Gender Issues: Trends in the Occupational Distribution of Military Women
(Letter Report, 09/14/1999, GAO/NSIAD-99-212).

Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the
trends in the occupational distribution of military women, focusing on:
(1) all occupations women were in during fiscal years 1990 and 1998,
particularly those with the highest percentage of women; and (2)
systemic barriers, if any, that limit women entering certain
occupations.

GAO noted that: (1) as was the case in the early 1990s, a large
percentage of military women continue to work in the areas of health
care, administration, personnel, and supply occupations; (2) however,
data suggest that military women, both enlisted and officers, are
beginning to enter more nontraditional fields such as aviation, surface
warfare, air traffic control, and field artillery; (3) while most
military occupations and career fields are open to women, GAO identified
two institutional barriers that limit the number of women going into
these occupations; (4) because of Department of Defense (DOD) and
service policies, some units are closed to women even though the units
may include occupations that are open to women; (5) as a result, the
number of women that can enter some career fields is limited; (6) the
Navy limits the number of women in medical corpsmen training because the
Navy provides corpsmen to Marine Corps units that are closed to women;
(7) the Marine Corps limits the number of women that can serve as
helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to ships
and not all Navy ships can accommodate women at this time; (8) in the
Army, some occupations may be open to women, but the number of enlisted
women or officers in those occupations is limited because many of the
job slots are in male-only units; (9) another barrier is the test used
to match enlisted personnel to occupations--the Armed Services
Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) test--which contains sections that
are based on exposure to a subject instead of aptitude; (10) for
example, one section tests knowledge of automotive components, systems,
tools, and repairs; (11) a person who has had little or no exposure to
the workings of automobiles would not likely do well on this section of
the test; (12) studies have found that women generally do not score well
on this section of the test as well as those sections that test
mechanical comprehension or electronic information because many women
have had little or no exposure to these subjects; (13) attitudes are
mixed on the impact of this type of test; (14) some officials believe
that if people have not had exposure to certain subject matter, they are
most likely not interested in that field even if they have an aptitude
for the subject matter; (15) others believe that people should be given
a chance if they have an aptitude for the subject matter; and (16) DOD
test designers are working on a new section of the ASVAB, assembling
objects, which might mitigate the technical test's effects on women's
scores.

--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------

 REPORTNUM:  NSIAD-99-212
     TITLE:  Gender Issues: Trends in the Occupational Distribution of
	     Military Women
      DATE:  09/14/1999
   SUBJECT:  Women
	     Military policies
	     Military personnel
	     Personnel management
	     Employment discrimination
	     Ground warfare
	     Testing
IDENTIFIER:  Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery

******************************************************************
** This file contains an ASCII representation of the text of a  **
** GAO report.  This text was extracted from a PDF file.        **
** Delineations within the text indicating chapter titles,      **
** headings, and bullets have not been preserved, and in some   **
** cases heading text has been incorrectly merged into          **
** body text in the adjacent column.  Graphic images have       **
** not been reproduced, but figure captions are included.       **
** Tables are included, but column deliniations have not been   **
** preserved.                                                   **
**                                                              **
** Please see the PDF (Portable Document Format) file, when     **
** available, for a complete electronic file of the printed     **
** document's contents.                                         **
**                                                              **
** A printed copy of this report may be obtained from the GAO   **
** Document Distribution Center.  For further details, please   **
** send an e-mail message to:                                   **
**                                                              **
**                                            **
**                                                              **
** with the message 'info' in the body.                         **
******************************************************************

    United States General Accounting Office GAO                 Report
    to the Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Readiness and
    Management Support, Committee on Armed Services, U.S. Senate
    September 1999      GENDER ISSUES Trends in the Occupational
    Distribution of Military Women GAO/NSIAD-99-212 United States
    General Accounting Office
    National Security and Washington, D.C. 20548
    International Affairs Division B-283056
    Letter September 14, 1999 The Honorable Charles S. Robb Ranking
    Minority Member Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support
    Committee on Armed Services United States Senate Dear Senator
    Robb: In 1993 and 1994, significant changes in legislation and
    policy allowed women to fly combat aircraft, serve on combat
    ships, and serve in more combat-related occupations.1  As of
    September 1998, 90 percent of the services' career fields were
    open to women, and 80 percent of the services' 1,425,000 positions
    were open to women.  The major areas closed to women include
    infantry, armor, special forces/SEAL, and submarine warfare.  All
    are associated with ground combat, except submarine warfare, which
    remains closed due to the cost of changing habitability
    conditions.  As you requested, we determined (1) all occupations
    women were in during fiscal years 1990 and 1998, particularly
    those with the highest percentage of women and (2) systemic
    barriers, if any, that limit women entering certain occupations.
    Results in Brief                    As was the case in the early
    1990s, a large percentage of military women continue to work in
    the areas of health care, administration, personnel, and supply
    occupations.  For example, in fiscal year 1998, 44 percent of
    female officers were in health care professions.  However, data
    suggest that military women, both enlisted and officers, are
    beginning to enter more nontraditional fields such as aviation,
    surface warfare, air traffic control, and field artillery.  For
    example, the number of female Marine Corps officers that were
    pilots or naval flight officers increased from zero in fiscal year
    1993 (the year these occupations opened to women) to 62 in fiscal
    year 1998.  The 62 pilots or naval flight officers constitute over
    7 percent of all female Marine Corps officers.  The number of
    enlisted Army women that 1The fiscal year 1992-93 National Defense
    Authorization Act (P.L. 102-190, Dec. 5, 1991) lifted the ban on
    the assignment of women to combat aircraft.  The fiscal year 1994
    National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 103-160, Nov. 30, 1993)
    lifted the ban on the assignment of women to combat ships. Letter
    Page 1
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 were in field artillery
    increased from 32 to 122 in fiscal years 1992 and 1998,
    respectively.  This increase is dramatic considering that the
    number of men in this occupation decreased by 26.5 percent during
    this time frame. While most military occupations and career fields
    are open to women,2 we identified two institutional barriers that
    limit the number of women going into these occupations.  First,
    because of Department of Defense (DOD) and service policies, some
    units are closed to women even though the units may include
    occupations that are open to women.  As a result, the number of
    women that can enter some career fields is limited.  For example,
    the Navy limits the number of enlisted women in its nuclear
    training program because women cannot serve on submarines.  The
    Navy also limits the number of women in medical corpsmen training
    because the Navy provides corpsmen to Marine Corps units that are
    closed to women.  The Marine Corps limits the number of enlisted
    women that can serve as helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters
    are often assigned to ships and not all Navy ships can accommodate
    enlisted women at this time.  In the Army, some occupations may be
    open to women, but the number of enlisted women or officers in
    those occupations is limited because many of the job slots are in
    male-only units.  For example, a woman may be qualified as an
    administrative specialist but is not allowed to fill that position
    if the job is in a unit, such as infantry, that is closed to
    women.  Only a handful of Air Force occupations are closed or
    restricted to women due to DOD's assignment policies. Another
    barrier is the test used to match enlisted personnel to
    occupations-the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)
    test-which contains sections that are based on exposure to a
    subject instead of aptitude.  For example, one section tests
    knowledge of automotive components, systems, tools, and repairs.
