for a period of time. Mince. To cut or chop fine. Pan Broil. To cook in dry, hot frying pan, pouring off fat as it cooks out of meat. Pan-Fry. To fry in small amount of fat. Parboil. To boil in water until food is partially cooked. Pare. To remove skin or rind by cutting off with a knife. 178 Peel. To remove skin by pulling, scraping, paring, or brushing. Percolate. Way of making coffee in utensil designed for this method. Poach. To cook egg in hot liquid below boiling point. Pot Roast. Method of cooking less tender meats. Meat cooked in water with or without previous browning. Puree. To press food through a coarse sieve. Roast. To cook by dry heat in an oven. Saute. To cook in small amount of fat on top of stove. Scald. To heat liquid, usually milk, until hot but not boiling. Score. To make shallow lengthwise and crosswise slits across surface with a sharp knife. Shred. To cut or tear in thin strips or pieces. Sift. To put dry ingredients through a sieve. Simmer. To cook in liquid just at or below the boiling point. Skewer. To fasten meat with a thin wooden or metal pin. Sometimes small bits of meat, fish, or vegetables are boiled on a metal skewer. Steam. To cook over or surrounded by steam. Steep. To let stand in hot liquid below the boiling point. Stir. To blend ingredients, using a circular motion with spoon or other utensil. Stock. Liquid in which meat and /or vegetables have been cooked. Used as a base for soups and gravies. Toast. To brown by direct heat or in a hot oven. Whip. To beat rapidly in order to incorporate air. 2. TERMS USED FOR RECIPE INGREDIENTS Caramel. Granulated sugar stirred over heat until melted and golden brown in color. Condiment. A seasoning such as salt, spice, or herb. Cream. Fat content of milk. Usually thin or coffee cream, and heavy cream suitable for whipping. Croutons. Toast or fried cubes of bread. Crumbs. Soft crumbs are prepared from bread at least 1 day old, but not dry. Bread may be crumbled with fingers or rubbed on a grater. Dry corn flakes, or other ready-to-eat cereal. Dry crumbs are usually sifted through a coarse sieve. Croustade. A toasted bread shell to be filled with some type of food. Drippings. Fat which cooks out of meat or poultry. Eggs, slightly beaten. Whole eggs beaten until well blended and slightly thickened. Egg white, slightly beaten. White beaten until foamy. Egg white, stiffly beaten. Whites beaten until they will stand in peaks, but still moist and shiny. Egg yolks, well beaten. Yolks beaten until thick. Fat. Fats used on table and in cooking, including butter, margarine, lard, bacon fat, drippings, salad oils, and hardened vegetable oils. Fillet. Boneless strips of meat or fish. Flavoring. An extract such as vanilla, almond, lemon, a fruit juice, chocolate and coffee, generally used in sweet dishes. Herbs. Savory leaves used in fresh or dried form, such as parsley, mint, tarragon, bay leaf, and others. Seasoned Flour. Flour seasoned with salt and pepper. Seasoning. See Condiment. Also liquid seasoning such as Worcestershire or Tabasco Sauce, and others. Shortening. Any cooking fat. Stock. The liquid in which meat, fish, or vegetables have been cooked. 