Plant Efficiency

[Plant Efficiency]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]

PLANT EFFICIENCY

Ideas and Suggestions on Increasing Efficiency in Smaller Plants Third Printing

WAR PRODUCTION BOARD
Issued by
Division of Information
Washington, D, C.

A NOTE ON THIS BOOKLET

. This booklet has one main subject—plant effectiveness and efficiency; one main audience—small- and medium-sized manufacturing Slants and their employees; one main purpose—to help war plants o a bigger, better, and faster job of producing in 1943.
The problems discussed are all of vital importance to any participant in the war effort who wants to see the production curve rise.
Technical problems vary considerably from plant to plant. Therefore, part of what is to be said here will be inapplicable in some factories, will require adaptation in others, and may be of minor help in those plants which have already undertaken full-scale plant efficiency programs.
But the matters discussed are basic in modem industrial operations, are now more important than ever before. It is felt, therefore, that to raise questions of plant efficiency problems again at this crucial time-may help some factories play a bigger role in the production effort.
It is hoped, also, that the booklet may be useful in acquainting new employees, both men and women, with some elementary facts about plants and their efficiency problems.
The entire booklet, however, is designed simply as a group of suggestions, ideas, and plans which have proved helpful in some plants and in which other manufacturers may be interested. It is recognized, of course, that much of what is said here‘will be elementary to many.
The text has been prepared largely by technical experts. The War Production Board wishes to thank editors of the McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. for their very considerable assistance in preparation of the text and to thank Mr. George T. Trundle, Jr., president of the Trundle Engineering Co., for his valuable help and suggestions.

PLANT

EFFICIENCY

Ideas and Suggestions on Increasing
Efficiency in Smaller Plants

Third Printing (Revised)

WAR PRODUCTION BOARD
Issued by
Division of Information
Washington. D. C.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Good Lighting—Better Work............................... 1
Cutting Down Accidents............................... ‘ 2
Adapting Old Machines to New Jobs....................... 5
Maintenance and Repair.................................. 6
Longer Life for Cutting Tools........................... 8
Getting the Most out of Machine Tools.................. 13
Production Lines Geared for War........................ 16
Meeting Government Standards........................... 17
Training Workers Quickly............................... 19
Swing Shifts........................................... 22
Keeping Track of Orders, Production, and Materials.... 26
Plant Protection....................................... 32
Pooling Facilities..................................... 34
Getting Into War Work.................................. 37

GOOD LIGHTING—BETTER WORK

Good lighting sharpens the worker’s most important faculty— sight. It is an effective means of increasing shop efficiency and maintaining production at a high level.
An adequate and well-designed lighting system brings to the plant:
1. Increased production.—When light is good, an operator or inspector does not have to look long and fixedly, straining his eyes, to make out fine details or to detect minute flaws. The more light, the greater the speed and accuracy of seeing. The necessity for spending extra seconds to be sure of a reading or of a detail may not seem important. But if that process is repeated many times a day, the time lost runs into minutes. Greater ease in seeing means using up less nervous energy. It leaves more energy for productive work.
2. Better workmanship.—With good lighting, men can see what they are doing. There is no necessity for making guesses or taking chances, and less excuse for making avoidable mistakes. Since defects can be detected more readily, they are much more likely to be caught under good light before work has gone through all operations to final inspection. Hence, there is less wastage of time, effort, and materials. *
3. Continued production by older employees.—Advancing years tend to dim the eyesight of older workers whose skill and knowledge are needed now as never before. When old-timers are provided with good lighting, tailored to individual needs, it is frequently possible for them to keep on doing the precision work for which they are fitted, instead of being assigned to other tasks where their training and experience are of little value.
4. Less eyestrain.—Older workers are not the only ones who profit by good lighting. The eyes of young workers, too, become fatigued and strained when they are required to perform tasks for which illumination is not adequate. Eye fatigue and strain are frequent causes of headaches and general discomfort. One large plant reports that the dispensary had a decrease of approximately 30 percent in calls for headache tablets following installation of a modern lighting system. A large percentage of younger employees—estimated at nearly 40 percent—have eye defects. Good lighting will help overcome such handicaps.
5. Reduction in accidents.—Striking examples of close relationship between the quality of lighting and accident frequency are not difficult to find. For example, when intensity of illumination in the punch press department of one company was raised from 1.5 foot-candles to 19 foot-candles at the working level, the frequency of minor accidents quickly dropped neatly 54 percent. In another plant, accidents decreased 11 percent after the old fighting system was replaced with a new one.
So many factors are involved in industrial accidents that it is practically impossible to say what percentage is caused by poor lighting alone. It is reasonable to assume, however, that, with the quicker perception and greater clarity of vision which good lighting makes possible, accident hazards will be recognized faster and more clearly, with correspondingly increased chances of avoiding them.

6. Better morale.—Maintenance of high morale among workers is important. When emergency conditions, as at present, require maximum effort and output from every worker, morale becomes vital. Whether the morale of a group of workers is high or low depends on circumstances not susceptible to exact measurement. Good lighting, nevertheless, is recognized as a potent factor in the maintenance of high morale.
7. Better housekeeping.—Dirt and disorder in a plant are bad from several standpoints. They are destructive of morale, resulting in poor quality of work, high costs, lack of pride in workmanship. Accident and fire hazards are certain to be higher in a plant cluttered up and dirty than in one strictly observing the principles of good housekeeping.
When illumination is poor, it is difficult to see clearly under machines and benches and into dark corners. Such places readily become dumping grounds for all manner of debris.
Good lighting shows up accumulations of rubbish and provides a powerful incentive for removing or preventing them.
Mere abundance of light does not constitute good lighting. To provide satisfactory shop illumination three main conditions must be met: *
1. Illumination must be sufficient for all visual tasks. Close visual work, such as fine assembly or inspection, may require an intensity ranging anywhere from 20 or 30 foot-candles to 100 foot-candles or more for comfortable vision. For less severe industrial tasks, intensities between 10 and 20 foot-candles may be enough.
Tables showing recommended intensities of illumination for a wide variety of operations in different industries can be obtained from industrial lighting equipment manufacturers.
2. Glare must be absent. Glare may be defined as any bright light source within the field of vision that causes discomfort, annoyance, or eye fatigue. It may be caused by a bare lamp, a poorly designed lighting fixture, light from a window, or reflection from a glossy surface.
3. Proper distribution and diffusion of light. Whether it is natural, artificial, or a combination of both, light should be distributed evenly over the entire area.
Three types of lamps are available—incandescent or filament, mercury-vapor, and fluorescent. Each type has important advantages. All are widely used. When incorporated in a properly designed lighting system, any one of them will give satisfactory results.
Laying out a good lighting system is a job for the expert. Many plants have engineers who possess the skill and experience, plus the instruments necessary for such work. Plants not in a position to handle their own lighting problems can secure help from the local utility company or from manufacturers of industrial lighting equipment.

CUTTING DOWN ACCIDENTS

To cut down accidents, first find out what is causing them. The chances are that the causes of many of your accidents will come under one of these headings: Handling of objects. Falls. Machinery. Improper use of hand tools. Stepping on or striking against objects. Electricity.

Handling.—Teach employees the right way to lift, carry, pile, and load, on warehouse floors, shipping room platforms, hand and power trucks. Do not permit walking or standing under overhead loads. Have crane and hoist cables inspected regularly by men who know when they are right. Provide adequate light and firm, strong runways for all loading and unloading. Keep all handling equipment in good condition. Provide the necessary protective clothing, such as gloves, goggles, safety shoes, as well as blocks, pinch bars.
Falls.—Stairs with slippery, worn, broken, wet, or icy treads, or stairs without guard railings or adequate landings, invariably lead to falls. What to do: Build stairs with correct riser height, at a safe angle; have treads constructed of or covered with antislip material. Provide good light and keep stairs free of obstructions.
Beware of the ladder. It may slip or twist; get knocked over, taking its occupant along with it; break; go over backward. What to do: Provide safety feet and safety hooks on portable ladders where necessary; provide fixed ladders where advisable. Educate employees to check ladders, to face the ladder when ascending and descending, carry tools in suitable pockets or hoist them in buckets, throw nothing to the floor from the ladder, have a helper at the foot of ladder if there is danger of anyone’s running into it. Do not use benches, boxes, tables, and chairs as substitutes for ladders.
Falls on level surfaces are frequent. They may be caused by such things as defective or slippery floor surfaces, catching the foot, breaking a tool, stumbling over an object. What to do: Watch your housekeeping. Keep aisles free. Store material where it belongs. Put tools back where they belong. Dispose of refuse. Keep floors clean. Provide plenty of light.
Machinery accidents.—Moving parts that are improperly guarded cause accidents, maiming, and death. Other causes of accidents are breaking of machines, lack of goggles or safety shoes, getting clothing caught, oiling while machinery is in motion, getting caught while shifting belt, catching of hair (women), failure to lock switch box. What to do: See that every risk point on every machine is guarded (over guard rather than under guard). Do not overload machines. Inspect them frequently. Tell employees to wear goggles, particularly when operating machines with single-point cutting tools (shapers, lathes, planers), in all chipping and sledging operations, in all grinding work, in all welding and cutting, in all hot-metal pouring, in handling acid, in punching or machining scaly metals or ceramics. Educate employees to wear the right kinds of clothing, never to oil a machine when it is running, to keep hair covered or pinned up, to lock the switch box and take the key, to lay off horseplay and practical jokes.
Using hand tools.—Slipping wrenches are a major offender. Others are tools with sharp cutting edges—saws, knives, planes, chisels, axes. What to do: Keep hammers in good condition, both hand and sledge. Prevent flying parts from punches and chisels by preventing mushroomed heads. Education is the principal preventive. But a great deal of help will come from leather sheaths for sharp tools, wrenches of the right size that are not worn out, punches and chisels that are good to start with, and, of course, goggles.