    A person who has had little or no exposure to the workings of
    automobiles would not likely do well on this section of the test.
    Studies have found that women generally do not score well on this
    section of the test as well as those sections that test mechanical
    comprehension or electronic information because many women have
    had little or no exposure to these subjects. Attitudes are mixed
    on the impact of this type of test.  Some officials believe that
    if people have not had exposure to certain subject matter, they
    are most likely not interested in that field even if they have an
    aptitude for 2Gender Issues Information on DOD's Assignment Policy
    and Direct Ground Combat Definition (GAO/NSIAD-99-7, Oct.19,
    1998). Letter    Page 2
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 the subject matter.
    Others believe that people should be given a chance if they have
    an aptitude for the subject matter.  DOD test designers are
    currently working on a new section of the ASVAB, assembling
    objects, which might mitigate the technical test's effects on
    women's scores. Background     The Persian Gulf War saw the
    largest deployment of women in U.S. military history.
    Approximately 41,000 women were deployed, or 7 percent of the
    total deployed force.  Partly because of women's performance in
    the war, legislative restrictions on women's occupations were
    lifted.  In 1991, Congress repealed the restriction on women
    flying in combat roles, and DOD implemented this change in 1993.
    In November 1993, Congress lifted the ban on the assignment of
    women to combat ships.  In January 1994, the Secretary of Defense
    announced a new assignment policy for women.  This policy states
    that "servicemembers are eligible to be assigned to all positions
    for which they are qualified, except that women shall be excluded
    from assignment to units below the brigade level whose primary
    mission is to engage in direct combat on the ground."  In addition
    to this direct ground combat exclusion, the Secretary also
    permitted the services to close positions to women if (1) the
    units and positions were required to physically collocate and
    remain with direct ground combat units, (2) the service secretary
    attests that the cost of providing appropriate living space for
    women is prohibitive, (3) the units are engaged in special
    operations missions, or (4) job-related physical requirements
    would exclude the vast majority of women.  No jobs are closed to
    women because of job-related physical requirements. As a result of
    these policy changes, many of the occupations previously closed to
    women are now open to them.  These changes have meant that in the
    Air Force, women can fly bombers and fighters or serve as
    navigators on these aircraft.  In the Navy, women can fly combat
    aircraft and serve on most combat ships, except submarines.  In
    the Marine Corps and the Army, women are now allowed in
    occupations such as explosive ordnance disposal technician and
    field artillery surveyor that had been closed for years.  Appendix
    I provides a list of occupations opened to women since the early
    1990s.  Although these occupations were opened to women,
    servicemembers cannot laterally transfer into occupations without
    undergoing retraining.  Generally, women could enter these newly
    opened occupations only when they first entered into the military.
    Job assignments for enlisted members of the armed forces are
    generally made at the Military Entrance Processing Stations
    (MEPS).  MEPS officials Page 3
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 administer the ASVAB test
    to determine whether a recruit is qualified for enlistment and the
    military job occupations for which the recruit is qualified.  The
    ASVAB test contains 10 sections: general science, arithmetic
    reasoning, word knowledge, paragraph comprehension, numerical
    operations, coding speed, auto and shop information, mathematics
    knowledge, mechanical comprehension, and electronics information.
    Using the recruit's ASVAB scores, along with other factors such as
    strength, physical health, and moral character, the services' job
    counselors determine what entry-level occupations the recruit is
    eligible for based on the apparent strengths of the individual and
    the services' needs at that time. The recruit decides what
    occupation appeals to him or her from those that are available.
    Job assignments for officers vary by service.  In general,
    however, all the services match the officers' preferences with the
    open occupations.  The Air Force classifies officers based on
    their preferences and the needs of the Air Force.  Factors
    considered are college major and other academic endeavors, for
    example, a concentration in languages or math.  All the services,
    except for the Marine Corps, give top-ranking graduates of the
    service academies priority in selecting occupations. Occupations
    of Women  As was the case in the early 1990s, a significant number
    of officers and in the Military                  enlisted women
    continue to be concentrated in the health care, administration,
    personnel, and supply occupations.  However, the number of women
    going into more technical or combat-related fields is increasing.
    While this is true for all of the services, the Marine Corps
    officers had the most dramatic growth of women in technical
    fields. The following sections contain figures that show the
    percentage of all women, DOD-wide and by service, that were
    assigned in occupations in fiscal year 1990 (fiscal year 1992 for
    the Army) and fiscal year 1998.  The occupations shown for the
    services are those occupations that had the most women in them in
    either fiscal year 1990 (fiscal year 1992 for the Army) or 1998.
    Oftentimes, these occupations were the same for both fiscal years,
    with one or two unique occupations for each year.  These figures
    show that the percentage of women in most of the career fields we
    analyzed remained fairly stable between fiscal years 1990 (fiscal
    year 1992 for the Army) and 1998 for DOD-wide and for the four
    services.  These figures do not necessarily highlight those
    occupations with fewer positions, but a high number of women when
    compared to men.  In contrast, appendix II details, by service,
    the occupations with the greatest Page 4
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 percentage of women when
    compared to men.  Appendix II also shows the information for those
    occupations that had the highest proportion of women when compared
    to men for one or both fiscal years. DOD-Wide    According to data
    from the Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC), which collects
    occupational data from all four services and converts the data
    into a standardized, DOD-wide occupational classification, in
    fiscal years 1990 and 1998, enlisted women served predominantly in
    the functional support and administration occupational area (see
    fig. 1).  This area includes such occupational areas as personnel,
    recruiting and counseling, law, supply administration, auditing
    and accounting, and general administration. Another occupational
    area that had a high concentration of enlisted women in both
    fiscal years was the medical and dental specialist area. Page 5
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 1:  Occupational
    Distribution of Enlisted Women, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years 1990
    and 1998 40         Percent 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 s
    s                       ws, t and
    s         onic dental            vice and
    ence
    Other hanical Functional            Medical and            Ser y
    handler             unications                Electrical/
    Electr                           , gun cre
    Craftsmen suppor                      specialists
    repairer specialists            mec
    Other allied equipment repairer         equipment
    y            specialists         specialists administration
    suppl               Command intellig
    and seamanship Infantr 1990 1998 Source:  DMDC data. As shown in
    figure 2, over 40 percent of female officers were in health care
    occupations during fiscal years 1990 and 1998.  The next highest
    concentration of female officers was in administration, which
    includes occupations in general administration, manpower and
    personnel, comptrollers, data processing, information, police, and
    morale and welfare. By fiscal year 1998, 2 percent of women were
    general/flag officers or executives compared to 0 percent in
    fiscal year 1990.  In addition to general Page 6
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 and flag officers, this
    category includes senior officers, such as colonels, that have
    command duties.  Examples of positions are operating forces
    command commander, judge advocate colonel, and operations
    commander.  In addition, the number of women increased in the
    tactical operations area, which includes occupations such as
    pilots, aircraft crews, ground and naval arms officers, and
    missiles and weapons officers. Figure 2:  Occupational
    Distribution of Female Officers, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years
    1990 and 1998 50        Percent 40 30 20 10 0 y,
    g and                                      ence Suppl
    s and         Other Health care                      Engineering
    Intellig                      essionals     General/flaxecutives
    Administration
    Scientists and of pr                     officere and maintenance
    ocurement, pr allied operations Tactical operations 1990 1998
    Source:  DMDC data. Page 7
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Navy      In both fiscal
    years 1990 and 1998, the "general detail" occupation had more
    enlisted women than any other occupation in the Navy (see fig. 3).
