State and Federal Prisoners: Profiles of Inmate Characteristics in 1991
and 1997 (Letter Report, 05/24/2000, GAO/GGD-00-117).
Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the
profiles of felons incarcerated in federal and state correctional
facilities, focusing on: (1) the overall profiles for state and federal
prison inmates in 1997; and (2) acomparison of 1991 and 1997 profiles to
determine whether there were any changes in the overall profiles for
state and federal inmates.
GAO noted that: (1) in 1997, the majority of inmates in state and in
federal prisons were male, minority, and unmarried; (2) most inmates had
either a high school degree or its equivalent; (3) in 1997, at least
two-thirds of both federal and state inmates reported being employed in
the month before arrest (4) comparing 1991 and 1997, primary changes in
personal demographics involved the age of inmates in state prisons and
racial compositions; (5) in 1997, 44 percent of state inmates and 54
percent of federal inmates reported growing up in homes with both
parents present; (6) although in 1997, the majority of inmates reported
no family history of drug or alcohol abuse, 31 percent of the state
inmates and 20 percent of the federal inmates reported that they had
lived with parents who abused drugs or alcohol; (7) while most inmates
in 1997 reported that they had experienced no sexual or physical abuse
as children, differences between men and women were dramatic; (8) in
state prisons in 1997, 47 percent of the inmates reported that they had
been sentenced for violent crimes, 22 percent for property crimes and 20
percent for drug crimes, compared to 15 percent of federal inmates who
reported that they had been sentenced for violent crimes, 6 percent for
property crimes, and 62 percent for drug crimes; (9) in both federal and
state prisons in 1997, minority inmates were more likely to be
incarcerated for drug crimes; (10) 75 percent of state inmates and 60
percent of federal inmates in 1997 reported that they had served prior
sentences; (11) 46 percent of state inmates and 27 percent of federal
inmates in 1997 reported that they were on probation or parole at the
time of their most recent arrest; (12) the percentage of federal inmates
who reported no prior sentences decreased by almost 10-percentage points
from 1991 to in 1997, while the percentage of inmates who reported 3 or
more prior sentences increased by 8 percentage points; and (13) in 1997,
56 percent of inmates and 46 percent federal inmates reported they had
participated in alcohol/drug treatment programs.
--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------
REPORTNUM: GGD-00-117
TITLE: State and Federal Prisoners: Profiles of Inmate
Characteristics in 1991 and 1997
DATE: 05/24/2000
SUBJECT: Statistical data
Correctional facilities
Prisoners
Crimes or offenses
Comparative analysis
Drug abuse
Surveys
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GAO/GGD-00-117
United States General Accounting Office
GAO
Report to the Honorable
Charles B. Rangel
House of Representatives
May 2000
GAO/GGD-00-117
STATE AND FEDERAL PRISONERS
Profiles of Inmate Characteristics in 1991 and
1997
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Contents
Page 101GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Profiles
Letter 1
Appendix I 14
Objectives, Scope, and
Methodology
Objectives 14
Overview of Our Scope and Methodology 14
Appendix II 17
Bureau of Justice
Statistics Surveys of
State and Federal Prison
Inmates
BJS Uses a Two-Stage Process to 17
Develop Its Samples
National Estimates of Prison Inmate 18
Characteristics
Other BJS Reports Provided Information 18
on U.S. Prison Inmates
Appendix III 19
Overall Profiles of
State and Federal Prison
Inmates
Overall Profiles of State Inmates 19
Overall Profile of Federal Prison 26
Inmates
Differences Between the Overall State 34
and Federal Prison Inmate Profiles
Appendix IV 36
Profiles of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
by Type of Current
Offense
Profiles of State Inmates by Type of 36
Current Offense
Profile of Federal Inmates by Type of 42
Current Offense
Differences Between State and Federal 49
Prison Inmate Profiles
Appendix V 52
Profiles of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
by Race
Profiles of State Inmates by Race 52
Differences Between State and Federal 68
Prison Inmate Profiles
Appendix VI 70
Profiles of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
by Gender
Profiles of Male and Female State 70
Inmates
Profiles of Federal Male and Female 76
Prison Inmates
Differences Between State and Federal 83
Prison Inmate Profiles
Appendix VII 84
GAO Contacts and Staff
Acknowledgments
Glossary 85
Bibliography 87
Tables Table III.1: Overall Profile of State 20
Prison Inmates, 1997
Table III.2: Overall Profile of State 25
Prison Inmates, 1991
Table III.3: Overall Profile of 27
Federal Prison Inmates, 1997
Table III.4: Overall Profile of 32
Federal Prison Inmates, 1991
Table IV.1: Profile of State Prison 37
Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
1997
Table IV.2: Profile of State Prison 41
Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
1991
Table IV.3: Profile of Federal Prison 43
Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
1997
Table IV.4: Profile of Federal Prison 47
Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
1991
Table V.1: Profile of State Prison 53
Inmates by Race, 1997
Table V.2: State Inmates With 55
Children, by Race, 1997
Table V.3: Profile of State Prison 57
Inmates by Race, 1991
Table V.4: State Inmates With 59
Children, by Race, 1991
Table V.5: Profile of Federal Prison 61
Inmates by Race, 1997
Table V.6: Federal Inmates With 63
Children, by Race, 1997
Table V.7: Profile of Federal Prison 66
Inmates by Race, 1991
Table V.8: Federal Inmates With 68
Children, by Race, 1991
Table VI.1: Profile of State Prison 71
Inmates by Gender, 1997
Table VI.2: Profile of State Prison 75
Inmates by Gender, 1991
Table VI.3: Profile of Federal Prison 77
Inmates by Gender, 1997
Table VI.4: Profile of Federal Prison 81
Inmates by Gender, 1991
Figures Figure 1: State and Federal Inmate 4
Populations in 1997, by Offense Type
Figure 2: Growth in U.S. Prison 7
Population, 1990 Through 1998
Abbreviations
BJS Bureau of Justice Statistics
BOP Bureau of Prisons
DOJ Department of Justice
SIFCF Survey of Inmates in Federal
Correctional Facilities
SISCF Survey of Inmates in State Correctional
Facilities
OJP Office of Justice Programs
B-284249
Page 8GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Prof
iles
B-284249
May 24, 2000
The Honorable Charles B. Rangel
House of Representatives
Dear Mr. Rangel
In response to your request, we prepared
profiles of felons incarcerated in federal and
state correctional facilities, using data provided
by the Department of Justice's (DOJ) Bureau of
Justice Statistics (BJS) from its two most recent
surveys1 of inmates in federal2 and state3
correctional facilities. As agreed with your
office, we addressed the following questions:
� What were the overall profiles-personal
demographics, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation-for
state and for federal prison inmates in 1997 and
were there any differences between state and
federal inmates or by current offense type,4 race,
and gender?5
� In comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, were
there any changes in the overall profiles for
state and for federal inmates or by current
offense type, race, and gender?
The BJS survey data provided detailed information
on the individual characteristics of state and
federal prison inmates, as reported by the inmates
surveyed in 1991 and 1997. Appendix II contains
additional information on how the surveys were
conducted and analyzed.
Results in Brief
Below is a summary of key observations from the
analysis presented in our report regarding the
overall profiles for state and for federal prison
inmates in 1997, with some comparisons across
offense type, race, and gender. Comparing the 1991
and 1997 data, this discussion also identifies
changes in the profiles. Appendixes III through VI
include more detailed information on the overall
profiles of state and federal prison inmates;
differences by current offense type, race, and
gender; and changes in profiles from 1991 to 1997.
Personal Demographics: Inmates' gender, race, age,
marital status, children, education level, and
employment status at the time of arrest comprised
the personal demographics category. Key
observations within this category included the
following:
� In 1997, the majority of inmates in state and
in federal prisons were male (94 percent of state
inmates and 93 percent of federal inmates),
minority (64 percent of state inmates and 65
percent of federal inmates were black or
Hispanic), and unmarried (17 percent of state
inmates and 30 percent of federal inmates were
currently married).
� About 67 percent of federal and of state
inmates in 1997 were between the ages of 25 and
45. A higher percentage of state inmates, however,
were under age 25 (20 percent) than federal
inmates (9 percent). Also, minorities were more
likely to be under age 35 than whites in both
state and federal prisons.
� Most inmates had either a high school degree
(29 percent of state inmates and 46 percent of
federal inmates) or its equivalent (31 percent of
state inmates and 27 percent of federal inmates)
in 1997. White inmates had more education than did
minority inmates in state and federal prisons.
� In 1997, at least two-thirds of both federal
and state inmates reported being employed in the
month before their arrest.
Comparing 1991 and 1997, the primary changes in
personal demographics involved the age of inmates
in state prisons and racial composition of federal
prisons:
� In state prisons in 1991, 32 percent of
inmates were over age 35, as compared with 42
percent in 1997.
� In federal prisons, in 1991, whites comprised
38 percent and blacks 30 percent of inmates,
compared with 30 percent whites and 38 percent
blacks in 1997.
Family Background: Family background
characteristics included the person with whom the
inmate lived while growing up, whether either
parent abused alcohol or drugs, and whether the
inmate had been physically or sexually abused as a
child. These data indicated the following:
� In 1997, 44 percent of state inmates and 54
percent of federal inmates reported growing up in
homes with both parents present. However, a higher
percentage of whites and Hispanics (half or more
of white and Hispanic state inmates and about two-
thirds of white and Hispanic federal inmates) than
blacks (about one-third of black state and federal
inmates) reported growing up in homes with both
parents.
� Although in 1997, the majority of inmates
reported no family history of drug or alcohol
abuse, 31 percent of the state inmates and 20
percent of the federal inmates reported that they
had lived with parents who abused drugs or
alcohol.