Stepping on or striking against objects.—Just what form one of these accidents will take is unpredictable. Good housekeeping and good lighting are the correctives.
Electricity.—Remember: “It’s Safer if Grounded.” Have grounding done by a man who knows what he is doing. Have grounds inspected frequently (they sometimes get broken). Remember, also, (a) that all electrical equipment should be kept in good condition and (b) that the employee who does not know his electricity should keep his hands, screwdrivers, and pliers OFF.
People themselves, of course, have much to do with accidents. Some people have accidents because they are reckless, others because they are absentminded, still others because of their quick tempers. Practical jokers and employees addicted to horseplay subject themselves and other employees to accidents. People under the influence of drink cause accidents. Plain ignorance makes its contribution.
There are not enough “perfect” people to fill all of industry’s jobs— and each job is accompanied by some kind of hazard. People and jobs can be fitted to each other, though; not ideally, but with considerable measure of success. A woman would not be given a job that required heavy lifting; a deaf man would not be allowed to operate a crane.
The boss has responsibilities.—He does, whether he is foreman, superintendent, or owner. No matter how small his shop—how few employees—he can do something. Here are some of the steps he can take:
Let his employees know that he is interested in their safety. He should talk to them about it. He can use safety posters (the National Safety Council can supply them). He can establish awards for departments that have the best safety records.
Appoint an individual to have the final responsibility for all safety and accident-prevention activities. It may be a foreman, or an employee who is naturally inclined that way, or the employer himself if he has only 15 employees or less.
Keep accident records to show what is causing accidents and who is having them. Analyze these records monthly. Take remedial steps.
Start new employees off right by having the “safety man” talk safety, point out hazards.
See that a good maintenance job is done. Keep machinery, electrical equipment, power-transmission equipment, guards, floors, stairs in proper condition. Provide plenty of light. Paint walls and ceilings in the interest of good lighting and cleanliness.
Provide tools of the right quality in the right amount.
Provide the necessary safety clothes and protective devices, including plenty of goggles.
Provide the necessary first-aid, but do not try to do a nurse’s or a doctor’s job. Go into partnership with other small plants in your locality to pay for the services of nurse and doctor. Or arrange with a local doctor to serve you on call.
Two major causes of industrial accidents are fatigue and undernourishment.
More hours won’t mean more production if the worker has reached a point of exhaustion. A man or woman who has worked too many hours at a stretch, or one who does not have sufficient or proper food

while at work, is more likely to have accidents than one who is fresh and alert. ■
Proper lunch-room and rest-room facilities will help. If your plant is large enough to warrant it, consider a cafeteria where your workers may buy inexpensive, nourishing hot meals.
Dividends from such investment will come in the form of greater efficiency and more production.
Conclusion.—Cutting down accidents is the responsibility of everyone in the shop. To get results everyone must be sincerely interested. There are two major procedures to be followed: (1) Make all machinery,'tools, and buildings safe, and provide safety equipment; (2) Carry on an educational program.
Every plant can be a safe plant.

ADAPTING OLD MACHINES TO NEW JOBS

Every machine that can help in war production must be put to work right away. It may have to be rebuilt or retooled or moved to another shop where it will fit into a production line which might otherwise be idle. The important thing is to get it working at once.
Stop thinking of your machines as lathes and planers and millers and drill presses. If you operate an average shop, you must have several types of machines that, with a little ingenuity, can be tooled to do the same operation.
Drilling and boring operations have been done for years in lathes and milling machines when drill presses and boring machines were not available.
The accuracy of most jobs in metal-working shops is more dependent upon the cutting tools and fixtures for holding the work than on the machines in which the operation is performed. That is a generally accepted principle.
It is easier for you, of course, to set up a job in a modem, precision machine of a type designed for that particular kind of work. And production costs are usually lower when the right machines and right tools are employed. But today war production schedules must be met while we are waiting for the right machines to arrive.
Seek out the men in your shop with the ingenuity of the old mechanic who could make anything so long as he had a lathe, a planer, and a few hand tools. You must have such men somewhere in your shop. The man you want is the one who turns out work though the only available lathe or miller may be tied up on an important job. Perhaps he is in your tool room or is a foreman in your repair and maintenance department. That is the kind of man who will give you invaluable help today in using what equipment you have to the best advantage.
Hundreds of examples can be cited where production today is being put out with limited facilities. Accuracy has not suffered. Getting the job done has meant (1) developing jigs and fixtures for holding the work and for guiding the cutting tool, (2) building the required accuracy into the tools, and (3) depending upon the machine solely for the power to drive the tools.
A middle-western plant, for example, has built heavy fixtures for line boring and reaming shaft bearing holes in large castings. Heavy

bearings at each end of the fixtures support and guide the large tool bars. Power to drive the bars is furnished by the standard head on the arm of a universal radial drill, with the head and arm swiveled to bring the spindle into close alignment with the tool bar when it has been positioned in the fixture. While the job could be done more rapidly with a modern horizontal boring machine, it is being done just as accurately with, the present method as with the most modern machine tool.
A plant in New England has for years line-bored and reamed parallel holes in lathe headstock castings, using a fixture mounted on the carriage of a large lathe to hold the work, bearing supports at each end of the fixture to guide the tool bars, and a special multiple-spindle geared head to drive the bars. This, in turn, is driven by the head-stock spindle of the lathe in which the work is done. Not only are all of the holes finished at once, but they are parallel and of proper size. The reason is that the necessary accuracy has been built into the tools.
One of the first American plants to get into production of large high explosive shells after the start of the present war did not wait for delivery of special shell-turning equipment. It purchased a number of heavy-duty engine lathes of standard design, ripped off the standard carriages and in some cases the tailstocks, and put in their place special carriages with multiple slides and hydraulic feed cylinders. Those changes multiplied by several times the production obtainable if the standard carriages and cross-slides had been used.
Faced with curtailment of civilian production and unable to obtain new machinery to make war goods for several months, a motor and fan maker retooled all suitable machines in his plant to produce boosters for high explosive shell, filling in the gaps in his production line with home-made machines and unusual adaptations of other available equipment. Among other things, he formed an old standard arbor press into an air-operated staker by mounting an air cylinder and developing ?ome special tools. Following the same principles, a toy manufacturer is making parachute flare casings, another is turning out special instruments for the Navy, and a small manufacturer of merry-go-rounds has gone into the manufacture of war material for the Army. These few examples can be multiplied many times.

MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Proper maintenance of shop equipment means freedom from breakdowns. It helps insure uninterrupted production.
Heavy and continuous usage of equipment causes wear and deterioration. Overloads and fatigue of equipment result in breakage of parts. Such conditions cannot be avoided entirely, but their effects can be minimized and long shut-downs prevented by adequate maintenance.
Adequate maintenance requires careful inspection at frequent intervals, to detect weaknesses before they become serious, and skillful repair of defective parts.
A plant operator may think that money can be saved by getting along without a maintenance force but he is only fooling himself. In the long run it is cheaper to gain the benefits of good maintenance than to do without them.

Size of the maintenance force depends upon several factors: kind and amount of equipment, age of equipment, number of hours of operation, calibre of maintenance men, and competence of the man in charge of the force. Look upon this force as a preventive agency.
Good housekeeping is the keynote of good maintenance. Men take pride in their machines in a clean, well-painted shop. Dirt breeds carelessness, breakdowns, and accidents.
Machine tools carry the production load in most metal-working plants. They are being worked long hours—sometimes without interruption.
New machine tools have, precision built into them by the manufacturer. Good care will preserve this precision. Fortunately modern design has provided automatic lubricating devices on most machine tools; often these are supplemented by sight-feed oilers to make continuous lubrication as foolproof as possible.
On such machines keep the oil reservoirs filled and make sure that the oil lines are clear. Read the manufacturer’s instructions, as there may be some points, not reached by the central system, where oiling must be done by hand. Follow recommended practice for the kinds of oil and grease you use.
Older machine tools may require considerable hand oiling for bearings, ways, and gears. See that they receive systematic attention.
Heavy machine tools, such as planers and horizontal boring machines, depend on alignment for their accuracy. Good practice is to mount them on leveling blocks and to realign them periodically. Machine beds can be tested with a straight-end and spirit level; spindles, with a test bar and a dial indicator.
Chips are the foes of precision. Keep working surfaces clear of them or they will cut machine tool ways and shorten their life. If track wipers come off, replace them at once because they perform a valuable function.
All electrical power equipment should be inspected at frequent intervals. Lubrication of motors must be watched. Those motors equipped with antifriction bearings may need greasing only two or three times a year. Sleeve-bearing types, however, should be checked every 3 or 4 weeks, and oftener if necessary.
Proper selection and installation of electrical equipment has a decisive influence on the amount of maintenance needed. If motors are badly overloaded, for example, they will run hot and are likely to bum out. Controls not protected properly by suitable housings against corrosive fumes or excessive dust or moisture may give trouble.
Important motors should be looked at every day or two to see that they are running properly and are not overheating. Proper maintenance of motors will cut down electrical fire hazards. A sizable percentage of all fires of electrical origin are caused by defective motors.
Motor controls likewise need regular inspection and care. Rough contacts should be smoothed off. Overload devices should be checked to give proper protection to motors and machines when abnormal conditions arise. Circuit protective devices, too, should be looked over occasionally, although less often than equipment that is operated many times daily.
Periodic tests of all electrical equipment, including power lines, with an insulation resistance meter, will locate weak spots that may cause trouble later.

