Equal Opportunity: DOD Studies on Discrimination in the Military (Letter
Report, 04/07/95, GAO/NSIAD-95-103).
--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------
REPORTNUM: NSIAD-95-103
TITLE: Equal Opportunity: DOD Studies on Discrimination in the
Military
DATE: 04/07/95
SUBJECT: Sexual harassment
Racial discrimination
Sex discrimination
Military promotions
Military recruiting
Testing
Combat readiness
Military training
Minorities
Military personnel
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Cover
================================================================ COVER
Report to the Ranking Minority Member, Committee on National
Security, House of Representatives
April 1995
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY - DOD STUDIES ON
DISCRIMINATION IN THE MILITARY
GAO/NSIAD-95-103
DOD Equal Opportunity Studies
(703072)
Abbreviations
=============================================================== ABBREV
ARI - Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social
Sciences
CMEO - Command Managed Equal Opportunity
CNO - Chief of Naval Operations
CONUS - continental United States
DEOMI - Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute
DOD - Department of Defense
EO - equal opportunity
IG - Inspector General
NPRDC - Navy Personnel Research and Development Center
OSD - Office of the Secretary of Defense
ROTC - Reserve Officers Training Corps
USAF - U.S. Air Force
USAREUR - U.S. Army, Europe
USD(P&R) - Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness
USNA - U.S. Naval Academy
Letter
=============================================================== LETTER
B-260466
April 7, 1995
The Honorable Ronald V. Dellums
Ranking Minority Member
Committee on National Security
House of Representatives
Dear Mr. Dellums:
Department of Defense (DOD) policy holds that discrimination that
adversely affects persons based on race, gender, or other factors, is
counterproductive to combat readiness. You expressed concern that
inequality of treatment and opportunity is a problem in the military
and requested that we assist you in determining the scope and nature
of the problem.
In response to your request, we initiated three reviews of equal
opportunity issues. In this report, we identify studies done,
sponsored, or commissioned by DOD during the past 20 years on
discrimination in the military. We summarized but did not evaluate
the studies and, if applicable, determined the status of any
recommendations. In the other two reviews, we are examining the
services' (1) systems for handling discrimination complaints from
active-duty servicemembers and (2) efforts to detect and resolve
apparent racial and gender disparities in certain personnel
decisions. These issues will be reported on separately.
RESULTS IN BRIEF
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :1
We identified 72 studies, dating from 1974 to 1994, related to the
issue of equal opportunity in the military. We categorized the
studies, based on their content, into the areas of equal opportunity
climate, training, sexual discrimination and harassment, promotions,
discipline, and recruitment. The following are some of the general
observations made in the studies:
Blacks and women tended to hold negative perceptions regarding
equal opportunity in the military. Poor training and lack of
visible chain of command participation led to decreased emphasis
on the Army's equal opportunity program.
Racial harmony training in the Army improved effectiveness in
dealing with racial problems. Human relations training in the
Air Force seemed to give sufficient attention to
service-specific issues and applications.
Sexual harassment is a problem in all services, and efforts to
prevent it have not been totally effective. Most victims did
not take formal action because they anticipated a negative
outcome.
Performance ratings and fitness reports of women serving in the
Navy contained gender-type language that may have negatively
affected their career paths and opportunities for promotion.
When compared to their white counterparts, black servicemembers
were overrepresented in courts-martial with respect to certain
types of offenses.
White males are likely to continue to make up the majority of
servicemembers. Hispanic males will probably not increase their
representation in the military despite the relatively rapid
growth of the Hispanic population because their service
eligibility rates are lower than those of white males.
The military services reported taking complete or partial action on
26 of the 38 studies that contained recommendations. They could not
provide information on the status of the recommendations in the other
11 reports. The recommendation in one report is obsolete due to a
change in policy. In addition, the cognizant organizations could not
locate or provide copies of three reports.
MANY STUDIES ADDRESSED EQUAL
OPPORTUNITY CLIMATE ISSUES
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :2
The 72 studies that we reviewed were done by military and private
sector organizations. Thirty-two were done by the Navy (including 1
on the Marine Corps), 21 by the Army, and 7 by the Air Force. The
Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute, the DOD Inspector
General, and other DOD offices published 12 studies that addressed
DOD-wide issues. As illustrated in figure 1, over one-third of the
studies addressed equal opportunity climate issues, followed by
training, sexual discrimination and harassment, promotions,
discipline, and recruitment.
Figure 1: DOD Equal
Opportunity Studies by
Category, 1974-94
(See figure in printed
edition.)
Note: Percentages do not add to 100 percent due to rounding.
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY CLIMATE
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :3
Twenty-five of the studies that we reviewed addressed equal
opportunity climate issues. These studies examined the perceptions
that military servicemembers have about the issues of racial and
gender discrimination, sexual harassment, and the military's support
of equal opportunity programs. Most of the studies were completed by
the Army and the Navy.
Many of the studies found that white males had the most positive
perception about the equal opportunity climate and blacks the least
positive perceptions. Minorities and females generally perceived
less opportunity for advancement, promotion, and fairness in
discipline.
According to a 1994 DOD Inspector General report, evidence supported
the conclusions drawn in 86 percent of the discrimination cases
reviewed. The report found that there is no standard definition for
any type of discrimination, other than sexual harassment, within DOD.
Other studies showed that problems existed in the management of equal
opportunity programs, but the services reported that some corrective
actions had been implemented.
Fourteen of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate
services. According to the services, recommendations in 11 of these
studies had been completely implemented or were being implemented.
TRAINING
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :4
We identified 15 studies on training issues. This category includes
studies on discrimination in training for certain jobs and training
to educate military members about equal opportunity issues. The Army
and the Navy published most of these studies.
Most studies of training on equal opportunity issues were released by
the Army between 1977 and 1980. The Army's equal opportunity
training was perceived as inadequate on bases in Korea and Europe.
Racial harmony training for commanders was shown to improve skills
and effectiveness in dealing with racial problems.
The Navy studies concerning training generally addressed
discrimination in training for certain jobs and were done from 1974
to 1977. These studies indicated that minority personnel were
underrepresented in several occupations because they were unable to
pass the entry tests. The Navy conducted several research efforts to
identify methods to increase the number of minorities selected for
technical training. The results showed a disparity between blacks'
and whites' test scores, and lower selection composite scores were
recommended. A 1990 study showed that the process used to evaluate
applicants for the U.S. Naval Academy and predict aspects of their
performance was not biased against blacks.
Five of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate
services. The recommendations in only one of these studies had been
completely implemented.
SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION AND
HARASSMENT
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :5
Sexual discrimination and harassment studies accounted for 10 of the
72 studies we identified, but this issue was not specifically
addressed until 1988. Some studies examined sexual discrimination
and harassment DOD-wide, but most were conducted by and focused on
the Navy.
Overall, the studies showed that sexual harassment was a problem in
all the services, and efforts to prevent it have not been totally
effective. The typical situation was a male offender harassing a
female subordinate. Most victims did not take formal action because
they anticipated a negative outcome. Since 1992, there has been an
increase in the percentage of female officers and female enlisted
personnel in the Navy who have reported being harassed.
Five of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate
services. According to the services, the recommendations in all of
these studies had been completely implemented or were being
implemented.
PROMOTIONS
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :6
Studies addressing promotion accounted for nine of the studies we
reviewed. The Navy published most of the studies in this area. A
study showed that black males were the most underpromoted group
compared to other minority groups. Other studies showed gender bias
in the narratives of naval officer fitness reports and performance
ratings. A 1994 study showed that males were more often recommended
for promotion or command, while females were more often recommended
for a follow-on assignment.
Seven of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate
services. According to the services, recommendations in five of
these studies had been completely implemented or were being
implemented.
DISCIPLINE
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :7
Studies on discipline accounted for 7 of the 72 studies. Studies
done in the 1970s and 1980s showed no disparities in discipline rates
between blacks and whites and found no evidence that minority groups
received courts-martial or nonjudicial punishments out of proportion
to certain types of violations.
However, studies published by the Navy and the Defense Equal
Opportunity Management Institute in the 1990s showed that blacks were
overrepresented in the populations of servicemembers receiving
judicial and nonjudicial punishments. Another study showed that, in
comparison to white inmates of the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks,
incarcerated blacks had lower academic ability test scores, different
family profiles, more interpersonal problems, more prior military
discipline problems, less time in the military at the time of
incarceration, and a higher likelihood of being incarcerated for
committing a violent crime.
Five of the studies contained recommendations for the appropriate
services. According to the services, recommendations in two of these
studies had been completely implemented or were being implemented.
RECRUITMENT
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :8
Studies on recruitment accounted for 6 of the 72 studies. A 1974
Navy study showed no significant differences in the treatment of
blacks or whites during interviews for Navy assignments. A 1977
study found that women who joined the Navy placed a higher value on
service to others and were more negative than men about jobs
involving work with materials or machines. It concluded that these
values were not consistent with the jobs to which they were likely to
be assigned. In 1989, a study found that white males would probably
continue to make up the majority of servicemembers, while Hispanic
males would probably not increase their proportions because their
service eligibility rates are lower than those of white males.
Two of the studies contained recommendations for the Navy and the
Marine Corps. The Navy reported implementing the recommendations in
one of these studies.
AGENCY COMMENTS
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :9
DOD agreed with the contents of this report and suggested that we
make some minor technical revisions. We made these revisions where
appropriate. DOD noted that it did not implement all the
recommendations in the studies we identified because changes in
policies, service culture, and the equal opportunity climate do not
always make them relevant in today's military. In addition, DOD
indicated that most studies reflect the views of their authors and
not necessarily those of the organizations requesting the studies. A
copy of DOD's comments is reprinted in
appendix III.
SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
----------------------------------------------------------- Letter :10
We asked officials at the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD)
and the services for studies on equal opportunity, discrimination,
and sexual harassment conducted by OSD, the military services, or
other entities. We conducted literature searches of various DOD
databases. We contacted experts in academia and interest groups to
help identify additional studies. We also asked DOD's Director of
Military Equal Opportunity to provide a status of the recommendations
in all applicable studies. We did not evaluate the studies or the
implementation of the recommendations. Our work was done from May
1994 to February 1995 in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards.
Appendix I contains our summaries of the studies, recommendations,
and actions taken on the recommendations. Appendix II contains a
detailed discussion of our scope and methodology.
--------------------------------------------------------- Letter :10.1
We are sending copies of this letter to other appropriate
congressional committees and interested members; the Secretaries of
Defense, the Air Force, the Army, and the Navy; the Commandant of the
Marine Corps; and the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and
Readiness. Copies will also be made available to others on request.
If we can be of any further assistance to you or your staff, please
contact me on (202) 512-5140 or Albert H. Huntington, III, on (202)
512- 4140. Major contributors to this report were Colin L. Chambers
and Maria J. Santos.
Sincerely yours,
Mark E. Gebicke
Director, Military Operations
and Capabilities Issues
DOD REPORTS ON DISCRIMINATION AND
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY
=========================================================== Appendix I
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY CLIMATE
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:1
Review of Military Department Investigations of Allegations of
Discrimination by Military Personnel, by the Department of Defense
(DOD) Inspector General (IG), March 1994.
This review showed that 86 percent of the services' investigations of
military discrimination complaints reviewed found sufficient evidence
to support the conclusions drawn. The feedback to complainants
regarding the outcome of the investigations of their complaints was
documented in 65 percent of the cases reviewed, and follow-up to
measure the effectiveness of corrective action was documented in 6
percent of the cases. There are no standard definitions for any type
of discrimination, other than sexual harassment, within DOD. The
rank and experience of equal opportunity (EO) advisors may not be
commensurate with the level of assigned responsibility.
Recommendations: The Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and
Readiness (USD (P&R)) should require that complainants receive
documented feedback regarding the outcome of investigations of their
complaints. Documented follow-up should also be required to
determine the effectiveness of corrective action taken. Standard
definitions for types of discrimination should be established.
Criteria and rank qualifications for EO program positions throughout
DOD should be established.
Status of Recommendations: In July 1994, USD (P&R) reported that the
military service secretaries had taken steps to improve the
timeliness of investigations and feedback to complainants about the
resolution of investigations and to ensure that complainants are
protected from reprisals for reporting discrimination or harassment.
The Defense Equal Opportunity Council Task Force on Discrimination
and Sexual Harassment is working to establish standard definitions
for types of discrimination and harassment. The grade structure,
training, and number of those working in military EO jobs is under
review.
When We Listened, This is What We Heard
(An Analysis of the Written Comments From the 1991 Navy-wide
Personnel Survey), by Navy Personnel Research and Development Center
(NPRDC), November 1993.
The Chief of Naval Personnel commissioned the Navy-wide personnel
survey in 1990 to collect data on enlisted servicemembers' and
officers' opinions and perceptions of life in the Navy. Integrating
women into the Navy was foremost in the minds of many personnel.
Some said that women should not be assigned to ships and that women
were sometimes given preferential treatment. Sexual harassment
issues were a concern to many individuals. Some personnel saw
education as a solution to gender conflict issues.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Naval Inspector General Study of the Command Managed Equal
Opportunity (CMEO) Program, by Naval IG, May 1993.
None of the commands visited for this study had complied with the
minimum elements of the CMEO program, and disparity in support for
the program was noted. Many of the discrepancies found during the
study had been identified previously and reported in the 1988 CNO
Study Group's Report on Equal Opportunity in the Navy (see summary of
the 1988 report on p. 16). The Bureau of Personnel's lack of
effective oversight hampered implementation of the CMEO program. In
addition, the commands did not use EO program specialists effectively
in that their functions were poorly defined, their community poorly
managed, and their effectiveness is constrained by restrictions on
their time, mobility, and authority. Assessment team members were
not prepared to do convincing or reliable assessments of EO programs.
Also, the Navy's Equal Opportunity Manual lacked direction, clarity,
and simplicity.
Recommendations: Increase visibility of and accountability for the
CMEO program throughout the chain of command, including headquarters
support and oversight; design and revise Navy EO training curricula,
as necessary, to meet CMEO requirements; and ensure that effective
CMEO inspections are being done and EO program specialists are being
used to inspect and routinely monitor EO programs.
Status of Recommendations: A CMEO working group was established to
consider a draft revision of the EO manual, the EO manual was
revised, and a CMEO users' guide was issued.
Secretary of the Army Human Resources Consultants Report: CONUS
1992, by various consultants for the Secretary of the Army,
July-September 1992.
Various consultants examined and reported on the viability and health
of EO policies and programs at Army installations in the continental
United States (CONUS). At Fort Jackson, South Carolina, trainees
were concerned about the lack of minorities and females in leadership
positions. At Fort Hood, Texas, soldiers said that making EO and
sexual harassment complaints through the chain of command did not
always work and cited several reasons: lack of results from previous
complaints, the presence of a harasser in the chain of command, the
time and burden of proof required to file complaints, and the
perception that a "good old boy" system existed. Servicemembers were
sexually harassed at several installations, mainly through gestures,
language, and innuendo against females as an individual or a group.
Some soldiers said that the Army did not yet have the resolve or the
knowledge to develop a clear, understandable, and widely distributed
policy on sexual harassment.
Recommendations: Many recommendations in these studies focused on
concerns of sexual harassment in the Army.
Status of Recommendations: The Army reports that it has addressed
the concerns raised by restructuring both the regulatory guidance for
the program and the complaint process, which included reprisal
actions.
Assessment of Equal Opportunity Climate: Results of the 1989
Navy-wide Survey, by NPRDC, May 1992.
In 1989, NPRDC administered the Navy EO/sexual harassment survey to
provide Navy policymakers an accurate baseline measure of EO climate
and sexual harassment among active-duty Navy personnel. Navy
personnel as a whole had positive perceptions of the EO climate, with
white male officers consistently reporting the most positive
perceptions. The differences in EO perceptions between male and
female officers were typically larger than between male and female
enlisted personnel. Perceptions of fairness in discipline were
lowest among blacks. The perceptions of Hispanics consistently fell
between those of whites and blacks and were typically closer to those
of whites.
Recommendations: Compare the results of the 1991 survey with the
1989 survey to determine whether changes have occurred in the
perceptions of EO climate among minorities and women. Use the 1989
survey and future survey results to evaluate the effectiveness of
interventions and affirmative actions monitored under the Navy
Affirmative Action Plan to promote EO in the Navy. Using 1989 and
1991 survey results, attempt to identify factors associated with the
comparatively less positive perceptions expressed by black females.
Publicize the results of the 1989 and subsequent surveys among
active-duty Navy personnel. Use the 1989 and future survey results
to establish Navy-wide norms for EO elements used in the Command
Assessment Team EO surveys. Integrate the survey findings into the
Command Training Team instructor training and training provided by
authorized independent EO program specialists. Establish an EO
database from the 1989 survey, and combine it with future results to
track changes in EO perceptions over time.
Status of Recommendations: All Navy EO/sexual harassment survey
results were compared to those in previous surveys. Policy and
training were modified as necessary. Research was funded for fiscal
year 1995 to examine the less positive perceptions expressed by black
females. The Black Women in the Navy Study Group was convened to
address issues and propose solutions. Black females' perceptions of
Navy EO were studied, and results were distributed to Navy personnel
throughout the fleet. NPRDC established Navy-wide norms for EO
elements and incorporated them into Command Assessment Team software.
Survey findings were distributed throughout the fleet and were
included in the material used in Command Training Team indoctrination
training. NPRDC established and maintains an EO database.
The Chief of Personnel Asked, and Here Is What They Said! (An
Analysis of Written Comments From the Navy Personnel Survey 1990), by
NPRDC, March 1992.
The Chief of Naval Personnel commissioned this survey on the opinions
and perceptions held by enlisted and officer personnel about Navy
life. Women commenting on the way they were viewed and treated in
the Navy tended to be critical. Some men called for a
harassment-free environment, while others attempted to explain away
or rationalize sexual harassment. Other men expressed resentment
over double standards or favoritism, women's exploitation of the
system resulting in a climate of fear, and sexual harassment by
women. The personnel who commented on race relations disagreed on
whether the Navy had problems in this area, whether the races were
treated equally, and whether the Navy needed an EO program.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
United States Air Force Academy Cadets' Attitude and Behaviors
Regarding Sexual Harassment, Racial and Religious Discrimination, and
Alcohol Use: An Interim Report on the Cadet Social Climate Survey,
by U.S. Air Force Academy Department of Behavioral Sciences and
Leadership, 1992.
This report describes the development of the cadet social climate
survey, its initial results, and the implications for cadet education
and training. Approximately half of white cadets believed that
minorities have an unfair advantage because of affirmative action
programs, while 80 percent of black cadets disagreed. The responses
of Asian-American and Hispanic cadets were closer to those of the
black cadets. Eight percent of white cadets believed that EO
training programs were superficial, compared with 42 percent of black
cadets. Thirty-five percent of male cadets reported using racial
slurs around trusted individuals, compared to 12 percent of female
cadets. Cadets who were more racially tolerant tended to have
similar attitudes toward gender issues. Overall, female and black
cadets expressed more tolerant and accepting attitudes regarding
racial issues than did white cadets.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Secretary of the Army Human Resources Consultants Report: USAREUR
1991, by various consultants for the Secretary of the Army, October
1991.