    The "general detail" occupation encompasses the apprenticeship
    level for seaman, airman, and fireman.  Typically, only junior
    enlisted sailors are in this occupation.  Enlisted sailors are
    assigned to this occupation if they are unsure about what
    occupation they want to pursue in the Navy, if their test scores
    do not qualify them for a particular occupation, or if the
    occupations they want have no openings when they enlist.  Sailors
    are assigned to an occupation from the general detail occupation
    when one becomes available that fits their abilities, interests,
    and needs of the Navy. The health care occupation continues to
    have a high concentration of enlisted women.  In fiscal year 1990,
    13 percent of the Navy's enlisted women were in health care; in
    fiscal year 1998, about 16 percent of the enlisted women were in
    these occupations.  These occupations include hospital corpsmen,
    dental technicians, and laboratory technicians. Page 8
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 3:  Distribution of
    Enlisted Women in Navy Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
    25 Percent 20 15 10 5 0 ol Ship General detail
    viation                                                Marine
    Logistics                      A
    yptology Health care
    weapons         unications    Cr
    Remaining Administration    maintenance/
    engineering    eapons contr     maintenance    Data systems
    occupations Comm                                                W
    1990 1998 Source:  DMDC data. In fiscal year 1998, the Navy nurse
    corps had more women than any other community (see fig. 4).
    Twenty-eight percent of female officers in the Navy were in the
    nurse corps compared to about 29 percent in fiscal year 1990.
    However, the nurse corps did not have the highest concentration of
    women in fiscal year 1990-special duty fleet support did.3  Women
    in this 3In fiscal year 1990, special duty fleet support was
    called unrestricted line officers (URL). Page 9
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 community serve in billets
    such as information systems management, communications, personnel
    administration, and recruiting.  In 1990, 31 percent of female
    officers were in special duty fleet support.  This percentage
    decreased to 15.4 percent in fiscal year 1998. Figure 4 also shows
    that a growing percentage of women are going into the surface
    warfare occupation.  Officers in this occupation serve on
    destroyers, aircraft carriers, and other surface ships in a
    variety of positions.  In fiscal year 1990, nearly 3 percent of
    female officers served in the surface warfare occupation.  By
    fiscal year 1998, this percentage had increased to 8 percent due
    in part to the 1994 repeal of the law prohibiting women from
    serving on combat ships. Page 10
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 4:  Distribution of
    Female Officers in Navy Career Fields in Fiscal Year 1990 and
    Fiscal Year 1998 35 Percent 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 t
    vice
    vocate                           pilot                    ence
    eneral                                             corps
    Surface                y corps
    eneral
    corps g
    warfare                                                       g
    ses corps
    e ad Special duty
    Dental corps
    Remaining Special duty fleet suppor
    Suppl
    intellig Nur
    Medical corps
    occupations Medical ser
    Judg                           Fighter/bomber
    Civil engineering 1990 1998 Source:  DMDC data. As figure 5 shows,
    the Navy's enlisted women have made gains in specific jobs that
    were previously closed to them.  The number of women in the fire
    controlman job increased from zero in fiscal year 1993 to 266 in
    fiscal year 1998.  The number of women in the sonar technician,
    surface job also increased from zero in fiscal year 1993 to 345 in
    fiscal year 1998. Page 11
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 5:  Increase in the
    Number of Navy Women in Occupations Previously Closed to Women,
    Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
    1993           1994                  1995                 1996
    1997         1998 Aviation boatsw ain mate--launching and
    recovery, equipment Aviation anti-sub w arfare operator
    Electronics w arfare technician Fire controlman Gas turbine system
    tech, electrical Gas turbine system tech, mechanical Sonar
    technician, surface Gunner's mate Source:  DMDC data. Marine Corps
    As figure 6 shows, the percentage of enlisted women in most of the
    Marine Corps career fields we analyzed remained fairly stable
    between fiscal year 1990 and 1998.  However, two career
    fieldspersonnel and administration and supply administration and
    operations-experienced a sizeable Page 12
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 decrease in the percentage
    of enlisted women, and the career field of general service marine
    showed a marked increase.  This career field includes a wide range
    of occupations such as general service marine, basic marine with
    enlistment guarantee, sergeants major and first sergeants, and
    marine air ground task force planners.  Most of the enlisted women
    were in the basic marine with enlistment guarantee category, with
    general service marine being the next highest category. These
    marines' military qualifications and experience are not yet
    developed to be sufficient or adequate for qualification in other
    occupations.  The Marine Corps assigns the general service marine
    occupation to those recruits undergoing training who did not
    enlist under a special enlistment program.  The basic marine with
    enlistment guarantee category is assigned to personnel that join
    under an enlistment option program or an enlistment incentive
    program. Page 13
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 6:  Distribution of
    Enlisted Women in Marine Corps Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990
    and 1998 30 Percent 25 20 15 10 5 0 , y
    t and
    craft                   vice rsonnel            Suppl
    General
    Air                                            vionics
    finance                      y police Pe
    Logistics    A
    Remaining vice marine    Operational unications
    maintenance    Food ser
    Militar                  occupations administration administration
    ser                                      Motor transpor
    uditing,and accounting and operations
    comm
    A 1990 1998 Source:  DMDC data. Patterns for female officers in
    the Marine Corps are similar to those for enlisted women.  As
    figure 7 shows, the greatest concentration of women continues to
    be in the personnel and administration occupation.  However, there
    were an increased number of women serving as pilots and naval
    flight officers and general service marines and in air control/air
    support/antiair warfare occupations.  In addition, the number of
    women officers decreased Page 14
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 in the personnel and
    administration; supply administration and operations; auditing,
    finance, and accounting; and data systems occupations. Figure 7:
    Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps Occupations in
    Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 25 Percent 20 15 10 5 0 ,
    t val  s              ol/ t/
    vices                ence General
    finance                             Logistics rsonnel and
    Computer/ unications                  Pilots/na            Air
    contr
    Intellig            Remaining Pe                              vice
    marine
    air suppor           Data systems
    occupations administration    ser
    flight officer y administration and operations
    Motor transpor         Legal ser Auditing,and accounting    comm
    antiair warfare Suppl 1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. As figures 8
    (ground occupations), 9, and 10 (aviation related occupation)
    show, Marine Corps women have been making gains in specific jobs
    that were previously closed to them, especially in the combat
    engineer and pilot Page 15
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 and naval flight officer
    jobs.  The combat engineer job did not open to women until 1994;
    however, by 1998, 36 women had this job.  Even more dramatic was
    the number of women that became pilots and naval flight officers.
    By 1998, 62 women were pilots or flight officers.   This number
    constitutes over 7 percent of the Marine Corps female officers.