179 180 APPENDIX II. AVERAGE AMOUNTS ISSUED (Calculated per 100 men per meal) Note. In the columns under Fresh, Frozen, Canned, Dry or Evaporated and Dehydrated are shown the average amounts normally consumed by 100 soldiers in the mess. This does not mean 100 portions of the Prepared Individual Serving. Allowance is made in each case for men who never eat the item, occasionally take a portion, usually take only one-half portion, are trying it for the first time, seconds to the men who normally take them, and many other factors that affect the consumption of any item at each meal. AVERAGE AMOUNTS ISSUED per 100 MEN per MEAL Canned Prepared -----------------------------------Dry Item Remarks Individual Fresh Frozen Domestic Overseas Weight EvId- Prlted servln*-------------------------------------- of orated overseas contents Amount Size Amount Size APPLES--------------- Eating or baked__ 1 ea____ _ 100 Pie--------------- 6 cuts----------- 1 cut------ 30 1b 20 1b 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 1b 7 lb 4 lb Sauce------------- With pork-.------ 3 oz------- 30 1b 20 1b 20 No. 2 16 No. 2 1 lb 4 oz 71b 3^ lb Reduce issue y or y--------------------- 4 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 11 oz APPLE BUTTER---------------------------- 2 oz------------------ 7 28-oz 2 No. 10 7 lb 8 oz ____” ”””” jar. APRICOTS-------------------------------flea--------100 ----- 16 No. 2^ 12 No. 2^ 1 lb 14 oz 71b \3 pieces--------------- 4 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 12 oz Pie--------------- 6 cuts----------- 1 cut------ 30 1b 20 1b f 12 No. 2^ 12 No. 2^ 1 lb 14 oz 71b 1 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 12 oz ASPARAGUS------------ 4 pieces--------- 3 oz------- 30 1b 15 1b I 16 No. 2 16 No. 2 1 lb 3 oz ________’’’’’ t 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 7 oz ____ BACON---------------- Breakfast-------- 2 strips___ 15 lb 1JZ 12 lb BEANS: Lima-------------- Side dish-------- 3 oz------- 35 lb 15 lb / 16 No. 2 16 No. 2 1 lb 4 oz 8 lb I 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 ________________”””” (Main dish_______ 7-8 oz_______________________________________ _______ 18 1b Navy--------------(Side dish________ 3oz__________________________________________ _ _ ___ __ __ gib I Main dish______ 7-8 oz_______________________________________ 181b Red kidney--------(Side dish-------- 3 oz------------------------------- 3 No. 10 6 lb 12 oz 8 1b [With chili------ 6-8 oz----------------------------- 3 No. 10 6 lb 12 oz 8 lb f 16 No. 2 16 No. 2 1 lb 3 oz __________ String-wax-------------------------- 3 oz------ 25 lb 15 lb ( 12 No. 2^ 12 No. 2% 1 lb 12 oz ( 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 5 oz 181 BEEF: Stew______________________________ 3oz______ 20 lb 20 lb _______________________________________ Boneless_________-Ground_______ 3-4 oz___ 30 1b 30 1b ________ 6 6 1b 6 1b Roast-steaks___ 4-16 oz__ 40 lb 40 lb _______________________________________ Stew___________ 3 oz_____ 35 lb 35 lb _______________________________________ Carcass________ Ground_________ 3-4 oz___ 45 1b 451b ________________________________________ (Roast-steaks__ 4-16 oz__ 55 lb 55 lb ______________________________________ Corned_________/For hash_______ 3 oz_____ 20 1b ______________ 3 6 1b 6 1b /Boiled sliced_ 5-7 oz___ 50 lb ______________ 6 6 lb 6 lb Dried-chipped__ Creamed__________________________________________________ 6 lb 7 lb BEETS------------- Vegetable----- 2-3 oz____ 20 1b ____J 8 No. 246 12 No. 246 1 lb 12 oz _ %y2 lb / 2 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 8 oz ________ BERRIES-----------/Pie, 6 cuts____ 1 cut____ 24 qt ____ 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 10 oz _______ (Fruit--------- 3 oz----- 24 qt ---- 3 No. 10 4 No. 10 6 lb 10 oz _______ BOUILLON CUBES____/Gravy__________ Ingredients______________________________ 100 cubes 30 /Soup-------------------------,-------------------------- Container_ 70 _____ BREAD------------- 2 slices_______ 246 oz___ 15 lb ____________________________________________ BROCCOLI__________ Vegetable. ____ 2 oz_____ 25 1b 15 1b ______________________________________ BRUSSELS SPROUTS__ Vegetable______ 