Welfare Reform: Public Assistance Benefits Provided to Recently
Naturalized Citizens (Letter Report, 06/23/1999, GAO/HEHS-99-102).
GAO found that recently naturalized citizens generally used Supplemental
Security Income (SSI), Medicaid, and Temporary Assistance for Needy
Families (TANF) benefits at a higher rate in 1997 than did the
native-born. For example, 8.3 percent of the 927,338 immigrants who were
recently naturalized received SSI benefits during 1997. The rate for
native-born citizens is 2.4 percent. The benefits paid by the federal
and state governments in 1997 to the recently naturalized citizens
included in GAO's review totaled about $735 million for four programs.
This figures reflects nationwide data for the SSI program, as well as
data from five states for the Medicaid and Food Stamp programs and from
four states for the TANF program. Overall, the percentage of benefits
paid to recently naturalized citizens in each program was about one
percent or less of the total benefits paid to all recipients.
--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------
REPORTNUM: HEHS-99-102
TITLE: Welfare Reform: Public Assistance Benefits Provided to
Recently Naturalized Citizens
DATE: 06/23/1999
SUBJECT: Welfare benefits
Food relief programs
Immigrants
State-administered programs
Public assistance programs
Naturalization
Comparative analysis
Cost analysis
Population statistics
Surveys
IDENTIFIER: Medicaid Program
Supplemental Security Income Program
HHS Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Program
Food Stamp Program
California
Florida
New York
Texas
SSI
Census Bureau Current Population Survey
Illinois
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United States General Accounting Office GAO Report
to the Honorable Elton Gallegly, House of Representatives June
1999 WELFARE REFORM Public Assistance Benefits Provided
to Recently Naturalized Citizens GAO/HEHS-99-102 GAO United
States General Accounting Office Washington, D.C. 20548 Health,
Education, and Human Services Division B-280390 June 23, 1999 The
Honorable Elton Gallegly House of Representatives Dear Mr.
Gallegly: Between World War II and the mid-1990s, the annual
number of immigrants who became naturalized U.S. citizens never
exceeded 400,000. Since then, however, the number of
naturalizations has grown dramatically. In fiscal year 1996 alone,
more than 1 million immigrants became naturalized-an all-time
high. In August of the same year, the Personal Responsibility and
Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (commonly known as the
welfare reform law) made noncitizen immigrants ineligible for
certain federal public assistance benefits. You expressed concern
that some immigrants may be seeking naturalization for the purpose
of obtaining or retaining access to such benefits. This report
responds to your request that we provide information on (1) the
number of recently naturalized citizens receiving benefits from
four major public assistance programs (Supplemental Security
Income (SSI), Medicaid, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
(TANF), and Food Stamps) compared with that of the native-born
population in 1997 and (2) the estimated annual cost to the
federal and state governments of providing such benefits to these
naturalized citizens. In preparing this report, we obtained data
from the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) on about
927,000 immigrants who were recently naturalized-during fiscal
years 1996 and 1997.1 We obtained nationwide data on the SSI
program from the SSA.2 For the Medicaid and Food Stamp programs,
we obtained data from the five states (California, Florida,
Illinois, New York, and Texas) that together account for about
three-quarters of the recently naturalized individuals.3 For the
TANF program, we obtained data from four of those five states
(California, Florida, New York, and Texas).4 To determine the
number and proportion 1Those for whom we could find a valid Social
Security number (SSN). A unique identifier, such as a valid SSN,
is necessary for computer matching. 2Of the four programs we
examined, we could obtain national data only for SSI because it is
the one program administered by the federal government. The other
three programs are administered by the states and every state
would have to be contacted to obtain complete data. 3About 703,000
of the 927,000 individuals we identified who were naturalized in
fiscal years 1996 and 1997 reside in California, Florida,
Illinois, New York, and Texas. 4We were unable to include TANF
data from Illinois because of data format constraints. Page 1
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 of
recently naturalized citizens who received public assistance
benefits, and the cost of the benefits provided to them, we
matched the naturalized citizen data against these federal and
state public assistance records. To compare the naturalized
citizens' rate of participation in the SSI, Medicaid, and TANF
programs with that of the native-born population, we used calendar
year 1997 data from the Bureau of the Census' March 1998 Current
Population Survey (CPS) for native-born citizens aged 18 years or
older.5 We conducted our work between April 1998 and April 1999 in
accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards.
See appendix I for a more detailed description of our scope and
methodology. Results in Brief Our analysis shows that the
recently naturalized citizens we identified generally used SSI,
Medicaid, and TANF benefits at a higher rate in 1997 than the
native-born population. Nationally, out of the 927,338 immigrants
who were recently naturalized, we found that about 8.3 percent
received SSI benefits during 1997. This rate is higher than the
rate of 2.4 percent for the nation's native-born citizens. Also,
the rate of benefit receipt for recently naturalized citizens in
the Medicaid and TANF programs was higher than the CPS-based
estimate for the native-born population in several of the states
we examined, although the magnitude of difference varied across
some states. For example, we found that 9.6 percent of the
recently naturalized citizens in Texas received Medicaid compared
with 6.1 percent of the native-born population, while 23.7 percent
of the recently naturalized citizens in California received such
benefits compared with 8.2 percent of the native-born population.
We found similar patterns of difference for the TANF program in
the states we examined. Because we compared estimates derived from
administrative data for recently naturalized citizens with
estimates derived from self-reported survey data for native-born
citizens, the actual variation between the two populations'
receipt of public assistance may differ somewhat from our
estimates. Nevertheless, these estimates are the most accurate we
could calculate given the data available. In addition, a variety
of factors may contribute to differences in the benefit receipt
rates between the recently naturalized citizens and the native-
born population. These include individuals' decisions to apply for
benefits, as well as program eligibility factors such as income.
5We only examined native-born citizens aged 18 years or older
because the population of naturalized citizens we examined
consisted of individuals aged 18 or older. (Federal regulations
require that immigrants seeking naturalization be at least 18.)
