Early Childhood Programs: Promoting the Development of Young Children in
Denmark, France, and Italy (Briefing Report, 02/03/95, GAO/HEHS-95-45BR).
Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on early
childhood programs in Denmark, France, and Italy, focusing on how these
countries maintain and encourage participation in early childhood
programs.
GAO found that: (1) many more 4-year-old children attended public early
childhood programs in the other countries than in the United States; (2)
children in these countries had higher participation rates because their
parents believed in the benefits of early childhood programs, and public
programs were more accessible and convenient to parents; (3) public
early childhood programs in the other countries have numerous quality
standards, including specialized teacher training requirements; (4)
early childhood program teachers in the other countries are encouraged
to prepare young children for life using overall balanced approaches
that teach the physical, emotional, social, and cognitive skills that
children must eventually develop; (5) teacher turnover rates in the
other countries were lower than the teacher turnover rates for U.S.
programs; (6) unlike many U.S. early childhood teachers, all the
teachers in the other countries were public elementary school teachers
and received pensions, leave, and health care benefits; (7) although
child-to-staff ratios in Denmark and Italy were generally within the
range recommended for U.S. programs, child-to-staff ratios in France
were higher; (8) the other countries' national and local governments
substantially subsidized their early childhood programs; and (9)
staffing costs per child varied among countries because of differences
in child-to-staff ratios and staff training and experience.
--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------
REPORTNUM: HEHS-95-45BR
TITLE: Early Childhood Programs: Promoting the Development of
Young Children in Denmark, France, and Italy
DATE: 02/03/95
SUBJECT: Comparative analysis
Foreign governments
Head-start programs
Children
Preschoolers
Child care programs
Educational programs
Elementary education
Demographic data
Teachers
IDENTIFIER: Child Care and Development Block Grant
Denmark
France
Italy
National Education Goals
Goals 2000
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Cover
================================================================ COVER
Briefing Report to the Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on
Children and Families, Committee on Labor and Human Resources, U.S.
Senate
February 1995
EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAMS -
PROMOTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
CHILDREN IN DENMARK, FRANCE, AND
ITALY
GAO/HEHS-95-45BR
Early Childhood Programs Abroad
Abbreviations
=============================================================== ABBREV
CDA - Child Development Associate
NAEYC - National Association for the Education of Young Children
OMB - Office of Management and Budget
ZEP - Zones d'Education Prioritaires
Letter
=============================================================== LETTER
B-250919
February 3, 1995
The Honorable Christopher J. Dodd
Ranking Minority Member
Subcommittee on Children
and Families
Committee on Labor and Human
Resources
United States Senate
Dear Senator Dodd:
The national demand for high-quality, early childhood programs has
grown in recent years.\1 These programs are increasingly sought by
parents who, while they work or attend school, want their children to
be cared for in a safe and nurturing setting. In addition, experts
believe that early childhood programs are a means to enhance
children's success in school. Many also see early childhood programs
as a way for the growing numbers of low-income children to begin
school on a par with their more advantaged peers.
As you know, the Congress has tried to address these issues in a
number of ways. In 1994, the Congress enacted the Goals 2000:
Educate America Act, legislation that sets forth the national goal to
provide high-quality early childhood programs for all children.\2 The
Congress also reauthorized the Head Start program, which provides a
range of child development and other services to children from poor
families.\3 The Head Start legislation emphasizes improved quality
and expands the program so it can reach even more young children.
Finally, the recently reauthorized Elementary and Secondary Education
Act of 1965 allows the use of funds for activities that benefit
preschool-aged, low-income children.
However, concerns remain about the nation's early childhood programs.
The participation rate in these programs is much lower for children
from low-income families than for other children. Some of these
programs are inaccessible because they are unaffordable or operate
during hours that are inconvenient to working families. Other
programs provide low-quality services. All of these issues are
likely to be included in upcoming debates in the 104th Congress about
(1) the Child Care and Development Block Grant, which provides child
care subsidies to low-income parents, and (2) proposals to reform the
nation's welfare system, which are likely to increase the need for
early childhood programs if more parents are required to work or
attend training.
To provide a context for discussing early childhood programs in the
United States, you asked us to develop information concerning the
policies and practices of other countries that have such programs.
This report gives a brief overview of the ways that three European
countries, Denmark, France, and Italy,
provide early childhood programs to large numbers of children,
promote high quality, and
finance such programs.
This report serves to formalize the information discussed with your
office on January 27, 1995.
--------------------
\1 The term "high quality" is generally used to describe environments
in early childhood program settings that support and enhance
children's development. Some elements often associated with high
quality in the research literature or professional standards include
well-trained teachers, a child-focused, developmentally appropriate
curriculum; low staff turnover; low child-staff ratios; small group
sizes; and good working relationships with parents. In this report
"early childhood programs" are any that provide education and care in
center-based settings. High-quality care, however, can be provided
in other settings.
