[The Making of a Book: Information for the Instruction of Apprentices in the United States Government Printing Office Together with Standard Imposition Layouts for Flat-Bed and Web Presses]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
U. S. GOVERNEMENET PRINTING OFFICE
AFFRENTICE SERIES NO. 10
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
Information for the Instruction of Apprentices in the United States Government Printing Office together with Standard Imposition Layouts for Flat-bed and Web Presses
Apprentice Series No. 10
PREPARED UNDER DIRECTION OF
JOHN GREENE
DEPUTY PUBLIC PRINTER
WASHINGTON : 1933
FOREWORD
HIS BOOK is designed primarily for the information of students in the Apprentice School of the United States Government Printing Office. It is the story of the progressive mailing of a bool{, from the receipt of the requisition to the delivery
of the finished product, by the Government Printing Office. The technical operations required in the making of a boo\ are described in the orderly sequence of its progress through the various manufacturing divisions. Analyses of its physical ele' ments and other related data explain the multitude of details
involved in the production of a modern publication.
Particular attention is directed to the chapter on impO' sition, and the relation which that wor\ bears to subsequent printing and binding operations. This and similar subjects emphasize the necessity for cooperation and correlation, since a complete understanding between the various manufacturing units is essential to harmonious production under the most
economical methods.
This compilation may also serve the journeyman, as well as be of value to authors, editors, and others who want to famil' iarize themselves with the manifold phases of the making of a boo\.
IniI
CONTENTS
Page
Foreword.................................................................. in
A Typical Example of Progressive Operations................................ 1
Planning................................................................... 9
The requisition. ....................................................... 9
The estimate........................................................... 12
The jacket—Specifications and layout................................... 12
Illustrations............................................................. 17
Photo-engraving........................................................ 17
Copy for engravings.................................................... 17
To determine the dimensions of a cut................................... 18
Making the plate....................................................... 19
Preparation of Copy....................................................... 23
The copy editor........................................................ 23
The arrangement of a book.............................................. 24
Composition............................................................... 27
Kinds of composition................................................... 27
Proofreading........................................................... 28
Correcting the proofs.................................................. 29
Making-up.............................................................. 30
Locking-up for foundry................................................. 33
Platemaking............................................................... 34
Electrotyping.......................................................... 34
Stereotyping........................................................... 37
Imposition................................................................ 39
Margins................................................................ 39
Presswork................................................................. 43
Imposition............................................................. 43
Margins................................................................ 45
Examination of paper................................................... 46
Keeping up color....................................................... 46
Illustrations.......................................................... 47
Rush work.............................................................. 47
Offset Printing........................................................... 48
The process............................................................ 48
Making the negative.................................................... 48
Printing the plate..................................................... 49
Binding................................................................... 50
Folding, gathering, and sewing......................................... 50
Forwarding and finishing............................................... 51
Appendix.................................................................. 55
Layouts for flat-bed presses........................................... 57
Layouts for web presses................................................ 71
A TYPICAL EXAMPLE
PROGRESSIVE OPERATIONS IN THE MAKING OF THE CONGRESSIONAL DIRECTORY
/' | ^HE following operations are employed in printing and binding an average Government publication. Much of Government book printing is further complicated by the inclusion of special illustrations that re.' quire additional time for folding, cutting, and pasting, and in many cases by insertion of pockets for maps and other bulky exhibits.
The Production Manager’s office receives requisition for printing and forwards same to—
PLANNING DIVISION
Requisition is given to record clerk who (1) enters it in “Record of Requisitions”, forwards same to Requisitions Review Board; if approved it is sent to an estimator, who (2) makes estimate and forwards it to department; if accepted it is returned to office; (3) instructions then written on work jacket; (4) jacket is typewritten, necessary carbon copies being made; (5) copy for illustrations are sent to Printing Division for recording and thence to Proof Section for recording and folioing; copy is returned to Planning Division, where (6) illustrations are ordered. Copy and work jacket are then forwarded to—
PRINTING DIVISION
Sent to Proof Section; given to copy editor, who (1) cuts copy so that a paragraph will start at top of each sheet of copy; (2) folioed with a hand numbering machine; then (3) edited to conform with Style Manual of the Government Printing Office; returned to office of Superin' tendent of Printing, who forwards copy to Monotype Section, where it is given to section copy editor, who (4) indicates the matrix layout, and then gives it to deskman, who hands it to operator for composition; (5) operator first obtains spool of paper that has been previously slitted to proper width on slitting and perforating machine; (6) operator sets copy on monotype keyboard; spool is then forwarded to casting room for (7) casting on monotype casting machine; type is then forwarded to assembling room, where (8) compositor assembles type on galley in numerical order of folios; then placed on proof press and (9) proof taken in duplicate, one for proofreading and one for measurement record of machine operator; (10) copy collator assembles folios to agree with matter on galley and sends proof and copy to Proof Section by pneumatic tube; galley is then transferred to truck for (11) storing in galley rack, truckman making record of same to show where it can be found when again needed; proof after receipt in Proof Section is given to proofreader, who (12) reads same, and (13) submits to referee, who in turn gives to tubeman to send to Monotype correcting section; truckman delivers galley to deskman who enters on slip provided the jacket number, title of job, number of galley, slug number of compositor, time given to compositor for correcting and returned by him; (14) revised
Ill
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
galley proof taken on proof press; galley proof is sent to Proof Section, (15) revised; revises returned to correcting room, where they are (16) collated and forwarded with type to maker-up for (17) regalleying into long galleys; (18) another proof is taken, and (19) proofs are again revised in Proof Section; (20) copy collator assembles copy to agree with proof on galleys and messenger forwards to office of Superintendent of Printing for forwarding to department; when returned from department galleys are given to compositor for (21) correction; then sent to page maker-up, who (22) makes up type into proper page length; (23) page proof (24) is taken on proof press, pages placed on tables, proof sent to Proof Section for attention of page reviser; (25) galleys and page proof are assembled by collator and sent to office of Superintendent of Printing to be sent to department; when department returns proof to office of Superintendent of Printing, it is (26) inspected by departmental proof referee for elimination of author’s corrections that do not conform to Style Manual; (27) proofs are then forwarded to Monotype correcting room for corrections, if any; then to Plating Lock-up Section, where (28) pages are imposed two in a chase; (29) proofs of forms are then pulled and (30) revised; after revision, the forms are sent to Plate-making Division for the making of electrotype plates.
PLATEMAKING DIVISION
Following are the operations performed in the Platemaking Division in the making of line etchings and half tones:
Lineout operations—(1) Line drawing is attached to copy board, which is located on camera stand; (2) camera is adjusted until the image of line drawing is properly sized and focused on the ground glass at the rear of the camera; (3) clean glass is coated with albumen (white of egg) that has been dissolved in water, and allowed to dry; (4) glass is then coated with collodion, which in turn is allowed to partly dry; (5) it is then placed in a light-proof tank which contains a solution of nitrate of silver, which makes the glass sensitive to light; (6) sensitized glass is then placed in a negative holder in a darkened room; (7) the ground glass is removed from the rear of the camera and in its place a plate holder containing the sensitized plate properly attached is substituted; (8) arc lights are lighted, the rays falling on the copy, the slide withdrawn from the negative holder, and cap removed from the camera’s lens, thus exposing the sensitized plate; (9) exposed plate is returned to the dark room (which is lighted by a ruby light), where it is developed, and fixed, thereby becoming a negative. (10) The negative is dried; (11) coated with a rubber solution; (12) again dried; (13) coated with collodion, then (14) cut and (15) soaked in acetic acid (which loosens it); then (16) it is stripped off the glass and reversed so the printed picture will print forward; ('17') then it is placed on a plate glass with a number of other negatives; (18) defects in the negatives are opaqued out; (19) a piece of zinc, coated with solution sensitive to light is placed in close contact with negative and (20) exposed to rays of a strong electric light for about 4 minutes. (This is called printing.) The zinc print is (21) rolled with prepared ink, then (22) washed off with water and absorbent cotton; that which was black on the negative washes off, while the white on the negative stays on. The zinc print is then (23) dusted with rosin and the back of it shellacked; (24) it is then placed in an etching machine for one-half minute, receiving its first “bite” in nitric acid; ( 25, 26, 27) three additional treatments (“ bites ”) with addition of dragon’s blood for protecting side of lines, to give proper depth, completes etching; (28) the shellac washed off; (29) the blank and open spaces to be made deeper are routed on a routing machine and (30) the small imperfections
Pl
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
tooled off by hand; (31) the plate is proofed on press; (32) the cut is then nailed on a wooden block; (33) planed to type-high and delivered to the Printing Division.
Half-tone operations.—Photograph is (1) marked for the required size, placed on the copy board, which is located on the camera stand; (2) the image of photograph is adjusted on ground glass of the camera to its proper size and focus; (3) glass is cleaned and properly treated so as to be sensitive to light; (4) sensitized glass is placed in negative holder in darkened room; (5) halftone screens, made by cementing two pieces of plate glass together with lines engraved on them diagonally, so that they cross one another at right angles forming a small screen of mesh, are placed at the rear of the camera, just in front of the sensitized plate, the screen causing the light passing through it to form a dot formation on the sensitized plate; (6) the plate holder, containing the sensitized glass, is placed at rear of camera, and in back of the halftone screen. The plate is now ready for exposure, which is accomplished as follows: With the rays of the lighted arc lamps falling on the photograph, (7) the slide in the holder is withdrawn, the cap on lens removed, and exposure thus made; plate is returned to the darkened room, where it is (8) developed and fixed by proper treatment, thereby becoming a negative; negative, after being treated, is (9) soaked in an acetic-acid solution; (10) placed on a plate glass with a number of other negatives of the same character, dried, (11) then placed in a printing frame in close contact with the sensitized side of the copper plate before a powerful electric light for about 4 minutes; (12) removed from frame; (13) placed under running water in a dark room, to dissolve coating between the dots; then (14) copper plate is thoroughly heated over a gas flame, and allowed to cool slowly, thus forming a hard acid-proof enamel called “burning in.” The burnt-in plate is then (15) carefully coated with mixture of acetic acid and salt, which removes all traces of coating between dots; (16) this is again heated, cooled, and (17) cleaned with a solution of muriatic acid; (18) placed in etching machine, for the flat etch, for 2 or 3 minutes; (19) painted with an acid-proof ink over the dark portions of plate, which results in re-etching dots, thus bringing out higher lights and giving the plate a proper tone; (20) the half-tone plate is then beveled on a beveling machine, which produces a straight or black border, as desired; (21) the plate is then tooled by hand, thus removing all imperfections; (22) it is then proofed, the proof being compared with the copy and (23) changes, if necessary, made; (24) plate is mounted on wood, or metal, as desired, (25) planed down type high on shaving machine and is ready for making up.
Molding and platema^ing operations.—(1) Metal case is coated with ozokerite wax; (2) run through shaving machine to a thickness of 1 pica; (3) case heated in electric heater to 75° F.; (4) form and case coated with black lead; (5) type impressed in wax on hydraulic molding press to a depth of 0.035 inch; (6) splurges of wax mold trimmed off on cutting down machine; (7) wax mold flamed off with gas flame; (8) mold built up with hot wax; (9) mold blackleaded in blackleading machine; (10) mold stopped out with hot iron; (11) mold pumped out with water spray to remove surplus black lead and air; (12) case oxidized; (13) hook attached to case and hung in depositing tank; (14) case removed from copper tank and (15) shell removed from wax case; (16) copper shell trimmed on shell-trimming machine; (17) soldering acid applied to back of copper shell with a brush and (18) tin foil placed upon back of shell, covering entire area; (19) shell placed in pan, and pan in metal pot; (20) after melting of tin foil on shell (21) metal poured on shell in pan; (22) cooled by forcing air from blower on cast; (23) cast scrubbed on scrubbing machine; (24) washed with warm water and dried with a rag; then to sawing machine to (25) saw into page size. Half-tones, such as appear in the Congressional Directory, are molded in lead 0.020
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
inch thick, connection placed on same, hung in nickel, then the shell removed in the usual manner. Line-cut operations are similar to type operations. Plates are then forwarded to Finishing Section where they are (26) rough-straightened; (27) shaved first on combination rougher and shaver; (28) leveled on solidifying machine, and then shaved a second time on com, bination rougher and shaver; (29) to finisher for straightening on straightening machine, or by hand, and then to shaving machine for final shaving; (30) if to be curved, low letters, if any, are punched up by finisher; (31) plate is now revised by finisher; (32) run through heading machine for squaring; (33) run through curving machine; (34) beveled on beveling machine; and (35) routed on router; (36) final revise by finisher, (37) and (38) sorted into signatures of 16 pages and sent to Press Division.