Various consultants examined and reported on the implementation of EO
policies and programs at U.S. Army, Europe (USAREUR). The Army's
emphasis on individual preparedness with little unit training,
coupled with boredom, uncertainty about the drawdown of forces, and
fear of the unknown, tended to reinforce perceived EO shortcomings
and give rise to charges of sexual harassment. Many EO concerns
could be traced to a lack of communication regarding the downsizing
of the military forces.
Recommendations: Reiterate EO responsibilities as a priority within
all commands. Restore chain of command leadership by holding
commanders accountable for the flow of information within their
commands and enforcement of standards. Do a better job of defining
and educating the force about sexual harassment. Make every effort
to resolve factors causing stress of servicemembers related to the
drawdown. Change the perception about distrust in the IG system.
Status of Recommendations: The Army reports that it has addressed
the concerns raised. One method used was through the development of
a sexual harassment action plan, which contained initiatives and
specific actions to reinstate EO officers at various commands,
reinforce specific training objectives for problem areas, and
restructure the complaint process.
Special Assessment of Equal Opportunity, by U.S. Army IG, November
1990.
The study, which focused on racial discrimination, gender
discrimination, and sexual harassment, found that the Army does not
have a major EO problem, having made significant EO achievements
since the 1970s. EO program emphasis, however, was declining in the
Army, as evidenced by poor training, lack of visible chain of command
participation in the program and training, and the consolidation and
elimination of EO advisor positions. Minorities had a less positive
view of the EO climate in the Army than did white males. This
minority viewpoint was attributed in part to the lack of visible
actions by commanders in support of the EO program. The Army's EO
training was found to be sufficient to achieve and sustain EO
awareness.
Recommendations: The report includes 14 recommendations to enhance
EO training and visibility of EO programs, promote off-post EO
efforts, and improve sensitivity of EO matters.
Status of Recommendations: The Army implemented 11 recommendations
and did not concur with the other 3. Specifically, the Army declined
to (1) study centralized management of nominations for key officer
leadership positions at the installation or other appropriate level,
(2) revise chapter 6 of Army Regulation 600-20 to centralize the
management of nominations for key officer leadership positions at the
installation level, and (3) release the results of selection boards
by racial or ethnic category and gender.
Sex, Race, and Job Status Differences in Perceptions of Equal
Opportunity Climate, by Defense Equal Opportunity Management
Institute (DEOMI), summer 1990.
A summary of military EO climate surveys shows that whites, males,
and officers were found to have more positive feelings about the EO
climate than blacks, females, or enlisted personnel. The survey is a
measure of perceptions of the EO climate in the military, and results
may not be an accurate reflection of the equality of opportunity. A
further study of the congruence of perception scores and actual
promotion and discipline rates by race, gender, and job status would
be useful in clarifying the relationship between attitude toward EO
and the actual implementation of EO policies.
Recommendations: The report did not contain recommendations.
CNO Study Group's Report on Equal Opportunity in the Navy, by the
Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), July 1988.
The study group reviewed accessions of officer and enlisted
personnel, attrition, and other management policies and practices to
determine revisions needed to support minorities in achieving equal
opportunity. A review of the EO climate at the command level
indicated that the Navy's program was inconsistent in generating the
proper EO behavior. Navy rights and responsibilities workshops
lacked sufficient EO content and consistent presentation. The
conduct of required EO training was inconsistent, and officers did
not receive the required EO training. The excessive detail and size
of the Navy Affirmative Action Plan made it impractical for use as a
management tool. Additionally, the plan lacked the necessary
visibility to be given sufficient priority, and its oversight and
management were ineffective. The Navy's EO organization was not
fully effective at the headquarters and fleet levels.
Recommendations: Sixty-three recommendations were included to
improve the effectiveness of the Navy's command climate, CMEO
program, EO training policy, the Navy Affirmative Action Plan, and
the Navy's EO organization.
Status of Recommendations: According to the Navy, most
recommendations have been implemented although some lack
documentation. The implementation of several recommendations is in
progress.
Report Task Force on Women in the Military, by DOD Task Force on
Women in the Military, January 1988.
The task force addressed sexual harassment and quality of life for
women. It focused on the degree to which policy and its
implementation in each of the services conformed with DOD guidance.
Regarding sexual harassment, the task force found that it remained a
significant problem in all services. Institutional efforts to
prevent sexual harassment had been vigorous and sincere, but not
totally effective. Incidents involving higher command levels
appeared to be unusual, but there was still a wide variety of less
severe abuses, including sexually offensive remarks and gestures.
The lack of a uniform, DOD-wide definition of sexual harassment and
uniform assessment procedures hampered more precise documentation of
rates and types of sexual harassment.
Recommendations: Recommendations addressing sexual harassment and
quality of life issues were made to the Secretary of Defense.
Status of Recommendations: DOD's Director of Military Equal
Opportunity could not provide information on the status of these
recommendations.
Navy Study Group's Report on Progress of Women in the Navy, by CNO
Study Group, December 1987.
This study examined the assimilation of women into the naval force.
The study group found that many of the women in grades E-1 to E-3,
who constituted 23 percent of the Navy's female enlisted force, were
frustrated in their efforts to advance to the E-4 level. Some
enlisted women who had tried unsuccessfully to obtain shipboard duty
perceived that they would not be competitive with their male peers
for advancement to the E-7 through E-9 levels. Over half of the Navy
women interviewed indicated they had been victims of some form of
sexual harassment in the Navy, and nearly all those interviewed
reported observing some form of sexual harassment. The career
pattern for women in the "general unrestricted line," the largest
Navy officer community composed predominantly of women, lacked
structure and was not clearly defined.
Recommendations: Forty recommendations were made to clarify Navy
policy on women in the Navy, enhance opportunities for women at
various enlisted and officer levels, review policies affecting
pregnant women and single parents, address sexual harassment and
fraternization, and enhance the quality of life for women in the
Navy.
Status of Recommendations: The CNO convened a follow-on Navy women's
study group at the direction of the Secretary of the Navy in November
1990 to review this report, assess the current status, and evaluate
the implementation and efficacy of previous recommendations. He
directed that special emphasis be placed on the issue of sexual
harassment.
Racial/Ethnic and Gender Differences in Responses to the Human
Resource Management Survey of Personnel Assigned to the Atlantic and
Pacific Fleets, by NPRDC, January 1983.
The objectives of this study were to analyze the Navy's EO climate in
the fleet and establish baselines for future comparisons of the
perceptions of minority and majority groups. The study found that
E-1 through E-5 blacks and E-6 Filipinos were the only racial/ethnic
groups that consistently reported significantly lower perceptions of
EO than did whites. Women officers in the Pacific Fleet saw the
treatment of personnel in their commands in a more negative light and
reported lower motivation and satisfaction than did the men.
Recommendations: NPRDC recommended that human resource management
personnel be made aware of the stable patterns found in this and
earlier racial/ethnic and gender analyses of the human resource
management survey. Specific attention should be given to the
negative perceptions of non-rated blacks. Human resource management
teams should conduct focused interviews to gain greater insight into
the causes of lowered EO perceptions among specific groups.
Status of Recommendations: The Navy implemented workshops on
cultural expression and middle management actions to counter racism.
The Navy is uncertain whether focused interviews were conducted.
How Enlisted Women and Men View the Navy Organization, by NPRDC,
January 1982.
The results of this study replicated those of a 1976 study (see
Differential Perceptions of Organizational Climate Held by Navy
Enlisted Women and Men on p. 22). The study showed that although
women were initially optimistic, their perceptions of the Navy were
more negative than men's as they advanced to petty officer levels.
Women at the E-4 to E-6 levels were less positive than men about peer
relations, issues related to human resources at the command level,
and the integration of personal and organizational goals. Women at
the E-4 through E-9 levels were less positive than men regarding
perceptions of supervisory adequacy and EO practices within the
command. Women showed less positive perceptions of Navy life than
they had in 1975, and men showed more positive perceptions. These
gender differences may have been related to the fact that less
emphasis was placed on organizational development in the shore
establishments, where women were concentrated.
Recommendations: NPRDC recommended that women be given accurate
information at recruitment to prevent unrealistic expectations and
ensuing disappointment. It also recommended that managers be
educated in the use of mixed-sex work groups and the supervision of
women.
Status of recommendations: To address these recommendations, the
Navy initiated workshops on women in the Navy, middle management
actions to counter racism, military rights and responsibilities, and
cultural expression in the Navy.
Measuring Institutional Discrimination in the Army: 1974-80, by Army
Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences (ARI), June
1981.
Based on computerized records of the entire Army population from 1974
through 1980, the study concludes that institutional discrimination
persisted through 1980. The study defines institutional
discrimination against minorities or women as differences that (1)
are correlated with demographic group membership, (2) result from the
normal functioning of the organization, and (3) operate to the
consistent disadvantage of minority group members or women. Blacks,
Hispanics, females, and other racial/ethnic groups were not uniformly
distributed across pay grade and occupational categories. Speed of
promotion and separation rates varied among the groups. In general,
most disparities could be interpreted as disadvantages to the
demographic groups in question. All four groups were
underrepresented in the officer grades and were not uniformly
represented across occupational categories.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
A Systems Analysis of the Navy's Equal Opportunity Program, by Booz,
Allen, and Hamilton for the Naval Military Personnel Command, August
1980.
This report analyzes the organization and management of the Navy's EO
program at the headquarters level. It describes and analyzes EO
program operations, including basic policies, organizational
structure, responsibilities, and relationships; policy development
and planning; program management and monitoring; and resources. The
report concludes that the Navy's EO program was characterized by its
complexity and visibility, the roles and responsibilities of the
program sponsor and manager needed stronger definition, and the
overall management of the headquarters program could be improved. In
addition, an overall management system or approach to the field
program needed to be developed. Existing resources were generally
adequate at the time of the study but might not be sufficient for the
future.