522449°—43---2

Lighting systems need more maintenance than is frequently given them. Lamps deteriorate and eventually go out, requiring replacement. A burned-out lamp can easily be seen, but gradual dimming of the light output through the dirt and dust that collect on lamps and reflectors is not so readily noted. Lights and reflectors should be washed at intervals dictated by shop conditions.
Complete units and parts of electrical equipment eventually will give out and must be replaced. Hence an adequate stock of spare equipment or parts must be kept on hand, particularly of items essential to continuous output.
Keep power transmission equipment trouble-free by proper lubrication. Lubricants used must be suitable for the purpose and must be applied in the right amount at the proper intervals. Responsibility should be put upon your maintenance force. Since some pieces of equipment need attention oftener than others, it is advisable to draw up a simple lubrication schedule to be followed for all important equipment.
Over-oiling of motors is common and objectionable because dust and lint readily adhere to windings that are sticky with oil. Remember that oil tends to soften the insulation. It is desirable, therefore, to have the motor inspector or an electrician handle the lubrication of all motors.
Belts, chain drives, variable-speed mechanisms, and other devices used to transmit power between motors and the machines they drive should be given proper attention. Belts should be inspected regularly to determine whether they are oil-soaked or show evidences of serious deterioration, such as ply separation, cracks, or fraying at the edges. Proper tension should be maintained on all belts. Too much tension shortens belt life and increases bearing wear. Too little tension results in slippage, excessive belt wear, and reduced machine output. Chain drives require adequate lubrication and protection from dust and dirt.
Alignment of lineshafts should be checked once or twice a year. Settlement of the building, deflection of the floor above under load, and other conditions throw shafts out of line, increasing friction, power consumption, and bearing wear.
Buildings also need care. Rough, defective floors present serious accident hazards and interfere with the movement of trucks. Dingy walls and ceilings cut down the efficiency of the lighting system and are bad for employee morale. A leaky roof may seriously damage equipment and products. Cracked or broken window lights tend to waste heat and produce annoying drafts, besides giving the plant a run-down look.
A yearly inspection should be made of the roof and flashings. Floors, passageways, and stairs should be looked over every two or three months. As with other phases of preventive maintenance, the secret of low building maintenance cost is early detection and prompt and skillful repair of all defects.

LONGER LIFE FOR CUTTING TOOLS

Conserving cutting tools does not mean slowing down or nursing them along. If they are used correctly, their life can actually be lengthened while using increased feeds and speeds.

To obtain more production from cutting tools, three main objectives must be kept in mind:
1. Selecting the right tool.
2. Proper sharpening.
3. Application to produce more parts.
Don’t use cutters too small for the job. Many small cutters have too many teeth. Plain milling cutters are frequently used when helical teeth would do much better.
To secure maximum tool life and best performance from drills, taps, cutters, hobs, and all cutting tools:
1. The machine tool on which they are used should provide rigidity to drive the tool through the work without vibration. Cutter arbors should be large in diameter and run true after the cutter is assembled. The work-holding fixture should support the work under the section to be machined and hold it rigidly. The range of spindle speeds should provide the right number of surface feet per minute for the material to be machined and feeds that will permit the correct chip load per tooth.
2. The cutting tool must be correctly designed and made from material that, when heat-treated, will combine hardness with toughness to stand shock or impact load and resist abrasive wear. It must be sharpened so that the angles back of the cutting edges provide proper clearance and maximum support for the edge of the tool. Grinding wheels must be selected that will not, under proper conditions, wheel-burn the cutting edge and draw the temper, but instead will produce a good finish.
For milling cutters, some of the points to watch are rake angle, helical flutes, flute angle, and arbor hole sizes.
Rake angle facilitates chip removal by increasing the efficiency of the cutter tooth.. The advantage of rake angle is most pronounced in milling ductile material. In general, a rake angle of from 10 to 15 degrees is most satisfactory.
Helical flutes give smoothness in cutting because their cutting edges engage the work progressively, thus eliminating chatter and impact. They are recommended for work requiring wide cutters. The helix angle should not exceed 45 degrees in most cases. There are, however, set-ups where 52 degrees is desirable.
Flute angle on half side mills and interlocking; cutters should be checked carefully. All straddle-milling operations should be performed with half side mills. The angle of the flute should carry the chip away from the cut; staggered-tooth mills are not recommended for this work. The angle of flute in interlocking cutters should be in a direction that will allow the chip to escape.
Arbor holes should be large enough to provide a rigid drive for the cutter. Large arbors are less likely to be bent or sprung. Arbor holes in cutters should fit the arbor closely; if they do not, the cutter will not run true and only part of the teeth will engage the work.
Improper sharpening severely limits cutting speeds and feeds. By reducing the number of cuts between grinds, it needlessly shortens the useful life of the tool. Excess stock removal may aggravate the effect so that only a fraction of a tool’s capacity to produce will be used before it reaches the scrap pile.
In resharpening milling cutters, four major items should be watched: (1) relief, (2) land, (3) clearance, (4) finish.

Relief, or drop-off back of the cutting edge, should provide maximum support to the cutting edge and be just enough to clear the work when the proper feed is used. This relief can be best controlled by employing a dial indicator to find the amount of drop in thousandths. For example: On a profile cutter 4 inches in diameter, the relief on a land %4-inch wide should be about 0.003-inch for milling steel.
Land provides support to the cutting edge. It should be kept to a width of approximately Ka-inch for small cutters and Ke-inch for larger cutters so that the relief may be as small as possible. When the land is increased by resharpening, it should be reduced to this width by regrinding the secondary clearance angle.
Clearance provides chip space in the flute of the cutter and reduces the amount of material to be removed in regrinding the relief. This angle should be kept as near as possible to the original design of the cutter tooth.
Finish is important. If cutters are sharpened with grinding wheels that leave the edges rough or with “saw teeth,” these high points or “teeth” break off when the cutter contacts the work, and the edge will be dull before it does any work. A smooth finish obtained by using the right grinding wheel on the cutting edge will often produce two to three times as many parts as a rough finish.
Proper selection and sharpening will give better results only when the cutter runs true after it is assembled on the arbor. It is good practice to use a dial indicator to determine the amount of run-out after a cutter is assembled on the arbor and before it is put to work. If they do run out, the indicator can be used to determine the cause. Some of the common causes of cutter run-out are:
1. Arbor taper scored or bumped so that the arbor does not fit the taper in the milling machine spindle.
2. Spacing collars out of parallel on the ends.
3. Spacing collars scored on the ends; chips or dirt between the spacing collars.
4. Arbor hole in the cutter larger than the arbor.
5. Loose fitting or short driving keys.
6. Too vigorous use of the arbor nut wrench when tightening the arbor nut which will spring or stretch the arbor along the keyway side.
7. Diameter of «arbor too small for the work to be done.
8. Arbor support bearing worn or loose.
Cutters will run true after they are assembled on the milling machine arbor if the arbor is true, the taper is free from bumps or scores, and if it correctly fits the spindle taper. Spacing collars should be inspected and if they are not parallel, or if they are scored on the ends, they should be properly ground.
Care should be taken when assembling the cutters and spacing collars on the arbor to see that there are no chips or dirt between the collars or cutters. The cutter arbor hole should not be more than 0.001 inch larger than the arbor, preferably less.
Arbors should have full-length permanent keys so that spacing collars and cutters will be assembled on the arbor in the same position. This will help to keep the cutter assembly running true. Too vigorous use of the arbor nut wrench will tend to stretch the arbor along the keyway side and make it run out. The key will drive the cutter if the nut is just normally tight.

If the arbor is sprung or runs out, it will soon wear the support bushing oblong so that it will not fit the bearing. No amount of adjustment will keep the bearing permanently tight if the arbor does not run true.
When all of these conditions are correct, the cutters and milling machines on which they are used will produce the maximum number of parts.
In many plants, inspection of new cutters, before they are sent to stores or into departments for use, is under the supervision of a tool supervisor. Tools are inspected for hardness, clearance back of the cutting edges, rake on the face of the teeth, and general workmanship. This inspection results in the elimination of set-ups with tools which will not work and then having to break up the set-up and return the tools to the grinding room to be resharpened.
Improper drill grinding may remove more metal from the drill than is necessary and reduce the number of times that the drill can be resharpened.
Four points must be carefully controlled:
1. Relief back of the cutting edges.
2. Length and angle of cutting edges.
3. Position of center.
4. Web thickness.
Proper relief is necessary to provide free cutting action. The relief should be kept to a minimum, however, so that the cutting edges will, have maximum support. The average relief at the circumference should be about 12 degrees for general purposes.
The length of the cutting edges must always be the same, and must be at equal angles to the axis of the drill. Unless these two details are correct, the holes drilled will be larger than the drill. The drill will be forced against the side wall of the hole and will cause excessive wear On the margin.
The correct angle, for general purposes is 59 degrees (118 degrees included angle). For hard material this angle should be more than 59 degrees and for soft material less than 59 degrees. It is good practice to use a gage for controlling the angles and to check the position of the center.
The center of the drill should coincide with the axis. If it is off-center, angle, length of cutting edges, and position of the web should be carefully inspected. Cutting edges must be at the same angle and the web central, to have the center coincide with the drill axis.
Drills are designed with an increase in the thickness of the web from the point toward the shank. This is necessary to provide sufficient strength to stand the strain imposed. The web is literally pushed through the work, and consequently should be made as thin as practical. When the drill has been sharpened a number of times the web grows thicker at the point and should be thinned. Web thinning, especially on large drills, should be done on a web-thinning machine.
There is no substitute for the proper machine to sharpen drills. It is not good practice to attempt to sharpen drills by hand. The following is an authentic record of comparison of drill performance between hand-ground drills and machine-ground drills. The values in this record represent averages over a period of several weeks and not just a single test.

Drill Performance
[Size of drill: 57/64 inch. Material drilled: Forged steel, 3J4 inches thick]
Life of Drill Work Performance
Regrinds: Holes per grind: Total holes:
102 by hand. 'Hand, 15. Hand, 1,530.
256 by machine. Machine, 120. Machine, 30,720.
Cost of drills: $2.22 per thousand holes for hand-ground drills. 11 cents per thousand holes for machine-ground drills.
Drills sharpened by the proper machine will conserve the life of the drill by producing more pieces per grind, holes drilled will be the right size, and more of the productive capacity of the drill press can be used
The vital part of any cutting tool is its cutting edge. When this edge is “wheel-burned” the temper is drawn, making it so soft that it will not resist either abrasive wear or impact load.
Some of the common causes of wheel-burning ate using grinding wheels at the wrong surface speeds, wheel loading, forcing the cut, and using the wrong wheel for the work.