    No women have yet been assigned to 11 recently opened jobs.  These
    include * explosive ordnance disposal officer; * ground nuclear
    weapons assembly technician; * ground nuclear weapons assembly
    officer; * ground launched missile system maintenance officer; *
    aviation fire control repairer; * aviation fire control
    technician; * aircraft flight engineer, KC-130; * helicopter
    maintenance chief; * aircraft power plants test cell operator,
    rotary wing; * presidential support specialist; and * aerial
    navigation officer. Page 16
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 8:  Increase in the
    Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Ground Jobs
    Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 40 35 30 25 20
    15 10 5 0 1993              1994            1995
    1996            1997          1998 Embarkation officer
    Air delivery specialist Landing support specialist
    Engineer officer Combat engineer
    Explosive ordnance disposal technician Cryptologic linguist (M
    iddle East) Source:  DMDC data. Page 17
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 9:  Increase in the
    Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Selected
    Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 70
    60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1993              1994            1995
    1996            1997           1998 Airborne radio
    operator/loadmaster            Aircraft mechanic, AV-8 helicopter
    mechanic                           Helicopter airframe mechanic
    Helicopter crew chief                         Aircraft
    communication Aircraft electronic system tech, AV-8 Source: DMDC
    data. Page 18
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 10:  Increase in
    the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in
    Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993
    Through 1998 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1993           1994
    1995               1996            1997                1998
    Antiair warfare officer                      Air support control
    officer HAWK missile system operator                 Air support
    operations officer Aerial navigator trainee
    First navigator Pilot/naval flight officer Source:  DMDC data. Air
    Force                                          The proportion of
    enlisted women serving in various Air Force occupations was
    generally similar in fiscal years 1998 and 1990.  Furthermore,
    women were not highly concentrated in any one specific occupation.
    About 10 percent of enlisted women in the Air Force were in the
    information management occupation, and another 10 percent were in
    the supply occupation (see fig. 11).  Detailed Air Force data also
    show that the number of women in technical or combat-related
    occupations has increased.  For Page 19
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 example, the number of
    enlisted women in airborne warning communications and control
    systems occupations increased from 41 in fiscal year 1990 to 108
    in fiscal year 1998.  Similarly, in space system operations, the
    number of enlisted women increased from 26 in fiscal year 1990 to
    136 in fiscal year 1998.  The biggest increase was in air traffic
    control, where the number of women more than tripled since fiscal
    year 1990 to 727 in fiscal year 1998. Page 20
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 11:  Distribution
    of Enlisted Women in Air Force Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990
    and 1998 50 Percent 40 30 20 10 a 0 y
    ger/
    t ement
    vices Suppl                             vice
    vices rsonnel                               police
    Dental ormation g
    ement Pe systems    Medical ser            Security
    ospace         Financial                   g
    Ser Inf
    unications             aer
    suppor                                    Remaining mana
    mana
    occupations Comm
    Health ser Systems mana 1990 1998 aThis category did not exist in
    fiscal year 1998. Comparable data for female Air Force officers
    are shown in figure 12.  The greatest concentration of female Air
    Force officers is in the nurse corps. As figure 12 shows, about 29
    percent of the women were in the nurses' corps in fiscal year
    1998, compared to almost 32 percent in fiscal year 1990. One
    occupation where the number increased significantly was in the
    space, astronaut, and missile occupation, which increased from 226
    female Page 21
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 officers in fiscal year
    1990 to 384 female officers in fiscal year 1998.  While the
    proportion of female pilots decreased slightly between fiscal
    years 1990 and 1998, the figure remained about 3 percent. Figure
    12:  Distribution of Female Officers in Air Force Occupations in
    Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998. 35 Percent 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 se
    s/ Nur
    ence
    linic                         Pilot
    vocate                 craft rsonnel/
    ement
    onaut
    eneral gement
    g             Medicine
    g              Air Pe                   unications/
    Air battle                            specialist
    astr                   velopment engineer
    e ad computer           Intellig
    Biomedical
    Acquisition
    Remaining mana
    De visualization                        mana
    Space/missile/                                     ger/Contracts
    occupations Judg                           maintenance Comm
    Biomedical c Mana 1990 1998 Source:  DMDC data. Page 22
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 As figure 13 shows, Air
    Force women have been entering specific jobs that were previously
    closed to them. For example, the number of women that are bomber
    and fighter pilots has increased as have the number of women that
    have served as combat navigators.  One job that women have not
    entered is the sensor operator job, which opened to women in 1993.
    This job requires a lateral transfer at the E-5 or E-6 level.
    Figure 13:  Increase in the Number of Women in Air Force Jobs
    Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 25 20
    15 10 5 0 1993            1994               1995            1996
    1997           1998 B om ber pilots
    Fighter pilots S urveillanc e rec on pilots                 Bom
    ber navigators Fighter navigators
    Surveillance recon navigators Sensor operator Source: DMDC data.
    Page 23
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Army    Army enlisted
    women were generally in the same occupations in fiscal year 1998
    that they were in fiscal year 1992 (see fig. 14).4  The three main
    occupations were administration, medicine, and supply and service.
    However, the number of enlisted women has been steadily increasing
    in many technical and combat-related occupations.  For many of
    these occupations, the numbers of women entering these occupations
    were too small to affect the percentage of women in the
    occupations and were included in the "remaining occupations"
    category in figure 13.  For example, the number of women in the
    field artillery occupation increased from 32 in fiscal year 1992
    to 122 in fiscal year 1998.  This increase is even more dramatic
    considering that the number of men decreased by 26.5 percent in
    this occupation during this time frame.  In addition, the number
    of enlisted women in air defense increased from 350 in fiscal year
    1992 to 546 in fiscal year 1998.  The increase of enlisted women
    in electronic maintenance is especially dramatic, from 45 in
    fiscal year 1992 to 719 in fiscal year 1998.  Other occupations
    that show increases were the chemical and petroleum occupations.
