[Protection Against Gas] [From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov] PROTECTION AGAINST GAS UNITED STATES OFFICE OF CIVILIAN DEFENSE Washington, D. C. THIS IS THE INSIGNIA OF THE DECONTAMINATION SQUADS OF THE CITIZENS’ DEFENSE CORPS PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Prepared by the WAR DEPARTMENT With the Assistance and Advice of Other Federal Agencies December 1941 United States OFFICE OF CIVILIAN DEFENSE Washington., D. C. Prepared under the direction of the Chief of Chemical Warfare Service, U. S. Army with suggestions of the National Technological Civil Protection Committee UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1941 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Paragraphs Page Purpose and Scope__________________________ 1 2 The Gas Danger____________________________ 2 2 Limitations of Gas.________________:__ 3 4 The “New Gas” Possibility A________________ 4 5 Why Training Is Essential__________________ 5 5 CHAPTER II. WAR GASES. Section 1. Classification. Nature of Chemical Warfare.-_______________ 6 7 Persistency. ____:____________________ 7 7 Concentration______________________________ 8 8 Household Analogies_______________________ 9 9 Classification of Chemical Agents_____ 10 10 Type Agents_____________________________ 11 11 Section 2» Typical Examples. Lung Irritant Gases_______________________ 12 12 Vesicant or Blistering Gases______________ 13 14 Nose and Throat Irritants (Sternutators). 14 15 Tear Gases____________________________ 15 16 Systemic Poisons__________________________ 16 17 Chart of War Gases________________________ 17 18 Uses of Gas_____________________________ 18 18 Section 3. Effect of Weather and Surroundings on Gas. War Gas Hugs the Ground. _____________ 19 19 Wind__________________________________. 20 19 Rising Air Currents___________________ 21 19 Rain__________’_______________________ 22 20 Clouds_____:__________________________ 23 21 Temperature___________________________ 24 21 m CHAPTER III. INDIVIDUAL PROTECTION. Section I. Classification of Protective Measures. Paragraphs Page Classification______________________________ 25 23 Section 2. Gas Masks. Types and Functions__________________ 26 23 Masks for War Use__________________________ 27 24 Civilian Masks_______________________ 28 24 The Non-Combatant Gas Mask___________ 29 25 Respirators for Small Children and Infants _ 30 25 The Training Gas Mask________________ 31 25 How to Adjust the Gas Mask___________ 32 26 Section 3, Protective Clothing. Description and Purpose_____________________ 33 31 Adjustment__________________________________ 34 33 Section 4. Identification of Gases. Chemical Gas Detectors______________________ 35 33 Sensory Detection__________________________ 36 33 Use of Gas Samples__________________________ 37 35 The Sniff Set_______________________________ 38 35 Use of Sniff Set____________________________ 39 36 Section 5. First-Aid Treatment of Gas Casualties. General Considerations______________________ 40 37 Lung Irritants______________________________ 41 37 Blister Gases____________________________ 42 39 The Irritant Smokes________________________ 43 47 Tear Gases__________________________________ 44 48 Incendiaries________________________________ 45 48 The Screening Smokes________________;__ 46 49 The Systemic Poisons_______________________ 47 50 Contents of First-Aid Chest_________________ 48 51 IV CHAPTER IV. COLLECTIVE PROTECTION. Section I. Scope. Paragraphs Page Definition_______________________________ 49 53 Section 2. Gas Alarms. Purpose_________________________________ 50 53 Procedure_______________________________ 51 53 Section 3. Gasproof Shelters. Definition___i___________________________ 52 54 Relative Danger__________________________ 53 56 Improvised Gasproof Home Shelters_____ 54 57 Nonventilated Shelters________2_______ 55 58 Ventilated Shelters______________________ 56 59 Air Conditioning Equipment____________ 57 64 Section 4. Decontamination. General_________________________________ 58 64 Decontamination Materials________________ 59 65 Decontamination Methods__________________ 60 66 Decontamination Equipment___________. 61 70 Decontamination Squads__________________ 62 70 Section 5. Protection of Food and Water. General Rule__________________________ 63 71 Contamination of Food_________________ 64 71 Decontamination of Food_________i_____ 65 72 Protection of Food- '____________________ 66 72 Purification of Water__________________ 67 72 CHAPTER V. PROTECTION OF ANIMALS. General_______________________________ 68 74 Horses_________________________________ 69 74 Horse Masks______________________________ 70 74 Dogs------------------------------------- 71 75 Birds____________________________________ 72 75 v LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES Page 1. Low-flying airplane laying persistent-gas spray on a factory. _ 3 2. Planes laying persistent-gas spray curtain on a city______ 4 3. Typical persistent-gas bomb dropped from airplane. _______ 6 4. Nonpersistent gas vaporizes upon release__________________ 8 5. Persistent gas vaporizes slowly_____________________... 9 6. Physiological effects of chemical agents___:______________ 12 7. War gases accumulate in low places______. _________20 8. Gas clouds move with the wind..________..._____________ 21 '9 . Bright sunshine causes rising currents of air____________ 21 10. Rain helps to get rid of gas____;_'.1_____________ J_.____ 22 11. Noncombatant gas mask.......___________,-t_.______________ 26 12. Gasproof clothing_________________________________________ 32 13. Cross-section of bottle in sniff set._____________________ 35 14. Four steps in correct use of sniff set_________________ 36 15. Gas casualties should be hospitalized___4---,___,_______ 39 16. Mustard gas blister_______________________________________ 39 17. Gas decontamination station_______________________________ 40 18. First-aid treatment for mustard gas...____________________ 44 19. Materials used in treatment for mustard gas..______________ 44 20. Irrigate the eyes.__________________________________45 21. Rinse mouth and gargle throat____________________...______ 45 22. After exposure to irritant smokes, inhale dilute chlorine_ 48 23. Gas alarm may be given by any percussion sound__________ 53 24. Air-lock doorway leading down to shelter. _ ______________ 55 25. Shelf detail________________________________________J.__ 55 26. Blanket detail____________________________________________ 55 27. Low level gas shelters need air supply____________________ 56 28. Blanket air trap at entrance to improvised shelter .______ 57 29. Wooden cover for window to prevent gas leaks.________... 58 30. All cracks and openings should be sealed____________;__ 59 31. Best height location for protection against gas_____... 60 32, Location of gastight room_______________________'___60 33. Supply of air for breathing______________________;________ 61 34. Equipment for gastight room______________________;________ 62 35. Some contaminated articles should be burned___________ 66 36. Decontamination of ground_________________________________ 67 37. Decontamination of roads__________________________________ 68 38. After decontamination, waste should be washed away________ 68 39. Decontamination of walls________________A_________________ 69 40. Decontamination of floors_________________________________ 69 TABLES General Reference chart of war gases (in cover pocket). 1. Identification of chemical agents;________________________ 34 2. Differences between lewisite and mustard__________________ 42 VI FOREWORD Events abroad have amply demonstrated that civilians as well as a nation’s armed forces must be prepared to withstand any means of attack that an enemy may employ. Among these is chemical warfare, commonly known as gas warfare. If war gas were to be used in an attack upon this country, an enemy would probably act without warning in order to exploit the effect to the utmost. It is essential for civilian defense, therefore, that information and training be given in protection against gas. Thorough preparation is the surest way to reduce the number of casualties and perhaps even to discourage use of war gas entirely. To this end, steps have already been taken by the Office of Civilian Defense. Specially qualified State and local officials are being trained in protection against gas as well as in other aspects of civilian defense. This training is being given at the Civilian Defense School at Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland, by the Chemical Warfare Service in accordance with arrangements made by the Office of Civilian Defense with the War Department. The graduates of this school, in turn, will instruct others in the identification of war gases, protective measures, and methods of decontamination. The purpose of this textbook is to provide governmental agencies and others with essential information so that responsible authorities can make plans well in advance of any possible need. No requests should be made for gas masks or other protective equipment for civilians at this time. Information on these and related points will be issued at a later date. This publication is expected to be used as the basic text for instruction of public employees and such volunteers as may be enrolled in the various specialized groups of the Citizens’ Defense Corps. F. H. LAGUARDIA, U. S. Director Civilian Defense. WASHINGTON, D. C., December 1941. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 1 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Manual for the Instruction and Guidance of the Civil Population “Whether or not toxic gas will be employed in future wars is a matter of conjecture, but the effect is so deadly to the unprepared that we can never afford to neglect the question.”—From Final Report of General John J. Pershing as Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Forces in the World War. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. 1. Purpose and Scope. The purpose of this manual is to provide a general guide for civil communities in setting up an organization for protection against gas attack and in the training of gas-defense instructors and supervisory personnel. It aims to set forth in simple, readily understandable terms the nature of chemical warfare, the characteristics of the different types of war gases, including their effects on the human body, the means of their identification, and proper measures for protection against them. This book is not intended as a reference work for doctors and other medical personnel. The pathology of war gases and technique of treating gas cases are subjects dealt with in standard medical literature, including special publications of the Medical Department of the Army. 2. The Gas Danger. Military operations today are no longer confined to more or less localized battlefields. The development of air forces and fastmoving armored units operating on land has made it possible to strike at “military objectives” deep in hostile territory. Thus, towns and cities far beyond the range of an enemy’s field guns, especially areas of great importance as railway or supply centers, are now subject to attack. In these far-flung operations it is always possible that toxic gas may be used. 2 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS To reap the benefit of surprise, a nation bent upon making use of gas would try, in all probability, to conceal that fact until the moment of its employment. This might not be difficult. Indeed, preparations for chemical warfare are more or less easily concealed, since many of the war chemicals have commercial uses also and their manufacture, in limited quantity at least, is a normal industry. Gas might be used in an attack upon a civil community either alone or in conjunction with other means. It is a reasonable assumption that the better the people are equipped and trained to deal with gas, the less the likelihood of it being used against them. Quick-acting types of gases may be employed against a town or city to produce immediate casualties, throw the population into a state of panic and disrupt their defensive organization. Slow-acting chemicals, which may remain effective in liquid form for several days or more, may be used to “contaminate” important establishments such as factories, railway yards, docks, etc., so as to prevent their use or delay the repair of damage to them caused by demolition bombs. Such gases may also be used on city streets, or on roads and grain fields in rural districts to cause general havoc and casualties. They may be sprayed or sprinkled from airplanes, in the form of a fine rain, or used in bombs dropped therefrom (figs. 1, 2, and 3). FIG. I. Low-flying airplane laying persistent gas spray on a factory. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 3 3. Limitations of Gas. The vulnerability of any community, town or city, to gas attack depends largely upon its location. So great is the extent of this country that its vulnerability will vary greatly with different communities. It may be expected that, in the event of war, endangering any civil community in this country, the War Department will give timely warning to States which, in whole or in part, are considered to be in the zone of immediate danger. But, aside from these considerations, it should be realized that there is necessarily a limitation upon the extent to which gas might be used. Despite the great increases in recent years in the cruising radius and carrying capacity of aircraft, the idea of a gas attack on such a scale as to wipe out the population of a large city, or even a large proportion of it, is still regarded as fantastic. Even in limited areas, to be highly effective gas usually must be employed in great quantity. Few nations have the resources in raw materials and manufacturing capacity to wage chemical warfare on an extensive scale. Fortunately, the United States of America is well provided for in these respects, should occasion arise for its resort to chemical means. FIG. 2. Plane laying persistent gas spray curtain on a ctiy. 4 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 4. The "New Gas" Possibility „ There have been, from time to time, reports in the press concerning new, all-powerful gases against which, so it is said, existing means of protection would be entirely ineffective. Such stories may be regarded as unfounded. The consensus of military chemists is that the discovery and use of some new gas against which a modern gas mask would not give protection is very unlikely. There are many substances which, under certain conditions, are more injurious than known war gases but, for one reason or another, they cannot be used effectively in the open air. However, it cannot be said that the possibilities of chemistry have been exhausted. Throughout the world, both in Government arsenals and private laboratories, new chemical weapons, or new means of using existing ones, are constantly being sought. Thus, it is imperative for the national defense that research and development work on gas protective devices and measures be continued with unceasing vigilance. 5. Why Training Is Essential. Probably the greatest danger in the event of a gas attack upon a PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 5 civil community is the likelihood of panic. Assuming adequate supply and distribution of gas masks, this can be avoided. There may always be some casualties but these may not necessarily be fatal. However, when panic results from a gas attack, not only will there be a heavy toll in gas casualties, but many incidental injuries and fatalities from falls, trampling, and traffic accidents are inevitable. To prevent this, the mere provision of gas protective equipment is not sufficient. The people must be trained in the use of such equipment, have confidence in it, and overcome their fear of gas. Panic arises from fear, but knowledge and understanding dispel fear. In defensive preparations gas protective training is of the utmost importance. Every adult person should have a fair knowledge of war gases, their action upon the body, the means of detecting their presence, and the first aid measures for those exposed to them. He should know what a gas mask is, how it works, and how to construct a simple but effective gas proof shelter in his home. It is desirable too that he understand “decontamination” or the process of getting rid of certain types of war chemicals which may be used and which are not quickly destroyed or removed by the natural action of wind and weather. FIG. 3. Typical persistent-gas bomb dropped from airplane. 