PRESS DIVISION
Plates are received by the pressman; (1) imposed on press; (2) make-ready finished; (3) press started. Half-tone plate is sent to the illustration section, where chalk overlay is made by use of a platen press. Half-tone plates delivered to pressman, who (4) imposes same on flat-bed press for printing; (5) pressman marks out a sheet for an overlay; (6) overlay is finished, (7) an impression is then pulled on the tympan, and (8) overlays underneath the top sheet on the packing placed to correspond with impression on the tympan. The press is started. When finished the printed sheets are sent to the
BINDERY DIVISION
Where printing like that of the Directory is done on a rotary press, sheets are delivered folded in signatures. Otherwise they are machine folded to signatures of 8, 16, 24, or 32 pages on a folding machine, then (1) pressed on a signature or bundling air-press; (2) paper and illustrations are machine tipped; (3) assembled or gathered in sequence into a complete book on a gathering machine; (4) sewed on a book-sewing machine; (5) smashed or nipped on a smashing machine; (6) edges are trimmed on a trimming machine; (7) cover is attached by a book-back gluing machine; (8) indexes are cut by an index-cutting machine; (9) the lettering for the index cuts is done with a roll or hand tool, on the edge of which is carried the type necessary for the index; (10) rounded and backed on a rounding and backing machine; (11) crashing and lining are attached by a crashing and lining machine. After the books are crashed and lined, they are (12) passed through a casing-in machine, which attaches or pastes the cloth covers or cases to the books; (13) then are hand built or piled between wooden boards in an air press for a heavy pressure lasting from 12 to 18 hours. The books are taken out after pressing and (14) packed for delivery. While books are in process of binding, (16) sheets of binders board are cut to required size for covers on board-cutting machines; (17) cloth is cut to required size on cloth-cutting machine from rolls 38 inches wide to either single pieces or to long rolls of proper width. Single pieces of cloth or long rolls are (18) passed through case-making machines, which glue the cloth, set the boards to proper space apart, inset a back lining strip, turn cloth over edge of board, and complete the cover; (19) covers are stamped on a stamping press in gold or foil (which are on rolls of glassine paper) or ink.
FINISHED MATERIAL USED IN BOOK
Machine-finish book paper, coated book paper, end paper, binders board, book cloth, back-lining paper, gray super (or crash), thread, glue, paste, and ink.
Hl
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
OPERATIONS PERFORMED BEFORE MATERIALS ARE DELIVERED TO THE SEVERAL DIVISIONS
After approval by the Joint Committee on Printing (1) specifications for materials are supplied by the Public Printer; (2) bids are requested; (3) bids are opened and approved, and successful contractors notified; (4) upon notice of arrival of shipments, machine-finish roll papers are removed from freight station by autotrucks to wareroom; (5) unloaded by electric cranes; (6) placed on trailers which are pulled by tractors; (7) unloaded and stacked by tiering machines; then by use of the same equipment (8) trucked to Press Division. Double-coated and endwaste papers are (9) conveyed to wareroom in cases; (10) cases are placed on trailers; then (11) stacked by tiering machines. When paper is requisitioned (12) it is taken from cases, placed on skid platforms, and delivered to Press Division by use of autotrucks. Binders board is (13) delivered in bundles weighing 50 pounds each; book cloth is delivered in rolls.
After materials have been received, before being accepted they are tested to see that they conform to samples submitted by contractor and are in accord with specifications. This calls for elaborate and detailed analysis by the
DIVISION OF TESTS AND TECHNICAL CONTROL
Paper.—(1) Sample conditioned to standard testing of 70° F. temperature and 50 per cent relative humidity; (2) fiber determination for presence of unbleached chemical wood pulp or ground wood pulp made by use of microscope and stains; (3) ream basis weight determined with paper balance calibrated to read direct weight of 500 sheets from one sheet of definite size; (4) ash or loading determined by burning and weighing ash, reported in per cent; (5) acidity determined as pH value; (6) bursting strength determined by use of bursting-strength tester; (7) folding endurance determined on folding-endurance tester; (8) thickness determined with a micrometer; (9) opacity measured with opacimeter; (10) sample compared with standard sample for color, finish, formation, and cleanliness.
Binders board.— (1) Sample conditioned to standard testing of 70° F. temperature and 50 per cent relative humidity; (2) weight determined; (3) bursting strength determined on burstingstrength tester; (4) thickness measured with a micrometer; (5) density calculated from weight thickness, and area; (6) examined in comparison with standard sample for springiness, firmness, and general appearance.
Bool{ cloth.—(1) Sample conditioned to standard testing of 70° F. temperature and 65 per cent relative humidity; (2) weight per square yard of finished cloth determined; (3) finishing materials removed and (4) weight per square yard of base cloth determined; (5) weave determined; (6) thread count; threads per inch in both warp and filling directions counted on threadcounting apparatus; (7) tensile strength determined with tensile-strength tester; (8) fastness of color to light determined with fadeometer; (9) examined for imperfections of manufacture.
Thread.—(1) Sample conditioned to standard testing of 70° F. temperature and 65 per cent relative humidity; (2) fiber analysis made by use of microscope to determine nature of fiber; (3) number of plies counted; (4) weight determined on a definite number of yards and yardage per pound calculated; (5) yarn number calculated; (6) tensile strength determined with tensile-strength tester; (7) examined for imperfections of manufacture on inspection apparatus.
Super or crash.— (1) Sample conditioned to standard atmospheric testing of 70° F. temperature and 65 per cent relative humidity; (2) weight per square yard determined; (3) weave
[51
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
determined; (4) thread count, threads per inch in both warp and filling directions counted on thread-counting apparatus; (5) tensile strength determined with tensile-strength tester.
Blac\ in\.—Constituents: Carbon black, prussian blue, rosin oil varnish, lithographic varnish, long varnish, and drier. Raw materials used in the manufacture of this ink are subjected to physical and chemical tests (1) for compliance with specifications and standard samples; (2) ink made under technical control; (3) and tested in comparison with a standard ink.
1231
2973
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
DIVISION OF TESTS AND TECHNICAL CONTROL
REPORT ON PAPER TESTS
_ . Machine Finish White Book.
Description______________________Z____
From Joins Doe and Company.
• _ . 7^12
Teit No.__;____
Date receioedf.?A..h?.!.• Dale reporledA^‘..A9».A.^.‘ ____ Siu_________________
Stores No.
Order No........_____
Lot or Item No_____
Proposition No........
Requisition No.___
□ ACCEPTED SAMPLE
&DEUVERT □ BID SAMPLE □ SPECIAL SAMPLE
SPECIFICATIONS
Car No..
□ ACCEPTED SAMPLE
□ BID SAMPLE □ SPECIAL SAMPLE
Stock-
Rag...............................
Coniferous Pulp (sulphite), bleached.
Coniferous Pulp (sulphite). unbleached Sulphate Pulp (coniferous)......
Broadleaf Pulp (ssda)............
Chemical Wood Pulp..-.____
Ground Wood Pulp..................
Hemp and (or) Job—.............
---% ---% 0 -%
-%
-%
....%
....%
0 „
w ...%
-%
...%
...%
~%
-%
-%
Weight— 17x22, 1.000___________
22ix28l. t.ooo__
24x36, 1.000____
25x38, 1.000....
.Jbc.
......... lbs. .19.....W,.
.........Ito.
Thickness_____________________....
Ply------------------------_-----
Absorption—
I c.c. Standard Ink Method..
Oil Drop Method.............
Water Method. ..........
,0025 . .
.... inch
..sees.
...sea.
_________
.........Os.
„........lbs.
_......u».
™*Ainch
.sea.
Folding Endurance (double folds)— Machine Direction, ao................
Across Machine Direction, ao...
Tensile Strength—
Machine Direction, ao._________
Across Machine Direction, ao...
Bursting Strength—Aoerage............
Moisture_____________________________
Ash.. ............ .................
Opacity___..............................
Coating_________.......................
Siting—Rosin........................
Glue.......................
Starch_____________________
Acidity—pH oalue................_____
Gumming Quality......................
Grain................................
Density..—.........................._
Erasing Quality....................
Safely Quality......................... Writing Quality________■.............
Mimeographing Quality________________
Color________________________________
Finish.________________................
General Appearance
-----kgs.
...__: kgs-
__pts.
%
------%
-------%
------%
-------%
......kgs, ......kgs-A3.-9.pt,. as:?
-------% -------% -------% -------%
Equal to
’ stahdar#’/
0
0
w-ocs vnMMD>T raurmu omeu- im« 10—1850 Signed
Figure 3. —The Requisition
1101
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
(To bs placed in retained Jacket) N9 252821 ,
Requl.ltton No. ----Date, ----__ 1
Dept,, Bur., PP. • (Toborat to«oguWtoorwbe (Bnuernmvnt ■printing ©ffire
- ■ ■ ■ / ■- ■■.- — -TTTflgMU> wfflreSura same rhea signed) •
„IHT1-O I PLANNING DIVISION
PRINTING!
Jliooo ma Z°o b3o oo__________________■ waohinoton.o.c. 252821
Composition —_- -hrs. ©------------------___ « .
C. .. .
zS------------------i 'OOP____________ A^^ng binding, 1929__________________________________________
-------------------•■___ --------- : t;„. ^^lettcnubb J -tb telfafa*
Cutting sod wrapping (flat)- . ■ - ■ . .------• , .____________t_____________________________________
Total charge for printing______ I03$\3o : . - — I
FAFEA OR ENVELOPES. Fw 100 \ /t? ^TVv®2-
2-'tSo s...t. Slock »« 7? a ! ho 511 oo_______; Total Estimate. $ ,e/ ” * X- Based on _—fJE®----Pages.
■---_e_Shoots Stock No.7»¥$-._Jte-— / -------« NOTE.—A revised estimate will be submitted when there Is a change In quantity ordered, character of work, or kind or price of stock, or when
__Z2£fi_Shwt» stock No..Z/_^-.$ l5. Zoo <£ zo°_________ yloo S (1)1 Printing. ----------------------------------------------------------- S /p3 £,3t9 ’ Ing to thia order, and embraces ruling, punching, perforating, numbering, padding, etc.) —
Cutting and wrapping - r. —d- *1 ______ ; . . . , A Ll 7. /*)
_ . / _ ; (4) Lithographing and engraving, ----------------------------------------- ----_T _r~~ Si
Total charge for binding__________0 > . (This principal Item covers work performed by private contractors or thia office.)
ILLUSTRATIONS (outalde purchaw) 1 •.
■ ■¥ Half tones_____________2^.______________’ ~
44 । lnw 2-! ________ |
• If you desire the work executed, please sign below, and return this estimate at once to the Public Printer
Total for Illustrations____________J ============================
Rush and overtime work ebarge_________________? * hereby certify that I have examined and approved above estimate, and you are authorized to proceed with the work called for
_| m_m _____
Estimated by —-------- Checked by------------ ,
Figure 4.—The Estimate (illustrating operations—not an estimate of actual charges)
HU
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
of proofs and finished work. The requisition must be signed by a duly authorised official of the department.
Details relative to paper and typography may safely be left to the discretion of the Public Printer. Title 44, section 216, of the Code of Laws of the United States provides that The forms and style in which the printing or binding ordered by any of the departments shall be executed, and the material and the size of type to be used, shall be determined by the Public Printer, having proper regard to economy, workmanship, and the purposes for which the work is needed.”
Upon receipt, the requisition, with sufficient data to properly identify it, is entered in the “Record of Orders” book. It is then submitted to the Requisitions Review Board, created in accordance with the Public Printer’s recommendation of July 25, 1921, and approved by the President through the Director of the Budget. Before work is undertaken, this board determines whether the job as ordered is authorized by law, whether it will occasion waste or unnecessary duplication, and whether any real economy may be effected by changing the specifications as to form or materials. If approved by the board, the requisition is forwarded to the estimating section for a formal estimate of the cost of the work.
THE ESTIMATE
The law requires that an estimate of cost be made for all printing and binding excepting that requisitioned for use by Congress. The estimate is necessary in ascertaining the status of the various appropriations for printing and binding, each department, bureau, office, or independent establishment being allotted by Congress a definite amount.
Upon completion, the estimate and copy are forwarded to the jacket writer.
THE JACKET—SPECIFICATIONS AND LAYOUT
Specifications and layout plans are incorporated in the jacket, or work order, which must contain complete instructions regarding all operations to be performed in the manufacturing divisions having a part in the making of the book, every essential detail being included. In addition to the technical instructions the jacket for bookwork must carry the order of the requisitioner and complete information as to number of copies to be printed for reserve, library, and depository distribution, as required by law and other authority. The jacket writer enters on the retained jacket the requisition number, the name of the requisitioning department and bureau, and the appropriation against which the work is to be charged.