� While most inmates in 1997, reported that
they had experienced no sexual or physical abuse
as children, differences between men and women
were dramatic. Among female inmates in 1997, 36
percent of state inmates and 25 percent of federal
inmates reported that they had been physically or
sexually abused as children; the corresponding
percentages for men were 14 percent in state
prisons and 6 percent in federal prisons. In state
and federal prisons in 1997, higher percentages of
violent offenders (19 and 15 percent,
respectively) reported that they had experienced
some abuse as children, as compared with property
offenders (15 and 7 percent, respectively) or drug
offenders (9 and 5 percent, respectively).
No notable changes in family demographics occurred
between 1991 and 1997.
Criminal Record: The criminal record information
for state and federal inmates included self-
reported data on their current offense type;
criminal justice status at the time of arrest;
prior sentences; and for drug offenders, the type
of drug involved in the current offense. Regarding
criminal records, one of the most distinctive
differences between the two prison systems in 1997
was in the types of offenders they housed. While
state inmates were most frequently incarcerated
for violent crimes, federal offenders were most
frequently incarcerated for drug crimes:
� In state prisons in 1997, 47 percent of the
inmates reported that they had been sentenced for
violent crimes, 22 percent for property crimes,
and 20 percent for drug crimes. By comparison, 15
percent of federal inmates reported that they had
been sentenced for violent crimes, 6 percent for
property crimes, and 62 percent for drug crimes,
as shown in figure 1.
� In both federal and state prisons in 1997,
minority inmates were more likely to be
incarcerated for drug crimes. Female inmates were
also more likely than male inmates to be
incarcerated for drug crimes, while male inmates
were more likely to be incarcerated for violent
crimes.
Figure 1: State and Federal Inmate Populations in
1997, by Offense Type
Source: GAO analysis of data from Survey of
Inmates in Federal Correctional Facilities
(SIFCF), 1997 and Survey of Inmates in State
Correctional Facilities (SISCF), 1997.
Most of state prison inmates reported that they
had been incarcerated previously, and many
reported that they were under judicial supervision
at the time of their arrest. State inmates were
more likely than federal inmates to have been
previously incarcerated or under supervision at
the time of their arrest.
� Seventy-five percent of state inmates and 60
percent of federal inmates in 1997 reported that
they had served prior sentences.
� Forty-six percent of state inmates and 27
percent of federal inmates in 1997 reported that
they were on probation or parole at the time of
their most recent arrest.
Drug offenders in both state and federal prisons
reported crack cocaine and powder cocaine as the
drugs most commonly involved in the current
conviction, followed by methamphetamines and
marijuana. Among state and federal prison
populations:
� Higher percentages of black drug offenders
(state 59 percent and federal 54 percent) than
Hispanic (17 percent and 7 percent) and white (11
percent and 6 percent) drug offenders reported
crack cocaine as the associated drug.
� Although black drug offenders (state 30
percent and federal 40 percent) were also more
likely than white drug offenders (29 percent and
30 percent) to indicate powder cocaine as the drug
involved in their current offense, Hispanics (43
percent and 51 percent) were more likely than
blacks or whites to report powder cocaine as the
associated drug.
� In contrast, higher percentages of white drug
offenders (state 36 percent and federal 32
percent) than black (0.7 percent and 0.2 percent)
or Hispanic (10 percent and 7 percent) drug
offenders identified methamphetamines as the drug
associated with their current offense.
� White (state 20 percent and federal 30
percent) and Hispanic (18 percent and 26 percent)
drug offenders were more likely than black (8
percent and 6 percent) drug offenders to indicate
that marijuana was the drug associated with their
current offense.
There were few changes between the 1991 and the
1997 criminal records reported by state prison
inmates. However, there were a few differences for
federal prison inmates:
� The percentage of federal inmates who
reported no prior sentences decreased by almost 10-
percentage points from 1991 to 1997, while the
percentage of inmates who reported 3 or more prior
sentences increased by 8 percentage points.
� In federal prisons, the percentage of drug
offenses involving powder cocaine decreased from
53 percent in 1991 to 41 percent in 1997. In
contrast, the percentage of reported crack-
associated drug offenses increased from 9 percent
in 1991 to 26 percent in 1997.
Drug Histories: The drug histories of the total
populations of state and federal offenders
included data on the percentages of inmates who
reported (1) using various drugs in the month
before their arrest or (2) being under the
influence of various drugs at the time of their
arrest. The data showed the following patterns for
both state and federal inmates:
� For the most part, marijuana was most
commonly reported by inmates as the drug used in
the month before arrest. Female inmates in state
prisons, however, reported having used crack
cocaine slightly more often than marijuana in the
month before their arrest.
� Moreover, more inmates reported that they had
been under the influence of alcohol at the time of
their arrest than any other drug.
� Drug and alcohol use were common among both
nondrug offenders and drug offenders. For example,
the percentages of property offenders in state
prisons who reported that they had used crack or
powder cocaine in the month before their current
arrest, and who reported that they had been under
the influence of crack or powder cocaine at the
time of their arrest, were very similar to the
percentages of drug offenders.
The patterns of drug use reported by inmates in
state and federal prisons changed little in 1997,
as compared with 1991.
� Higher percentages of federal inmates in 1997
(30 percent) than in 1991 (19 percent) reported
using marijuana. The rates of marijuana use
increased for both male and female federal
inmates.
� The percentage of female state inmates who
reported having used crack increased from 19
percent in 1991 to 30 percent in 1997.
� White and black federal inmates were more
likely in 1997 (21 and 21 percent, respectively)
than in 1991 (12 and 10 percent, respectively) to
report being under the influence of alcohol at the
time of arrest.
� Higher percentages of federal inmates in 1997
than in 1991 reported being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of their offense (20 and 11
percent, respectively).
Treatment Participation: We obtained data on
reported inmate participation in alcohol/drug
programs. In 1997, 56 percent of state inmates and
46 percent of federal inmates reported that they
had participated in alcohol/drug treatment
programs. The percentage of inmates who reported
that they had participated in alcohol/drug
programs in 1997, as compared with 1991, did not
change.
Additional profile information extracted from the
BJS inmate surveys is presented in appendixes III
through VI.
DOJ officials reviewed a draft of this report and
commented that it (1) provided a comprehensive
breakdown of state and federal populations by
offense type, race, and gender and (2) was
consistent with BJS findings on inmate
characteristics, using the same survey data.
Background
According to BJS, between 1990 and the end of 1998
the rate of incarceration in our nation's prisons
increased from 292 to 461 sentenced inmates per
100,000 residents. BJS data also showed that
during that period the number of prisoners under
the jurisdiction of federal or state adult
correctional facilities increased from 773,919 to
1,302,019-an average annual increase of 6.7
percent (see fig. 2).
Figure 2: Growth in U.S. Prison Population, 1990
Through 1998
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prisoners in
1996 and Prisoners in 1998.
The relative percentage of inmates in state
and federal prisons has remained the same, with
approximately 91 and 9 percent of inmates in state
and federal prisons, respectively. The states
operate more than 1,000 prison facilities
primarily to confine violators of state and
territorial laws, and the federal government
operates about 100 prison facilities primarily to
confine persons convicted of federal crimes. The
federal prison system is administered by the DOJ's
Bureau of Prisons (BOP).
Scope and Methodology
The data on which we relied for the inmate
profiles in this report came from surveys
conducted by the U.S. Bureau of the Census for BJS
in 1991 and 1997. Between 1974 and 1997, BJS
sponsored periodic surveys of inmates in state and
federal correctional institutions6-five of state
and two of federal prison inmates. The BJS survey
data consisted of self-reported answers provided
by a random, probability sample of inmates in
confidential personal interviews conducted by
Census Bureau interviewers in federal and state
correctional facilities. The Census Bureau
collected the data using standard social survey
techniques. BJS has analyzed the sample survey
data to provide estimates for the entire
population of federal and state inmates. In
addition, to obtain background information and
perspective, we also reviewed selected relevant
academic, BJS, and other publications.
In this report, we presented the characteristics
of inmates incarcerated in federal and in state
correctional facilities; identified changes in the
1997 characteristics reported, as compared with
those reported in 1991; and pointed out
differences in the characteristics of state and
federal inmates. We did not, however, attempt to
explain the characteristics, changes, or
differences reported.
We performed our work from October 1999 through
April 2000 in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards. Appendix I of this
report includes additional information on the
methods we followed in analyzing and presenting
these data.
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
We provided a draft of this report to the Attorney
General for comment. Representatives of the Office
of Justice Programs (OJP), BJS, and BOP reviewed
the draft. On May 16, 2000, the OJP liaison
provided consolidated comments from these
agencies. The officials stated that the report
provided a comprehensive breakdown of state and
federal inmate populations by offense type, race,
and gender. In addition, they said that its
findings, with regard to inmate personal
demographics, family background, criminal records,
and drug histories were consistent with those
reported by BJS using the same survey data. DOJ
officials also provided some technical comments,
which have been incorporated, where appropriate.
As arranged with your office, unless you publicly
announce the contents of this report earlier, we
plan no further distribution until 30 days after
the date of this report. At that time, we will
send copies of this report to Senator Orrin Hatch,
Chairman, and Senator Patrick Leahy, Ranking
Minority Member, Senate Committee on the
Judiciary; Representative Henry Hyde, Chairman and
Representative John Conyers, Ranking Minority
Member, House Committee on the Judiciary; the
Honorable Janet Reno, Attorney General; the
Honorable Jan M. Chaiken, Director, Bureau of
Justice Statistics; and the Honorable Kathleen
Hawk Sawyer, Director, Bureau of Prisons. Copies
of this report will be made available to others
upon request.
If you or your staff have any questions about this
report, please contact me or Daniel C. Harris on
(202) 512-8777. Key contributors to this
assignment are acknowledged in appendix VII.