Recommendations: The study recommended that the Navy develop a
working definition of what constitutes the EO program. The Navy
Affirmative Action Plan should be used to improve planning for and
management of the EO program, and the Navy should be able to measure
the program for achievement of the plan's goals. The plan should be
updated annually and an analysis of the demographic data report
provided. The existing Navy instructions governing the field program
should be revised.
Status of Recommendations: The Navy did not provide information on
the status of these recommendations.
Equal Opportunity: Fourth Annual Assessment of Military Programs, by
Department of the Army, May 1980.
The report provides the status of affirmative actions as established
in the 1978 Army Affirmative Action Plan. The assessment found that
the number of blacks and women in the Army had increased since 1976.
Enrollment of minorities and women at the U.S. Military Academy
surpassed goal objectives, with the exception of the enrollment of
blacks. Results of promotion boards during fiscal year 1979 were
generally favorable for minority and women officers, although
selection rate percentages were usually lower than the Army average
for black officers. The percentage of dishonorable discharges
received by whites and non-black minorities increased during fiscal
year 1979, while the percentage for blacks decreased. The number of
discrimination complaints that the Army acted on and the percentage
of cases substantiated declined from those of fiscal year 1978.
Officers and enlisted soldiers ranked race problems among the last in
relation to other unit personnel problems.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Communication Problem Areas Between Black and White Soldiers:
1974-79, by ARI, April 1980.
ARI surveyed a random sample of 88 junior-enlisted Army soldiers,
focusing on both verbal and nonverbal communication problems between
blacks and whites. Several areas of perceived differences existed
between blacks and whites. Blacks generally appeared more aware of
areas whites viewed as communication problems than whites were of the
perceptions of blacks. It appeared that blacks were less sensitive
to certain communication behaviors of whites, while whites indicated
little change in their sensitivity to similar behaviors of blacks.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Reliability of a Measure of Institutional Discrimination Against
Minorities, by ARI, December 1979.
The study analyzes the statistical properties and general operating
characteristics of the "Difference Indicator," which was developed
under contract for the U.S. Army to measure institutional
discrimination. The indicator is a ratio of the proportion of
individuals selected for the category or dimension of interest that
belongs to the minority group to the proportion of minority group
members in the eligible population for the category. The study found
that the indicator could be of value not only for detecting and
investigating disparities between minority and majority personnel but
also for demonstrating the absence of a difference. As is the case
with any statistical procedure, the user must not make blind
application of the tool.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Perceptions of Equal Opportunity and Race Relations Among Military
Personnel, by Air Force Human Resources Laboratory, December 1976.
The study found that non-whites generally perceived less opportunity
for minority group members in most of the following areas:
promotions, duty assignments, military justice, training
opportunities, social activities, respect from superiors, housing,
perceptions of racial unrest, and opinions about race relations
training. Non-whites were more likely to place a favorable
evaluation on race relations training. Enlisted personnel were more
likely than officers to perceive less opportunity for minority group
members, more racial unrest, less improvement in race relations, and
less value in race relations training.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Changes in Black and White Perceptions of the Army's Race
Relations/Equal Opportunity Programs--1972 to 1974, by ARI, November
1976.
In 1972, ARI initiated an Army-wide survey to determine how black and
white Army personnel perceived the nature and severity of race
problems, and how they perceived EO and treatment programs then in
existence. ARI did another survey in 1974 to determine what changes,
if any, had occurred in attitudes and perceptions during the
intervening period. Overall, the perceptions of the black and white
Army personnel sampled substantially supported the proposition that
the racial situation in the Army had improved. The areas of
promotions and military justice remained the primary sources of
dissatisfaction for blacks, although significant improvement in both
areas was perceived. There was far less dissatisfaction in 1974 with
military justice than there was in 1972. Favorable perceptions of
race relations training had decreased compared with 1972. Although
the sharp cleavage in black-white perceptions and attitudes noted in
1972 was still there, a clear-cut convergence of black and white
perceptions on certain basic issues was apparent.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Differential Perceptions of Organizational Climate Held by Navy
Enlisted Women and Men, by NPRDC, August 1976.
This study analyzes data obtained from the Navy human resource
management survey and addresses the interaction of gender and pay
grade on organizational climate dimensions for a sample of shore
personnel. Results show that women had an initial tendency to
respond optimistically on the survey. However, as they advanced to
petty officer levels, they became disproportionately disillusioned on
certain dimensions, especially in the area of attitudes toward peers.
With increases in pay grade, women appeared to feel less a part of
the work group team, whereas the opposite trend was true for men.
Results are discussed in terms of the solo woman in work groups,
expectations women may have built up during recruitment and basic
training, role conflict, and possible "fear of success" in
competitive situations as women advanced in their careers.
Recommendations: NPRDC recommended that recruiters realistically
portray Navy life to women applicants to lessen disillusionment as
women move up in pay grade. A longitudinal study is necessary to
confirm whether women actually do become disenchanted as they advance
in the Navy and to determine the factors contributing to such a
process and their relationship to attrition.
Status of Recommendations: The Navy could not provide specific
information concerning action taken on these recommendations.
The Measurement of Institutional Discrimination, by ARI, August 1975.
The report explains the representation index, a method for measuring
institutional discrimination, and presents examples using data on the
representation of blacks among officers and enlisted combat
specialties. The index measures institutional discrimination as a
pattern of treatment of a subgroup of the population that persists
over time. Using this method, blacks were found to be
underrepresented among officers and overrepresented in enlisted
combat specialties. The representation index can be used to measure
the role of other minority groups in the Army and can be used in
other institutional settings as well.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Conference: After Action Report, by
Department of the Army, August 1974.
The report summarizes the major activities of the Third Worldwide
Department of the Army Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Conference
held in January 1974. The objectives of the conference were to
evaluate the effectiveness of existing EO/race relations programs and
policies, obtain feedback on problems encountered in the field, and
elicit suggestions and recommendations concerning the future
direction of the Army's EO effort. The following topics were among
those discussed: women in the Army, officer efficiency reports, the
military justice system, assignments of officers to race relations/EO
positions, the recruitment of minority officers, race relations/EO
training programs, the minority composition of the Army, functions of
the Army's Office of Equal Opportunity, and the extent to which the
Army was willing to implement and monitor race relations/EO programs.
The consensus was that although progress had been made in many areas,
much remained to be done.
Recommendations: Conference attenders studied 15 major areas of
interest and submitted 138 recommendations for improvement.
Status of Recommendations: The Army could not provide documentation
for actions taken in 1974. However, the Army reports that
policymakers considered the feedback obtained in the conference in
making revisions of regulatory guidance. In some cases, the Army
reports that other data caused it to take a different course of
action than was recommended in the study to address the concerns
raised.
TRAINING
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:2
Gender and Performance in Naval Aviation Training, by Naval Aerospace
Medical Institute, 1992.
The Defense Technical Information Center could not locate a copy of
this report.
Assessment of Differential Prediction by Race for the USNA Classes of
1986-90, by NPRDC, December 1990.
The U.S. Naval Academy (USNA) uses the Candidate Multiple, a
composite of several measures, to evaluate applicants and to predict
many aspects of academic performance. The Candidate Multiple was
evaluated using the regression model of test fairness to determine if
it is biased against blacks. The regression model states that a test
is biased for a subgroup if it consistently over- or under-predicts
the performance for members of that group. The analysis revealed a
statistically significant difference between separate prediction
systems. This difference increases prediction by only about
three-fourths of a percentage point. Thus, the use of separate
equations does not provide a meaningful improvement in the prediction
of academic performance. The evaluation found no bias against
blacks.
Recommendation: USNA should continue using a single prediction
system.
Status of Recommendation: The Navy could not provide information on
the status of this recommendation.
Review and Evaluation of Air Force Human Relations Curriculum, by
Colgate University for the Air Force, 1989.
Emphasis on issues involving racism, sexism, and sexual harassment
appeared to have declined at several key training levels. This
decline occurred during a period in which forms of bias were
increasing. Several positive aspects of present programs were noted:
the courses were broad in the issues they addressed; the treatment of
prejudice was well-grounded in psychological and sociological theory
concerning interpersonal and intergroup behavior; current Air Force
human relations education provided solid coverage of the classic
scholarly treatment of issues of prejudice and discrimination, and
sufficient attention seemed to be given to service-specific issues
and applications; and skill development was effectively integrated
with academic material.
Recommendations: Material and exercises on modern forms of racism
and sexism should be included to supplement treatment of the more
traditional forms. Modern racism and sexism should be addressed in
human relations education courses at all levels.
Status of Recommendations: The Air Force could not provide specific
information on the status of these recommendations.
Field Test of the Unit Equal Opportunity Training Diagnosis and
Assessment System, by ARI, February 1980.
ARI concluded that this system--designed to assist the company-level
commander diagnose unit-level EO problems, develop a unit EO training
program designed to reduce problems, and assess the effectiveness of
the training program--had several implementation problems. Although
the system was designed to be integrated into routine, ongoing
activities in appropriate areas inside and outside the EO operation,
it was viewed and administered as an EO function. With increased
experience in using the system, increased quality, and increased
efficiency on the part of its implementors, commanders became more
willing and likely to ask for EO staff assistance. Findings of the
field test were used to make revisions to the system.
Recommendations: The report made 12 recommendations for future
development of the system.
Status of Recommendations: The Army could not provide specific
information on the status of these recommendations.
A Second Study of Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Training in
USAREUR, by ARI, January 1979.