112]
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
. —■ Appropriation - Printing 4 Binding, 1.92.9
OOVERHMERT PRIHTIRR OFFICE
PRINTING and BINDING tod“ . JACKET
Dept Ordering AGRICULTURE
Jacket made up by_______
Date DEC 1 7 1928
Jacket No, 2 l| 1| 8 0
Req. No. £oo______________
Title
QUANTITY
BINDING MEMO.
Deliver Proof to_
TEs-------
Electrotypes
oo ffucskna/nv, Soo -foaj&iQ
QUANTITY /5~OO | Form No.
Add! Order
Proof YES— Sets.
DEPT, (z , ^uptjuLdqcsj^.
LIB. PUB-LIB. CON( ■ FOR EXCI.
IfZO
DOCS.—IMM. DEL. IMM. DEL.
■—Smithsonian.
Backs
/‘J 2,^7
Lithos.
YES (
ILLUSTRATIONS—j
[Combination^
COMPOSITION
8
62
2
2
Type Measure
Rule
Run from Type-------
Keep Standing —
SENATE LIB.__________
HOUSE LI L___________
SENATE EOCUMENT ROOM-
HOUSE D( CUMENT ROOM.
COMPT. s :ct.
PRESSWORK _¥£•$-
BINDERY OPERATIONS
Ink
EDITION ____L-AO O
Gathering--YES------
No. of Pages______ No. of Forms
Numbering____
Cnver YES
Sig. Mark
~ Color
/D (Inclusive)
UapjiA. Perforating______________________
Folding—.—YES —
Tipping ) YES
Pasting f
Binding-----YE_S._
Collating_YES____________
YES Stock l*_H. s.ZAe-St. oo.________
—Z- A-g-SImt. Stock »o..®4f. S._fe.-L 1L-..-
------------------------------------------ -"ESL-Stte* Stock «*"£-. -----L .26---# 72, Fn/t Stock No.—— $
--- ■ 1 ------En/» Stock No.— I-------------------
_ DEC 17 1928 ____,JaN 3 5 1929 bisoerv work^ ' ~~1
Received Delivered.---------- 4o /60 oo____________
Size. Copies printed_<900 ----Cot®,---------«.................... I
Paper pages Type pages_4^2______ _____________________________________________
Total printed type page. '^OOQ____________ T,w’t,<----«--> ------®----------------------
-■’• S»S"S-----------------------j----~~7------
io p Girted Cuttjog andwr^ng-..?.?-/?..^-.^.-.../A -22k
7^0O tt bxmJL js*, Ootalde parchtM ...
----------------------------------------- VlicollaMMs-----------------------------------
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Figure 7-—The Retained Jacket (reverse side)
I 15 H
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
If the work or any part of it is wanted or promised at a stated time, a “rush or promise” card is written and attached to the jacket. Figure 5 is a facsimile of a jacket pertaining to bookwork. When the writing of the jacket is completed it is forwarded, with copy and estimate, to the duplicating unit, where the jacket number is assigned, the abstract estimate is removed and mailed for the approval of the requisitioner, the requisition, detailed estimate (stub), and “rush or promise” card are forwarded to the Information Section for filing in retained jacket, and seven copies of the jacket information are made and distributed as follows:
(1) The jacket information slip, or the “retained jacket” (see figs. 6 and 7), printed on both sides (9% by 12 inches, folded to 4 by 9 La inches). This copy, to which is added the amount of the estimate, is filed in the Information Section. In it are placed the estimate, requisition, and all relating correspondence. As the work progresses the dates are entered in the “ Progressive Record.” The retained jacket is held in the Information Section until delivery is completed, when it is forwarded to the Division of Accounts, where the work is computed and final charges entered.
(2) Jacket information slip, face only. To clerk in charge of “Record of Orders,” for entry of jacket number; thence to the duplicating unit for Planning Division permanent file.
(3) Jacket information slip, face only. T o Division of Accounts, for entry of estimate in allotment books.
(4) Jacket information slip, face only. To Storekeeper, for his information as to paper requirements.
(5) Jacket information slip, face only. To Superintendent of Printing, whose records show status of work from time of receipt of copy until sent to press.
(6) Jacket information slip, face only. To Superintendent of Documents, for his information.
(7) Jacket information slip, face only. To Superintendent of Binding, for his information.
If the jacket calls for reserve copies, it is forwarded for record in the Pamphlet Section of the Bindery Division, then returned to the Planning Division. If line-engraving or half-tone illustrations are to be made, the copy after being folioed in the Printing Division is returned to the Planning Division, where the dimensions and the kind of screen (if half-tones) are determined and indicated on copy, and a supplemental jacket covering all photo-engraving operations is written. Upon completion of photo-engraving work, the supplemental jacket is filed in the master jacket. When lithographs are required, a purchase order is prepared in the Planning Division and forwarded to the Purchasing Agent, who asks for competitive bids in the open market. Upon delivery of lithographs, a memorandum of charges is filed in the retained jacket for the information of the computer.
After approval by Planning Division, the jacket, with copy, is sent to the office of the Superintendent of Printing, where it is entered and then forwarded to the copy editing unit of the Proof Section.
While copy is being prepared by the copy editors, illustrations are being made by the Photo-Engraving Section of the Platemaking Division.
1161
ILLUSTRATIONS
PHOTO-ENGRAVING is the term applied to the art or process of producing printing plates having images formed in relief on a metal surface, obtained by a series of photographic and chemical operations. This is the only method of producing illustrations used in the Government Printing Office—lithographs, steel-die engravings, etc., being secured by “outside purchase.”
PHOTO-ENGRAVING
The process embraces three distinct classes of etching—line, half-tone, and color half-tone. Line etchings consist of reproductions from drawings made with black or red lines on a white background, such as pen-and-ink drawings on a well-finished paper, or crayon, pencil, or charcoal on a rough-finished paper. Halftone etchings consist of reproductions from subjects varying in tone from black to white, such as photographs, wash or air-brush drawings, fine pencil drawings, or objects themselves which do not contain too much color. Color halftones consist of reproducing subjects done in color, such as water color and oil paintings, or objects containing color if they are of a nature that can be handled before the camera. Process halftones require, for each color, a separate-negative made with the screen turned at different degrees, and a suitable color filter placed in front of the screen.
COPY FOR ENGRAVINGS
Line engravings.—For this method of reproduction it is important that the photo-engraver be furnished copy consisting of intensely black lines or dots on pure white paper. Colored inks or colored or tinted paper should never be used. Lines and dots must be intensely black or the result will be a ragged, unsatisfactory reproduction. If large areas are filled in with black, they must be black all over, not brownish gray in some places. Lines must be clean as to edges, otherwise they will appear ragged in the finished plate. Always bear in mind that the reproduction will show exactly what is put into the drawing.
Halftone engravings.—Under this method may be reproduced any photograph or black-and-white drawing in wash, pen-and-ink, pencil, crayon, or other medium.
{171
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
TO DETERMINE THE DIMENSIONS OF A CUT
It is necessary to remember only that both height and width of a drawing, photograph, etc., reduce proportionately on a diagonal, as shown in the diagram below.
Suppose, for instance, the size of a photograph to be reduced is indicated by the rectangle A B E G.
Lay off a rectangle having the same dimensions on a piece of paper and draw the diagonal line, E B.
Mark off on bottom line the width E F of cut to be made.
The point at which the perpendicular D F touches the diagonal E B will give the height of cut when reduced.
In the same way, having marked off height of proposed cut—C E—its width is determined from the point at which the diagonal is touched by the horizontal line C D.
Drawings may be made larger than the intended size of the printed reproduction. If a reproduction size of, say, 5 inches wide by 10 inches high is desired, the drawing may be one and one-half, two, or three times as large—in fact, any reasonable size—but it must be remembered that if the height is enlarged the width must also be enlarged proportionately, as the camera enlarges or reduces both dimensions at the same time.
Proportions must be absolutely correct—not nearly so, but exact. For a square reproduction, boundary lines should be at right angles with the adjoining ones; the engraver can not make a square plate from a drawing or photograph with
1181
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
boundary lines running off at different angles. In the matter of reduction, the copy should be larger (preferably twice as large, each dimension) than the intended size of the reproduction, as the reducing process will eliminate much of the roughness in the drawing. When the drawing is very large, the artist must consider the proportion of shade lines or dots, otherwise they will run together or fill up during reduction, thereby producing a black smudge instead of a clean gradation of tone.
Reproduction dimensions should be clearly indicated, in inches, on each drawing. When the metric system is used, the English equivalent should also be given. Where a number of drawings are to be reproduced, it is desirable that the exact size, in inches, be given rather than instructions to “reproduce with same focus.”
MAKING THE PLATE
The line and half-tone methods of reproduction are similar in principle. Under each the illustration is photographed, and practically the same methods are used in transferring the image to the printing plate. The chief point of difference is in the use of the screen for the purpose of bringing out values and gradations in the half-tone method.
To break up the surface of the engraving into dots a screen is used. The screen is placed in the camera just in front of the sensitized plate on which the photographic negative is to be made. This screen is made of two pieces of glass, on each one of which lines are ruled diagonally across in opposite directions, resulting in a perfect dot gradation of the varying tone values in the copy.
The screens used vary greatly. There are two important reasons for this variation, the first being different paper textures. A fine-line screen, such as 133, 150, or 175, would not be suitable for anything but fine enameled stocks; therefore coarser screens are used for reproduction on cheaper stocks. The second reason is the preservation of detail, as it naturally follows that the coarser the screen used the more detail lost in the reproduction. Therefore, when reproducing detailed illustrations a fine screen and enameled paper should be used.
Usually a half-tone print cannot again successfully be reproduced because of the screen in the half-tone print. It is practically impossible for the operator to so turn his screen when reproducing as to avoid getting a pattern effect in the second reproduction. If the screen of the half-tone print is fine, the print itself large, and the re-reproduction is to be considerably reduced, the print may be reproduced satisfactorily without showing double-screen pattern
119]
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
LINE ETCHINGS
The operations required in the making of a line etching are given herewith in their sequence.
The glass is cleaned with lye or nitric acid and washed carefully.
Glass is then coated with albumen (white of egg) dissolved in water. It is then allowed to dry.
Next the glass is coated with collodion containing all necessary sensitizing agents except silver, and is allowed to set until it is partly dry.
It is then dipped in a light-proof tank containing silver nitrate and allowed to remain for about 5 minutes, during which time silver bromide and iodide deposit on the collodion surface of glass, making it sensitive to light.
The sensitized plate (or wet plate) is now placed in a plate holder. (This must be done in the dark room.)
The plate holder is then attached to the camera, the slide withdrawn, the lens uncapped, and the exposure is made on the wet plate.
The exposed plate is next developed and fixed in the dark room. It is now a negative.
Negatives are first coated with rubber cement and, after that is dry, with a coating of collodion.
The film is cut and soaked in acetic acid and then stripped off the glass.
The negative film is not turned over so that when finished the picture will not read backward, and placed on a sheet of %-inch plate glass, together with a number of other negatives.
Defects in negatives are opaqued out.
The polished plate of zinc, which is to be etched so that it will leave on the printed page a turned duplicate of the original drawing, is rubbed with powdered emery and water, to obtain a proper surface for the coating to adhere to.
The zinc plate is now coated with a solution of white of egg (albumen) and water and ammonium bichromate, making the surface sensitive to light.
The coated plate is next whirled over a gas stove in a dark room to distribute the coating evenly while drying.
The negative is now placed in a printing frame and the sensitized side of zinc plate placed in close contact with negative and exposed to a powerful electric light for about 4 minutes.
The resulting “print” on the surface of the zinc plate is then rolled with a specially prepared ink.
This zinc plate is placed under a faucet of running water and gently rubbed over with a tuft of cotton. Wherever the negative was transparent the light made the coating on the zinc insoluble and this remains on the zinc as the picture. The rest of the coating washes off, leaving the bare zinc exposed.
Warming the zinc print slightly so that the ink becomes “ tacky ” is the next step, and then it is dusted over with dragon’s blood which only sticks to the inked portions of the plate.
The dragon’s blood coating on the ink is then heated over a gas furnace until it melts.
This heated plate is then quickly cooled so that the dragon’s blood forms an acid-proof coating over all the fines in the picture.
As an alternative procedure, the zinc plate, after being cleaned with emery, is coated with a solution of clear shellac, dilute ammonium hydroxide, and ammonium bichromate. This solution is known as a “cold top enamel.” The coated plate is whirled over a gas stove to distribute the coating evenly over the plate while drying it. It is then placed in the printing
[20 J
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
frame with the coated surface in direct contact with the negative and exposed to a strong arc light for about four minutes. The plate is removed from the frame and placed in a “ developer,” consisting of a solution of gum and dye in high-proof alcohol. The developer “ breaks ” the unexposed portions of the enamel, which are then washed off as in the first-described method.