Page 2 GAO/HEHS-99-102
Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 The benefits paid by the
federal and state governments in 1997 to the recently naturalized
citizens included in our review totaled about $735 million for the
four programs. This figure reflects nationwide data for the SSI
program, as well as data from five states for the Medicaid and
Food Stamp programs (representing 76 percent of all the recently
naturalized citizens in our review6), and from four states for the
TANF program (representing 71 percent of all the recently
naturalized citizens in our review). Overall, the percentage of
benefits paid to recently naturalized citizens in each program was
about 1 percent or less of the total benefits paid to all
recipients. Background Naturalization is the process by which
those born outside of the United States can obtain U.S.
citizenship. To become a naturalized citizen, an immigrant must
fulfill certain requirements set forth in the Immigration and
Nationality Act and federal regulations. Generally, these
naturalization provisions specify that an immigrant be at least 18
years of age; have resided in the country continuously for at
least 5 years; have the ability to speak, read, and write the
English language; have knowledge of the U.S. government and
history; and be of good moral character. Some of these
requirements (such as the language requirement) are waived for
older individuals and those who are unable to comply because of
physical, mental, or developmental disabilities.7 Naturalized
citizens enjoy most of the same legal rights and responsibilities
as native-born citizens, including the right to apply for public
assistance. Historically, legal permanent residents (noncitizens)
of the United States have also been eligible to apply for various
public assistance benefits. However, the Personal Responsibility
and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 contained several
public assistance benefit restrictions. Title IV of the Act made
noncitizens ineligible for certain federal welfare benefits and
gave states the option to provide or restrict their access to
other federal, state, or local benefits. Eligibility restrictions
were greatest for those who entered the country on or after August
22, 1996, the date of enactment. The major federal- and state-
administered public assistance programs affected by the welfare
reform law were SSI, TANF (formerly Aid to Families 6Among the
927,338 naturalized citizens we identified nationally who became
citizens in fiscal years 1996 and 1997. 7The language requirement
and civics test are waived in some cases for older immigrants who
have resided in the United States for an extended period. Page 3
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 With
Dependent Children), Medicaid, and Food Stamps. These programs
provide either cash or in-kind benefits to individuals who meet
the eligibility criteria. The law initially barred immigrants,
with some exceptions, from receiving SSI or food stamps and
generally prohibited new immigrants from receiving TANF or
Medicaid benefits during their first 5 years in the United States.
In addition, the law gave states the option of denying TANF
benefits and Medicaid eligibility to most prereform immigrants and
to new immigrants8 even after 5 years of U.S. residency.
Subsequently, the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 largely restored
eligibility for SSI to many noncitizens who were affected by the
welfare reform law. In addition, the Agricultural Research,
Extension, and Education Reform Act of 1998 restored Food Stamp
eligibility for prereform immigrants who were younger than 18,
aged 65 and older, or were receiving benefits or assistance for
blindness or disability as of August 22, 1996. Moreover, most
states have also chosen to continue providing federal TANF and
Medicaid benefits to new immigrants after 5 years of U.S.
residency.9 Since the mid-1990s, the number of naturalizations
each year has increased significantly, with over 1 million
immigrants becoming U.S. citizens in 1996 alone (see figure 1).
According to INS, several factors likely have contributed to this
recent, rapid increase in naturalizations. They cited the
following: * A "Green Card Replacement Program" initiated by INS
in 1992 required long-term residents to replace their permanent
resident alien cards with new, more counterfeit-resistant cards;
many immigrants chose to become naturalized rather than incur the
cost of applying for a new card. * The passage of the Immigration
Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) resulted in about 2.7
million illegal aliens being granted legal permanent resident
status. In 1994, the first IRCA immigrants became eligible for
naturalization (see app. II for more detailed information on the
IRCA-naturalized citizens in our review). * The Citizenship USA
initiative, implemented in August 1995, was designed to streamline
the naturalization process. * Legislative efforts restricted
public benefits for noncitizens at the state and federal levels.
8Those immigrants entering the country on or after the date of
enactment of the welfare reform law. 9Welfare Reform: Many States
Continue Some Federal or State Benefits for Immigrants (GAO/HEHS-
98-132, July 31, 1998). Page 4
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 Figure
1: Number of People Naturalized (Fiscal Years 1911-97)
1,200,000 Number of immigrants naturalized 1,000,000 800,000
600,000 400,000 200,000 0 1916 1926 1936 1946
1956 1966 1976 1986 1996 Year Source: INS.
Recently Naturalized We estimate that, in
general, the recently naturalized citizens included in Citizens
Received our review received SSI, Medicaid,
and TANF benefits at a higher rate in 1997 than did the native-
born population.10 Nationally, recently naturalized Benefits at a
Higher citizens received SSI benefits at a rate
higher than that of the native-born Rate Than
population. Similarly, the recently naturalized citizens in our
review received Medicaid and TANF benefits at a higher rate than
the native-born Native-Born Citizens population
in several of the five states we examined-California, Florida, in
1997 Illinois, New York, and Texas-
although the difference in the rate of benefit receipt between
naturalized citizens and native-born citizens varied across
states.11 A variety of factors may contribute to differences in
the benefit receipt rates between the recently naturalized
citizens and the native-born population. These include
individuals' decisions to apply for benefits, as well as program
eligibility factors such as income. We identified naturalized
citizens receiving Food Stamp benefits in all five 10Our CPS-based
estimates for the native-born population have standard errors
associated with them. See appendix I for a discussion of these
standard errors. 11The difference between the recently naturalized
citizens' rate of benefit receipt and that of native-born citizens
was not statistically significant in three instances: Medicaid
benefits in Illinois, and TANF benefits in Florida and Texas (see
table I.2 in app. I). Page 5
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 states,
but lacked sufficient data to compare their benefit use with that
of the native-born population for this program. In addition, we
analyzed IRCA-naturalized citizens (a subset that represented
almost 30 percent of all the recently naturalized citizens in our
review) separately to determine if their pattern of benefit
receipt differed from that of all other recently naturalized
citizens (see app. II). SSI For calendar year
1997, we identified 76,823 recently naturalized citizens who
received SSI benefits. These individuals represent 8.3 percent of
the 927,338 recently naturalized citizens in our review-a rate
higher than the comparable figure of 2.4 percent for the native-
born population. Overall, the recently naturalized citizens who
received SSI benefits represent about 1.2 percent of the total
population of about 6.6 million SSI recipients nationwide in 1997.