A well-designed cutter tooth has a small land with sufficient relief to allow the right feed to be used on the machine. Back of the tooth is a straight line, then a curve, then a straight line, and a generous radius at the root.

When an indicator is used to determine the drop in thousandths in sharpened cutters, the element of human error is eliminated. Therefore, it is more practical in designing cutters to specify the desired drop in thousandths rather than by the angle. Indicators are used in grinding and for the inspection of cutters after sharpening.

GETTING THE MOST OUT OF MACHINE TOOLS

Faster machining and shorter time for setting up work will enable you to get higher production from your machine tools. You can increase sharply your output per machine, in many cases, by using tungsten-carbide cutting tools. Such tools remove stock as much as three times faster than high-speed steels and will cut harder materials. ' To secure maximum production from tungsten-carbide tools you may have (1) to install a larger motor on the machine to provide greater power necessary for increased speeds, feeds, and depths of cut, (2) to repair the machine to provide greater rigidity, (3) to select the proper grade of carbide for specific machining operations, (4) to choose proper tool angles and chip breakers for the metal machined, and (5) to provide greater capacity of cutting fluid pumping equipment and proper application of the fluid to the tool’s fast-moving chips.
Remember, though, that the best-grade cutting tools are sometimes hard to get, and you should not demand cutting tools of a grade unnecessary for the job.
Speeds and Feeds.—The best speed and feed for any metal or material should be decided by experienced machinists or foremen. Operators should adhere to the set conditions.
The table on page 15 gives data on proper speeds and feeds for SAE steels.
Cutting speeds for aluminum alloys, using light cuts, range between 300 and 500 surface feet per minute for high-speed tools and up to 1,000 feet per minute for carbide tools. For heavy cuts up to % inch, speeds may run from 150 feet per minute for high-speed tools to 900 feet per minute for carbide tools.
Proper feed often is determined by the rigidity of the part being machined, power available, and finish desired. A change in the work set-up to obtain greater rigidity or the application of more power may permit the use of faster feeds without sacrificing finish, thereby increasing production. Increased machine power often can be obtained by installing individual machine drives in shops with a preponderance of belt-driven, line-shaft equipment.
Jigs and fixtures.—Faceplate fixtures for lathes, jigs for drill presses, and table jigs and fixtures for milling machines, boring mills, planers, and shapers can and should be used on production jobs. Set-up time can thus be decreased. Most important, under present production and labor supply conditions, such fixtures permit semiskilled men to set up work and perform machining operations that otherwise would require the services of skilled machmists.
One means of getting out more work is to have duplicate fixtures for any one machine tool, especially where set-up time is long and machining time is short. For example, on planers and horizontal boring mills, two table fixtures can be employed, one of which is always on the machine with the work being cut, while the other is on the floor or bench being loaded. As soon as the work is machined, the fixture containing it is removed and the second fixture bolted in place. In that way production proceeds without loss of valuable machine time. Such duplicate fixtures have resulted in saving as much as eight hours of machine time in one day.

Another saving can be made by having a lay-out man mark the job for machining before it is put on the machine. When a job is left for the machine operator to lay out and set up, the time of the operator and of the machine is wasted.
Jigs and fixtures often can be applied to certain machines to relieve congestion on other machines. Example: a trunnion jig, which can be swiveled through 90 degrees, is adaptable to radial drill presses for performing boring operations normally done on a horizontal mill.
Cutting fluids.—Use of cutting fluids as an aid in increasing production is often overlooked. Your shop may be using one fluid on all machines, to the detriment of the best cutting speeds and feeds on some machines. There is a desirable cutting fluid for each machining operation on each type of metal. A soluble oil may be used with good results on a lathe or boring mill for machining one type of steel, whereas it could not be used satisfactorily when the same steel is cut on an automatic screw machine.
A well-selected cutting fluid often means finer finishes on machined parts, frequently with higher cutting speeds and feeds. Proper cutting fluid helps to prevent distortion of the machined part and limits corrosion of the work. A properly chosen cutting fluid increases tool life.

Speeds and feeds for SAE steels 1
[Surface speed, feet per minute]
Feeds, in per revolution
Depth
Steel of cut, High-speed steel Stellite J-metal * Cemented carbides
inch
Mi Me Mi Mi Me Mi M< Ma
( Mi 100-161 86-138 70-113 60-97 153-246 132-212 114-184 100-161 391-630 357-575
Ms 91-147 80-138 67-108 57-92 140-225 122-195 106-170 93-150 371-597 329-530
Group 1____________ ( % 81-131 71-115 61- 91 51-83 126-201 110-177 94-152 84-136 341-552 300-530
% 67-108 60- 96 51- 83 43-69 106-170 93-150 78-117 69-110 314-505 266-428
I M 47- 76 43- 69 39- 62 31-51 77-124 69-110 59- 94 50- 80 226-363 214-345
( Mi 82- 96 70- 82 57- 67 49-57 125-146 108-126 94-110 82- 96 320-375 292-342
Ms 75- 88 65- 77 55- 64 47-55 115-134 100-116 87-101 76- 89 304-356 269-315
Group 2____________ y» 67- 78 58- 68 50- 59 42-49 103-120 90-105 77- 90 69- 80 281-328 246-288
M 55- 64 49- 57 42- 49 35-41 86-101 76- 89 64- 75 56- 66 257-301 217-255
M 39- 45 35- 41 32- 37 26-30 63- 74 56- 66 48- 56 41- 56 185-216 175-205
( M2 67- 78 57- 63 47- 54 40-47 102-119 87-102 76- 89 67- 78 260-304 238-277
Me 61- 71 53- 62 45- 52 38-44 93-109 81- 94 70- 82 62- 72 247-288 219-255
Group 3______________ < M 54- 63 48- 55 41- 48 34-40 84- 98 73- 85 63- 73 56- 65 228-266 200-233
M 45- 52 40- 47 34- 40 28-33 70- 82 62- 72 52- 61 46- 53 209-244 177-203
I M 31- 37 28- 33 26- 30 21-24 51- 60 46- 53 39- 45 33- 39 150-175 142-166
( M2 48- 64 41- 55 34- 45 29-38 74- 97 63- 84 55- 73 48- 64 189-248 172-238
Me 44- 58 39- 51 32- 43 28-36 68- 89 59- 77 51- 67 45- 59 179-236 159-210
Group 4______________ M 39- 52 35- 45 30- 39 25-33 61- 80 53- 70 46- 60 41- 54 166-218 145-191
M 32- 43 29- 38 25- 33 21-27 51- 67 45- 59 38- 50 33- 44 152-200 128-169
. M 23- 30 21- 27 19- 25 15-20 37- 49 33- 44 28- 37 24- 32 109-144 103-137
Group 1---High speeds for SAE X1112: intermediate speeds for 1112, X1314, X1315; low speeds for 1115.
Groub 2---High speeds for X1015 and X1020; intermediate speeds for X1330, 2015, 2115, 1010, 1015, 1020, 1025, 1045*, X1335, 3115, 3120, 3130*, 4815, 4820, 6130*, 1030, 1035, 1050*,
X1340. 2330*. 2335*. 3135*. 5140*. 6140*: low speeds for X1025, 2315, 3140*, X4130, 4140*, 4615, 4620, 6135*.
Group 3---High speeds for 1040, X3140*, 3145*, 3215, 3220, 3415; intermediate speeds for 3150* 3312, 4150*, X4340*, 4640 *, 5120, 5150* 6135*, 6150* 1045, 2340*. 3130, 3240*, X4340,
4640: low speeds for 1050. 2330. 3135. 6135.
Group 4---1055*. 1060*. 1065*. 2345*, 2515, 3140, 3150*, 6150; intermediate speeds for X1065*, 1070*, 1075*, 1080*, 1330, 1335,1340, 2340, X3140, 3150, 3240’, 3245’, 3250*, 9250’, 1085*,
1090*, 1095*, 3240, 3245, 3250, 9250; low speeds for 52100*.
1 Data are for continuous cutting with lubricant. ’ With stellite “2400” these speeds can be increased 25-30 percent. • Annealed steels.
Note ---For continuous cuts without lubricant, decrease speeds 25 percent; for intermittent cuts with lubricant, decrease cutting speeds 15 percent; for intermittent cuts with-
out lubricant, decrease cutting speeds 40 percent; for light finishing cuts and fine feeds, cutting speeds can be increased 50 to 100 percent.