Next the zinc plate is placed in an etching machine containing nitric acid and water which dashes acid over the surface of the plate and etches away the unprotected portions of the zinc. The first etching or “ bite ” only requires about 30 seconds.
The zinc plate after the first bite is again dusted over with dragon’s blood and the surplus powder carefully brushed off the plate, special care being taken to brush the dragon’s blood close up against the etched side of the line in one direction.
The plate is reheated over a gas furnace until the dragon’s blood melts and covers top and side of the line. With a quarter turn of the plate, the operation is repeated three times until the raised sides of all lines have dragon’s blood coating banked against them.
The zinc plate is now put back in the etching machine for the second bite, which lasts about 1% minutes, after which each side is again dusted with dragon’s blood and heated and cooled and put back in etching machine for a third bite of about 10 minutes.
It is then again dusted with dragon’s blood, heated and cooled four times more, and put back in etching machine for the last bite, which requires about 15 minutes. After this operation the acid-proof top is removed with hot lye.
All open spaces in the zinc plate are now routed out so they will not catch the ink from the press rollers and print. ’
The zinc etching must now be hand-tooled or trimmed to remove small irregularities and assure perfection of the printing surface.
A good proof is now pulled from the plate and carefully compared with the original copy. If defects are found, the plate is returned to the finishers for correction.
When the proof is approved the zinc etching is next nailed on a wood block by an automatic nailing machine.
The blocked plate is now placed on a planing machine and the back of the wood block is planed off until it is exactly type high. It is now ready for the printer.
HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
The progressive operations required in the making of a half-tone are as follows:
Clean the glass with lye or nitric acid and then rinse carefully; then coat with albumen (white of egg) dissolved in water and allow to dry.
When albumen is dry, a coating of collodion is applied which is allowed to set until it is partly dry.
The collodion-coated glass is then immersed in a light-proof tank containing silver nitrate and allowed to remain about five minutes, during which time silver bromide and iodide deposit on the collodion surface of the glass, making it sensitive to light.
The sensitized plate (or wet plate) is now placed in the plate holder. (This operation must be done in the dark room.)
Half-tone screen consists of two pieces of plate glass, with opaque (parallel) lines engraved on each diagonally, cemented together so that the opaque lines cross each other at right angles, forming a mesh or screen. The number of opaque lines ruled to the inch determines the screen; those in general use in the Government Printing Office are 110, 120,133,150, and 175.
{21}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
The half-tone screen is placed in back of camera on an adjustable frame, which allows it to be moved very close to the surface of the wet plate in plate holder and equally distant from it at all points. With the lens uncapped, the light in the camera passes through the openings in the screen before reaching the wet plate, and this causes the picture to be broken into dots.
The wet plate is next developed and fixed in the dark room. (Consists of several important operations requiring expert work.) It is now a negative.
The negative is first coated with rubber cement and, after it is dry, with a coating of collodion.
The film is cut and then soaked in acetic acid and afterward stripped off the glass.
The negative film is now turned over so that when finished the picture will not read backward, and placed on a sheet of %-inch plate glass with a number of other negatives. This is done so that a number of objects may be transferred to the copper plate in one exposure.
The copper plate is rubbed with powdered pumice and water to obtain a good surface (matte, dull finish) for the coating to adhere to.
The copper plate is coated with a solution of fish glue and bichromate of ammonia and dried in a dark room by whirling it in a tank, face down, over a gas stove.
The negative is now placed in a printing frame and the sensitized side of copper plate placed in close contact with negative and exposed to powerful electric light for about 4 minutes.
The copper plate or print is again taken into the dark room and placed under a faucet of running water. This dissolves the coating between the dots, which is the part of the coating that was not exposed to the light.
The print is next “ burnt in ” by heating over a gas stove and then cooled slowly. This turns the coating into a hard acid-proof enamel.
Back of plate is painted with shellac to resist the acid.
This “ burnt in ” plate is now cleaned carefully with a mixture of acetic acid and salt to remove all traces of coating from between the dots.
The carefully-cleaned plate is next placed in an etching machine which dissolves the exposed copper between each dot. We are now approaching the desired “ half tone.”
An engraver takes this plate for reetching, and carefully paints over the dark portions of the picture with an acid-proof coating, etching the rest of the dots again so that those in the lighter parts of the picture become smaller with more white space between them, which adds greatly to the tone values of the picture and brings out the higher lights.
The half-tone plate is next beveled for nailing to the wood block and the black border line machined on it; then hand-tooled (finish with a tool) to assure perfection; and finally nailed on a wood block by hand or with a nailing machine. Half-tones are often provided with a metal base. This is the case when the cut is to be plated.
A proof is pulled from the plate and carefully compared with the original copy.
The blocked plate is placed on a planing machine, and the back of the block is planed off until it is exactly type-high. It is now ready for the printer.
Offset engraving and presswork are treated under a separate heading (p. 48), entitled “Offset Printing.”
122}
PREPARATION OF COPY
COPY FOR BOOKWORK requires preparation before it is ready for the compositor. This work varies according to the nature of the publication, and may range from the simple stamping of the office jacket number and folio on each piece of copy to editorial work involving punctuation, capitalization, and grammatical construction, and frequently the rearrangement of tabular matter so that it will come within the prescribed requirements.
THE COPY EDITOR
The copy editor is charged with the responsibility of seeing that the copy is prepared in conformity to the rules prescribed by the Style Manual of the office; to cut and arrange copy so that each folio will begin with a heading or paragraph; to stamp on each folio of copy the measure (except document measure *) and kind of type (except 10-point roman type *) called for on the jacket; to separate tabular matter from text wherever possible for the purpose of facilitating composition; to attach a "memo” to the copy for the title page, stating for the information of the title page compositor the series of type used in the main headings of the text; to indicate the kind of type to be used for headings; to see that all titles, chapters, and similar typographical elements are properly coordinated, and to detect any inconsistencies which have been overlooked by the author which, when corrected, make for perfection in the finished volume.
Copy for illustrations must be folioed and immediately forwarded to the Planning Division.
The occasional occurrence of fractions or decimals in figure columns in continuous folios requires that space to assure uniform alinement be indicated at the top of each folio and column affected; also on the first line of each folio the correct use of commas and periods in figures must be indicated. Unnecessary dollar marks and other signs should be marked out and the rules regarding the use of “ditto” carefully observed. Indentions in indexes and similar matter must be indicated on each folio of copy. Uniformity in text and
1 In Government Printing Office practice, when the jacket calls for document measure the editor is not required to stamp the measure on the copy. The absence of the stamp is understood to mean “ Doc.”; likewise, the absence of a stamp designating site of type is understood to mean 10 point, and the absence of the “ Leaded” stamp is understood to mean the type is to be set solid. In all other cases the size of type for text must be indicated on copy and copy editor’s instruction slip.
[23]
54690°—33—3
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
typographical coordination and harmony are essential to good hookmaking. Dignity should pervade a volume on a serious subject. The attention of the reader should not be distracted by ornaments or an indiscriminate use of rules and dashes. The treatment of headings demands great care in the selection of type that will express the actual relation of the matter it introduces to other parts of the text. Similar care must be employed in the use of dashes preceding or following headings, and their significance thoroughly understood.
It being impracticable to insert plates in galley proofs, a guide line indicating the place for their insertion in page make-up must be substituted.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF A BOOK
As a rule the preliminary parts of a book are given roman folios, the text proper beginning with the arabic numeral 1. By this arrangement it is possible to increase or decrease the number of preliminary pages without disarranging the pagination of the text.
The proper layout for an ordinary volume, arranged in accord with the best usage, is as follows:
BASTARD TITLE
(always a right-hand page)
This page (often miscalled “half title”) is used merely because custom demands the familiar resting place for the eye in advance of the title-page. It should never be omitted in work of any pretension, and it should never be made unduly prominent by decoration or other treatment. Conventional dignity is the safe note for this page in the book.
ADVERTISING CARD (always a left-hand page)
If an advertising card or other similar announcement is required, it must be typographically a part of the book.
THE TITLE PAGE
(always a right-hand page)
The title page gives the reader his sense of the whole book's quaHty. It must, therefore, be as nearly perfect as may be. Its first essential is that the eye shall read instantly the three important facts that it has to tell: The title of the book, the name of the author, and the imprint. There must be as little else on the title page as possible. Everything that can be left out is an aid to quality. The principle of the page is that it is an announcement of the book’s contents and that it should not go beyond a very few display lines. It is the door to the house. White space is of the greatest value in this part of the book. If decoration is used, it must never be made more important than the type lines.
COPYRIGHT
(always a left-hand page)
The copyright of the volume should be placed a little above the center of the page. This page is not used in Government publications.
[24]
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
DEDICATION OR FOREWORD
(always a right-hand page)
The character and purpose of the dedication dictates that its treatment must always be formal. The dedication must always be a right-hand page. Its reverse must be left blank.
PREFACE
(always a right-hand page)
A preface that has simply the ordinary character usual to most prefaces should be set in the same size of type as the body of the book and in the same face. If the book has both preface and introduction, the preface may be set in italics to mark the distinction. Italics may also be employed if the preface has been written by a person other than the author. In this case, however, the preface should be placed after the contents and the list of illustrations; not before.
CONTENTS
(always a right-hand page)
The contents or table of contents, filling as many pages as necessary, follows the preface. The contents pages are almost as important as the title page in establishing a sense of quality.
THE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
(always a right-hand page)
The list of illustrations follows the contents pages, but no matter where the contents finish, the list of illustrations must begin on a right-hand page. Obviously its typographical style must be the same as that of the contents.
INTRODUCTION
(always a right-hand page)
The introduction follows the list of illustrations, and its composition should be in the same size and face as the body of the book. Any typographical distinction between preface and introduction should be limited to the former, as stated under “ preface.” Authors are not always clear in their understanding of the difference between a preface and an introduction. Their introduction often is really a preface, and should be so entitled and placed in the book accordingly. The preface is the author’s personal remarks to the reader, and these may be of any character, treating of any subject. The introduction, on the other hand, should treat specifically of the subject of the book, and should contain only statements of direct bearing and importance.
HALF TITLE
(always a right-hand page)
As the bastard title always precedes the title page, so the half title always precedes the first page of the text—the page which carries the title of the book at its top. The half title must always be on the right-hand page immediately preceding this page, and it should consist of not more than the title of the volume. Half titles may run through a book before various divisions.
THE TEXT
(always begins a right-hand page)
Those sections of a book which follow the text must be treated with the same typographic care as the pages which precede the text. These sections are usually as follows:
{25}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
APPENDIX
(always a right-hand page)
This should be set in the same face as the text, but in one size smaller type. If the text ends on the left-hand page, a half title should be inserted between the text and the appendix.
GLOSSARY
(preferably a right-hand page)
The size of type used for the glossary depends wholly upon its nature, but is usually two full sizes smaller than that used in the text of the volume. A half title should also be inserted before the glossary, if the text ends on the left-hand page.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(preferably a right-hand page)
The comments made under “ glossary ” apply equally to the bibliography. The combination of titles of books and the names of authors offer an attractive opportunity for artistic treatment.
INDEX
(always a right-hand page)
If the text ends on the left-hand page, a half title should be inserted before the index. The type used for the index is usually 8 point size set in double column. There is so much difference in the way the index entries read that great care should be exercised to select a model which will fit the particular case in hand.
Upon completion of preparation, the copy and jacket are returned to the office of the Superintendent of Printing, where the jacket is retained while the copy is forwarded to the proper composing section.
{26}
COMPOSITION
MODERN ROMAN has been adopted as the standard type face for use in Government publications, although consideration is given the requisitioner who wishes to employ other type faces when the book to be printed is of a special character. In ordinary bookwork the following sizes of type are used: For text, 10 point; extracts, quotations, bibliographies, indexes, and similar matter, 8 point; tabular matter, topical indexes, and footnotes, 6 point.
KINDS OF COMPOSITION
Both linotype and monotype machines are used in the Government Printing Office for book composition, and only in special cases (as the title page) is any type set by hand. The type face selected for the work in view determines the machine selected.
Care exercised in spacing lines will determine the appearance of the printed page. Alternate widely and thinly spaced lines must be avoided. In leaded matter thin-spaced lines are permissible only in extreme cases, and in solid composition wide spacing should be avoided whenever possible. Two-letter divisions are objectionable, but may be made to prevent badly spaced lines.
In ruling out tabular composition full-length rules should be used wherever possible. If necessary to piece rules, see that the “breaks” do not occur at the same point as in companion rule.
The Style Manual of the Office covers many phases of composition and is a valuable aid to those who wish to acquaint themselves with the more intimate details of book typography.
