Welfare Reform: State and Local Responses to Restricting Food Stamp
Benefits (Letter Report, 12/18/97, GAO/RCED-98-41).

Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO reviewed the impact of welfare
reform on the Food Stamp Program, focusing on: (1) the actions, if any,
that states have taken to assist those individuals who lose eligibility
for the Food Stamp Program; and (2) related actions, if any, taken by
other organizations in selected localities--local governments and
nonprofit organizations--to assist those individuals who lose their
eligibility for the Food Stamp Program.

GAO noted that: (1) most states are taking a variety of measures to
address the changes in the Food Stamp Program as a result of welfare
reform; (2) for able-bodied adults without dependents, many states are
providing employment and training assistance; (3) this assistance,
although primarily intended to move these individuals toward
self-sufficiency, may still allow them to qualify for food stamp
benefits if they meet both income and work requirements; (4) most states
have obtained the authority from the Department of Agriculture, if they
choose to exercise it, to continue providing food stamp benefits for
individuals in areas with high unemployment or in areas with
insufficient jobs; (5) 20 states are providing or plan to provide legal
immigrants with information on how to become U.S. citizens; (6) because
it takes over 1 year on average to process citizenship applications,
many legal immigrants lost their food stamp benefits as of August 22,
1997; (7) The Food and Nutrition Service estimated that 935,000 legal
immigrants had lost their federal food stamp benefits; (8) some states
have existing programs that provide food assistance for the needy--such
as food pantries--that able-bodied adults without dependents and legal
immigrants who have lost their food stamps already had access to; (9)
some states have developed new programs to specifically meet the needs
of individuals who lose their food stamps; (10) 10 states--including 4
states estimated to have about 70 percent of the legal immigrants who
receive food stamps in the U.S.--are purchasing or planning to purchase
federal food stamps with their own funds--primarily for legal immigrant
children and the elderly; (11) in December 1997, the states involved
indicated that about 241,000 of these individuals are now receiving food
stamp benefits funded by the states; (12) the extent to which any of
these actions will meet the food assistance needs of those affected
remains unknown; (13) in the five localities GAO visited, government
officials are implementing their state's efforts to address changes in
the Food Stamp Program and, in some cases, are working with local
nonprofit organizations to plan for an expected increase in the need for
food assistance; (14) most of the nonprofit organizations GAO visited
said that it is too early to assess the impact of welfare reform on
their food assistance programs; and (15) however, the organizations fear
that their limited resources may be insufficient to meet the needs of
the individuals who have lost their food stamps, which included the
basic foods that the program provided.

--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------

 REPORTNUM:  RCED-98-41
     TITLE:  Welfare Reform: State and Local Responses to Restricting 
             Food Stamp Benefits
      DATE:  12/18/97
   SUBJECT:  Food relief programs
             State-administered programs
             Non-profit organizations
             Immigrants
             State programs
             Disadvantaged persons
             Locally administered programs
             Eligibility determinations
             Beneficiaries
             Welfare benefits
IDENTIFIER:  Food Stamp Program
             WIC
             Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and 
             Children
             USDA Emergency Food Assistance Program
             HHS Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Program
             Denver (CO)
             Houston (TX)
             Hartford (CT)
             Los Angeles (CA)
             Detroit (MI)
             
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Cover
================================================================ COVER


Report to the Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Children and
Families, Committee on Labor and Human Resources, U.S.  Senate

December 1997

WELFARE REFORM - STATE AND LOCAL
RESPONSES TO RESTRICTING FOOD
STAMP BENEFITS

GAO/RCED-98-41

Welfare Reform

(150271)


Abbreviations
=============================================================== ABBREV

  DDSS - Denver Department of Social Services
  DPSS - Los Angeles County Department of
  Public Social Services
  DSS - Department of Social Services (Connecticut)
  FEMA - Federal Emergency Management Agency
  FIA - Family Independence Agency (Michigan)
  FNS - Food and Nutrition Service
  GAO - General Accounting Office
  INS - Immigration and Naturalization Service
  TANF - Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
  TDHS - Texas Department of Human Services
  TEFAP - The Emergency Food Assistance Program
  USDA - U.S.  Department of Agriculture
  WIC - Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for
  Women, Infants, and Children

Letter
=============================================================== LETTER


B-278575

December 18, 1997

The Honorable Christopher J.  Dodd
Ranking Minority Member
Subcommittee on Children and Families
Committee on Labor and Human Resources
United States Senate

Dear Senator Dodd: 

In August 1996, the enactment of the Personal Responsibility and Work
Opportunity Reconciliation Act\1 --commonly called the Welfare Reform
Act--overhauled the nation's welfare system, and made significant
changes to the Food Stamp Program.  This program--administered by the
U.S.  Department of Agriculture (USDA)--is the nation's largest food
assistance program and provided about $22.5 billion in benefits for a
monthly average of more than 25 million low-income participants in
fiscal year 1996.  According to the Congressional Budget Office, the
changes to the Food Stamp Program, brought about by the Welfare
Reform Act, will reduce the program's expenditures by a projected
total of more than $23 billion over 6 years, from fiscal year 1997
through fiscal 2002. 

Among other things, the Welfare Reform Act reduced food stamps for
many participants\2

and eliminated them, except under certain conditions, for two
groups--able-bodied adults without dependents and legal immigrants.\3
Able-bodied adults without dependents can receive benefits only for 3
months in a 3-year period unless they meet work or training
requirements.  Legislation made most legal immigrants ineligible for
food stamps as of August 22, 1997.  While these two groups of
individuals represented only 10 percent of all Food Stamp Program
participants for fiscal year 1995, the Congressional Budget Office
estimates that the savings realized from these actions represent over
37 percent, or about $8.8 billion, of the over $23 billion in net
savings expected in the Food Stamp Program from welfare reform. 

You asked us to study several issues concerning the impact of welfare
reform on the Food Stamp Program.  This report is the second in a
series responding to that request.\4

It focuses on the two groups of individuals that were the most likely
to lose their food stamp benefits--able-bodied adults without
dependents and legal immigrants.  Specifically, we describe the (1)
actions, if any, that states have taken to assist those individuals
who lose eligibility for the Food Stamp Program and (2) related
actions, if any, taken by other organizations in selected
localities--local governments and nonprofit organizations--to assist
those individuals who lose their eligibility for the Food Stamp
Program. 

As part of our review, we surveyed the 50 states and the District of
Columbia on the actions they are taking, if any, in response to the
changes in the Food Stamp Program.  All 50 states and the District of
Columbia responded to our survey.  (See app.  I for the results of
the survey.) In addition, we visited with government officials and
representatives of nonprofit organizations in five localities\5 to
obtain their views on what effect the changes to the Food Stamp
Program may have on their agencies' or organizations' ability to meet
demand for their food assistance services.  Appendix II discusses our
methodology in more detail. 


--------------------
\1 P.L.  104-193, Aug.  22, 1996. 

\2 Food stamp benefits may be provided though coupons redeemed at the
check-out counter or through an electronic card similar to a bank
card.  For this report, we refer to both as food stamps. 

\3 We use the term "legal immigrant" throughout this report rather
than the term used in the legislation--"qualified alien"--because
USDA's guidance often uses the terms interchangeably. 

\4 Our first report is entitled Food Stamp Program:  Characteristics
of Households Affected by Limit on the Shelter Deduction
(GAO/RCED-97-118, May 14, 1997).  We will report at a later date on
the Simplified Food Stamp Program. 

\5 The localities that we visited were Denver, Colorado; Detroit,
Michigan; Hartford, Connecticut; Houston, Texas; and Los Angeles,
California. 


   RESULTS IN BRIEF
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :1

Most states are taking a variety of measures to address the changes
in the Food Stamp Program as a result of welfare reform.  For
able-bodied adults without dependents, many states are providing
employment and training assistance.  This assistance, although
primarily intended to move these individuals toward self-sufficiency,
may still allow them to qualify for food stamp benefits if they meet
both the income and work requirements.  Additionally, most states
have obtained the authority from USDA, if they choose to exercise it,
to continue providing food stamp benefits for individuals in areas
with high unemployment or in areas with an insufficient number of
jobs.  Twenty states are providing or plan to provide legal
immigrants with information on how to become U.S.  citizens. 
However, because it takes over 1 year on average to process
citizenship applications at the Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS), many legal immigrants lost their food stamp benefits
as of August 22, 1997.  USDA's Food and Nutrition Service estimated
that 935,000 legal immigrants had lost their federal food stamp
benefits.  In addition, some states have existing programs that
provide food assistance for the needy--such as food pantries--that
able-bodied adults without dependents and legal immigrants who have
lost their food stamps already had access to.  Some states have
developed new programs to specifically meet the needs of individuals
who lose their food stamps.  For example, 10 states--including 4
states estimated to have about 70 percent of the legal immigrants who
receive food stamps in the United States--are purchasing or planning
to purchase federal food stamps with their own funds--primarily for
legal immigrant children and the elderly.  In December 1997, the
states involved indicated that about 241,000 of these individuals are
now receiving food stamp benefits funded by the states.  However, the
extent to which any of these actions will meet the food assistance
needs of those affected remains unknown. 