Oí to to

O Í W

PRODUCTION LINES GEARED FOR WAR

How the shop is arranged for war production will determine how much can be manufactured in it. Intelligent arrangement will enable the plant to turn out two or three times the volume that a haphazard set-up will permit. This is important. What does it mean in your plant today?
Make up your mind that when you get a war order, some rearrangement of existing equipment will be necessary. If you don’t have to move anything around, it will be the exception rather than the rule.
Under normal conditions you probably produce goods in small lots. Your production lay-out has been made with that fact in mind. You may have followed the practice of so many small shops by setting up a so-called functional lay-out. That is, all machines of a given type, such as milling machines, are grouped together.
With such a lay-out you can put through several different products at the same time. But there are handicaps. You must move the parts in and out of the machining departments in lots, probably passing them through stockrooms and inspection stations at each step. All of these operations may involve planning, routing, scheduling, and dispatching, with keeping of paper records. Production is delayed because the parts in one lot are not moved along to the next operation until the entire lot has been completed and inspected. Much time also is wasted by moving the parts from department to department on trucks, which may be either hand-drawn or power-operated.
By contrast, plants which can arrange for manufacture of individual parts on separate production lines have certain clear advantages. The handling problem, for one thing, is simplified considerably, since conveyors or chutes frequently can be used to transfer parts from machine to machine, or from a machine to an intermediate inspection station and then on to the next machine. Mechanical handling is less expensive than trucking when properly installed. Another advantage of separate production lines for individual products is the reduction of clerical work and in the quantity of materials in process at any one time.
In setting up your shop for war manufacture, you will find that the quantities involved usually will be large enough to justify grouping your machines in production lines. These lines can be kept sufficiently flexible to allow minor revisions to take care of occasional changes in production design from time to time.
Workers and supervisors on a production line soon become experts in the operations assigned them. Repetition soon transforms the learner into a skilled operator on a specific job. Since war orders can be expected to keep a production line operating on not more than two or three separate parts, each operator will be called upon to do the same job oftener than if he is running a machine in a so-called functional department.
A word of warning—don’t go into a line-production set-up on any war product until you have thoroughly analyzed all of the operations on that product and have arrived at a plan which requires reasonably balanced production from all machines. One of the best tools to use in studying a proposed production lay-out is the process chart described in most books dealing with production engineering problems.

These charts are made up to follow a product through all the steps of manufacture. They subdivide everything that happens to the product into operations, transportation, storage, and inspection. If you work up such a chart for a war product you expect to make, analyze it carefully to see whether any operations can be eliminated, whether the sequence of operations should be changed to get manufacturing economies, whether any operations can be combined, and whether any operations can be simplified. Tool design and selection of machines for the different operations are important in this analysis.
An understanding of the principles of motion economy will assist you, once you have your production line laid out and you are ready to place the machines and determine ■working positions for your operators. Delivery of parts to each working station should be arranged so that the operator can secure the work easily and get it to his machine. Where possible, the operator should be able to drop the part upon completion into a chute leading to the next station rather than move it by hand any considerable distance. Obviously, the nature of the product and the type of operations performed on it will govern decisions along this line.
The problem of maintaining accuracy of the parts produced can be solved by placing inspection stations directly in the production line immediately following the operation to be inspected. In such cases, where critical dimensions are being finished, the inspection station can be considered the same as another machining operation, provision being made for delivering and carrying away the parts from the inspection station mechanically.
Gearing your shop for war is your problem. But the chances are that a couple of days spent in asking yourself how you could change things for war purposes will be amply repaid.

MEETING GOVERNMENT STANDARDS

If you have an idea that Government standards are too hard to meet, get it out of your head. You can measure up to Government specifications without getting yourself a brand-new shop or brand-new equipment.
Yes, war contract specifications are strict, but mostly for very good reasons. Bear in mind that war products differ from peacetime products. They are used under conditions where failure may mean the loss of a strategic position or the turn of the tide in battle. Corners cannot be cut in the shop when it may endanger lives at the front.
Take a look at aircraft parts. They must be held to dimensional accuracy. They must be free from sharp corners or scratches that might provide the starting place of incipient cracks under fatigue conditions. To secure economy in weight, they are highly stressed. They cannot be designed with the liberal factors of safety permissible for most civilian uses. For this reason, parts that are dimensionally accurate may be rejected if they are scored or scratched in manufacture.
Rifle and gun parts are subject to extreme sudden local pressures far beyond those experienced in normal civilian usage. They must be made fully interchangeable so that parts from one unit may be transferred as replacements on another. Fitting and filing in the

field are obviously impossible; therefore the parts must be made so they will fall into place and function correctly without any question.
The need for close specifications of materials is self-evident. Mechanized equipment from the smallest “jeep” to the heaviest tank is designed to cross country that would ruin a commercial automobile. Only the carefully designated steels and other materials that go into war equipment will stand up under this brutal service.
Shell bodies, bombs, and other components that hold explosive charges must have smooth contours if they are to be free from hazards when they are being loaded or handled in the field. It is a good idea to learn the reason for these exacting requirements. Then the manufacturer and every man in his shop will do his utmost to see that they are met.
You see, then, how imperative it is for war products to be made to more rigid standards than peacetime products. How can you meet those standards?
First of all, a shop cannot work any closer than it can measure. Estimating with a standard micrometer to ten thousandths of an inch, where such specifications are called for, is not good enough. Gages must be provided and, as a general rule, where men are new to the work, the more foolproof the gage, the better the results. For this reason fixed gages are commonly used on war production. For small parts of irregular shape, flush pin gages are successfully employed.
If there is one rule that should be followed above all others in manufacturing a war product, it is: “Do not slight your measuring equipment.” If such equipment is not already on hand, make sure that it is ordered and delivery speeded with the proper priority. Neglect in this direction may mean rejections at a cost many times that of the gages and instruments required for the job.
When it comes to selecting gages for a particular job, look first to the Government or the prime contractor for methods that have proved themselves elsewhere. Practically all types of war equipment are in production now. The experience of a plant or Government agency in measuring these parts should furnish an excellent guide as to the best methods to follow. Little will be gained by improvising or seeking novel methods until you have acquired some experience.
Aside from special single-purpose gages, satisfactory for measuring many parts, a number of standard gages are suitable for war work. For instance, standard gage blocks are useful for checking fixed gages. Standard measuring machines are satisfactory for the same purpose. Precision dial indicators, reading to ten thousandths of an inch, are handy in setting up tools and in many other shop applications. Such indicators, operated in combination with direct reading plug or snap gages, may be employed to advantage on a wide variety of work.
Gage makers have developed standard equipment using electrical contacts or air pressure that give excellent results on close dimensions. Such instruments read directly on milliammeters, or air-pressure indicators, to a surprising degree of sensitivity. Their use largely eliminates the possibility of error through variation in “feel.”
Surface finish, vital on the parts of many war products, may be measured by either one of two comparatively new devices: the profilometer and the brush surface analyzer. The bores of guns of medium and large caliber can be inspected visually by the bore microscope.

For hidden defects a number of instruments are available, chief of which are the X-ray and magnaflux test. Use of the X-ray is simply the adaptation of the surgical technique to steel instead of to the human body. The magnaflux test consists of distributing finely divided iron particles over the surface of the piece under inspection; when the part is magnetized electrically, the particles arrange themselves in a symmetrical pattern. Interruption of this pattern indicates a break in the lines of magnetic flux, which in turn raises the suspicion of a subsurface flaw.
Take this tip—often when a war job is in process and difficulties ariseᵣ the Government contractual agency may be willing to listen to suggestions and will permit modifications. But don’t bank on it. To anticipate its doing so is a dangerous premise in making quotations.
Perhaps your shop equipment is old and not too accurately aligned. Perhaps you do not have the proper measuring devices or are unfamiliar with the use of some of the newer instruments. Don’t let that fact keep you from taking part in the war production program.
These difficulties usually can be overcome by good management and by a determination to see the job through. Machines can be realigned if necessary, and the proper gages secured. The successful manufacturer is the one who does not know when he is licked. He gets all the assistance he can from the Government arsenals and from other shops, and then tackles the job.

TRAINING WORKERS QUICKLY

War Manpower Commission Training Programs For War Production Industries

The Federal training programs of the Bureau of Training, War Manpower Commission, are all designed to aid in increasing war production. There are two distinct groups of programs which supplement each other. These are contained in the in-plant and out-plant services.
In the in-plant training field, Training Within Industry Service and Apprenticeship Training Service cooperate to give assistance and advice to industry with regard to on-the-job training programs and problems.
Advisory assistance by Training Within Industry Service and Apprenticeship Training Service.—Field staffs of both agencies provide the following types of advisory assistance: (1) Determination of training needs and recommendation of training programs to fill such needs ; (2) aid in setting up on-the-job training programs; (3) furnishing data on results of specific training programs; (4) recommending the most effective use of tax-supported employment and training agencies of the Government for providing maximum pre-employment training as well as related supplementary instruction for upgrading employed workers.

Training Within Industry Service.—Training Within Industry Service conducts specific training programs in connection with the development of supervisors and training directors. These programs are conducted for potential newly appointed, as well as experienced, supervisors and training directors in how to train their own people on the job. They are short, intensive programs requiring but 10 hours. Conferences for training directors require 48 hours.
These programs are: Job Instructor Training which gives the supervisor practice in “how to break in” men on new jobs; Job Methods Training which shows the supervisor how to simplify and improve methods of doing a job; Job Relations Training which gives' the supervisor pointers and practice in how to work with people in a way that gains cooperation and promotes teamwork; and Training oj Training Directors which gives intensified coaching in planning and operating and improving complete, plant-wide programs.
Apprenticeship Training Service.—The following services are provided by field representatives of Apprenticeship Training Service: Training Apprentices—Assistance in improving or inaugurating apprenticeship programs; Training Advancing Workers—Advisory assistance on the training of advancing workers for skills of more limited scope than journeyman skills; Labor Relations Affecting Training— Assistance in dealing with labor problems encountered in the operation of on-the-job training programs; Supplementary Labor Agreements— Assistance in preparing supplements to established agreements to cover the war training and employment situation; and assistance with regard to occupation deferments, employment requirements of Federal or State laws, and problems of production related to training.
The out-plant services are Vocational Training for War Production Workers, and Engineering, Science, and Management War Training, both administered by the U. S. Office of Education, and the Youth Work Defense Projects of the National Youth Administration.
Vocational Training for War Production Workers.—1. Training for new workers to be placed in beginning jobs (pre-employment)—Employers in established industrial areas will usually find classes in operation from which the Employment Service can refer applicants with training in the more common jobs such as machine tool operation, arc and gas welding, aircraft sheet metal and riveting, pipe fitting, etc. Training for other occupations is easily arranged with the local supervisor of war production training. Such courses run from 30 to 48 hours per week but may be 15 hours in special cases to meet the needs of trainees employed in nondefense work. The functioning subject matter in such courses is determined by plant foremen and instructors.
2. Training for employed workers (supplementary courses)—Much training “on the job” must be given to new workers. The vocational schools help greatly, however, with courses designed to supplement or extend the experience gained in the plant. These courses can be run at any time during the day and any day in the week to serve the needs of industry. As above, the subject matter of these courses is also determined jointly by instructors and plant personnel. One or more objectives may be planned for, such as: Development of additional skills and upgrading workers; furnishing the related technical infor-mation or job knowledge necessary in apprentice training and in the