\2 The Goals 2000: Educate America Act (P.L. 103-227) also includes
seven other goals that concern (1) graduation from high school, (2)
academic achievement and citizenship, (3) math and science
achievement, (4) teacher education and development, (5) adult
literacy, (6) drug- and violence-free schools, and (7) parental
participation.
\3 The Office of Management and Budget defines "poor" based on family
size and annual household income. Currently, a family of four with
an annual income below $14,800 is considered poor. However, in this
report we use the term "low income" broadly and do not limit
ourselves to a single economic measure.
BACKGROUND
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :1
Most preschool-aged children in Denmark, France, and Italy attend
center-based early childhood programs. The governmental levels and
departments responsible for managing these programs differ among the
countries.
In Denmark, public early childhood programs are completely separate
from the public school system and are administered by the Ministry of
Social Affairs. However, municipalities are responsible for the
day-to-day operation of these programs. Municipalities can also
establish early childhood programs and operate them directly or
through management contracts with independent or private
institutions. The Ministry's broadly stated guidelines list the
following objectives for early childhood programs: provide an
environment that supplements child-rearing experiences in the home,
offer security and protection, and encourage the child's curiosity
and desire to learn. National and municipal policy--as well as
contracts or agreements negotiated between the municipalities,
unions, and early childhood programs--establish minimum classroom and
facility standards.
French public early childhood programs are administered by the
Ministry of National Education. It shares responsibility for these
programs, however, with the municipalities. French public policy
related to early childhood programs seeks to ensure that all programs
stimulate children's capabilities for development.
In Italy, the Ministry of Education operates national early childhood
programs and broadly supervises other programs, including ones
operated by municipalities. National schools are required to follow
Ministry guidelines, which discuss the development of the child's
personality in every dimension, the role of the school in protecting
the rights of the child, the importance of continuity within the
school setting and between home and school, and the importance of
mainstreaming special needs children, including ethnic and language
minorities, into regular classrooms. Municipal schools may follow
these guidelines or adopt their own approaches.
RESULTS IN BRIEF
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :2
Among 4-year-olds, 76 percent in Denmark and 100 percent in France
attended public, center-based early childhood programs in 1992
compared with 55 percent in the United States in 1990. In Italy in
1992, about 92 percent of all children aged 3 to 5 attended early
childhood programs, most of which were public. Children in the three
European countries attended public programs that were accessible to
parents because (1) sliding fee scales allowed children in families
at every income level to participate if their parents desired and (2)
full-day services made programs convenient for parents, especially
those who worked. In addition, children in these countries
participated at high rates because parents believed that early
childhood programs were beneficial for their children.
Public programs in these countries had elements of quality that have
been identified in the research literature or professional standards
as enhancing the development of children. Early childhood teachers
in Denmark, France, and Italy received from 2 to 3.5 years of
specialized training either at the high school, college, or
university level to prepare them for their profession. In general,
early childhood programs in these countries encouraged teachers to
prepare young children for life using balanced approaches that
included activities consistent with the (1) developmental age of a
child and (2) physical, emotional, social, and cognitive skills that
children must eventually develop. Teacher turnover at sites we
visited in all three countries was lower than the 26-percent turnover
rate reported for American programs in 1991.\4 Unlike many early
childhood teachers in the United States, all teachers in the three
European countries were public employees; received salaries equal to
or slightly lower than those of elementary school teachers; and
received pensions, leave, and health care benefits. Finally, at the
sites we visited in Denmark and Italy, child-staff ratios were
generally within the range recommended for U.S. programs by the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (which is
about 7 to 10 children per one teacher), but the ratios at the sites
we visited in France were higher. These ratios ranged from 6.6:1 to
8:1 in Denmark, 11.3:1 to 16:1 in France, and 5:1 to 7.6:1 in Italy.
National and local governments substantially financed early childhood
programs in the three countries we studied; in each country these
entities together covered about 70 percent or more of the costs of
early childhood programs. At the sites we visited, staffing costs
per child were higher in Denmark and Italy and lower in France than
the average staffing cost of Head Start programs in the United
States. These differences were due to variations in child-staff
ratios and staff training and experience.
--------------------
\4 See Marcy Whitebook, Deborah Phillips, and Carollee Howes, The
National Child Care Staffing Study Revisited: Four Years in the Life
of Center-based Child Care (Oakland, Calif.: Child Care Employee
Project, 1993).
SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
------------------------------------------------------------ Letter :3
This study focused on children aged 3 through 5 and public programs
that provided services to young children in early childhood centers.