    The number of women in the chemical occupation increased from 596
    in fiscal year 1992 to 1,058 in fiscal year 1998, while the number
    of women in the petroleum occupation rose from 1,429 in fiscal
    year 1992 to 2,537 in fiscal year 1998. 4Because we could not
    reconcile the Army's data with DMDC `s database, we chose to use
    the Army's data.  However, Army officials were only able to
    provide data beginning with fiscal year 1992. Page 24
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 14:  Distribution
    of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations in Fiscal Years 1992 and
    1998 25 Percent 20 15 10 5 0 y and vice
    tation                                                        ence
    Medical             ser      Signal
    hanical                   y police    Signal
    oleum etr Suppl
    Mec                                                          P
    Administration
    intellig                           Remaining Transpor
    maintenance    Militar
    occupations 1992 1998 Source:  Army data. In the Army, female
    officers were generally in the same occupations in fiscal year
    1998 that they were in fiscal year 1992 (see fig. 15).  As with
    the Navy and the Air Force, the highest concentration of women was
    in the Army Nurse Corps (ANC).  About 30 percent of female
    officers were in ANC during fiscal year 1992, compared to 23
    percent in fiscal year 1998. Although the percentage of women in
    the engineering and aviation occupations remains small, detailed
    Army data show that the number of women entering these occupations
    increased.  Specifically, the number of Page 25
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 women officers increased
    from 210 in fiscal year 1992 to 329 in fiscal year 1998 in the
    engineering branch and from 234 in fiscal year 1992 to 293 in
    fiscal year 1998 in the aviation occupation. Figure 15:
    Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations in Fiscal
    Years 1992 and 1998 30 Percent 25 20 15 10 5 0 y Arm
    vice                                 ence    Signal
    ocate eneral            dnance
    tation               y police               v eneral se Corps
    Adjutant g                 Or                     termaster
    g                             Engineer Intellig
    e ad                                               Remaining Nur
    Medical corps
    ranspor              Militar
    occupations Medical ser
    Quar                 T
    Judg                     Medical specialist 1992 1998 Source:
    Army data. In 1994, the Army opened new jobs to enlisted women and
    female warrant officers.  As figure 16 shows, Army women have
    entered some of these Page 26
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 specific jobs in dramatic
    fashion.  For example, the job of field artillery surveyor had 68
    women in fiscal year 1998 and the number of female engineer bridge
    crewmembers reached 50 in fiscal year 1998.  One job, combat
    engineer senior sergeant, has had no women in it since it was
    opened to women in fiscal year 1994.  According to Army officials,
    this job has not been open long enough for women to advance to the
    rank of senior sergeant. Figure 16:  Increase in the Number of
    Women in Army Jobs Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993
    Through 1998 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1993            1994
    1995            1996                  1997          1998 Engineer
    bridge crewm em ber                        Com bat engineer senior
    sergeant Field artillery surveyor                            OH-58
    A/C scout pilot OH-58D pilot
    A H-64 attack  pilot A H-attack pilot Source:  DMDC data. Page 27
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Civilian Women Make  To
    provide some perspective, we looked at the occupational
    distribution of Similar Occupational            civilian women.
    The occupational patterns of military women are similar to those
    of civilian women.  Proportionally, civilian women do not work in
    Choices                         the skilled trades, technical
    occupations, or protective service occupations in the civilian
    sector to the extent that men do.  Women represent 46 percent of
    the workforce but only about 10 percent of all workers in the
    skilled trade, technical, and protective service occupations.  For
    example, about 2 percent of the construction workforce, 1 percent
    of automobile mechanics, 2 percent of firefighters, 2 percent of
    electricians, and 5 percent of truck drivers are women.5  On
    average, these nontraditional jobs pay 20 to 30 percent more than
    jobs women have traditionally held.  An official with the
    Department of Labor Women's Bureau stated that societal factors
    tend to discourage women from entering these occupations.
    According to the Department of Labor, women generally have less
    math and science education.  In addition, peer pressure from
    friends and parents discourage women from entering the skilled
    trades, technical occupations, and protective services.  Finally,
    some researchers believe that women are reluctant to enter
    nontraditional occupations because women believe they are
    unwelcome in these types of occupations. Institutional Barriers
    Most occupations are open to women in the military.  However, even
    if an occupation is open to women, there are two institutional
    barriers that keep more women from going into these occupations.
    The first barrier is that about 115,000 positions within military
    units may not be filled by women, even though an occupation is
    technically open to women.  For example, in the Army some
    occupations are open to women, but the number of women in those
    occupations is limited because many of the job slots are in male-
    only units.  The second institutional barrier is that the ASVAB,
    the test the military uses to match women to occupations contains
    sections that are based on exposure to certain subject matter
    instead of aptitude. Positions Closed to Women       The services
    vary on why positions are closed to women.  In general, the Navy
    limits positions to women because some ships, such as submarines,
    are closed to women.  The Marine Corps generally limits positions
    for women for this reason, but also limits positions to women
    because they cannot engage in direct ground combat.  The Army also
    limits positions for 5U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
    Statistics, Employment & Earnings, January 1999. Page 28
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 women because of this
    direct ground combat assignment policy.  The Air Force has the
    most gender-neutral policy in assigning women to open occupations
    and does not have the constraints that the other services have.
    Navy            The assignment of women to occupations in the Navy
    is complicated by the limited number of sea positions available to
    womengenerally only 10 to 20 percent of ship positions are
    available for womenand the fact that some ships, such as
    submarines, are closed to women.  These factors have led the Navy
    to limit the number of women who can enter some occupations. For
    example, the Navy limits the number of enlisted women that enter
    its nuclear power program because a number of these positions are
    on submarines.  The Navy also limits the number of women in some
    of its medical fields because of the requirements to provide
    medical personnel to ships that are not open to women and to
    Marine Corps units not open to women. According to Navy officials,
    the Navy has encouraged women to go into nontraditional
    occupations because it is easier to assign women to ships when
    they have a more diverse range of skills.  When assigning women to
    a ship, personnel detailers must consider whether the ship needs a
    person with a particular skill and whether appropriate berthing is
    available.  If a woman's berth is available and a woman with the
    required skill is available, then the assignment is easily made.
    However, if a woman's berth is available but no woman with the
    required skill is available, the positions may go unfilled.
    Additionally, if women continue to concentrate in traditionally
    female occupations, some women may not have the opportunity to
    undertake career enhancing sea assignments because ships have a
    limited need for their skills.  This is not a problem for female
    officers because the Navy does not usually have to make major
    modifications to its ships to accommodate female officers. Marine
    Corps    Because the Marine Corps often deploys on Navy ships, it
    limits the number of women in some occupations because the Navy
    has not completed integrating all of its ships.  For example, the
    Marine Corps limits the number of enlisted women that can serve as
    helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to
    ships and not all Navy ships can accommodate enlisted women at
    this time.  In addition, a significant percentage of its units
    remain closed to women, and women cannot fill slots in open
    occupations in those units.  Enlisted women below the rank of
    staff sergeant are barred from approximately 25 percent of the
    Marine Corps' administrative positions because these positions are
    in combat units. Page 29
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Army
    Army women can serve in 97 percent of officer career fields and 83
    percent of enlisted occupations but can serve in less than 70
    percent of the job slots because the remaining slots are in combat
    units or in units that collocate with combat units.  On the basis
    of DOD and Army policy, women cannot serve in ground combat units
    or units collocated with such units, even though they may be
    qualified to fill particular occupations in those units. For
    example, a woman may be qualified as an administrative specialist
    but is not be allowed to fill an available position because the
    job is in a combat unit. During a visit to a MEPS, a job counselor
    provided us with lists of occupations that were closed to men and
    women.  Some occupations may be closed to both men and women
    because the Army already has a sufficient number of soldiers with
    those particular skills.  However, 14 occupations were closed to
    women but remained open to men.  By necessity, the Army must limit
    the number of women it trains in some occupations because a number
    of units that require those occupations are closed to women. Air
    Force                Among the services, the Air Force has the
    most gender-neutral policy in assigning women to open occupations.