This study of EO training programs at USAREUR, is a follow-up to a
study conducted in 1976-77 (see An Analysis of Race Relations/Equal
Opportunity Training in USAREUR on p. 28). In general, the findings
of the earlier study were confirmed and extended. The racial climate
and unit-level EO training continued to worsen. Much of the
increasing racial tension came from whites who perceived increased
reverse discrimination. While some improvements were noted in
community-level EO training, unit-level EO training continued to
decline. Chain-of-command personnel tended to see a far more
positive race relations and EO situation than did enlisted personnel.
Although relatively infrequent, the incidence of direct physical
interracial confrontations appeared to be increasing.
Recommendations: Sixteen recommendations were made to improve the EO
program at USAREUR.
Status of Recommendations: The Army could not provide specific
information on the status of the recommendations.
Racial Harmony Training for Company Commanders: A Preliminary
Evaluation, by ARI, September 1978.
This report evaluates the effectiveness of a 3-day training course on
race relations for company commanders. Commanders exposed to the
course demonstrated greater knowledge of the facts, methods, and
skills needed to deal with interracial issues in a military unit
compared to commanders not exposed to training. Enlisted soldiers
serving under commanders from the experimental training group
reported that their commanders implemented more policies to ensure
racial harmony and that their commanders were more effective in
dealing with racial problems. It appears that the course had a
modest but positive effect on the enlisted soldiers within the
trained commanders' units. The training program, or elements from
it, could improve in a small way commanders' effectiveness and unit
harmony in race relations.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Analysis of Individual Race Relations and Equal Opportunity Training
in Army Schools, by ARI, October 1978.
The study describes and analyzes the individual race relations/EO
training given in Army Training Centers as well as in service and
professional schools. Race relations/EO training was being
implemented reluctantly in most of the schools visited. Those
responsible for its implementation were generally not convinced of
its importance, its relevance to the school's mission, or its
relevance to the jobs done by Army personnel. This lack of
conviction tended to lead to nominal support for the training, which
was attested to by its generally low priority status.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
An Analysis of the Training of Army Personnel at the Defense Race
Relations Institute, by ARI, October 1978.
The report provides an analysis of training in terms of its impact on
the trainees and its relationship to their performance in the field.
Feedback from students on Phase I of the training emphasized the need
for more non-black minority group content and training in more
practical, job-relevant skills. While graduates' assessments of
Phase II training were generally positive, they had been somewhat
mixed and indicative of the confusion and lack of coordination
associated with prior training versions. A small but substantial
minority of graduates perceived that attending training at the
institute had a negative effect on their careers, perhaps because the
training program was unpopular with higher-ranking command personnel.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Analysis and Assessment of the Army Race Relations/Equal Opportunity
Training Program: Summary Report, by ARI, July 1978.
The objectives of the study were to analyze and describe the Army's
race relations/EO training and to assess its impact. The study found
marked reductions in measures of institutional racial discrimination
in many dimensions, such as the relative speed of promotion of white
and non-white enlisted personnel. Despite the low frequency of overt
interracial violence, race-related tensions persisted and appeared to
be increasing. A new source of tension was the anger of an
increasing number of whites who saw themselves as victimized by what
they perceived as reverse discrimination. Two major problems with
race relations/EO unit training were documented in the study: not
more than half of the training required by the regulations was
actually given, and when the training was given, it was frequently of
low quality.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
An Analysis of Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Training in USAREUR,
by ARI, July 1978.
The primary objectives of this report were to describe and analyze
the race relations/EO unit training program at USAREUR, and to assess
the training's impact. Although USAREUR had more race relations/EO
training than other Army components, it was generally believed that
the unit training program was not meeting the need for race
relations/EO training. Data showed a slight improvement in the
racial climate and attitudes toward the race relations/EO program
from October 1976 to May 1977.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
An Analysis of the Unit Race Relations Training Program in the U.S.
Army, by ARI, July 1978.
The study describes how the race relations/EO unit training program
was implemented in the field and assesses its effectiveness. Despite
the infrequency of overt interracial violence, race-related tensions
persisted and may have been increasing. The unit training program
seemed to be a low priority for most company commanders. Two
seemingly contradictory trends were evident for both whites and
blacks--since 1972, an increasing percentage of both saw race
relations/EO training as effective in helping to reduce racial
tensions, while simultaneously an increasing number of both saw the
training as not effective at all. There were more positive
race-related attitudes, perceptions, knowledge, and reported
behaviors in units with higher quality training programs than in
units with lower quality programs.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
An Analysis of Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Training in Korea, by
ARI, November 1977.
The study found that the racial climate was more negative in Korea
than in the continental United States. Blacks perceived more
discrimination in Korea, and whites perceived more reverse
discrimination. Required race relations/EO seminars appeared to be
held somewhat less frequently in Korea, and the priority of the
seminars appeared to be quite low. Overall, the race relations/EO
programs in Korea appeared to be less credible and somewhat less
effective in achieving their objectives. The study suggested that
existing race relations/EO training was not adequately or effectively
helping to reduce racial tensions.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Racial Bias in Peer Ratings at ROTC Advanced Summer Camp, Fort Bragg,
1975, by ARI, October 1976.
The study examines the effects of race on stated preferences for
leaders. Cadets in the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC)
selected other cadets they wanted as leaders and cadets they did not
want as leaders. The results of the survey indicate that bias
influenced cadets' preferences for leaders. Blacks who prepared
ratings systematically over-selected black cadets as most preferred
leaders and over-selected whites as least preferred leaders. White
cadets tended to over-select whites as preferred leaders but did not
discriminate on the basis of race for least preferred leader. Black
cadets were more biased against whites than were white cadets toward
blacks.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Racial Differences in the Prediction of Class "A" School Grades, by
NPRDC, June 1975.
Since 1967, the Navy expended considerable research efforts
attempting to increase the number of educationally disadvantaged
personnel selected for technical training. Much of this effort
focused on the development of new test instruments that might be used
in conjunction with, or in place of, the Navy Basic Test Battery.
The purposes of the study were to determine whether (1) composites
that were significantly valid for black samples and did not
appreciably lower the current validity for white samples could be
identified and (2) the regression lines obtained for black and white
students indicated that lower cutoff scores should be used in
selecting minority personnel for assignments. The relationship
between test scores and technical school grades was shown to be
different for black and white personnel.
Recommendations: The study recommended lowering the selection
composite scores for seven technical courses.
Status of Recommendations: The Basic Test Battery was replaced by
the Armed Services Vocational Battery Aptitude Test for all services.
Effects of Sending Minority Personnel Classified as Non-school
Eligible to "A" School: Part I - "A" School Achievement, by NPRDC,
June 1974.
Minority personnel were disproportionately represented in several
Navy ratings. A partial explanation for this was that minority "A"
school candidates had been unable to pass entry-classification tests.
For this study, several minority students were assigned to Class "A"
school on the basis of being motivated and having test scores
slightly below the qualification standard. These students were less
effective than eligible students in meeting graduation requirements.
However, a majority of ineligible students could graduate from "A"
school with additional time in school and with special/remedial help.
The majority of ineligible students also had no disciplinary actions
and received positive ratings on personal appearance and classroom
behavior from their instructors and counselors.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION AND
HARASSMENT
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:3
Sexual Harassment in the Active-Duty Navy: Findings From the 1991
Navy-wide Survey, by NPRDC, December 1993.
Forty-four percent of female enlisted and 33 percent of female
officer respondents indicated that they had been sexually harassed
during the 1-year survey period. Eight percent of male enlisted and
2 percent of male officer respondents reported sexual harassment.
When compared to 1989 results, a statistically significant increase
was found in the percentage of female officers and male enlisted
personnel who reported being harassed. (See Assessment of Sexual
Harassment in the Navy: Results of the 1989 Navy-wide Survey on p.
32 for a summary of the 1989 survey.) In general, the patterns of the
1991 results replicated those found in the 1989 survey. Victims of
harassment tended to be overrepresented among the junior women
compared to their mid-career or senior counterparts.
African-American and Hispanic women did not report more harassment
than white women. The majority of perpetrators were men who were
either co-workers or supervisors.
Recommendations: The CNO should issue the 1991 survey findings to
commanding officers, and the findings should be integrated into
command training team instructor training, annual sexual harassment
training, and CMEO training and also be made widely available to Navy
media.
Status of Recommendations: The survey findings were distributed to
commanding officers and to EO program specialists throughout the
fleet and used in their command training team indoctrination. The
results have been made available to internal and external media. The
1991 survey results continue to be used in comparison to 1993 data.
These data will be marketed as widely as possible.
The Inspector General of the Air Force Special Management Review:
Sexual Harassment in the Active Duty Force and Air Reserve
Components, by Air Force IG, June 1993.
Interviews confirmed that sexual harassment within the Air Force
continued to exist. Females and males in the active Air Force and
the reserve components report incidence of some form of sexual
harassment in 1991 and 1992. Several factors hindered the
effectiveness of the base-level prevention and complaint program.
Recommendations: Implement procedures to provide training of the
base population. Develop a method to ensure complaint files are
complete and reports reflect incidents occurring outside formal
channels. Institute supervisor sexual harassment training. Document
individual training to allow assessment of sexual harassment
prevention. Enhance the content of sexual harassment awareness
training for the general population.
Status of recommendations: Courses and seminars on human relations
and sexual harassment have been updated to include reprisal issues.
The Air Force IG now checks on key personnel briefings of complaint
reporting responsibilities as part of its inspections. The Air Force
Instruction on Social Actions now requires social actions personnel
to brief all staff with command authority on commanders'
responsibilities and reporting requirements. The Air Force has
developed a new course for social actions personnel and implemented
it in all human relations education. Efforts are underway to develop
the capability to document all EO training in the Air Force base
level management personnel system.