Sincerely yours,
Richard M. Stana
Associate Director,
Administration of Justice Issues
_______________________________
1 BJS has sponsored regular periodic (i.e., every
5 or 6 years) surveys of inmates in state and/or
federal correctional institutions. The facilities
included federal or state prisons, which usually
house felons (inmates sentenced to at least a year
and a day for a criminal conviction), and not
jails or juvenile facilities.
2 Survey of Inmates in Federal Correctional
Facilities (SIFCF), 1991 and 1997.
3 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional
Facilities (SISCF), 1991 and 1997.
4 Current offense is the most serious offense for
which the inmate was serving a sentence.
5 For additional information on female prison
inmates, see also Women in Prison: Issues and
Challenges Confronting U.S. Correctional Systems
(GAO/GGD-00-22, Dec. 28, 1999).
6 BOP officials noted that BOP had paid for the
1991 federal inmate survey and shared the cost of
the 1997 survey.
Appendix I
Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Page 16GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
Objectives
In response to a request from Congressman
Charles B. Rangel, this report provides
information on the self-reported characteristics
of federal and state prison inmates in 1991 and
1997. Specifically, we developed profiles that
address the following questions:
� What were the overall profiles-personal
demographics, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation-for
state and for federal prison inmates in 1997 and
were there any differences between state and
federal inmates or by current offense type,1 race,
and gender?2
� In comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, were
there any changes in the overall profiles for
state and for federal inmates or by current
offense type, race, and gender?
Overview of Our Scope and Methodology
To address each of the questions, we relied on
federal and state prison inmate survey data
collected by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S.
Department of Commerce, for the Bureau of Justice
Statistics (BJS), an agency of the U.S. Department
of Justice. Specifically, BJS provided information
to us from its 1991 and 1997 Survey of Inmates in
State Correctional Facilities (SISCF) and 1991 and
1997 Survey of Inmates in Federal Correctional
Facilities (SIFCF). (See app. II for a description
of the BJS survey.) For 1991, we obtained the
SISCF and SIFCF survey data sets, which are
publicly available from BJS. However, the data
sets for BJS' 1997 surveys were not publicly
available at the time of our review. To enable us
to do our work, BJS provided data tables for
specific information we requested from the 1997
SISCF and SIFCF surveys.3 In addition, we obtained
BJS and Census Bureau documents and reports needed
to interpret the 1991 and 1997 BJS survey data.
The Census Bureau conducted the surveys in
accordance with standard social survey methods.
The accuracy of the percentages derived from these
surveys depends upon two types of errors: sampling
errors and nonsampling errors. Sampling error is
the variation that occurs by chance because a
sample rather than a complete enumeration of the
population was studied. Nonsampling errors arise
from the practical difficulties of conducting a
survey. For example, respondents may misinterpret
questions or interviewers may not accurately
record answers. For the BJS survey all of the
information, including information about factual
matters, comes from the inmates' own answers to
the questionnaires. We made no attempt to
independently verify inmates' answers about
subjects such as type of offense or participation
in educational programs. The amount of nonsampling
error in these and other sample surveys cannot be
fully assessed. The Census Bureau took steps to
reduce nonsampling errors in the BJS surveys by
pledging that answers would be confidential,
drawing a sample from a complete list of the
population, achieving a response rate of over 90
percent, and adjusting for some characteristics of
nonrespondents. The use of similar questions in
1991 and 1997 facilitated comparisons between
surveys--although in a few instances variations in
question wording, ordering, or the context in
which questions were asked made assessing changes
over time more difficult. This was particularly
true of questions pertaining to physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest.
The amount of uncertainty due to sampling
errors can be expressed as confidence intervals.
For the percentages in this report, the
uncertainty is expressed using 95-percent
confidence intervals that are ranges of values
that would be expected to include the correct
inmate population results 19 out of 20 times that
a sample of this type is studied. The percentages
presented in this report are for the total state
and total federal inmate populations for both 1991
and 1997 and for eight subgroups of those
populations based on sex, race (white, black, and
Hispanic), and offender type (drug, violent, and
property). Information available from the BJS
survey reports indicated that the 95-percent
confidence intervals for all but two of these
groups are less than plus or minus 6-percentage
points of the reported percentage. For the 1997
federal survey, the confidence intervals are
estimated to be wider for two groups--violent
offenders (+/- 7 percent) and property offenders
(+/-11 percent). For comparisons of all other
groups, we are 95-percent confident that
differences of at least 8 percentage points
between groups are statistically significant and
thus are not due to sampling error. Many smaller
differences would also be statistically
significant. In this report, we primarily noted
differences of at least 8 percentage points to
identify differences that were statistically
significant.
All of our estimated confidence intervals are
based on approximate predictors of sampling errors
calculated in the Census Bureau's analyses. We
could not directly compute sampling errors because
the 1997 data were not yet available for analysis
and because the 1991 data set that we analyzed did
not contain sufficient information about the
respondents' sampling groups. The sampling errors
from the Census Bureau's analyses were provided in
the form of generalized variance functions that
summarize the relationship between the size of a
population group and the amount of sampling error
for a broad range of variables. The Census
Bureau's analyses provided these generalized
variance functions for the total population; two
gender groups and, for all but one of the 1991
federal prisons, three racial groups. For the
three racial groups for federal prisons in 1991
and for the offender types (drug, violent, and
property) in all years, we adopted a variance
function from the same year and survey (state or
federal) for the sex or race group that predicted
the least precise sampling error. The estimate of
the sampling error for each percentage discussed
in this report is approximate since it represents
a summary of the calculated sampling errors for
many types of variables rather than the sampling
error for the specific variable discussed.
To enhance our analysis and interpretation of the
SISCF and SIFCF data, we reviewed related BJS
reports, selected academic articles and other
publications, and discussed our analysis of the
BJS data with BJS officials. We incorporated this
information as appropriate.
We conducted our work between October 1999 and
April 2000, in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards.
_______________________________
1 Current offense is the most serious offense for
which the inmate was serving a sentence.
2 For additional information on female prison
inmates, see also Women in Prison: Issues and
Challenges Confronting U.S. Correctional Systems
(GAO/GGD-00-22, Dec. 28, 1999).
3 In response to the initial request, we attempted
to obtain information on vocational training
received by state and federal inmates; however,
1997 BJS survey data on vocational training were
not available at the time of our review. We also
attempted to obtain information on mental health
problems among inmates and whether inmates had
been treated for such problems; however, data for
1991 and 1997 were not comparable. Information on
inmate mental health can be found in Paula Ditton,
Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and
Probationers, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special
Report, U.S. Department of Justice, July 1999.
Appendix II
Bureau of Justice Statistics Surveys of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
Page 18GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
To provide detailed information on individual
characteristics of prison inmates, BJS has
sponsored periodic (i.e., every 5 or 6 years)
surveys of inmates in state and/or federal
correctional institutions. Between 1974 and 1997,
BJS sponsored five state and two federal prison
inmate surveys. In 1991 and 1997, the U.S. Bureau
of the Census conducted the Survey of Inmates of
State Correctional Institutions (SISCF) for BJS
and Survey of Inmates of Federal Correctional
Institutions (SIFCF) for BJS and the Federal
Bureau of Prisons (BOP). Similar surveys of state
inmates were also conducted in 1974, 1979, and
1986. For the 1991 survey year, BJS based its
estimates on 765,649 inmates (711,642 inmates in
state correctional facilities and 54,006 sentenced
inmates in the custody of federally owned and
operated facilities). For the 1997 survey, BJS
based its estimates on 1,148,679 inmates
(1,059,607 inmates in state correctional
facilities and 89,072 sentenced inmates in the
custody of federally owned and operated
facilities). The questionnaires used in the state
and federal facilities in 1991 and 1997 contained
many identical questions that facilitated
comparison between the surveys.
BJS Uses a Two-Stage Process to Develop Its
Samples
All of these surveys are based on two-stage,
probability sample designs. At the first stage a
sample of prisons was selected. At the second
stage a sample of inmates was selected from each
prison.
Specifically, at the first stage a sample of
prisons was selected from the universe of state
and federal correctional institutions enumerated
in the 1990 or 1995 Census of State and Federal
Adult Correctional Facilities or opened after the
completion of the 1990 census or by June 30, 1996,
respectively, for the 1991 and 1997 surveys. The
universe of institutions for the 1991 survey
included 1,239 state prisons and the 72 federally
owned and operated facilities that held sentenced
inmates as of March 1991. In 1997, the universe
included 1,409 state prisons and 91 federally
owned and operated facilities that held sentenced
inmates as of June 30, 1996.
In each survey year, male and female
facilities were sampled separately at different
rates. The state sample of facilities was
stratified by geographic area in both years. The
samples of facilities were also stratified by
facility type (confinement-based and community-
based facilities) and/or security level. Within
security levels, facilities were ordered by size
of population and then selected with probability
proportionate to size.
The number of facilities from which inmates
samples were drawn were similar in both survey
years. In 1991, the federal survey included 53
facilities (45 male, 8 female) and the state
sample included 273 facilities (222 male, 47
female, and 4 facilities that housed both male and
female imates) of which 3 were ultimately not
surveyed. In 1997, the initial federal survey
sample included 40 facilities (32 male, 8 female),
all of which were in the final sample. The initial
1997 state sample included 280 facilities (220
male, 60 female); however, 5 of the female
facilities did not participate in the survey,
leaving a total of 275 state facilities of which
55 were female.
At the second stage, inmates were
systematically selected for interviews from lists
of all inmates at the selected facilities, with a
total number of interviews based on the size of
the facility and sex of the inmates held. To
obtain a more balanced sample at federal
facilities in 1997, drug offenders in these
facilities were subsampled at a lower rate than
other offenders. The 1991 survey interviews were
carried out from June to August in 1991, with
13,986 interviews (11,163 male, 2,823 female) and
6,572 interviews (4,991 male, 1,581 female)
obtained for the state and federal surveys,
respectively. The 1997 interviews were carried out
from June to October 1997, with 14,285 interviews
(11,344 male, 2,941 female) and 4,041 interviews
(3,173 male, 868 female) completed for the state
and federal surveys, respectively. The response
rates were between 90 and 94 percent for both
federal and state surveys in each year.