On the basis of an extensive literature review and discussions with
experts in the field of early childhood education, we selected
countries for study that (1) had high participation in early
childhood programs by preschool-aged children and (2) were
recommended to us by a panel of experts as having high-quality
programs. We interviewed national, regional, and local government
officials, union officials, and professors and researchers
knowledgeable about early childhood education and programs in these
countries. We visited a total of 24 early childhood program sites in
the three countries where we observed classroom activities,
interviewed program staff, and collected information about staff
training and years of experience (see app. I). We judgmentally
selected these sites to represent diverse populations and geographic
areas; however, they are not representative of all programs in
Denmark, France, and Italy. This report was reviewed by individuals
knowledgeable about the early childhood programs in each country, and
changes were made when appropriate.
---------------------------------------------------------- Letter :3.1
As arranged with your office, unless you announce its contents
earlier, we plan no further distribution of this report until 30 days
after the date of this letter. At that time, we will send copies to
the Secretaries of Education, and Health and Human Services and
provide copies to others on request.
Please contact Beatrice F. Birman, Assistant Director, on (202)
512-7008 if you or your staff have any questions. Other GAO
contributors to this briefing report are listed in appendix II.
Sincerely yours,
Linda G. Morra
Director, Education
and Employment Issues
PROMOTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
CHILDREN IN DENMARK, FRANCE, AND
ITALY
============================================================ Chapter 1
Table 1.1
Participation Abroad Higher Than in the
United States
Age As of As of
group As of school school Based on
particip January year 1991- year 1991- 1990
ating 1992 92 92 Census data
-------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------
Aged 5 76%\a 100% \b 81%
Aged 4 76 100 \b 55
Aged 3 60 99 \b 30
----------------------------------------------------------
\a Participation is lower in Denmark than in France and Italy in part
because compulsory school age in Denmark is 7.
\b The total participation for all age groups combined was 92
percent.
PARTICIPATION IN PROGRAMS
ABROAD IS HIGHER THAN IN UNITED
STATES
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:1
Almost all preschool-aged children in France and most children in
Denmark and Italy attend publicly funded, center-based programs.
(See table 1.1.) Children in the United States attend preschool
programs in many different settings that are funded by governments as
well as businesses and other private organizations. Children in
these European countries participate in publicly funded early
childhood programs at high rates despite the differences in labor
force participation of women in these countries. In the United
States, the labor force participation rate of women aged 25 to 34 was
72.6 percent in 1988; while in Denmark the rate was 90 percent; and
in France and Italy, 74.5 and 60.8 percent, respectively.\5 One
reason for children's high participation rates in early childhood
programs in these European countries is that parents believe that
these programs are beneficial for their children.
Table 1.2
Number of Children Aged 3, 4, and 5 in
Denmark, France, Italy, and the United
States
Number of
children of 1992 of 1990 of 1990 of 1990
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------
Aged 5 56,245 752,486 587,733 3,569,711
Aged 4 56,886 758,293 570,903 3,624,534
Aged 3 59,380 754,928 557,121 3,610,486
------------------------------------------------------------
\a Numbers for France and Italy are population projections, not
actuals.
Sources: Denmark, Ministry of Social Affairs; France and Italy,
International Programs Center, U.S. Bureau of the Census; United
--------------------
\5 Women aged 25 to 34 are considered to be in the primary
childbearing and childrearing period. The figure cited for Italy
includes women aged 25 to 39.
PUBLIC PROGRAMS ABROAD ARE
WIDELY AVAILABLE
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:2
All three European countries have universal access policies; that is,
public early childhood programs are open to all children and used by
most. These countries do not base program eligibility on family
income the way Head Start and some state programs in the United
States do.\6 Special provisions, however, are made to promote
participation by low-income children (for example, nominal fees and
sliding fee scales, see pp. 14 to 15).
Despite universal access policies, spaces are not always available
for all children whose parents wish them to attend early childhood
programs. Denmark maintains waiting lists for spaces in its early
childhood programs. About 6,000 Danish children aged 3 to 6 (or
about 3 percent of all children in this age group) are on waiting
lists. The Danish government is trying to make more spaces available
for children. In 1993 and 1994, 40,000 new places for Danish
children from birth to age 10 were created in center-based child care
programs. France does not appear to have difficulty accommodating 3-
and 4-year-olds in its early childhood programs. In Italy, when a
waiting list of more than 15 children forms, the government opens a
new school to serve them. This has not occurred recently, though,
because of a declining Italian birth rate.
In our previous report, Poor Preschool-Aged Children: Numbers
Increase but Most Not in Preschool (GAO/HRD-93-111BR, July 21, 1993),
we found that in the United States, while the number of children in
low-income families increased between 1980 and 1990, these children
were less likely than others to participate in early childhood
programs.\7 According to our analysis of the 1990 Census, about 65
percent of children in low-income families in the United States did
not attend early childhood centers in 1989 compared with about 40
percent of children in high-income families who did not attend.