Tailhook 91: Part 2 - Events at the 35th Annual Tailhook Symposium,
by DOD IG, February 1993.
This is the second of two reports regarding Tailhook 91 (see p. 33
for
part 1 of this report). Misconduct at the 1991 Tailhook Symposium
was more widespread than previously reported by the Navy. The report
identifies 90 victims of indecent assault. In addition, it documents
a number of incidents of indecent exposure, other types of sexual
misconduct, and other improprieties by Navy and Marine Corps
officers. The DOD IG referred investigative files on at least 140
officers, 30 Navy flag officers, 2 Marine Corps general officers, and
3 Navy Reserve flag officers to the Acting Secretary of the Navy for
consideration of appropriate action. The study concludes that
leaders in naval aviation, ranging from squadron commanders to flag
officers who tolerated a culture that engendered the misconduct, bore
a portion of the blame.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Assessment of Sexual Harassment in the Navy: Results of the 1989
Navy-wide Survey, by NPRDC, March 1992.
The survey found that 42 percent of female enlisted and 26 percent of
female officer respondents had been sexually harassed during the
survey period while on duty, or on base or ship while off duty. Very
small percentages of the male enlisted and male officers reported
being sexually harassed during the 1-year survey period. Generally,
as the type of harassment became more severe in nature, its reported
occurrence and frequency decreased. Victims rarely used formal
channels to report sexual harassment. Six percent of female enlisted
respondents and 1 percent of female officer respondents reported
experiencing the most serious form of sexual harassment--actual or
attempted rape or assault.
Recommendations: The Bureau of Personnel should issue the survey
findings to make commanding officers aware that sexual harassment
continues to be a significant problem, integrate the survey findings
into command training team instructor training, continue biennial
administration of the survey, integrate trends in the occurrence of
sexual harassment into the Navy Affirmative Action Plan, and continue
to include sexual harassment as a CNO special interest item for
inspections.
Status of Recommendations: The Navy reports that all recommendations
have been implemented.
Department of the Navy Sexual Harassment Survey--1991, by NPRDC,
1992.
This report summarizes the findings from a survey on the attitudes of
Navy civilian employees toward sexual harassment. It also compares
the results to those of the Navy respondents to a 1987 survey done by
the Merit Systems Protection Board. The percentages of respondents
who defined unwanted sexual behaviors as sexual harassment increased,
but reports of sexual harassment behaviors decreased slightly. More
co-workers and fewer supervisors were the source of sexual
harassment. Respondents continued to take informal actions in
response to incidents of sexual harassment; the most common reason
for not taking formal action was that there was no need to report it.
Respondents continued to believe that the Navy took actions to reduce
sexual harassment when it occurred. Seventy-one percent of
respondents had received training on the prevention of sexual
harassment.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Task Force on Sexual Harassment Prevention Programs, for the
Secretary of the Air Force/Chief of Staff Air Force, 1992.
The Air Force could not locate a copy of this study.
Tailhook 91: Part 1 - Review of the Navy Investigations, by DOD IG,
September 1992.
The report addresses the actions of senior Navy officials, the Naval
Investigative Service, and the Navy's IG in conducting earlier probes
into Tailhook 1991 (see p. 31 for part 2 of this report). According
to the DOD IG, the scope of the investigations should have been
expanded beyond the assaults to encompass other violations of law and
regulation as they became apparent and should have addressed
accountability for individual leaders who allowed the creation of the
atmosphere in which the assaults and other misconduct took place.
The inadequacies in the investigations were due to the collective
management and personal failures on the part of the Under Secretary
of the Navy, the Navy IG, the Navy Judge Advocate General, and the
Commander of the Naval Investigative Service. The deficiencies in
the investigations were the result of an attempt to limit the
exposure of the Navy and senior Navy officials to criticism regarding
Tailhook 1991.
Recommendations: The report recommends changes in the Navy's
investigative structure and disciplinary action for the Judge
Advocate General and the Commander of the Naval Investigative Service
for failure to fulfill their responsibilities.
Status of Recommendations: The Secretary of the Navy acknowledged
the shortcomings of the investigations done by the Navy IG and the
Navy Criminal Investigative Service and the failure of Navy
leadership regarding the activities at the Tailhook Symposium and
took appropriate action.
An Update Report on the Progress of the Women in the Navy, by 1990
Navy Women's Study Group, 1990.
Although the introduction of women on ships had positive effects on
their careers, both law and policy restricted their assignments,
reinforcing the perception that they were not equal contributors and
affecting their career horizons negatively. Inadequacies existed in
areas of the use and assignment of pregnant women, training, family
planning, and counseling of women and men. While women of all pay
grades were sexually harassed, junior enlisted women were the most
frequent victims, with the most frequent forms of harassment being
verbal remarks or gestures. Over half of reported sexual assaults
and rapes occurred on base, with only 1 percent occurring on board
ships.
Recommendations: The study makes about 150 recommendations designed
to improve the assimilation of women into the Navy and expand their
opportunities.
Status of recommendations: The Navy reports that all of the sexual
harassment recommendations and most of the other recommendations have
been addressed.
Sexual Harassment in the Military: 1988, Defense Manpower Data
Center, September 1990.
The report summarizes the results of the 1988 DOD survey of sex roles
in the active-duty military. The survey focused on the frequency of
sexual harassment among the active-duty military; the context,
location, and circumstances under which sexual harassment occurs; and
the effectiveness of programs designed to prevent, reduce, and
eliminate sexual harassment. The types of sexual harassment reported
by the majority of all victims included sexual teasing, jokes,
remarks, or questions. Victims tended to have fewer years of active
service and be enlisted personnel. Most perpetrators acted alone.
Most victims did not take formal action against the perpetrators
(women were more likely to mention anticipated negative outcomes of a
formal complaint as an important reason for not reporting their
described experiences to officials). The majority of personnel
believed that reporting sexual harassment to the perpetrators' chain
of command or filing a formal complaint were effective ways to stop
sexual harassment.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
However, based on the findings in this report, the Secretary of
Defense issued a policy memorandum on sexual harassment in July 1991.
An Examination of Sexual Harassment Complaints in the Air Force for
Fiscal Year 1987, by DEOMI, September 1988.
A summary of Air Force social actions reports shows that the typical
situation was a male offender harassing a female subordinate of the
same race. Most victims were white enlisted women, and most
offenders were white enlisted males. The most common types of
behavior, such as offensive language, were not severe, but their
prevalence may contribute to the negative climate that characterizes
a "hostile environment." Most of the cases involved multiple
incidents, such as multiple comments or other behaviors. The length
of time taken to process sexual harassment complaints ranged from 1
to 380 days. The complainant was usually satisfied with the action
taken in complaint outcomes.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
PROMOTIONS
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:4
Fitness Reports of Naval Warfare Officers: A Search for Gender
Differences, by NPRDC, May 1994.
Significantly more comments on personality traits appeared in women's
fitness reports than in men's. Female warfare officers were not
described with gender-type words but were said to be dynamic,
assertive, and energetic more frequently than were men. Women were
rated significantly lower in leadership than men. Women were more
often recommended for a follow-on assignment, and men were more often
recommended for promotion or command. Gender differences favoring
women occurred more frequently in the reports of surface warfare
officers than in those of the aviation officers.
Recommendations: The results of the study should be issued to
correct the perception that fitness reports are gender typed. The
career histories of women warfare officers should be reviewed to
ensure that they are receiving developmental assignments and
leadership training equivalent to men.
Status of Recommendations: Findings of this study are being
incorporated into the curriculum on writing fitness reports in
several officers' schools. The Assistant Chief of Naval Personnel
for Distribution and staff were briefed on study results. A briefing
to the Women Officer's Professional Association is scheduled for
April 1995.
Why Promotable Female Officers Leave the Army, by ARI, July 1993.
This paper presents the findings of a study designed to identify the
reasons female captains eligible for promotion to major decided to
take a monetary incentive and voluntarily leave the Army. Study
results indicated that individuals had multiple and often
interrelated reasons for their career decisions. In addition to
career opportunities, family issues, and monetary incentives, females
named the following factors as affecting their decision to leave the
Army: treatment/EO issues, such as the perception that valued
assignments were not open to competition for females; gender-based
discrimination; and sexual harassment and the Army's handling of it.
For those females leaving the Army, it appeared to be either the
cumulative weight of multiple factors or one issue, added to the
multiple issues they were already dealing with, that tipped the
balance toward leaving.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Disparities in Minority Promotion Rates: A Total Quality Approach,
by DEOMI, 1992.
The report analyzes the promotion data in the 1987 to 1991 Military
Equal Opportunity Assessments. It found that promotion board results
varied significantly with race and gender. In 1990 and 1991, every
minority male group evaluated by the Navy's E-7 board was promoted at
less than the board average. Black males were the most underpromoted
race/gender group. The Army officer boards had repeatedly promoted
white males at slightly below the board's overall average rate. The
military EO assessments were not effective at presenting promotion
result differences.
Recommendations: Conduct further investigations into the source of
significant differences in promotion rates. Use total quality
methods to analyze all EO data. If differences in promotion rates
from race to race were due to differing qualification levels of the
individuals in each race, use a total quality approach to identify
specific weaknesses that are barriers to promotion. Continue to
analyze the E-7 promotion board processes to identify barriers to
promotion for minority males and develop strategies to overcome these
barriers.
Status of Recommendations: DOD's Director of Military Equal
Opportunity is considering whether further action on these
recommendations is appropriate.
The Mentoring Process for Hispanics, by NPRDC, 1992.