We also analyzed a more comprehensive group of about 2.7 million
naturalized citizens who obtained citizenship between 1970 and
1995 to determine if individuals who were naturalized in earlier
years received benefits at the same rate as those who were
naturalized recently. About 4.2 percent of all the individuals who
were naturalized during this 25-year period (112,140) received SSI
benefits in 1997. The immigrants who were naturalized between 1970
and 1995 received benefits in 1997 at about half the rate of the
group of recently naturalized citizens.12 This suggests the
possibility that the rate of SSI benefit receipt among recently
naturalized citizens may not be representative of the benefit
receipt rate among all naturalized citizens. We could not,
however, determine what factors contributed to the difference in
receipt rates between the two groups. Medicaid and TANF Of the
702,560 recently naturalized citizens who resided in five states-
California, Florida, Illinois, New York, and Texas-we found that
135,681 (19.3 percent) received Medicaid benefits. In four of the
five states, these naturalized citizens received Medicaid benefits
in 1997 at a higher rate than that of the native-born citizen
population.13 The largest difference between the two populations'
use of benefits was in California, where 23.7 percent of the
recently naturalized citizens received Medicaid, while our
analysis of CPS data indicates that 8.2 percent of the native-born
12We were able to make this comparison for the SSI program only,
because it is the one program we reviewed that has the nationwide
data on program participants essential for our analysis. 13The
difference between the recently naturalized citizens' rate of
benefit receipt and that of native-born citizens was not
statistically significant in Illinois. See table I.2 in app. I.
Page 6 GAO/HEHS-99-102
Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 citizens in California
received such benefits. By comparison, Texas exhibited a much
smaller difference in rates of receipt, with 9.6 percent of the
naturalized citizens receiving benefits in 1997 compared with 6.1
percent of the native-born population (see table 1). We also
identified 30,052 individuals receiving TANF benefits in four
states-California, Florida, New York, and Texas-or about 4.6
percent of all the recently naturalized citizens residing in those
states. Recently naturalized citizens used TANF benefits at a
higher rate than native-born citizens in two of the four states.14
As with Medicaid, the difference between the two populations' use
of benefits varied from one state to the next. We found that 5.8
percent of recently naturalized citizens with valid SSNs in
California received TANF-a considerably higher rate than that of
the native-born population (2 percent). By comparison, New York
exhibited a somewhat smaller difference in rates of receipt, with
4.7 percent of the recently naturalized citizens receiving
benefits in 1997 compared with 2.2 percent of the native-born
population. See table 1 for a summary of naturalized and native-
born citizens' use of benefits in each state. 14The difference
between the recently naturalized citizens' rate of benefit receipt
and that of native-born citizens was not statistically significant
in Florida and Texas. See table I.2 in app. I. Page 7
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 Table 1:
Rates of Public Assistance Receipt by Recently Naturalized and
Estimated Native-Born Citizens, Calendar Year
percentage of Estimated 1997
recently percentage of naturalized native-
born citizens receiving citizens receiving Program
Source of data benefits
benefitsa SSI National
8.3 2.4 Medicaid Calif.
23.7 8.2 Fla.
18.7 6.2 Ill.
7.5 6.0b N.Y.c
17.3 9.6 Tex.
9.6 6.1 TANFd Calif.
5.8 2.0 Fla.
1.8 1.1b N.Y.
4.7 2.2 Tex.
1.5 1.2b aEstimates based on March 1998 CPS
data, which reflect survey responses for public assistance receipt
during calendar year 1997. bThe CPS-based estimate for the native-
born population is not statistically different from the estimate
for the recently naturalized citizens, which was calculated using
administrative data. cNew York Medicaid data are for fiscal year
1997, rather than calendar year 1997. dWe were unable to use
Illinois' TANF data in our review due to formatting problems. Food
Stamps We found that 77,351 recently
naturalized citizens (11 percent) in the five states received Food
Stamp benefits. Similar to the other programs we analyzed, receipt
of food stamps by recently naturalized citizens varied widely
among the five states. We found the highest rate of receipt in
Florida, where 17.6 percent of the recently naturalized population
accessed benefits, followed by New York (14.6 percent), Texas
(13.1 percent), California (7.9 percent), and Illinois (5.7
percent). However, we were unable to compare the naturalized and
native-born populations' use of this program because CPS survey
data measure food stamp receipt by households, not individuals.