Table 1.3
Preschool Programs Are Full-Day
Operating Italy Italy
schedule Denmark France (national) (municipal)
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------
Months 12 10 10 10
Days M-F M-F M-F
M,T,Th.,F,
Sat.
a.m.\a
Total 50\b 27\c 40\d 40\d
hours/
week
------------------------------------------------------------
\a All French schools are closed on Wednesdays.
\b Some programs in Copenhagen are open 24 hours a day.
\c Supplemental services are available for 30 additional hours per
week before and after school, all day Wednesdays, and during vacation
time at the end of the regular school year.
\d Total program hours vary from 25 to 50 hours per week, but 40
hours is typical. While most national schools are open 40 hours,
municipal schools are generally open longer because teacher
--------------------
\6 The Head Start program generally uses the Office of Management and
Budget's (OMB) definition of poverty to determine eligibility.
\7 The children referred to here are those whose family income is at
or below 185 percent of the OMB poverty definition.
PROGRAMS ARE FULL-DAY
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:3
Virtually all programs in Denmark, France, and Italy are full-day
(see table 1.3), unlike many in the United States. In France and
Italy, we were told that core early childhood programs are often
supplemented by before- and after-school programs and sometimes
holiday care, which help working parents. For example, in France the
Ministry of Youth and Sports funds special programs for children
after school and on holidays.
In the United States, most Head Start programs and public
school-sponsored early childhood programs are part-day. Parents must
arrange for supplemental programs or family care if they need to work
full time and their children attend part-day programs. While some
early childhood programs in the United States were primarily designed
and implemented to enhance child development, others were generally
designed to provide child care so that parents can work. These
programs may be more likely to provide full-day care, but may be less
likely to have features associated with child development, such as
highly trained teachers and low staff
(See figure in printed
edition.)
PARENTS PAY LOW FEES; SLIDING
SCALES APPLY
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:4
All three countries use sliding fee scales to determine the cost to
parents for early childhood programs; these sliding scales along with
low fees especially benefit low-income families. In Denmark, where
parents pay a portion of operating costs, discounts are granted when
(1) parents have low incomes, (2) their children have special needs
(for example, social, pedagogical, physical, or mental), or (3) two
or more siblings are enrolled in an early childhood program. As of
January 1992, 45 percent of parents with children aged 3 to 6
enrolled in an early childhood program had received discounts. In
France and Italy, parents do not pay for operating costs, only for
supplemental services. Parents in France pay for meals and care
before and after school and during vacations. Italian parents pay
for meals, transportation, field trips, and special programs such as
second language and music programs.
In addition to sliding fee scales for parents, France has created
Zones d'Education Prioritaires (ZEP or education priority zones),
which receive additional educational resources because they are more
likely to have children who are at risk of school failure; these
zones are also more likely to have many low-income families. Early
childhood programs in the ZEPs
serve 2-year-olds in addition to 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds;
hire more teachers to reduce class sizes; and
receive extra materials and expert consulting.
Municipalities in Denmark and Italy generally give priority to
low-income and other special needs children when space is limited.
In the United States, while the federal government and states
subsidize child care costs for many children, including those in
low-income families, sufficient funds are not made available to cover
all eligible children and families.
Approximately 85 percent of U.S. center-based, early childhood
programs charge some parents for their services. According to a 1990
report by Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., for the Department of
Education, 3 percent of Head Start programs, 39 percent of public
school-sponsored, and most other types of early childhood programs
charged parents some fees for care. Parent fees, on average, made up
75 percent of the income received by center-based programs. Since
the late 1970s, parent fees have increased as a proportion of
center-based programs' budgets, while government funding decreased.\8
--------------------
\8 A Profile of Child Care Settings: Early Education and Care in
1990: Executive Summary (Princeton: Mathematica Policy U.S.
research suggests that high-quality early childhood programs
encourage greater overall social, intellectual, physical, and
emotional competence in all children who participate. High-quality
programs also seem to have especially positive implications for the
intellectual development of low-income children. According to
experts in the field of early childhood development and the
accrediting standards of the National Association for the Education
of Young Children (NAEYC), the following are some basic elements
associated with high-quality early childhood programs. U.S.
researchers have found that staff who have postsecondary training and
those who have training in child development or early childhood
education exhibit behaviors that encourage child development.
