Gender Issues: Trends in the Occupational Distribution of Military Women
(Letter Report, 09/14/1999, GAO/NSIAD-99-212).
Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the
trends in the occupational distribution of military women, focusing on:
(1) all occupations women were in during fiscal years 1990 and 1998,
particularly those with the highest percentage of women; and (2)
systemic barriers, if any, that limit women entering certain
occupations.
GAO noted that: (1) as was the case in the early 1990s, a large
percentage of military women continue to work in the areas of health
care, administration, personnel, and supply occupations; (2) however,
data suggest that military women, both enlisted and officers, are
beginning to enter more nontraditional fields such as aviation, surface
warfare, air traffic control, and field artillery; (3) while most
military occupations and career fields are open to women, GAO identified
two institutional barriers that limit the number of women going into
these occupations; (4) because of Department of Defense (DOD) and
service policies, some units are closed to women even though the units
may include occupations that are open to women; (5) as a result, the
number of women that can enter some career fields is limited; (6) the
Navy limits the number of women in medical corpsmen training because the
Navy provides corpsmen to Marine Corps units that are closed to women;
(7) the Marine Corps limits the number of women that can serve as
helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to ships
and not all Navy ships can accommodate women at this time; (8) in the
Army, some occupations may be open to women, but the number of enlisted
women or officers in those occupations is limited because many of the
job slots are in male-only units; (9) another barrier is the test used
to match enlisted personnel to occupations--the Armed Services
Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) test--which contains sections that
are based on exposure to a subject instead of aptitude; (10) for
example, one section tests knowledge of automotive components, systems,
tools, and repairs; (11) a person who has had little or no exposure to
the workings of automobiles would not likely do well on this section of
the test; (12) studies have found that women generally do not score well
on this section of the test as well as those sections that test
mechanical comprehension or electronic information because many women
have had little or no exposure to these subjects; (13) attitudes are
mixed on the impact of this type of test; (14) some officials believe
that if people have not had exposure to certain subject matter, they are
most likely not interested in that field even if they have an aptitude
for the subject matter; (15) others believe that people should be given
a chance if they have an aptitude for the subject matter; and (16) DOD
test designers are working on a new section of the ASVAB, assembling
objects, which might mitigate the technical test's effects on women's
scores.
--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------
REPORTNUM: NSIAD-99-212
TITLE: Gender Issues: Trends in the Occupational Distribution of
Military Women
DATE: 09/14/1999
SUBJECT: Women
Military policies
Military personnel
Personnel management
Employment discrimination
Ground warfare
Testing
IDENTIFIER: Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery
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United States General Accounting Office GAO Report
to the Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Readiness and
Management Support, Committee on Armed Services, U.S. Senate
September 1999 GENDER ISSUES Trends in the Occupational
Distribution of Military Women GAO/NSIAD-99-212 United States
General Accounting Office
National Security and Washington, D.C. 20548
International Affairs Division B-283056
Letter September 14, 1999 The Honorable Charles S. Robb Ranking
Minority Member Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support
Committee on Armed Services United States Senate Dear Senator
Robb: In 1993 and 1994, significant changes in legislation and
policy allowed women to fly combat aircraft, serve on combat
ships, and serve in more combat-related occupations.1 As of
September 1998, 90 percent of the services' career fields were
open to women, and 80 percent of the services' 1,425,000 positions
were open to women. The major areas closed to women include
infantry, armor, special forces/SEAL, and submarine warfare. All
are associated with ground combat, except submarine warfare, which
remains closed due to the cost of changing habitability
conditions. As you requested, we determined (1) all occupations
women were in during fiscal years 1990 and 1998, particularly
those with the highest percentage of women and (2) systemic
barriers, if any, that limit women entering certain occupations.
Results in Brief As was the case in the early
1990s, a large percentage of military women continue to work in
the areas of health care, administration, personnel, and supply
occupations. For example, in fiscal year 1998, 44 percent of
female officers were in health care professions. However, data
suggest that military women, both enlisted and officers, are
beginning to enter more nontraditional fields such as aviation,
surface warfare, air traffic control, and field artillery. For
example, the number of female Marine Corps officers that were
pilots or naval flight officers increased from zero in fiscal year
1993 (the year these occupations opened to women) to 62 in fiscal
year 1998. The 62 pilots or naval flight officers constitute over
7 percent of all female Marine Corps officers. The number of
enlisted Army women that 1The fiscal year 1992-93 National Defense
Authorization Act (P.L. 102-190, Dec. 5, 1991) lifted the ban on
the assignment of women to combat aircraft. The fiscal year 1994
National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 103-160, Nov. 30, 1993)
lifted the ban on the assignment of women to combat ships. Letter
Page 1
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 were in field artillery
increased from 32 to 122 in fiscal years 1992 and 1998,
respectively. This increase is dramatic considering that the
number of men in this occupation decreased by 26.5 percent during
this time frame. While most military occupations and career fields
are open to women,2 we identified two institutional barriers that
limit the number of women going into these occupations. First,
because of Department of Defense (DOD) and service policies, some
units are closed to women even though the units may include
occupations that are open to women. As a result, the number of
women that can enter some career fields is limited. For example,
the Navy limits the number of enlisted women in its nuclear
training program because women cannot serve on submarines. The
Navy also limits the number of women in medical corpsmen training
because the Navy provides corpsmen to Marine Corps units that are
closed to women. The Marine Corps limits the number of enlisted
women that can serve as helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters
are often assigned to ships and not all Navy ships can accommodate
enlisted women at this time. In the Army, some occupations may be
open to women, but the number of enlisted women or officers in
those occupations is limited because many of the job slots are in
male-only units. For example, a woman may be qualified as an
administrative specialist but is not allowed to fill that position
if the job is in a unit, such as infantry, that is closed to
women. Only a handful of Air Force occupations are closed or
restricted to women due to DOD's assignment policies. Another
barrier is the test used to match enlisted personnel to
occupations-the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)
test-which contains sections that are based on exposure to a
subject instead of aptitude. For example, one section tests
knowledge of automotive components, systems, tools, and repairs.
A person who has had little or no exposure to the workings of
automobiles would not likely do well on this section of the test.