National Estimates of Prison Inmate
Characteristics
The analyses of the survey data yield
national estimates of the characteristics of the
prison population at the middle of 1991 and 1997.
To develop these estimates, BJS used weighting
factors based on the original probabilities of
being selected into the sample that were adjusted
for nonresponse and information about the sex,
race, age, and prison security level of the total
population. In 1997, information about type of
offense was also used.
Since the surveys are based on sample surveys, the
results available from the studies are estimates
of the population characteristics and are subject
to sampling error. BJS provides information that
allows readers to estimate these sampling errors
from the results of their analysis of the general
relationship between the estimated size of the
population and the magnitude of the sampling
errors.
Other BJS Reports Provided Information on U.S.
Prison Inmates
BJS has released several reports that present data
from the 1991 and 1997 surveys, including
publications that examine selected findings from
the survey results on issues such as the mental
health of inmates and prior physical or sexual
abuse. In addition, BJS has published reports
using other data sources on state and federal
prison inmates that are relevant to the discussion
of the 1991 and 1997 survey information. (See
bibliography.)
Appendix III
Overall Profiles of State and Federal Prison
Inmates
Page 35GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
This appendix presents overall profiles of state
and of federal inmates, including data on their
personal demographics, family background, criminal
record, drug history, and treatment participation.
These profiles were developed from BJS self-
reported survey data.1 The 1997 profiles for both
state and federal prison populations indicated
that most inmates were male, minority, unmarried,
and were employed in the month before their
arrest. State inmates were younger than federal
inmates, and most state and federal inmates had at
least a high school degree or its equivalent. Most
federal inmates and a large percentage of state
inmates, as children, lived in two-parent
households, and most had not experienced sexual or
physical abuse or parental drug or alcohol abuse.
The majority of both state and federal inmates had
served prior sentences.
Comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, the data
showed few changes for either the state or federal
inmate populations. The federal inmate profiles
indicated some changes in the racial distribution,
criminal records, and drug histories.
State and federal inmate profiles showed several
differences between the two populations. For
example, state inmates were younger than federal
inmates, and they tended to have more serious
criminal records than federal inmates. Moreover, a
higher percentage of federal inmates than state
inmates were drug offenders, while higher
percentages of state inmates were violent
offenders and property offenders.
Overall Profiles of State Inmates
According to BJS' 1997 survey data, most state
inmates were minority, male, between the ages of
25 and 44, and employed at the time they were
arrested for their current offense. A slightly
lower percentage of state inmates reported violent
crimes, as their current offense than reported all
categories of nonviolent crimes combined. Among
drug offenders, state inmates most frequently
identified either powder or crack cocaine as the
drug associated with their current offense.
However, state inmates most frequently reported
that they used marijuana in the month prior to
their arrest and were under the influence of
alcohol at the time of the offense (Data on
alcohol usage in the month before inmate's arrest
were not collected.). Although a comparison of the
1991 and 1997 overall state inmate profiles showed
little change in general, the 1997 data showed a
slightly larger percentage of inmates aged 35 or
older.
Overall Profile of State Inmates, 1997
Table III.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
prisons, estimated from BJS' 1997 survey of state
prison inmates. The BJS survey results were based
on a state prison inmate population of 1,059,607.
All percentages presented below for state prison
inmates in 1997 were calculated using this number
as the base; adjustments were not made to
compensate for missing response rates to a
particular question.
Table III.1: Overall Profile of State Prison
Inmates, 1997
Estimated number Percent
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 993,364 93.7
Female 66,242 6.3
Race
White 352,864 33.3
Black 492,676 46.5
Hispanic 179,998 17.0
Other 34,069 3.2
Age group
Under 25 209,343 19.8
25-34 404,034 38.1
35-44 311,999 29.4
45+ 134,231 12.7
Marital status
Never married 604,093 57.0
Married 175,717 16.6
Other 277,992 26.2
Education
Less than high school 415,804 39.2
GED 330,349 31.2
High school graduate 164,544 15.5
More than high school 141,137 13.3
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 704,993 66.5
Not employed 329,003 31.0
Have children
Yes 695,160 65.6
No 354,655 33.5
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 463,052 43.7
Mother only 408,275 38.5
Father only 38,026 3.6
Grandparents 87,220 8.2
Other 53,726 5.1
Either parent alcohol or
drug abuse
None 711,567 67.2
Alcohol only 245,716 23.2
Drugs only 18,812 1.8
Alcohol and drugs 68,163 6.4
Abused as a childa
Physical only 99,823 9.4
Sexual only 31,435 3.0
Physical and sexual 34,295 3.2
None 884,192 83.4
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 494,349 46.7
Property 230,177 21.7
Drug 216,254 20.4
Other 105,926 10.0
Type of drug involved in
drug offenseb
Powder cocaine 70,523 32.9
Crack cocaine 85,824 40.0
Heroin 27,015 12.6
Marijuana 27,145 12.7
Methamphetamines 20,907 9.8
Other 5,344 2.5
Criminal justice status
at time of arrest
None 551,072 52.0
Probation 255,007 24.1
Parole 231,745 21.9
Escape 7,359 0.7
Prior sentences
None 248,195 23.4
1 to 2 341,847 32.3
3 or more 446,843 42.2
Drug histories
Drug use in month before
arrestc
Heroin 96,529 9.1
Powder cocaine 167,858 15.8
Crack cocaine 152,979 14.4
Marijuana 409,798 38.7
Other 157,843 14.9
Under influence at time
of offensea, c
Heroin 58,018 5.5
Powder cocaine 78,390 7.4
Crack cocaine 87,719 8.3
Marijuana 156,933 14.8
Other 88,807 8.4
Alcohol 387,137 36.5
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug
program
Yes 591,469 55.8
No 456,464 43.1
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 1,059,607 inmates in state prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
III.2) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 214,299 inmates who reported
being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
BJS' 1997 state prison inmate survey produced the
following estimated demographic characteristics
for inmates in state prisons:
� Ninety-four percent of state inmates were
male and 6 percent were female.
� Minorities constituted the majority of state
prison inmates; 46 percent were black, and 17
percent were Hispanic. One-third of state inmates
were white.
� Sixty-eight percent of state inmates were
between the ages of 25 and 44, while 20 percent
were under age 25, and 13 percent were age 45 or
older.
� More than half of state inmates had never
been married, while 17 percent were married at the
time of the survey.
� Sixty-six percent of state inmates had
children at the time of the 1997 survey.
� Sixty percent of state inmates reported
having at least a GED or high school diploma,
while nearly 40 percent reported having less than
a high school diploma.
� Two-thirds of the state inmates were employed
during the month before their arrest.
Family Background
The 1997 survey revealed the following information
about the reported family background of state
inmates:
� Forty-four percent of state prison inmates
reported that they had grown up in two-parent
households; 38 percent reported that they had
grown up with only their mothers, 8 percent with
grandparents, 4 percent with fathers, and 5
percent with others.
� Almost 70 percent of state inmates reported
that neither parent had abused drugs or alcohol.
Twenty-three percent of inmates indicated that one
of their parents had abused alcohol. Few inmates
indicated parental abuse of both alcohol and drugs
(6 percent) or drug abuse only (2 percent).
� Eighty-three percent of state prison inmates
reported that they had not experienced physical or
sexual abuse as a child; 9 percent reported that
they had encountered physical abuse, 3 percent
sexual abuse, and 3 percent both sexual and
physical abuse.
Criminal Records
Regarding criminal records, the BJS 1997 survey
indicated the percentage of state inmates who
reported their current offense as a violent crime
was slightly less than the total percentage of
inmates reporting all categories of nonviolent
crimes combined. Specifically,
� forty-seven percent of state prison inmates
reported they were violent offenders, and
� twenty percent reported they were drug
offenders, 22 percent property offenders, and 10
percent indicated other2 as their offense.
Drug offenders most frequently identified cocaine
as the drug involved in their current offense:3
� Thirty-three percent of drug offenders
indicated powder cocaine and 40 percent indicated
crack cocaine as the drug associated with their
current offense.
� Among the remaining drug offenders, 13
percent identified heroin, 13 percent marijuana,
10 percent methamphetamines, and 2 percent
identified "other"4 as the drug involved in their
current offense.
Most state prison inmates had served prior
sentences, but were not under judicial supervision
at the time of their arrest:
� Twenty-three percent reported having no prior
sentence, 42 percent reported having 3 or more
prior sentences, and 32 percent reported having 1
to 2 prior sentences.
� At the time of arrest for their current
offense, 52 percent of state inmates had no
criminal justice status, 24 percent were on
probation, and 22 percent were on parole.
Drug Histories
State inmates most frequently identified marijuana
as the drug used during the month before their
arrest and being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of the offense:5
� Almost 40 percent of state inmates indicated
that they had used marijuana during the month
before their arrest
� Sixteen percent reported that they had used
powder cocaine, 14 percent crack cocaine, 9
percent heroin, and 15 percent used other drugs
during the month before their arrest.
� State inmates most frequently (36 percent)
reported being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of their offense. Fifteen percent
reported that they were under the influence of
marijuana at the time of their offense. Less than
10 percent of state inmates reported being under
the influence of crack, powder cocaine, heroin, or
other drugs at the time of their offense.
Treatment Participation
The 1997 BJS survey provided information on
whether state inmates had ever participated in
alcohol/drug programs. Fifty-six percent of state
prison inmates said that they had participated in
such programs.
Few Changes in the 1997, Compared With the 1991
Overall State Inmate Profile
According to the BJS surveys, the total state
prison population increased from 711,642 in 1991
to 1,059,607 in 1997. A comparison of table III.1
with table III.2, which provides information on
selected characteristics from BJS' 1991 state
prison inmate survey, showed few changes in the
overall 1997 profiles of state inmates, as
compared with 1991.