6 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS CHAPTER II. WAR GASES. SECTION 1. CLASSIFICATION. 6. Nature of Chemical Warfare. Chemical warfare is defined as a method of war in which substances are used for their direct chemical action to injure persons, or to produce screening smoke, or to set fire to combustible material. The substances used for these purposes are referred to as chemical agents. Screening smokes, as such, are practically noninjurious. Incendiary materials and methods of combating them are dealt with in a separate Civil Defense pamphlet on fire fighting. We are concerned here only with those chemical substances used to cause bodily injury. These are all referred to as “gas” because they can be disseminated into the atmosphere in the form of a cloud, thus rendering the air at and about the target dangerous to breathe. The normal state of some chemical agents is a gas, but they may be compressed and liquefied for loading into artillery shells, airplane bombs or other containers. Upon release from their containers by an explosive charge or other means, these substances return quickly to their normal gaseous state. Other chemical agents are normally liquids, but they vaporize quickly enough after their release in the open air to form a gas cloud. Still other chemical agents are solid materials but can be disseminated in the form of a smoke or dust cloud in the air by means of burning or explosive munitions. 7. Persistency. Chemical agents which are true gases and hence vaporize completely almost immediately upon their release are quickly acted upon by wind and air currents. The gas mixes with the air and is thus diluted so that in a short time it disappears entirely. Such gases are said to be nonpersistent. On the other hand, chemical agents which are normally liquids vaporize slowly after their release, giving off their toxic vapors for a considerable period of time. They are called persistent gases. This distinction is easily understood if one compares these effects with those of familiar chemicals which are in common daily use. For example, consider the chemicals which one obtains for his motor car at a service station. If gasoline is spilled on the car or ground, it will PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 7 soon disappear by evaporation. It is less persistent than water, which, if spilled, will leave a wet spot for some time. On the other hand, if motor oil is spilled, it will remain for a very considerable period of time unless wiped off. It evaporates much more slowly than either gasoline or water and, therefore, might be called highly persistent. War gases likewise vary greatly in their persistency and, in the case of any one of them, persistency varies with different weather conditions. In warm weather a substance evaporates faster, and, hence, is less persistent than when the weather is cool. Also, if there are winds or rising air currents, the agent will evaporate faster and be less persistent than when the air is comparatively still. 8. Concentration. Another term which it is necessary to use in describing and explaining the effects of chemical agents is “concentration.” This refers to the amount of the chemical which is present in a unit quantity of air. It is not something which the ordinary person can or need measure, but, if the odor of gas is sharp and strong, he will know that the concentration is high, and if the odor is faint, this usually is a good indication that the concentration is light. The more of a toxic or poisonous material present in the atmosphere, the more quickly and severely will one exposed to it be affected. Everyone is familiar with such quantity effects in his ordinary experience. A large dose of medicine usually will have a much more FIG. 4. Nonpersistent soon disappears. 8 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS drastic effect and will act more quickly than a small dose; but small doses, taken repeatedly, may in time produce the same effect as one big dose. This is true also of war gases. In the case of exposure to a war gas, the degree of injury depends both upon the concentration of the gas and the length of the period of the exposure. Thus a whiff or two of some gases may cause no injurious effect at all, but if one continues to breathe them, each breath of the substance adds its effect to that of the previous one so that, eventually the exposed person may be seriously hurt or killed. We may say then, that a long exposure to a toxic gas in light concentration will tend to produce the same effect as brief exposure to the gas in high concentration. 9. Household Analogies. It will help the average person in understanding these properties of war gases if he can be made to realize how similar they are to the properties of certain familiar substances in common household use. War gases usually are much more toxic or poisonous than any dangerous household chemicals, but they have much in common. Similarities in the matter of persistency have already been noted. Consider now the effects of exposure. Everyone knows that gas used for heating or lighting is poisonous, and that if he turns on the gas jet in a tightly closed room and remains there, letting the gas escape, a high concentration will be built up so that he will be killed by asphyxiation. On the other hand, he knows that a few whiffs of FIG. 5. Persistent gas vaporizes slowly and gives off toxic vapors for a long time. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 9 such gas may make him sick, but will not kill hinl, or even cause permanent injury. Much of the same situation obtains in the case of exposure to a war gas. A person who has breathed some gas before he has been able to adjust his gas mask should not be overcome with fear and feel that he is going to die because he has been exposed. He should get his- mask on as quickly as possible to prevent further exposure. He may suffer somewhat from the experience, but if the exposure has been brief, he may have no serious injury. Again, everyone knows that if he drops some acid on his body it will produce a severe burn; or, if he exposes his bare skin to poison ivy, a rash, developing into itching blisters, usually is the result. These effects, though less severe, are not altogether different from the effects on the skin produced by exposure to mustard gas. Still again, who has not suffered a smarting of the eyes, and perhaps of the nose, as a result of exposure to household ammonia or red pepper? These effects are not dissimilar to those of tear gases and certain other irritant agents. 10. Classification of Chemical Agents. From the foregoing, it is evident that chemical warfare gases may be classified according to their physical state under normal conditions, according to their persistency, and according to their physiological action or the way in which they injure the body. These classifications, with one or more examples in each class, are set forth below. The common name of each agent used as an example is given and, also, the brief chemical warfare symbol for the agent is shown in brackets. a. Physical state: Gas—phosgene (CG); chlorine (Cl). Liquid—mustard gas (HS); Lewisite (M-l). Solid—The tear gas, chloracetophenone (CN); the irritant smoke, Adamsite (DM). b. Persistency: Nonpersistent agents—phosgene (CG); chloracetophenone (CN) when used in burning type munitions; Adamsite (DM). Persistent agents—mustard gas (HS); Lewisite (M-l); tear gas solution (CNS); chlorpicrin (PS). c. Physiological action: Lung irritants—phosgene (CG); chlorpicrin (PS); chlorine (Cl). Vesicant or skin-blistering gases—mustard gas (HS); Lewisite (M-l). Lacrimators or tear gases—chloracetaphenone (CN); tear gas solution (CNS). io PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Sternutators, or those that irritate the nose and throat and cause vomiting—Adamsite (DM). Systemic (internal) poisons—hydrocyanic acid (HCN); carbon monoxide (CO).* It should be realized that the preceding grouping according to physiological action is based only on the most pronounced effects. Most chemical agents share in some degree the injurious characteristics of others. Thus, almost all of them, if breathed long enough, will cause injury to the lungs. A number of the chemical agents which irritate the eyes and cause some flow of tears are not classed as tear gases since they produce other and more serious injuries. Both mustard gas and Lewisite are deadly to breathe, but the fact that they injure any part of the body they touch, including the outer skin, causes them to be classified as vesicant or blistering agents, rather than as lung irritant gases. 11 , Type Agents, During and since the World War, many thousands of chemical compounds have been studied by chemists to determine their possible value for war purposes. Among these are many which áre much more toxic or poisonous than those considered here, but injuriousness is not the only characteristic a substance must possess in order to be suitable for war use. If the substance is to be used as a gas, this gas must be heavier than air so that, when released, it will not be immediately dissipated but will tend, for a time at least, to hug the ground. Thus, hydrocyanic acid gas and carbon monoxide, both extremely poisonous, are generally considered unsuitable for war use because they are lighter than air. Againi if the substance is normally a gas, it must be one which can be liquefied readily and so loaded into shells, bombs, or other containers. It must be available in large quantities and easily manufactured. Not many substances possess all of these necessary properties for war use. In this manual, no attempt is made to describe all of the chemical agents in each group. Only those which may be called “type agents” or typical of the group to which they belong are considered in detail. In general, if one knows the characteristics of the “type agent,” he will know all he needs to know of all agents of that particular class. *Not considered useful as war gases but typical of gases in this physiological group. 422892°—41---2 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 11 SECTION 2. TYPICAL EXAMPLES. 12. Lung Irritant Gases. a. Example.-r-A typical example of this class of chemical agents is phosgene, symbol CG, which in concentrations producible in the open may cause death. Phosgene was used extensively in the World War. It is a nonpersistent gas and in open areas is usually dissipated within 10 minutes after its release. Being heavier than air, it tends to flow into low areas, in which places, especially in cool weather, it may accumulate and remain in effective concentration for an hour or more. If used on a city, it may be expected to accumulate in such places as areaways below the street level, cellars, etc. FIG. 6. Physiological effects of chemical agents. Lacrimators cause eyes to water and shut tight. Sternutators irritate nose and throat, often cause headache, nausea, depression. Lung irritants retard normal breathing, cause edema. Systemic poisons absorbed in sufficient quantity may cause death. Vesicants burn and blister the skin; lewisite causes arsenic poisoning. 12 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS b. How detected.—Phosgene can be detected by its characteristic odor. In low concentration this is sweetish and rather pleasant and generally is described as like that of green corn or new-mown hay. In high concentration the odor is less agreeable and somewhat like that of ensilage, or fermented fodder. Phosgene gas itself is colorless but a cloud of this gas may be perceptible to the eye. It appears whitish, like a thin smoke, due to the presence of condensed water vapor in the cloud. c. How used.—Phosgene may be used in explosive shells or airplane bombs. It may also be released from cylinders in the user’s own position when the wind is such as to blow the cloud to the target. Large clouds of this type may travel in effective concentration for several miles. The agent is highly injurious only if breathed; hence it may be expected that the user will seek surprise effect by producing an effective cloud quickly with a view to causing exposure before people can adjust gas masks. For this reason, phosgene attacks may well be expected at night. Cool, cloudy weather favors the use of this type of gas. High winds and rain are unfavorable for its use. d. Effects on the body.—When breathed, phosgene acts directly upon the lungs, causing the air cells to fill with fluid from the body. The normal process of respiration, in which oxygen is transmitted from the air to the blood, is thus retarded or stopped entirely. If the concentration of the gas is high, casualty effect usually takes place rapidly after brief exposure. If the concentration is low, the physiological effects frequently are delayed. Catching of the breath, coughing, and choking, usually follow the breathing of phosgene. Sometimes there is vomiting. These symptoms may shortly disappear and for several hours afterward the victim may feel well and thus not realize that he is injured. However, if the lungs have been seriously affected, these symptoms will return and in more violent form. As a rule, if there is no return of such symptoms within 24 hours of exposure, the affected person can be regarded as out of danger. A person exercising, or merely standing erect, requires much more oxygen to sustain life than one lying at complete rest. Since lung injury, due to breathing phosgene or similar gases, reduces the capacity of the lungs to supply oxygen, it is manifest that such a gas victim should be placed at complete rest at once. The gravest danger of sudden collapse and possibly death is incurred when a person who has been exposed, disregarding or not realizing his injury, continues to exert himself. In addition to its effect on the lungs, phosgene also irritates the eyes, causing the flow of tears. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 13 e. Effect on material.—Phosgene in high concentration, especially if moisture is present, has a corrosive action on metals. Food exposed to it may be contaminated. f. Protection required.—A modern gas mask provides complete protection against phosgene and all known agents of its class. g. First aid.—A person who has been exposed to phosgene should be placed at complete rest, kept warm, and given light stimulants such as hot coffee or tea. Medical aid should be sought as soon as possible. (See Ch. Ill for further details on first aid.) 13. Vesicant or Blistering Gases. a. Example.—The outstanding example of this type of gas is mustard gas, symbol HS, which in concentrations producible in the open may cause death. Mustard gas is an oily, slowly evaporating liquid, characterized by its vesicant or blistering action. It is highly persistent. The period during which it will remain effective after its release will vary from several hours to several weeks, depending upon the temperature, the amount of the substance, and the way in which it is used. Mustard gas will permeate any material which is at all porous, rendering it dangerous to touch, until decontaminated. Likewise, mustard gas will adhere to and contaminate metal surfaces. b. How detected.—Mustard gas has a characteristic odor which is very much like that of garlic. The sense of smell, however, soon becomes fatigued by this odor so that, after a time, if exposure to low concentrations of the gas is continued, the presence of the gas may not be noticed. A somewhat similar agent, Lewisite, has the distinct odor of geraniums. Liquid mustard gas, splashed or sprayed on vegetation and light-colored surfaces, shows as brownish spots. The vapor itself is invisible. c. How used.—Mustard gas and similar agents may be disseminated by means of explosive shell or airplane bombs or they may be sprayed in the form of a fine rain from containers carried on aircraft. d. Effects on the body.—Even in very low concentration, mustard gas has a very serious effect upon the eyes, causing irritation and, frequently, temporary blindness. The vapor of the mustard gas will quickly penetrate ordinary clothing, causing burns upon the skin, particularly at moist, delicate parts such as the armpits. A small droplet of the substance in liquid form, sufficient merely to cover the head of a pin, will cause a severe burn. The casualty effect of mustard gas is delayed usually from four to six hours after exposure in the case of the vapor, and from one to two hours in the case of the liquid substance. The first symptom of skin burns usually is itching. This is followed by a rash which changes later to watery blisters and, possibly, 14 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS a deep wound. Unless a great amount of the skin surface is thus affected, such wounds are rarely fatal unless infected, nor do they usually cause permanent injury, though long periods of hospital treatment are required to cure them. Mustard gas burns generally do not cause much, if any, pain. The breathing of mustard gas vapor results in general inflammation of the entire respiratory tract and renders the victim highly susceptible to pneumonia. In cases of fatal mustard poisoning, death usually is the direct result of pneumonia from breathing the gas. The effects of the somewhat similar agent, Lewisite, are similar, but the action of Lewisite is considerably quicker. Moreover, Lewisite contains arsenic and, unlike mustard” gas, is absorbed into the bodily system, producing arsenical poisoning. e. Effect on material.