Studies have found that women generally do not score well on this
section of the test as well as those sections that test mechanical
comprehension or electronic information because many women have
had little or no exposure to these subjects. Attitudes are mixed
on the impact of this type of test. Some officials believe that
if people have not had exposure to certain subject matter, they
are most likely not interested in that field even if they have an
aptitude for 2Gender Issues Information on DOD's Assignment Policy
and Direct Ground Combat Definition (GAO/NSIAD-99-7, Oct.19,
1998). Letter Page 2
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 the subject matter.
Others believe that people should be given a chance if they have
an aptitude for the subject matter. DOD test designers are
currently working on a new section of the ASVAB, assembling
objects, which might mitigate the technical test's effects on
women's scores. Background The Persian Gulf War saw the
largest deployment of women in U.S. military history.
Approximately 41,000 women were deployed, or 7 percent of the
total deployed force. Partly because of women's performance in
the war, legislative restrictions on women's occupations were
lifted. In 1991, Congress repealed the restriction on women
flying in combat roles, and DOD implemented this change in 1993.
In November 1993, Congress lifted the ban on the assignment of
women to combat ships. In January 1994, the Secretary of Defense
announced a new assignment policy for women. This policy states
that "servicemembers are eligible to be assigned to all positions
for which they are qualified, except that women shall be excluded
from assignment to units below the brigade level whose primary
mission is to engage in direct combat on the ground." In addition
to this direct ground combat exclusion, the Secretary also
permitted the services to close positions to women if (1) the
units and positions were required to physically collocate and
remain with direct ground combat units, (2) the service secretary
attests that the cost of providing appropriate living space for
women is prohibitive, (3) the units are engaged in special
operations missions, or (4) job-related physical requirements
would exclude the vast majority of women. No jobs are closed to
women because of job-related physical requirements. As a result of
these policy changes, many of the occupations previously closed to
women are now open to them. These changes have meant that in the
Air Force, women can fly bombers and fighters or serve as
navigators on these aircraft. In the Navy, women can fly combat
aircraft and serve on most combat ships, except submarines. In
the Marine Corps and the Army, women are now allowed in
occupations such as explosive ordnance disposal technician and
field artillery surveyor that had been closed for years. Appendix
I provides a list of occupations opened to women since the early
1990s. Although these occupations were opened to women,
servicemembers cannot laterally transfer into occupations without
undergoing retraining. Generally, women could enter these newly
opened occupations only when they first entered into the military.
Job assignments for enlisted members of the armed forces are
generally made at the Military Entrance Processing Stations
(MEPS). MEPS officials Page 3
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 administer the ASVAB test
to determine whether a recruit is qualified for enlistment and the
military job occupations for which the recruit is qualified. The
ASVAB test contains 10 sections: general science, arithmetic
reasoning, word knowledge, paragraph comprehension, numerical
operations, coding speed, auto and shop information, mathematics
knowledge, mechanical comprehension, and electronics information.
Using the recruit's ASVAB scores, along with other factors such as
strength, physical health, and moral character, the services' job
counselors determine what entry-level occupations the recruit is
eligible for based on the apparent strengths of the individual and
the services' needs at that time. The recruit decides what
occupation appeals to him or her from those that are available.
Job assignments for officers vary by service. In general,
however, all the services match the officers' preferences with the
open occupations. The Air Force classifies officers based on
their preferences and the needs of the Air Force. Factors
considered are college major and other academic endeavors, for
example, a concentration in languages or math. All the services,
except for the Marine Corps, give top-ranking graduates of the
service academies priority in selecting occupations. Occupations
of Women As was the case in the early 1990s, a significant number
of officers and in the Military enlisted women
continue to be concentrated in the health care, administration,
personnel, and supply occupations. However, the number of women
going into more technical or combat-related fields is increasing.
While this is true for all of the services, the Marine Corps
officers had the most dramatic growth of women in technical
fields. The following sections contain figures that show the
percentage of all women, DOD-wide and by service, that were
assigned in occupations in fiscal year 1990 (fiscal year 1992 for
the Army) and fiscal year 1998. The occupations shown for the
services are those occupations that had the most women in them in
either fiscal year 1990 (fiscal year 1992 for the Army) or 1998.
Oftentimes, these occupations were the same for both fiscal years,
with one or two unique occupations for each year. These figures
show that the percentage of women in most of the career fields we
analyzed remained fairly stable between fiscal years 1990 (fiscal
year 1992 for the Army) and 1998 for DOD-wide and for the four
services. These figures do not necessarily highlight those
occupations with fewer positions, but a high number of women when
compared to men. In contrast, appendix II details, by service,
the occupations with the greatest Page 4
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 percentage of women when
compared to men. Appendix II also shows the information for those
occupations that had the highest proportion of women when compared
to men for one or both fiscal years. DOD-Wide According to data
from the Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC), which collects
occupational data from all four services and converts the data
into a standardized, DOD-wide occupational classification, in
fiscal years 1990 and 1998, enlisted women served predominantly in
the functional support and administration occupational area (see
fig. 1). This area includes such occupational areas as personnel,
recruiting and counseling, law, supply administration, auditing
and accounting, and general administration. Another occupational
area that had a high concentration of enlisted women in both
fiscal years was the medical and dental specialist area. Page 5
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 1: Occupational
Distribution of Enlisted Women, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years 1990
and 1998 40 Percent 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 s
s ws, t and
s onic dental vice and
ence
Other hanical Functional Medical and Ser y
handler unications Electrical/
Electr , gun cre
Craftsmen suppor specialists
repairer specialists mec
Other allied equipment repairer equipment
y specialists specialists administration
suppl Command intellig
and seamanship Infantr 1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. As shown in
figure 2, over 40 percent of female officers were in health care
occupations during fiscal years 1990 and 1998. The next highest
concentration of female officers was in administration, which
includes occupations in general administration, manpower and
personnel, comptrollers, data processing, information, police, and
morale and welfare. By fiscal year 1998, 2 percent of women were
general/flag officers or executives compared to 0 percent in
fiscal year 1990. In addition to general Page 6
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 and flag officers, this
category includes senior officers, such as colonels, that have
command duties. Examples of positions are operating forces
command commander, judge advocate colonel, and operations
commander. In addition, the number of women increased in the
tactical operations area, which includes occupations such as
pilots, aircraft crews, ground and naval arms officers, and
missiles and weapons officers. Figure 2: Occupational
Distribution of Female Officers, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years
1990 and 1998 50 Percent 40 30 20 10 0 y,
g and ence Suppl
s and Other Health care Engineering
Intellig essionals General/flaxecutives
Administration
Scientists and of pr officere and maintenance
ocurement, pr allied operations Tactical operations 1990 1998
Source: DMDC data. Page 7
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Navy In both fiscal
years 1990 and 1998, the "general detail" occupation had more
enlisted women than any other occupation in the Navy (see fig. 3).