Comparing Benefit Rates Our estimates of benefit
receipt by recently naturalized citizens and the Using
Administrative Data native-born population are likely
to be affected by substantive differences and CPS Data Requires
between, and limitations in, the administrative program data and
the CPS Caution survey data. For
example, because the data on naturalized citizens only Page 8
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 include
individuals for whom we could find a valid SSN, our data may not
be representative of all naturalized citizens in the country. If
all naturalized citizens in the country were included in our
analysis, the proportion of this population that we identified as
receiving public assistance could change. Moreover, a variety of
factors may contribute to differences in the rate of public
assistance receipt between these populations, including
individuals' decisions to apply for benefits and program
eligibility factors such as income. According to a Census Bureau
official, the CPS data we used to estimate the native-born
population's use of public assistance benefits may understate the
true proportion of individuals receiving such benefits, largely
because these data are self-reported. This official indicated that
survey respondents frequently underreport this type of
information, thus lowering the estimated percentage of individuals
who receive public assistance. Moreover, because the CPS survey
analyzes sample data to estimate characteristics of the entire
population, the estimates we based on CPS data have sampling
errors associated with them (see app. 1). Recently Naturalized
We estimate that the benefits paid15 by the federal and state
governments Citizens Received to the recently naturalized
citizens included in our review for SSI, Medicaid, TANF, and food
stamps totaled about $735 million in 1997. This About $735 Million
in figure is based on national data for the SSI program; data
from California, Benefits in 1997 Florida, Illinois, New
York, and Texas for the Medicaid and Food Stamp programs; and data
from four of the states (excluding Illinois) for the TANF
program.16 The percentage of benefits received by the recently
naturalized citizens in each program was 1.3 percent or less of
the total benefits paid to all recipients in those programs and
states. In addition, the amount of benefits received by these
recently naturalized citizens was generally proportional to their
representation in the recipient populations for each of the four
programs.17 Total SSI benefits paid nationwide to 76,823 recently
naturalized citizens equaled $331 million, or about 1.3 percent of
the benefits paid to all 15Our estimates do not include
administrative costs for these programs. 16As indicated
previously, about three-quarters of all the immigrants who were
naturalized in recent years reside in the five states we examined.
17The naturalized citizens we identified as receiving benefits in
each of the programs represent about 1.2 percent of all SSI
recipients nationwide; 0.8 percent and 0.6 percent of all Medicaid
and food stamp recipients, respectively, in the five states we
examined; and 0.5 percent of all TANF recipients in four of the
states (excluding Illinois). Page 9
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 program
recipients in 1997. By comparison, the 112,140 immigrants on the
SSI rolls who were naturalized between 1970 and 1995 received
about $489 million in SSI benefits in 1997. Although the recently
naturalized citizens represent about 26 percent of all the
immigrants who were naturalized between 1970 and 1997,18 the
recently naturalized citizens received about 40 percent of the
$820 million in SSI benefits that went to all immigrants who were
naturalized between 1970 and 1997. Medicaid claims for recently
naturalized citizens totaled about $317 million, representing
about 0.6 percent of all Medicaid benefits paid in the five states
we examined. TANF benefits paid to recently naturalized citizens
totaled about $42 million, or 0.5 percent of all the benefits paid
to recipients in the four states for which we had data, while Food
Stamp benefits totaled about $45 million, or 0.7 percent of all
Food Stamp benefits paid by the five states in our review. Table 2
shows the benefits received by the naturalized citizens in each
state we examined for the Medicaid, TANF, and Food Stamp programs.
Table 2: Recently Naturalized Citizens Receiving Medicaid, TANF,
and Food State
Medicaid TANF Food stamps Stamp Benefits by
State in Calendar California Recipients
81,686 20,079 27,349 Year 1997
Benefits $125,442,072 $27,758,412
$15,324,541 Florida Recipients
17,591 1,737 16,537 Benefits
$42,925,584 $2,691,765 $10,598,000 Illinois
Recipients 3,311 a
2,493 Benefits $10,572,484
a $1,478,937 New York Recipients
27,226 7,342 22,962 Benefits
$121,601,682 $11,178,877 $13,254,328 Texas
Recipients 5,867 894
8,010 Benefits $16,676,456 $362,828
$4,126,632 Note: The number of recipients should not be totaled
across programs because some recipients may have received benefits
from more than one program. aNo data on TANF were usable because
of formatting problems. It is likely that the benefits received by
the naturalized citizens in our review represent a substantial
part of the total benefits received by all recently naturalized
citizens in the four programs in 1997. This is because the SSI
data we cite are national, and the states we examined represent
about three-quarters of all immigrants nationwide who became
citizens in 18Out of a total of 3.6 million citizens who were
naturalized between 1970 and 1997, about 927,000 were naturalized
recently (during fiscal years 1996 and 1997). Page 10
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 fiscal
years 1996 and 1997. However, because our analysis is limited to
benefits received during calendar year 1997, we are unable to
comment on longer-term patterns of benefit receipt by naturalized
citizens. Agency Comments We provided a draft of this report
to administrators at the federal agencies and Our Response and
states that supplied us with data, or that have administrative or
oversight responsibility for the public assistance programs we
discussed. These include the Administration for Children and
Families in the Department of Health and Human Services
(responsible for the TANF program); the Census Bureau in the
Department of Commerce; Food and Nutrition Services in the
Department of Agriculture (responsible for the Food Stamp
program); the Health Care Financing Administration in the
Department of Health and Human Services (responsible for the
Medicaid program); INS in the Department of Justice; SSA
(responsible for the SSI program); and California, Florida,
Illinois, New York, and Texas. We received comments from program
administrators at the Census Bureau, the Department of Health and
Human Services, Food and Nutrition Services, INS, California,
Florida, and New York. Although our report cautions readers to
consider the data limitations we discuss when interpreting the
data, some program administrators raised concerns about these
limitations, and why certain analyses were not done. For example,
some program administrators questioned the validity of comparing
the administrative data used for the recently naturalized
citizens' receipt of public assistance benefits to the CPS-based
data used for the native-born population's use of such benefits-a
limitation we had discussed. Another commentor raised questions
about the statistical significance of some of our findings. We
have modified the report where appropriate to reflect some of
these concerns, particularly with respect to the statistical
significance of some of our findings. We were aware of the data
limitations noted by these program administrators, and have sought
to overcome these limitations throughout our review. Moreover,
certain analyses were not possible because the necessary data were
not available. Finally, we believe that we have fairly and