The title page, to be attractive and appropriate, must combine a suitable type selection with a proper distribution of blank space. As a rule, the type of the title should be of the same face or series as that of the text. Harsh contrasts must be avoided, and the types selected harmonize. The plain, unornamented title page is in good taste.
When paper covers are called for, it is not necessary to reproduce all of the matter appearing on the title. It will usually suffice to repeat only the title of the publication, and even this may be shortened. Nor is it necessary to utilize the full page of space. Several inches of matter at the top or above the center of the page is preferable.
[27]
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
When composition is completed, galley proofs are taken and forwarded to the Proof Section, where they are read by copy.
PROOFREADING
When proofs are received, they are scheduled by jacket number, requisition number, title, galley number and galley slug, date when the first of the job comes into the section, and the date and hour when the last of it is read.
Before beginning to read a proof, the reader should assure himself that he has all the copy which the proof represents. He must “run” the folios, and if any are missing the copy and proof should be returned to the issuing desk at once, with explanation to the deskman. The reader should also see that the size and kind of type and measure as shown on his proof correspond to that indicated on the copy. Accuracy is vitally important, particular attention being given to proper names, dates, signatures, foreign words and figures.
After proofs have been read by the first reader, they are returned, with the copy, to the desk and issued to another reader for the second reading by copy. The referee then examines the proofs for the purpose of seeing that uniformity and style are preserved by the proofreaders. He also marks any additional typographical errors and errors of fact that he may discover.
Corrections should be marked on the proof in a clear and neat manner, readily comprehensible to the correctors and revisers who are to follow the reader. Irregular, large, carelessly made marks are not indicative of efficiency. On the contrary, they are likely to be the cause of errors appearing in the finished work.
The proofreader is expected to detect errors of all kinds, whether they be typographical, grammatical, or of fact. This calls for ability of the highest order, and means that a proofreader of high efficiency should have a good basic education, cultivate a retentive memory, be a constant student of current events and of history, and have some knowledge of most of the sciences. In fact, there is no educational boundary at which a proofreader should stop, for the most that he ever will learn will not be more than he will need in his practice of the profession of high-class proofreading.
A reader must train himself to concentrate on the work in hand, to become to a certain extent oblivious to extraneous noises or diversions. He should cultivate an attentive ear for what his copyholder is reading, while at the same time his quick and practiced eye is watching for typographical errors and his mental faculties are alert for errors of other kinds.
After reading, proofs are returned to the proper sections for correcting.
{28}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
CORRECTING THE PROOFS
GALLEY CORRECTIONS
The spacing of machine composition as it comes from the machines is uniform and is automatically determined by the number of space intervals in each line. In making corrections it is very essential that the same uniformity be retained. Especial attention should be given to the corrected line in its spacing relation to the line above and below, so as to avoid a thinly or widely spaced line when compared to spacing of balance of lines. Hardly anything detracts more from the finished appearance of good printing than irregular spacing. Uni' form spacing is insisted upon in the Government Printing Office, and it can be attained only by close attention to and application of this rule.
Errors in correcting solid-slug composition often occur through the transposition of slugs. Transpositions can be limited to a minimum by corrector moving slug affected an inch to the left on galley or page and not removing it until corrected slug is partially inserted in the open space left for insertion of corrected line. In addition, corrected line should be carefully compared with proof for the purpose of detecting possible errors made in resetting; if errors are discovered, they should be corrected before releasing for proof or press.
PAGE CORRECTIONS
The care taken when correcting type in galleys must, of course, be likewise observed in page corrections, the same general practice and directions applying to both. In page corrections, however, if the corrections either reduce or increase the length of the page, that fact should be brought to the attention of the deskman so that it may be properly remedied.
ERRORS NOT MARKED
If an apparent error is discovered which is not marked on the proof, it should be called to the attention of the deskman for his decision as to what should be done. While correctors are not required to proofread matter they are handling, employees are expected to be interested in producing errorless printing. This rule applies to all work passing through all divisions of the office.
After the corrections indicated by the reader are made, the required number of galley proofs and the original copy are forwarded to the requisitioner, accompanied by an instruction slip relative to supplying copy for running page folios, if desired. Upon return of the galley proof all errors in the type matter are corrected, accurate account being kept of time required to make corrections due to the author’s departure from the original copy, as the total cost of such alterations becomes an additional charge against the completed work.
129 J
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
When departmental corrections are completed, a new set of galley proofs is sent to the Proof Section for revision, after which, if a revised galley proof is not requested, the proof is returned to its section for page make-up.
MAKING-UP
Before proceeding with this work the maker-up must ascertain length of type page and style of folios to be used. If a running (reading) title line is desired, he should be furnished copy for or instructions regarding such lines. He must know whether the work is to be printed from type or plates.
When a running title is used, the figures of the even folios must be flush on the left and those of the odd folios flush on the right side of the page. In a new page or new odd page the running folio is omitted and the folio figure is placed at the bottom of the page, indented 3 ems from the outer margin of the type page in document and narrower measures, and 5 ems in wider measures.
When top center folios are used, the new page or new odd page carries its folio at the bottom, inclosed in parentheses, and centered. In this case it is imperative that the figures be properly spaced and alined in order to insure accurate register.
Ordinarily, 8-point roman figures or small caps are used for folios placed at the bottom of a page.
The maker-up is furnished a gage of the exact length of the type page including the bottom slug, and it is his duty to see that all pages are uniformly made up to the exact size. Carelessness in this work can not be detected until the pages are assembled in the chase, and it is extremely dangerous then to make transpositions, either of blank space or type matter, which may affect register. A form so corrected may be imposed, printed, and folded as a perfect unit, but later, in the bindery, it may be found that it differs from all other signatures.
When a book is to be printed on the right-hand pages only, all folios should be flush on the right-hand pages; when printed on the left-hand pages only, all folios should be flush on the left.
The signature mark should be set in 6 point and should be indented 3 ems from the left in measures of 26% picas or less and 5 ems for all measures over 26% picas.
It is desirable that pages be of equal length, but this is sometimes difficult to accomplish, particularly when the text contains illustrations and tabular matter. It must always be borne in mind that in spacing out or spacing in a page to the gage it is never permissible to insert or remove leads in the text or between paragraphs. If a change in the spacing above and below center headings will not bring the page to the proper size, the page, if short, is blanked out
{30}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
at the bottom, and, if long, the excess matter is run over. In breaking a page it is desirable that at least two lines of a paragraph be retained at the bottom of the page and that an overrunning paragraph have two lines at the top of the following page. It is never permissible to run only the first line of a paragraph at the bottom of a page or to begin a new page with the last line of a paragraph, even though it be a full line. When matter is printed from type or flat plates, every page should have a minimum space of 10 points at the bottom, although, if necessary, a page can be made up flush to gage; if printed from curved plates, every page must have a minimum space of 10 points. If a short page cannot be avoided, the facing page should, if the text permits, be of approximately equal length.
Each new odd or even page should uniformly begin 6 picas from the top. A table of contents, list of illustrations, preface, or other matter that makes but one page should be placed slightly above the center of the page.
A centered heading, except in tabular matter, should have at least 2 points more space above than below it.
A single full-width illustration, when printed in the text, should be slightly above the center of the page. A small illustration around which type matter is run should be placed flush on the left if an even page and flush on the right if an odd page. The type matter should be at least 10 points from the printing surface of the illustration. Additional illustrations on the same page should be placed on alternate sides, the full-width type matter being equally distributed above and below them.
When illustrations occur in a publication which is to be plated, the cuts are mounted on metal base immediately upon receipt of illustration O. K. from department.
In “ cleared ” indexes the words cleared should be repeated at top of column or page. Matter represented by dashes, as in bibliographies, is sometimes repeated at top of column or page, but often the dash is retained. In case of doubt the maker-up should consult the Proof Section before proceeding with such work.
Continued heads over tables are to be condensed into one line if possible. If heads over tables or box heads have a reference and footnote, the reference is not repeated in the continued head. Notes above tables should be in brackets; they generally are not repeated with continued heads unless they include matter which has a vital and direct connection with each page of tabular matter. (Example: [Totals are expressed in thousands of dollars].) A dash only should separate the head or subhead from the word “ Continued.” No
Pi}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
punctuation is used after center or flush heads. Use the abbreviation “Contd.” (omitting apostrophe) or “ Con.” to avoid an overrun. If the head is all lower case or all small caps, lower-case the terms “ continued,” “contd.,” or “con.” The word “Continued ” and its abbreviations should be in roman, irrespective of whether the lines they accompany are in black, caps, or italic, etc. The continued lines, whether flush or centered, should be set in the same type as the original line. Leader work will follow the same style as tables in the use of “Continued”; that is, center and flush heads, subheads, and indentions must be continued.
Great care should be taken that lines continued preserve the sense of the subject matter. For instance, if the phrase “ Machinery and implements imported ” is to be carried over, it is much better to repeat the whole phrase, with the addition of “—Continued,” than simply to use “ Machinery—Continued.” If the narrowness of the stub demands a contraction, use “ Machinery, etc., imported,” rather than “ Machinery and implements,” since the former preserves the sense of the phrase contracted while the latter does not.
Remember, if a continued line is omitted inside the table, it will cause the table to be reruled, and in some cases may cause a remake-up.
Unless otherwise ordered, legends for illustrations are set in 6-point roman lower case. The legends for illustrations that run lengthwise of the page should always read up.
At the left-hand side at the bottom of the first page of any signature are printed the jacket number, the signature number, and the year of issue. The signature number is the bookbinder’s guide for gathering the signatures in proper sequence, and it must never be omitted in ordinary bookwork. When the jacket number in the signature designation is followed by a degree mark (°), such mark signifies that the type matter is plated; when followed by a black star (★), the signature bearing this symbol is a reprint and should be substituted in the bindery for the original signature bearing the same number.
Upon completion of the make-up, each page is securely tied with cord provided for that purpose. Proofs of the pages are then taken, after which the pages are stacked in signatures of sixteens, the lowest page number being placed on top. The page proof, together with the galley proof previously submitted to the author, is forwarded to the author for revision. Upon return of the page proof all necessary corrections are made, and if no further proof is required the type pages are then sent to the imposer for locking-up for press, if printed from type; if plated, to the Plating Lockup Section to be locked up for the plating process.
[ 32 }
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
LOCKING-UP FOR FOUNDRY
The locking-up of pages in a form of type calls for discretion in the selection of chases and the graduation of pressure.
Before pages are placed on stone, the imposing stone should be made perfectly clean. Particles of dust adhering to the stone will prevent an even planing down of the type, and the mold taken from types of uneven height will produce uneven plates.
Pages intended to be plated are imposed in small chases of cast iron, truly squared, and usually large enough to hold two or more octavo pages. A quarto or octavo page that contains a large illustration is most satisfactorily molded in the chase of one page only. A page of type and a full-page illustration should not be imposed together, as each page requires a different pressure in molding.
Steel guards, or “ bearers,” 0.003 inch higher than type high (0.921), beveled on one side, are placed at top and bottom and sides of page to prevent the spreading of the molding wax. When two pages are imposed in one chase, a bearer, beveled on both sides, is inserted between pages. The bearers assist in forming the needed bevel that is afterwards planed on the sides and bottom of book plates and ends and sides of job and curved plates, and also save the face of the type and plate from being battered during the different processes of finishing in the Platemaking Division.
The maximum sizes of chases which can be used for locking forms for the foundry are, for electrotypes, 25 by 31)2 inches; for stereotypes, 14 by 28 inches.
Upon completion of locking-up, a proof of the form is taken and carefully scanned by the reviser, who must be on the alert for faulty alinement, drop-outs, and other imperfections. With these details disposed of, the form is sent to the Platemaking Division, where the required plates are made.
{33J
PLATEMAKING
ELECTROTYPING
F~'| 5HE SIZE AND CHARACTER of the edition, the nature of the composition, the preservation of type faces, and the element of time are all factors which determine whether matter shall be printed direct from the type or whether electrotype or stereotype plates shall be made. Plates are usually made when the edition is of 10,000 or more copies or when it is likely that reprints will be made. In all high-class bookwork, particularly that containing tabular matter or type having delicate lines, electrotyping is necessary to assure clarity in the printed page. The constant wear of the printing press causes rapid deterioration in soft-metal type faces or lines, while the electrotype has a durable surface from which a much larger number of impressions can be clearly printed.
Electrotyping is the process of making copper or nickel reproductions of type matter, half-tones, sine etchings, and printing plates. It consists essentially of making a wax or lead mold of the original and depositing a copper or nickel shell on the mold. The shell is then backed with electrotype metal and finished for use on the press in either curved or flat shape as required.