The "general detail" occupation encompasses the apprenticeship
level for seaman, airman, and fireman. Typically, only junior
enlisted sailors are in this occupation. Enlisted sailors are
assigned to this occupation if they are unsure about what
occupation they want to pursue in the Navy, if their test scores
do not qualify them for a particular occupation, or if the
occupations they want have no openings when they enlist. Sailors
are assigned to an occupation from the general detail occupation
when one becomes available that fits their abilities, interests,
and needs of the Navy. The health care occupation continues to
have a high concentration of enlisted women. In fiscal year 1990,
13 percent of the Navy's enlisted women were in health care; in
fiscal year 1998, about 16 percent of the enlisted women were in
these occupations. These occupations include hospital corpsmen,
dental technicians, and laboratory technicians. Page 8
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 3: Distribution of
Enlisted Women in Navy Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
25 Percent 20 15 10 5 0 ol Ship General detail
viation Marine
Logistics A
yptology Health care
weapons unications Cr
Remaining Administration maintenance/
engineering eapons contr maintenance Data systems
occupations Comm W
1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. In fiscal year 1998, the Navy nurse
corps had more women than any other community (see fig. 4).
Twenty-eight percent of female officers in the Navy were in the
nurse corps compared to about 29 percent in fiscal year 1990.
However, the nurse corps did not have the highest concentration of
women in fiscal year 1990-special duty fleet support did.3 Women
in this 3In fiscal year 1990, special duty fleet support was
called unrestricted line officers (URL). Page 9
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 community serve in billets
such as information systems management, communications, personnel
administration, and recruiting. In 1990, 31 percent of female
officers were in special duty fleet support. This percentage
decreased to 15.4 percent in fiscal year 1998. Figure 4 also shows
that a growing percentage of women are going into the surface
warfare occupation. Officers in this occupation serve on
destroyers, aircraft carriers, and other surface ships in a
variety of positions. In fiscal year 1990, nearly 3 percent of
female officers served in the surface warfare occupation. By
fiscal year 1998, this percentage had increased to 8 percent due
in part to the 1994 repeal of the law prohibiting women from
serving on combat ships. Page 10
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 4: Distribution of
Female Officers in Navy Career Fields in Fiscal Year 1990 and
Fiscal Year 1998 35 Percent 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 t
vice
vocate pilot ence
eneral corps
Surface y corps
eneral
corps g
warfare g
ses corps
e ad Special duty
Dental corps
Remaining Special duty fleet suppor
Suppl
intellig Nur
Medical corps
occupations Medical ser
Judg Fighter/bomber
Civil engineering 1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. As figure 5 shows,
the Navy's enlisted women have made gains in specific jobs that
were previously closed to them. The number of women in the fire
controlman job increased from zero in fiscal year 1993 to 266 in
fiscal year 1998. The number of women in the sonar technician,
surface job also increased from zero in fiscal year 1993 to 345 in
fiscal year 1998. Page 11
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 5: Increase in the
Number of Navy Women in Occupations Previously Closed to Women,
Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
1993 1994 1995 1996
1997 1998 Aviation boatsw ain mate--launching and
recovery, equipment Aviation anti-sub w arfare operator
Electronics w arfare technician Fire controlman Gas turbine system
tech, electrical Gas turbine system tech, mechanical Sonar
technician, surface Gunner's mate Source: DMDC data. Marine Corps
As figure 6 shows, the percentage of enlisted women in most of the
Marine Corps career fields we analyzed remained fairly stable
between fiscal year 1990 and 1998. However, two career
fieldspersonnel and administration and supply administration and
operations-experienced a sizeable Page 12
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 decrease in the percentage
of enlisted women, and the career field of general service marine
showed a marked increase. This career field includes a wide range
of occupations such as general service marine, basic marine with
enlistment guarantee, sergeants major and first sergeants, and
marine air ground task force planners. Most of the enlisted women
were in the basic marine with enlistment guarantee category, with
general service marine being the next highest category. These
marines' military qualifications and experience are not yet
developed to be sufficient or adequate for qualification in other
occupations. The Marine Corps assigns the general service marine
occupation to those recruits undergoing training who did not
enlist under a special enlistment program. The basic marine with
enlistment guarantee category is assigned to personnel that join
under an enlistment option program or an enlistment incentive
program. Page 13
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 6: Distribution of
Enlisted Women in Marine Corps Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990
and 1998 30 Percent 25 20 15 10 5 0 , y
t and
craft vice rsonnel Suppl
General
Air vionics
finance y police Pe
Logistics A
Remaining vice marine Operational unications
maintenance Food ser
Militar occupations administration administration
ser Motor transpor
uditing,and accounting and operations
comm
A 1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. Patterns for female officers in
the Marine Corps are similar to those for enlisted women. As
figure 7 shows, the greatest concentration of women continues to
be in the personnel and administration occupation. However, there
were an increased number of women serving as pilots and naval
flight officers and general service marines and in air control/air
support/antiair warfare occupations. In addition, the number of
women officers decreased Page 14
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 in the personnel and
administration; supply administration and operations; auditing,
finance, and accounting; and data systems occupations. Figure 7:
Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps Occupations in
Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998 25 Percent 20 15 10 5 0 ,
t val s ol/ t/
vices ence General
finance Logistics rsonnel and
Computer/ unications Pilots/na Air
contr
Intellig Remaining Pe vice
marine
air suppor Data systems
occupations administration ser
flight officer y administration and operations
Motor transpor Legal ser Auditing,and accounting comm
antiair warfare Suppl 1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. As figures 8
(ground occupations), 9, and 10 (aviation related occupation)
show, Marine Corps women have been making gains in specific jobs
that were previously closed to them, especially in the combat
engineer and pilot Page 15
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 and naval flight officer
jobs. The combat engineer job did not open to women until 1994;
however, by 1998, 36 women had this job. Even more dramatic was
the number of women that became pilots and naval flight officers.
By 1998, 62 women were pilots or flight officers. This number
constitutes over 7 percent of the Marine Corps female officers.