246 oz___ 20 lb 15 lb ______________________________________ BUTTER____________/Domestic_______ 46 °z____ 246 lb ___________________________________________ /Overseas------ 46 oz------------------------- 3 1b 5 1b 5 1b __________ CABBAGE-----------/Vegetable______ 246 oz___ 251b _______________________________________ 346 1b /Cole slaw_____ 146 oz___ 15 lb ___________________ __ 246 lb CANDIES: Hard-----------/Holiday________ 3 oz_______ 20 1b ___________________________________________ Mints----------/Holiday________ 146 oz_____ 10 lb ___________________________________________ CARROTS----------- Vegetable______ 246 oz___ 20 1b ______________f 16 No. 2 1 lb 4 oz ___ 41b / 3 No. 10 6 lb 8 oz _________ CAULIFLOWER_______ Vegetable_____ 246 oz____ 20 1b 15 1b _____________ CATSUP------------ Condiment------ I oz_______________ 7 14-oz 1 No. 10 6 lb 15 oz _______ bottle. CELERY------------ Salad_________ 1-2 oz____ 15 lb _________________ CEREAL: Assorted dry_____ Individual package_ loz________________________________ loz 75 Hot bread______ Ingredient_______________________________ 28-oz pkg 4 Cornmeal-----/Cereal___________ 4 oz_____________________________________ 28-oz pkg 3 Fried---------- 6 oz__,__________________________________ 28-oz pkg 4 ____ Hominy grits--- Cereal_________ 6oz______________________________________ 24-oz pkg 3 Oats, rolled___ Cereal_________ 6 oz_____________________________________ 48-oz pkg 2 Wheat__________ Cereal_________ 6oz_________________________________________________ 6 lb Wholewheat_______ Cereal_____________ 6oz___________________ ____ •* _ 6 1b CHEESE: American cheddar_/Sliced_______ 146 oz___ 10 1b ____________________ 10 1b 6-7 lb /Cooking_______ Ingredient_ 5 lb ___________________ 5 lb 6-7 lb ___________ Cottage---------- Salads_______ Ingredient_ 5 1b _______„____________________________________ CHERRIES, SWEET--- Fruit_________ Ilea______ 30 1b 20 1b / 12 No. 246 16 No. 246 1 lb 14 oz ___ / 3 No. 10 4 No. 10 6 lb 12 oz _______ APPENDIX II (Continued) AVERAGE AMOUNTS ISSUED per 100 MEN per MEAL (Continued) 182 Canned Prepared ---------—------------------------ Dry Item Remarks individual Fresh Frozen Domestic Overseas Weight Evap- drated serving------------------------------------of orated overseas contents Amount Size Amount Size CHERRIES S. R. P------ Pie, 6 cuts---- 1 cut------ 30 lb 20 lb ( 16 No. 2 16 No. 2 1 lb 4 oz f 1 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 11 oz ____ ------ CHICKENS------------(Fresh------------ 3-4 oz____ 65 1b 65 1b nmTT rwnxm (Canned----------- 3-4 oz--------------------------- n 35 oz 35 oz ™LI C°N CARNE--------- Without beans-- 3 oz------------------------------ 3 No. 10 6 lb 8 oz COCOA----------------- Beverage, 1 cup- 8 fluid oz----------- 2% lb J1 lb 2% lb 5 1b lib & G--------- Beverage-------- 8 fluid oz, 1 cup------ 3 lb ______ 4 lb Bags _________________ COLLARDS-------------- Vegetable______ 2 oz______ 25 lb CORN, on cob (canned)- Vegetable-------(lea.—3 oz_110 15 1b 16 No. 2 20 No. 2 1 lb 4 oz CORNSTARCH « ------ ---------- 3 N°' 10 4 N°' 10 6 lb 10 °* - ------ ------- CORN bl ARCH---------- Sauce---------- Ingredient______________________ _ ilk nke. CRACKERS, OYSTER---- For soups________ % oz____________ _____ 3 1b 3 1b CRACKERS, SODA------ For soups_________ 3ea____________ _____ 3 lb 3 lb CRANBERRIES----------- With meat_______ l%oz______ 5 1b 1 in CUCUMBERS------------- Salad---------- 4 slices___ 20 lb or 25 ea EGGS----------------(Fried-boiled_______ 2 ea_____200 [Scrambled------ 2-3 oz-----156 ----------------- 2 No. 10 Approximately_____ 5% lb EGGPLANT-------------- Vegetable______ 2 oz_______ 25 lb ENDIVE---------------- Salad------------ loz_____ 20 1b FISH, dressed, Salt Mackerel— Main dish- 4-5 oz___ 30 lb 30 lb 25 No. 1 25 No. 1 1 lb FLOUR: Buckwheat--------- Hot cakes------- Ingredient_____________________________________ 20 oz pkg. 7 , k -“em Remarks individual Fresh Frozen Domestic Overseas or dratoH saving Weight Evap- overseas ------------------ of orated overseas Amount Size Amount Size contents MEAT SPECIALTIES: *Bologna----------- Assorted meats___ 1-2 oz_____ 10 lb *Head cheese------- Assorted meats___ 1-2 oz_____ 10 lb Hearts------------ Main dish________ 3-5 oz_____ 40 lb 40 lb Liver------------- Main dish-------- 3-5 oz_____ 30 lb 30 lb Luncheon meat----- Main dish_ 4-5 oz 5 gib gib Meat and Vegetable Hash._ Main dish_ 6-8 oz_________________________________ 7 10 lb Meat and Vegetable Stew. _ Main dish_ 6-8 oz ok on rr - _ . ... ■ -------------------------------- OUOZ Ol) oz __________ longue------------ Mam dish--------- 4-5 oz_____ 45 1b 45 1b ♦Amounts shown only half of requirements. Two or three types of meat should be used. Total 30 lb including cheese. MILK----------------- Breakfast-------- 8 fluid oz-- 25 qt -----f 28 14^ oz 28 14^ oz 14^oz MTNOF MEAT < 1 3 3 gal 8 lb ----- 6 lb --------------------- Pie, 6 cuts------ 1 cut------------------- 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 8 1b S™------------------- Beans or cake---- Ingredient-------------- 1 No. 2^ 1 No. 2^ 2 lb 6 oz ___ NOODLES-------------- Side dish-------- 2-3 oz__________ mihhnv in ik ’ NUTS-MIXED___________ In shells_____ 3 oz W lb box 10 b ------- OKRA----------------- Vegetable-------- 2oz_________ 20 lb ONTONrUEIFE GREEN~...|-s°? jnoar,__----- 3ea--------<----------- 1 No-10 1 No- 10 41b2oz --- ONIONS---------------(Salads------------ 1-2.,------115 ----------------------------------------- 201b 2^’lb' 'Vegetable-------- 2-3 oz_____/ bunch ORANGES-------------- Breakfast________ 1 ea_______ 100 OYSTERS-------------- 160 to gal------- 6-7 ea------------------ 4 gal 4 gal 91b OIL-VEG-SALAD-------- Salad dressing--- Ingredient______________ gal 1 qt qt 2 lb PARSLEY--------------(Soup-------------1 Ingredient_ % lb g \Salad____________f ~ PARSNIPS------------- Vegetable________ 2 oz________ 20 lb PEACHES Or -+ , 12 No-2^ 16 No'.’2M” P ACHES--------------(^rUlt------------ lea---------100 ----- 3 No. 10 4 No. 10 11 lb 14 oz 7 1b 71b (Pie, 6 cuts------ 1 cut------ 30 1b ------ 12 No. 2J^ 12 No. 2^ 16 lb 12 oz 71b 71b ™TBUTTEB--------------F <--------------1-2°z--------------------’ nHo U12OZ ....... PEARf.--------------- Fruit------------(lea---------100 ----- 12 No. 2% 16 No. 2^ 1 lb 13 oz U slice------------------ 3 No. 10 4 No. 10 6 lb 10 oz PEAS----------------- Vegetable-------- 3 oz-------- 40 1b 15 1b f 16 No. 2 20 No. 2 1 lb 4 oz _____’ PT?AQ . r. I 3 No. 10 4 No. 10 6 lb 9 oz ■ PEAS, dry split------ Soup------------- Ingredient--------------------- (*) ----- (*) 10-50-100 lb | 81b __ 184 ♦Domestic issue__ 10 lb and 100 lb bags_______________________________________________________ Overseas issue___ 50 lb bags__________________________________________ PEAS, blackeyed----- Side dish______ 3oz____________________________________________________ 8 lb PEPPERS, GREEN-----/Salad___________ Ingredient 5 lb \ Stuffed------- Ingredient_ 20 lb _______________________________________________ PEPPER-------------- Condiment------ Ingredient____________ loz ____________ loz 4ozllb PICKLES------------- Relish--------- IJ^oz----------------- Keg 1 gal /gal-8 lb _______________________ )keg-40 lb __________ PINEAPPLE----------- Sliced--------- 3 oz__________________/ 12 No. 2^ 12 No. 2^ 1 lb 14 oz _________ PORK, fresh: \ 3 No. 10 3 No. 10 6 lb 12 oz ______I... Butts------------ Main dish_______ 4-5 oz____ 55 1b 55 1b Ham-------------- Main dish_______ 4-5 oz___ 551b 551b Loin------------- Main dish_______ 4-5 oz___ 551b 55 1b Spareribs-------- Main dish_______ 4-5 oz____ 60 1b 60 1b [ Hash brown or fried 7 lb | Au gratin 7^ lb POTATOES, Irish----- Vegetable------ 6 oz------ 40 1b ______________________j Potato salad 5 1b | Mashed 7 lb (Mashed precooked shreds 4y lb POTATOES, sweet----- Vegetable...