    The Air Force is different from the Marine Corps and the Army
    because 99 percent of its positions are not associated with the
    direct ground combat rule and are therefore open to women.  The
    Air Force is also different from the Navy in that the Air Force
    needed to consider only minor changes to its equipment to
    accommodate women. Barriers Due to ASVAB    The ASVAB test screens
    out some recruits from technical occupations because it measures
    experience rather than aptitude on technical subjects. DMDC has
    conducted a series of studies of the ASVAB.  One study determined
    that the test was a valid indicator.  Recruits who score high in
    certain sections of the test do well in the corresponding
    occupations.6 However, the study also showed that there were
    significant differences in how men and women scored on the
    technical components of the test. DMDC conducted another study to
    determine why these differences 6Sensitivity and Fairness of the
    Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Technical
    Composites, DMDC, December 1992. Page 30
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 existed.7  This study
    analyzed about 21,500 high school transcripts from 1990 high
    school graduates.  DMDC found that roughly half the males took one
    or two technical education classes, whereas only 20 percent of the
    females took that many courses.  About 40 percent of the males and
    80 percent of the females took no technical education courses at
    all.  Less than 2 percent of the women took automobile/machine
    shop compared to almost 19 percent of the men.  In addition, less
    than 1 percent of the women took electricity/electronics courses
    compared to almost 10 percent of the men. DMDC concluded that the
    difference in the exposure to the subject matter affected the
    scores on the technical sections of the ASVAB, not the aptitude of
    the test taker.  For example, one section tests knowledge on
    automobile mechanics.  A person who has not been exposed to the
    principles of automobile mechanics would most likely not do well
    on the test.  The study concluded that women have generally not
    excelled on the technical sections since many have not taken
    classes such as automobile mechanics in high school.  Officials
    from the services we spoke with had varying opinions on this
    issue.  Some officials thought it was acceptable that the ASVAB
    technical sections focused on exposure rather than aptitude.  They
    stated that because people were not interested enough in the
    subject to study it in school, they would not be interested in
    pursuing a job in that field.  Others thought that people should
    be given the chance if they have an aptitude in that subject
    matter. Marine Corps officials stated that they encouraged women
    to go into more nontraditional occupations a few years ago and
    that they are now analyzing the attrition rates of women in these
    occupations.  Preliminary results indicate that the attrition
    rates are much higher for women than men in these nontraditional
    occupations.  If the final results show that women in more
    nontraditional occupations are leaving the Marine Corps at higher
    rates than others, the Marine Corps may abandon its attempt to
    encourage women to enter these occupations and instead assign
    women to occupations of their choice as long as they are
    qualified.  In addition, the Congressional Research Service
    reported that DOD studies have shown that enlisted women have much
    higher rates of retention when they are assigned jobs in the
    administrative, clerical, medical, and dental 7Item Evaluation for
    the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Science and
    Technical Test Specifications: Conduct Exposure to Content
    Analysis, DMDC, December 1997. Page 31
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 occupations and lower
    retention rates in mechanical and electrical equipment
    occupations.8 Recognizing the shortcomings of the ASVAB, DMDC
    officials stated that they were working on a new section of the
    ASVAB that focuses more on aptitude and less on exposure to
    subject matter.  This section--assembling objects--has been found
    to narrow the difference in scores between the genders.  The
    section needs to be validated, however, before it will be used to
    assign recruits to occupations.  This validation will determine
    whether people that score high on this new section would do well
    in the corresponding occupations.  If this happens, the new
    section will replace the mechanical comprehension section.  This
    validation will take at least a year or two to conduct.  To do
    this validation, the services are administering this section of
    the test but not using it in assignment selections.  People who
    score high on the mechanical comprehension and assembling objects
    sections should do well in the corresponding occupation, assuming
    the assembling objects section is valid.  However, because
    assignment decisions are not being made using the new section, it
    will not be known how well recruits would do if they scored high
    on assembling objects, but low on mechanical comprehension because
    they would not be placed in mechanical occupations. Agency
    Comments    We provided a draft of this report to the Office of
    the Secretary of Defense, the Army, the Air Force, the Marine
    Corps, and the Navy.  The Office of the Secretary of Defense and
    the military services orally concurred with information presented
    in the report.  Additionally, the military services provided
    technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate. Scope
    and          To determine what occupations women are working in,
    we obtained Methodology        occupational data from DMDC for
    fiscal years 1990 through 1998 for all four services.  We compared
    these data to similar data provided by the services to determine
    if the DMDC data were correct.  The Army data provided by DMDC
    could not be reconciled with Army-provided data because DMDC did
    not appear to be using the Army occupational classification
    system.  Consequently, we used Army-provided data instead of DMDC
    data for the Army only.  However, the Army could only provide
    8Women in Armed Forces, Burrelli, David F., Congressional Research
    Service, updated February 2, 1998 Page 32
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 data since fiscal year
    1992.  We judged this to be sufficient since it predated the
    legislative and policy changes of fiscal years 1993 and 1994.  We
    also obtained data for men from the same sources for the same
    periods of time. We analyzed these data in two ways.  First, we
    compared the occupations women occupied in fiscal year 1990 (1992
    for the Army) to those in fiscal year 1998.  We compared
    percentages rather than absolute numbers to reduce the effects of
    downsizing on our analysis.  Next, we analyzed which occupations
    had a high percentage of women.  This could differ greatly from
    the first analysis because an occupation may not have many slots
    to affect the overall numbers, but a large percentage of women may
    be in that occupation.  For example, 14 percent of all Air Force
    enlisted personnel in fiscal year 1990 were women, however, over
    half of Air Force enlisted paralegals were women during this same
    year.  But, less than 1 percent of all women were in the paralegal
    occupation because of the small number of slots in that
    occupation.  For both of these analyses, we identified the top 10
    or so occupations women were in for fiscal years 1990, 1998, or
    both for each service.  Oftentimes, the occupations were the same
    for both fiscal years.  We selected these occupations to compare
    for fiscal years 1990 and 1998.  To determine what occupations
    women fill in the civilian sector, we analyzed Bureau of Labor
    statistics data and discussed these issues with officials from the
    Department of Labor Women's Bureau and with a sociologist who had
    studied women's issues in the military and civilian sectors. To
    ascertain whether any systemic barriers inhibit women from
    entering occupations, we interviewed officials dealing with
    women's affairs from the four services and officials responsible
    for determining the occupational needs of the four services.  To
    determine how the services assign women to occupations, we
    interviewed job counselors from the services at the MEPS in Los
    Angeles, California.  We also met with officials from DMDC's
    Personnel Testing Division and an Office of the Secretary of
    Defense consultant who developed the ASVAB test to discuss
    possible barriers caused by that test. We performed our review
    between July 1998 and July 1999 in accordance with generally
    accepted government auditing standards. We are sending copies of
    this report to Senator Wayne Allard, Chairman, and Senator Max
    Cleland, Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Military
    Personnel, Senate Committee on Armed Services, as well as Page 33
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Representative Steve
    Buyer, Chairman, and Representative Neil Abercrombie, Ranking
    Minority Member, Subcommittee on Military Personnel, House
    Committee on Armed Services.  We are also sending copies to the
    Honorable William S. Cohen, Secretary of Defense; the Honorable
    Lewis Caldera, Secretary of the Army; the Honorable John H.