No women have yet been assigned to 11 recently opened jobs. These
include * explosive ordnance disposal officer; * ground nuclear
weapons assembly technician; * ground nuclear weapons assembly
officer; * ground launched missile system maintenance officer; *
aviation fire control repairer; * aviation fire control
technician; * aircraft flight engineer, KC-130; * helicopter
maintenance chief; * aircraft power plants test cell operator,
rotary wing; * presidential support specialist; and * aerial
navigation officer. Page 16
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 8: Increase in the
Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Ground Jobs
Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 40 35 30 25 20
15 10 5 0 1993 1994 1995
1996 1997 1998 Embarkation officer
Air delivery specialist Landing support specialist
Engineer officer Combat engineer
Explosive ordnance disposal technician Cryptologic linguist (M
iddle East) Source: DMDC data. Page 17
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 9: Increase in the
Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Selected
Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 70
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1993 1994 1995
1996 1997 1998 Airborne radio
operator/loadmaster Aircraft mechanic, AV-8 helicopter
mechanic Helicopter airframe mechanic
Helicopter crew chief Aircraft
communication Aircraft electronic system tech, AV-8 Source: DMDC
data. Page 18
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 10: Increase in
the Number of Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in
Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993
Through 1998 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1993 1994
1995 1996 1997 1998
Antiair warfare officer Air support control
officer HAWK missile system operator Air support
operations officer Aerial navigator trainee
First navigator Pilot/naval flight officer Source: DMDC data. Air
Force The proportion of
enlisted women serving in various Air Force occupations was
generally similar in fiscal years 1998 and 1990. Furthermore,
women were not highly concentrated in any one specific occupation.
About 10 percent of enlisted women in the Air Force were in the
information management occupation, and another 10 percent were in
the supply occupation (see fig. 11). Detailed Air Force data also
show that the number of women in technical or combat-related
occupations has increased. For Page 19
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 example, the number of
enlisted women in airborne warning communications and control
systems occupations increased from 41 in fiscal year 1990 to 108
in fiscal year 1998. Similarly, in space system operations, the
number of enlisted women increased from 26 in fiscal year 1990 to
136 in fiscal year 1998. The biggest increase was in air traffic
control, where the number of women more than tripled since fiscal
year 1990 to 727 in fiscal year 1998. Page 20
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 11: Distribution
of Enlisted Women in Air Force Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990
and 1998 50 Percent 40 30 20 10 a 0 y
ger/
t ement
vices Suppl vice
vices rsonnel police
Dental ormation g
ement Pe systems Medical ser Security
ospace Financial g
Ser Inf
unications aer
suppor Remaining mana
mana
occupations Comm
Health ser Systems mana 1990 1998 aThis category did not exist in
fiscal year 1998. Comparable data for female Air Force officers
are shown in figure 12. The greatest concentration of female Air
Force officers is in the nurse corps. As figure 12 shows, about 29
percent of the women were in the nurses' corps in fiscal year
1998, compared to almost 32 percent in fiscal year 1990. One
occupation where the number increased significantly was in the
space, astronaut, and missile occupation, which increased from 226
female Page 21
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 officers in fiscal year
1990 to 384 female officers in fiscal year 1998. While the
proportion of female pilots decreased slightly between fiscal
years 1990 and 1998, the figure remained about 3 percent. Figure
12: Distribution of Female Officers in Air Force Occupations in
Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998. 35 Percent 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 se
s/ Nur
ence
linic Pilot
vocate craft rsonnel/
ement
onaut
eneral gement
g Medicine
g Air Pe unications/
Air battle specialist
astr velopment engineer
e ad computer Intellig
Biomedical
Acquisition
Remaining mana
De visualization mana
Space/missile/ ger/Contracts
occupations Judg maintenance Comm
Biomedical c Mana 1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. Page 22
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 As figure 13 shows, Air
Force women have been entering specific jobs that were previously
closed to them. For example, the number of women that are bomber
and fighter pilots has increased as have the number of women that
have served as combat navigators. One job that women have not
entered is the sensor operator job, which opened to women in 1993.
This job requires a lateral transfer at the E-5 or E-6 level.
Figure 13: Increase in the Number of Women in Air Force Jobs
Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998 25 20
15 10 5 0 1993 1994 1995 1996
1997 1998 B om ber pilots
Fighter pilots S urveillanc e rec on pilots Bom
ber navigators Fighter navigators
Surveillance recon navigators Sensor operator Source: DMDC data.
Page 23
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Army Army enlisted
women were generally in the same occupations in fiscal year 1998
that they were in fiscal year 1992 (see fig. 14).4 The three main
occupations were administration, medicine, and supply and service.
However, the number of enlisted women has been steadily increasing
in many technical and combat-related occupations. For many of
these occupations, the numbers of women entering these occupations
were too small to affect the percentage of women in the
occupations and were included in the "remaining occupations"
category in figure 13. For example, the number of women in the
field artillery occupation increased from 32 in fiscal year 1992
to 122 in fiscal year 1998. This increase is even more dramatic
considering that the number of men decreased by 26.5 percent in
this occupation during this time frame. In addition, the number
of enlisted women in air defense increased from 350 in fiscal year
1992 to 546 in fiscal year 1998. The increase of enlisted women
in electronic maintenance is especially dramatic, from 45 in
fiscal year 1992 to 719 in fiscal year 1998. Other occupations
that show increases were the chemical and petroleum occupations.