In the five localities we visited, government officials are
implementing their state's efforts to address changes in the Food
Stamp Program and, in some cases, are working with local nonprofit
organizations to plan for an expected increase in the need for food
assistance.  Most of the nonprofit organizations we visited said that
it is too early to assess the impact of welfare reform on their food
assistance programs.  However, the organizations fear that their
limited resources may be insufficient to meet the needs of the
individuals who have lost their food stamps, which included the basic
foods that the program provided.  These organizations do not believe
that they can replace the long-term assistance that food stamps
provided. 


   BACKGROUND
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :2

The Food Stamp Program helps low-income households (individuals and
families) obtain a more nutritious diet by supplementing their income
with food stamp benefits.  In fiscal year 1996, the average monthly
food stamp benefit was $73 per person.  These benefits are generally
provided through coupons or electronically on a debit card (similar
to a bank card) that may be used to purchase food at stores
authorized to receive food stamps. 

The Food Stamp Program is a federal-state partnership, in which the
federal government pays the full cost of the food stamp benefits and
approximately half of the states' administrative costs.  USDA's Food
and Nutrition Service (FNS)--formerly, the Food and Consumer
Service--administers the program at the federal level.  The states'
responsibilities include certifying eligible households, calculating
the amount of benefits, and issuing benefits to participants who meet
the requirements set by law. 

The Welfare Reform Act overhauled the nation's welfare system and
significantly changed the Food Stamp Program.  In addition, the
Fiscal Year 1997 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L.  105-18, June
12, 1997) included new authority allowing the states to purchase
federal food stamps to provide state-funded food assistance for legal
immigrants and able-bodied adults without dependents who are no
longer eligible for federal food stamps under the Welfare Reform Act. 
Under the supplemental act, states are required to receive approval
from FNS to distribute additional food stamps and to fully reimburse
the federal government in advance for all costs associated with
providing the benefits.  In addition, the states' food stamp programs
must be cost-neutral to the federal government. 

Changes to the Food Stamp Program included imposing time limits on
those able-bodied individuals between the ages of 18 and 50 without
dependents who were not working at least 80 hours a month or
participating in certain kinds of employment and training programs.\6
This work requirement was effective not later than November 22, 1996. 
States were required to terminate food stamps for these nonworking
able-bodied adults without dependents after 3 months within any
36-month period.  Disabled individuals, if they meet eligibility
requirements, can still receive assistance.  The act allows FNS to
grant waivers to states for exempting able-bodied adults without
dependents from the work requirement if they live in an area where
unemployment is over 10 percent or in an area with an insufficient
number of jobs.  FNS generally grants waivers for a 1-year period. 
Once approved, these waivers may be renewed if the areas covered
continue to have high unemployment or insufficient jobs.  Once the
waivers are approved, the states or localities can choose to either
implement them in whole or in part, or choose not to implement them
at all.  In addition, The Balanced Budget Act (P.L.  105-33, Aug.  5,
1997) gives states the discretion to exempt certain types of
able-bodied adults without dependents from the work requirement--up
to 15 percent of those not otherwise waived.  The Balanced Budget Act
also provided an additional $131 million for each of the next 4 years
to the Food Stamp Program--80 percent of it is designated for
employment and training opportunities for these adults.  According to
data from FNS for fiscal year 1995--the latest year for which data
were available--in an average month, the Food Stamp Program provided
benefits for 27 million people.  Of these, 2.5 million were
able-bodied adults between the ages of 18 and 50 without dependents. 
An estimated one-half of these adults, about 1.3 million, are subject
to the 3-month time limit.\7

In addition, the Welfare Reform Act and the Supplemental
Appropriations Act allowed immigrants with legal status as of August
22, 1996, to retain food stamps up to August 22, 1997.  However, if
legal immigrants have 40 quarters or more of work history in the
United States or are veterans or active duty members of the U.S. 
military, they may continue to retain food stamps.  Spouses and minor
children of veterans are also eligible.\8


--------------------
\6 These programs may involve the participation of both the public
and private sectors.  For example, Workfare, which is a federal
program, requires individuals to work in a public service capacity in
order to receive federal food stamps.  Some states allow participants
to meet these work requirements by volunteering at nonprofit
organizations. 

\7 The 1.3 million figure includes those adults who could be exempt
from the requirements by the states obtaining waivers from FNS.  The
source of these data is Characteristics of Childless Unemployed Adult
and Legal Immigrant Food Stamp Participants:  Fiscal Year 1995,
Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.  (Feb.  13, 1997). 

\8 Under the Welfare Reform Act, three other groups--refugees,
individuals seeking asylum, and individuals granted a stay of
deportation--remain eligible for food stamps for up to 5 years. 
After 5 years, members of all of these groups are subject to the same
restrictions as legal immigrants unless they have become U.S. 
citizens.  Under the Balanced Budget Act, certain groups--including
Amerasians, Cubans, and Haitians--had their food stamp benefits
restored for up to 5 years, and World War II Filipino veterans were
given status allowing them to receive food stamps if they meet income
and work requirements. 


   MOST STATES TAKING ACTIONS TO
   ADDRESS CHANGES IN FOOD STAMP
   PROGRAM
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :3

At the time of our survey of states in the summer of 1997, the states
were pursuing a variety of options to address changes in the Food
Stamp Program that affected able-bodied adults without dependents and
legal immigrants.  Some state actions, such as job training
assistance, although primarily intended to move individuals toward
self-sufficiency, may have the effect of allowing some able-bodied
adults without dependents to retain food stamps by meeting the act's
work requirements.  Twenty states provided legal immigrants with
information on how to become citizens so that they can be eligible
for food stamps.  Other state actions are intended to replace the
food stamp benefits that individuals have lost. 


      STATES ARE PURSUING SEVERAL
      OPTIONS THAT ALLOW SOME
      INDIVIDUALS TO KEEP BENEFITS
---------------------------------------------------------- Letter :3.1

According to our survey results, when the states notified able-bodied
adults without dependents that they were subject to the work
requirements in order to retain food stamps, many states told us that
they chose to also notify these adults of job placement and/or
training services that were available.  Although these programs are
intended primarily to move individuals toward self-sufficiency,
participants may still receive food stamps if income and other
requirements are met.  For example, our survey indicated that Texas
provided information on jobs and/or employment resources and
training.  Thirty-two states provided information about jobs and/or
employment resources; 29 provided information on training; 19
provided information on workfare.  In addition, 20 states helped
assess an individual's employment skills.  The states also offered
one or more ways to meet the work requirements:  25 states counted
volunteer work, 25 counted workfare, and 33 counted employment
training that leads to a job. 

In addition, as allowed under the Welfare Reform Act, our survey
indicated that 43 states had applied for, and 42 received, authority
to waive the work requirement for able-bodied adults without
dependents in areas where unemployment exceeded 10 percent or in
areas with insufficient jobs.  (See app.  III for the waiver status
of each state.) FNS estimated that as many as 35 percent of the
affected able-bodied adults without dependents would retain their
eligibility through a waiver. 

However, 8 of the 43 states were not planning to implement their
waivers--either in their entirety or in part.  In seven
states--California, Indiana, Nevada, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, and
Virginia--waivers were approved for selected regions but the local
governments, which are authorized to implement the waivers, did not
plan to do so.  Texas planned to implement its waiver only in
localities with an unemployment rate of over 10 percent.  Two of the
eight states or their localities had not fully implemented the
waivers because they believed that it was unfair to exempt
able-bodied adults without dependents from the work requirement while
single mothers receiving federal assistance, like Temporary
Assistance for Needy Families (TANF),\9 are required to participate
in work activities. 

At the time of our survey, 20 states provided or planned to provide
legal immigrants--who were scheduled to lose their food stamps--with
information on how to become U.S.  citizens.  In May 1997, we
reported that it took between 112 and 678 days (with an average of
373 days) to process applications for citizenship at INS between June
of 1994 and June of 1996.\10 For example, it took just over 1 year to
process a request for citizenship in Los Angeles--a city with one of
the largest immigrant populations in the nation--and almost 2 years
to process an application in Houston.  INS officials told us that
among the reasons for the significant increase in the number of
applications that INS has received since fiscal year 1989 is that
there are incentives to becoming a citizen because of the benefits
that can be derived.  Because it takes an average of over 1 year to
process applications for citizenship and legal immigrants were not
eligible to receive food stamps after August 22, 1997, many legal
immigrants have lost their federal food stamp benefits.  FNS' most
current estimate is that 935,000 legal immigrants lost their federal
food stamps under the welfare reform provisions.  However, as of
December 1997, estimates are that over one-quarter, or about 241,000,
of these individuals are receiving food stamps funded by the states. 