The matter to be molded in wax is locked in a specially made heavy chase after being completely surrounded with type-high guards to prevent the wax from being squeezed out. Half-tones must be mounted on metal, as wood will not withstand the pressure required to produce a good reproduction of the half' tone plate. Zinc etchings, however, may be mounted on wood, as they are of a more open character and do not require as much pressure as half-tones.
A mixture of waxes, the principal one being “ozokerite,” is used in the molding process. Melted wax is poured on a flat sheet of metal and, after being cooled, is shaved to the desired thickness and stored in an electric oven, where it is kept at the correct molding temperature.
Molding is done on a hydraulic press, the type matter being dusted with graphite to prevent it from sticking to the wax. The mold is then sent to the builder, who trims and shaves off the surplus wax and builds up all nonprinting surfaces that are too near the level of the printing surface. Building-up is done by melting a stick of wax with a heated cone-shaped tool and allowing the wax to
1341
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
flow over the surface to be raised. The burrs and rough edges resulting from shaving are removed by passing a gas flame rapidly over the surface of the wax.
Wax is a nonconductor of electricity and must be coated with a film of graphite or other conducting substance before copper or nickel can be deposited on it. Graphite is applied in a “wet leading” machine, which pumps a mixture of graphite and water against the wax. The edges and other portions of the wax on which no deposit is desired are “stopped out” or made nonconductive by running a hot iron over them, which destroys the graphite film. Excess graphite is removed and the surface put in condition to receive the deposit by being sprayed with water. The graphite film is not a very good conductor of electricity, and in order to make the surface more conductive a thin film of copper is de-posited on the surface of the wax by means of a chemical reaction between copper sulphate solution and iron filings. This not only speeds up the deposition, but also gives a more uniform deposit. This process is commonly termed “oxidizing,” although “copperizing” is a more correct term.
Lead molding differs from wax molding in that the mold is made under high pressure in a sheet of lead approximately 0.03 inch thick. The pressure required is sufficient to crush type, making it impossible to mold any matter in lead other than half tones or printing plates. After molding, the surface of the lead is treated with a dilute solution of sodium bichromate, forming a microscopically thin film of lead chromate, which prevents the deposited copper or nickel from adhering too tightly to the mold. No graphite treatment is necessary, as lead is electrically conductive. Deposition of copper or nickel, backing, and finishing are done in the same manner as on the wax molds.
In most electrotyping plants the copper deposition tanks are lead-lined wood, but in many instances rubber-lined steel tanks are being installed. The solution is composed of copper sulphate, sulphuric acid, and water. Two series of parallel copper bars, insulated from each other and from the tank, are used to support the copper anodes and the wax molds on which copper is to be deposited. The anodes are hung on alternate bars, which are connected to the positive side of a direct-current generator.
The remaining bars, from which the molds are suspended by copper hooks, are connected to the negative side of the generator. The current flows through the solution from the copper anode to the wax mold, copper being taken from the copper sulphate solution and deposited on the mold. This releases sulphuric acid, which dissolves metallic copper to form more copper sulphate. The copper is deposited at 3 to 3’Zz volts. The amperage depends on several factors, but usually is between 70 and 80 amperes per square foot. The solution is agitated
[351
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
by compressed air to maintain uniformity and to remove gas bubbles from the mold and anodes. The time required to deposit a shell 0.006 inch thick is usually from one to one and one-half hours.
The copper-depositing system used in the Government Printing Office differs from that in most electrotyping plants. After being “oxidized” the molds are placed in a starting depositing tank, which serves to balance the flow of work to the main tanks. They remain in this tank for three to five minutes, in which time sufficient copper is deposited to permit an inspection for defects before the molds are placed in the large tanks. The two copper-depositing tanks are made of rubber-lined steel, each holding 1,200 gallons of solution, and are of the semiautomatic type used in the electro-plating industry, modified to meet electrotyping requirements.
The wax molds instead of hanging in one place are carried through the solution on an endless conveyor chain, loading and unloading being done at one end of the tank. The temperature of the solution is maintained at 90° F. by means of a system of thermostatically controlled steam and cold-water lines. Copper is deposited at 6.5 volts and 130 amperes per square foot for 57 minutes, which is sufficient to deposit a copper shell 0.006 inch in thickness. The percentages of copper sulphate and sulphuric acid in the solutions are determined by analysis, the solutions being maintained at the most desirable operating point by weekly adjustment of these percentages.
In the finishing room the plates are rough straightened, shaved, and then given a preliminary finishing on a finishing machine, which brings all points on the printing surface to the same level. They are then given a final rough shave, a smooth shave, beveled, routed, revised, and collated in signatures to be forwarded to the pressroom. Those requiring curving are usually put through a curving machine before being routed.
Large open spaces on the plates must be routed unless they are of sufficient depth to prevent the paper from being smudged during printing. During the finishing process open joints in rules, which were not eliminated by special work on the mold, are filled with solder and finished, and all other imperfections are corrected in order to require the minimum amount of time for make-ready when the plates are on the press.
The plates may be made of any desired thickness. Those intended for use on patent bases are made 0.159 inch thick. Plates may be altered by punching, drilling, or sawing out the characters or parts to be changed, after which the new matter is inserted and soldered in place.
136}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
NICKEL ELECTROTYPES
Nickel electrotypes are used for longer runs than can be obtained with copper. Nickel is deposited electrolytically from a water solution of nickel sulphate or nickel ammonium sulphate or a mixture of the two. Conveyor tanks are not used, due to the small amount of such work done. After nickel has been deposited on the molds for one hour, they are removed, rinsed, and placed in the conveyor tanks, where approximately 0.006 inch of copper is deposited on the back of the nickel to give the shell sufficient strength to permit it being handled without breaking.
After the metal has been deposited to desired thickness, the molds are removed from the solution and hot water poured over them to loosen the metal shells from the wax. They are then trimmed and several are turned face down in a large iron pan, the backs wet with soldering fluid and sheets of tin foil laid on them. The metal pan is floated on a pot of molten electrotype metal, heating the shells and “sweating” the tinfoil to them. Electrotype backing metal is then poured over the shells until a thickness of approximately five-sixteenth inch is obtained, after which the pan is transferred to a conveyor where the metal is cooled by air blasts. The plates are then put through a scrubbing machine to remove the wax film adhering to the printing surface, sawed into separate plates, and forwarded to the finishing room.
CHROMIUM PLATES
Plates intended for very long runs or for work that will be reprinted a number of times are often chromium plated. Chromium ranks next to the diamond in hardness. Printing plates mu£ be finished ready for the press before being plated with this metal, as the chromium film, although usually less than 0.0005 inch thick, would ruin the saws and routing tools. Nickel and chromium faced electrotypes are not affected as much as copper electrotypes by the ingredients in printing inks. Some pigments, such as english vermilion and ultramarine blue, react chemically with copper. When inks containing such pigments are used, nickel or chromium faced electrotypes are required for all but very short runs. In most cases the longer runs obtained are due to the greater hardness of nickel and chromium, which are more resistant to abrasion by the ink pigments and paper surfaces.
STEREOTYPING
In many cases stereotypes are ordered, because they can be produced in less time than electrotypes, but they have not the sharpness nor the wearing qualities of the electrotype, owing to the fact that the stereotype is cast and printed
[371
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
as a complete lead-alloy unit and, having no protection of the copper shell on the face, wear out very quickly as compared to an electrotype.
The method used is as follows: Previous to receipt of form in Platemaking Division, matrices have been made by using a sheet of blotting paper as a base and building upon this several sheets of tissue paper held together by a special paste.
When the form comes to the stereotyper, he planes it down to remove any danger of high lines or letters and then builds up low places with pieces of metal or cardboard. The wet matrix is then placed upon the face of the form and matrix and type run through a roller machine, which forces the matrix down into the form, giving a duplicate in reverse of the type. In some cases the matrix is made by beating into the form with a heavy brush. Another method is that of direct pressure, in which the form is placed on the bed of a press and by means of hydraulic pressure the top platen of the press forces the matrix directly into the form.
The form and matrix are then placed under a “yolk” heated by electricity, and matrix dried while under pressure. (In direct-pressure molding the matrix is dried in the molding machine.) After becoming thoroughly dry, the matrix is removed and placed in a casting box.
The metal is then poured into the flat or curved casting box, completely filling the impressions made by the form, and since these boxes are cooled by means of water carried through the back of the box, the metal is cooled very quickly. The plate is then removed from the box, the matrix being stored away for possible further orders, and the finishing of the flat plate proceeds as described for electrotyping.
The metal in stereotyping is harder than that used in electrotyping, and for that reason stereotype plates are cast flat or curved as needed.
Flat stereotypes are usually shaved to a thickness of 0.159 inch, but the curved stereotypes have to be cast much thicker. Congressional Record plates are 0.300 and congressional speech plates 0.446.
The Government Printing Office is equipped with an automatic matrix-making machine that makes the matrix from rolls of blotting and tissue paper in much faster time than is possible by hand.
1381
IMPOSITION
IMPOSITION is a printing operation which is of mutual concern to the imposer, pressman, and binder. The demands upon the folding machines of the Government Printing Office are so extensive and varied that it is deemed expedient to establish certain standards of imposition in those cases where the adaptability of the printed sheet to the folding machine may not be mutually understood by those concerned.
It is not intended that there shall be a radical departure from the ordinary routine except where the work is of a rush nature and where the total number of sheets to be folded on one jacket exceeds 5,000. Before imposing, when a sufficient number of sheets are involved, the Superintendent of Printing, if type, or the Superintendent of Presswork, if plates, must confer with the Superintendent of Binding as to the most practicable style of imposition with reference to folding, gathering, and sewing facilities.
MARGINS
In current typography much otherwise effective work is marred by pages and margins badly proportioned to the leaf. This subject is seldom discussed, and then chiefly from the dilettante point of view; and yet it is one of the more important details of printing, affecting all paged work, from a circular to a real book. Margins are an essential, important detail of typographical design. In so far as they enhance the dignity or beauty of the printed page or composition, white margins are of no less importance than margins which are wholly decorative.
Established custom places the facing blocks of type well up on the paper, giving ample margins at the bottom. Disposition of the remaining spaces, to secure pleasing relationship, results in margins which, on the single page, progress in the following sequence: (d) Back margin, narrowest, (b) Head (or top), equal to back or slightly larger, (c) Front (or outer), still larger, (d) Foot (or bottom) widest. The proportions may be roughly expressed by these figures for the plain octavo: For visible back margin (after sewing) 4 to 5 picas, for head margin 5 to 6 picas, for front margin 7 to 8 picas, for foot margin 8 to 9 picas, it being understood that these will be measurements of the leaf after sewing and trimming.
E 391
54690°—33----4
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
Liberal margins are impracticable in the average Government publication because they increase the cost of paper and of postage beyond the limit of necessary economy; but if a principle or guide is adopted in the proportions of these margins, it may be applied to the most ordinary books with markedly good effect on their appearance.
Diagram showing three pages of different widths as proportioned for books with deflections at the back
Serious obstacles to ideal margins are sometimes encountered; these are so variable that they should be considered and allowed for before decision is reached on the size of the page. The mere crease of the fold in a 4-page circular is a disturbing, if negligible, factor in considering ideal margins, and these creases are multiplied in books. A rule which will give ideal margins on a 4zpage circular would be seriously and detrimentally affected by the deflections of the leaves at the back of a book. It is possible that two rules are desirable—one for pages which open flat and another for pages which deflect toward the back folds.
One of the most common mistakes in proportioning margins is to consider them in relation to one page on one leaf. They should be determined in relation to the opened book, disclosing two pages on what is, in effect, one sheet of paper. The first and last pages of a pamphlet without a cover are isolated; when opened at pages 2 and 3 the problem of margins is very much changed. Where we see page 1 once in a book we see two related pages side by side a score or more times. The obviously correct position of one isolated page is the optical center of the leaf—“ optical,” because if a line
[40]
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
of type or a page is centered accurately by measurement between head and foot of the leaf, it appears to the eye to be below the center. This is a well-known visual illusion common to all eyes, so there must be a compromise by raising the line or page to the optical center. This illusion, which may have had much to do with establishing the propriety of a head margin much narrower than the front and foot margins, is explained by optical science as due to the greater muscular effort required to raise the eyes than to lower them. The greater effort causes an overestimation of the upper half of the space; sidewise there is no illusion. In a pamphlet without cover there is valid reason why the margins of the isolated first page should be different from those found pleasing when surrounding two related pages. First and last pages preceded or followed by blank pages are not isolated, and their margins are related to the blank paper opposite them.
A page is considered the unit of a signature; the two companion pages the unit in imposition. Whether the imposition is from the outside or inside, a long or a broad form, work and turn, sheetwise or tumble, these companion pages are never separated; their position is determined by the fold.