development of all-around mechanics, leadmen, and foremen. This training, as well as the development of additional skills mentioned previously, is given in cooperation with the Apprentice Training Service to round out the apprentice and advancing worker programs; conversion training of plant personnel when new types of production are introduced. As before, shop classes arranged by the public vocational schools are often of great help. Much training of this type was utilized in the conversion of the automotive industry; preproduction training of workers without necessary experience who have been selected and placed on plant pay rolls. More and more, plants are hiring new workers and placing them in specific training programs. Much of this training may be done on production and foremanship training. The vocational schools cooperate with Training Within Industry in giving Job Instructor Training to enable foremen and supervisors to better break in new workers. Advanced foremen training programs may be arranged for, including the training of foremen conference leaders and the conducting of foremen conferences.
Special services can often be provided to meet needs not otherwise provided for.
Engineering, Sciences, and Management War Training.—This program offers full-time and part-time courses to meet needs for technical and advisory personnel at some 200 colleges and universities. These courses are available to high school graduates and persons with more advanced preparation. Training is given to fit people with little or no technical experience for work as assistants in laboratories, drafting rooms, engineering departments and accounting and personnel offices in war industries. Part-time courses are designed for upgrading existing personnel and to meet special needs. The training of supervisory personnel is a major part of the program.
National Youth Administration.—The National Youth Adminis-tration offers a pre-employment program of work experience in organ -ized shop training in their shops. These programs are both resident and nonresident and provide for the transfer of workers from areas where a labor supply exists to the training program. Training is offered in machine tool operation, welding, sheet metal, and such occupations in the war production industries.
Information on the above programs can be secured from regional, area, or local offices of the War Manpower Commission, or from the local, State, or area representatives of the above services.
If there is no War Manpower Commission or United States Employment Service Office listed in the telephone directory of your locality, information may be secured from the Bureau of Training, War Manpower Commission, Rm. 822, 1778 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D. C., or from one of the 12 regional offices located in the following cities:

Boston, Mass. New York City Philadelphia, Pa. Washington, D. C. Cleveland, Ohio Chicago, Ill.

Atlanta, Ga.
Minneapolis, Minn. Kansas City, Mo. Dallas, Tex. Denver, C,olo.
San Francisco, Calif.

One of the most important factors in your conversion to war production must be the training of workers to carry out the demands of your contracts. Whether you are recruiting new workers because of plant expansion, or readapting your present labor force, it is of the utmost importance that they learn quickly the new methods and skills which are called for by the machines of war production.
The War Production Board’s Labor Division for nearly 2 years directed a Nation-wide revision and expansion of our industrial training facilities. These programs are now under the supervision of the Bureau of Training of the War Manpower Commission.
Use the facilities which have been made available in your community and call upon the Government advisory services for help with your training problems.

SWING SHIFTS

Swing shifts may be used to equalize working hours and wages, relieve fatigue, and utilize full machine capacity. One successful method is to have a utility operator on each shift for each group of five machines with sufficient experience to run each of the machines. The regular machinist can then be relieved 1 day each week by the utility man, who also has 1 day off in 7.
Two utility men and 10 machinists, each working a 12-hour shift 6 days a week, could keep 5 machines in constant operation 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. Figure 1 shows how the method is applied to three-shift operation.
Shifts of various lengths can also be adopted to maintain constant operation of machines. For example, two 12-hour shifts can be used on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, with three 8-hour shifts scheduled on the remaining days. Such a system is shown in figure 2 and gives each man 40 hours consecutive free time each week.
Schedules other than those shown in Figures 1 and 2 can be worked out to keep machines in constant operation for balancing production. If labor is not available for three shifts, two can be adopted, each working the same number of hours each week.

50-hbur week:
Work 10-hour shifts, 5 days.

55-hour week:
(a) Work 11-hour shifts, 5 days.
(b) Work the day shift 10 hours Monday through Friday and 5 hours on Saturday.
Work the night shift 11 hours, 5 days a week.

60-hour week:
(a) Work 12-hour shifts, 5 days.
(b) Work the day shift 11 hours Monday through Friday and 5 hours on Saturday.
Work the night shift 12 hours, 5 days a week.

Where machines do not have to run every hour of the week to balance production, even though they may be kept busy more hours than the length of regular shifts, operators can be rotated on different work, such as machine and assembly operations, using a schedule similar to that shown in Figure 3. In any one week, operator A works 55 hours on a machine, 5 hours on assembly, and has 1 day off. An emergency

Figure 1.—Schedules for operation of certain machines are worked out weeks in advance to keep them in constant operation. This chart is for five machines in one department which run 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Operators’ days off are hatched, on which days they are replaced by utility men capable of operating all five of the machines.

operator does 22 hours machine work, spending the remainder of the week on assembly; however, the latter time might well be devoted to other machine operations.
Where adequate labor is available, schedules can be prepared for full-time shop operation, which provide exactly the same conditions for all workers. One such schedule is shown in Figure 4 for operations requiring 168 hours of work each week. It requires four men for every machine. A man works 8 hours, is off 24 hours, and repeats this indefinitely without change. Since there are three shifts of 8 hours per day and four shifts in the schedule, the rotation is complete at the end of 4 days and every man starts his shift at the same hour as he did the first day. When it is desirable to use the 168-hour week for

four shifts, but letting each shift work the same hours for 5 consecutive days, the schedule shown in Figure 5 can be adopted. On the other hand, the schedule shown in Figure 6 is applicable for the 168-hour week when sufficient labor for only three shifts is available.
In response to requests for more 40-hour shifts, continuous-operation schedules, the Wage and Hour Division, U. S. Department of Labor, has issued a number of variations. They are designed both to rotate the four crews among the three 8-hour periods of the day and to give every man a Sunday off at regular intervals. A typical schedule is

Figure 2.—Some companies vary the length of shifts during various days of the week to compensate for idle time when certain shifts have days off. This schedule gives every man 40 hours of uninterrupted free time each week. Note when three shifts are used during one day, they are 8 hours long. When one shift has a day off, the two remaining each work 12 hours.

Figure 3.— Some machines do not have to be run every hour oL the week to balance production, even though they may be kept busy more hours than the length of regular shifts. Machinists are sometimes rotated on different machines, or on machine and assembly operations, as indicated by the schedule

shown.

Figure 4.— In operations’requiring 168 hours of work per week, scheduling is usually done with four operators, one of whom is always at the post. In this schedule a man works 8 hours, is off 24 hours, and repeats indefinitely without change.

Figure 5.— In this 168-hour week schedule four men cover one operation. Each man works the same hours for 5 consecutive days, and every fourth week works one extra 8-hour day. Each man averages 42 hours per week. All get a 15-minute lunch period on company time.

Figure 6.—In this 168-hour week schedule only three shifts are employed. Each man works two 12-hour days and four 8-hour days a week— a total of 56 hours. The free day falls on Sunday every third week.

shown in Figure 7. Here each man works 6 days on a shift, has 2 days off, and then swings to another shift.
The successful application of swing shifts involves two primary considerations: adequate Supervision and a sufficient number of skilled mechanics or operators to maintain steady and quality production every hour of the working day Foremen selected for night shifts should be as competent as those on the day shift, having the same capacity for handling personnel problems, besides being as fully acquainted with the company’s product and requirements for accuracy. Then a nucleus of trained operators can be placed on the second and third shifts to watch and train new employees having little or no experience at the work. Adoption of such practice will reduce spoiled work and soon build an organization capable of equal production of every shift.

Figure 7.—All men on each shift work on the same schedule and change shifts together. On the ninth week, the men get the same days off as in the first week, but are on different shifts. The cycle repeats itself beginning with the twentyfifth week.

KEEPING TRACK OF ORDERS, PRODUCTION, AND MATERIALS

Production control aims to produce the right quantity of product, of the right quality, at the right time, by the best and cheapest method. It does all this by planning and control.
Planning helps decide what work, and how, where, and when it is to be done. It is the technique of foreseeing the steps in a series of manufacturing operations and of setting up a routine that will cause each step to happen where and when it is supposed to.

Control is the technique of observing and recording progress so that continued comparison may be maintained between planned and actual results. Four basic measures precede the initiation of controls:
1. Establish the desired volume to be produced.—If a plant is making one or more items of war material, it must balance its needed output over a period of time against the capacity of available equipment..
2. Determine specifications.—A war contract will set forth definite specifications for all materials and parts, as to degree of machining, finishing, etc. The task then becomes one of arranging manufacturing operations to conform to these standards.
3. Check tools and equipment.—Be sure that the plant can turn out products of the desired specifications in the desired amounts.
4. Determine standards of work.—Know the amount of output to be expected on each job. Only by determining.work standards can the plant estimate the number of men needed to perform the work. If standards have not already been set, they should be established without going too deeply into time study. A good shop q^an, with experience to guide him, plus data supplied by equipment manufacturers, can establish work standards accurate enough for practical purposes.
The production order.—Set manufacturing process in motion by the production order. When you produce to a set quota, you inform the shop of the requirements for some time in advance for each of the parts or units to be made.
The principal instrument of control is the shipping schedule which, for a given period of time, lists orders, quantities, delivery and shipping dates. A large part of the production superintendent’s work then is concerned with emergencies, great and small, that tend to throw the various processes out of step.
When your war order is large enough to last over a considerable period of time, control is simple and economical. You do not have to give specific orders to each worker, or to control the program of each man, because each man knows his work and does it as it comes to him, and the whole group functions as a unit.
One of the simplest controls is obtained with a production order that consists of a main tag containing all required information, and having stubs for each operation to be performed. Stubs are torn off as the operation is completed and forwarded at the end of the day to the production office where they serve as payroll information. At the same time the progress of the order is recorded. Orders not up to schedule are flagged and pressure applied at the right spot.
The foreman’s role.—Once a schedule has been made out and accepted by a foreman, he customarily is left to carry it out in his own way. If for any reason he foresees that he is not going to. be able to meet an accepted date, it is his responsibility at the earliest possible moment to go to the proper person for help, so that the full strength of the organization may be mobilized to remove the difficulty. Remember that any production delay on any order for war material is important.
The effect is to cut an immense amount of red tape which used to be associated with some of the more elaborate production-control systems. The control job must be done with a minimum of paper work and of clerical help. One clerk will ordinarily be enough m the small shop.