The number of women in the chemical occupation increased from 596
in fiscal year 1992 to 1,058 in fiscal year 1998, while the number
of women in the petroleum occupation rose from 1,429 in fiscal
year 1992 to 2,537 in fiscal year 1998. 4Because we could not
reconcile the Army's data with DMDC `s database, we chose to use
the Army's data. However, Army officials were only able to
provide data beginning with fiscal year 1992. Page 24
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Figure 14: Distribution
of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations in Fiscal Years 1992 and
1998 25 Percent 20 15 10 5 0 y and vice
tation ence
Medical ser Signal
hanical y police Signal
oleum etr Suppl
Mec P
Administration
intellig Remaining Transpor
maintenance Militar
occupations 1992 1998 Source: Army data. In the Army, female
officers were generally in the same occupations in fiscal year
1998 that they were in fiscal year 1992 (see fig. 15). As with
the Navy and the Air Force, the highest concentration of women was
in the Army Nurse Corps (ANC). About 30 percent of female
officers were in ANC during fiscal year 1992, compared to 23
percent in fiscal year 1998. Although the percentage of women in
the engineering and aviation occupations remains small, detailed
Army data show that the number of women entering these occupations
increased. Specifically, the number of Page 25
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 women officers increased
from 210 in fiscal year 1992 to 329 in fiscal year 1998 in the
engineering branch and from 234 in fiscal year 1992 to 293 in
fiscal year 1998 in the aviation occupation. Figure 15:
Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations in Fiscal
Years 1992 and 1998 30 Percent 25 20 15 10 5 0 y Arm
vice ence Signal
ocate eneral dnance
tation y police v eneral se Corps
Adjutant g Or termaster
g Engineer Intellig
e ad Remaining Nur
Medical corps
ranspor Militar
occupations Medical ser
Quar T
Judg Medical specialist 1992 1998 Source:
Army data. In 1994, the Army opened new jobs to enlisted women and
female warrant officers. As figure 16 shows, Army women have
entered some of these Page 26
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 specific jobs in dramatic
fashion. For example, the job of field artillery surveyor had 68
women in fiscal year 1998 and the number of female engineer bridge
crewmembers reached 50 in fiscal year 1998. One job, combat
engineer senior sergeant, has had no women in it since it was
opened to women in fiscal year 1994. According to Army officials,
this job has not been open long enough for women to advance to the
rank of senior sergeant. Figure 16: Increase in the Number of
Women in Army Jobs Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993
Through 1998 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1993 1994
1995 1996 1997 1998 Engineer
bridge crewm em ber Com bat engineer senior
sergeant Field artillery surveyor OH-58
A/C scout pilot OH-58D pilot
A H-64 attack pilot A H-attack pilot Source: DMDC data. Page 27
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Civilian Women Make To
provide some perspective, we looked at the occupational
distribution of Similar Occupational civilian women.
The occupational patterns of military women are similar to those
of civilian women. Proportionally, civilian women do not work in
Choices the skilled trades, technical
occupations, or protective service occupations in the civilian
sector to the extent that men do. Women represent 46 percent of
the workforce but only about 10 percent of all workers in the
skilled trade, technical, and protective service occupations. For
example, about 2 percent of the construction workforce, 1 percent
of automobile mechanics, 2 percent of firefighters, 2 percent of
electricians, and 5 percent of truck drivers are women.5 On
average, these nontraditional jobs pay 20 to 30 percent more than
jobs women have traditionally held. An official with the
Department of Labor Women's Bureau stated that societal factors
tend to discourage women from entering these occupations.
According to the Department of Labor, women generally have less
math and science education. In addition, peer pressure from
friends and parents discourage women from entering the skilled
trades, technical occupations, and protective services. Finally,
some researchers believe that women are reluctant to enter
nontraditional occupations because women believe they are
unwelcome in these types of occupations. Institutional Barriers
Most occupations are open to women in the military. However, even
if an occupation is open to women, there are two institutional
barriers that keep more women from going into these occupations.
The first barrier is that about 115,000 positions within military
units may not be filled by women, even though an occupation is
technically open to women. For example, in the Army some
occupations are open to women, but the number of women in those
occupations is limited because many of the job slots are in male-
only units. The second institutional barrier is that the ASVAB,
the test the military uses to match women to occupations contains
sections that are based on exposure to certain subject matter
instead of aptitude. Positions Closed to Women The services
vary on why positions are closed to women. In general, the Navy
limits positions to women because some ships, such as submarines,
are closed to women. The Marine Corps generally limits positions
for women for this reason, but also limits positions to women
because they cannot engage in direct ground combat. The Army also
limits positions for 5U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Employment & Earnings, January 1999. Page 28
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 women because of this
direct ground combat assignment policy. The Air Force has the
most gender-neutral policy in assigning women to open occupations
and does not have the constraints that the other services have.
Navy The assignment of women to occupations in the Navy
is complicated by the limited number of sea positions available to
womengenerally only 10 to 20 percent of ship positions are
available for womenand the fact that some ships, such as
submarines, are closed to women. These factors have led the Navy
to limit the number of women who can enter some occupations. For
example, the Navy limits the number of enlisted women that enter
its nuclear power program because a number of these positions are
on submarines. The Navy also limits the number of women in some
of its medical fields because of the requirements to provide
medical personnel to ships that are not open to women and to
Marine Corps units not open to women. According to Navy officials,
the Navy has encouraged women to go into nontraditional
occupations because it is easier to assign women to ships when
they have a more diverse range of skills. When assigning women to
a ship, personnel detailers must consider whether the ship needs a
person with a particular skill and whether appropriate berthing is
available. If a woman's berth is available and a woman with the
required skill is available, then the assignment is easily made.
However, if a woman's berth is available but no woman with the
required skill is available, the positions may go unfilled.
Additionally, if women continue to concentrate in traditionally
female occupations, some women may not have the opportunity to
undertake career enhancing sea assignments because ships have a
limited need for their skills. This is not a problem for female
officers because the Navy does not usually have to make major
modifications to its ships to accommodate female officers. Marine
Corps Because the Marine Corps often deploys on Navy ships, it
limits the number of women in some occupations because the Navy
has not completed integrating all of its ships. For example, the
Marine Corps limits the number of enlisted women that can serve as
helicopter crew chiefs because helicopters are often assigned to
ships and not all Navy ships can accommodate enlisted women at
this time. In addition, a significant percentage of its units
remain closed to women, and women cannot fill slots in open
occupations in those units. Enlisted women below the rank of
staff sergeant are barred from approximately 25 percent of the
Marine Corps' administrative positions because these positions are
in combat units. Page 29
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Army
Army women can serve in 97 percent of officer career fields and 83
percent of enlisted occupations but can serve in less than 70
percent of the job slots because the remaining slots are in combat
units or in units that collocate with combat units. On the basis
of DOD and Army policy, women cannot serve in ground combat units
or units collocated with such units, even though they may be
qualified to fill particular occupations in those units. For
example, a woman may be qualified as an administrative specialist
but is not be allowed to fill an available position because the
job is in a combat unit. During a visit to a MEPS, a job counselor
provided us with lists of occupations that were closed to men and
women. Some occupations may be closed to both men and women
because the Army already has a sufficient number of soldiers with
those particular skills. However, 14 occupations were closed to
women but remained open to men. By necessity, the Army must limit
the number of women it trains in some occupations because a number
of units that require those occupations are closed to women. Air
Force Among the services, the Air Force has the
most gender-neutral policy in assigning women to open occupations.