--------------------
\9 This block grant program replaces Aid to Families with Dependent
Children.  It is intended to provide temporary financial assistance
for families and, like the Food Stamp Program, has work requirements
as a condition for receiving assistance. 

\10 See Alien Applications:  Processing Differences Exist Among INS
Field Units, (GAO/GGD-97-47, May 20, 1997). 


      STATES ARE TAKING SOME
      ACTIONS TO OFFER FOOD
      ASSISTANCE TO THOSE LOSING
      BENEFITS
---------------------------------------------------------- Letter :3.2

For those individuals who lose federal food stamp benefits, 20 states
were taking one or more actions to provide state-funded food
assistance.  (App.  IV identifies the 20 states with food assistance
programs that serve able-bodied adults without dependents and/or
legal immigrants.) Ten states\11 decided to purchase federal food
stamps with their own funds for certain legal immigrants--primarily
children and the elderly.  According to FNS and the states, 9 of the
10 states have estimated that about 241,000 legal immigrants are now
receiving state-funded food stamps.\12 Among these states are
California, Florida, New York, and Texas, which, according to an FNS
report, had about 70 percent of the legal immigrants receiving food
stamps in fiscal year 1995--the latest year for which data were
available.  These states will generally use the Food Stamp Program's
infrastructure and benefit structure to deliver food assistance,
according to FNS.  For example, Washington State appropriated just
over $60 million for fiscal years 1998-99 to fully restore benefits
to an estimated 38,000 legal immigrants--all of whom were slated to
become ineligible for federal food stamps.  Households eligible for
participation receive the same benefits that they did under the
federal program.  However, FNS also told us that, unlike Washington
State's, most states' eligibility standards are likely to apply to
only certain categories of legal immigrants.  California, for
example, recently appropriated $34.6 million to provide food stamps
for legal immigrants who are children or elderly. 

Thirteen of the 20 states\13 reported that they were using their own
state-funded food assistance programs, and 2 of the 13 states created
programs in response to welfare reform.  These two states--Colorado
and Minnesota--developed state-funded food assistance programs to aid
those legal immigrants losing their federal food stamp eligibility as
a result of welfare reform.  Colorado, for example, has appropriated
$2 million to provide emergency assistance, including food, for legal
immigrants.  Minnesota has allocated just over $4.7 million for two
programs to provide food assistance for legal immigrant families in
that state. 

The remaining 11 states had food assistance programs--created before
the Welfare Reform Act was passed--that ranged from those that
provide individuals with cash directly to those that provide funds
for local food banks and food pantries that serve, among others, both
able-bodied adults without dependents and legal immigrants.\14 A
program with significant funding is Pennsylvania's State Food
Purchase Program, which provided about $13 million in fiscal year
1997 and $13.6 million in fiscal 1998 to counties for the purchase of
food.  This program is intended to supplement the efforts of food
pantries, shelters for the homeless, soup kitchens, food banks, and
similar organizations to reduce hunger. 

Two states with state-funded programs are also providing existing
state or local programs with additional funding to assist able-bodied
adults without dependents and legal immigrants.  Rhode Island
appropriated $250,000 in fiscal year 1998 for a community-run food
bank.  Massachusetts increased the funding it provides for local food
banks and food pantries from just under $1 million to $3 million in
fiscal year 1998 in anticipation of an increased need by both groups. 

Seven of the 20 states\15 reported that they had allocated additional
money to federally funded programs that assist groups of individuals,
which may include those losing food stamp benefits.  Programs
identified by the states in our survey include The Emergency Food
Assistance Program (TEFAP) and the Special Supplemental Nutrition
Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC).\16


--------------------
\11 These states are California, Florida, Massachusetts, Maryland,
Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Texas, and Washington. 
With the exception of Nebraska, Rhode Island, and Washington, these
states are assisting certain categories of the legal immigrant
population.  Nebraska and Rhode Island have pledged to provide food
stamps for all immigrants who had legal status as of August 22, 1996. 
Washington is providing food stamps for all legal immigrants
regardless of when they received legal status. 

\12 FNS estimated that 223,000 legal immigrants received state-funded
food stamps in 8 of the 10 states.  In addition, Massachusetts
estimated that about 18,000 legal immigrants are receiving
state-funded food stamps.  One state--Texas--had not initiated its
food stamp program for legal immigrants. 

\13 These states are Colorado, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine,
Minnesota, Nebraska, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,
South Dakota, Vermont, and West Virginia. 

\14 Food banks collect and distribute a variety of food products to
various organizations, such as food pantries and soup kitchens.  Food
pantries may provide temporary food assistance for those in crisis. 
Soup kitchens provide meals on-site for those in need.  They often
serve the homeless; the mentally, socially, and/or physically
disabled; the unemployed; the elderly of fixed incomes; transients;
single parents; families in crisis; and the working poor. 

\15 Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, New York, South Carolina, South
Dakota, and Texas. 

\16 TEFAP provides low-income households with commodities such as
canned fruit, vegetables, and meat.  WIC provides certain women and
children with specific food items, such as milk, cheese, and infant
formula, generally from retail vendors. 


   ASSISTANCE IN FIVE LOCALITIES
   IS LARGELY FOCUSED ON
   IMPLEMENTING STATE INITIATIVES,
   WHILE NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
   ARE ASSESSING FUTURE NEEDS
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :4

In the five localities we visited, government officials reported that
their assistance largely consists of implementing state programs. 
Most nonprofit organizations that we contacted said that although it
is too soon to assess the impact of welfare reform, they anticipate
an increased need for their services.  Given their limited resources,
however, these organizations are concerned that the supplemental
assistance they provide will not compensate for the basic food
assistance provided by the federal program.  (See apps.  V-IX for
information about food assistance programs in these localities.)


      ASSISTANCE AT THE LOCAL
      LEVEL IS GENERALLY LIMITED
      TO IMPLEMENTING STATE
      PROGRAMS
---------------------------------------------------------- Letter :4.1

In the five localities we visited--Denver, Detroit, Hartford,
Houston, and Los Angeles--employment and training programs were
offered to able-bodied adults without dependents through existing or
expanded programs.  Although these programs are intended to promote
self-sufficiency, they may also help participants to retain food
stamps if they meet income and work requirements. 

For example, in Hartford, Connecticut, able-bodied adults without
dependents can participate in the statewide Connecticut Works System. 
This program's objective is to enhance the state's economy by helping
to match the needs of businesses with workers' skills.  The
Connecticut Works System brings together state, regional, and local
organizations to provide job listings, job search assistance, access
to training and education programs, resume assistance, interviewing,
and networking assistance. 

In Detroit, Michigan, able-bodied adults without dependents can
participate in a new state employment and training assistance program
that specifically targets this population; about one-half of these
adults live in the greater Detroit area.  For fiscal year 1998, the
state will receive $13.4 million from FNS to expand work programs for
this population. 

For legal immigrants, three out of the five localities--Denver,
Houston, and Los Angeles--had plans to offer limited food assistance
through state-funded programs.  California passed legislation to
provide food stamps for legal immigrant children and the elderly by
purchasing federal food stamps.  Similarly, Colorado passed
legislation that provides legal immigrant families with special
emergency assistance.  As a result, families in Denver can receive,
among other things, food coupons redeemable at designated food
pantries.  Finally, Texas is planning to offer food assistance to
elderly and disabled legal immigrants. 

In addition, Los Angeles County launched two special efforts on
behalf of legal immigrants after the passage of welfare reform. 
First, Los Angeles initiated a countywide citizenship campaign that
brought together 200 public and nonprofit organizations whose goal
was to assist legal immigrants in obtaining citizenship.  Los Angeles
County coordinated the efforts of these organizations, worked with
the local district office of the INS, and directly contacted 400,000
potentially affected legal immigrants.  However, Los Angeles
officials told us that (1) because of the time it takes to process
applications for citizenship--including the fact that criminal
background checks are required on all applicants--and (2) because
many of the applications remain unprocessed owing to the volume of
applications received by the INS, they estimate that about 91,000
legal immigrants lost their food stamps.  Los Angeles County
officials said they continue to encourage legal immigrants to become
U.S.  citizens and, for those who do become citizens, hope to restore
benefits to those who meet the Food Stamp Program's requirements. 
Second, Los Angeles County and the local United Way jointly sponsored
the efforts of a local referral service to provide information on
food assistance.  Information on how to contact this referral service
was enclosed with termination notices to legal immigrants. 


      NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS
      EXPECT AN INCREASED NEED
      THAT THEY CANNOT MEET
---------------------------------------------------------- Letter :4.2

In every locality that we visited, nonprofit organizations--including
food banks, food pantries, soup kitchens, and religious
organizations--generally serve anyone who needs their services,
including able-bodied adults without dependents and legal immigrants. 
Historically, these organizations provide supplemental food
assistance on an emergency basis, perhaps once or twice a month. 
According to these nonprofit organizations, food stamp
recipients--even before welfare reform--had turned to them for
assistance. 