—Mustard gas and similar agents contaminate materials exposed to them, rendering them dangerous to touch. (See Ch.IV on decontamination.) f. Protection required.—In addition to the gas mask, special clothing is required for protection of the body against mustard gas and similar agents. It is not practicable, nor is it considered necessary, for all of the people to be provided with such clothing. Persons charged with decontamination work or other duties requiring them to remain in gassed areas should be equipped with it. (See Chs. Ill and IV.) &. First aid.—Persons who have breathed mustard gas should be treated as lung irritant cases. Their clothing, if contaminated, should be removed as soon as possible and they should be bathed with water and soap. In case liquid mustard has come in contact with the body, protective ointment or a paste of bleaching powder and water should be applied to neutralize the mustard and then removed (in a few minutes). If redness or blisters has already developed do not use bleaching powder or ointment. In this case, or if they are unavailable for normal decontamination, the affected area should be cleaned with kerosene, gasoline, carbon tetrachloride or alcohol, care being taken not to spread the contamination. Following this, hot water and soap should be used. (See Ch. III.) 14. Nose and Throat Irritants ( Sternutators ). a. Example.—These agents, sometimes called sneeze gases, are also frequently referred to as toxic or irritant smokes, since they are not disseminated as gases but rather in the form of a cloud of minute solid or liquid particles. Such clouds are nonpersistent. Typical of this group of agents is a substance known as Adamsite, symbol PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 15 DM. It is a solid material which is disseminated by a burning process. There are similar agents which can be used in explosive shells or bombs. b. How detected.—Adamsite has no distinctive odor. It is sometimes described as rather like that of coal smoke or burning smokeless powder. The cloud given off from munitions containing Adamsite is canary yellow in color but, after traveling a few hundred yards, becomes invisible. c. How used.—Irritant smoke agents may be used in burning type munitions called candles or, in the case of certain types, in shells or airplane bombs containing an explosive charge. In the latter case, it may be difficult to distinguish the bursting shells or bombs from ordinary high-explosive types. The particles which make up clouds of these agents will not penetrate a gas mask which is provided with a suitable type of mechanical filter. These agents are effective in very low concentration. Brief exposure to them may cause such immediate distress as to keep victims from adjusting their gas masks or cause them to remove their masks afterward. A high state of “gas discipline,” developed by training, is required to prevent this. It must be realized that an attack with agents of this type is likely to be followed by the use of a more deadly gas such as phosgene. d. Effects on the body.—Irritant smoke agents affect particularly the nose and throat, causing irritation. Headache, nausea, and severe mental depression are also frequent symptoms. Casualties caused by these substances are rarely fatal, but the victim may be incapacitated for 12 hours or possibly longer. e. First aid.—The victim should be put at rest and his gas mask kept on until he is removed to a gas-free area. Spraying of the nose and throat with soda or boric acid solution and allowing the patient to inhale, lightly, chlorine gas given off from chloride of lime are helpful. Clothing should be loosened. If the case is severe, the patient should be removed to a hospital. (See Ch. III.) 15. Tear Gases. a. Example.—There are a number of agents of this type, the principal effect of which is to irritate the eyes, causing a copious flow of tears. All of them are highly effective in very low concentration. Some are liquids and some are solid materials. Chloracetophenone, symbol CN, is typical of the group. It is a solid crystalline substance which, when evaporated by the application of heat, gives off its irritating gas. So used the agent is nonpersist ent. The substance may be dissolved in liquids and used in explosive munitions or in airplane spray apparatus. In such cases it is persistent, and considerably more severe in its effects. 16 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS b. How detected.—Chloracetophenone has a rather sweetish pleasant odor, frequently described as like that of apple blossoms. However, the action of the gas on the eyes takes place so rapidly, that frequently this odor is not perceived. . c. Action on the body.—Tear gases act directly upon the eyes, causing irritation which results in a copious flow of tears. In such concentrations as usually are obtained in the open, the effects of these gases are transitory. d. How used.—Tear gases may be used in explosive shells, bombs, and grenades, and certain liquid types may also be sprayed from airplanes. Such gas may be employed alone or in conjunction with high explosive munitions. It is used to harass, force the wearing of gas masks. If used against a city, the purpose would probably be to cause confusion and delay and lower the morale of the people. e. Protection required.—The gas mask furnishes complete protection against all agents of this type. f. First aid.—Usually, all that is necessary after exposure to such gas is to leave the gassed area and face the wind. The eyes should not be rubbed. In severe cases, the application of cold water or boric acid solution is desirable. (See Ch. III.) 16. Systemic Poisons. a. Examples.—Although not immediately irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, or lungs, these gases cause systemic (internal) poisoning, and if inhaled in sufficient quantity, may cause death. No such .gases suitable for war purposes are now known, but the possibility of their being discovered cannot be disregarded. Hydrocyanic acid gas (HCN), familiarly known as prussic acid gas, having an odor like bitter almonds, is an example of gases in this group. Unlike other gases described herein, its action is not cumulative or progressive, a definite concentration of the agent being necessary to produce any effect. Brief exposure to such a concentration, however, usually has fatal result. HCN was tried in the World War but was discarded. It is lighter than air and thus is quickly dissipated after its release. Another agent in this general class is carbon monoxide (CO), which is odorless. It, too, is not classed as a war gas but is sometimes encountered in war, being one of the products from the explosion of high explosive bombs and shells. It is also present in coal gas used for cooking and heating in many cities. There is no danger from this gas in open areas but, where a bomb or shell explodes in a building or other enclosed space, or when a broken main permits it to seep into a cellar, a concentration of this gas sufficient to be dangerous may result. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 17 b. First aid.—Effective first aid treatment for exposure to either of these two gases generally involves the administration of oxygen. The modern gas mask for war use protects against HCN but not against CO. 17. Chart of War Gases. Descriptive data concerning “type agents” and other well known gases in each of the physiological classes are given in large chart in pocket on inside of cover. 18. Uses of Gas The intentions of the enemy with respect to a city or town subjected to gas attack may be indicated by the type of gas and the manner of its use. For example, if he wished to disorganize a city with a minimum of material damage, he might try to gas it. In case he planned an immediate occupation, he would use a nonpersistent type of war gas which would cause casualties. If he did not intend to occupy the city or intended to delay his occupation of it for several days, a persistent chemical agent might be used. In any event, it is practically certain that an enemy will avoid entering any area contaminated by persistent gas. If the enemy’s purpose were to harass and lower the morale of the populace, he might use tear gas. If a nonpersistent gas is used, it is likely that the bombardment will be sudden and intense but of short duration, since such gas only injures persons exposed before they can adjust their masks. However, an attack of this nature is likely to be repeated later on. If persistent gas is used, the bombardment may be slow and deliberate, since surprise effect is not essential for positive results. 18 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS SECTION 3. EFFECT OF WEATHER AND SURROUNDINGS ON GAS 19. War Gas Hugs the Ground Gases, to be suitable for war purposes, must be heavier than air. If lighter than air, they are so quickly dissipated after their release that an effective concentration of them cannot be developed. Since war gases are heavier than air, they tend to hug the ground. They mix with the air, becoming in time more and more dilute and finally disappearing entirely. These heavy gases flow downhill more or less as does water and tend to accumulate in low lying places. In open country, they will accumulate and remain effective in ravines and gulleys for a considerably longer time than they do over high, open ground. Likewise, they will persist longer in woods than in open areas. -•'X; If used against towns and cities, gas may be expected to accumulate in subways, cellars, sewers and other such low lying places in a city. It therefore is evident that persons on the upper floors of buildings might be entirely safe, whereas those at ground level would be exposed to a higher concentration. Even the upper floors of a two or three story house are considerably safer in this respect than a lower floor or cellar. On the other hand, the lower floors or cellars are usually considered safer places of refuge against high explosive bombs. These conflicting factors must be taken into account in providing places of refuge against attack. Gas tends to pass around and over a house if doors and windows are closed. However, unless all cracks and crevices are sealed, the gas will eventually penetrate the house. 20. Wind. Gas clouds move with the wind. Low velocity and steadiness of the wind are favorable for the use of gas. Under such conditions a gas cloud tends to remain intact and the enemy may then make use of the wind to blow the gas over the target- However, if the wind velocity is high, more than 10 or 12 miles per hour, or if the wind is gusty, the gas cloud is torn apart and quickly dissipated. 21. Rising Air Currents. When the sun shines brightly, the ground surface becomes warm and radiates heat, causing rising currents of air. This is very pro- PRQTECTION AGAINST GAS 19 FIG. 7. War gases being heavier than air accumulate in low places such as valleys, cellars, and subways. nounced in warm weather and is one of nature’s most potent means of ridding the atmosphere of any pollution. In this connection, it should be realized that only for a limited period will any chemical agent released in the open sunshine remain effective. At night, when the ground is cool, rising air currents are less pronounced than during the daytime and may even be totally absent. For this reason, as well as because of the greater opportunity at night for surprise effect, gas attacks may particularly be expected at night. 22» Rain» A heavy rain is fatal to almost any gas attack. In the case of some agents, such as phosgene, the gas is destroyed by chemical action with the rain water. Gas of any type is beaten out of the air by the rain drops and drained away if not chemically destroyed. Fogs or mists, however, will not appreciably affect gas clouds and may even favor the use of gas since at such times wind and rising air currents usually are absent. 20 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 23. Clouds. Cloudy, overcast skies favor the use of gas since such conditions are not conducive to rising air currents. 24. Temperature. The warmer the weather, the more quickly chemicals are vaporized; and the more quickly this happens, the sooner they are dissipated. Thus, in general, cool, cloudy weather is favorable for their employment. However, an exception is to be noted in the case of such highly persistent agents as mustard gas. Warm weather accelerates the FIG. 9. Bright sunshine causes rising currents of air that help to disperse concentrations. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 21 FIG. 10. Rain helps destroy any type of gas and washes liquid away. Mustard gas, however, is hydrolyzed slowly. evaporation of these particular agents, thus producing a higher vapor concentration of them than obtained when the weather is cool. Mustard gas will freeze at a temperature considerably above the freezing point of water, which is 32° Fahrenheit, and thus remain inert, but as soon as the temperature rises sufficiently, it will melt and again give off its toxic vapors.* Frequently, such gas, released at night when the air and ground are quite cool, gives off very little vapor so that no gas may be perceived; however, when the sun comes out and the temperature rises, a considerable concentration may be developed. * Freezing point of crude mustard gas, depending upon impurities present, varies frpm 46° to 50° F. 22 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS CHAPTER III. INDIVIDUAL PROTECTION. SECTION 1. CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE MEASURES. 25. Classification. Passive defense against gas attacks involves two classes of measures, individual and collective. a. Individual protection.—Individual protection pertains to the provision and use of gas masks, gas protective clothing, training in the identification of gases by their odors or by other means, and in first aid measures for treatment of gas casualties. b. Collective protection.—Collective protection pertains to the provision and use of equipment to protect a number of persons as a group. This subject is discussed in chapter four. SECTION 2. GAS MASKS. 26. Types and Functions. A gas mask is a device which is worn over the face to protect the eyes, respiratory passages, and lungs from toxic gases, irritating gases, and smoke present in the atmosphere. There are many different types of gas masks. Some of them, used in industries, are designed for particular purposes, for instance, to protect against ammonia fumes in refrigeration plants, or for protection against high concentrations of certain gases used for fumigation, or to protect firemen against carbon monoxide likely to be encountered in burning buildings. These special gas masks are not designed for protection against war gases and should not be used for that purpose. Likewise gas masks for war use are designed to protect solely against war gases. It should be realized also that gas masks do not supply air. They merely filter and purify air which is drawn through them. They are not designed for use in places such as mine shafts, etc., where there may be a lack of sufficient fresh air. For protection in any such places a self-contained oxygen breathing apparatus or a mask provided with a long hose extending to the outside should be used. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 23 27. Masks for War Use» A modem gas mask for protection against war gases consists of two essential parts—the facepiece and the canister. The facepiece, which is made of rubber or other suitable material, is designed to fit the face closely so that when the mask is worn no air is breathed except that which is drawn through the canister. The facepiece is provided with lenses for vision and a one-way air outlet valve to permit passage of expired air. An elastic head-harness is attached to the facepiece to hold it in place. The canister is attached to the facepiece. It contains granules of specially prepared and treated, highly porous carbon called activated carbon. Activated carbon has the peculiar property of attracting and holding war gases but at the same time allowing the pure air with which such gases are mixed to pass on through into the facepiece. Granules of specially prepared soda lime may be mixed with the carbon to provide additional chemical protection against some gases. In addition to the activated carbon and soda lime granules, the canister contains a filter made of fibrous material which stops any of the minute solid or liquid particles of which irritant smokes are composed. Thus the mask provides complete protection against any type of air-borne chemical agent which, so far as is known, may be used as a war gas. After continued use in an atmosphere where gas is present the canister may become “saturated” so that it will retain no more gas. It is then unserviceable and should be replaced. However, under ordinary conditions the canister will fail gradually, allowing only very small amounts of gas to pass through it before it will permit a dangerous amount of gas to pass. A trace of gas can be detected by its odor or irritating effects and will thus give warning that the canister should be replaced. Masks made to meet U. S. Army specifications may be relied upon to protect the wearer against any gas attack that may be expected. 28. Civilian Masks. Among the types of gas masks used in the Army there are two which are considered suitable for use of civilians. These types are known in the Army as: a. The Noncombatant Gas Mask. b. The Training Gas Mask. 24 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 29. The Noncombatant Gas Mask. The facepiece of this type of mask is made of gas resistant fabric. The facepiece of the mask for adults is designed to fit any size and type of face. Small and medium sizes of facepieces are required for children. The head-harness consists of six elastic straps. Two lenses are sewed in place, and there is an outlet valve on one side of the face-piece. The canister has a rubber inlet valve on the bottom attached to a metal disk. This valve permits air to pass in but not out. The principal parts as we1l as the air flow system of this type of non-combatant mask are shown in figure 11. The mask is carried in a canvas bag provided with a closure and a shoulder strap. This type of mask can be manufactured in quantity at low cost. For the Army’s purposes such masks will be provided to civilians whose duties require them to remain in the theater of operations. 30. Respirators for Children and Infants. In certain foreign countries which have had occasion to make very extensive provisions for gas protection, special respirators have been designed for very small children and infants. The small child’s respirator is similar to the gas mask for adults but is of course smaller. The facepiece is usually made of soft rubber. For babies, a protective helmet is provided. This consists of a bag covering the entire upper part of the body. A canister with bellows is attached so that purified air can be pumped into the bag. A large window made of transparent material permits the baby to see. In general, rather than to rely on these devices for protection of small children, it is considered desirable to evacuate them from cities to less vulnerable areas. 31. The Training Gas Mask. This type of mask is fundamentally the same as the noncombatant mask but is more rugged in construction. The facepiece is made of rubber, and the eye lenses and canister are replaceable. The canister of this mask is the same as that of the noncombatant mask. This mask is used in the Army for training purposes, being considerably less costly than the Service Mask provided for the soldier for war use. This type of mask is considered particularly suitable as a “Civilian Duty Mask” for use by civilian decontamination squads, policemen, firemen, etc., whose duties in civil defense activities may make it desirable to have a somewhat more durable mask than the non-combatant type. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 25 FIG. II. Noncombatant gas mask. Head harness. ——————— Facepiece. Lens, u Filter Air intake valve. (contents of canister) Air outlet valve. — 32. How to Adjust the Gas Mask. I. How to Adjust the Gas Mask. a. As soon as the odor of gas is detected, or upon hearing the gas alarm, stop breathing and hold the breath. b. Remove hat and eyeglasses. c. Place the left hand around the bottom of the carrier at the canister, open the cover flap with the right hand, and remove the mask. d. Bring the mask up in front of the face. Grasp the facepiece in both hands with the thumbs inside and below the lower head-harness strap and with the fingers on the outside of the facepiece. Open up the mask with the thumbs. e. Thrust the chin up and out. Pull the mask over the chin and then over the rest of the face. f. Pull the head harness down into position on the back of the head. Adjust the mask on the face. Women must first brush the hair back so that the mask will rest on the face; otherwise, gas may enter around the edges of the mask. Similarly, men who are not clean-shaven may not get a gastight fit. 26 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS g. Place the left hand over the outlet valve and exhale as strongly as possible, emptying the lungs. This important operation forces out any gas which may have been inside of the facepiece when it was put on. h. Start breathing normally. Replace the hat and close the flap of the carrier. II. How to Test for Gas. a. Even though the “all clear” signal has been given, always test for gas before removing the mask. To do this, first take a moderately full breath of air. Exhale a portion of the air breathed and stop breathing. b. Stoop down and bend forward so as to bring the head as close to the ground as possible, but do not lose the balance or touch the ground with the hands or knees. c. Insert two fingers of the right hand between the face and the facepiece at the cheek, thus permitting air to enter the facepiece. Sniff gently but do not inhale. d. Stand up again. If no gas was detected, remove mask. If gas was detected, clear mask as described in paragraph g. III. How to Remove the Gas Mask. a. Grasp the canister just below the facepiece with the right hand. b. Bend the head slightly forward and pull the mask outward and upward and off the head. c. Hold the mask in the right hand and fold the head harness inside. d. Replace the mask in the carrier and close the flap. IV. How to Adjust the Head Harness of the Gas Mask. a. Loosen the straps as much as possible. b. Put on the mask. Tighten the straps, making certain that the straps on opposite sides of the mask are tightened equally. c. Test for leakage by placing the palm of the hand lightly over the outlet valve on the bottom of the canister and breathing in. The facepiece should collapse on the face. If the fit is too loose, or if there is a hole in the facepiece or canister, leakage will occur and the mask will not collapse on the face. d. Continue to tighten the straps until the fit is airtight. However, if the fit is too tight it will be uncomfortable. 422892°—41---3 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 27 V. How to Inspect the Gas Mask. a. Examine the facepiece carefully for pinholes, cracks, or tears by holding it up to a strong light. Examine the chin seam for rips or tears and the chin seam tape for any sign of failure. If examination indicates any need for repairs, take care of the mask at once by stopping the leak with adhesive tape. b. Examine the head-harness buckles for breakage and the straps for tears. c. Examine the outlet valve. The rubber disk must not stick to the valve seat. It must retain its elasticity. If it has hardened, cracked, or taken a permanent set, it must be replaced. d. Examine the inlet valve on the bottom of the canister. It too must be flexible. If it has hardened, it must be replaced. e. Examine the carrier for holes, tears, or other signs of wear. VI. Disinfection of the Gas Mask. A mask should be disinfected occasionally, and in every case before it is used by a person other than the original wearer. A three-percent solution of formaldehyde (USP solution) or similar disinfectant is used. The mask must be held upside down, that is, with the canister above the facepiece, to prevent the disinfectant from getting into the canister. This is done with one hand. The other hand is used to sponge the entire surface of the facepiece both inside and out with a small piece of clean rag which has been saturated with the disinfectant; some of the liquid should be poured into the outlet valve. Any excess liquid is drained out by opening the valve. After drying fifteen minutes in ordinary air the inside of the facepiece is then wiped with a clean cloth to remove any remaining moisture. When the mask is thoroughly dry it is returned to the carrier. VII. Care of the Gas Mask. The mask should be kept in the carrier when it is not in use. Nothing else should be put in the carrier nor should any weight be put on it. While at home or at work the mask must be kept in a cool dry place. It must not be placed near a radiator. The canister must be kept dry. If the mask is worn during a rain, it should be dried before being replaced in the carrier. If the canister becomes wet, it must be replaced at once. In time of emergency the mask should always be kept handy in its carrier. When sleeping, the mask should be near the head of one’s bed. Always take good care of your gas mask and keep it ready for use. If you encounter gas, it will save your life. 28 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 20 30 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS SECTION 3. PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. 33. Description and Purpose. For protection of the body against vapors or droplets of vesicant gases, persons must either take refuge in a gasproof shelter or wear protective clothing. (Gas shelters are described in the next chapter.) Protective clothing consists of garments made of materials which prevent vapors of mustard gas and the like, or droplets of liquid chemical, from passing through them and coming in contact with the skin. It is needed by decontamination squads and other protective personnel whose duties may require them to work in contaminated areas. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 31 To be effective the clothing must cover the entire surface of the body, and all seams and fastenings must be gastight. There must be no holes or tears. Such clothing used in the Army is of the coverall type. Attached to the suit is a hood, which when adjusted covers the head and fits snugly around the edge of the gas mask facepiece. Straps are provided to tighten the sleeve about the wrists and the legs of the garment at the ankles. Rubber or oilskin type gloves, rubber boots, or specially treated leather shoes, complete the equipment. The coverall made of oilskin type material is not only resistant to penetration by mustard gas or similar agents, but also is impervious to air. In consequence such clothing can only be worn with safety for limited periods. It interferes with evaporation of perspiration from the skin, so that the individual becomes overheated. To continue wearing it then is dangerous to health. These effects are more Specially impregnated shoes. FIG. 12. Gasproof clothing. Hood attached to suit fits snugly over h Tight straps complete neck and face fit. Zipper front has gas-tight overlap. Wrists and ankles are strapped tightly. Heavy duty rubber gloves fit wrists snugly. 32 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS pronounced in summer than in winter. In general, it is considered that continuous wearing of such clothing should not be extended beyond two hours; in the summer, it may be intolerable after less than ten minutes. 34. Adjustment. It is difficult for the wearer of such a gas protection suit to adjust the closure of the garment himself; consequently, personnel required to use protective clothing should be trained in aiding each other in this respect. Aid is also necessary in removing the clothing if it is contaminated; otherwise, the wearer is likely to touch contaminated portions and receive a burn. Contaminated clothing must be carefully handled to avoid spreading the contamination and must be decontaminated before it is used again. Before putting on the protective suit, the wearer should remove his ordinary clothing and put on a clean suit of long underclothing and clean socks. (See Ch. IV, Sec. 4, Decontamination.) SECTION 4. IDENTIFICATION OF GASES. 35. Chemical Gas Detectors. Ever since the introduction of the use of gases in warfare, chemists have been searching for a universal war-gas detector, or a device which by chemical means will definitely indicate the presence of war gas. There have been developed special kinds of colored paper, powders, and paints which undergo well-defined color changes when liquid mustard or Lewisite strike them. These detectors are suitable for mustard or Lewisite, but as yet no universal detector has been developed. 36. Sensory Detection. The human nose is a very delicate organ, and the average person, with proper training, can distinguish all of the known war gases by their odors. (See table 1, following.) A knowledge of the symptoms of injury caused by exposure to the various agents and of the appearance of gas clouds may also aid in identifying any gas used. The odqr of anything can only be described as like or similar to the odor of something else. This resemblance, in some cases, may be rather faint. Moreover, no one can know exactly how anything will smell to him until he actually smells it. Everyone, if possible, but especially those persons designated to give warning of gas attacks, should be familiar with the odor of each war gas. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 33 Table ¡.—Identification of Chemical Agents AGENT SYMBOL ODOR OTHER IMMEDIATE EFFECTS* Mustard Gas HS Garlic, horseradish None. Lewisite M—1 Geraniums _ Sneezing; eye irritation. Phosgene CG In light concen.—Cut corn. In heavy concen.—Ensilage. Thin white cloud produced; coughing; tightness in chest; eye irritation. Chlorpicrin PS Sweetish, like licorice. Lacrimation; vomiting. Chloracetophenone. CN Locust or apple blossoms; ripe fruit. Lacrimation; irritation of skin in hot weather. Tear Gas Solution**. CNS Sweetish Lacrimation; irritation of skin. Brombenzylcyanide**. CA Like sour fruit Eye irritation usual before odor is noted. Eye irrir tation lasts some time. Adamsite DM Odor from burning smokeless powder. Canary yellow smoke haze ; headache; vomiting. *The cloud of vapor is invisible unless its color is noted in this column. Intensity of all odors increases with the concentration. **Gases marked with double star are not included in the sniff set. 34 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 37. Use of Gas Samples. Small samples of actual war gases can be used for training in gas identification. The following rules apply: a. Memorize the odors and associate them with the gas. b. Before starting the test, take a deep breath of uncontaminated air. Exhale a portion. c. Sniff once and attempt to associate the odor with one of the known war gases. d. Exhale and clear the nasal passages of the gas. e. Do not repeat the test for several minutes. Repeated testing for some gases such as mustard will dull the sense of smell and prevent accurate identification. Caution: Smoking dulls the sense of smell. Do not smoke while learning the odor or at any time while testing for gas. FIG. 13. Cross-section of bottle in sniff set. Ground glass stopper. 125 CC reagent bottle. 50 CC activated charcoal (dry). Equivalent of I tablespoonful of agent adsorbed by charcoal. 33. The Sniff Set. An important instructional aid for teaching odors is the use of a “Sniff Set.” The one used for instruction by the Army consists of seven 4-ounce glass bottles, one of which is shown in figure 13. These bottles contain, respectively, mustard gas (2 bottles), Lewisite, Adamsite, chlorpicrin, phosgene, and the tear gas CN. The gas is PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 35 adsorbed by charcoal and is given off gradually when the stopper of the bottle is removed. If the bottles are not used for a long time, sufficient pressure may be built up in them to throw out some of the contents when stoppers are first removed. Therefore, before using the set the bottles must be opened by someone wearing a mask. The bottles will then be safe for use for the next 24 hours. When not in use the bottles must be kept stoppered. It is important to replace the stoppers in the right bottles. FIG. 14. 