The Air Force is different from the Marine Corps and the Army
because 99 percent of its positions are not associated with the
direct ground combat rule and are therefore open to women. The
Air Force is also different from the Navy in that the Air Force
needed to consider only minor changes to its equipment to
accommodate women. Barriers Due to ASVAB The ASVAB test screens
out some recruits from technical occupations because it measures
experience rather than aptitude on technical subjects. DMDC has
conducted a series of studies of the ASVAB. One study determined
that the test was a valid indicator. Recruits who score high in
certain sections of the test do well in the corresponding
occupations.6 However, the study also showed that there were
significant differences in how men and women scored on the
technical components of the test. DMDC conducted another study to
determine why these differences 6Sensitivity and Fairness of the
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Technical
Composites, DMDC, December 1992. Page 30
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 existed.7 This study
analyzed about 21,500 high school transcripts from 1990 high
school graduates. DMDC found that roughly half the males took one
or two technical education classes, whereas only 20 percent of the
females took that many courses. About 40 percent of the males and
80 percent of the females took no technical education courses at
all. Less than 2 percent of the women took automobile/machine
shop compared to almost 19 percent of the men. In addition, less
than 1 percent of the women took electricity/electronics courses
compared to almost 10 percent of the men. DMDC concluded that the
difference in the exposure to the subject matter affected the
scores on the technical sections of the ASVAB, not the aptitude of
the test taker. For example, one section tests knowledge on
automobile mechanics. A person who has not been exposed to the
principles of automobile mechanics would most likely not do well
on the test. The study concluded that women have generally not
excelled on the technical sections since many have not taken
classes such as automobile mechanics in high school. Officials
from the services we spoke with had varying opinions on this
issue. Some officials thought it was acceptable that the ASVAB
technical sections focused on exposure rather than aptitude. They
stated that because people were not interested enough in the
subject to study it in school, they would not be interested in
pursuing a job in that field. Others thought that people should
be given the chance if they have an aptitude in that subject
matter. Marine Corps officials stated that they encouraged women
to go into more nontraditional occupations a few years ago and
that they are now analyzing the attrition rates of women in these
occupations. Preliminary results indicate that the attrition
rates are much higher for women than men in these nontraditional
occupations. If the final results show that women in more
nontraditional occupations are leaving the Marine Corps at higher
rates than others, the Marine Corps may abandon its attempt to
encourage women to enter these occupations and instead assign
women to occupations of their choice as long as they are
qualified. In addition, the Congressional Research Service
reported that DOD studies have shown that enlisted women have much
higher rates of retention when they are assigned jobs in the
administrative, clerical, medical, and dental 7Item Evaluation for
the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) Science and
Technical Test Specifications: Conduct Exposure to Content
Analysis, DMDC, December 1997. Page 31
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 occupations and lower
retention rates in mechanical and electrical equipment
occupations.8 Recognizing the shortcomings of the ASVAB, DMDC
officials stated that they were working on a new section of the
ASVAB that focuses more on aptitude and less on exposure to
subject matter. This section--assembling objects--has been found
to narrow the difference in scores between the genders. The
section needs to be validated, however, before it will be used to
assign recruits to occupations. This validation will determine
whether people that score high on this new section would do well
in the corresponding occupations. If this happens, the new
section will replace the mechanical comprehension section. This
validation will take at least a year or two to conduct. To do
this validation, the services are administering this section of
the test but not using it in assignment selections. People who
score high on the mechanical comprehension and assembling objects
sections should do well in the corresponding occupation, assuming
the assembling objects section is valid. However, because
assignment decisions are not being made using the new section, it
will not be known how well recruits would do if they scored high
on assembling objects, but low on mechanical comprehension because
they would not be placed in mechanical occupations. Agency
Comments We provided a draft of this report to the Office of
the Secretary of Defense, the Army, the Air Force, the Marine
Corps, and the Navy. The Office of the Secretary of Defense and
the military services orally concurred with information presented
in the report. Additionally, the military services provided
technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate. Scope
and To determine what occupations women are working in,
we obtained Methodology occupational data from DMDC for
fiscal years 1990 through 1998 for all four services. We compared
these data to similar data provided by the services to determine
if the DMDC data were correct. The Army data provided by DMDC
could not be reconciled with Army-provided data because DMDC did
not appear to be using the Army occupational classification
system. Consequently, we used Army-provided data instead of DMDC
data for the Army only. However, the Army could only provide
8Women in Armed Forces, Burrelli, David F., Congressional Research
Service, updated February 2, 1998 Page 32
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 data since fiscal year
1992. We judged this to be sufficient since it predated the
legislative and policy changes of fiscal years 1993 and 1994. We
also obtained data for men from the same sources for the same
periods of time. We analyzed these data in two ways. First, we
compared the occupations women occupied in fiscal year 1990 (1992
for the Army) to those in fiscal year 1998. We compared
percentages rather than absolute numbers to reduce the effects of
downsizing on our analysis. Next, we analyzed which occupations
had a high percentage of women. This could differ greatly from
the first analysis because an occupation may not have many slots
to affect the overall numbers, but a large percentage of women may
be in that occupation. For example, 14 percent of all Air Force
enlisted personnel in fiscal year 1990 were women, however, over
half of Air Force enlisted paralegals were women during this same
year. But, less than 1 percent of all women were in the paralegal
occupation because of the small number of slots in that
occupation. For both of these analyses, we identified the top 10
or so occupations women were in for fiscal years 1990, 1998, or
both for each service. Oftentimes, the occupations were the same
for both fiscal years. We selected these occupations to compare
for fiscal years 1990 and 1998. To determine what occupations
women fill in the civilian sector, we analyzed Bureau of Labor
statistics data and discussed these issues with officials from the
Department of Labor Women's Bureau and with a sociologist who had
studied women's issues in the military and civilian sectors. To
ascertain whether any systemic barriers inhibit women from
entering occupations, we interviewed officials dealing with
women's affairs from the four services and officials responsible
for determining the occupational needs of the four services. To
determine how the services assign women to occupations, we
interviewed job counselors from the services at the MEPS in Los
Angeles, California. We also met with officials from DMDC's
Personnel Testing Division and an Office of the Secretary of
Defense consultant who developed the ASVAB test to discuss
possible barriers caused by that test. We performed our review
between July 1998 and July 1999 in accordance with generally
accepted government auditing standards. We are sending copies of
this report to Senator Wayne Allard, Chairman, and Senator Max
Cleland, Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Military
Personnel, Senate Committee on Armed Services, as well as Page 33
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues B-283056 Representative Steve
Buyer, Chairman, and Representative Neil Abercrombie, Ranking
Minority Member, Subcommittee on Military Personnel, House
Committee on Armed Services. We are also sending copies to the
Honorable William S. Cohen, Secretary of Defense; the Honorable
Lewis Caldera, Secretary of the Army; the Honorable John H.