These organizations generally expect an increase in the need for
their services--both in terms of the numbers of people and frequency
of visits--as a result of welfare reform.  For example, in Denver,
one organization was getting 40 to 50 more applicants for food
assistance per week in August 1997.  Furthermore, the organizations
were generally concerned that they could not replace the long-term,
sustained assistance that food stamps provided. 

At the time of our visits in the late summer of 1997, however, most
organizations had not experienced this anticipated increase.  Our
visits occurred before benefits were cut off for legal immigrants and
before the usual increase in the need for food assistance in the
winter months. 

The organizations are unsure how they will meet the expected increase
because they have limited resources.  Furthermore, these
organizations are competing for these limited resources, and
officials told us that they do not anticipate larger contributions as
a result of welfare reform.  While most organizations were waiting to
see the full impact of welfare reform, some were developing
contingency plans to handle the expected increase.  For example, in
Detroit, a kosher food pantry surveyed its existing clientele to
determine which individuals would lose their benefits.  The pantry
learned that it would need about $100,000 the first year to serve its
existing population.  According to officials from the food pantry,
this effort is not likely to be duplicated by other organizations
because, unlike most other organizations, the kosher food pantry
serves a known group of legal immigrants.  More typically, most
organizations are unsure how they will sustain a long-term increase
in the number of people needing their services because they typically
provide assistance on an emergency basis for anyone in need, and
their resources are already limited.  These organizations are
considering strategies that would restrict eligibility, such as
limiting eligibility to serve children or the elderly, in order to
accommodate the anticipated increase and/or reduce their existing
levels of service in order to accommodate the needs of more
individuals. 


   CONCLUSIONS
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :5

It is too soon to assess how able-bodied adults without dependents
and legal immigrants will fare in the long term under welfare reform. 
However, many states have taken actions that could result in
continuing food assistance, under certain conditions, for some of
these individuals.  For able-bodied adults, some of these
actions--employment assistance and training--may help move these
individuals towards self-sufficiency.  For legal immigrants,
citizenship could restore federal food stamps to those who meet
income and work eligibility requirements.  However, because of the
amount of time it takes to process citizenship applications, many
individuals have likely lost their food stamps. 


   AGENCY COMMENTS
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :6

We provided USDA with a copy of a draft of this report for review and
comment.  We met with FNS officials, including the Acting Deputy
Administrator for the Food Stamp Program.  USDA concurred with the
accuracy of the report but stated that while some states are
providing or will provide food assistance for legal immigrants with
state funds, in many cases, the assistance will not replace federal
benefits because it generally targets only certain portions of the
legal immigrant population, such as the elderly or children.  USDA
officials indicated that about one-quarter of the 935,000 legal
immigrants that they estimated would lose food stamp benefits are now
being covered under state funded programs.  The USDA officials also
pointed out that while many states are offering employment and
training services for able-bodied adults without dependents, often,
the services offered are job search activities, which do not satisfy
the work requirements under the Welfare Reform Act and, thus, do not
qualify these individuals for food stamps.  We expanded our
discussion of these points where appropriate and made some additional
minor clarifications to the report on the basis of USDA's comments. 


---------------------------------------------------------- Letter :6.1

As arranged with your office, unless you publicly announce its
contents earlier, we plan no further distribution of this report
until 30 days from the date of this letter.  At that time, we will
send copies of this report to the Senate Committee on Agriculture,
Nutrition, and Forestry; the House Committee on Agriculture; other
interested congressional committees, and the Secretary of
Agriculture.  We will also make copies available upon request. 

If you have any questions about this report, I can be reached at
(202) 512-5138.  Major contributors to this report are listed in
appendix X. 

Sincerely yours,

Robert A.  Robinson
Director, Food and
 Agriculture Issues




(See figure in printed edition.)Appendix I
RESULTS OF GAO'S SURVEY OF STATES'
RESPONSES TO CHANGES IN FOOD STAMP
PROGRAMS
============================================================== Letter 



(See figure in printed edition.)



(See figure in printed edition.)



(See figure in printed edition.)



(See figure in printed edition.)



(See figure in printed edition.)



(See figure in printed edition.)


OBJECTIVES, SCOPE, AND METHODOLOGY
========================================================== Appendix II

In October 1996, the Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on
Children and Families, Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources,
asked us to study several issues concerning the impact of welfare
reform on the Food Stamp Program.  This report focuses on the two
groups of individuals most likely to lose their food stamp
benefits--able-bodied adults without dependents and legal immigrants. 
Specifically, we describe the (1) actions, if any, that states have
taken to assist those individuals who lose eligibility for the Food
Stamp Program and (2) related actions, if any, taken by other
organizations in selected localities--local governments and nonprofit
organizations--to assist those individuals who lose their eligibility
for the Food Stamp Program. 

To address the first objective, we surveyed and received responses
from the 50 states and the District of Columbia.  We also updated our
results as appropriate.  The tabulated results of the survey are
included as appendix I. 

To address the second objective, we visited five localities.  These
localities were selected using the following criteria regarding the
states in which they are located:  (1) whether the states offered
general relief to able-bodied adults without dependents and (2)
whether the states had filed waivers precluding able-bodied adults
without dependents from meeting the work requirement because of high
unemployment or an insufficient number of jobs.  We then selected
states within these categories by (1) those with the highest food
stamp participation of able-bodied adults without dependents and
legal immigrants and (2) geographic diversity.  Within the states, we
chose the locality, usually a county, with the highest participation
in the Food Stamp Program. 

We visited these localities in the late summer of 1997.  We contacted
several organizations that were significantly involved in providing
the localities with food assistance.  We also met with government
officials responsible for food stamps and other officials involved in
welfare reform.  In several localities, we also met with officials
affiliated with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
because of their expertise in providing emergency food assistance
after natural disasters.  We also visited nonprofit organizations,
such as community action agencies; food banks; church-affiliated food
assistance providers, such as soup kitchens; local advocacy groups;
local United Way affiliates; and food pantries.  (See apps.  V-IX for
individual reports on the food assistance provided in these
localities.)

In addition, we contacted several national organizations that provide
local communities with food assistance, including Catholic Charities
USA; Lutheran Social Services; Second Harvest; World Share, Inc.; and
the United Way of America.  We also attended a conference sponsored
by Second Harvest on the implications of welfare reform on food
assistance.  Additionally, we attended the American Public Welfare
Association's National Conference for Food Stamp Directors to obtain
information on current state and local food assistance programs. 
Finally, we met with officials from the U.S.  Department of
Agriculture's (USDA) Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) to obtain
program information and statistics. 

We performed our work in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards from March through December 1997. 


STATES THAT HAVE APPLIED FOR,
PLANNED TO APPLY FOR, AND/OR
RECEIVED WAIVERS FOR AREAS IN
THEIR STATE WHERE EMPLOYMENT
OPPORTUNITIES ARE LIMITED
========================================================= Appendix III



   (See figure in printed
   edition.)

Source:  GAO's analysis


STATES WITH NEW OR EXISTING FOOD
ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS SERVING
ABLE-BODIED ADULTS WITHOUT
DEPENDENTS AND/OR LEGAL IMMIGRANTS
========================================================== Appendix IV



   (See figure in printed
   edition.)

Source:  GAO's analysis


FOOD ASSISTANCE IN LOS ANGELES
COUNTY, CALIFORNIA
=========================================================== Appendix V

   Figure V.1:  Los Angeles
   County, California

   (See figure in printed
   edition.)


   COUNTY PROFILE
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix V:1

Los Angeles County had a population of about 9.1 million in 1995.  In
1996, its unemployment rate was 8.3 percent, and its poverty rate for
1995-96 averaged 18.7 percent.  In comparison, the state's
unemployment rate was 7 percent, and the poverty rate for 1995-96
averaged 16.8 percent.  Nationwide, unemployment was 5.4 percent and
the poverty rate for 1995-96 averaged 13.8 percent.\1

In January 1997, as states were beginning to implement the Welfare
Reform Act, over 1 million individuals participated in the Food Stamp
Program in Los Angeles County.  Of this total, over 189,000 were
legal immigrants, and an estimated 56,400 were able-bodied adults
without dependents.  As of September 1997, after many changes to the
Food Stamp Program were implemented, the county had about 870,000
food stamp participants of which about 31,000 were able-bodied adults
without dependents and about 24,000 were legal immigrants.  In
addition, 29,000 legal immigrant children and elderly were receiving
state-funded food stamps. 


--------------------
\1 Statistics presented are the latest available.  Population and
poverty rates come from Census Bureau data for 1995 and 1996,
respectively.  Unemployment rates come from Bureau of Labor
Statistics data for 1996. 


   APPROACH TO PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix V:2

The Los Angeles County Department of Public Social Services (DPSS)
administers the Food Stamp Program, with guidance from the California
Health and Welfare Agency.  DPSS officials told us that they assist
both able-bodied adults without dependents and legal immigrants in
retaining food stamp benefits to the extent possible. 