NAEYC's accrediting body, known as the National Academy of Early
Childhood Programs, suggests that program directors and master
teachers have at least a relevant bachelor's degree and 3 years of
experience; teachers and assistant teachers, a Child Development
Associate (CDA) National Credential; and teaching assistants, some
training in the field. Experts recognize in-service training as very
important in maintaining well-trained staff. An emphasis on child
development includes (1) interactions among staff and children that
are positive, supportive, and individualized; and (2) a
developmentally appropriate curriculum that encourages children to be
actively involved in learning. A program or curriculum is
developmentally appropriate when the environment, materials, and
teaching practices are appropriate to the children's levels of
understanding and unique ways of
\9 See David Elkind, "The Resistance to Developmentally Appropriate
Educational Practice with Young Children: The Real Issue," A
Resource Guide to Public School Early Childhood Programs, ed.
Cynthia Warger (Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1988), p. 53.
CHILD DEVELOPMENT EMPHASIS
LEARNING.\9 SUCH A
CURRICULUM INCLUDES A
VARIETY OF PLANNED,
CHILD-ORIENTED ACTIVITIES
THAT HELP TO DEVELOP
CHILDREN'S PHYSICAL,
EMOTIONAL, SOCIAL, AND
COGNITIVE SKILLS.
-------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:5.2
LOW STAFF TURNOVER
-------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:5.3
Research suggests that children develop best in centers where low
teacher turnover is a feature. According to NAEYC, every attempt
should be made to ensure the consistent presence of adults who work
with children. Low turnover is related to teacher compensation.
Teachers are more likely to remain at centers where they receive
adequate salaries and benefits.
LOW CHILD-STAFF RATIOS
-------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:5.4
The research generally indicates that low child-staff ratios
facilitate good caregiving behaviors, such as use of developmentally
appropriate practices and increased interactions between adults and
children. NAEYC recommends the following child-staff ratio ranges,
depending on the size of the group\10
that children attend: 7:1 to 10:1 for 3-year-olds in groups of 14 to
20 children and 8:1 to 10:1 for 4- and 5-year-olds in groups of
--------------------
\10 NAEYC defines a group as the number of children assigned to a
staff member or team of staff members occupying an individual
classroom or well-defined space within a larger room.
SPECIAL TEACHER TRAINING AND
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:6
In Denmark, teachers in early childhood programs were required to
have 3.5 years of college-level theoretical and practical training.
In France, teachers for children aged 2 through 12 generally received
the same training regardless of whether they taught elementary school
or early childhood programs; training included 3 years of general
university-level training plus 2 years of specialized training. In
Italy, teachers in early childhood programs were required to have 3
years of specialized training in high school. In the United States,
teacher training requirements varied from state to state. About 54
percent of all Head Start teachers in 1992 had a CDA, according to
the Head Start Bureau's Program Information Report data, and about 79
percent had a CDA or a degree in early childhood education.
With regard to in-service training, requirements did not exist in
Denmark; however, the teachers' union, teacher colleges, and some
municipalities provided in-service training courses. In one city we
visited, the municipality offered 20 different courses for teachers.
In France, teachers were allowed to have 1 week of training per year
or 3 weeks of training every 3 years. In Italy, teachers were
required to devote between 20 to 40 hours per year to a variety of
professional development activities. Italian teachers in the region
of Emilia Romagna, for example, received this training through a
series of courses sponsored by regional and municipal educational
authorities. The courses were designed to improve the pedagogical
and interpersonal skills of teachers in early childhood programs.
We found different types of technical assistance and program
monitoring in the three countries, although we were not able to
observe or evaluate their quality. Larger municipalities in Denmark
employed pedagogical consultants to help teachers improve program
quality. In France, a system of inspectors monitored program quality
and provided information about sound educational practices. In
Italy, practices differed among different types of schools--the
Ministry of Education employed inspectors to improve quality at
national schools, while municipalities sometimes employed pedagogical
coordinators to improve quality at local schools. For example, in
the region of Emilia Romagna, many municipalities had pedagogical
coordinators who were each
(See figure in printed
edition.)
CHILD DEVELOPMENT EMPHASIS
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:7
As we previously stated, a child development emphasis aims to promote
children's physical, emotional, social, and cognitive skills. The
countries that we visited attempted to address many aspects of
children's development, although we were not able to observe these
aspects at all early childhood program sites in each country.
In Denmark, a publication by the Danish National Institute of Social
Research states that
"Danish nursery schools pay little heed to formal instruction,
competition, and achievement. Instead, the emphasis is on
self-expressive games, on the role of the imagination and on
creative activities, on the attainment of social maturity
through group activities, on linguistic development, and on the
overall stimulation of the children with the help of a wide
range of materials and activities."\11
In France, according to the Ministry of National Education, the
general objective of its �cole maternelle [early childhood program]
is to develop all of the possibilities of the child, permitting him
to form his own personality and giving him the best chance to prepare
for elementary school. The ecole maternelle permits young children
to develop language skills and to express their personality.