Most personal demographic characteristics of state
inmates showed little change from 1991 to 1997,
with the exception of slight changes in the age of
inmates. The state inmate population aged
slightly, with 42 percent of state inmates being
age 35 or older in 1997, compared with 32 percent
in 1991.
In 1997, as compared with 1991, there were no
significant changes in state inmates' family
background characteristics, criminal records, and
drug histories. Since in 1991 BJS did not collect
data on the drug involved in the current offense
of state drug offenders, we could not ascertain
whether there had been any changes in the drugs
associated with drug offenses.
Table III.2: Overall Profile of State Prison
Inmates, 1991
Estimated number Percent
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 672,847 94.5
Female 38,796 5.5
Race
White 252,038 35.4
Black 324,165 45.6
Hispanic 118,634 16.7
Other 16,807 2.4
Age group
Under 25 155,881 21.9
25-34 325,429 45.7
35-44 161,651 22.7
45+ 68,682 9.7
Marital status
Never married 389,302 54.7
Married 127,389 17.9
Other 187,045 26.3
Education
Less than high school 295,352 41.5
GED 174,979 24.6
High school graduate 136,087 19.2
More than high school 104,238 14.7
Employment status in month
before arrest
Employed 476,726 67.0
Not employed 232,280 32.6
Have children
Yes 456,409 64.1
No 255,234 35.9
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 305,082 42.9
Mother only 277,423 39.0
Father only 27,798 3.9
Grandparents 54,228 7.6
Other 43,677 6.1
Either parent alcohol or
drug abuse
None 517,111 72.7
Alcohol only 156,405 22.0
Drugs only 5,730 0.8
Alcohol and drugs 26,074 3.7
Abused as a child
Physical only 48,503 6.8
Sexual only 17,118 2.4
Physical and sexual 30,668 4.3
None 615,354 86.5
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 327,958 46.1
Property 174,534 24.5
Drug 150,304 21.1
Other 58,846 8.3
Criminal justice status at
time of arrest
None 378,834 53.2
Probation 162,688 22.9
Parole 156,415 22.0
Escape 7,856 1.1
Prior sentences
None 145,376 20.4
1 to 2 253,114 35.6
3 or more 313,153 44.0
Drug histories
Drug use in month before
arresta
Heroin 62,930 8.8
Powder cocaine 144,512 20.3
Crack cocaine 71,055 10.0
Marijuana 226,978 31.9
Other 93,843 13.2
Under influence at time of
offensea
Heroin 42,237 5.9
Powder cocaine 79,741 11.2
Crack cocaine 36,036 5.1
Marijuana 81,788 11.5
Other 58,336 8.2
Alcohol 229,090 32.2
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 387,306 54.4
No 324,336 45.6
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 711,642 inmates in
state prisons in 1991. Percentages may not add to
100 because of missing data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Overall Profile of Federal Prison Inmates
The 1997 BJS federal prison inmate survey
showed that most federal inmates were male,
minority, and between the ages of 25 and 44.
Federal inmates most frequently cited drug crimes
as their current offense. Among drug offenders,
powder and crack cocaine were the drugs most often
identified with their current offense. Among all
offenders, marijuana was the drug most often
reported having been used in the month before
arrest. (Data on alcohol usage in the month before
the inmate's arrest were not collected.) Regarding
drug use at the time of their arrest, in 1997, the
largest percentage of inmates (20 percent)
reported being under the influence of alcohol.
Comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, few changes
in the federal inmate population were identified.
However, the percentage of black inmates increased
somewhat, and the percentage of white inmates
decreased by the same percentage points. In
addition, the percentages of inmates indicating
marijuana use in the month before arrest and being
under the influence of alcohol or marijuana at the
time of the offense increased.
Overall Profile of Federal Prison Inmates, 1997
Table III.3 presents an overall profile of
federal prison inmates using self-reported data
from BJS' 1997 federal prison inmate survey.
According to the survey, the federal prison
population in 1997 was 89,072 inmates. All
percentages presented below for federal prison
inmates for 1997 were calculated using this number
as the base; adjustments were not made to
compensate for missing response rates to a
particular question.
Table III.3: Overall Profile of Federal Prison
Inmates, 1997
Estimated number Percent
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 82,646 92.8
Female 6,426 7.2
Race
White 26,616 29.9
Black 33,697 37.8
Hispanic 24,349 27.3
Other 4,411 5.0
Age group
Under 25 7,933 8.9
25-34 32,634 36.6
35-44 27,259 30.6
45+ 21,247 23.9
Marital status
Never married 36,989 41.5
Married 27,000 30.3
Other 24,900 28.0
Education
Less than high school 23,101 25.9
GED 23,632 26.5
High school graduate 17,757 19.9
More than high school 23,544 26.4
Employment status in month before
arrest
Employed 61,946 69.5
Not employed 24,428 27.4
Have Children
Yes 68,434 76.8
No 19,745 22.2
Family background
Person lived with while growing up
Both mother and father 47,955 53.8
Mother only 28,044 31.5
Father only 2,532 2.8
Grandparents 6,712 7.5
Other 2,864 3.2
Either parent alcohol or drug abuse
None 69,504 78.0
Alcohol only 14,604 16.4
Drugs only 735 0.8
Alcohol and drugs 2,767 3.1
Abused as a child a
Physical only 3,837 4.3
Sexual only 1,297 1.5
Physical and sexual 1,100 1.2
None 81,719 91.7
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 13,021 14.6
Property 5,826 6.5
Drug 55,069 61.8
Other 13,712 15.4
Type of drug involved in drug offenseb
Powder cocaine 22,579 41.1
Crack cocaine 14,398 26.2
Heroin 5,318 9.7
Marijuana 10,198 18.6
Methamphetamines 5,869 10.7
Other 1,887 3.4
Criminal justice status at time of
arrest
None 64,240 72.1
Probation 11,952 13.4
Parole 11,811 13.3
Escape 248 0.3
Prior sentences
None 34,075 38.3
1 to 2 27,386 30.7
3 or more 25,610 28.8
Drug histories
Drug use in month before arrestc
Heroin 4,762 5.3
Powder cocaine 14,452 16.2
Crack cocaine 5,606 6.3
Marijuana 26,561 29.8
Other 9,352 10.5
Under influence at time of offensea, c
Heroin 2,634 3.0
Powder cocaine 5,706 6.4
Crack cocaine 2,852 3.2
Marijuana 9,381 10.5
Other 5,471 6.1
Alcohol 17,829 20.0
Treatment participation
Ever participated in alcohol/drug
program
Yes 40,755 45.8
No 47,084 52.9
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on a total estimated population
of 89,072 inmates in federal prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
III.4) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 54,933 inmates who reported
being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
BJS' 1997 federal prison inmate survey indicated
the following demographic characteristics for
those in federal correctional facilities:
� Ninety-three percent of federal prison
inmates were male and 7 percent were female.
� Blacks constituted the largest single group
of inmates (38 percent) followed by whites (30
percent), Hispanics (27 percent), and other (5
percent).
� Two-thirds of federal inmates were between 25
and 44 years of age, 37 percent were between 25
and 34 years of age, and 31 percent were between
35 and 44 years of age. Twenty-four percent of
federal inmates were over age 45 and 9 percent
were under age 25.
� The largest percentage of federal inmates (42
percent) had never married, while 30 percent were
married at the time of the survey.
� Seventy-seven percent of federal inmates had
children at the time of the 1997 survey.
� Twenty-six percent of federal inmates had
more than a high school diploma, with another 46
percent reporting either a high school diploma or
GED. However, 26 percent of federal inmates had
less than a high school education.
� Seventy percent of federal inmates were
employed during the month before their arrest.
Family Background
Regarding family background, the 1997 BJS
survey showed the following:
� Fifty-four percent of federal inmates
reported that they had grown up in households with
two parents, and 32 percent reported that they had
lived with their mother only. Eight percent
reported that they had lived with grandparents, 3
percent with fathers, and 3 percent with other
relatives.
� Seventy eight percent of federal inmates
indicated that neither parent had abused alcohol
or drugs. Another 16 percent, however, indicated
parental alcohol abuse, while 1 and 3 percent,
respectively, specified parental drug or drug and
alcohol abuse.
� The overwhelming majority of federal inmates
(92 percent) reported no physical or sexual abuse
as a child. Four percent indicated they had been
physically abused, and 2 and 1 percent,
respectively, reported either sexual abuse or
physical and sexual abuse.
Criminal Records
In 1997, federal inmates most frequently
indicated drug crimes (62 percent) as their
current offense type. Violent (15 percent),
property (6 percent), and other offenses (15
percent) were reported less frequently.
Federal drug offenders in 1997 most often
identified cocaine as the type of drug involved in
their current offense:6
� Of those indicating that cocaine was involved
in their offense, 41 percent specified powder
cocaine and 26 percent crack cocaine.
� In addition, 19 percent of federal inmates
identified marijuana, 11 percent,
methamphetamines, 10 percent heroin, and 3 percent
"other" drug as the type of drug associated with
their offense.
Most federal offenders reported that they had
served prior sentences, although they were not
necessarily on parole or probation at the time of
arrest for their current offense:
� Thirty-eight percent of federal inmates had
no prior sentence, 31 percent had 1 or 2, and 29
percent had 3 or more prior sentences.
� Seventy-two percent of the inmates had no
criminal justice status at the time of their
arrest, while 13 percent were on parole and 13
percent were on probation.
Drug Histories
Federal offenders most frequently cited
marijuana as the drug used in the month before
their arrest and being under the influence of
alcohol when they committed their offense:7
� Thirty percent indicated that they had used
marijuana during the month before their arrest and
10 percent reported being under the influence of
marijuana at the time of the offense.