To further illustrate the fact that these companion pages are the unit of imposition, it will be found when determining margins that these two pages are always printed in the center of the untrimmed sheet when it is divided into halves, quarters, eighths, or sixteenths. For example, a sixteen is to be made up to 24 by 38 inch paper, side wire stitched, the half of which the 24-inch way is 12 inches. The width of the two type pages, say, is 48 picas, or 8 inches, the back should be 10 picas, or 1% inches, leaving 21/3 inches to be used as margin, one-half of which is to go on the outside of each printed page (1% inches, or 7 picas), making 12 inches in all.
METHOD OF MAKING MARGINS
The other two companion pages that go to make up the quarter of the sixteen are likewise printed in the center of the quarter sheet, which is 19 inches, one-half of the 38-inch way. It will thus be observed that two pages are used to get the outside margins and another multiple of two (four) to get the bottom margins.
The margins should be governed by the trimmed book and not by the untrimmed sheet. The back margin should be such that it will bring the pages nearly in the center of the open printed book without using fractional parts of a pica, putting the excess space in the cut or outside, margins, except in books that are to be side stitched with wire, in which case allowance must be made for white that will be taken up in stitching.
1411
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
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The term “signature,” as used in book printing, refers to a certain number of pages imposed in one form for the press. The ordinary imposition for document (octavo) publications consists of 32’s; that is, after 16 pages are printed on one side, on a sheet 24 by 38, it is backed up with the remaining 16, making what is known as a sheetwise signature of 32 pages.
[421
PRESSWORK
IN ORDER that the product of the pressroom may meet the requirements of the folding, stitching, perforating, trimming, punching, or other bindery machinery through which it may pass, certain rules have been formulated for lay-outs and margins which must be strictly followed so as to obviate possible delays requiring readjustment of machines to conform to individual ideas.
IMPOSITION
In laying out or imposing plate forms great care should be taken with regard to margins, guide marks, and the proper position of the signature page so far as it relates to the fold. For instance, the signature page of the first 16 should be in the lower left-hand corner, next to the grippers; the signature page of the other 16 in the lower left-hand space, on the third row. The guide mark should be so placed that it will print on the edge of the sheet exactly where the sheet touched the guide when it was fed in. If there is any variation in the trim of the sheet, it will be overcome by making guides and guide marks hit the sheet at the same point. The guide mark being close to the gripper indicates at once to the boxer, the folding-machine operator, or the cutter which edges of the printed sheet are to be used in making his calculations for properly forwarding the work. The guide must invariably be used on the near side—next the feeder—for the first side, and on the far side for the second side. This rule applies in sheetwise work as well. If, however, the inside of the sheetwise form for any reason be printed first, the guide and the guide mark must be used on the far side of the press. When sheet is slit, slit markers should be used.
In order that the folding-machine operator may fill his hopper with several signatures from various presses at the same time, it is advisable on all work of the same size to maintain the same guide margins. Take,for instance, the 32 octavo: The drop-guide margin should be 8% inches from the top of the running head line—on the row of pages next the grippers—to the gripper edge of the sheet and fifteen-sixteenths of an inch from the side of type to the side-guide edge of sheet. The same measurements apply to a half form—16 octavo—except that the application is reversed fifteen-sixteenths of an inch on the gripper margin and 8% inches from top of running head to side guide, and so on, in all multiples of octavo make-ups.
143}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
On quarto, census, statutes, speech, specifications, and the various other forms in use, these margins vary, and unless otherwise specified should be 6 points more than the center cut either way.
In making up patent bases for any size form the pressman should always bear in mind that his form is only one of the units that go to make up the completed book. It is therefore obvious that as much care should be given to the making up of one form as to another. Long experience with these bases has proved some methods superior to others when speed and accuracy are considered. The following method, given together with margins in picas and inch measurement by multiples of the sheet to which the form is to be made up, is considered one of the best and surest employed by workmen on these bases.
Take, for instance, a 32-page octavo, which is the most difficult make-up now in use in the office. The first and most essential move is to find the proper gripper margin. Taking it for granted that the base is clear of catches, the pressman puts on one plate—say, page 3, if working with signature 1—at the gripper edge, twenty-three twenty-fourths of an inch to the right of the center of the base;
IL44JI
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
approximate its distance from the gripper edge, which should be 8% inches from the running head on the plate to the edge of the sheet. Then pull a sheet, and if the position is faulty, it is an easy matter to shift the plate until the proper place is found.
Page 1 should be laid to the extreme left of base, 24 inches from the left side of page 3 to the left or folio side of page 1. Page 4 should be laid IIV2 picas to the left of page 3, and page 2 to the extreme right of base, 24 inches from the right or folio side of page 4 to the right or folio side of page 2. Pages 16,13 14, and 15 should be laid in positions centering on the multiple of 24—that is, 8 picas between pages 1 and 16,13 and 4,3 and 14,15 and 2; IIV2 picas between 16 and 13,14 and 15. The first, or gripper, row now being complete, page 8 should be directly over page 1, with 8’/2 picas between heads. Directly above page 8 page 17 should be laid, with the head 19 inches from the head of page 1, and above this page 24 should be laid, with 8V2 picas between heads, and the head of the upper plate (24) 19 inches from the head of page 8. If the pages now laid are in perfect alinement, the pressman has two sides of a perfect square as a guide for the layout of the other rows, and the remainder of his task is simple. The principle involved in this layout can be readily applied to any form made up on these bases. The measurements will be different, of course, but the procedure will be identical.
In laying out cuts that have no folio, bear in mind that full-page cuts that run the broad way of the page should be laid so that the legend lines read up.
MARGINS
Too much care cannot be exercised in the maintenance of proper margins on patent bases. Experience has shown that a variation in bevels on plates often necessitates the shifting of a page here and there on the base to obtain a perfect register. When the next form is dropped into position indicated by the catches, another variation in bevels makes another shift necessary. If the catches thus moved are not brought back into position each time a new set of plates is put on and the marginal gages and rule applied, the pressman soon discovers that his form has spread to such an alarming extent that it does not compare with his original or pattern sheet. The same is true of the drop-guide margin. In registering a sheet that has been exposed overnight to moisture or extreme heat it is often necessary to move these guides. If they are not readjusted on the next form, the chances are that the 83A inches from top of running head line to edge of sheet has stretched to 9 inches or shrunk to 872 inches, thus causing a readjustment of the folding-machine gages and a loss of time, to say
145}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
nothing of a spoilage if the variation is not quickly discovered by the folding-machine operator.
Plates issued to a pressman are supposed to be stacked in signatures nnmerj-cally as they are to be laid. If blanks occur, they will be indicated on signature card accompanying plates; but if a page is missing it is made apparent by the next page number appearing on the fold side of the page; or, in the case of center folios, the text reading from the bottom of the one page to the top of the other will not make sense. In that case, leave the space blank, and on the sheet pulled for the reviser mark a query (?) in the space, so that he may compare the sheet with the copy. Inset forms will be prepared in the order in which they are to be laid before they are issued to pressmen, and they should always be laid as received.
Standard layouts for all forms in use in the Government Printing Office for type forms and plates are shown in the Appendix (pp. 55-70).
EXAMINATION OF PAPER
A pressman should always examine the paper delivered to him to see that it corresponds with the issue blank in quality, color, size, and quantity—the latter to be approximated, for he is supposed to count only the broken part of a ream. It sometimes happens that one shipment of paper is off color, and if this becomes mixed with another shipment it is clearly apparent in the completed book. To avoid this requires but little effort on the part of the pressman, whose eye is trained to detect the slightest variation in tints.
KEEPING UP COLOR
A book, no matter how artistic in design and make-up, style of binding, or costliness of paper, can easily be ruined by a variation in color shown in the running text. To avoid such possibilities, pressmen and those detailed to keep a standard color should examine all sheets of the book under the same light. One sheet running under a powerful electric light will compare favorably with another sheet running in a subdued sunlight, but when they are put side by side in the sunlight it will be found that they are several shades off in color, the one running under the artificial light suffering by comparison. It is advisable, when presses are available, to run all the signatures of a book on machines that are side by side in the same light. In this way an even color can be maintained. The same quality or grade of ink should be used on all signatures of the same book.
{ 46}
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustrations are an important feature in any publication, and require skill and artistic handling in order to obtain the best results from the material furnished. When half-tones appear in conjunction with text, and cut ink is used in order to make the most of the illustrations, the same ink should be used on all forms of signatures in the same book, whether they are embellished with cuts or not. When a pressman receives a form in which half-tone illustrations appear, he should at once notify the person in charge of illustrations and be governed by his advice as to the kind of ink and overlays to be used, and general treatment of the cuts.
RUSH WORK
When copies are wanted in haste, every possible consideration should be given as to the quantity of ink the form should carry in order to back up the printed stock at once without causing the first side to smut or offset. When there is more than one form in the job, compare with other presses running the same work.
To maintain proper guide margins, even on the most hurried “rush” work, means easy handling all along the line through which the work has to pass on its way to speedy delivery. With this particular line of work, where speed is everything, restrictive measures cannot be applied; a rule that applies in one case may not fit another. It is therefore best that each case of hurried work be governed by its own exigency, and whatever directions are necessary should be given by the person in charge of the work. There are, however, certain rules, the outcome of experience, which should be strictly obeyed, if for no other reason than that of safety. When a correction is to be made in a portion of a form requiring the unlocking and pulling out of such form on the bed of the press, the pressman should do the unlocking and place the form in such a position as will secure its safety, and at the same time be as convenient as possible for the corrector. He should also replace the form and lock it up again, for he knows from what position he moved it.
[471
OFFSET PRINTING
BY A PRINTING METHOD of comparatively recent invention, called the “offset process,” printed matter, including line engravings and halftones, may be reproduced by the photographic process and printed on rough or smooth stock. Compared with ordinary printing, the effects are soft. This is of advantage where the subject is of such nature that sharp, crisp detail is not necessary or desirable.
THE PROCESS
The offset press operates with greater rapidity than the flat-bed press, as the flat-bed is horizontal in its action, while the offset press prints from cylinders and is rotary in action. It is usually composed of three cylinders—one containing a plate, one a rubber blanket, and the third an impression cylinder.
In offset printing the impression on the sheet is not made directly from the plate. A transfer is first made from the plate to a rubber blanket and this transfer in turn is transferred to the sheet on the third cylinder. This cylinder does not, however, make the actual impression on the print paper. The object on the plate prints upon a rubber blanket and in turn is transferred to the sheet. The plate travels first under the dampening rollers, followed by the ink rollers over its entire surface.
In flat-bed printing the paper comes in contact with the metal, so the paper must be very smooth in order to receive the various tones and detail carried by the plate. On an offset press the rubber blanket is yielding enough to register the ink transfer to paper of rougher texture. The paper being rough and printed on by rubber instead of a metal plate, it is natural that the effects secured are softer than when an impression is made on highly enameled calendared paper by a metal plate.
MAKING THE NEGATIVE
Copy is placed upon the copy board in correct position; arc lights, one on each side of the camera, are adjusted to cast their rays to illuminate the copy. Focusing is accomplished by movement of the camera and lens, and the image of the copy is brought to the desired size upon the ground glass located at the rear of the camera.
The plate holder that is to contain “ stay-flat ” plate is kept in the properly illuminated “dark room.” The “stay-flat” holder keeps the celluloid film flat, [48 }
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
The celluloid film is placed flat upon the “stay-flat” plate, which, in turn, is placed in the plate holder.
The plate holder is now ready to be placed at the rear of the camera and, after the arc lights are turned on, the slide on the plate holder is withdrawn and the cap on the lens removed, thus exposing the film. After exposure the cap is replaced over the lens, the arc lights turned off, and the slide on the plate holder returned to its proper place.
The plate holder containing the film is taken into the properly illuminated dark room, the film removed from the “stay-flat” plate and immediately placed in a tray containing developer, then rinsed in running water, and put into fixing bath and again rinsed in running water.
Films are sometimes intensified by a process which strengthens the detail of the copy.
The negative is dried, and if detail is not clear, “cutting” with an erasing pen sharpens detail. Should “pinholes” or like defects appear, an opaque substance is painted over them.
The negative is then put in position on a masked sheet through which intense light will not penetrate, preferably goldenrod enamel. Those parts to be transferred to plate are cut out of mask sheet and layout is ready to be put on offset plate, aluminum or zinc. The plate is thoroughly cleaned and flowed with a sensitizing solution and dried. Placed in a vacuum frame, or mechanical step-and-repeat machine, it is exposed under a strong light, inked with a special developing ink, and developed in water. Cleaned, etched, dried, and a gum-arabic coating applied and dried, the plate is ready to be put on press.
PRINTING THE PLATE
When the pressman receives a plate he should, using a micrometer, see if it is of the proper thickness, and if not, proceed to bring it to the depth to which the cylinder is cut.