39» Use of Sniff Set. It is important to use the set correctly. The following procedure should be employed: a. Shake the bottle gently. b. Remove the stopper carefully. c. Pass the stopper under the nose and sniff gently. If the odor is too faint to recognize, hold the stopper under the nose for a few seconds. d. If this fails, pass the mouth of the bottle under the nose and sniff gently, but do not hold it there. 36 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS SECTION 5—FIRST AID TREATMENT OF GAS CASUALTIES 40. General Considerations. The Army gas mask is the best individual protection against chemical warfare agents. It will not, however, protect against carbon monoxide, ammonia, or oxygen deficient atmospheres and is, therefore, not suitable for use in fighting fires or in industrial accidents where ammonia fumes are present. It is important to learn by practice how to put on and adjust the mask quickly. The amount of agent in the air (the concentration) determines the intensity and rapidity of the effects produced. The higher the concentration, the shorter is the period of exposure required to produce a casualty. Get out of the contaminated atmosphere or area as soon as possible. Gases tend to travel downwind. If gas has been released in your immediate vicinity by bomb explosion or spray, move upwind. If gas has been released upwind from you, move across the wind till you are out of the stream. Most agents are heavier than air and tend to settle in hollows. Therefore, avoid low places or basements. The second story of a building is practically safe. Close doors and windows, stuffing cracks and chimneys; this will keep gas out for hours. If windows are blown out by explosions, hang wet blankets over openings to keep gas from blowing in. The blankets should be fastened tight at the edges. 41. Lung Irritants. Phosgene Chlorpicrin Chlorine (Nitric fumes) All chemical warfare agents may act as lung irritants under certain circumstances, but with phosgene, chlorpicrin, chlorine, and nitric fumes, lung irritation is the most conspicuous effect. Nitric fumes have not been used directly in an attack, but are one of the gaseous products of nitrate explosives. Rescue Squad workers and others required to enter poorly ventilated buildings or tunnels following explosions may be exposed to dangerous concentrations of nitric fumes. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 37 a. LATENT PERIOD. There is usually a latent period of 1 to 12 or more hours between exposure to lung irritant gases and development of symptoms. Cigarette smoke is unpleasant during this period, but there may be no other indication that an individual has been gassed. This latent period always occurs after exposure to phosgene and may be longer than 12 hours; after exposure to chlorine, there may be none. After chlorpicrin, the latent period is short and may be less than an hour; after nitric fumes, it is long like that of phosgene. Chlorpicrin may cause eye irritation and vomiting in addition to lung irritation. Persons exposed to lung irritants must be kept quiet during the latent period when they feel perfectly well. Any activity may cause sudden collapse and death. Patients must lie quietly and not attempt to feed themselves or even sit up. b. EFFECTS. Lung irritants cause pulmonary edema, a water-logged condition of the lungs which may cause the victim literally to drown in his own body fluids which pour into the irritated lungs. It is difficult for the heart to force blood through the damaged lungs, and death may result from circulatory collapse (heart failure) if the patient does not “drown.” c. SYMPTOMS. There may be none for 12 to 24 hours after exposure, except that cigarette smoke is unpleasant. Examination of the chest by a physician reveals nothing abnormal. The patient then begins to breathe rapidly, becomes flushed and then bluish, and may develop a painful cough with swelling of neck veins (Blue Stage). He may cough up blood-tinged frothy sputum and appear to be strangling. He may develop circulatory failure and turn a greyish leaden color, become cold and clammy, as in shock (Grey Stage). After recovery from this, he is still in danger of developing bronchopneumonia. d. FIRST AID. (1) Remove from the gaseous atmosphere and keep patient absolutely quiet in bed or on a stretcher. He must under no circumstances walk or even sit up, even though he may feel perfectly well. Keep him warm with blankets and hot drinks, and get him to a doctor as soon as possible. (2) Do not give artificial respiration to relieve difficult breathing in the blue or grey stages. The lungs are full of water and any additional manipulation may be fatal. (3) If symptoms appear, the patient should be given oxygen to breathe if available. 38 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 15. Gas casualties should be hospitalized as soon as possible. 42. Blister Gases, Mustard Lewisite Ethyldichlorarsine These agents, either as liquid or as vapor irritate, burn and blister any skin or mucous membrane with which they come in contact. Because of their persistence and insidiousness, blister agents cause many casualties, but the death rates are low. Only 2 percent of blister agent casualties in the World War were fatal. • a. SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS. (1) Persistence.—Under normal weather conditions in temperate climates, they may persist for days in an area sheltered from wind and sunlight. In winter they persist longer. (2) Power.—The power of these agents is so great that a drop the size of a pinhead can produce a blister the size of a quarter. Exposure for 1 hour to air containing one part per million of vapor can cause a casualty. The eyes are particularly susceptible. (3) Penetration of materials and of the human body.—The blister agents “soak in” as ink soaks into a blotter. This is not the same as “eating in” as of an acid; the penetration takes place without damage to clothing. Because the agents are highly soluble in fats, they also readily soak into the body. A drop of mustard on the skin FIG. 16. Mustard Gas blister. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 3» FIG. 17. Gas decontamination station. 40 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS glistens for about two minutes and then is adsorbed. Only metals, glass, highly glazed tiles and porcelains, and specially treated fabrics resist their penetration. The agents penetrate rubber. (4) Insidiousness.—Even in concentrations sufficient to cause burns, the presence of these agents, particularly mustard, may not be detected by odor or by any immediate irritation. (5) Delayed action.—Their ability to cause damage before any evidence of their presence is recognizable makes these agents dangerous. A patient may be sufficiently contaminated to cause extensive burns and show no signs of injury for 12 or more hours. (6) Universal action.—The effects of these agents are not limited largely to one set of body structures as is the case with tear gases and lung irritants. They burn and blister any tissue with which they come in contact, whether it be on the surface or in the interior of the body. The lungs may be injured by breathing vapor; the stomach may be injured by swallowing contaminated food, water, or even saliva. There are two types of blister agents: (1) Those which cause only local surface irritation. (2) Those which also cause systemic (internal) poisoning. These usually contain arsenic. More than any other type of chemical agent, the blister gases, especially those containing arsenic, will poison food and water, and render other supplies dangerous to handle until they have been decontaminated. Before transporting or treating blister agent casualties, medical unit personnel must apply to themselves those individual or collective measures which are necessary for their own protection, or they will also become casualties. A gas mask protects only the face, eyes and lungs; protective ointment must be used on exposed parts and protective clothing worn where possible. It is important to distinguish between mustard and Lewisite burns because of the greater severity and danger of arsenic poisoning from Lewisite. The effects of this group of chemicals vary with the portion of the body exposed. Signs and symptoms may be delayed, particularly with mustard. The length of the latent period depends on the concentration of the agent and on the individual sensitivity of the skin. Prolonged exposure to concentrations barely detectable by odor will produce casualties. b. MUSTARD. (1) Effects.—In persons unprotected by masks, eye symptoms are generally the first to appear. These begin with smarting and water- PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 41 Table 2.—Differences Detween Lewisite and Mustard * [Lewisite is more volatile at low temperatures than mustard and is therefore more dangerous in cold weather] MUSTARD LEWISITE Immediate effects: On skin Nose __ None, even from liquid None Sharp tingling from liquid. Breathing vapor for few minutes causes sharp burning irritation. Immediate severe pain from liquid. Painful as well as itching; blisters filled with cloudy fluid. No surrounding erythema (redness). ■ Burns through skin into muscles. Inflammation more severe and usually causes some scarring and permanent impairment of vision. Produces systemic poisoning with arsenic. Eyes Skin burns— _ __ Late effects: Skin Eyes Entire body None from vapor. Mild irritation from liquid. Much itching; little pain. Blisters filled with clear fluid and surrounded by an area of erythema (redness). Burns only skin Severe inflammation but rarely scarring with loss of vision. Produces no systemic (internal) poisoning. * Prolonged exposure to either mustard or lewisite in concentration barely detectable by odor will cause casualties. ing of the eyes 2 or 3 hours after exposure to vapor, followed by reddening and swelling. There is considerable pain, especially from bright light, and swelling may completely close the lids. If liquid is splashed into the eyes, there is almost immediate burning and all symptoms develop more rapidly. Eye burns vary from simple irritation and redness following mild vapor to severe ulceration from liquid mustard. £ Sneezing and running nose are also early symptoms. 42 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS Skin burns from vapor may not appear until 12 or more hours have elapsed, but may develop within 1 hour after contact with liquid mustard. The first symptom may be severe itching, followed by a sunburnlike redness, upon which small and large blisters develop. Shortly before the development of blisters, the surface of the reddened skin can be rubbed raw with slight pressure and friction. When liquid has been splashed on the skin, the blisters may be arranged in a ring around a central, whitish, indurated area. The blisters are surrounded by a zone of redness. Because of the depth of skin destruction, mustard burns may require some weeks to heal and may become infected. Vapor burns are more severe on areas of the body covered by clothing, which interferes with the dissipation of the mustard, and also on those areas subject to friction where the skin is moist or thin. The elbow, knee and neck folds, external genitalia, and armpits are particularly susceptible. The fluid contents of mustard blisters are not irritating to the skin. Irritation of the lungs is first indicated by hoarseness followed by a harsh brassy cough, later followed by production of yellowish sputum. These cases are serious because bronchopneumonia may develop. This condition was responsible for most of the deaths from mustard gas during the World War. Stomach irritation with nausea and vomiting may result from swallowing contaminated food, water, or even saliva. (2) Prevention—First Aid.—To be effective, treatment must begin within a few minutes after exposure. Immediate prophylaxis is effective only up to 5 minutes after liquid contamination. It is of little value after exposure to vapor because, in this form, most of the agent has penetrated the skin before the person reports for treatment. Contaminated clothing must be removed quickly, using proper precautions (mask, gas proof gloves, apron, protective ointment) to protect the attendant. Clothes must be placed in a covered metal container until decontaminated. Great care must be used in the removal of mustard from the skin; otherwise the agent will merely be spread. The steps are as follows: (a) Gently apply dry pads to absorb any mustard remaining on the skin. (6) Gently and repeatedly dab the area with sponges dampened with gasoline (nonleaded), kerosene, carbon tetrachloride, or alcohol. These solvents, except carbon tetrachloride, are inflammable; keep away from open flame. Have sponges only damp with solvent; if dripping wet, they may dissolve and spread the agent as they run over the skin. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 43 FIG. 18. (c) Scrub the skin surface within and beyond the margins of the contaminated area with soap and water. (d) Pat the area dry with a towel. Do not rub. (e) Burn or bury the materials contaminated during the procedure. Keep away from the smoke while contaminated materials are burning. It may contain mustard vapor. FIG. 19. A protective ointment developed by the U. S. Army also effectively removes mustard from the skin surface if it is applied with rubbing and then wiped off. Products containing active chlorine, such as bleaching powder and commercial bleaching solutions, may also be used. Bleaching powder should be mixed with one or two parts of water. Dry bleaching powder may be used if water is not available, but the reaction with mustard will generate some heat. Even so, the effect will be less than if mustard were left on the skin. Ordinary bleaching powder does not exceed 30 percent chlorine; high-test bleaching powder of 70 percent chlorine should never be used dry. Bleaching powder and solutions are irritating and must be removed from the skin as soon as possible (within a few minutes) or they will increase the burn. Be sure to keep them out of the eyes. If reddening of the skin indicates that the burn has already begun to develop, do not use these compounds; they will only increase the irritation. It is preferable to apply anti-pruritic ointment (par. 48, item 10) to relieve the itching. 44 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS The eyes should be irrigated with a 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) unless they have been protected by a mask. The solution should be run directly into the eyes with a rubber tube from an enema can or similar container. Petrolatum on the edges of the eyelids will prevent their sticking together. A 2-percent solution of butyn may be instilled in the eyes to relieve pain. Cocaine must not be used; it may cause ulceration. The eyes must not be bandaged. FIG. 20. FIG. 21. If it is likely that mustard has entered the mouth or nose, the mouth and nasal passages should be rinsed and the throat gargled repeatedly with 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate. The patient should be kept quiet and warm to guard against bronchitis and bronchopneumonia. If nausea and vomiting indicate that contaminated materials have been swallowed, the stomach should be washed out by repeated drinking of warm 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate. This will induce vomiting and wash out the irritant. After decontamination, all persons with eye, nose, and throat burns and with extensive skin burps should be hospitalized. Skin burns must be treated surgically as any severe extensive burn. c. LEWISITE. Lewisite is similar to mustard in physical characteristics, but it is more volatile and hence more effective in cold weather. It is also more immediately irritating and is more dangerous because it contains arsenic. Water breaks it down into a solid oxide containing arsenic, which is also irritating and poisonous. This solid is extremely persistent; contact with ground contaminated with lewisite will cause burns for a long time afterward. (1) Early effects.—Symptoms develop earlier and are more severe than with mustard. Liquid lewisite in the eye causes immediate pain. On the skin, redness appears within 15 to 30 minutes after contamination with liquid, and blisters soon appear, reaching their maximum within 12 hours. The entire area blisters, leaving no red PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 45 margin around the blister as is usually observed in mustard burns. The blister fluid contains arsenic and is itself capable of causing burns and general poisoning. (2) Late effects.