� Powder cocaine (16 percent) was the next most
frequently reported drug used in the month before
arrest.
� Twenty percent of federal inmates reported
having been under the influence of alcohol at the
time of their offense.
� Reported usage of all other drugs either in
the month before or at the time of arrest was less
than 10 percent.
Treatment Participation
The 1997 BJS survey included information on
whether federal inmates had ever participated in
alcohol/drug programs. Forty-six percent of
federal prison inmates reported having
participated in such programs.
Few Changes in the 1997, Compared With the 1991
Overall Federal Prison Inmate Profile
According to BJS, the total federal prison
population increased from 54,006 to 89,072 between
1991 and 1997. Table III.4 depicts selected
characteristics of federal prison inmates in 1991.
A comparison of tables III.4 and III.3 indicated
few changes in the 1997 as compared with the 1991
overall federal inmate profile.
Comparing the 1991 and 1997 federal inmate
profiles indicated few changes in the personal
demographics of federal inmates:
� While the number of male and female inmates
increased, the relative proportion of male and
female inmates in federal prisons remained
essentially the same.
� In 1991, whites comprised the largest single
racial/ethnic group of inmates, (38 percent),
followed by blacks (30 percent), Hispanics (28
percent), and other (4 percent). In contrast, in
1997, the proportions of whites and blacks were
reversed (30 and 38 percent, respectively), with
the percentages of Hispanics and other remaining
essentially the same.
� The percentage of inmates who had never been
married increased from 32 percent to 42 percent.
Comparing the 1991 and 1997 federal inmate
profiles revealed few changes in the criminal
record of federal inmates:
� The percentage of federal inmates reporting
more serious criminal records increased slightly.
Those reporting having had no prior sentences
decreased by almost 10-percentage points between
1991 and 1997.
� Among those incarcerated for drug offenses,
powder cocaine remained the drug most frequently
associated with the current offense, although the
percentage of those reporting powder cocaine
decreased from 53 percent to 41 percent, and the
percentage reporting crack cocaine as the
associated drug increased from 9 to 26 percent.
There were also few changes in inmates' drug
histories reported in 1997, compared with 1991.
Higher percentages of federal inmates in 1997 (30
percent) than in 1991 (19 percent) reported using
marijuana, and higher percentages of inmates in
1997 (20 percent) than in 1991 (11 percent) said
they were under the influence of alcohol when they
committed their offense.
Table III.4: Overall Profile of Federal Prison
Inmates, 1991
Estimated number Percent
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 49,784 92.2
Female 4,222 7.8
Race
White 20,732 38.4
Black 16,143 29.9
Hispanic 15,101 28.0
Other 2,031 3.8
Age group
Under 25 5,012 9.3
25-34 19,431 36.0
35-44 17,769 32.9
45+ 11,794 21.8
Marital status
Never married 17,382 32.2
Married 20,225 37.4
Other 15,710 29.1
Education
Less than high school 12,837 23.8
GED 12,336 22.8
High school graduate 11,851 21.9
More than high school 16,809 31.1
Employment status in month before
arrest
Employed 39,881 73.8
Not employed 13,833 25.6
Have Children
Yes 40,776 75.5
No 13,230 24.5
Family background
Person lived with while growing up
Both mother and father 31,219 57.8
Mother only 15,237 28.2
Father only 1,815 3.4
Grandparents 3,032 5.6
Other 2,246 4.2
Either parent alcohol or drug abuse
None 44,885 83.1
Alcohol only 7,827 14.5
Drugs only 159 0.3
Alcohol and drugs 593 1.1
Abused as a child
Physical only 1,937 3.6
Sexual only 539 1.0
Physical and sexual 720 1.3
None 50,810 94.1
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 9,265 17.2
Property 4,582 8.5
Drug 31,103 57.6
Other 9,056 16.8
Type of drug involved in drug
offensea
Powder cocaine 16,579 53.4
Crack cocaine 2,957 9.5
Heroin 3,460 11.1
Marijuana 5,993 19.3
Methamphetamines 1,951 6.3
Other 968 3.1
Criminal justice status at time of
arrest
None 40,794 75.5
Probation 6,284 11.6
Parole 6,250 11.6
Escape 483 0.9
Prior sentences
None 26,221 48.6
1 to 2 16,479 30.5
3 or more 11,306 20.9
Drug histories
Drug use in month before arrestb
Heroin 2,714 5.0
Powder cocaine 7,350 13.6
Crack cocaine 2,003 3.7
Marijuana 10,229 18.9
Other 3,544 6.6
Under influence at time of offenseb
Heroin 1,952 3.6
Powder cocaine 3,563 6.6
Crack cocaine 994 1.8
Marijuana 3,197 5.9
Other 2,001 3.7
Alcohol 5,906 10.9
Treatment participation
Ever participated in alcohol/drug
program
Yes 24,001 44.4
No 30,004 55.6
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 54,006 inmates in federal prisons in 1991.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 31,052 inmates who reported
being sentenced for drug offenses.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Differences Between the Overall State and Federal
Prison Inmate Profiles
Although the state and federal inmate
profiles in 1997 were generally similar, we
observed several differences.
We identified a few differences in the
personal demographics reported by state and
federal inmates:
� Although minorities constituted the majority
of inmates in both federal and state prisons, the
composition of the minority prison populations
differed between state and federal facilities.
Blacks constituted a higher percentage of state
inmates (46 percent) compared with federal inmates
(38 percent). In contrast, there was a higher
percentage of Hispanics in federal prisons (27
percent) than in state prisons (17 percent).
� Overall, federal inmates were older than
state inmates. Over half of federal inmates (54
percent) were age 35 or older; however, fifty-
eight percent of state inmates were age 34 or
younger.
� Fifty-seven percent of state inmates,
compared with 42 percent of federal inmates,
reported never being married. At the same time, 30
percent of federal inmates, compared with 17
percent of state inmates, reported being married.
� A higher percentage of state inmates (39
percent) than federal inmates (26 percent) had
less than a high school education and a higher
percentage of federal inmates (26 percent) than
state inmates (13 percent) had more than a high
school education.
Regarding family background characteristics,
federal and state inmates were generally similar,
with a few exceptions:
� A greater percentage of federal inmates (54
percent) than state inmates (44 percent) reported
that they had grown up in a two-parent household.
� A higher percentage of state (16 percent)
than federal (7 percent) inmates reported that
they had experienced physical and/or sexual abuse,
although a majority of inmates in both populations
reported not encountering these situations (83
percent of state inmates and 92 percent of federal
inmates).
� A higher percentage of state (31 percent)
than federal (20 percent) inmates reported having
lived in a family where a parent abused drugs or
alcohol, although a majority of both populations
did not (67 percent of state inmates and 78
percent of federal inmates).
One of the largest differences between state and
federal inmates was in the type of crime for which
they were incarcerated.
� Drug offenders accounted for over 60 percent
of federal inmates in 1997 but for 20 percent of
state inmates.
� In contrast, violent offenders accounted for
47 percent of state inmates but 15 percent of
federal inmates in 1997.
� A higher percentage of state inmates (22
percent) than federal inmates (6 percent) were
property offenders.
� In addition, in 1997 higher percentages of
federal than state inmates reported serving no
prior sentence (38 percent of federal inmates and
23 percent of state inmates) and having no
criminal justice status at the time of arrest (72
percent of federal inmates and 52 percent of state
inmates).
There were few differences in the drug histories
of state and federal inmates. However, higher
percentages of state inmates than federal inmates
used marijuana in the month before their arrest
(39 percent of state inmates and 30 percent of
federal inmates) and were under the influence of
alcohol at the time of their offense (36 percent
of state inmates and 20 percent of federal
inmates).
_______________________________
1 Throughout appendixes III through VI, total
percentages above or below 100 percent are usually
due to rounding. Where indicated, however, inmates
may have been allowed to indicate more than one
answer, leading to total percentages greater than
100 percent. In some instances, missing data may
result in total percentages less than 100 percent.
In rounding, when the value was exactly half way
between one desired rounding level and the next,
we rounded the desired rounding level digit up
when that digit was an odd number and did not
change the desired rounding level digit (that is,
rounded down) when it was an even number.
2 Other offenses included the BJS' categories of
public-order offenses (i.e., weapons and other
public order offenses, such as driving while
intoxicated; escape from custody; regulatory
violations; and commercialized vice) and other
offenses, which are not enumerated.
3 More than one drug might be associated with a
single offense.
4 Other drugs include depressants and
hallucinogens.
5 A single inmate might report more than one drug
used in the month before or at the time of arrest.
6 More than one drug might be associated with a
single offense.
7 A single inmate might report more than one drug
when reporting drug use during the month before or
at the time of arrest.
Appendix IV
Profiles of State and Federal Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense
Page 49GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
This appendix presents profiles of state and
federal inmates by the type of their current
offense, including self-reported data on their
personal demographics, family background, criminal
record, drug history, and treatment participation.
While the demographic and family background
characteristics reported by state inmates were
quite similar across different types of offenders,
federal inmates differed substantially. The
criminal records of both state and federal inmates
differed considerably across offender types. For
example, in state prisons a higher percentage of
property offenders than drug or violent offenders
had served three or more prior sentences, and in
the federal system a higher percentage of violent
offenders than drug or property offenders had
served three or more prior sentences. Drug and
alcohol use tended to be more common among state
than federal inmates; for example, higher
percentages of property offenders in state prisons
than in federal prisons used crack or powder
cocaine and marijuana in the month before their
arrest.
Comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, the data
indicated some changes across crime types. The
percentage of black federal drug offenders rose
from 28 percent to 41 percent. Finally, although
the drug histories of violent offenders and
property offenders in federal prisons changed
little, the percentage of drug offenders who had
used marijuana in the month preceding their arrest
increased from 18 percent to 32 percent.