The pairing of an Anglo mentor with a Hispanic individual seeking a
mentor is compared with the pairing of a Hispanic mentor with a
Hispanic individual seeking a mentor in terms of advantages and
disadvantages. A mentor can provide several unique functions for a
Hispanic individual seeking a mentor, including reflecting the power
of the mentor on the individual, building confidence, introducing the
individual to social networks, acting as a role model for appropriate
organizational behaviors, and helping in acculturation, or learning
to fit into the larger culture. Important variables in the mentoring
process are identified, such as sex differences, acculturation, and
differences among Hispanics. The pairing of an Anglo female mentor
with a Hispanic female individual seeking a mentor may be most
effective in terms of identification and support. The Hispanic
mentor may be better suited for less accultured Hispanics. Initial
mentoring efforts might focus on U.S.-born Hispanics as a group with
a greater chance of success.
Recommendations: Provide special programs for Hispanic mentoring,
train mentors to coach Hispanics, provide opportunities to develop
mentoring, and offer alternatives to a mentor.
Status of Recommendations: A formal mentoring program is being
created, supervisors are trained to tend to special Hispanic
problems, and alternative sources of help are being developed.
The Effects of Performance Evaluation Narratives on the Promotion of
Male and Female Unrestricted Line Officers, by NPRDC, May 1983.
This study sought to determine whether or not prior knowledge of an
individual's gender influences an evaluator's decision in choosing an
officer for promotion based on the narrative portion of the officer
fitness report. Two forms--masculine and feminine--of fitness
reports for a male and a female officer were developed by inserting
masculine or feminine pronouns into the narrative. Most evaluators
(arbitrarily selected unrestricted line officers) selected the
officer described by the male-archetype narrative, regardless of
whether feminine or masculine pronouns were used. The findings
suggest that competency factors written in typical fitness reports of
male officers had a positive effect on the selection for promotion.
Recommendations: Officer training at all levels should include more
guidance on writing fitness reports. Research should continue to
evaluate several issues on the type of job held and its relationship
to the fitness report that is written.
Status of Recommendations: Fitness report writing is taught at
various levels of officer training. Curriculum revision, including
fitness report writing, is ongoing for Navy leader development
training. In 1993, a project was funded to study warfare officer
fitness reports.
Gender Differences in the Evaluations of Narratives in Officer
Performance Ratings, by NPRDC, March 1983.
This study analyzes the narrative sections of the reports on the
fitness of officers for 239 unrestricted line officers and compares
them for gender differences. Men's evaluations were significantly
longer than the women's, contained more comments about their combat
potential and impact on the Navy, contained more recommendations for
future assignments, and used different words to describe their
behavior. Using the significant gender differences uncovered in the
analyses, two pseudo-narratives were written without
gender-identifying pronouns--one describing a male lieutenant, and
the other a female lieutenant. Mid-level officers who were asked to
judge the promotability of the two pseudo-lieutenants overwhelmingly
chose the man.
Recommendations: Give briefings on the potential biases that can be
written into fitness reports for the officers in charge and teaching
staff at Navy schools where officers are trained in personnel
management. Write articles describing the study's findings for
publications read by officers to reach and influence those who have
already passed through the formal Navy training system. Issue
information about career paths for women officers in media that will
attract the attention of all officers. Advise selection boards
regarding gender differences in fitness report narratives.
Status of Recommendations: Navy school staff are briefed on current
findings regarding potential biases in fitness reports. An article
was published in a 1984 issue of U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings,
and the chapter "Women's Career Development" was published in Gender
and the Naval Officer in 1987.
Performance Evaluation Narratives of Navy Women and Men: An
Examination for Bias in Promotion, by NPRDC, July 1981.
The narrative sections of performance ratings for 52 men and 52 women
eligible for promotion to chief petty officer were analyzed to
determine whether statements included in the narrative section or the
manner in which the statements were interpreted by the selection
board were subject to bias. Results showed that the number of
positive statements about the performance of men and women was not
significantly different. However, significant correlations between
sex and selection status were found in motivation and personality
traits and dimensions of concern to the Navy. Women who were not
selected for promotion received more positive statements related to
motivation and personality than did either men or women who were
selected. Men who were not selected received more positive
statements on dimensions of concern to the Navy than men who were
selected.
Recommendations: Personnel responsible for promotion decisions
should be made aware of the impact of stereotyping in the promotion
process. Selection boards should be provided with highly structured
information about candidates. The proportion of female and male
candidates being reviewed by a single board member should be
controlled to minimize the possibility of stereotyping.
Status of Recommendations: Currently, all selection board members
are given guidance in board precepts on different career patterns for
men and women as a result of statutory assignment restrictions.
Selection board members receive the official record for each officer,
which includes the same information for each candidate. Records are
randomly assigned for the initial review and then given to a member
of the same military specialty for the second review.
Comparative Racial Analysis of Enlisted Advancement Exams: Item
Differentiation, by NPRDC, February 1977.
The study tries to determine whether advancement examination items
were similarly differentiating between good and poor performers of
racial groups. Blacks were advanced to pay grades E-4 and above in
smaller proportions than whites were, and blacks scored lower on the
examination of technical knowledge than did whites. One aspect of
the problem was to find ways of constructing advancement tests that
provided similar competitive opportunity for all groups without loss
of test quality. The study concludes that developing tests by using
items similar in difficulty for blacks and whites was not feasible
since it would reduce test quality, but eliminating excessively
difficult items would improve test quality and benefit blacks.
Recommendations: The empirical validity of the present tests on
subsequent job performance should be compared between blacks and
whites, and a validation and comparison of internal and external
criteria of the procedures used to create alternative test items.
Status of Recommendations: The Navy no longer uses the advancement
examinations analyzed in this study, thus making this recommendation
obsolete.
Comparative Racial Analysis of Enlisted Advancement Exams: Relative
Item Difficulty Between Performance-Matched Groups, by NPRDC, April
1976.
The Enlisted Advancement Exam, one of the Navy's major personnel
selection systems, was being studied to identify and alleviate any
condition which might be detrimental to EO in career growth for all
individuals and groups. Since the military services were advancing a
greater proportion of white than non-white candidates, an item
analysis of enlisted advancement examinations was conducted to
identify test characteristics that might account for differences
between black and white racial groups. The findings in this report
suggested a possibility of a small amount of racial bias in some of
the examinations. No changes in test construction procedures were
recommended until further study was completed.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
DISCIPLINE
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:5
Differences Between Black and White Military Offenders: A Study of
Socioeconomic, Familial, Personality, and Military Characteristics of
Inmates at the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth, by
DEOMI, Summer 1993.
This study examined variables that might be linked to offenses in the
military that result in incarceration. The author collected
demographic, familial, personality, and military data on a random
sample of black and white inmates of the U.S. Disciplinary Barracks
at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. In comparison to white inmates, black
inmates had lower scores in tests of intelligence quotient, reading,
mathematics, and English; were more apt to come from larger families
where the parents were divorced, separated, or had been single
parents; showed personality test profiles displaying interpersonal
problems; had a larger number of prior military discipline problems;
had less time in military service at the time of incarceration; and
were more apt to be incarcerated for violent crimes against others.
There were no significant differences between black and white inmates
on age, socioeconomic status, education level, birth order, military
grade, prior civilian problems, military occupational specialty, or
length of sentence.
Recommendations: The military should be aware of certain factors
that may predispose some individuals to trouble in their first tour
of duty and provide early help, such as counseling, to circumvent
these potential problems and be more selective based on the ability
levels of recruits, and provide (1) tools to introduce appropriate
and inappropriate interpersonal responses in military situations, (2)
cultural sensitivity training, and (3) mentors for newly trained
enlistees.
Status of Recommendations: DOD's Director of Military Equal
Opportunity could not provide information on the status of these
recommendations.
Racial Disparities in Military Incarceration Rates - an Overview and
Research Strategy, by DEOMI, Summer 1992.
The study presents a conceptual summary and guide for research to
help determine causes for the overrepresentation of black males
(compared to white males) in the military justice system. It
considers factors external to the military (psychological,
physiological, and sociological) and other factors internal to the
military system (selection bias, differential treatment, and
differential involvement). The author presents a research proposal
that focuses on overcoming the effects of exogenous sociological
factors through training designed to facilitate black males'
socialization into the military society.
Recommendations: Design a training package that focuses on
presenting behaviors that are appropriate in the military.
Status of Recommendations: A training program incorporating the
suggested concepts was designed.
An Investigation Into Equity in Navy Discipline, by NPRDC, July 1992.
Navy-wide disciplinary data indicate that minority personnel received
nonjudicial punishments and courts-martial at a higher rate than the
majority group. The study found that black personnel had a higher
rate of nonjudicial punishments than their white counterparts.
Blacks were more often charged with insubordination than were whites.
No differences were found across groups in the types and extent of
punishments given. Additional comparisons revealed that although
first-termers, nondesignated personnel, and personnel aboard ships
had higher disciplinary rates, any overrepresentation of blacks among
the three groups was not sufficient to account for their higher rate
of involvement in disciplinary actions. Multiple offenders accounted
for almost 40 percent of the total number of nonjudicial punishments.
There was no difference in the rates of multiple offenses across
racial/ethnic groups. The report concludes that treatment in the
formal discipline system at the commands examined did not differ
across racial/ethnic groups.
Recommendations: The Equal Opportunity Division of the Bureau of
Naval Personnel should sponsor research to investigate whether
discipline is being equitably administered at the level where
decisions are made on filing reports and should begin to track
discipline rates by offenders. Commands should track occurrences of
charges of insubordination by racial/ethnic groups as part of their
CMEO program. In commands where racial disparities in discipline
rates and/or perceptions of fairness of the system are identified,
the command assessment team should use the methodology in this report
to monitor the disciplinary process.