The foreman should assume full responsibility for running his department and be judged by the results. Within nis department he may use whatever method of detailed scheduling is most suitable. If the situation is simple, he will likely carry it in his head. If there are too many details, he may use a planning board of a well-known type, or one of the various visible indexes or graphic charts. Care must be exercised not to make a clerk out of him. He is there to run his department, not to push a pencil.
The planning board shown (Figure 8) has three pockets for each machine in the department. The ticket for a job actually in work is kept in the first pocket; scheduled jobs ready for work are held in the second pocket; unscheduled jobs in the shop but at the preceding operation, in the third.
Work in process.—Planning and controlling work in process is illustrated in Figures 9, 10, and 11. The master schedule appears in Figure 2. The order calls for 2,500 units, with delivery of 200 units required 4 months after award of contract and 500 units a month

Figure 8.—A planning board is useful where there are so many details that the foreman cannot carry them in his head.

thereafter. Key dates are specified, beginning with award of contract, for start and completion of engineering work, purchases of raw materials, production of component part, subassemblies and main assembly.
Figure 10 illustrates the control chart for the order under observation. This chart provides a complete picture of the entire project. It shows what parts are needed, where they originate, where they are to be processed, where assembled and what quantities are required. It serves to point out weak spots in deliveries of materials.
Information that is added as the order progresses is shown in Figure 11. Receipt of all materials is recorded, with notches in the horizontal line representing specific deliveries.
The control chart as shown here represents conditions existing at the end of the fourth period in June. For that date the original schedule called for 1,250 completed units. The heavy bar of actual production indicates 1,300. Apparently there is no difficulty in meeting the schedule for completed units. The first subassembly is progressing smoothly. Component parts are drawn from raw

Figure 9.—A master schedule is the starting point for controlling work in process. It shows when contract was awarded, delivery promises, and key dates that must be kept.

Figure 10.—The control chart is based on master schedules. RM signifies raw material stores; FG finished goods stores; odd numbers in routing column, the departments from which materials are to be drawn; even numbers, the machining or finishing departments; letters, assembly departments.

material stores. Deliveries are excellent. The wide spacing of notches in the horizontal lines indicates that requisitions for substantial quantities are filled without difficulty.
But trouble is readily visible with the second subassembly. It is already 150 behind, having finished only 1,900 of the 2,050 units scheduled for completion on that date. Close analysis shows ample supplies of all parts except P-72412. Irregular and closely spaced notches point to delivery problems. The weak spot is flagged with a thumbtack so that corrective action can be taken before the final assembly schedule is disturbed.
At the third subassembly, part P-71604 is holding up production. As it is drawn from raw material stores, the difficulty apparently arises

Figure 11.—The control chart here represents the condition of the order at end of June. Although deliveries of completed assemblies are ahead of schedule, the chart warns of weaknesses.

from poor deliveries by the supplier. Here again a visible danger signal is attached to the chart.
At the fourth subassembly there is a slightly favorable margin, with 80 subassemblies ahead of schedule. But one of the parts required in this assembly is the second subassembly which is running behind schedule. According to the final schedule dates, there should be a four-week interval between the second and fourth subassemblies, but the current interval is only three weeks. Unless the danger point is corrected at the second, there will soon be trouble at the fourth.
Visible index.—A simplified and convenient modification of the Gantt chart is used in the visible index record shown in Figure 12. The body of the card carries the production order or orders scheduled against a particular product or part. The lower, margin of the card, which is the only part that shows, bears the part number and description, and is divided into days.

A given quantity, say 10, being scheduled for daily delivery, a marker on the lower edge of the card is advanced, as deliveries are made, a corresponding number of days’ scheduled production. Thus, if 50 parts were delivered on the second day of the month, deliveries of

Figure 12.—One widely used modification of the Gantt chart is the visible index record shown here in simple form.

Figure 13.—A typical materials requisition and a credit slip for goods that have been returned to stock.

Figure 14.—The stores record shows material on hand and the amount already applied on orders.

10 per day being scheduled to begin on the first, the card would show the orders three ahead of schedule on that day.
The comparison line, the current day of the month, moves one space to the right each day. Four days later (the sixth), if there had been

no subsequent deliveries, the order, instead of being 3 days ahead of schedule, would be a day behind. The follow-up clerk can tell by a glance at the file which orders need attention.
Control by exception.—When unit times are known with sufficient accuracy so that delivery to schedule may normally be depended upon, only those cases that are behind schedule require attention. As time cards or other reports of completion are turned in, the clerk who receives them glances at the scheduled delivery date, often extended on the face of the order, and holds out for further attention only those orders behind schedule. The use of this exception principle results in considerable economies in supervision.
Control of materials.—Complete data regarding materials are necessary before delivery dates can be scheduled on any item of war material. In the small plant with war contracts, it is possible to issue parts and materials in specified daily quantities without requisition, the stock record being posted from the production orders.

Figure 15.—The stock record for physical balances is adapted to visible index. A flag is attached to lower edge to indicate follow-up dates.

A typical requisition for materials and a credit for goods returned are shown in Figure 13. In the record illustrated in Figure 14, a perpetual balance is carried of materials on hand, materials applied on orders, and materials available for future orders.
Figure 15 shows a stock record for physical balances adapted to visible index.

PLANT PROTECTION

Fire is an ever-present menace against which every plant must be on guard 24 hours a day. Wartime brings Pwo other enemies—the enemy spy and the enemy saboteur. They, too, must be kept out of the shop.
Fire protection involves two distinct but closely related activities— prevention and fighting. Prevention is important because the test way to avoid fire losses is not to have a fire.
Authorities agree that most fires are preventable. When one occurs, it usually indicates that some condition existed that might have been foreseen and eliminated; therefore, someone was careless or negligent.

Good housekeeping is the most important element in fire prevention. Accumulations of oily wastes, rags, or rubbish of any kind under benches or stairways or in clothes lockers or other places are dangerous tire breeders. Spontaneous ignition, a spark from some process, or a carelessly dropped match or cigarette butt may cause such materials to flash up any time. Therefore, put all inflammable waste materials in metal cans and see that they are emptied daily.
Good housekeeping requires clear aisles, with stock piled neatly, safely, and well below sprinkler heads. Fire doors must be left unobstructed and free to operate. A clear passageway should be left in front of extinguishers and other fire-fighting equipment.
Observe these rules:
1. Properly safeguard, segregate if necessary, hazardous materials and operations.
2. Maintain all equipment, particularly electrical, in good condition.
3. Enforce “No Smoking” rules.
4. Observe necessary precautions around cutting and welding operations, especially in the plant.
5. Educate workers in the vital importance of fire prevention.
Successful fighting of fires requires an adequate amount of suitable fire-fighting equipment and an organization trained in its use. A properly designed sprinkler system is one of the most effective items of fire-fighting equipment for manufacturing property. Well maintained, it can be depended upon to snuff out or control fire.
Sprinklers should be supplemented with other types of equipment, such as Conveniently placed pails of water or sand, hose fines, and extinguishers.
Portable fire extinguishers are of several types, such as soda-acid, foam, vaporizing liquid (usually carbon tetrachloride), and carbon dioxide. Each type has advantages that fit it for use in certain locations or in fighting one of several classes of fires.
Plant protection inspectors of the War or Navy Departments, your fire insurance company, or the local fire department will give needed help in determining the number and kind of extinguishers you should have in the safeguarding of special hazards.
The first step in organizing a plant fire brigade is to appoint as chief someone who has the necessary time and interest and can do a good job.
Train the watchmen, the foremen, and a suitable number of men in each department in the use of extinguishers and of other fire-fighting equipment. Make sure they know where all fire alarm boxes are, and how to operate them.
Insist that watchmen and others turn in an alarm at once upon the outbreak of afire that cannot be put out immediately. Disregard of this principle frequently results in disastrous fires.
Instruct key employees and watchmen not to shut off sprinklers until the fire is completely extinguished.
See that a responsible employee patrols unprotected areas after sprinklers have been shut off, to see that no fire remains. Post a man at the closed valve. Make sure that open sprinkler heads are replaced and protection restored promptly after a fire.
Provide for quick and safe evacuation of employees in the event of fire.