—Lewisite burns are more painful and more dangerous than mustard burns. Lewisite in the eye may cause loss of vision. In addition to painful burns which may later become infected, symptoms of arsenic poisoning may appear. These are dryness and soreness of the throat, diarrhea, and restlessness. Later, paralysis may develop. Until neutralized or removed, lewisite continues to penetrate, burning through the skin into muscle or other body tissue. It differs in this respect from mustard, which never penetrates beneath the skin unless carried into a wound by contaminated shell or bomb fragments. (3) Prevention—First aid.—(a) Eyes.—Liquid lewisite in the eyes is an emergency. The eyes must be rinsed immediately with 2 percent hydrogen peroxide. If that is not available, they must be irrigated with 2 percent solution of sodium bicarbonate. Delay may result in blindness. (b) Skin.—Treatment must begin within 1 minute after exposure to liquid lewisite to be really effective. Contaminated clothing must be quickly removed with precautions to protect the attendant, and treatment should be started while clothing is being removed. The contaminated areas should be swabbed immediately and repeatedly with hydrogen peroxide. Solutions with 10 or even 20 percent available oxygen are best but are somewhat unstable. The ordinary 2-percent solution available in drug stores will suffice. If hydrogen peroxide is not available, a solution of 10 percent sodium hydroxide (lye) in a 30-percent solution of glycerin in water, alternating with 70 percent alcohol, is the 'second choice. The glycerin protects the skin from the lye. If no glycerin is available, 5 percent lye in water may be used. Lacking all these, the solvents and technique described for liquid mustard must be used. Following treatment, the skin should be washed with soap and water and patted dry. All contaminated cloths or sponges must be burned or buried. It is extremely urgent that patients contaminated with lewisite come immediately under medical treatment. The doctor must open the blisters as soon as possible to prevent further absorption oi arsenic. In opening the blisters, he must be careful to prevent infection and must remember that the blister fluid itself is capable of producing burns. If liquid lewisite has remained on the skin for any considerable length of time, surgical removal of the contaminated 46 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS area may be necessary to reduce the risk from the arsenic which it contains. d. ETHYLDICHLORARSINE. (1) Immediate effects.—It is more irritating to nose and throat than lewisite or mustard. Immediate symptoms of sneezing and often vomiting are therefore common. It is less irritating to the skin and therefore less apt to blister. It is capable, however, of causing arsenic poisoning. (2) First aid.—Immediate measures are the same as for lewisite. Nose irritation may be relieved by inhaling dilute chlorine from a small amount of bleaching powder in a wide-mouthed bottle or can. Repeated drinking of warm 2 percent sodium bicarbonate solution should be used for vomiting. 43. The Irritant Smokes (Sneeze Gases or Ster nutators). Adamsite Diphenylchlorarsine These agents are used to produce irritation of the nose, throat, and eyes, and are dispersed in clouds or smokes of very fine particles rather than as true gases. Their action is so delayed that symptoms may not appear until after the mask has been put on. When this occurs, an untrained person may think his mask unsatisfactory and remove it, becoming a casualty from further exposure. These agents are very insidious. They have no odor and are usually detected only when symptoms appear. a. EFFECTS. There is pain and a feeling of fullness in the nose and sinuses accompanied by violent sneezing and running of the nose. Severe headache may develop, followed by burning in the throat and tightness and pain in the chest. Nausea and vomiting may occur, and eye irritation may produce a flow of tears. A striking peculiarity of these agents is the mental depression they may induce. Severely gassed persons may attempt suicide. b. DIAGNOSIS. This is based on the presence of the symptoms just described, followed by relatively rapid recovery despite the miserable appearance and condition of the individual. c. FIRST AID. Remove to pure air if possible. A nasal spray of pontocain and neosynephrin gives relief (par. 48, item 12). Inhalation of dilute PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 47 chlorine from a small amount of bleaching powder in a wide-mouthed bottle or can is also effective. Headache may be controlled with 10 to 15 grains of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). There are no after effects and the individual recovers within a few hours. Severely exposed individuals must be watched for suicidal tendencies. Continue to reassure them that their symptoms will be of brief duration and are not dangerous. 44. Tear Gases (Lacrimators). Chloracetophenone Chloracetophenone Solution CNB solution Brombenzylcyanide a. EFFECTS. Exposure immediately produces spasm of the eyelids with sensitiveness to light, inability to open the eyes, copious tears, and some irritation of a freshly shaven face. Chloracetophenone solutions may cause a mild rash in warm weather and ocassionally vomiting. If the solution itself gets into the eyes, there may be permanent damage. b. FIRST AID. The individual should be removed from the contaminated air and face the wind with eyes open. If irritation is marked, the eyes may be irrigated with boric acid or a 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). The eyes must not be rubbed or bandaged. Skin irritation may be treated by sponging with a solution of 4 percent sodium sulfite in 50 percent alcohol. All symptoms usually disappear within an hour. 45. Incendiaries. Thermit—molten or burning metal Oil White phosphorus a. THERMIT AND OIL. Burns from molten metal are apt to be deep and severe due to the 48 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS high temperature. Immediate first aid consists in flushing spattered globules of metal with large quantities of water to produce cooling. Flaming oil on clothing or skin must be smothered. Cases are then treated as burns from any other cause. b. WHITE PHOSPHORUS. This agent ignites by itself in the air. Water or wet cloths will quench the fire, but as soon as the particle dries in air, it again begins to burn. The effect of particles on the skin is the same as of any heat burn; they stick and burn until removed, or until air is excluded by covering with water or treating with copper sulphate. First aid.—Keep the burn wet with water or wet cloths until the particles can be squeezed or picked out. Warm water, about 40° C. (104° F.) melts phosphorus and makes squeezing easier. If squeezing does not bring out the particles, they must be picked out with forceps. Do not use mud as formerly recommended; it may cause infection. Urine is sterile and is satisfactory if there is no other source of water. Unless there is water and time for immediate treatment, apply a 5 to 15-percent solution of copper sulphate to the burn. This coats the phosphorus with copper phosphide, shuts out the air and stops the burning until the particles can be removed. After the phosphorus has been removed, further treatment is exactly the same as for any other heat burn. 46. The Screening Smokes. White phosphorus Titanium tetrachloride Sulphur trioxide—chlorsulfonic acid solution HC mixture a. WHITE PHOSPHORUS. The smoke from white phosphorus is harmless, but particles from a shell explosion will cause burns and should be treated as described under incendiaries. b. TITANIUM TETRACHLORIDE AND SULPHUR TRI-OXIDE-SOLUTIONS. The liquids produce acid-like burns of the skin. They are irritating and unpleasant to breathe, but are not dangerous. Spray in the eyes may cause serious burns. First aid.—This consists in washing with large quantities of water. In the eyes, this should be followed by irrigation with a 2-percent solution of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). If severe, the patient must see a physician. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 4» 47. The Systemic Poisons, Hydrocyanic acid Arsine Hydrogen sulfide Carbon monoxide Although not immediately irritating to the skin, eyes, nose, or lungs, these agents cause systemic (internal) poisoning, and if inhaled in sufficient quantity, they may cause death. Hydrocyanic acid and hydrogen sulfide may be immediately fatal; arsine produces destruction of the red blood cells which block the kidneys and may cause death in a few days. Carbon monoxide, while not used as a war gas, may be encountered following breaks in illuminating gas mains. a. HYDROCYANIC ACID AND HYDROGEN SULFIDE. (1) Immediate effects.—Odor of bitter almonds (hydrocyanic acid), or rotten eggs (hydrogen sulfide) may be noticed, but strong concentrations dull the sense of smell and the individual may be overpowered and collapse immediately. Weaker concentrations may produce headache, dizziness, and nausea. (2) First aid.—Anyone rendering first aid in a gassed area to an individual who has just collapsed must be protected by a mask or he will also collapse. Do not enter a gassed area without a mask to bring anyone out; you will not get out yourseli. First aid consists in inhalation of amyl nitrite fumes and artificial respiration, until a physician can begin medical treatment. Artificial respiration should be continued for hours, even though it appears hopeless. b. ARSINE. Odor of garlic and metallic taste are the only immediate effects. Persons exposed to arsine must be kept quiet and hospitalized as soon as possible. Meanwhile, they should be given large quantities of alkalies such as sodium bicarbonate, citrate or phosphate to drink. This alkalinizes the urine and may help to prevent coagulation in the kidneys of protein from the red blood cells destroyed by the arsine. c. CARBON MONOXIDE. This is the colorless, odorless constituent of automobile exhaust and artificial illuminating gases which causes many fatalities. It replaces the oxygen in the blood and the victim is rapidly asphyxiated. It may be encountered in enclosures where fire has been burning with a limited air supply, in basements and tunnels where gas mains have been ruptured, and in other closed places. (1) Effects.—With high concentrations, the victim collapses 50 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS without warning after breathing the contaminated atmosphere for a few minutes. Lower concentrations first cause headache and dizziness, followed by collapse. (2) First aid.—Immediate removal from the contaminated atmosphere is most important. If breathing is shallow or has stopped, artificial respiration must be instituted and continued till the patient is breathing normally again. This may require some hours. As soon as it can be made available, the individual should be given oxygen to breathe. Do not wait for oxygen before starting artificial respiration. 49. Recommended Contents of Special First Aid Chest for Gas Casualties. 1. Bleaching powder—High test_______ 2 pound. For decontamination of skin from blister agents; for inhalation following irritant smokes. 2. Protective ointment—3-ounce tube_ 10. For protection of skin and decontamination following blister agents. 3. Hydrogen peroxide—10 percent available oxygen_______________________________ 1 quart. For removing lewisite from skin. 4. Kerosene____________________________ 6 quarts. For removing mustard from skin. 5. Alcohol—70 percent___________________ 1 quart. Following No. 4 and No. 8. 6. Soap________________,________________6 cakes. To remove No. 3, No. 4, and No. 8. 7. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)_____5 pounds. A. For eye irrigation following blister gases, tear gas, or other chemical agents. B. For washing nose, throat, and stomach following blister agents. C. For drinking after arsine exposure. 8. Lye----------------------------___________1 pound. For lewisite if No. 1 and No. 3 not available. 9. Butyn. N. N. R. 3 gr. hypo, tablets, 10 tablets per vial_____________________________ 2. For preparing solution to relieve pain in eyes from mustard and lewisite. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 51 10. Antipruritic ointment for mustard burns_ 3 ounces. Percent Benzyl alcohol__________________ 50 Stearic acid_____________________30 Glycerine_______________________ 10 Ethyl alcohol____________________ 8 Pontocaine_______________________ 1 Menthol__________________________ 1 To relieve itching following mustard burns. 11. 4 percent solution sodium sulfite in 50 percent alcohol_________________________________8 ounces. For removing tear gases from skin. 12. Neosynephrine hydrochloride 1 percent, 4 Pontocaine hydrochloride 04 _ 2 ounces. Boric acid saturated solution 12 For nose spray following irritant smokes. 13. Acid, acetylsalicylic (aspirin) 5-grain tab- lets_________________________________ 100. For headache following irritant smokes. 14. Cupric sulphate (blue vitriol)__________ 1 pound. For phosphorus burns. 15. Amyl nitrate U. S. I n , . J 1_______________________ 2 dozen. Ampules—5 min. J For hydrocyanic-acid poisoning. 16. Absorbent cotton_________________________ 1 pound. 17. Enema can and tube for irrigating eyes__ 1. 52 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS CHAPTER IV. COLLECTIVE PROTECTION. SECTION I. SCOPE. 49. Definition. Collective protection consists of measures for the protection of a number of persons as a group. Such measures involve the provision of special equipment for a variety of protective activities, namely, the construction and operation of gasproof shelters, gas alarms and gas alarm systems, decontamination equipment and procedure, and measures for the protection of food and water. These subjects are dealt with separately in the following sections. SECTION 2. GAS ALARMS. 59. Purpose. A gas alarm is a device to give warning of a gas attack. The usual form of such warning is a distinctive sound, sufficiently loud to be heard readily throughout the area to which the alarm applies. In the case of a large city, a number of such alarms might be necessary and, in addition, it probably would be desirable to supplement these means by local alarms serving small sections. For the latter purposes, church bells, horns of the Klaxon type, or rattles, might be used. FIG. 23. 51. Procedure, In case of the bombardment of a city, it is impossible for the inhabitants to tell before the attack is actually launched whether the enemy will use gas, high explosive, or incendiary bombs, or all three of PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 53 these means. Consequently, the best procedure is to regard any warning of attack as a potential gas attack and act accordingly. If gas is used on a large city, it may well happen that the entire city is not affected, but only one or more sections. In such a case, while everyone should be on the alert, people in areas some distance from those which are gassed may not have to adjust gas masks or seek refuge in gas shelters. The alarm system, however, should be such that people in each section of the city may be given warning in proper time in case their section is attacked directly or is endangered by gas drifting or being blown from another part of the city. This necessitates a highly coordinated alarm organization, including gas detection personnel, making use of telephone arid other means of rapid communication. As soon as the alarm pertaining to any portion or section of the city is sounded, or the presence of gas is detected, all persons in the affected area adjust gas masks, leave the streets and seek refuge in shelters. SECTION 3. GASPROOF SHELTERS. 52. Definition. A gasproof shelter is an enclosure sealed to prevent entrance of contaminated air or provided with equipment to remove gases from entering air. It is not necessary for the occupants to wear gas masks in such a shelter. If a gas attack upon a community is prolonged or if a persistent gas is used, such shelters are required for eating, sleeping and rest. Gasproof shelters are also desirable for carrying on such important activities as medical aid stations, hospital operating rooms and telephone exchanges, in which the use of gas masks would be a decided encumbrance. Gasproof shelters are of two general types, non ventilated and ventilated. a. Nonventilated shelter.