accurately characterized the data and findings in our report and
have provided the most accurate calculations possible given the
quality and availability of the data. Program administrators in
SSA and the states of Illinois and Texas reviewed the report and
told us that they did not have any comments. Page 11
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens B-280390 We are
sending copies of this report to the agencies who supplied data,
provided comments, or have administrative or oversight
responsibility for the public assistance programs discussed, and
will make copies available to others upon request. Please contact
Jeremy Cox, Evaluator-in-Charge, or me at (202) 512-7215 if you
have any questions concerning this report or need additional
information. Other major contributors to this report are listed in
appendix III. Sincerely yours, Cynthia M. Fagnoni Director,
Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues Page 12
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Page 13
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Contents Letter
1 Appendix I
16 Scope and Methodology Appendix II
24 Benefit Use by Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
Naturalized Citizens Appendix III
27 Major Contributors to This Report Tables
Table 1: Rates of Public Assistance Receipt by Recently
8 Naturalized and Native-Born Citizens, Calendar Year 1997 Table
2: Recently Naturalized Citizens Receiving Medicaid, TANF,
10 and Food Stamp Benefits by State in Calendar Year 1997 Table
I.1: Comparison of Administrative Data and CPS Data
21 Table I.2: Confidence Intervals Associated With CPS-Based
22 Estimates of Public Assistance Receipt Table II.1: Benefits
Received by IRCA-Naturalized Citizens in 26 1997
Figure Figure 1: Number of People Naturalized
5 Page 14 GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to
Naturalized Citizens Contents Abbreviations CIS Central
Index System CPS Current Population Survey HCFA
Health Care Financing Administration INS Immigration and
Naturalization Service IRCA Immigration Reform and Control
Act of 1986 MSIS Medicaid Statistical Information System
SSA Social Security Administration SSI
Supplemental Security Income SSN Social Security number
SSR Supplemental Security Record TANF Temporary
Assistance for Needy Families Page 15
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope
and Methodology Introduction To estimate the number of
naturalized citizens receiving public assistance, we obtained data
from several federal and state sources. We acquired data on
individuals who were naturalized in fiscal years 1996 and 1997
from the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). In
addition, SSA provided data (originating from a master database
supplied by INS) that identified all individuals with valid Social
Security numbers (SSN) who were naturalized between 1900 and
1996.19 Together, the INS and SSA databases represent the universe
of naturalized citizens in the country as of 1997 for whom we
could find a valid SSN. We obtained individual-level public
assistance data for four major programs: Supplemental Security
Income (SSI), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF),
Medicaid, and Food Stamps. We obtained SSI data from SSA and data
for the three remaining programs20 from five states21-California,
Florida, Illinois, New York, and Texas-where about three-quarters
of all the immigrants who were naturalized recently reside. We
matched naturalized citizen data against administrative records
from the four public assistance programs to determine whether
these individuals received benefits in calendar year 1997, and if
so, the amount of benefits provided to them by the federal and
state governments. We also compared our estimates of the
naturalized citizens' rate of benefit use for each program against
estimates we calculated from the Census Bureau's March 1998
Current Population Survey (CPS) for the native-born population's
use of such benefits (for individuals aged 18 or older).22
However, certain limitations in the data we used to estimate both
naturalized and native-born citizens' use of public assistance
should be noted. Our data include only those naturalized citizens
for whom we could identify a valid SSN. As a result, our estimates
may not be representative of the extent to which all naturalized
citizens in the country use public assistance. In addition, our
analysis of naturalized citizens' use of public assistance was
based on administrative program data, whereas the CPS data we used
to estimate the native-born population's use of such benefits are
self-reported. Thus, because we compared estimates derived from
19INS originally prepared this master database for SSA to assist
the agency in implementing provisions of the welfare reform act
that affected noncitizens' eligibility for the SSI program.
20Medicaid data for California and Florida were obtained centrally
from the Health Care Financing Administration's (HCFA) Medicaid
Statistical Information System (MSIS). Also, New York Medicaid
data are for fiscal year 1997, rather than calendar year 1997.
21Because of data limitations, we could not use TANF data from
Illinois. As a result, our analysis of this program is limited to
the four remaining states that provided us with data. 22We
examined only native-born citizens 18 years or older because the
population of naturalized citizens we examined consisted of
individuals over 18 years-the minimum age for naturalization. Page
16 GAO/HEHS-99-102
Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope and Methodology
administrative data to estimates derived from self-reported survey
data, the variation between the two populations' use of public
assistance may differ somewhat. Moreover, because we have not
controlled for possible variation in income and socioeconomic
characteristics of the two populations, we could not determine the
extent to which such variation may explain the differences we
found in the two populations' receipt of benefits. We tested the
accuracy of the naturalized citizen and public assistance data
used in our report with the appropriate federal and state
agencies. In general, we found that our data were accurate.
Naturalized Citizen Data To identify the number of immigrants
who were recently naturalized (in Provided by INS and SSA
fiscal years 1996 and 1997), we first obtained data on naturalized
citizens from INS' Central Index System (CIS) and Redesigned
Naturalization Application Casework System. The files provided by
INS contained about 1.5 million unique records, which represented
complete data for fiscal year 1996 and partial data for fiscal
year 1997.23 For each record, we obtained several pieces of
information, including the naturalized citizen's name, date of
birth, INS "A" (alien) number, naturalization date and location,
as well as country of origin. We obtained valid SSNs for as many
of these individuals as possible using SSA's Enumeration
Verification System, which uses key variables (such as name and
date of birth) to verify any SSNs provided with data entered into
the system, or to determine a correct SSN if none is provided. Of
the original 1.5 million records, we identified valid SSNs for
927,338 records. To supplement the 1996 and 1997 data, we also
obtained data from SSA on about 3.2 million individuals with valid
SSNs who were naturalized between 1900 and 1996. The two files
were combined, resulting in a master file of individuals with
valid SSNs who were naturalized between 1900 and 1997. After we
combined the two files, tested the accuracy of the data, and
eliminated duplicate records, our population contained about 3.7
million individuals. We then eliminated all records prior to
1970,24 which resulted in a final population of about 3.6 million
naturalized citizens with valid 23Complete data for newly
naturalized citizens in fiscal year 1997 were not available at the
time of our review because not all INS field offices had provided
their reports on newly naturalized citizens to INS headquarters.