Officially, there are four categories of activities for children in
French early childhood programs: oral and written communication,
scientific and technical activities, arts (including manipulative
arts, painting, working with clay and plastics, performing arts), and
physical activities.
In Italy, according to guidelines that were not prescriptive but that
set forth good practices, national early childhood programs were
encouraged to promote the development of identity; the acquisition of
autonomy and self-reliance; and the development of cognitive,
emotional, and social skills in young children. In particular,
teachers observe a child's body and movement; language and words; and
interactions with people and things. The municipal schools we
visited also emphasized various aspects of child development.
In the three countries we visited, programs addressed both child care
and child development needs. In the United States, some programs
emphasize child development, while others emphasize the provision of
child care so that parents can work or attend training. Centers
funded by programs that focus on the provision of child care are less
likely to have features associated with
(See figure in printed
edition.)
--------------------
\11 Jacob Vedel-Petersen, "Daycare for Children under School Age in
Denmark," The Danish National Institute of Social Research
(Copenhagen: 1992).
PROGRAM IN REGGIO EMILIA
CONSIDERED AMONG BEST
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:8
The municipal programs we visited in northern Italy each appeared to
be adopting innovative practices. One municipality in particular,
Reggio Emilia, has been recognized around the world as being a leader
in early childhood practices.
In Reggio Emilia, children between the ages of 3 and 6 remain with
the same group of children for 3 years. This practice fosters
stability and continuity in the relationships that form among
children, parents, and teachers. During this 3-year period, Reggio
Emilia teachers attempt to respond to children's ideas and interests,
and discussions with children often lead to long-term projects
completed by small groups of children.
One primary approach used is an emphasis on art. Children are
encouraged to express themselves through drawing, sculpture, dramatic
play, and writing. Each school has a full-time art teacher and a
large art room. Each class has a mini art room to work on long-term,
child-directed projects without having to clean up. These projects
(for example, "How Houses Are Built" or "What Happens at the
Supermarket?") allow children to explore a specific topic or problem
in depth through direct observation, asking questions of relevant
participants and experts, and collecting related materials. Children
then record their observations, memories, and feelings in a variety
of artistic and often colorful ways. Their work is displayed
throughout the school in hallways, classrooms, and reception areas to
chronicle the learning experience and inform classmates and parents.
The physical structure of Reggio Emilia schools is another unique
characteristic of this municipality's early childhood program.
Planners designed and equipped the space to facilitate social
exchanges among and between adults and children. Each school
includes a large central area where all children and teachers can
meet, smaller work spaces, and the mini art rooms mentioned above.
The classrooms are typically arranged around an open central area.
School buildings also include other rooms where families can gather
and usually a glass-enclosed kitchen so that children and parents can
observe food preparation.
Cooperative, noncompetitive relationships between teachers and
parents are an important attribute of the Reggio Emilia program.
Teachers and parents are considered partners, and parent-teacher
boards influence local government decisions about issues that affect
the program. When a child is first enrolled, parents provide
teachers with information about the child's sleeping, eating, and
play habits, and teachers encourage parents to attend class with
their child until the child feels comfortable with the teacher and
the program. Parents remain involved in the program by attending
field trips and other program activities that are viewed by many
parents and teachers as major social events for their families.
In addition to these attributes, Reggio Emilia's program is also
highly rated by early childhood experts because it gives a great
amount of autonomy to teachers. Centers do not have directors; the
teachers work with each other, pedagogical coordinators, and
(See figure in printed
edition.)
TURNOVER LOW AT PROGRAMS WITH
GOOD PAY, BENEFITS
---------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:9
The program sites we visited in France (nine sites) and Italy (nine
sites) had replaced virtually none of their teachers during the
previous year. Three of the sites in Denmark we visited lost about
one in five teachers in calendar year 1993; but most teachers at each
center had worked over 5 years.\12 In contrast, The National Child
Care Staffing Study Revisited reported that in 1991, average turnover
among early childhood staff in the United States was 26 percent, down
from about 40 percent in 1987.\13 The study reported that in 1987-88,
public school teachers left their jobs at a rate of 5.6 percent.
In the three European countries, great differences did not exist
between the salaries of early childhood teachers and those of other
school teachers. In Denmark, starting salaries of early childhood
teachers were about 8 percent lower than those of elementary school
teachers in April 1993. French early childhood and elementary school
teachers received the same salaries, and Italian starting salaries
were about 10 percent lower for early childhood teachers than for
their elementary school counterparts in April 1994. However, U.S.
early childhood teacher salaries were much lower than elementary
school teacher salaries. The average annual salary of an American
early childhood teacher receiving the lowest pay, $11,375 in 1992,
was about half of that paid to a beginning public school teacher that
same year. Even the highest paid early childhood teacher receiving
an average salary of $15,488 was paid considerably less than public
elementary school teachers in 1992.