—This is merely a room, building, cellar, cave, or other enclosure, sealed so as to prevent air from the outside from entering. Such shelters can only be occupied for a limited time since the air within them becomes foul after continued occupancy. The time during which such a shelter can be used depends upon its size and the number of persons occupying it. b. Ventilated shelter.—This is an enclosure rendered reasonably gastight, and equipped with apparatus to draw in outside air through a canister which removes gas. Such shelters can be occupied indefinitely. 54 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 24. Air-lock doorway leading down to shelter opening at each end is covered with blanket. FIG. 25. Shelf detail: Cross-section showing how • blanket is stored when not in use. Heavy black line represents edge of blanket. FIG. 26. Blanket detail: Strips of wood nailed across top and bottom of blanket and at points between; top of blanket nailed to doorframe. Side view at extreme right. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 55 FIG. 27. Air may be pumped down from upper levels to a basement shelter, provided double gas curtains are used in entrance* 53. Relative Danger, Assuming the inhabitants of a city are provided with gas masks and adequately trained, it is considered that the relative danger to life from the different forms of air attack, is of the following order: (1) High explosive bombs; (2) incendiary bombs; (3) gas bombs. However, unless adequate gas protection is provided, the gas attack assumes first place in the order of relative danger. From this it is evident that, if one has a gas mask, his first consideration in seeking protection against air raids is shelter against high explosive bombs. In case gas is also used, he can rely on his gas mask for protection. It is desirable, of course, that bombproof shelters also be made gasproof. This usually can be done without much additional expense or labor. The construction of bombproof air-raid shelters is dealt with in another manual. Hence only gas-proofing provisions are considered here. 5« PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 54. Improvised Gasproof Home Shelters (Nonventilated Type). A gasproof room in the home, to which the family together with the family pets can resort in case of a gas attack may be of service. However, it must be realized that the enemy is likely to use high explosives before the gas attack. The blast from the high explosives will probably shatter windows and otherwise interfere with the gasproofing measures adopted in the home. Nevertheless, materials may be ready at hand to seal such a room as effectively as circumstances permit although too much reliance cannot be placed on its being entirely gasproof. In the average home, the preferred location for such a shelter is the first floor or basement. Two exits should be provided. An air-lock doorway should lead into the shelter. A short passageway with the opening at each end covered by oil cloth or a blanket may serve as the air lock. Such an air lock prevents drafts of gas-laden air from being drawn into the enclosure as persons enter or leave the shelter. To render the room reasonably gas-tight all openings should be closed. Oil cloth, coated fabrics, or other nonporous materials may be used to seal all openings. Transparent cellulose tape is useful for this purpose. Dampened blankets may be tacked over the window frames. Chimney openings should be sealed and all fires in the room must be extinguished. FIG. 28. Blanket may be used to cover entrance to gasproof room. Fasten at top and sides with lath, leave sufficient length and bottom opening to pass through. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 57 55» Non ventilated Shelters. In erecting a structure that is specifically designed as an unventilated gas shelter, approximately 20 square feet of floor space should be allowed for each person to occupy the enclosure. Assuming the ceiling is of normal height, 8 to 10 feet, this will provide sufficient air for continuous occupancy of the shelter for about 10 hours. Thus a room 10 feet square will accommodate 5 persons, or one 20 by 12 feet will accommodate 12 persons. Walls and ceiling must be constructed of concrete at least 12 inches thick, not lined with steel or waterproofed since this affects the absorption of carbon dioxide. Even with this provision it is estimated that at the end of ten hours a maximum of 2 percent of carbon dioxide (the allowable limit) may be reached if the shelter is occupied by adults averaging 160 pounds. If the walls are lined with steel or waterproofed on the inside, then the allowable limit of occupancy for such a shelter is five or six hours. Beyond this time, respiratory difficulties, headache, nausea, and even fainting may be caused by an excess of carbon dioxide. The above figures are for shelters constructed in the temperate zone, where the ground temperature does not exceed 70° F. In warmer climates a larger floor space per occupant should be allowed. When the foregoing recommendations for air space are adhered to, there will be ample wall-surface area for dissipation of body heat for the maintenance of tolerable temperatures, even in tightly sealed shelters, provided the wall surface area is uninsulated. FIG. 29. Wooden covers for windows if properly caulked, prevent gas leaks and help stop glass splinters. Also useful as blackout screens. 58 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS FIG. 30. All cracks and openings should be sealed to gasproof a room. Arrows show where to look for cracks and leaks. Discomfort from continued occupancy of a shelter of this type is occasioned not only by lack of fresh air, but also by temperature and lack of air circulation. The use of an electric fan in the room is helpful. Also it is very desirable to place cotton bags filled with activated charcoal and soda lime in such shelters. NOTE.—In underground shelters with all openings completely closed to guard against gas attack, the rise in air temperature will be 16p or 17° above the initial wall temperature in 8 hours, while in shelters above ground the rise in room temperature, under similar conditions but with 50 square feet of 12-inch concrete wall surface per person, will be approximately 10° during an 8-hour occupancy. However, where entrance doors may be left ajar, this rise in temperature, as well as the carbon dioxide concentration, will be greatly reduced. 56. Ventilated Shelters. If a gas-proof shelter is to be occupied either for a greater length of time or if a smaller volume of air space is to be allowed per person than that specified in paragraph 55, then mechanical ventilation is necessary. In order that the carbon dioxide concentration shall never exceed the maximum allowable limit of 2 percent, it is necessary to supply 33 cubic feet of air per hour per person. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 5» FIG. 31. Best height for protection against gas. Gas is denser near the ground; at upper floors it is greatly diffused. If there are three or four floors above, a room is protected from roof hits of explosivebombs. STREET FIG. 32. Location of gastight room: Room I is best location because it has (a) one win- ** dow and one door, (b) three protected sides, (c) fourth side partially protected from explosion wave by detached house. Order of choice of rooms is indicated by numbers. 60 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS The apparatus used to provide fresh air is called a “collective protector.** It consists of a large canister or battery of canisters of virtually the same type construction as a gas mask canister, and a suction fan, operated either by hand power or a motor. By means of such an apparatus, fresh air is drawn into the enclosure, any gas or irritant smoke being filtered out or absorbed by the canister. It is desirable that the air intake be as high above the ground level as feasible and it is considered good practice to provide dual air intakes to guard against the possibility of one being choked by a nearby explosion. The size and capacity of the collective protectors should be standardized and so designed that in an emergency they can be operated by hand by two people or by foot power by one person. This limits the power requirements per unit to about one-tenth horsepower. NOTE.—Through such a unit with a resistance equal to approximately that of the weight of a 4-inch column of water, it is possible to draw approximately 80 cubic feet of air per minute with the expenditure of one-tenth horsepower. This will give a minimum air capacity of 1^ cubic feet per minute for 52 persons. A gage should be provided to indicate normal air flow. These units will normally be driven by power supplied by one-fourth horsepower motors. For shelters for more than 52 persons but less than 105 persons, 2 such units should be provided. For shelters for more than 104 persons but fewer than 157 persons, 3 such units should be provided. FIG. 33. Supply of air for breathing. Each square on floor of room is one yard (one stride). An average room 10 x 12 feet and 9 feet high will provide breathable air, without renewal, for I person for 20 hours, 2 people for 10 hours, 3 people for 7 hours. Allow 50 cubic feet per person per hour. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 61 Hammer (claw type) and nails. Caulking materials. Scotch tape. type or simple container with tight cover. Water for drinking, washing, soaking towels, and caulking. Food in containers: Simple packaged foods, thermos bottles of coffee, milk, or other beverages. Flashlight with extra bulbs and batteries. Radio—Battery-operated if possible. FIG. 34. Equipment for gastight room. If blister gases should be used in an attack, a gas refuge might have to be occupied for 6 or 8 hours. Supplies and equipment must be placed in the room in advance. There will be no time to collect them after the gas alert sounds. Since smoking quickly makes the air unbreathable, no smoking materials should be put in the room. 62 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS These units are intended to be operated by hand only as an emergency upon failure of power. It is the practice abroad to provide a bypass around the canister to give increased air quantity when not used in gas defense, but this practice is questionable for small units because of the danger of not having the bypass closed in case of gas attack. .For shelters housing more than 150 persons, it is recommended that an independent power plant be provided for driving a larger unit or units. Such a power plant will usually consist of a generator driven by a gasoline or propane motor. A battery and self-starter will presumably be provided for the motor. The ventilating units may then be of any size and driven by independent motors taking their power from the regular electric power lines of the city. In the event that fails, the motor-driven generator will supply current at the proper voltage for the ventilating units. In severe weather sufficient heating capacity must be supplied in the air units to heat the air to about 60° F. In Europe it has been found undesirable to introduce air in crowded shelters at a lower temperature than 60° F. The incoming air is heated by an electric heater in the air circuit in the discharge side of the fan. The heated air should be discharged from a header with nozzles or holes which will cause intimate mixing by ejector action and thus prevent too great a difference between the exit air and the room temperature. In underground shelters it is quite possible to provide cooling by means of uninsulated wall surface which has free access to natural air circulation within the room. To provide the maximum cooling area possible it is required that slatted wooden floors be provided, never solid wooden floors or matting. The quantity of air supplied in ventilated shelters is insufficient to remove more than a fraction of the heat given off by the body and by lights. Unless artificial cooling is to be provided, the uninsulated wall surface area should be not less than 25 square feet per person in underground shelters, and not less than 50 square feet per person in above-ground shelters. It is recommended that in the larger shelters having independent power plants that an air-cooled refrigerating machine be provided which will furnish cooling for a recirculating air-conditioning unit located within the enclosure. In such a case, the floor space can be reduced to 6 square feet per person either in the under-ground or the above-ground shelter. Such cooling systems must be of ample capacity to take care of approximately one-half of the total heat given off by the people in an under-ground shelter, or three-fourths of the heat in an above-ground shelter. This will require one-ton capacity of refrigeration for each 50 persons under ground or one ton for each 33 persons in an above-ground shelter where there is a minimum of PROTECTION AGAINST GAS «3 6 square feet available per person and the walls, floors, and ceiling are of uninsulated concrete. For example, above-ground shelters for 500 persons would require approximately 6.7 tons of refrigeration with aircooled condenser. 57. Air-Conditioning Equipment. Existing types of air-conditioning equipment present such variety of design and construction that no statement can be made as to the applicability of such equipment in connection with gas proofing. In each case, it is believed the services of a competent ventilating engineer should be obtained before any attempt is made to use such equipment. SECTION 4. DECONTAMINATION. 58. General. Decontamination is the process of neutralizing or destroying gas in areas which have been subjected to it. In general, no such measures are necessary following an attack with nonpersist ent gas, since it quickly disappears through natural causes. However, if persistent gas is used, liquid contamination of streets and the exterior of buildings may result and, unless special measures are adopted, the chemical will remain a source of danger for some considerable time. The chemical may have been sprayed on the city from airplanes or used in airplane bombs or artillery or mortar shells. Contamination also will result in the interior of any building in which such bombs or shell may fall. Upon the explosion of a mustard gas bomb or shell, part of the chemical will immediately pass off into the atmosphere as a gas. Part of it may be disseminated in the form of fine droplets floating in the air, while the remainder will be spattered about the bomb or shell crater. This, depending upon the size of the bomb or shell and the amount of the explosive charge, may be a considerable portion of the chemical filling of the munition used. In addition to such liquid contamination, materials exposed to mustard gas vapor will absorb the gas and thus become contaminated. The best method of decontamination is to treat the affected area with another chemical which reacts with the gas, leaving a residue which is harmless or which can easily be washed away with water. Decontamination work is arduous and dangerous. It requires trained personnel provided with gas masks and protective suits which cover the entire body. 64 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 59. Decontamination materials. a. General.—Materials used for decontamination are either chemicals which destroy chemical agents or which may be used to cover the contaminated area so as to prevent the escape of toxic gas therefrom, at least temporarily (fig. 26). b. Bleaching powder.—The principal decontaminating agent for mustard gas is bleaching powder, otherwise known as chloride of lime. This material is a white powder, not very stable, which readily gives up its chlorine when exposed to the air or moisture. Chlorine reacts with mustard gas to destroy it, but must be brought into intimate contact with the gas. Bleaching powder should be kept in air-tight containers until the moment of its use. Dry bleach should not be placed directly upon liquid mustard gas because the chemical process which takes place results in the evolution of heat and flame. This drives off a high concentration of mustard vapor which may be carried some distance by the wind, endangering people who would otherwise be safe. In using bleach on mustard gas, the bleach is either mixed with water as a paste or mixed with sand or earth. The use of bleach is affected by the percentage of available chlorine, which varies between different types of bleach. Chloride of lime when freshly packed may have as high as 35 percent available chlorine. There are commercial compounds, under such names as H. T. H. and Perchloron, which contain as high as 70 percent available chlorine. There are also available commercial bleaching solutions which contain from 5 to 15 percent of available chlorine. If using a compound which varies from the standard of 30 to 35 percent available chlorine, it is a safe rule to use 1 part of bleach, to 1 part of inert material for each 10 percent of available chlorine; thus, with 1 pound of 70 percent H. T. H. or Perchloron, 7 pounds of earth may be used; with 1 pound of 30 percent commercial chloride of lime, 3 pounds of earth may be used; or with 1 pound of 10 percent chloride, 1 pound of earth may be used. c. Water.