    Dalton, Secretary of the Navy; the Honorable F. Whitten Peters,
    Secretary of the Air Force; and General James L. Jones, Commandant
    of the Marine Corps.  We will also make copies available to other
    interested parties. If you or your staff have any questions
    concerning this report, please contact me on (202) 512-5140.
    Major contributors to this report were Carol R. Schuster, William
    E. Beusse, Cheryl L. Gordon, and Carole F. Coffey. Sincerely
    yours, Norman J. Rabkin Director, National Security Preparedness
    Issues Page 34                                         GAO/NSIAD-
    99-212 Gender Issues Page 35    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues
    Contents Letter
    1 Appendix I
    40 Military Occupations Opened to Women in the Early 1990s, by
    Service Appendix II
    43 Occupations With the Greatest Percentages of Women When
    Compared to Men Figures                  Figure 1:  Occupational
    Distribution of Enlisted Women, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years 1990
    and 1998                                            6 Figure 2:
    Occupational Distribution of Female Officers, DOD-Wide, During
    Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
    7 Figure 3:  Distribution of Enlisted Women in Navy Occupations in
    Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
    9 Figure 4:  Distribution of Female Officers in Navy Career Fields
    in Fiscal Year 1990 and Fiscal Year 1998
    11 Figure 5:  Increase in the Number of Navy Women in Occupations
    Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
    12 Figure 6:  Distribution of Enlisted Women in Marine Corps
    Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
    14 Figure 7:  Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps
    Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
    15 Figure 8:  Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps
    Enlisted and Officers in Ground Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal
    Years 1993 Through 1998
    17 Figure 9:  Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps
    Enlisted and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed,
    Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
    18 Page 36                                         GAO/NSIAD-99-
    212 Gender Issues Contents Figure 10:  Increase in the Number of
    Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Selected Aviation
    Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
    19 Figure 11:  Distribution of Enlisted Women in Air Force
    Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
    21 Figure 12:  Distribution of Female Officers in Air Force
    Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998.
    22 Figure 13:  Increase in the Number of Women in Air Force Jobs
    Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
    23 Figure 14:  Distribution of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations
    in Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998
    25 Figure 15:  Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations
    in Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998
    26 Figure 16:  Increase in the Number of Women in Army Jobs
    Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
    27 Figure II.1:  Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of
    Enlisted Women 43 Figure II.2:  Navy Occupations With High
    Concentrations of Female Officers 45 Figure II.3:  Marine Corps
    Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women
    46 Figure II.4:  Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations
    of Female Officers
    47 Figure II.5:  Air Force Occupations With High Concentrations of
    Enlisted Women 48 Figure II.6:  Air Force Occupations With High
    Concentrations of Female Officers 49 Figure II.7:  Army
    Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women 50 Figure
    II.8:  Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
    Officers 51 Page 37
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Contents Abbreviations ANC
    Army Nurse Corps ASVAB       Armed Services Vocational Aptitude
    Battery DMDC        Defense Manpower Data Center DOD
    Department of Defense JAG         Judge Advocate General MEPS
    Military Entrance Processing Stations URL         Unrestricted
    Line Officers Page 38
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Page 39    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender
    Issues Appendix I Military Occupations Opened to Women in the
    Early 1990s, by Service
    Appendix I Navy                          Aviation boatswain mate-
    launching and recovery equipment Aviation antisubmarine warfare
    officer Electronics warfare technician Fire controlman Gunner's
    mate, guns Gunner's mate, missiles Gas turbine systems technician,
    electrical Gas turbine systems technician, mechanical Sonar
    technician, surface Marine Corps Opened Prior to January
    Ground nuclear weapons assembly technician 1994
    Cryptologic linguist (Middle East) Ground nuclear weapons assembly
    officer Ground launched missile system maintenance officer HAWK
    missile systems technician Aviation fire control repairer Aviation
    fire control technician Aircraft flight engineer, KC-130 Antiair
    warfare officer HAWK missile system operator Aerial navigator
    trainee First navigator Aerial navigation officer Airborne radio
    operator/loadmaster Pilot/naval flight officer Opened After
    October 1994  Embarkation officer Based on New Assignment
    Landing support specialist Policy                        Air
    delivery specialist Engineer officer Combat engineer Explosive
    ordnance disposal officer Explosive ordnance disposal tech
    Aircraft mechanic, AV-8 Aircraft hydraulic pneumatic mechanic, AV-
    8 Page 40                                        GAO/NSIAD-99-212
    Gender Issues Appendix I Military Occupations Opened to Women in
    the Early 1990s, by Service Helicopter mechanic trainee Helicopter
    mechanic, CH-46 Helicopter mechanic, CH-53 Helicopter mechanic,
    U/AH-1 Helicopter mechanic, MV-22 Helicopter maintenance chief
    Helicopter power plants mechanic, MV-22 Aircraft power plants test
    cell operator, rotary wing Helicopter airframe mechanic trainee
    Helicopter airframe mechanic, U/AH-1 Helicopter airframe mechanic,
    MV-22 Presidential support specialist Helicopter crew chief, CH-46
    Helicopter crew chief, CH-53 Helicopter crew chief, UH-1N
    Helicopter crew chief, MV-22 Aircraft communication, Navy system
    technician, AV-8 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system
    technician, CH-46 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system
    technician, CH-53 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic, weapons
    system technician, U/AH-1 Aircraft electronic system technician,
    AV-8 Air support control officer Air support operations operator
    Marine Corps security force cadre trainer Air Force    Fighter
    pilot Fighter navigator Bomber pilot Bomber navigator Surveillance
    reconnaissance pilot Surveillance reconnaissance navigator Sensor
    operator Army         Engineer bridge crewmember Combat engineer
    senior sergeant Field artillery surveyor OH-58A/C scout pilot OH-
    58D pilot Page 41
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix I Military Occupations
    Opened to Women in the Early 1990s, by Service AH-64 attack pilot
    AH-1 attack pilot Page 42
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men
    Appendix II Navy
    The occupations in the Navy with the greatest percentage of
    enlisted women when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998
    are shown in figure II.1.  Although women represented 9.8 percent
    of the Navy's enlisted force in 1990 and 12.8 percent in fiscal
    year 1998, women represented a significant percent of the
    personnel in occupations such as cryptology, air traffic control,
    and communications. Figure II.1:  Navy Occupations With High
    Concentrations of Enlisted Women 30            Percentage 25 20 15
    10 5 0 ol                                     y Media
    ology/                                       ence yptology Cr
    Health care                         unications
    Meteor                                Intellig Administration
    General detail                        Master at arms
    Data systems Comm                             Air traffic contr
    oceanograph 1990 1998 Source:  Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC)
    data. Page 43
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men The occupations
    that had high concentrations of women officers when compared to
    men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.2.  In
    fiscal year 1990, women constituted 10.8 percent of all officers;
    in fiscal year 1998 they constituted 14.1 percent.  During these 2
    years, women officers constituted a vast majority of the nurse
    corps and special duty fleet support.  Other occupations with high
    concentrations of women included special duty public affairs, the
    judge advocate general corps (JAG), the medical corps, and medical
    services corps. Page 44
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Figure II.2:
    Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers 100
    Percentage 80 60 40 20 0 t ses
    Data                                        s