For able-bodied adults without dependents, local officials were
providing employment and training experiences through workfare.  The
county has expanded its workfare program to include from 80 percent
of these adults prior to welfare reform to 100 percent.  Officials
were concerned that if these adults were not offered workfare to meet
the work requirement, they would lose their food stamp benefits. 

For legal immigrants losing food stamp benefits, DPSS had an
extensive notification process to advise them of their impending
change in status for the Food Stamp Program as a result of welfare
reform.  DPSS sent out notification flyers entitled "You May Lose
Your Food Stamp Benefits" to legal immigrants on five occasions and
in several languages.  The flyers described the process for obtaining
citizenship.  DPSS is providing assistance through a countywide
effort in partnership with 200 public and nonprofit organizations. 
Activities have included providing assistance with applications for
U.S.  citizenship, including completing forms, and offering classes
in English as a second language and in American government.  However,
because of the time needed to process citizenship applications by the
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), including the fact that
the INS has to do criminal background checks on all applicants for
U.S.  citizenship, Los Angeles officials indicated that about 91,000
legal immigrants lost their federal food stamp benefits.  These
officials indicated, however, that the citizenship campaign continues
and they hope to be able to restore food stamps to those who qualify
once they become U.S.  citizens. 

At the time of our visit, DPSS was also considering what state and
federal assistance could be provided.  DPSS officials were awaiting
the outcome of pending state legislation that would assist legal
immigrants who were losing food stamps.  In August 1997, the state
legislature restored food stamps by purchasing federal food stamps
for legal immigrants who are elderly or are children.  County
officials believed it was important to restore food stamps and other
benefits to legal immigrants--particularly because they represent
15-20 percent of the population in Los Angeles County. 


   NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS'
   EFFORTS IN PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix V:3

Nonprofit organizations in Los Angeles County, some of which are
affiliated with national groups, provide direct and indirect food
assistance through a well-established network.\2 These organizations
are also connected with federal, state, and local government agencies
to provide services.  Officials in different organizations told us
that this locality's food assistance providers are effective in their
efforts because of their experience in providing assistance following
natural disasters, such as earthquakes, brush fires, and land slides,
and because of experiences with rioting.  These organizations
generally expected to see an increase in the number of people needing
their services as a result of welfare reform.  Officials expressed
concern that they would not be able to provide more services if their
current level of resources remained the same.  Additionally, several
officials told us that resources for food and funding were
diminishing.  Accordingly, the organizations had developed the
following approaches for handling the anticipated increase in needed
services:  (1) seeking additional donations for funds and food, (2)
considering decreasing the amount of services that each recipient
receives, and (3) targeting certain populations, such as the elderly,
for services.  Table V.1 describes the nonprofit organizations that
we contacted. 



                               Table V.1
                
                  Nonprofit Organizations We Contacted
                 Concerned With Food Assistance in Los
                             Angeles County

                                                    Role in food
Organization                    Type                assistance
------------------------------  ------------------  ------------------
Catholic Charities of Los       Religious-based     Distributes food
Angeles                         social service      through its
                                nonprofit (local    community centers
                                affiliate of        to about 90,000
                                Catholic            individuals twice
                                Charities)          a week.

LA Regional Foodbank            Food bank (local    Distributes food
                                affiliate of        to 750 charitable
                                Second Harvest)     organizations at
                                                    14ï¿½ per pound.
                                                    These
                                                    organizations
                                                    distribute food to
                                                    an estimated
                                                    200,000
                                                    individuals per
                                                    week; also
                                                    distributes
                                                    federal
                                                    agricultural
                                                    commodities.


New City Parish                 Religious           Distributes bags
                                organization (a     of groceries and
                                local affiliate of  hot meals to more
                                Lutheran Social     than 2,500
                                Services)           families.

San Fernando Valley Interfaith  Interfaith/         Distributes food
Council                         Religious social    through programs
                                service nonprofit   such as food
                                (represents over    pantries, meals-
                                300 denominations   on-wheels,
                                and temples)        "homebound meals,"
                                                    and nutrition
                                                    sites.

FEMA's Emergency Food and       Federally and       Distributes
Shelter Program                 state-funded        funding to and
                                program             purchases food for
                                administered        food pantries,
                                through the United  soup kitchens,
                                Way of Los Angeles  food banks, and
                                                    homeless shelters.

United Way of Los Angeles       Community social    Donates funding
                                service agency      for food
                                (local affiliate    assistance to 15
                                of the United Way)  food service
                                                    providers.
                                                    Estimates serving
                                                    408,000 clients
                                                    with food and
                                                    meals service.

INFO LINE of Los Angeles        Social service      Provides the needy
                                information and     with information
                                referral system     about food
                                                    pantries and soup
                                                    kitchens
                                                    throughout the Los
                                                    Angeles area.
                                                    Handles about 150
                                                    food assistance
                                                    inquiries per day.

Los Angeles Coalition to End    Advocacy group for  Provides advocacy
Hunger and Homelessness         hunger and          assistance for the
                                homelessness        poor in
                                issues              representing their
                                                    views to local
                                                    political
                                                    officials on a
                                                    number of issues,
                                                    including food
                                                    assistance.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Most organizations did not have specific eligibility requirements for
recipients of their food assistance services and did not keep
demographic information on those they served.  Generally, they serve
anyone in need, including able-bodied adults without dependents and
legal immigrants.  Officials told us that their organizations serve
the working poor, including single mothers with children and
grandparents raising young children. 

The resources available to these organizations included federal,
state, and local government grants, philanthropic grants, private
donations, and in-kind donations, such as voluntary services and
housing.  For example, the city of Los Angeles provides some of these
organizations with funding from its federal Community Development
Block Grant. 


--------------------
\2 For the purpose of this report, organizations providing direct
food assistance include those nonprofit organizations with a role in
distributing food to needy individuals.  Organizations providing
indirect food assistance include those that provide funds, distribute
information, and provide advocacy or bulk food for direct food
assistance providers. 


FOOD ASSISTANCE IN DENVER,
COLORADO
========================================================== Appendix VI

   Figure VI.1:  Denver County,
   Colorado

   (See figure in printed
   edition.)


   COUNTY PROFILE
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix VI:1

The population of Denver County in 1995 was approximately 500,000. 
In May 1996, the unemployment rate for the Denver metropolitan area\1
was 3.9 percent.  At the state level, the unemployment rate was 4.3
percent in May 1996, and the poverty rate for 1995-96 averaged 9.7
percent.\2 Nationally, in May 1996, the unemployment rate was 5.4
percent, and the poverty rate for 1995-96 averaged 13.8 percent.\3

In January 1997, as states were beginning to implement the Welfare
Reform Act, about 56,000 individuals participated in the Food Stamp
Program.  By September 1997, after many changes to the Food Stamp
Program were implemented, participation had declined to approximately
47,000.  Between January and September, the number of able-bodied
adults without dependents with food stamps decreased from about 1,600
to about 300.  According to an official with the Denver Department of
Social Services (DDSS), most of these adults lost food stamp benefits
because they did not attend a required orientation session informing
them of their work requirements under welfare reform.  The
information on this session was publicized through fliers at food
pantries and soup kitchens as well as in the food stamp office. 
Although the number of legal immigrants on food stamps is unknown, a
1996 study by the Colorado Department of Human Services estimated
that, statewide, approximately 5,700 immigrants would lose their
benefits as a result of welfare reform. 


--------------------
\1 Denver County is contained within the Denver metropolitan area. 

\2 Data for 1996 on the poverty rate for Denver were unavailable. 

\3 Statistics presented are the latest available.  Population and
poverty rates come from Census Bureau data for 1995 and 1996,
respectively.  Unemployment rates come from Bureau of Labor
Statistics data for 1996. 


   APPROACH TO PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix VI:2

DDSS administers the Food Stamp Program in Denver County with
supervision from the Colorado Department of Human Services.  To
assist able-bodied adults without dependents in meeting the Food
Stamp Program's work requirements, DDSS provides employment and
training assistance through Denver Employment First.  This program
helps these adults prepare for jobs by teaching them resume writing,
interviewing techniques, and appropriate dress.  The program also
offers General Educational Developmental (GED) self-study courses to
move adults without a high school education toward earning a high
school equivalency diploma.  The program also operates the county
workfare program for able-bodied adults without dependents and
maintains a list of approved nonprofit agencies at which participants
can meet their work requirements. 

In addition, DDSS is administering an emergency assistance program
for legal immigrants in Denver County who lost federal food stamps. 
Colorado appropriated $2 million for emergency assistance to legal
immigrants from July 1997 to June 1998.  Under this program, legal
immigrants can receive assistance, including food vouchers, that can
be redeemed at designated food pantries.  In order to receive this
special emergency food assistance, the legal immigrants'
participation must be approved by DDSS.  With DDSS' approval, legal
immigrants can continue to receive this emergency assistance on a
monthly basis as long as they continue to be in an emergency
situation. 


   NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS'
   EFFORTS IN PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix VI:3

Nonprofit organizations in Denver County provide direct and indirect
food assistance.\4

Most of the organizations we visited were affiliated with national
groups; others were state or local.  In the last several years, these
nonprofit organizations and some government agencies have established
a network to discuss food assistance problems.  Several organizations
expected the number of individuals requesting services to increase as
a result of welfare reform.  Most organizations reported that they
were already experiencing an increased demand, with one organization
reporting 40 to 50 more applicants per week. 

Although many of the nonprofit organizations we contacted expect more
individuals to request services, none are sure how they will deal
with the expected increase.  They are also concerned about their
ability to meet an increased need for their services because of their
limited resources.  A few of them also reported that they would try
to raise additional money through fund-raising activities and grants. 
Two officials also voiced concern about their ability to meet the
demand for emergency food assistance in an economic downturn.  Table
VI.1 describes the nonprofit organizations that we contacted. 



                 Table VI.1 Nonprofit Organizations We
                Contacted Concerned With Food Assistance
                            in Denver County

                                                    Role in food
Organization                    Type                assistance
------------------------------  ------------------  ------------------
Metro CareRing                  Provides emergency  Provides bags of
                                services,           food to clients.
                                including food, to  Serves
                                the poor            approximately
                                                    26,000 individuals
                                                    per year.

FEMA Emergency Food and         Federally funded    Provides funding
Shelter Program                 program             for local food
                                administered by     assistance
                                the Denver          programs.
                                Foundation


Colorado Coalition for the      Advocacy group for  Provides advocacy
Homeless                        the homeless        on issues,
                                                    including food
                                                    assistance, in
                                                    Colorado.

Food Bank of the Rockies        Foodbank serving    Serves
                                metropolitan        approximately 750
                                Denver, northern    hunger-relief
                                Colorado, and       programs,
                                Wyoming (local      including, for
                                affiliate of        example, a program
                                Second Harvest)     to pick up surplus
                                                    prepared foods and
                                                    a "kid's cafe"
                                                    providing food for
                                                    children in
                                                    Denver's inner
                                                    city.

Jewish Family Service of        A religious human   Manages a kosher
Colorado                        service and         food pantry that
                                resource agency     provides food for
                                                    those who meet
                                                    income
                                                    requirements.
                                                    Serves
                                                    approximately 250
                                                    people per month.

Mile High United Way            Community social    Provides a variety
                                service agency      of services,
                                                    including funding
                                                    for approximately
                                                    13 emergency food
                                                    assistance
                                                    programs.

Statewide Coalition on Hunger   Group of            Provides advocacy
                                government and      on food assistance
                                nonprofit food      in Colorado.
                                assistance
                                providers sharing
                                information about
                                food assistance in
                                Colorado

Catholic Charities and          A religious         Provides food
Community Services              organization        through a network
                                (local member of    of emergency
                                Catholic            assistance centers
                                Charities)          in the Denver
                                                    metropolitan area;
                                                    a food bank, which
                                                    pools together the
                                                    resources of 22
                                                    food banks to buy
                                                    food in bulk at
                                                    lower cost; the
                                                    SHARE program;\a
                                                    and meals at a
                                                    temporary shelter
                                                    for the homeless.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
\a The SHARE Colorado Program is a unique food distribution and
community building program.  It offers a monthly food package of
meats, fresh fruits, vegetables, and staples worth double or triple
their retail value for $13 and 2 hours of community service. 

The nonprofit organizations we contacted generally required their
clients to meet some type of eligibility requirement in order to
receive services.  The organizations said that they serve many
different groups of people besides legal immigrants and able-bodied
adults without dependents, including the working poor, single mothers
with children, and the elderly. 

The organizations use various resources to fund their operations,
including federal government grants, foundation grants, individual
contributions, and volunteer services.  For example, one organization
received approximately $264,000 in volunteer services and $1.4
million in in-kind food pantry donations during the last year. 


--------------------
\4 For the purpose of this report, organizations providing direct
food assistance include those nonprofit organizations with a role in
distributing food to needy individuals.  Organizations providing
indirect food assistance include those that provide funds, distribute
information, and provide advocacy or bulk food for direct food
assistance providers. 


FOOD ASSISTANCE IN HARTFORD,
CONNECTICUT
========================================================= Appendix VII

   Figure VII.1:  Greater
   Hartford, Connecticut

   (See figure in printed
   edition.)


   AREA PROFILE
------------------------------------------------------- Appendix VII:1

The greater Hartford area had a population of approximately 835,000
in 1995.  The area consists of three jurisdictions--the city of
Hartford and the towns of East and West Hartford.  In May 1996, the
unemployment rate for the Hartford area was 5.9 percent.\1 By
comparison, the state's unemployment rate was 5.5 percent in May
1996, and the poverty rate for 1995-96 averaged 10.7 percent. 
Nationally, in May 1996, the unemployment rate was 5.4 percent, and
the poverty rate for 1995-96 averaged 13.8 percent.\2

In August 1996, before the Welfare Reform Act was implemented, over
219,000 individuals were participating in the federal Food Stamp
Program statewide, according to Connecticut officials.  (Statistics
were not available for the greater Hartford area.) Of this total,
about 5,800 were able-bodied adults without dependents.  Furthermore,
as of August 1996, an estimated 9,700 food stamp participants were
legal immigrants.  By September 1997, after many changes to the Food
Stamp Program were implemented, participation had declined to about
202,000.  Of this total, about 5,400 were able-bodied adults without
dependents, and about 7,100 were legal immigrants. 


--------------------
\1 Data for 1996 on the poverty rate for Hartford were unavailable. 

\2 Statistics presented are the latest available.  Population and
poverty rates come from Census Bureau data for 1995 and 1996,
respectively.  Unemployment rates come from Bureau of Labor
Statistics data for 1996. 


   APPROACH TO PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
------------------------------------------------------- Appendix VII:2

Connecticut's Department of Social Services (DSS) administers the
Food Stamp Program throughout the state.  At the time of our visit,
DSS officials told us that they did not have and did not plan to
develop outreach services to help individuals retain their food
stamps.  In August 1997, however, the state received approval for a
waiver of the work requirement for areas with limited employment
opportunities and began to notify able-bodied adults without
dependents who lost benefits because of welfare reform that their
benefits could be restored.  DSS' goal is to provide access to
information and services for employment and training.  However, if
participants in these programs meet income and work requirements,
they may still qualify for food stamps.  In addition, the state has
developed a referral system to provide individuals with information
on available food assistance. 

Able-bodied adults without dependents can participate in employment
and training in a number of ways.  For example, they can obtain
training through the Connecticut Works System, which offers a
"one-stop" approach to employment services and unemployment benefits. 
In addition, able-bodied adults without dependents can participate in
the Self-Initiated Food Stamp Community Service Program/Working for
In-Kind Income.  In this state program, an able-bodied adult without
dependents can meet workfare requirements by participating in a
community service activity.  The state will provide these adults with
information on potential community service opportunities. 
Individuals accepting these community service positions will be able
to maintain their eligibility for food stamps. 

State officials told us they had not made plans to provide outreach
programs/services for legal immigrants losing food stamps because
they were uncertain how many legal immigrants would become ineligible
for the food stamp program.  However, the state provided legal
immigrants with information about obtaining U.S.  citizenship when
they were notified about changes in their eligibility for food
stamps. 


   NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS'
   EFFORTS IN PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
------------------------------------------------------- Appendix VII:3

The nonprofit organizations at work in the greater Hartford area
provide food assistance directly and indirectly through food banks,
food pantries, shelters, and soup kitchens.\3 These organizations are
affiliated with a network overseen by the local board of FEMA.  The
local board provides an opportunity for nonprofit organizations to
communicate and coordinate the efforts or services they provide. 

Several of the organizations noted that it was too soon to clearly
determine the effects of welfare reform.  Nevertheless, they expected
an increased need for food assistance because of the loss of
eligibility for food stamps and were concerned about their ability to
respond to that increase with little or no additional funding. 
Organizations told us that they plan to (1) seek additional funding
and food donations and (2) make adjustments with the amounts and/or
types of services they normally provide.  Table VII.1 lists the
nonprofit organizations we contacted. 



                              Table VII.1
                
                  Nonprofit Organizations We Contacted
                   Concerned With Food Assistance in
                         Hartford, Connecticut

                                                    Role in food
Organization                    Type                assistance
------------------------------  ------------------  ------------------
Community Renewal Team of       Community action    Distributes
Greater Hartford, Inc.          agency              funding to five
                                                    agencies to
                                                    provide food
                                                    assistance.

Foodshare                       Food bank (local    Distributes
                                affiliate of        donated food to
                                Second Harvest)     over 200 private,
                                                    nonprofit programs
                                                    that feed the
                                                    hungry (e.g., food
                                                    pantries, soup
                                                    kitchens,
                                                    shelters).