The offices that had not reported such data tended to be smaller,
rural offices. 24According to INS officials, agency data on
immigrants and naturalized citizens from 1970 forward may be more
accurate than data from prior years due to the advent of the
automated CIS. Therefore, they advised us to exclude immigrants
who were naturalized before 1970 from our review. In doing so, we
eliminated about 100,000 cases-about 3 percent of all immigrants
with valid SSNs we identified. Page 17
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope
and Methodology SSNs who became citizens between 1970 and 1997.25
Included in this population were about 343,000 naturalized
citizens who originally were illegal immigrants and were granted
amnesty under the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
(IRCA). See appendix II for details on this subpopulation of IRCA-
naturalized citizens. Public Assistance Data We calculated
recently naturalized citizens' receipt of public assistance
Obtained From Federal benefits using calendar year 1997
program administrative data. We and State Agencies
obtained nationwide SSI benefit data from SSA's Supplemental
Security Record (SSR), the central database used to administer the
SSI program. We obtained TANF eligibility data from state agencies
in California, Florida, and Texas, and payment data from New York.
We also obtained Medicaid payment data for California and Florida
from HCFA, and from state agencies in Illinois, New York, and
Texas. Finally, we obtained Food Stamp eligibility data from
California, Florida, Illinois, New York, and Texas.26 Identifying
Naturalized Our analysis of public assistance use by the 3.6
million naturalized citizens Citizens Using Public with valid
SSNs in our review was limited to the SSI program because it is
Assistance Benefits the only program in our review that has
a national database containing information on all participants. As
such, we asked SSA to match the population of 3.6 million cases
against the SSR to determine the number of naturalized citizens
using SSI nationally. Also, we matched the SSI data against two
subgroups of naturalized citizens to compare their rates of
benefit receipt: (1) the 927,338 immigrants who recently were
naturalized in fiscal years 1996 and 1997 and (2) the remaining
2.7 million immigrants who were naturalized between 1970 and 1995.
Nationwide matches of the other public assistance programs were
impractical because these programs are administered by the states,
and we lacked the nationwide data essential for our analysis.
Instead, we focused on the five states, discussed above, where
more than three-quarters of the recently naturalized citizens
reside. We established a state of residence for the recently
naturalized citizens in our review based on their location at the
time they were naturalized (as indicated by a unique INS
naturalization 25Included in the total population of 3.6 million
were about 2.7 million immigrants who were naturalized between
January 1970 and September 1995. 26The numbers of naturalized
citizens we identified as using Food Stamp benefits and the total
benefits paid to these individuals are our estimates based on
states' program eligibility files. The total number of individuals
we cite as receiving benefits is based on each state's estimate of
the percentage of eligible individuals who actually participate in
the program each month. Similarly, the total benefits attributed
to these individuals are estimated based on the average payment
per recipient in each state. Page 18
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope
and Methodology location code).27 We matched all the recently
naturalized citizens with valid SSNs against the TANF, Medicaid,
and Food Stamp beneficiary databases provided to us by the states.
A match was considered valid if (1) the individual received
benefits at some point in 1997 after the date of naturalization
and (2) the INS location code indicated that the individual
resided in the state. The following hypothetical case illustrates
those two criteria. A comparison of our naturalized citizen data
with state administrative records reveals 100 matches of
individuals receiving benefits. Only 90 individuals received
benefits after their date of naturalization. Moreover, only 85 of
those 90 individuals displayed an INS location code for that
state, so our final match count for the program in that state
would be 85 individuals. Calculation of Benefit We calculated
the amount of benefits provided to the naturalized citizens Costs
Incurred by the by the federal and state governments over a 1-
year period-calendar year Federal and State 1997.28 We
obtained individual-level benefit payment data from the SSI
Governments program and from the Medicaid programs
in each state. In other cases (such as California Food Stamp data
and California, New York, and Texas TANF data), we used program
eligibility data along with information on the average monthly
benefit per individual to estimate the annual value of the
benefits. As discussed, our analysis included only benefit
payments that occurred in 1997 in the months following each
individual's date of naturalization. For example, if an individual
obtained Medicaid benefits for each month in calendar year 1997,
and was naturalized in July 1997, we calculated the value of the
benefits provided to that individual for the period of August
through December. In addition, we calculated only the estimated
value of the benefits provided to the naturalized citizens;
program administrative costs were not included in our analysis.
27We lacked sufficient data to determine a state of residence for
all 3.6 million naturalized citizens in our review. 28Medicaid
data from New York were only available for fiscal year 1997. Page
19 GAO/HEHS-99-102
Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope and Methodology
Comparison of We compared the naturalized citizens'
use of public assistance benefits to Administrative Data With
data from the March 1998 CPS for the native-born population, as
well as to CPS Data on Native-Born 1998 CPS data for the
foreign-born citizen (naturalized) population. These and Foreign-
Born comparisons were conducted on the national level
for the SSI program, and (Naturalized) Citizen on the state
level for the Medicaid and TANF programs for each state that
provided data for our review.29 Table I.1 compares our estimates
of the Populations recently naturalized citizens'
use of these programs based on administrative data to our
estimates based on CPS data for both the native-born and foreign-
born citizen populations. The estimates we provide have
limitations. For example, our estimates of naturalized citizens'
use of public assistance benefits are based solely on those
individuals for whom we could identify a valid SSN. Therefore, the
naturalized citizens in our review may not be representative of
all naturalized citizens in the nation, and may not represent the
level of public assistance received by all naturalized citizens.