    y vices                                              holar Nur
    eneral
    ocate corps               v
    ence ospective
    general
    surface Special duty             ocessing pr            Pr
    lic affair                                       e ad
    yptology Special duty
    unications, Special duty cr
    Special duty corps g           fleet suppor
    ogram (Med)    Medical corps    Special duty
    intellig G corps officer       pub
    Judg                         Health sc pr
    oceanograph JA                                       Medical ser
    Comm 1990 1998 Source:  DMDC data. Marine Corps
    The occupations that had high percentages of women enlisted in the
    Marine Corps when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998
    are shown in figure II.3.  In fiscal year 1990, 4.9 percent of the
    Marine Corps enlisted force were women.  In fiscal year 1998, 5.7
    percent of the force were women.  During both years, women were in
    a significant portion of some occupations, including public
    affairs and legal services. Page 45
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Figure II.3:
    Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted
    Women 30 Percentage 25 20 15 10 5 a
    a 0 s
    ,                   y
    y t vices                     Music
    Traffic ement      Suppl lic affair
    finance
    g sonnel and
    ormation suppor
    oduction Pub
    r                         udit,
    Printing and Legal ser             Miscellaneous             Pe
    A                                            raining/visual inf
    mana                                      repr
    Data systems administration                               viations
    suppl      T and accounting     A
    administration and operations 1990 1998 aJob classification did
    not exist during this fiscal year. Source: DMDC data. The Marine
    Corps occupations that had high percentages of female officers
    when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in
    figure II.4.  In fiscal year 1990, 3.4 percent of the officers
    were women; in fiscal year 1998, 4.8 percent of the Marine Corps
    officers were women.  In both years, personnel and administration;
    auditing, finance, and accounting; and public affairs had a large
    percentage of women. Page 46
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Figure II.4:
    Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
    Officers 30     Percentage 25 20 15 10 5 a 0 , lic  s
    t                                                           ol/ t/
    ol/ w Data                                                 ence/
    craft Pub
    Legal affair                                                Motor
    vices
    onic finance
    General
    Air ser             Logistics     Computer/         systems
    warfare rsonnel and                            transpor
    Air contr vice marine        air suppor
    unications Pe                     udit,
    maintenance administration A and accounting
    y administration and operations      ser
    antiair warfare                                   comm
    Air traffic contr             ound electr Signals intellig gr
    enlisted flight cre Suppl 1990 1998 aJob classification did not
    exist during this fiscal year. Source: DMDC data. Air Force
    The Air Force occupations with high concentrations of enlisted
    women in fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.5.  In
    fiscal years 1990 and 1998, 14 percent and 18.4 percent of the
    enlisted personnel, respectively were women.  In both years, more
    than half of the personnel in the Page 47
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men paralegal
    occupation were women and more than one-third of the personnel in
    several health occupations as well as personnel systems and
    chaplain service support were women. Figure II.5:  Air Force
    Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women 70
    Percentage 60 50 40 30 20 10 a 0 t
    y               y                              t vices
    gical
    vice vices               vices        Dental
    vices Paralegal
    Medical                                         ement ser
    Sur ser                                      ser
    omedical      ormation g
    therap                                       suppor
    Financial Inf                                       Biomedical
    Mental health
    Aer
    Diet therap Health ser
    mana             Air operations gement suppor rsonnel systems
    Chaplain ser Pe mana 1990 1998 aJob classification did not exist
    during this fiscal year. Source:  DMDC data. Page 48
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men The Air Force
    occupations with high concentrations of female officers for fiscal
    years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.6.  In fiscal year 1990
    13.3 percent of all officers in fiscal year were women. In fiscal
    year 1998 16.7 percent of officers were women. Figure II.6:  Air
    Force Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers 80
    Percentage 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 a
    a 0 ,
    y se           A
    wer Nur
    ence clinic          vocate              Healthvices
    Suppl               tation Band/P           rsonnel
    welfare           Biomed             Biomed
    eneral
    officer Pe                         ,
    g                                           Medicine recreation
    specialist                          e ad                     ser
    Manpo                                                     Intellig
    ranspor Morale
    Judg
    T vices operations Ser 1990 1998 aJob classification did not exist
    during this fiscal year. Source: DMDC data. Page 49
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Army
    In fiscal year 1992, women were 12 percent of the Army's enlisted
    force. This percentage increased to 15.2 percent in fiscal year
    1998.  During both of these years, more than one-third of the
    personnel in administration were women and women were also highly
    concentrated in many other occupations, as shown in figure II.7
    Figure II.7:  Army Occupations With High Concentrations of
    Enlisted Women 50 Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 s
    d y andvice
    oleum    viation     Signalence                  tation     Visual
    lic affair             ser     Recor             Medical
    etr           A
    ormation Suppl              ormation
    engineer    P Pub
    opographical                                intellig
    inf Administration                                     inf
    T
    Transpor 1992 1998 Source:  Army data. Page 50
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
    Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men The Army
    occupations with high concentrations of female officers for fiscal
    years 1992 and 1998 are shown in figure II.8.  In fiscal year 1992
    13.9 percent of officers were women and in fiscal year 1998, 14.4
    percent were women.  However, during both of these fiscal years,
    the vast majority of the Army Nurse Corps were women.  In
    addition, high percentages of women officers were in adjutant
    general, medical specialist, and veterinary branches. Figure II.8:
    Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers 80
    Percent 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 y
    y ANC
    vocate                                       vice
    tation                 dnance    Signal Adjutant general
    Medical                                               eneral
    Finance    Medical            Militarpolice eterinar
    g                                ser
    Or specialist    V                        e ad
    Chemical ranspor Judg
    T 1992 1998 Source:  Army data. (703275)
    Letter                                        Page 51
    GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Ordering Information The first copy
    of each GAO report and testimony is free. Additional copies are $2
    each.  Orders should be sent to the following address, accompanied
    by a check or money order made out to the Superintendent of
    Documents, when necessary, VISA and MasterCard credit cards are
    accepted, also. Orders for 100 or more copies to be mailed to a
    single address are discounted 25 percent. Orders by mail: U.S.
    General Accounting Office P.O. Box 37050 Washington, DC  20013 or
    visit: Room 1100 700 4th St. NW (corner of 4th and G Sts. NW) U.S.
    General Accounting Office Washington, DC Orders may also be placed
    by calling (202) 512-6000 or by using fax number (202) 512-6061,
    or TDD (202) 512-2537. Each day, GAO issues a list of newly
    available reports and testimony.  To receive facsimile copies of
    the daily list or any list from the past 30 days, please call
    (202) 512-6000 using a touchtone phone.  A recorded menu will
    provide information on how to obtain these lists. For information
    on how to access GAO reports on the INTERNET, send an e-mail
    message with "info" in the body to: [email protected] or visit
    GAO's World Wide Web Home Page at: http://www.gao.gov United
    States                       Bulk Rate General Accounting Office
    Postage & Fees Paid Washington, D.C. 20548-0001            GAO
    Permit No. GI00 Official Business Penalty for Private Use $300
    Address Correction Requested PAGE 55    GAO/XXXX-98-??? NAME OF
    DOCUMENT

*** End of document. ***