Profiles of State Inmates by Type of Current
Offense
The 1997 state inmate profile, by type of
current offense, indicated some differences
reported across offense types. Although state
inmates did not report substantial differences for
most personal and family background
characteristics, the data showed some differences
in race, education, and experience of child abuse.
For example, a higher percentage of blacks was
found among drug offenders than among violent or
property offenders and a higher percentage of
inmates without a high school education was found
among drug offenders.
Reported criminal records also differed
substantially across offense types. For example, a
greater percentage of property offenders reported
having served three or more prior sentences than
violent or drug offenders. Generally, inmate drug
histories were similar across crime types, except
drug and property offenders more frequently than
violent offenders reported using crack cocaine in
the month before their arrest. A comparison of the
1991 and 1997 state inmate profiles indicated few
notable changes in characteristics; for example,
the percentage of drug offenders using marijuana
in the month prior to their arrest increased.
Profile of State Prison Inmates by Type of Current
Offense, 1997
Table IV.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
correctional facilities separately for violent,
property, and drug offenders, as reported in BJS'
1997 state prison inmate survey. BJS reported a
total population of 493,349 violent offenders,
230,177 property offenders, and 216,254 drug
offenders in state prisons in 1997. All
percentages presented in table IV.1 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.
Table IV.1: Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1997
Violent Property Drugs
Estimate Percent Estimated Percent Estimate Percent
d number number d number
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 475,794 96.2 212,689 92.4 193,630 89.5
Female 18,554 3.8 17,488 7.6 22,624 10.5
Race
White 163,043 33.0 98,109 42.6 40,917 18.9
Black 235,604 47.7 93,148 40.5 121,827 56.3
Hispanic 77,774 15.7 32,888 14.3 48,934 22.6
Other 17,929 3.6 6,032 2.6 4,576 2.1
Age group
Under 25 110,344 22.3 43,235 18.8 37,103 17.2
25-34 171,168 34.6 97,291 42.3 88,671 41.0
35-44 139,450 28.2 69,531 30.2 65,381 30.2
45+ 73,386 14.8 20,120 8.7 25,099 11.6
Marital status
Never married 281,152 57.0 133,398 58.0 126,057 58.3
Married 79,326 16.1 34,971 15.2 41,975 19.4
Other 132,933 26.9 61,633 26.8 48,029 22.2
Education
Less than high school 181,818 36.8 86,154 37.4 99,711 46.1
GED 170,800 34.6 76,059 33.0 51,669 23.9
High school graduate 75,706 15.3 34,311 14.9 34,258 15.8
More than high school 62,765 12.7 31,890 13.9 29,273 13.5
Employment status in month
before arrest
Employed 338,458 68.6 153,352 66.6 131,097 60.6
Not employed 143,758 29.1 71,142 30.9 81,184 37.5
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 216,244 43.8 100,582 43.7 91,222 42.2
Mother only 191,154 38.7 86,353 37.5 87,866 40.6
Father only 16,760 3.4 9,614 4.2 7,580 3.5
Grandparents 39,483 8.0 19,672 8.5 19,008 8.8
Other 26,350 5.3 12,014 5.2 9,364 4.3
Either parent alcohol or
drug abuse
None 328,754 66.6 151,221 65.7 152,568 70.6
Alcohol only 116,008 23.5 56,810 24.7 44,369 20.5
Drugs only 8,708 1.8 3,068 1.3 5,237 2.4
Alcohol and drugs 33,352 6.8 16,175 7.0 11,659 5.4
Abused as a childa
Physical only 55,743 11.3 20,689 9.0 12,377 5.7
Sexual only 18,336 3.7 5,778 2.5 3,690 1.7
Physical and sexual 19,964 4.0 7,307 3.2 3,634 1.7
None 395,752 80.2 194,626 84.6 194,801 90.1
Criminal records
Criminal justice status at
time of arrest
None 324,655 65.8 84,596 36.8 98,875 45.7
Probation 76,925 15.6 65,014 28.2 55,459 25.6
Parole 85,443 17.3 76,421 33.2 58,658 27.1
Escape 2,807 0.6 1,901 0.8 1,098 0.5
Prior sentences
None 147,509 29.9 32,307 14.0 46,693 21.6
1 to 2 167,753 34.0 66,345 28.8 73,660 34.1
3 or more 168,838 34.2 126,733 55.1 91,888 42.5
Drug histories
Drug use in month before
arrestb
Heroin 32,067 6.5 27,456 11.9 27,756 12.8
Powder cocaine 67,991 13.8 44,303 19.2 44,519 20.6
Crack cocaine 47,502 9.6 49,803 21.6 45,404 21.0
Marijuana 197,001 39.9 89,106 38.7 88,468 40.9
Other 68,286 13.8 39,678 17.2 32,879 15.2
Under influence at time of
offensea, b
Heroin 17,890 3.6 16,043 7.0 18,335 8.5
Powder cocaine 34,676 7.0 19,267 8.4 19,476 9.0
Crack cocaine 27,500 5.6 27,370 11.9 27,958 12.9
Marijuana 80,756 16.4 31,742 13.8 33,323 15.4
Other 40,664 8.2 21,067 9.2 18,093 8.4
Alcohol 202,032 41.0 78,447 34.1 58,728 27.2
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 245,521 49.8 142,550 61.9 132,329 61.2
No 242,869 49.2 85,817 37.3 82,147 38.0
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 493,349 violent
offenders, 230,177 property offenders, and 216,254
drug offenders in state prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
IV.2) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
According to the BJS 1997 survey data, the primary
types of offenders (violent, property, and drug)
in state prisons did not vary substantially by
sex, age, marital status, and employment status at
the time of their arrest. The data did, however,
indicate differences in race and education between
groups:
� A higher percentage of drug offenders (56
percent) than property offenders (41 percent) was
black; 48 percent of violent offenders were black.
Property offenders (43 percent) were more likely
than violent offenders (33 percent) to be white
and violent offenders more likely than drug
offenders (19 percent) to be white.
� Similar percentages of all three offender
types reported having graduated from high school
or having more than a high school education.
However, a higher percentage of drug offenders (46
percent) than violent offenders (37 percent) and
property offenders (37 percent) had less than a
high school education. Also, higher percentages of
violent offenders (35 percent) and property
offenders (33 percent) than drug offenders (24
percent) had earned a GED.
Family Background
Violent, property, and drug offenders had similar
family backgrounds. Fewer than half of the inmates
in all three groups grew up in two-parent
families. About two-thirds of each group reported
that neither parent abused alcohol or drugs. The
only notable difference across offender types
involved reports of abuse as a child. A higher
percentage of drug offenders (90 percent) than
violent offenders (80 percent) reported no
physical or sexual abuse; and property offenders
(85 percent) were in between the other two
categories of offenders.
Criminal Records
The BJS data showed substantial differences in
criminal records across the three groups of
offenders:
� Higher percentages of property offenders (28
percent) and drug offenders (26 percent) were on
probation at the time of their arrest than violent
offenders (16 percent). Similarly, higher
percentages of property offenders (33 percent) and
drug offenders (27 percent) than violent offenders
(17 percent) were on parole at the time of their
arrest.
� A lower percentage of property offenders (14
percent) than violent offenders (30 percent) had
served no prior sentences.
� A higher percentage of property offenders (55
percent) than violent offenders (34 percent) and
drug offenders (42 percent) had served three or
more prior sentences.
Drug Histories
The use of most drugs in the month before arrest
and the likelihood of having been under the
influence of drugs at the time of the offense were
quite similar for violent, property, and drug
offenders, with two exceptions:
� Higher percentages of drug offenders (21
percent) and property offenders (22 percent)
reported that they had used crack cocaine in the
month before their arrest than violent offenders
(10 percent).
� A higher percentage of violent offenders (41
percent) than drug offenders (27 percent) reported
that they had been under the influence of alcohol
at the time of their offense; 34 percent of
property offenders reported being under the
influence of alcohol at the time of their offense.
Treatment Participation
Violent, property, and drug offenders differed in
their participation in alcohol/drug programs.
Higher percentages of property offenders (62
percent) and drug offenders (61 percent) had
participated in such programs than violent
offenders (50 percent).
Few Notable Changes in Profiles of State Violent,
Property, and Drug Offenders in 1997, Compared
With 1991
A comparison of the 1991 and 1997 BJS data,
indicated few notable changes in the
characteristics of violent, property, and drug
offenders in state prisons.
� The percentage of inmates who were age 35 or
older rose from 25 percent to 39 percent among
property offenders and from 30 percent to 42
percent among drug offenders.
� The percentage of drug offenders who had used
marijuana in the month preceding their arrest
increased from 31 percent to 41 percent.
� The percentage of drug offenders who were
under the influence of alcohol at the time of
their offense increased from 18 percent to 27
percent.