Few early childhood teachers in the United States receive job
benefits such as pensions or health insurance. The National Child
Care Staffing Study\14 found that early childhood programs provided
most teachers with (1) at least a day of sick leave, paid holiday,
and paid vacation and (2) reduced fees for child care services for
their own children. However, only about 17 percent of both full- and
part-time staff had retirement plans and about 33 percent received
some form of paid health insurance. Of the 193 centers surveyed
again in 1992, 36 percent offered no health coverage, 24 percent
partially paid premiums for all of their teaching staffs, and 18
percent provided full coverage for all of their teaching staff. (The
1992 survey did not ask respondents about benefits other than
health.) In all three European countries, early childhood teachers
are public employees and receive vacation, sick
--------------------
\12 We visited six sites in Denmark, but we excluded three sites from
our discussion of turnover because one site had been open less than a
year and information gathered at two sites was incomplete.
\13 A 1992 study found a 40-percent turnover rate among the early
childhood centers reviewed. S. Scarr, D. Phillips, K. McCartney,
and M. Abbott-Shim, "Quality of Child Care as an Aspect of Family
and Child-Care Policy in the United States," Pediatrics, Vol. 91,
No. 1 (1993), pp. 182-188.
\14 M. Whitebook, C. Howes, and D. Phillips, Who Cares? Child
Care Teachers and the Quality of Care in America: Final Report of
the National Child Care Staffing Study (Oakland, Calif.: Child Care
Employee Project, 1989).
CHILD-STAFF RATIOS VARY;
FRANCE'S IS HIGHER THAN UNITED
STATES'
--------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:10
Child-staff ratios at the sites we visited in Denmark and Italy are
lower than in France. The average ratios for the schools we visited
in Denmark and Italy were 7.3:1 and 6.5:1, respectively.\15
France's average child-staff ratio across the sites we reviewed was
13.8:1, about two times higher than Denmark's or Italy's and over 50
percent higher than the average Head Start ratio of 8.7:1.
Typical child-staff ratios for early childhood programs in these
three countries, however, differed from the ratios we found at the
sites we visited. For example, the Danish National Institute of
Social Research reported that, though staff numbers can vary from
program to program, on average 5.5 children aged 3 through 6 are
assigned to 1 adult. An official of the Ministry of National
Education said that in France, early childhood classes have on
average 27 children to 1 teacher; however, teachers can sometimes
share the services of a teaching assistant and are also supported by
psychologists and other educators. In Italy, early childhood
programs generally have a child-staff ratio of 8.3:1--that is, about
25 children are assigned to 3 staff (2 teachers and 1 helper)
--------------------
\15 We included in this analysis only four of the six Danish schools
we visited because data from two sites were incomplete.
STAFFING COSTS PER CHILD AT
SITES VISITED
--------------------------------------------------------- Chapter 1:11
The average per child cost for Head Start instructional staff for
1992 was $1,390, according to a U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services official.\16 The instructional staff costs at the early
childhood programs we visited were higher in Denmark and Italy, and
lower at most sites in France than Head Start's average cost.\17
To compare instructional staff costs per child, we interviewed
instructional staff using a structured interview guide. We gathered
information about the child-staff ratios, education levels, and years
of experience of instructional staff (teachers, aides, pedagogues,
and directors) at the 24 program sites we visited in Denmark, France,
and Italy (see app. I).\18 (Other staff, such as cooks,
housekeepers, and secretaries, were not included in our analysis.) We
then assigned each of these individuals the 1992 salary rate for U.S.
Head Start teachers with comparable attributes. Using these imputed
salaries, we calculated per child costs based on the total number of
children and instructional staff at the sites we visited. Finally,
we compared per child costs in Head Start programs (based on the
average classroom ratio of two staff--a teacher and an aide--and 17
children) with our imputed costs per child at the sites we visited in
each European country.
We analyzed only staff salary data because personnel costs often make
up the largest portion of total center costs, and we specifically
focused on instructional staff salaries because (1) they make up the
largest portion of personnel costs and (2) we were unable to find
comparable Head Start salary data for other staff. We did not
include fringe benefits in this analysis because they vary widely
across countries and are difficult to cost out.
On the basis of our analysis, it is very likely that the cost of the
U.S. Head Start program would be higher than it currently is if the
program (1) maintained current child-staff ratios and (2) hired
teachers with education and experience comparable with that of the
instructional staff at the 24 sites we studied in Denmark, France,
and Italy.