Center City Churches            Religious           Serves meals to
(Center for Hope)               Organization        approximately
                                                    1,200 to 1,400
                                                    individuals and
                                                    provides referrals
                                                    to other food
                                                    assistance
                                                    programs.

Connecticut Association for     Statewide advocacy  Conducts research,
Human Services/Anti-Hunger      organization        outreach,
Coalition                                           training,
                                                    advocacy, and
                                                    provides referrals
                                                    to other food
                                                    assistance.

Community Soup Kitchen          Soup kitchen        Serves meals or
                                                    provides bags of
                                                    food.

Connecticut Food Bank           Food bank (local    Provides donated
                                affiliate of the    food to 450
                                Second Harvest)     private, nonprofit
                                                    feeding agencies.

Jewish Federation Association   Religious           Provides kosher
of Connecticut                  organization        lunches for
                                (local affiliate    approximately 300
                                of Jewish           to 350
                                Federation)         individuals.


FEMA's Emergency Food and       Federally funded    Distributes
Shelter Program                 program             funding to the
                                administered        local food bank to
                                through the United  service shelters,
                                Way of Connecticut  food pantries, and
                                                    soup kitchens.

Salvation Army                  Community Social    Provides food
                                Service             vouchers, Senior
                                                    meal programs, hot
                                                    meals, home-meal
                                                    delivery for the
                                                    elderly, seasonal
                                                    meal programs, and
                                                    part-time soup
                                                    kitchens.

United Way Infoline of          Information         Makes referrals to
Connecticut                     referral service    food assistance
                                                    programs.

Lutheran Social Services of     Religious           Provides referrals
New England                     organization        to food assistance
                                (local affiliate    for refugees and
                                of Lutheran Social  immigrants.
                                Services)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
These nonprofit organizations have no or minimal eligibility
requirements for participation, such as picture identification and
documentation of income.  Currently, the nonprofit organizations
receive funding from federal, state, and local government grants;
individual and corporate contributions; and volunteer services. 


--------------------
\3 For the purpose of this report, organizations providing direct
food assistance include those nonprofit organizations with a role of
distributing food to needy individuals.  Organizations providing
indirect food assistance include those that provide funds, distribute
information, and provide advocacy or bulk food for direct food
assistance providers. 


   OTHER OBSERVATIONS REGARDING
   LOCAL FOOD ASSISTANCE EFFORTS
------------------------------------------------------- Appendix VII:4

Two municipalities--the town of West Hartford and the town of East
Hartford--maintain town food pantries where the needy can obtain
either bags of groceries or food vouchers redeemable at local grocery
stores.  In East Hartford, participants must show a photo
identification, which includes a social security number and date of
birth; provide verification of income for all family members; and
sign a "Client Information Form" that provides proof of dependents. 


FOOD ASSISTANCE IN THE DETROIT
TRI-COUNTY AREA
======================================================== Appendix VIII

   Figure VIII.1:  Greater
   Detroit, Michigan

   (See figure in printed
   edition.)


   AREA PROFILE
------------------------------------------------------ Appendix VIII:1

The Detroit Tri-County area--Macomb, Oakland, and Wayne counties--had
a population of about 3.9 million people in 1995--about 41 percent of
Michigan's population.  In May 1996, the Detroit metropolitan area
had an unemployment rate of 4.3 percent.\1 In comparison, the state
unemployment rate in May 1996 was 4.6 percent, and the poverty rate
for 1995-96 averaged 11.7 percent.  Nationally, in May 1996, the
unemployment rate was 5.4 percent and the poverty rate for 1995-96
averaged 13.8 percent.\2

In November 1996, as states were beginning to implement the Welfare
Reform Act, about 427,600 persons received food stamps in the
tri-county area.  Of this total, about 29,500 were able-bodied adults
without dependents.  According to a Michigan state official, the
agency does not track the number of legal immigrants receiving food
stamps.  As of September 1997, after many changes to the Food Stamp
Program were implemented, about 381,500 individuals were receiving
food stamps. 


--------------------
\1 Data on the poverty rate in Detroit for 1996 were unavailable. 

\2 Statistics presented are the latest available.  Population and
poverty rates come from Census Bureau data for 1995 and 1996,
respectively.  Unemployment rates come from Bureau of Labor
Statistics data for 1996. 


   APPROACH TO PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
------------------------------------------------------ Appendix VIII:2

Michigan's Family Independence Agency (FIA) administers the Food
Stamp Program in all counties, including Macomb, Oakland, and Wayne. 
An FIA official told us that FIA was assisting able-bodied adults
without dependents with employment and training so that they can
become self-sufficient while meeting work requirements that allow
them to continue receiving food stamps.  According to an FIA
official, the state is not planning to create a new food assistance
program to assist legal immigrants who lost food stamp benefits. 

Able-bodied adults without dependents have several opportunities to
participate in employment and training and meet the Food Stamp
Program's work requirements.  They can participate in a
state-approved employment training program, work 20 hours a week, or
perform 25 hours of public service at a nonprofit agency.  Effective
October 1, 1997, the number of community service hours must equal the
benefit divided by the minimum wage ($5.15 per hour).  In addition,
in 1996, Michigan established the Food Stamp Community Service
Program, which focuses on able-bodied adults without dependents.  In
fiscal year 1998, the state will receive $13.4 million from USDA's
FNS to expand work programs for this population. 


   NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS'
   EFFORTS IN PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
------------------------------------------------------ Appendix VIII:3

Nonprofit organizations in greater Detroit, Michigan, some of which
are affiliated with national groups, provide direct and indirect food
assistance through an established network that includes soup
kitchens, food pantries, and food banks.\3 According to officials of
10 nonprofit agencies, able-bodied adults without dependents and
legal immigrants who lose their food stamps as a result of welfare
reform will look for food assistance from these nonprofit
organizations.  Several of these officials told us that they had
already experienced an increased need for their services as a result
of welfare reform.  They expressed concern about their ability to
provide these additional services because of limited funding. 

However, several organizations we visited have developed strategies
to increase the supply of food.  These strategies include (1) raising
additional money through fund-raising activities, (2) seeking more
government and corporate grants, (3) encouraging Michigan to apply
for federal food stamp waivers, (4) raising funds for target groups
of legal immigrants, and (5) improving the emergency provider
infrastructure.  Table VIII.1 describes the nonprofit organizations
that we contacted. 



                              Table VIII.1
                
                  Nonprofit Organizations We Contacted
                 Concerned With Food Assistance in the
                            Tri-County Area

                                                    Role in food
Organization                    Type                assistance
------------------------------  ------------------  ------------------
Gleaners Community Food Bank    Food bank (a        Serves about 300
of Detroit                      Second Harvest      emergency food
                                affiliate)          providers,
                                                    including soup
                                                    kitchens and food
                                                    pantries.

Wayne-Metro Community Service   Community action    Refers clients to
Agency                          agency              124 soup kitchens
                                                    and food pantries
                                                    in Wayne County
                                                    and provides
                                                    technical
                                                    assistance for
                                                    emergency food
                                                    providers.

Forgotten Harvest               Perishable food     Retrieves
                                salvage             perishable food
                                organization        from restaurants
                                                    and other food
                                                    service
                                                    organizations.
                                                    Each month
                                                    transports 60,000
                                                    pounds of food to
                                                    tri-county soup
                                                    kitchens and
                                                    shelters.

Yad Ezra                        Food pantry         Provides about
                                                    500,000 pounds of
                                                    food per year to
                                                    about 1,100 Jewish
                                                    families in the
                                                    metropolitan area.

Hunger Action Coalition of      Policy advocacy     Establishes about
Michigan                        organization        20 new emergency
                                                    food assistance
                                                    providers each
                                                    year. Since 1991,
                                                    the coalition has
                                                    received about
                                                    $1.8 million in
                                                    grants which it
                                                    distributed to
                                                    about 270
                                                    emergency food
                                                    providers.

Capuchin Soup Kitchen           Religious           Provides 7 days of
                                organization        food for needy
                                                    families. Also
                                                    serves two meals
                                                    daily for the
                                                    homeless in
                                                    downtown Detroit.

Focus: Hope                     Human rights        Manages USDA's
                                organization        Commodity
                                                    Supplemental Food
                                                    Program, providing
                                                    groceries for
                                                    mothers, infants,
                                                    preschool
                                                    children, and
                                                    seniors over the
                                                    age of 60 meeting
                                                    certain income
                                                    guidelines.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Many nonprofit organizations had eligibility requirements for
individuals to receive their food assistance services.  One required
a certain qualifying income level but frequently made exceptions. 
Some providers serve only people within certain geographical
boundaries.  Others will provide food for anyone who asks.  A few
groups provide groceries for people on special diets; for example, an
Oakland County food pantry provides groceries for those who keep
kosher kitchens.  Other providers primarily serve specific groups
such as Hmong, Vietnamese, and migrant farm workers. 