There is practically no make-ready necessary, but the pressman must watch his work continually, keeping the proper amount of water and ink flowing to insure clear and sharp printing.
[491
BINDING
FOLDING, GATHERING, AND SEWING
/ I ^HE FIRST STEP in the binding of a book after the printed sheets are received from the pressroom is folding, and as this operation must follow the imposition determined by the imposer in the pressroom or in the composing room, special attention must be given to imposing to the advantage of press and binding operations; this requires study and cooperation between the divisions involved.
It is essential that all concerned with the work should know the guide side of the paper in order that margins may be kept even; this is usually distinguished by a black mark on the edge of the paper printed on while the sheet is going through the printing press. This line is easily seen when the paper is stacked and is known to the trade as a “nigger head.” If this method is not used, the binder looks for the mark of the “grippers,” which to the trained eye is visible on the edge of the paper caused by the metal fingers on the press that grip and pull the paper into the printing press.
Sheets for pamphlets or bound books follow the same procedure to make them into “signatures”; that is, they are either hand folded or machine folded, according to the number of copies required, small orders being hand folded, large orders machine folded. An 8-page sheet requires two right-angle folds; a 16-page, three right-angle folds; a 32-page, four right-angle folds. A 32-page signature may also be made by inserting two 16-page signatures. Sheets for small books or pamphlets are sometimes printed to fold parallel without any right-angle folds. Signatures are bundled or pressed in air presses after folding, for convenience in storing and to render them flat and easy to handle in gathering, stitching, or sewing.
Pamphlets of from two to six signatures and cover, depending upon thickness, are assembled on a wire-stitching machine for “saddle stitching,” or stitching through the back with wire.
Books not over seven-eighths inch in thickness are assembled in signatures on a gathering machine so arranged that at each revolution of the machine a complete wire-stitched book is delivered. This machine will also attach, with glue, a paper cover when required.
[50 J
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
Books too thick to be side-stitched may be “perfect bound” on a machine known as the “perfect binder.” The pamphlets after gathering or assembling are fed in by hand and pass over a revolving knife, which removes about one-eighth inch of the binding edge, glues the back, and attaches a piece of crash and a paper cover, delivering the book ready for trimming.
Books are “machine sewed” with thread when too thick for side-wire stitching or when a flat opening is desired. The sewed signatures are passed through a covering machine which glues the back and attaches a paper cover.
FORWARDING AND FINISHING
Books in large quantities to be bound in cloth or other materials suitable for this class of work are assembled in the same manner as pamphlets, with the addition of a folded end paper tipped on the front and back, and machine-sewed with thread, tapes being used with the thread stitched through the tape when books are thick or large and heavy.
When sewed on a machine, a certain amount of swell appears in the back of the book. This is reduced by smashing with a smashing machine or “nipper” to bring the books to uniform thickness before trimming.
After the books are smashed, they are trimmed to a uniform size on a three-knife trimmer, glued on the back by hand or machine, and allowed to dry, after which they are rounded and backed by machinery.
Crashing and lining follow, and on some books a headband is attached to give a finished appearance. Crashing and lining consist of attaching a piece of crash nearly the length of the back of the book and wide enough to extend about one inch over the back on each side. This strengthens the joint and holds book and cover tightly together. A piece of paper or back lining is then glued on the back only and the books allowed to dry again.
The next operation is fitting on the cover, or “casing in,” the covers or cases having been prepared to fit, and finishing the books. Casing in is done by the casing-in machine, the paste rollers of which pass over the sides of the book, leaving a coating of paste. The cover is automatically drawn into place and fitted to the book, which is then placed between wooden boards lined along the edges with a brass strip that sets the joints of the covers firmly in place. Books and boards are piled into a press, subjected to heavy pressure, and allowed to remain for several hours to dry.
Covers or “cases” are made on case-making machines or by hand, the buckram or cloth having been cut the required size, glued, boards and back lining laid in, and the cloth turned over the edge. Stamping follows, this being done in
(511
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
specially designed stamping presses with heated heads to which metal stamps are attached. Gold, imitation gold, aluminum leaf, or colored foils made in ribbon form automatically carried through the press is impressed upon the cover, giving the required lettering or decoration.
Books to be bound in full-leather or half-leather style are made ready in the same manner as for other styles of binding; that is, the sheets are printed, folded, pressed, assembled in book form, sewed, and smashed, ready for the binder. The first two signatures from the front and back of the book are tipped together. Next the end sheets are tipped down and a cloth or muslin strip set in to strengthen the joints. The end sheets are then lined with marble or lithograph paper, after which they are laid under a heavy weight to dry. The books are then trimmed on a book-trimming machine, glued up, rounded and backed, and the edges marbled or colored as required. On fine work the edges are burnished, this being done by rubbing or polishing the edges with an agate or bloodstone burnishing tool made for that particular purpose. The boards are cut to fit the book; holes are punched in the boards through which the twine or strings on which the books have been sewed are passed, thus lacing the boards to the book. After lacing on boards, the books are shaped up and then put into the press and allowed to remain for several hours. When taken out of the press the headbands and back lining are put on. If the binding requires raised bands, the back is marked off in panels and a piece of twine or other suitable material placed at each mark-ing. The next operation is drawing on the leather, which is pared around the edges, dampened with clear water, pasted, allowed to set for a few minutes, then drawn over, turned in all around the boards, the joints set, and a piece of string brought around the book and tied. The bands are then rubbed up with a band stick and the heads set, after which the books are piled up and allowed to dry.
If the binding is to be half leather, the same procedure is followed as for full bound, except that the corners are put on before the backs.
Gilt edges are put on by an “edge gilder,” who takes the books after they are trimmed, placing them in a gilding press, edge foremost. The edges are scraped with a piece of steel, colored with red, brown, or some other color, and again scraped. When the edge is perfectly smooth it is treated with a coat of egg sizing and the gold leaf is laid on and allowed to dry. Before the gold leaf is thoroughly dry, a sheet of paper is laid over it and the gold rubbed down with a burnisher. When dry, the edge is again burnished with a gilder’s agate or bloodstone, which gives luster and finish.
Marble edges are designed and put on by a marbler. This process consists of spreading or sprinkling colors on a base of gum, the colors being “combed” for
I 52 }
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
edges and spotted or veined for marble edges. When the design is spread on the gum, the marbler dips the edges of the books into the design, which adheres to the edges, the gum remaining intact. Marble paper is made by the same process.
Finishing consists of putting on the sides, pasting the end sheet to the inside of the cover, and all the other operations necessary to complete the book. Half or full leather books require washing off with a prepared solution and treatment with a coat of sizing made of egg albumen. The lettering and embellishment of the binding is done with heated brass type and tools specially prepared for the work, type lines being put on one line at a time with hand pallets; designs are put on with hand tools or engraved brass rolls. Pure or imitation gold, beaten very thin, is laid on the back or side of the book and the lettering or tooling impressed by pressure and heat. Books bound in full cloth or buckram are finished by attaching leather title pieces for the lettering, also by lettering directly on the binding material when the colors give sufficient contrast. Ink lettering is also used on some styles of binding.
[53]
APPENDIX
FLAT-BED AND WEB PRESS IMPOSITION
54690°—33----5
[55}
LAYOUTS FOR FLAT-BED PRESSES
THE various layouts to be followed in book imposition where type forms and flat plates are used, together with such related information as is necessary for descriptive purposes, will be found on the following pages.
Layouts for web presses will be found on pages 71 to 131.
FOUR PAGES—SQUARE FORM
FOUR PAGES—LEGAL FOLD
[57}
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
[ 591
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V S 9 £
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(Requires a minimum amount of press fountain's manipulation) ci oo
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
[60]
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SIXTEEN PAGES—BROAD WAY
। V । । £1 । । VI । £
5 12 11 6
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
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TWENTY-FOUR PAGES
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
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THIRTY-TWO PAGES—SQUARE FORM
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
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THIRTY'TWO PAGES—SQUARE FORM (TWO SIXTEENS INSET)
(Should be limited to insetting where lightweight papers are designated)
91 Zl OS £1 H 61 81 St
9 24 21 12 11 22 23 10
8 93 8Z 9 9 LZ 93 z
1 32 29 4 3 30 31 2
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
{64}
THIRTY-TWO PAGES—FORM OF TWO SIXTEENS
(For heavyweight papers, side wiring or sewing)
t3 93 83 13 ZZ LZ 93 S3
17 32 29 20 19 30 31 18
8 6 Zl 9 9 H 01 L
1 16 13 4 3 14 15 2
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
Prints on a sheet 20 by 25 inches; I7’/4 inches from center to center the 25-inch way and 10 inches from head to head the 20-inch way of the sheet.
{65}
SIX PAGES—JACKET-FOLD FORM
(Imposed to perforate)
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COVER FORM—SINGLE PAGE, THREE UP
(Books of 250 to 1,100 pages)
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
[661
(DOVER FORM—SINGLE PAGE, FOUR UP
(Books up to 250 pages)
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Prints on a sheet 20 by 25 inches. Heads all one way. Change head margin to fold two and three up. Ten inches from head to head; 12'/2 inches from side to side.
COVER FORM—PAGES 1 AND 2, THREE UP
(Books of 250 to 1,100 pages) ’ (0 -|
z (1) N
Prints on a sheet 20 by 25 inches. Heads all out; 17% inches from center to center the 25-inch way and 10 % inches the 20-inch way of the sheet.
Page 2 is omitted when the first side is printed. To back up, take out page 1 and insert page 2.
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
[67]
COVER FORM—FOUR PAGES (Books up to 250 pages) N —
to
Prints on a sheet 12*/2 by 20 inches. Heads all out; 10 % inches from center to center the 20-inch way and 5 % inches from center to center the 12’/2'inch way of the sheet, to which must be added the thickness of the book.
COVER FORM—FOUR PAGES, TWO UP (Books up to 250 pages) 14 3 2
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14 3 2
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Prints on a sheet 20 by 25 inches. Heads all one way; 10% inches from center to center the long way; I2V2 inches from page 3 to second page 3; 5% inches from center to center of companion pages, to which must be added the thickness of the book.
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
THIRTY-TWO PAGES—LOCKED IN TWIN CHASES
[68]
Odd signatures locked on outside Even signatures locked on inside
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
SIXTY-FOUR PAGES—LOCKED IN TWIN CHASES
Second two signatures of every four are locked on the inside
[69}
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33 64 67 40 39 68 63 34
Sig.3 ________ _______________________ __________ _____________ __________
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
SIXTY-FOUR PAGES—TWIN CHASES AS PUT ON THE PRESS
Inside forms make a run of 32 pages
[70]}
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LAYOUTS FOR WEB PRESSES
EIGHT PAGES IN DUPLICATE
SPEECH PRESS—G. P. □. No. 2
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[71]
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
DOCUMENT PRESS—G. P. O. No. 497
ONE EIGHT-PAGE SIGNATURE IN DUPLICATE
OUTSIDE INSIDE
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
DOCUMENT PRESS—G. P. O. No. 497
{731
ONE THIRTY-TWO-PAGE SIGNATURE
OUTSIDE 19-INCH ROLL INSIDE
18 15 30 3 26 7 22 11 12 21 8 25 4 29 16 17
32 1 | 28 I 5 I 24 i 9 20 13 14 19 10 I 23 I 6 I 27 I 2 31
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
SPEECH PRESS—G. P. O. No. 5562
174}
FOUR FOUR-PAGE SIGNATURES OUTSIDE 9'/2'INCH ROLL INSIDE
4141 4141 2323 2323
TWO EIGHT-PAGE SIGNATURES
OUTSIDE 9’/2-INCH ROLL INSIDE
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
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ONE SIXTEEN'PAGE SIGNATURE
OUTSIDE 9'/2-INCH ROLL INSIDE
16 1 14 3 12 5 10 7 8 9 6 II 4 13 2 15
ONE THIRTY'TWO-PAGE SIGNATURE
OUTSIDE 19'INCH ROLL INSIDE
32 1 28 5 24 9 20 13 14 19 10 23 I 6 I 27 2 31
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
RECORD PRESS—G. P. O. No. 37
176}
ONE EIGHT-PAGE SIGNATURE OUTSIDE INSIDE
□□□□□□□□ ONE SIXTEEN'PAGE SIGNATURE OUTSIDE INSIDE
1 16 13 4 3 14 15 2
5 12 9 I 8 I 7 10 11 6
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
SPEECH PRESS—G. P. O. No. 1796
TWO EIGHT-PAGE SIGNATURES IN DUPLICATE
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{[77]}
EIGHT EIGHT-PAGE SIGNATURES
THE MAKING OF A BOOK
DOCUMENT PRESS—G.P.O. No. 4148
[78]
OUTSIDE 38-INCH ROLL INSIDE
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THE MAKING OF A BOOK
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