Moreover, the CPS data for the native- and foreign-born citizen
populations' use of the three programs are survey projections
based on statistical sampling. According to the Census Bureau, the
CPS data are subject to certain factors that may affect the
accuracy of such estimates, including (1) underreporting by the
target population on questions concerning public assistance and
(2) sampling error. Underreporting of assistance means that survey
respondents have failed to report receipt of assistance, have
underreported the amount of assistance received, or have
misclassified the assistance received. The Census Bureau notes
that CPS survey respondents underreport their receipt of cash
assistance from programs such as Aid to Families With Dependent
Children or TANF (although estimates for SSI tend to be more
accurate). Underreporting of noncash benefits such as food stamps
is also evident, although the extent to which this occurs has been
more difficult to assess, according to the Census Bureau. 29We
could not compare the naturalized and native-born citizens' use of
the Food Stamp program because the CPS data we analyzed only
contained household-level data. Page 20
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope
and Methodology Table I.1: Comparison of Administrative Data and
CPS Data
CPS-based data Percentage of Program data
foreign-born Percentage of
(naturalized) recently naturalized Percentage of
citizens Source of citizens receiving native-born
citizens receiving Program data
benefits receiving benefits benefits SSIa
National 8.3
2.4 3.2 Medicaidb Calif.
23.7 8.2 8.7 Fla.
18.7 6.2 8.3 Ill.
7.5 6.0 2.9 N.Y.c
17.3 9.6 11.9 Tex.
9.6 6.1 8.9 TANFb
Calif. 5.8
2.0 1.2 Fla. 1.8
1.1 0.9d N.Y. 4.7
2.2 1.8 Tex. 1.5
1.2 1.1 aGAO's estimate for the SSI program is
based on all 3.6 million naturalized citizens with valid SSNs who
were naturalized since 1970. bGAO's estimate for Medicaid and TANF
programs is based on 927,338 naturalized citizens with valid SSNs
who were naturalized during fiscal years 1996 and 1997. TANF data
for Illionis were not available for our review. cNew York Medicaid
data are for fiscal year 1997 rather than calendar year 1997.
dEstimate is based on March 1997 CPS, which reflects responses
about receipt of public assistance benefits in calendar year 1996.
The CPS uses a sample of the population to estimate the
characteristics of both the native-born and foreign-born
populations; therefore, our CPS-based estimates of benefit use by
these populations have degrees of imprecision known as standard
errors associated with them. A standard error is a measure of the
variation that may occur by chance because a sample, rather than
the entire population, was analyzed. The size of the standard
error reflects the imprecision of the estimate. The smaller the
standard error, the more precise the estimate. The standard error
can be used to calculate a confidence interval around each
estimate that indicates the degree of imprecision in that
estimate. For each of our CPS-based estimates, we calculated a 95-
percent confidence interval. This means that there is a 95-percent
chance that the actual population percentage of interest falls
within that interval (see table I.2). The Food Stamp program is
excluded because the CPS does not collect information on
individuals' use of these benefits. Page 21
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope
and Methodology Table I.2: Confidence Intervals Associated With
CPS-Based Estimates Numbers in Percent of Public Assistance
Receipt Source of data
Native-born Foreign-born SSI (national) SSA
2.4 (2.2 to 2.6) 3.2 (1.9 to 4.5) Medicaid Calif.
8.2 (7.9 to 8.5) 8.7 (4.1 to 13.3) Fla.
6.2 (4.6 to 7.8) 8.3 (2.1 to 14.5) Ill.
6.0 (4.3 to 7.7) 2.9 (1.3 to 5.6) N.Y.
9.6 (7.9 to 11.3) 11.9 (6.1 to 17.7) Tex.
6.1 (4.6 to 7.6) 8.9 (0.2 to 17.6) TANF Calif.
2.0 (1.2 to 2.8) 1.2 (0.7 to 1.8) Fla.
1.1 (0.4 to 1.8) 0.9 (0.3 to 2.1)a N.Y.
2.2 (1.3 to 3.1) 1.8 (1.1 to 2.8) Tex.
1.2 (0.5 to 1.9) 1.1 (0.2 to 2.8) aEstimate and
standard error based on data from March 1997 CPS, which reflects
responses given for TANF use in calendar year 1996. Data
Verification To test the accuracy of the data
used in our analysis, we obtained independent verification from
INS and each state that provided us with public assistance data.30
To verify the INS data on naturalized citizens, we selected a
random sample of 50 records and compared the electronic data to
data from each individual's certificate of naturalization.
Similarly, to verify the data from the state public assistance
programs, we selected a random sample of 30 cases per program in
each state.31 We supplemented each random sample with five
judgmentally selected cases, focusing on very large payment
amounts. We asked the states to verify the accuracy of specific
identifying variables, including name, SSN, and date of birth, as
well as the benefits paid to each individual in the sample. The
results of our verification process indicate that, overall, the
data were accurate. INS confirmed the citizenship status of all 50
cases we sent them. With respect to the state public assistance
data, we found only one case in which the identity of an
individual was in question. A small number of additional cases
displayed surnames that did not match. However, upon 30We did not
ask SSA to verify the SSI data we used because they are subject to
SSA's internal verification procedures. 31Food Stamp data were
verified by our Kansas City Regional Office. Page 22
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix I Scope
and Methodology review, state officials determined that in each
case it was the same individual; discrepancies were attributed to
changes in marital status, or the "Americanization" of certain
surnames. With respect to benefit payments, overall, state
officials concurred with the accuracy of the data. Some
discrepancies were found in the payment amounts we estimated for a
limited number of cases in the random samples verified by the
states. State officials indicated that such discrepancies were
attributable to a number of factors, including differences in the
dates on which calculations were made. In four cases for the
Medicaid program in Florida, some of the HCFA data we used showed
benefits to be substantially lower than the state records
indicated. Florida officials attributed these differences to
apparent discrepancies between the MSIS data reported to HCFA that
we used for our review and the state records used to verify our
sample of cases. Therefore, the payments for Medicaid services
received by naturalized citizens in Florida could be higher than
our estimate. Page 23 GAO/HEHS-99-102
Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix II Benefit Use by
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 Naturalized Citizens We
examined the portion of the naturalized citizen population
composed of formerly illegal aliens who were granted amnesty under
the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA). This act
was passed in an effort to stem the flow of illegal aliens into
the United States, and adopted two strategies to accomplish this
objective: (1) sanctions against employers who knowingly hire
illegal aliens and (2) enhanced border enforcement to slow the
flow of illegal aliens entering the country. In addition, IRCA
legalized the status of illegal aliens who met certain
requirements. Overall, about 2.7 million illegal aliens who
demonstrated that they had resided continuously in the United
States since before January 1, 1982, were granted legal permanent
resident status under IRCA. In 1994, the first of the IRCA
immigrants became eligible for naturalization. Moreover, the IRCA
immigrants have represented an increasing proportion of all the
immigrants naturalized each year between 1994 and 1997. As such,
the IRCA immigrants have apparently contributed to the increase in
the overall number of naturalizations since the mid-1990s. We
analyzed this group's receipt of public assistance benefits
separately from all other naturalized citizens to determine how
their rate of benefit receipt compared to their overall
representation in the population of recently naturalized citizens.