Detroit's emergency food assistance providers depend upon a variety
of resources to fund their operations:  grants from large corporate
foundations; federal, state, and local governments; and community
fund-raising activities that donate food and money.  Community-based
organizations also depend upon volunteers to manage and staff their
food pantries and soup kitchens. 


--------------------
\3 For the purpose of this report, organizations providing direct
food assistance include those nonprofit organizations with a role of
distributing food to needy individuals.  Organizations providing
indirect food assistance include those that provide funds, distribute
information, and provide advocacy or bulk food for direct food
assistance providers. 


   OTHER OBSERVATIONS ON NONPROFIT
   EFFORTS TO PROVIDE FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
------------------------------------------------------ Appendix VIII:4

According to the emergency food providers we interviewed, food is
generally available for soup kitchens and food pantries, but
additional funding for infrastructure is needed.  The supply of food
available for emergency food services does not depend only on the
number of people needing emergency food services or the amount of
food available for donation.  The availability of funding for
infrastructure--transportation and storage space, including
refrigeration, and staff--is key to a successful food assistance
operation.  For example, many smaller soup kitchens and food pantries
lack refrigeration and storage space, which prevents them from
obtaining and keeping donated meats, vegetables, fruits, or dairy
products. 

Furthermore, these organizations anticipate an increase in
individuals and families needing their services.  For example, early
in 1997, one food pantry--Yad Ezra--realized that welfare reform
would affect a number of Russian Jewish immigrants and that some
means had to be found to replace the food stamps that would no longer
be available.  A Yad Ezra survey indicated that 212 of the 1,006
families currently being assisted would be affected by welfare reform
and that many of the families are elderly and sick.  Therefore, their
ability or desire to learn English and gain citizenship is doubtful. 
Only 39 percent of the surveyed immigrants are taking citizenship
classes. 

Specifically, to assist the 212 families, Yad Ezra will need $100,000
to augment the food pantry's current year's budget of $680,000.  Each
subsequent year, the organization will need to raise additional money
to assist needy legal immigrants.  Any additional money could exceed
$100,000 each year, since Yad Ezra did not attempt to identify any
new families or individuals whom it was not currently serving and who
could be affected by welfare reform.  Officials from Yad Ezra believe
that Yad Ezra's effort to replace food stamps for its legal
immigrants is not likely to be duplicated by other food pantries
because, unlike most other organizations, Yad Ezra serves a specific
group of legal immigrants and was able to obtain the necessary
resources to meet its needs. 


FOOD ASSISTANCE IN HOUSTON, TEXAS
========================================================== Appendix IX

   Figure IX.1:  Harris County
   (Houston), Texas

   (See figure in printed
   edition.)


   COUNTY PROFILE
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix IX:1

Houston, Texas (Harris County) had a population of 3.1 million in
1995.  In May 1996, the unemployment rate was 5.1 percent in
Houston,\1 while the state unemployment rate was 5.4 percent.  The
poverty rate in 1995-96 averaged 17 percent.  Nationally, in May
1996, the unemployment rate was 5.4 percent, and the poverty rate for
1995-96 averaged 13.8 percent.\2

In February 1997, as states were beginning to implement the Welfare
Reform Act, over 333,000 individuals in Houston received food stamps. 
Of this population, about 14,000 were able-bodied adults without
dependents, and about 17,000 were legal immigrants.  As of September
1997, after many changes to the Food Stamp Program were implemented,
the number of able-bodied adults without dependents receiving food
stamps had decreased to about 4,900, and the number of legal
immigrants had decreased to about 2,700. 


--------------------
\1 Data for 1996 on the poverty rate for Houston were unavailable. 

\2 Statistics presented are the latest available.  Population and
poverty rates come from Census Bureau data for 1995 and 1996,
respectively.  Unemployment rates come from Bureau of Labor
Statistics data for 1996. 


   APPROACH TO PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix IX:2

The Texas Department of Human Services (TDHS) administers USDA's Food
Stamp Program.  Texas had obtained a waiver of the work requirement
for selected counties; however, it decided not to implement the
waiver in Houston because the unemployment rate was less than 10
percent.  Therefore, all able-bodied adults in Houston are required
to participate in employment and training activities in order to
continue receiving food stamps.  According to TDHS officials,
activities meeting these work requirements include regular
employment; self-employment; volunteer work with a business,
government entity, or nonprofit organization; and/or participation in
the Job Training Partnership Act or the Trade Adjustment Assistance
Act Program.  In addition, these adults can obtain assistance from
the Texas Workforce Commission's Food Stamp Employment and Training
Program.  The purpose of this program is to move welfare recipients
to work as quickly as possible.  However, participation in the job
search and the job search training component of this program does not
satisfy the work requirement. 

For legal immigrants, Texas is providing, effective February 1998,
targeted food assistance to elderly and disabled legal immigrants who
were receiving food stamp benefits as of August 22, 1996, and lost
benefits because of welfare reform.  Texas is providing about $18
million for this effort.  Benefits will range from $10 to $122 per
month per individual. 


   NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS'
   EFFORTS IN PROVIDING FOOD
   ASSISTANCE
-------------------------------------------------------- Appendix IX:3

The nonprofit organizations that provide direct and indirect food
assistance--including food banks and food pantries--in Houston
generally operate independently of each other.\3 At the time of our
visit, most of the organizations reported that their ability to
provide food assistance for those needing it had not yet been
affected by welfare reform.  However, most organizations told us that
they expected the amount of food assistance provided by them to
increase within the next 2 to 3 years because of welfare reform.  In
addition, many organizations' officials expressed concern that they
may have difficulty in providing food assistance in the future.  One
organization attributed this difficulty to the fact that so many
organizations were competing for the same monetary and food donation
resources.  Most organizations did not have planned approaches for
dealing with the expected increase in the need for their services. 
However, one organization is considering a reduction in the number of
items that it distributes in bags of groceries in order to meet the
expected increased need for its services.  Table IX.1 list the
nonprofit organizations that we contacted. 



                               Table IX.1
                
                  Nonprofit Organizations We Contacted
                   Concerned With Food Assistance in
                             Houston, Texas

                                                    Role in food
Organization                    Type                assistance
------------------------------  ------------------  ------------------
Gulf Coast Community Services   Community service   Provides
Association                     agency              supplemental food
                                                    for low-income
                                                    families in
                                                    emergency
                                                    situations.

Houston Food Bank               Food bank (local    Distributes food
                                affiliate of        to local charities
                                Second Harvest)     that care for the
                                                    needy.

United Way of the Texas Gulf    Community social    Distributes funds
Coast                           service agency      to community
                                (local affiliate    groups that target
                                of United Way)      hunger.

Target Hunger                   Community-based     Distributes food
                                Organization        in low-income
                                                    neighborhoods
                                                    through volunteers
                                                    who operate food
                                                    pantries and
                                                    community gardens.

Research & Development          Community-based     Distributes rice,
Institute                       Organization        instant noodles,
                                                    and canned food
                                                    within the
                                                    Vietnamese
                                                    community.

Community Alliance United in    Umbrella            Conducts fund-
Service                         organization for    raising activities
                                social ministry     for member
                                coalitions          coalitions that
                                                    provide food
                                                    assistance.

FEMA Emergency Food and         Federally funded    Provides funding
Shelter Program                 program             that supplements
                                administered by     local food
                                the United Way of   assistance
                                the Texas Gulf      programs.
                                Coast

End Hunger Network              Advocacy group      Provides food
                                                    support for 30
                                                    agencies and 110
                                                    food pantries.

Associated Catholic Charities   Religious-based     Provides emergency
of the Diocese of Galveston-    organization        food assistance
Houston (Guadalupe Social                           and bags of
Services)                                           groceries once a
                                                    month for senior
                                                    citizens and
                                                    disabled persons.
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Most organizations had income eligibility requirements for their food
assistance services, and several limited their assistance to
individuals residing in certain areas.  In addition, one organization
focused its efforts in the Vietnamese community. 

Funding sources for the nonprofit organizations we visited varied. 
Most received funding from federal, state, and local government
grants and donations from religious organizations and individuals. 


--------------------
\3 For the purpose of this report, organizations providing direct
food assistance include those nonprofit organizations with a role of
distributing food to needy individuals.  Organizations providing
indirect food assistance include those that provide funds, distribute
information, provide advocacy or bulk food to direct food assistance
providers. 


MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS REPORT
=========================================================== Appendix X

Robert E.  Robertson, Associate Director
Patricia Gleason, Assistant Director
Tracy Kelly Solheim, Project Leader
Carolyn Boyce, Senior Social Science Analyst
Carol H.  Shulman, Communications Analyst
Kathy Alexander
Renee McGhee-Lenart
Janice Turner
Sheldon Wood, Jr.
Patricia A.  Yorkman


*** End of document. ***