Dalton, Secretary of the Navy; the Honorable F. Whitten Peters,
Secretary of the Air Force; and General James L. Jones, Commandant
of the Marine Corps. We will also make copies available to other
interested parties. If you or your staff have any questions
concerning this report, please contact me on (202) 512-5140.
Major contributors to this report were Carol R. Schuster, William
E. Beusse, Cheryl L. Gordon, and Carole F. Coffey. Sincerely
yours, Norman J. Rabkin Director, National Security Preparedness
Issues Page 34 GAO/NSIAD-
99-212 Gender Issues Page 35 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues
Contents Letter
1 Appendix I
40 Military Occupations Opened to Women in the Early 1990s, by
Service Appendix II
43 Occupations With the Greatest Percentages of Women When
Compared to Men Figures Figure 1: Occupational
Distribution of Enlisted Women, DOD-Wide, During Fiscal Years 1990
and 1998 6 Figure 2:
Occupational Distribution of Female Officers, DOD-Wide, During
Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
7 Figure 3: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Navy Occupations in
Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
9 Figure 4: Distribution of Female Officers in Navy Career Fields
in Fiscal Year 1990 and Fiscal Year 1998
11 Figure 5: Increase in the Number of Navy Women in Occupations
Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
12 Figure 6: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Marine Corps
Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
14 Figure 7: Distribution of Female Officers in Marine Corps
Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
15 Figure 8: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps
Enlisted and Officers in Ground Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal
Years 1993 Through 1998
17 Figure 9: Increase in the Number of Female Marine Corps
Enlisted and Officers in Selected Aviation Jobs Previously Closed,
Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
18 Page 36 GAO/NSIAD-99-
212 Gender Issues Contents Figure 10: Increase in the Number of
Female Marine Corps Enlisted and Officers in Selected Aviation
Jobs Previously Closed, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
19 Figure 11: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Air Force
Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998
21 Figure 12: Distribution of Female Officers in Air Force
Occupations in Fiscal Years 1990 and 1998.
22 Figure 13: Increase in the Number of Women in Air Force Jobs
Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
23 Figure 14: Distribution of Enlisted Women in Army Occupations
in Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998
25 Figure 15: Distribution of Female Officers in Army Occupations
in Fiscal Years 1992 and 1998
26 Figure 16: Increase in the Number of Women in Army Jobs
Previously Closed to Women, Fiscal Years 1993 Through 1998
27 Figure II.1: Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of
Enlisted Women 43 Figure II.2: Navy Occupations With High
Concentrations of Female Officers 45 Figure II.3: Marine Corps
Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women
46 Figure II.4: Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations
of Female Officers
47 Figure II.5: Air Force Occupations With High Concentrations of
Enlisted Women 48 Figure II.6: Air Force Occupations With High
Concentrations of Female Officers 49 Figure II.7: Army
Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women 50 Figure
II.8: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
Officers 51 Page 37
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Contents Abbreviations ANC
Army Nurse Corps ASVAB Armed Services Vocational Aptitude
Battery DMDC Defense Manpower Data Center DOD
Department of Defense JAG Judge Advocate General MEPS
Military Entrance Processing Stations URL Unrestricted
Line Officers Page 38
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Page 39 GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender
Issues Appendix I Military Occupations Opened to Women in the
Early 1990s, by Service
Appendix I Navy Aviation boatswain mate-
launching and recovery equipment Aviation antisubmarine warfare
officer Electronics warfare technician Fire controlman Gunner's
mate, guns Gunner's mate, missiles Gas turbine systems technician,
electrical Gas turbine systems technician, mechanical Sonar
technician, surface Marine Corps Opened Prior to January
Ground nuclear weapons assembly technician 1994
Cryptologic linguist (Middle East) Ground nuclear weapons assembly
officer Ground launched missile system maintenance officer HAWK
missile systems technician Aviation fire control repairer Aviation
fire control technician Aircraft flight engineer, KC-130 Antiair
warfare officer HAWK missile system operator Aerial navigator
trainee First navigator Aerial navigation officer Airborne radio
operator/loadmaster Pilot/naval flight officer Opened After
October 1994 Embarkation officer Based on New Assignment
Landing support specialist Policy Air
delivery specialist Engineer officer Combat engineer Explosive
ordnance disposal officer Explosive ordnance disposal tech
Aircraft mechanic, AV-8 Aircraft hydraulic pneumatic mechanic, AV-
8 Page 40 GAO/NSIAD-99-212
Gender Issues Appendix I Military Occupations Opened to Women in
the Early 1990s, by Service Helicopter mechanic trainee Helicopter
mechanic, CH-46 Helicopter mechanic, CH-53 Helicopter mechanic,
U/AH-1 Helicopter mechanic, MV-22 Helicopter maintenance chief
Helicopter power plants mechanic, MV-22 Aircraft power plants test
cell operator, rotary wing Helicopter airframe mechanic trainee
Helicopter airframe mechanic, U/AH-1 Helicopter airframe mechanic,
MV-22 Presidential support specialist Helicopter crew chief, CH-46
Helicopter crew chief, CH-53 Helicopter crew chief, UH-1N
Helicopter crew chief, MV-22 Aircraft communication, Navy system
technician, AV-8 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system
technician, CH-46 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic system
technician, CH-53 Aircraft communication, Navy electronic, weapons
system technician, U/AH-1 Aircraft electronic system technician,
AV-8 Air support control officer Air support operations operator
Marine Corps security force cadre trainer Air Force Fighter
pilot Fighter navigator Bomber pilot Bomber navigator Surveillance
reconnaissance pilot Surveillance reconnaissance navigator Sensor
operator Army Engineer bridge crewmember Combat engineer
senior sergeant Field artillery surveyor OH-58A/C scout pilot OH-
58D pilot Page 41
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix I Military Occupations
Opened to Women in the Early 1990s, by Service AH-64 attack pilot
AH-1 attack pilot Page 42
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men
Appendix II Navy
The occupations in the Navy with the greatest percentage of
enlisted women when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998
are shown in figure II.1. Although women represented 9.8 percent
of the Navy's enlisted force in 1990 and 12.8 percent in fiscal
year 1998, women represented a significant percent of the