Of the total group of 927,338 recently naturalized citizens with
valid SSNs, we found that 274,309 (29.6 percent) were IRCA-
naturalized citizens. The percentage of the IRCA-naturalized
citizens who received some form of public benefit varied from
state to state. However, overall, the proportion of IRCA-
naturalized citizens receiving benefits-as well as the amount of
benefits they received-was somewhat lower than their
representation in the population of recently naturalized citizens.
Supplemental Security Out of the 76,823 recently naturalized
citizens we identified who received Income
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits in calendar year 1997,
we found that 5,181 (6.7 percent) were IRCA-naturalized citizens.
IRCA-naturalized citizens made up a relatively small proportion of
all recently naturalized SSI recipients we identified. In total,
these IRCA-naturalized recipients were paid about $21 million in
benefits during this period, or roughly 6.3 percent of the $331
million in benefits paid to all recently naturalized citizens
during 1997. Thus, the benefits received by the IRCA-naturalized
citizens were roughly proportional to their representation in the
population of all recently naturalized citizens who received
benefits in this program (see table II.1). Page 24
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix II
Benefit Use by Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
Naturalized Citizens Medicaid We found that 28,884 (21.3
percent) of the 135,681 recently naturalized citizens we
identified receiving Medicaid benefits in five states-California,
Florida, Illinois, New York, and Texas-were IRCA-naturalized
citizens. The majority of these individuals (21,737) resided in
California, with the smallest number (789) living in Illinois.
Overall, these IRCA-naturalized citizens received $43 million
(13.6 percent) of the $317 million received by all recently
naturalized citizens. Thus, the proportion of benefits the IRCA-
naturalized citizens received was somewhat lower than their
representation in the five-state population of recently
naturalized Medicaid recipients (see table II.1). TANF
Of the 30,052 recently naturalized individuals we identified as
receiving TANF benefits in four states-California, Florida, Texas,
and New York-we found that 8,233 (27.4 percent) were IRCA-
naturalized citizens. The greatest number of these individuals
(6,371) resided in California, with the smallest number (429)
living in Texas. Overall, these IRCA-naturalized citizens received
almost $10.5 million (25 percent) of the total $42 million in TANF
paid to all recently naturalized citizens in our review. As such,
the proportion of benefits received by these individuals is almost
the same as their representation in the four-state population of
all recently naturalized TANF recipients (see table II.1). Food
Stamps Of the 77,351 recently naturalized individuals we
identified as receiving Food Stamp benefits in all five states, we
found that 18,178 (23.5 percent) were IRCA-naturalized citizens.
Similar to the pattern exhibited in the population of IRCA
Medicaid recipients, the majority (9,837) lived in California, and
the smallest number (696) lived in Illinois. Overall, these IRCA
recipients obtained $9.2 million (20 percent) of the Food Stamp
benefits paid to all naturalized citizens in our review. Similar
to the pattern in other programs, the amount of Food Stamp
benefits received by these IRCA individuals is roughly
proportional to their representation in the population of all
recently naturalized citizens receiving such benefits (see table
II.1). Page 25 GAO/HEHS-99-102
Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix II Benefit Use by
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 Naturalized Citizens
Table II.1: Benefits Received by IRCA-Naturalized Citizens in 1997
Percentage Percentage of all Total of all
recently Number benefits recently
naturalized Source of of (millions of
naturalized recipient Program data
recipients dollars)a recipients benefits
SSI National 5,181
$20.8 6.7 6.3 Medicaid
Calif.b 21,737 22.5 26.6
17.8 Fla.b 1,704 3.1 9.7
7.2 Ill. 789 2.0 23.8
18.6 N.Y.c 3,176 11.7 11.7
9.6 Tex. 1,478 4.1 25.2
24.6 Subtotal 28,884
43.4 21.3d 13.6d TANFe
Calif. 6,371 8.2 31.7
29.6 Fla. 442 0.6 25.4
24.0 N.Y. 991 1.5 13.5
13.2 Tex. 429 0.2 48.0
46.5 Subtotal 8,233
10.5 27.4d 25.0d Food stampse
Calif. 9,837 5.1 36.0
33.4 Fla. 1,935 1.0 11.7
9.3 Ill. 696 0.3 27.9
23.5 N.Y. 2,480 1.3 10.8
9.9 Tex. 3,230 1.4 40.3
34.0 Subtotal 18,178
9.2 23.5c 20.5c Total
$83.9 aSum of entries may not total because of rounding. bMedicaid
data for California and Florida were obtained from HCFA's Medicaid
Statistical Information System. cMedicaid data for New York are
for fiscal year 1997. dAverage across the states that provided
data for this program. eFood Stamp and TANF data are estimates
based on average payment per recipient, per month. Page 26
GAO/HEHS-99-102 Benefits to Naturalized Citizens Appendix III
Major Contributors to This Report Jeremy Cox, Evaluator-in-Charge,
(202) 512-7215 Paula Bonin Robert DeRoy Abbey Frank Carol Dawn
Petersen Vanessa Taylor Wayne Turowski Jim Wright Fred Yohey
(207036) Page 27 GAO/HEHS-99-102
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