Status of Recommendations: NPRDC has done several studies that have
failed to surface any racial or ethnic bias in the administration of
discipline, though this perception is prevalent not only in the Navy
but throughout the services. The Navy's Bureau of Personnel
maintains discipline data by race as part of the Navy Affirmative
Action Plan and is staffing a proposal to capture this data
Navy-wide. In addition, the Navy's EO manual mandates that all
commands, when conducting their annual assessments, collect and
analyze discipline data by race, gender, and ethnic group to
determine disparate treatment in the administration of discipline.
Phase 1 Report: An Investigation Into the Disparity of Judicial and
Nonjudicial Punishment Rates for Black Males in the Armed Services,
by DEOMI, April 1992.
The report concludes that there is a disparity in the judicial and
nonjudicial punishment rates for black males. The punishment rates
for both whites and blacks had been decreasing, but the black
overrepresentation rate had increased slightly because the white
punishment rate had been decreasing faster than the black punishment
rate. Black males were overrepresented in the commission of violent
and confrontational crimes, while whites committed the majority of
crimes against property and military-specific offenses. Blacks were
underrepresented in drug arrests and were overrepresented in
courts-martial for crimes against persons.
Recommendations: The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense
should decide whether the current military punishment rates are
sufficiently low and acceptable. If it decides that finding the
causes of the disparity in punishment rates between black and white
servicemembers is important, research should continue.
Status of Recommendations: DOD's Director of Military Equal
Opportunity could not provide information on the status of these
recommendations.
Racial- and Ethnic-Group Differences in Character-of-Separation and
Disciplinary Rates Among First-Term Enlistees Who Are Ineligible to
Reenlist, by NPRDC, December 1990 (revised August 1991).
NPRDC tried to determine why blacks and Hispanics earned
proportionally more other-than-honorable and judicial separations
than whites. Blacks had a significantly lower rate of enlistment
waivers for moral reasons than did either Hispanics or whites. In
general, blacks tended to be discharged at a relatively higher rate
for reasons that routinely resulted in other-than-honorable
separations (such as drug abuse), whereas whites tended to be
discharged at a relatively higher rate for reasons that did not
routinely result in other-than-honorable separations (such as
personality disorder). According to the report, "the relatively
higher rate of involvement in disciplinary proceedings by blacks is
evidence of equity in the Navy's formal discipline system with regard
to the character of separation awarded." More specifically, the
relatively higher rate of separation of blacks for misconduct seemed
warranted given their more frequent involvement in the disciplinary
system.
Recommendations: The Judge Advocate General should examine the
procedures used to assign separation codes. The Recruiting Command
should review the benefits of reducing the proportion of recruits
whose preservice behaviors require moral waivers. The Judge Advocate
General should review the policies concerning administrative
separations for a pattern of misconduct. Either the Judge Advocate
General or the CNO should establish a database that contains
information on the discipline of individuals.
Status of Recommendations: This study was not widely distributed,
and status of the actions taken is not known.
Military Offense Rates: Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Differences, by
NPRDC, November 1985.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether Navy
personnel were disciplined without regard to racial-ethnic
membership. No evidence was found to suggest that any minority group
was receiving courts-martial and nonjudicial punishments out of
proportion with respect to certain types of violations. Blacks
violated the Uniform Code of Military Justice more frequently than
whites and received more nonjudicial punishments but not more
courts-martial. Native Americans had the highest offense rate of any
racial-ethnic group and were given the most courts-martial and
nonjudicial punishments. Filipinos had the lowest offense rates of
any racial-ethnic group, particularly of uniquely military offenses.
Hispanics also had lower offense rates than whites, fewer nonjudicial
punishments, and fewer summary courts-martial. Asian/Pacific
Islanders had lower offense rates than whites and fewer nonjudicial
punishments and were less likely to be found guilty of unauthorized
absences.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Perceptions of Discrimination in Non-Judicial Punishment, by NPRDC,
June 1974.
The purposes of this study were to determine whether nonjudicial
punishment was administered without regard to race and whether blacks
and whites perceived discrimination in discipline, job assignments,
and advancement opportunities. Blacks committed somewhat more
confrontational offenses, while whites committed more
military/civilian crimes such as larceny. The perceptions of blacks
and whites differed significantly on issues concerning equality of
treatment in the Navy and on more than half of the issues related to
job satisfaction and support from supervisors. Although the study
did not reveal differences in disciplining blacks and whites,
equality of treatment in nonjudicial punishment was not established.
The majority of blacks believed military justice favors whites, and
many whites shared this belief.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
RECRUITMENT
--------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:6
USAF Minority Recruiting Study: Enlistment Motivations of Young
Blacks to Join the Air Force, by Bozell, Inc., for the Air Force
Recruiting Service, February 1992.
The study examines the attitudes, opinions, and motivations of
African-Americans of recruitment age to help develop recruitment
advertising strategies. According to the respondents, job security
and employee benefits such as health care were hallmarks of the
military. Enjoying their work, getting the job they wanted, and
earning a good income were benefits closely associated with the Air
Force but not with the armed forces in general. The barriers to a
military career that most concerned these young people--going to war,
regimentation, and lack of personal freedom--were not strongly linked
to their perceptions of the Air Force in comparison to the Army or
the Marines.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Defense Manpower for the Future: Demographic, Minority, and Social
Issues, by DEOMI, December 1989.
This study is based on a review of census data for non-Hispanic
whites, Hispanics, and blacks. Its purpose is to project the
availabilities and military service participation rates of whites,
Hispanics, and blacks through 2019. White women are the largest
untapped population segment. White men are likely to continue to
make up the majority of servicemembers. The relatively rapid growth
of the Hispanic population does not significantly affect their
availability for military service in the 1990s because the service
eligibility rates of Hispanic males are lower than those of white
males.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
Minority Fill-Rate Component for Marine Corps Recruit Classification:
Development and Test, by NPRDC, July 1984.
Marine Corps recruiting service personnel are often faced with the
problem of allocating a small number of training assignments among
minority and nonminority recruit applicants in an equitable manner.
A decision aid in the form of a computer program was needed to assist
recruiting service personnel to achieve the allocation balance across
programs. The resulting component was tested by simulating recruit
assignments. In 82 percent of the cases, the minority proportion
achieved under assignment by model was closer to that desired by
Marine Corps managerial personnel than that achieved under actual
assignment.
Recommendation: Marine Corps recruiting personnel should incorporate
the minority fill-rate component into the program management module
of the Automated Recruit Management System.
Status of Recommendation: The Marine Corps could not provide
information on the status of this recommendation.
Characteristics of Air Force Accessions: January 1975 to June 1977,
by Air Force Human Resources Lab, 1979.
DOD's Defense Technical Information Center could not locate a copy of
this report.
Why Women Enlist: The Navy as an Occupational Choice, by NPRDC,
March 1977.
NPRDC found that women and men in a sample who enlisted in the
military came from different backgrounds but joined for similar
reasons. Women deliberated longer and made more inquiries than men
before deciding to join the Navy but had less information about the
realities of service life. Women placed a higher value on a clean,
cheerful environment and service to others and were more negative
than men toward jobs involving work with materials or machines rather
than people. The study concluded that the values of many of the
women were not consistent with the nontraditional jobs to which they
were apt to be assigned.
Recommendations: Revise recruiting materials to show women in
nontraditional billets. Modify the training of recruiters to include
detailed information on policies unique to women.
Status of Recommendations: Recruiting materials have been changed to
show women in nontraditional billets. Recruiters' orientations cover
the assignment of women in the Navy and other areas where differences
remain.
The Unobtrusive Measurement of Racial Bias Among Recruit
Classification Specialists, by NPRDC, October 1974.
Navy classification specialists work with individual recruits to
arrive at recommended assignments. NPRDC found no significant
differences in the way black and white classification interviewers
treated black and white recruits in determining assignments.
Recommendations: The report did not include recommendations.
SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
========================================================== Appendix II
We asked officials at the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD)
and each of the military services for studies published between 1974
and 1994 on discrimination, equal opportunity, and sexual harassment.
We requested reports and studies published by OSD, the services, or
independent entities under contract to OSD or the services.
Specifically, we asked for studies from the following offices at OSD
and the services:
OSD: Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services; Defense
Equal Opportunity Management Institute; Defense Manpower Data Center;
Defense Nuclear Agency Inspector General; Office of the Defense
Inspector General; Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of
Defense for Equal Opportunity; and Office of the IG of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff.
Department of the Air Force: Office of the Air Force IG; Office of
the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel; and Air Force Human
Resources Laboratory.
Department of the Army: Equal Opportunity Office, U.S. Army
Garrison, Fort Belvoir; Office of the Army IG; Army Research
Institute for the Social and Behavioral Sciences; and Office of the
Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel.
Marine Corps: Office of the Equal Opportunity Officer and Office of
the Marine Corps IG.
Department of the Navy: Equal Opportunity Division, Bureau of
Personnel; Office of the Naval IG; Naval Personnel Research and
Development Center; and Office of Manpower and Personnel, Military
Personnel Branch.
We conducted searches of the Defense Technical Information Center and
the Defense Library on Disc databases. In addition, we contacted
experts in academia and interest groups to determine whether they had
any knowledge of the existence of OSD studies on discrimination,
equal opportunity, and sexual harassment. However, we did not
include unpublished studies that were produced to fulfill
requirements for the war colleges, command and staff colleges, or
other services' educational institutions.
We also sent a letter to the Director of Military Equal Opportunity
requesting that his office and the services (1) identify any studies
other than those we had already found and (2) provide the status of
recommendations in all applicable studies. We summarized but did not
evaluate the studies or the status of the recommendations.
(See figure in printed edition.)Appendix III
COMMENTS FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF
DEFENSE
========================================================== Appendix II
(See figure in printed edition.)