--------------------
\16 The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported that
the average per child cost for Head Start was $3,415 in fiscal year
1992. This number includes all program costs, including those
associated with providing social and health services to program
participants except health services covered by Medicaid and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture Child Care Food Program.
\17 We included in this analysis only four of the six Danish schools
we visited because data from two sites were incomplete.
\18 Program directors were included in our calculations if they
taught classes in addition to their administrative or managerial
duties.
EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAM SITES
INCLUDED IN THIS REVIEW
=========================================================== Appendix I
DENMARK
Den Integredrede Institution "Regnbuen," Kobenhavn Kommune
Den Integredrede Institution "Garverg�rden," Kobenhavn Kommune
Sondervang, Ringsted Kommune
Sct. Georgs G�rdens Bornehave, Ringsted Kommune
Nybrog�rd Borneinstitution, Gladsaxe Kommune
Bornehaven Hojmarksvej, Gladsaxe Kommune
FRANCE
�cole Maternelle Louise Michel, Port St Louis du Rh�ne
�cole Maternelle Jonqui�re, Fos-Sur-Mer
�cole Maternelle Fontvieille
�cole Maternelle Pierre Goujon, Chateauneuf de Gadagne
�cole Maternelle, rue Boulainvilliers, Paris
�cole Maternelle, rue de M�nilmontant, Paris
�cole Maternelle, rue Mouffetard, Paris
�cole Maternelle, rue de la Goutte d'Or, Paris
�cole Maternelle Jean Moulin, Les Mureaux
ITALY
MUNICIPAL SCHOOLS (SCUOLE
COMUNALI)
------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:0.1
Scuola Materna "Don Milani," Comune di Bologna
Scuola Materna "Ciari," Comune di Bologna
Scuola Materna "Pasi," Comune di Ravenna
Scuola Dell Infanzia "Villetta," Comune di Reggio Emilia
Scuola Dell'Infanzia "Diana," Comune di Reggio Emilia
NATIONAL SCHOOLS (SCUOLE
STATALI)
------------------------------------------------------- Appendix I:0.2
Scuola Materna "Caravaggio," Comune di Casalecchio di Reno (Bologna)
Scuola Materna "Theodoli," Comune di Zola Predosa (Bologna)
Scuola Materna "Di Lido Adriano," Comune di Ravenna
Scuola Materna "G. Pascoli," Comune di Reggio Emilia
GAO CONTACT AND STAFF
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
========================================================== Appendix II
GAO CONTACT
Beatrice F. Birman, Assistant Director, (202) 512-7008
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following individuals made important contributions to this
report: Karen Whiten assumed the role of project manager in November
1994; in this capacity she wrote and finalized the draft and oversaw
this report through issuance. Sherlie Svestka planned this review,
managed the data collection, and wrote the initial report draft.
Michele Grgich collected much of the data from local sites and
contributed to report writing. Theodore Zeunges conducted a
literature review of early childhood programs in other countries and
collected data. James Perez also helped with data collection. Luann
Moy developed the questionnaire used for interviewing country
officials. Alicia Cackley developed the methodology for collecting
per child staffing cost data and provided technical advice. Veronica
Scott analyzed the per child staffing cost data. Laurel Rabin
assisted with writing the initial report draft.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
========================================================= Appendix III
GAO would also like to acknowledge the assistance of the U.S. panel
of experts, embassy officials, and translators and the many local and
national government officials and staff, interpreters, reviewers, and
translators in Denmark, France, and Italy who helped us in various
ways during this review.
RELATED GAO PRODUCTS
============================================================ Chapter 0
Child Care: Child Care Subsidies Increase Likelihood That Low-Income
Mothers Will Work (GAO/HEHS-95-20, Dec. 30, 1994).
Early Childhood Programs: Parent Education and Income Best Predict
Participation (GAO/HEHS-95-47, Dec. 28, 1994).
Early Childhood Programs: Local Perspectives on Barriers to
Providing Head Start Services (GAO/HEHS-95-8, Dec. 21, 1994).
Child Care: Promoting Quality in Family Child Care (GAO/HEHS-95-36,
Dec. 7, 1994).
Early Childhood Programs: Multiple Programs and Overlapping Target
Groups (GAO/HEHS-95-4FS, Oct. 31, 1994).
Early Childhood Programs: Many Poor Children and Strained Resources
Challenge Head Start (GAO/HEHS-94-169BR, May 17, 1994).
Child Care: Working Poor and Welfare Recipients Face Service Gaps
(GAO/HEHS-94-87, May 13, 1994).
Poor Preschool-Aged Children: Numbers Increase but Most Not in
Preschool (GAO/HRD-93-111BR, July 21, 1993).
Early Childhood Education: What Are the Costs of High-Quality
Programs? (GAO/HRD-90-43BR, Jan. 24, 1990).