personnel in occupations such as cryptology, air traffic control,
and communications. Figure II.1: Navy Occupations With High
Concentrations of Enlisted Women 30 Percentage 25 20 15
10 5 0 ol y Media
ology/ ence yptology Cr
Health care unications
Meteor Intellig Administration
General detail Master at arms
Data systems Comm Air traffic contr
oceanograph 1990 1998 Source: Defense Manpower Data Center (DMDC)
data. Page 43
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men The occupations
that had high concentrations of women officers when compared to
men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.2. In
fiscal year 1990, women constituted 10.8 percent of all officers;
in fiscal year 1998 they constituted 14.1 percent. During these 2
years, women officers constituted a vast majority of the nurse
corps and special duty fleet support. Other occupations with high
concentrations of women included special duty public affairs, the
judge advocate general corps (JAG), the medical corps, and medical
services corps. Page 44
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Figure II.2:
Navy Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers 100
Percentage 80 60 40 20 0 t ses
Data s
y vices holar Nur
eneral
ocate corps v
ence ospective
general
surface Special duty ocessing pr Pr
lic affair e ad
yptology Special duty
unications, Special duty cr
Special duty corps g fleet suppor
ogram (Med) Medical corps Special duty
intellig G corps officer pub
Judg Health sc pr
oceanograph JA Medical ser
Comm 1990 1998 Source: DMDC data. Marine Corps
The occupations that had high percentages of women enlisted in the
Marine Corps when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998
are shown in figure II.3. In fiscal year 1990, 4.9 percent of the
Marine Corps enlisted force were women. In fiscal year 1998, 5.7
percent of the force were women. During both years, women were in
a significant portion of some occupations, including public
affairs and legal services. Page 45
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Figure II.3:
Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted
Women 30 Percentage 25 20 15 10 5 a
a 0 s
, y
y t vices Music
Traffic ement Suppl lic affair
finance
g sonnel and
ormation suppor
oduction Pub
r udit,
Printing and Legal ser Miscellaneous Pe
A raining/visual inf
mana repr
Data systems administration viations
suppl T and accounting A
administration and operations 1990 1998 aJob classification did
not exist during this fiscal year. Source: DMDC data. The Marine
Corps occupations that had high percentages of female officers
when compared to men for fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in
figure II.4. In fiscal year 1990, 3.4 percent of the officers
were women; in fiscal year 1998, 4.8 percent of the Marine Corps
officers were women. In both years, personnel and administration;
auditing, finance, and accounting; and public affairs had a large
percentage of women. Page 46
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Figure II.4:
Marine Corps Occupations With High Concentrations of Female
Officers 30 Percentage 25 20 15 10 5 a 0 , lic s
t ol/ t/
ol/ w Data ence/
craft Pub
Legal affair Motor
vices
onic finance
General
Air ser Logistics Computer/ systems
warfare rsonnel and transpor
Air contr vice marine air suppor
unications Pe udit,
maintenance administration A and accounting
y administration and operations ser
antiair warfare comm
Air traffic contr ound electr Signals intellig gr
enlisted flight cre Suppl 1990 1998 aJob classification did not
exist during this fiscal year. Source: DMDC data. Air Force
The Air Force occupations with high concentrations of enlisted
women in fiscal years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.5. In
fiscal years 1990 and 1998, 14 percent and 18.4 percent of the
enlisted personnel, respectively were women. In both years, more
than half of the personnel in the Page 47
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men paralegal
occupation were women and more than one-third of the personnel in
several health occupations as well as personnel systems and
chaplain service support were women. Figure II.5: Air Force
Occupations With High Concentrations of Enlisted Women 70
Percentage 60 50 40 30 20 10 a 0 t
y y t vices
gical
vice vices vices Dental
vices Paralegal
Medical ement ser
Sur ser ser
omedical ormation g
therap suppor
Financial Inf Biomedical
Mental health
Aer
Diet therap Health ser
mana Air operations gement suppor rsonnel systems
Chaplain ser Pe mana 1990 1998 aJob classification did not exist
during this fiscal year. Source: DMDC data. Page 48
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men The Air Force
occupations with high concentrations of female officers for fiscal
years 1990 and 1998 are shown in figure II.6. In fiscal year 1990
13.3 percent of all officers in fiscal year were women. In fiscal
year 1998 16.7 percent of officers were women. Figure II.6: Air
Force Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers 80
Percentage 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 a
a 0 ,
y se A
wer Nur
ence clinic vocate Healthvices
Suppl tation Band/P rsonnel
welfare Biomed Biomed
eneral
officer Pe ,
g Medicine recreation
specialist e ad ser
Manpo Intellig
ranspor Morale
Judg
T vices operations Ser 1990 1998 aJob classification did not exist
during this fiscal year. Source: DMDC data. Page 49
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men Army
In fiscal year 1992, women were 12 percent of the Army's enlisted
force. This percentage increased to 15.2 percent in fiscal year
1998. During both of these years, more than one-third of the
personnel in administration were women and women were also highly
concentrated in many other occupations, as shown in figure II.7
Figure II.7: Army Occupations With High Concentrations of
Enlisted Women 50 Percentage 40 30 20 10 0 s
d y andvice
oleum viation Signalence tation Visual
lic affair ser Recor Medical
etr A
ormation Suppl ormation
engineer P Pub
opographical intellig
inf Administration inf
T
Transpor 1992 1998 Source: Army data. Page 50
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Appendix II Occupations With the
Greatest Percentages of Women When Compared to Men The Army
occupations with high concentrations of female officers for fiscal
years 1992 and 1998 are shown in figure II.8. In fiscal year 1992
13.9 percent of officers were women and in fiscal year 1998, 14.4
percent were women. However, during both of these fiscal years,
the vast majority of the Army Nurse Corps were women. In
addition, high percentages of women officers were in adjutant
general, medical specialist, and veterinary branches. Figure II.8:
Army Occupations With High Concentrations of Female Officers 80
Percent 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 y
y ANC
vocate vice
tation dnance Signal Adjutant general
Medical eneral
Finance Medical Militarpolice eterinar
g ser
Or specialist V e ad
Chemical ranspor Judg
T 1992 1998 Source: Army data. (703275)
Letter Page 51
GAO/NSIAD-99-212 Gender Issues Ordering Information The first copy
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