--- 6 oz______ 40 1b _____f 20 No. 2U 20 No. 2Vo___________7U lb \ 5 No. 10~ 5 No. 10 _________ _ POWDERED DESSERT: Butterscotch----- Dessert------------------------------- y2 lb 10 lb 1 No. 5 5 and 10 lb Chocolate-------- Dessert.------------------------------ lb 10 1b 1 No. 5 5 and 10 lb Vanilla---------- Dessert------------------------------- y2 lb 10 lb 1 No. 5 5 and 10 lb ________ Gelatin---------- Dessert------------------------------- lb 10 lb 1 No. 5 5 and 10 lb ________ POWDER, BAKING---------------------- Ingredient------------ y2 lb /lib y2 lb lib 1 and 5 lb ___________ \5 1b _____ 5 1b _____________________ PLUMS--------------- Fruit----------fl ea------100 _____ 12 No. 2^ 16 No. 2^ 1 lb 14 oz (3 oz 1 cut----------- 3 10 lb 4 No. 10 6 lb 12 oz PRUNES--------------/Fruit__________ 3 oz________________________ (*) _____ (*) No. 10 (Cobblers------- 1 cut---------------------------------------- 25 lb box 7 lb 7 lb ♦Domestic issue__ 25 lb________________________________________ Overseas issue--- 25 lb box and No. 10 can_______________________________________ PUMPKIN------------ Pie, 6 cut------ 1 cut_________________ 12 No. 2^ 12 No. 2^ 1 lb 13 oz PUREE, VEGETABLE--- Hospital-------- Soup ingredient__________________ 10 No. 2 1 lb 4 oz RADISHES____________ Salad__________ 2 ea______ 15 ________________________________________’’’’’ J bunch RAISINS----------------------------- Ingredient------------ 41b fl5oz 41b No. 10 ______________________ \ 251b_____ 251b ___________________ RHUBARB------------ Sauce___________ 3 oz____ 201b RICE---------------/Vegetable_______ 4 oz_______________________ (*) _____ (*) _________ 81b (Dessert________ 3oz____________________________________________________ 6 lb ♦Domestic issue__ 1 lb pkg or 100 lb bag________________________ Overseas issue___ 50 lb bag__________________________________________________ RUTABAGAS---------- Vegetable_______ 2 oz_ _ _ 25 lb 4 lb SALT-------------------------------- Ingredient-----------------------------|_____ 1 lb, 3 lb, 10 lb___ 185 APPENDIX II (Continued) AVERAGE AMOUNTS ISSUED per 100 MEN per MEAL (Continued) Dehydrated ' £ 2 1 TH Tf 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 ! • £ 1 1 co 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 •' ! । । । । । । । । । । । । Dry or Evaporated £ £ IQ O r—< 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1b 8 oz 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 । । । । । । । । । । । । । । । । 8 oz Canned Weight of contents 15 oz 6 lb 3 oz 1 lb 8 oz 1 lb 11 oz 6 lb 2 oz a c C c c. IT 1 1 lb 3 oz 1 lb 12 oz 6 lb 6 oz 6 lb 9 oz Keg qt-2 lb ■ Gal-8 lb Keg-40 lb Overseas Size 15 oz No. 10 24 oz No. 10 10 1b box ^2 6 6 6 z iz Z; \CM o o o CM CM rH H S d d o' £ d d Z £ Z; th Z Z 5 gal Amount IQ CO CM 1O - O CM CO rH r—( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CM H 1 qt Domestic Size No. 10 gal 10 lb box \CM \CM ^2 odd £ Z Z r4\ O CM CM r- d d d £ £ £ No. 10 No. 10 gal Amount co T—I O CM CO T—1 T—1 16 ■ 12 3 CM - 1 qt Frozen qi 70 lb £ £ £ IQ IQ IQ CO IQ 1 lb comp Fresh 20 lb 30 lb 25 lb 25 lb 25 lb £ -Q -Q -Q £ O >O IO io io tr CM CO tF UO 7 ea Prepared individual serving IS o TH 1 CO N o co 1 r-
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