—Cold water has little, if any, effect on mustard gas except that, if applied with pressure, it will tend to drain the substance away. Hot water is fairly effective. Mustard gas is heavier than water and will lie at the bottom of pools and puddles, remaining effective for a long period of time, though the water over it will retard the escape of mustard vapor. Water, either hot or cold, reacts quickly with Lewisite to destroy it. However, a solid residue is left which is dangerous to touch, though it gives off no gas. Even long after decontamination of a Lewisite area, it is dangerous to sit or lie down in the area. After PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 65 treatment with water, such an area therefore should be covered with a layer of earth, sand, or ashes. Articles contaminated with Lewisite which are to be handled should be treated with an alkali such as sodium hydroxide. d. Earth.—Earth, sand, ashes, or sawdust may be spread over a contaminated area to give temporary protection. The covering should be at least 3 inches thick. This does not destroy the chemical agent. It forms a seal, preventing for a limited time the escape of toxic vapor. If practicable, the covering should be wetted down with water. e. Sodium sulphide.—This chemical, prepared as a 1 percent solution with water, reacts somewhat more slowly than bleaching powder to destroy mustard gas. Since no heat is evolved in the process, mustard vapor is not driven off when it is used. The solution is more effective if heated. It may be used either as a spray, or mixed with sand in a proportion of one part (by weight) of the solution to four of sand. Six gallons of sodium sulphide solution are required for each square yard of area to be degassed. f. Green solution.—This solution, which has a greenish color, is prepared by dissolving one pound of bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) in one gallon of commercial hypochlorite solution. This mixture is less efficient for destruction of mustard gas than bleaching powder but is also less corrosive to metals. It should be generously used with sponge or rag. 60. Decontamination Methods. a. General.—Decontamination may be done by: (1) Destroying the chemical agent by the use of other chemicals or by burning. (2) Removing the chemical agent by washing it away. (3) Covering the chemical agent with a seal, after which it will slowly be destroyed by the action of nature. 66 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS b. Burning.—Grossly contaminated articles which it is not practicable to decontaminate should be destroyed by burying them in the ground or by burning. In case such articles are burned, this should be done in the open or in an incinerator provided with a tall chimney in which there is good draft, since the burning process will drive off a high concentration of mustard-gas vapor. Areas of land covered with dry grass and underbrush may be decontaminated by being burned over. Care in such cases should be taken to see that there are no persons down wind of the area within such distance as to be endangered by the gas cloud given off. c. Application.—The application of these methods with respect to different types of materials is discussed below. FIG. 36. Decontamination of ground. (1) Ground.—Small areas of ground contaminated with mustard gas may be treated by spreading bleaching powder (mixed with sand or soil) over them and spading this mixture in the soil. Figures 27 and 28 illustrate simple decontamination procedure on roads and ground. About 1 pound of bleach is required per square yard of ground. The labor involved is considerable. If no bleach is available, the contaminated area should be covered with wet earth or sand. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 67 68 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS (2) Streets.—Paved streets, lightly contaminated, may be rendered safe for use by washing them down with a heavy stream of water from a hose. Bleach paste or sand and bleach mixture should first be used on all heavily contaminated portions (fig. 27). (3) Walls and floors.—The walls of buildings should be sprayed or scrubbed with a mixture of equal weights of bleach and water. Both wood and concrete absorb mustard. Therefore, a second decontamination may be necessary. After this treatment, the walls should be scrubbed with hot water, soap, and washing soda. Paint absorbs mustard gas. Floors should be covered with a paste of bleach and water to a depth of 1 inch and left there from 6 to 24 hours. The paste should then be removed and the floor scrubbed. FIG. 39. Decontamination of walls. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS «9 The windows of the building must be left open until all traces of the agent are gone. Figures 29 and 30 illustrate decontamination of walls and floors inside of buildings. (4) Metal equipment.—Metal equipment should first be washed with rags containing gasoline or kerosene. These rags must be destroyed at once. Bleach solution should then be applied. This is followed by washing with soap and hot water and, finally, after thorough drying, the surface should be oiled. If the metal equipment would be seriously damaged by corrosion, the bleach should not be left on the metal for more than a few minutes. In lieu of these measures, noncorrosive decontaminating fluids, if available, may be used. (5) Clothing.—A person who suspects that his clothes have come in contact with mustard vapor should remove his clothes at once and bathe. The clothes should then be aired out of doors in the sunlight for at least 2 days. If the clothes have been contaminated with liquid mustard, they should be steamed for 4 to 6 hours. A steaming unit can readily be made from a large can with a false bottom. The clothes are laid on the false bottom and the can is closed. Heat is then applied. If any odor of mustard gas remains, the clothes should be treated again. Ordinary dry cleaning will not suffice for treating contaminated clothes. Contaminated shoes should be shuffled in sand and bleach mixture to remove unabsorbed liquid, but once the agent has penetrated the leather, little can be done to make them safe. 61. Decontamination Equipment. In addition to protective clothing, gas masks and decontamination materials, the following items of equipment are needed in decontamination work: a. Shovels. b. Swabs for application of bleach. c. Cloths. d. Sprayer.—This may be a small hand-operated device, such as a garden sprayer, or a large, power-driven apparatus, which can be carried on a truck. For spreading bleach solution on city streets, a vehicle of the nature of a water sprinkler might be used (fig. 31). 62. Decontamination Squads. It is probable that individual householders will have to do a certain amount of decontamination work if their homes are affected. How 70 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS ever, it is contemplated that decontamination squads would be set up in each community to deal with major decontamination problems. They would consist of a foreman or squad leader and at least five squad members. The foreman should be a graduate of a course of instruction similar to that of the area leader, as described in chapter VI. His job would be to supervise the work, see that equipment is kept in serviceable condition and replenished when necessary, maintain the headquarters of the squad, and train his squad members. Headquarters should be in a small garage or other such building. The squad members should be men who are used to hard physical labor. Equipment should consist of a truck, shovels, pickaxes, crowbars, wheelbarrows, a portable spraying device, a portable hand-pump similar to that shown in figure 31, chemicals, fire hose, 3/4-inch hose, several sets of protective clothes, decontaminating apparatus for the clothes, showers and dressing room for the men, and first-aid equipment. Street-flushing trucks should be supplied by the municipal streetcleaning department for washing liquid agents off the streets. Municipal street-cleaning personnel should be trained for this work. When a gas alarm is sounded, the squads should go immediately to their headquarters and, as soon thereafter as possible, they should report ready for work wherever their services are needed. SECTION 5. PROTECTION OF FOOD AND WATER. 63. General Rule. As a general precaution, food supplies, and water for drinking, cooking, or washing should be kept away from contact with chemical agents. Food having a peculiar odor or taste and suspected of having been exposed to chemical agents, should be discarded. Water suspected of such contamination should, in no circumstances, be used unless subjected to purification processes. 64. Contamination of Food. Food may be contaminated either by direct contact with chemical agents in liquid or solid form or by exposure to the vapor. Some foodstuffs absorb gas more quickly than others. Fatty and oily substances, such as meats and butter and also meals and flour, are PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 71 rather quickly contaminated. Green vegetables are somewhat less affected by vapors. 65. Decontamination of Food. Little has been done in the way of developing means for decontaminating food; probably, because of the obvious fact that no one method would apply in all cases. Moreover, the use of chemical means of decontamination very likely would destroy the taste of food or otherwise impair its value. Food contaminated with phosgene, chlorine or other highly volatile substances, might possibly be purified by ventilation, boiling, or other treatment with water. However, the food would probably have a disagreeable taste and be unpalatable. Food, contaminated by mustard gas, or by arsenical agents such as Lewisite and irritant smokes, could not be rendered safe to use by such means and should be discarded. 66. Protection of Food. For protection against chemical agents, food should be kept in gastight containers or in storage rooms, sealed against penetration by gases. Canned or bottled goods exposed to gas can be used if the container is immersed in boiling water before opening. Food which is not sealed in cans or bottles should be carefully wrapped in some impervious material, such as cellophane. Ordinary paper or cloth coverings are of no use. Waxed paper gives protection against gas vapors but only limited protection against liquid chemical agents. Warehouses for the storage of foodstuffs in bulk, such as meat and fresh vegetables, should be made gastight. In homes it is recommended that, for protection against gas attack, food be kept in original containers or gastight bottles or jars until the time of use. Refrigerators, if not gastight, should be made so by the use of rubber gaskets to seal all cracks and apertures. Where food containers have been exposed to a gas such as mustard gas or Lewisite, prompt washing of the containers, cans, or bottles, and prompt removal of waxed paper, providing the latter are intact, should be carried out. However, precautions should be taken not to spread the gas in doing so, or to become gas casualties; and wrappers or containers carrying gas should be disposed of so as to avoid further contamination. 67. Purification of Water. The contamination of a city’s public water supply by significant amounts of toxic war gases is relatively unlikely. Some of these 72 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS gases are of low solubility in water. Others tend to dissociate in water or to react with the mineral constituents of water and form harmless end products. The pollution of an impounding or storage reservoir on the water supply system of a large city to the degree that harmful results upon the water user could ensue would require such large quantities of the material as to suggest its improbability. On the other hand, as long as the water purification plant was functioning, its use of coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration with the attendant dosages of alum, activated carbon, ammonia, and chlorine would tend to remove the organic compounds as an incident of the modern treatment process. So long as water is available from public supplies through regular sources, it should be assumed that the local water supply authorities, the state sanitary engineers’ staffs and related Federal engineering groups would have satisfied themselves that the water delivered was safe for use. It should be also assumed that these groups would issue proper warning to the public to take steps for their own protection if the supply could not be safely used. In case of private water supplies such as wells or cisterns, and where water is stored on premises in tanks not airtight, the water should not be used until the health authorities have indicated its safety. PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 73 CHAPTER V. PROTECTION OF ANIMALS. 66. General. Domestic animals are affected by exposure to chemical agents in much the same way as man. Insofar as practicable, such animals should be removed from cities subject to attack and taken to rural districts. 69. Horses. a. Susceptibility.—Horses and mules appear to be unaffected by tear gas, but they are affected in the same way as man by lung irritant gas, and are perhaps even more susceptible than man to injury from vesicant agents such as mustard gas. The lungs and respiratory passages of a horse are highly sensitive to lung irritant and vesicant gases. The entire skin area of the horse is affected by vesicant gas but the most vulnerable are those tender parts where the hair is very fine or absent and where the sweat glands are most active. The eyes do not appear to be affected by tear gases or irritant ' smokes but they are highly sensitive to vesicant vapors, while liquid vesicants in the eyes will cause serious injury and possibly permanent blindness. Chemical wounds on the feet of a horse may incapacitate him. Injuries to the fetlock, coronet, the white line and the space between the bar and the frog are serious. Inflammation of the digestive tract of a horse, with the formation of ulcers, may be caused by eating contaminated forage, grazing in a contaminated pasture or drinking from a pond in which chemical shells or bombs have exploded. b. First aid.—First aid treatment for horses injured by gas is practically the same as for man. In lung injury cases, the animal should be kept warm and quiet, and removed from the gassed area by ambulance if possible. If the skin or feet have been exposed to vesicant agents, the affected parts should be treated with bleach paste for 3 minutes and then washed with soap and water for 30 minutes. Serious cases should be hospitalized. 70. Horse Masks. A horse or mule does not breathe through the mouth, hence the r horse mask need only cover the nostrils. A corrugated rubber tube 1 connects the mask with large canisters through which the air breathed 74 PROTECTION AGAINST GAS by the horse is drawn. The canister of the horse mask purifies the air in the same manner as does the canister of the Service Mask worn by the soldier. Exhaled air passes out from the mask through a rubber outlet valve. A head strap holds the mask in position. (See fig. 32.) 71. Dogs. Masks were provided for dogs used in foreign armies in the World War. Such masks were usually made of the same materials as the horse mask and covered the entire head of the animal. Dogs are not used in the United States Army and, hence, dog masks are not provided. Dogs subject to exposure to gas should be placed in gasproof shelters or destroyed. 72. Birds. Lofts for homing pigeons used in the Army are made reasonably gasproof by sealing all holes except certain openings for ventilation which are stopped by means of chemically treated blankets. Pigeon containers are covered with a gasproof material to which a collective protector of small size is attached. A hand operated bellows is used to force air through a canister so that purified air is supplied to the birds in the container. Such means might be used to protect other caged birds. o PROTECTION AGAINST GAS 75 REFERENCE AND TRAINING CHART © CHEMICAL WARFARE AGENTS © PREPARED BY OFFICE OF CIVILIAN DEFENSE