Protection against sabotage and espionage must be both internal and external. By internal protection is meant the employment of such typical safeguards as:
1. Sufficient investigation of employees to make sure that they are loyal to this Government.
2. Organization of an adequate force of capable, intelligent watchmen and guards, one or more of whom should be stationed at each entrance to the plant. %
3. Use of a suitable identifying badge for each employee, without which no one should be allowed to enter the plant.
4. Proper safeguarding of drawings, models, hard-to-replace gages, tools, and materials.
5. Watchfulness by foremen and guards and employees to detect suspicious behavior by visitors or by new employees.
6. Frequent inspection of strategic equipment to detect or prevent tampering.
Fire is an effective weapon of the saboteur. Hence extraordinary precautions must be taken to safeguard against it.
External protection of a plant commonly takes the form of fencing and of protective lighting, supplemented by watchmen and guards.
A strong metal fence—usually woven wire—completely surrounding the plant property is a serious, although not necessarily impassable, barrier to unauthorized entrance. Gates should be kept locked when the plant is not in operation, and should be in full view of the guard at all times.
Windows facing on streets should be protected by heavy wire screens.
Depending on conditions, protective lighting systems may comprise lamps and suitable reflectors mounted on poles erected along or close to the fence line, and floodlights may be located in strategic places. When possible it is usually desirable to light the fence hue strongly and leave the guard in comparative darkness, so that he can see plainly, but not be easily seen by a would-be intruder outside the fence.
Each plant should be studied to determine the most effective method of lighting the property.
Whatever method or combination of methods is employed, no dark spots should be left anywhere in which an intruder can hide while awaiting a favorable opportunity to carry out his mission,*

POOLING FACILITIES

Few plants are big enough to make a war product complete. In fact, guns, tanks, planes, and jeeps are not designed so they can be made that way.
Even the largest companies don’t make everything going into a war product. They contract with the Government to deliver the complete product, but they have other plants produce some of the parts. These plants, in turn, have still other plants make parts for the parts.
That way of doing business is necessary if every shop, regardless of size, is to contribute its share to war production. Some of the small shops, even then, do not possess enough equipment to make complete parts. Or their equipment is not of the right kind.

*Note.—A complete booklet, "Plant Protection for Manufacturers,” is available from the Plant Protection Office of the War Department, Washington, D. C.

It is reasonable, though—and it has been proved by experience— that if certain machines from plant A, and other machines from plants B, C, D, and so on could be used, the combination would be just right for making certain parts, pieces, or units. In other words, the pooling of facilities can do much to increase Uncle Sam’s production.
There are two ways* of pooling. One is actually to take the machines from the plants where they are and move them to one plant where they can be operated under a single supervision, very much as the average plant is operated. The owners of the machines are compensated in accordance with a specific agreement.
The other method of pooling is to leave the machines where they are, and take the work to them. Possibly a lathe in plant A will rough turn, a grinder in plant B will finish grind, and a furnace in plant C will heat-treat. Or a press in plant D may forge, a turret lathe in plant E machine, and a grinder in plant F grind.
In pooling by method 1, the equipment is intended to be worked all the time on production for war purposes. Under method 2, each piece of equipment is intended to be used whatever time is necessary (from an hour to 24 hours per day) to achieve the amount of production required for what the pooled machines as a whole are doing. (During the time a given machine is not engaged on war work, it would, presumably, be engaged upon essential civilian production.)
No one formula can be written for all plants to follow in pooling their facilities. Perhaps the best way to indicate what can be done is to outline a few cases of what has been done:

Case 1

Job to be done: 500,000 fuses.
Area: Within a circle of approximately a 100-mile radius.
Procedure: To the manufacturers within this community area, the District Ordnance Chief submitted drawings of individual parts (not drawings of the fuse as a whole). The individual manufacturers selected the parts for which their equipment was suited, and bid accordingly.
The ordnance office sifted out 19 low bidders for parts, and called them together. Some of the 19 had room and facilities for assembly as well as for machining. Each of the 19 having such facilities was given the opportunity to bid on taking over the prime contract, and all understood that the responsibility for dealing with the others, who would become parts makers in line with their bids, would fall to the successful bidder.
Results'. One of the firms acquired the prime contract, 15 of the other concerns accepted subcontracts, and the work was done. In this instance the District Ordnance Office took the responsibility for all parts inspection prior to receipt of the components at the assembly line in the plant of the prime contractor.

Case 2

Job to be done: Anything that would help win the war.
Community: A manufacturing area of 57,000 population.
Procedure: A manufacturers’ association of the largest city in this area appointed a committee of four leading industrialists. This

committee persuaded manufacturers to get together and acquaint each other with the equipment in their plants. It made a survey of all power-driven metal-working equipment in the smaller plants. It found 1,400 machine tools in 180 shops—among them shops making cement, biscuits, artificial teeth, roofing material, paperboard, bond paper, ribbons, hosiery, tapestry, tape, and shoes.
Results: The plants of this community do a great deal of both prime and subcontracting. Machines remain in the shops that own them, but there is considerable (although not wasteful) moving of parts from one plant to another to take advantage of certain machines, principally large ones.
Case 3

Job to be done: War contracts and subcontracts—whatever would further the conduct of the war.
Community: A middle-western area of 282,000 people.
Procedure: Stimulated by the efforts of one plant executive, seven relatively small plants became a cooperative group which could handle war orders that no one plant could handle alone. All are metal-working plants accustomed to working with aluminum, steel, stainless steel, copper, brass, tinplate. Number of buildings, 10. Total floor space, 230,000 square feet. Total skilled and unskilled employees, 450.
This cooperative group published a booklet and sent it to Government procurement officials, chambers of commerce, and large prime contractors. The booklet is 8% by 11 and contains 16 pages. It shows pictures of exteriors and interiors of the plants, and lists the cooperating companies. It describes the more important services and facilities available, not by plants but by type of service and work that can be done, as follows: Machine and tool design; machine tools; deep drawing; welding; press brakes; heavy stampings; light stampings; plating, buffing, and polishing; sheet metal working; spinning.
Results: A great deal of war production that would not otherwise have been obtained.
Case 4

Job to be done: Get war orders.
Industrial unit involved: Four companies with nine plants. Total employees, 729.
Procedure: One plant was designated as the prime contractor, the others as subcontractors. The prime-contracting plant made a study of the combined production facilities, compiled a report concerning them, and put the report into the hands of the proper Government agencies.
The report contains a summary of the combined production facilities of the nine plants, studies of the facilities of the individual plants, complete list of machines by name, size, type, manufacturer. It also gives a list of regular important customers to indicate reliability.
Results: Opportunity for group action in bidding on or negotiating for prime contracts for parts to which plant equipment is adapted; also (which was not. anticipated) the addition of 26 more plants to the original group.

Case 5

Job to be done: Add to war production.
Industrial unit involved: The very small machine units of a city— repair shops, automobile service shops, and the like, with very few machines each.
Procedure: Machines were moved to a single location provided by the city. Owners will receive some compensation for use of the equipment, may operate it themselves; exact procedure has not as yet been determined. Administration will be by the usual methods for an individual manufacturing plant.
Results: Case too new for results to be reported. There is no apparent reason why this experiment should not be successful.
The five cases cited all came into existence because somebody used his head. There is lots of work to be done. The departments which buy for the Army and Navy cannot possibly employ enough people to enable them to send someone to each small plant to size it up and offer it an order. The plants must do their part by going after orders, and going after them as though they meant business. The pooling of facilities is a method of particular value to the small and very small metal-working shops.
Every machine shop can be a war shop.

GETTING INTO WAR WORK

A complete survey of plant facilities is the first step of every manufacturer who wants war work. This survey should begin with the firm’s business record and should include a description of normal products made in the plant, the experience of managerial and supervisory personnel, previous war-production experience, a financial statement, and names of past and present customers for reference.
The manufacturer should take stock of his labor supply situation. In the survey he should list the number of his factory employees, their skills, peak employment of the plant for one, two, and three shifts, a description of the available labor supply and the competition for it, and a brief analysis of existing and nearby wage rates.
Then he should take stock of the plant and its equipment, describing location, transportation facilities, available power and water facilities, and similar production factors.
Complete lay-out plans—accompanied by photographs—should be made of each section of the plant. Finally, a list of all tools should be made in which the type, make, age, size, and serial number, as well as the tolerances usually followed, are included.
Since the survey is to serve as a guide both to himself and to those from whom the manufacturer must seek his contracts, it must be accurate and complete. Since a complete survey is often expensive, the manufacturer ought to make full use of it.
His survey will do him most good at the following places:
1. The nearest field office of the War Production Board. (There are 120 scattered throughout the country.) Here a manufacturer can learn what war items are needed and get an idea of which he can make. He can study blueprints and samples. At some offices he

will see exhibits of needed bits and pieces in which the prime contractors display actual parts and subassemblies they may want to farm out. Since the offices serve as a clearing house of information for Government procurement offices and prime contractors, the manufacturer should keep in close touch with the office serving his district.
2. The Army’s District Procurement offices. By writing to the Office of the Under Secretary of the War Department in Washington, the manufacturer may get a copy of “Army Purchase Information Bulletin,” which contains the addresses of the various procurement offices, the type of products they buy, and the procedure to be followed in seeking orders.
3. The Navy’s Bureau of Supplies and Accounts. A booklet, “Selling to the Navy,” is just what its title indicates and may be obtained by writing the Bureau at the Navy Department, Washington.
4. Local prime contractors. As firms which now have contracts become more and more “loaded” they will become increasingly interested in the facilities of every plant that can help them fill their contracts. Addresses and other information can be obtained by manufacturers at War Production Board offices.
5. Local pools of subcontractors, about which information can be obtained at these offices.
There are other important buying agencies whose needs the manufacturer should study. The Procurement Division of the United States Treasury Department buys nearly one-half million items and spends billions of dollars. It maintains field offices throughout the country.
The United States Maritime Commission is another large buyer. Information about its needs may be had by writing the Commission in Washington, D. C.
Capital to finance conversion may be obtained depending upon the credit standing of the manufacturer at commercial banks, Federal Reserve banks, or the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Both the Army and the Navy may advance up to 30 percent of the contract price to contractors, and both tiie Army and the Navy have partpayment plans by which payments are made as work on the contract progresses.
The small manufacturer would do well, also, to contact the nearest field office of the Smaller War Plants Corporation. In most cities it is located at the same address as the War Production Board field office. Headquarters of the Corporation are HOLC Building, Washington, D. C.

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1943

DIVISION OF INFORMATION
War Production Board
WASHINGTON. D. C,

OFFICIAL BUSINESS

PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE TO AVOID PAYMENT OF POSTAGE, $300