Table IV.2: Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1991
Violent Property Drugs
Estimated Percent Estimated Percen Estimated Percent
number number t number
Personal
demographics
Sex
Male 315,557 96.2 163,510 93.7 137,672 91.6
Female 12,400 3.8 11,024 6.3 12,633 8.4
Race
White 121,972 37.2 75,015 43.0 29,751 19.8
Black 151,629 46.2 70,621 40.5 80,126 53.3
Hispanic 45,437 13.9 24,182 13.9 38,807 25.8
Other 8,920 2.7 4,716 2.7 1,620 1.1
Age group
Under 25 62,164 19.0 48,021 27.5 34,730 23.1
25-34 146,393 44.6 83,396 47.8 69,843 46.5
35-44 78,062 23.8 34,533 19.8 34,517 23.0
45+ 41,339 12.6 8,584 4.9 11,215 7.5
Marital status
Never married 172,841 52.7 103,117 59.1 85,571 56.9
Married 55,540 16.9 27,697 15.9 31,980 21.3
Other 96,118 29.3 41,654 23.9 31,248 20.8
Education
Less than high 129,060 39.4 73,194 41.9 69,365 46.1
school
GED 89,101 27.2 44,832 25.7 28,235 18.8
High school graduate 63,196 19.3 31,349 18.0 29,534 19.6
More than high 46,283 14.1 25,018 14.3 22,839 15.2
school
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 227,333 69.3 112,438 64.4 94,093 62.6
Not employed 99,343 30.3 61,696 35.3 55,547 37.0
Family background
Person lived with
while growing up
Both mother and 142,361 43.4 73,206 41.9 61,094 40.6
father
Mother only 127,222 38.8 66,892 38.3 63,052 41.9
Father only 11,764 3.6 8,673 5.0 5,281 3.5
Grandparents 23,889 7.3 13,397 7.7 12,419 8.3
Other 20,854 6.4 11,674 6.7 7,825 5.2
Either parent
alcohol or drug
abuse
None 235,413 71.8 119,821 68.7 119,446 79.5
Alcohol only 75,013 22.9 43,150 24.7 24,650 16.4
Drugs only 2,090 0.6 1,886 1.1 1,535 1.0
Alcohol and drugs 12,272 3.7 8,154 4.7 3,619 2.4
Abused as a child
Physical only 26,670 8.1 12,612 7.2 5,513 3.7
Sexual only 10,163 3.1 3,675 2.1 1,930 1.3
Physical and sexual 18,611 5.7 6,190 3.5 3,116 2.1
None 272,514 83.1 152,058 87.1 139,747 93.0
Criminal records
Criminal justice
status at time of
arrest
None 215,841 65.8 64,775 37.1 76,588 51.0
Probation 52,163 15.9 50,403 28.9 41,943 27.9
Parole 55,951 17.1 55,791 32.0 30,009 20.0
Escape 3,217 1.0 2,725 1.6 963 0.6
Prior sentences
None 90,138 27.5 14,878 8.5 31,248 20.8
1 to 2 117,386 35.8 58,088 33.3 60,244 40.1
3 or more 120,433 36.7 101,568 58.2 58,812 39.1
Drug histories
Drug use in month
before arresta
Heroin 20,096 6.1 20,072 11.5 19,091 12.7
Powder cocaine 54,912 16.7 38,173 21.9 42,896 28.5
Crack cocaine 23,210 7.1 21,739 12.5 22,860 15.2
Marijuana 108,128 33.0 59,417 34.0 46,601 31.0
Other 42,401 12.9 26,411 15.1 18,503 12.3
Under influence at
time of offensea
Heroin 12,727 3.9 14,112 8.1 12,979 8.6
Powder cocaine 31,756 9.7 21,195 12.1 22,731 15.1
Crack cocaine 12,907 3.9 10,843 6.2 11,419 7.6
Marijuana 43,636 13.3 20,477 11.7 14,370 9.6
Other 29,962 9.1 15,165 8.7 9,884 6.6
Alcohol 122,955 37.5 55,562 31.8 27,167 18.1
Treatment
participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 159,971 48.8 105,246 60.3 88,345 58.8
No 167,986 51.2 69,289 39.7 61,960 41.2
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 327,958 violent
offenders, 174,534 property offenders, and 150,304
drug offenders in state prisons in 1991.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Profile of Federal Inmates by Type of Current
Offense
The 1997 federal offender profile, by current
offense type, showed substantial differences in
demographic characteristics, family background,
and criminal records reported across crime types.
For example, property offenders were better
educated and more likely to have been employed
than violent or drug offenders. Federal violent
offenders had more serious criminal records than
either drug or property offenders. The percentage
of federal inmates who reported having
participated in alcohol/drug programs also
differed according to offense type, with a smaller
percentage of property offenders than violent or
drug offenders reported having participated in
such programs. A comparison of the 1991 and 1997
BJS federal survey data indicated few sizable
changes in the characteristics of the three
offender groups. However, drug and property
offenders showed some change in their criminal
records, with the percentage who reported having
no prior histories decreasing for drug offenders
and increasing for property offenders.
Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by Type of
Current Offense, 1997
Table IV.3 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in federal
correctional facilities for each of the three
types of offenses, as reported in BJS' 1997
federal prison inmate survey. The federal prison
population was made up of 13,021 violent
offenders, 5,826 property offenders, and 55,069
drug offenders in 1997. All percentages presented
below for federal prison inmates for 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base; and
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.
Table IV.3: Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1997
Violent Property Drugs
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent Estimate Percent
number number d
number
Personal
demographics
Sex
Male 12,592 96.7 5,064 86.9 50,486 91.7
Female 429 3.3 762 13.1 4,583 8.3
Race
White 4,895 37.6 3,347 57.4 13,026 23.7
Black 5,080 39.0 1,389 23.8 22,350 40.6
Hispanic 1,649 12.7 623 10.7 17,876 32.5
Other 1,397 10.7 466 8.0 1,817 3.3
Age group
Under 25 1,391 10.7 296 5.1 4,901 8.9
25-34 4,291 33.0 1,691 29.0 20,978 38.1
35-44 4,050 31.1 1,731 29.7 16,902 30.7
45+ 3,289 25.3 2,108 36.2 12,287 22.3
Marital status
Never married 6,466 49.6 1,629 28.0 22,886 41.6
Married 2,216 17.0 2,190 37.6 17,777 32.3
Other 4,278 32.9 2,008 34.5 14,315 26.0
Education
Less than high 2,752 21.1 842 14.5 15,090 27.4
school
GED 4,411 33.9 900 15.4 14,058 25.5
High school graduate 2,409 18.5 1,130 19.4 11,895 21.6
More than high 3,352 25.7 2,886 49.5 13,428 24.4
school
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 8,155 62.6 4,617 79.2 38,218 69.4
Not employed 4,442 34.1 1,066 18.3 15,687 28.5
Family background
Person lived with
while growing up
Both mother and 6,273 48.2 3,787 65.0 29,619 53.8
father
Mother only 4,440 34.1 1,390 23.9 17,849 32.4
Father only 521 4.0 209 3.6 1,322 2.4
Grandparents 1,000 7.7 328 5.6 4,164 7.6
Other 677 5.2 195 3.3 1,530 2.8
Either parent
alcohol or drug
abuse
None 9,368 71.9 4,746 81.5 43,779 79.5
Alcohol only 2,658 20.4 963 16.5 8,483 15.4
Drugs only 140 1.1 34 0.6 368 0.7
Alcohol and drugs 615 4.7 153 2.6 1,651 3.0
Abused as a childa
Physical only 1,339 10.3 176 3.0 1,521 2.8
Sexual only 345 2.6 125 2.1 621 1.1
Physical and sexual 308 2.4 90 1.5 588 1.1
None 10,868 83.5 5,517 94.7 51,670 93.8
Criminal records
Criminal justice
status at time of
arrest
None 8,318 63.9 4,156 71.3 41,605 75.6
Probation 1,281 9.8 1,023 17.6 7,537 13.7
Parole 3,170 24.3 755 13.0 5,562 10.1
Escape 140 1.1 0 0.0 93 0.2
Prior sentences
None 3,614 27.8 2,962 50.8 22,717 41.3
1 to 2 3,440 26.4 1,255 21.5 18,526 33.6
3 or more 5,749 44.2 1,556 26.7 12,909 23.4
Drug histories
Drug use in month
before arrestb
Heroin 1,571 12.1 212 3.6 2,178 4.0
Powder cocaine 2,165 16.6 507 8.7 10,078 18.3
Crack cocaine 1,287 9.9 200 3.4 3,450 6.3
Marijuana 4,201 32.3 988 17.0 17,435 31.7
Other 1,476 11.3 497 8.5 5,963 10.8
Under influence at
time of offensea, b
Heroin 901 6.9 83 1.4 1,355 2.5
Powder cocaine 873 6.7 139 2.4 4,003 7.3
Crack cocaine 579 4.4 82 1.4 1,911 3.5
Marijuana 1,304 10.0 230 3.9 6,595 12.0
Other 824 6.3 323 5.5 3,632 6.6
Alcohol 3,112 23.9 885 15.2 10,714 19.5
Treatment
participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 6,554 50.3 1,890 32.4 25,602 46.5
No 6,282 48.2 3,863 66.3 28,744 52.2
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 13,021 violent
offenders, 5,826 property offenders, and 55,069
drug offenders in federal prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
IV.4) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
The demographic characteristics reported by
violent, property, and drug offenders in federal
prisons in 1997 differed substantially:
� A smaller percentage of violent offenders (3
percent) than property offenders (13 percent) were
female; 8 percent of drug offenders were female.
� Property offenders (57 percent) were more
likely than violent offenders (38 percent) to be
white, and violent offenders were more likely than
drug offenders (24 percent) to be white. A larger
percentage of violent offenders (39 percent) and
drug offenders (41 percent) than property
offenders (24 percent) were black, while a larger
percentage of drug offenders (32 percent) than
violent offenders (13 percent) and property
offenders (11 percent) were Hispanic.
� Property offenders tended to be older than
the other two groups. Thirty-six percent of
property offenders were 45 or older, compared with
25 percent of violent offenders and 22 percent of
drug offenders.
� A considerably smaller percentage of violent
offenders (17 percent) were married than property
offenders (38 percent) and drug offenders (32
percent).
� Property offenders were better educated than
the other two groups. A higher percentage of
property offenders (50 percent) than violent
offenders (26 percent) and drug offenders (24
percent) had more than a high school education.
� Property offenders were also more likely to
have been employed at the time of their arrest (79
percent) than drug offenders (69 percent) and
violent offenders (63 percent).
Family Background
The family backgrounds reported by violent,
property, and drug offenders in federal prisons in
1997 were quite dissimilar:
� A higher percentage of property offenders (65
percent) grew up in two-parent families than drug
offenders (54 percent) and violent offenders (48
percent).
� The percentages of property offenders (82
percent) and drug offenders (80 percent) whose
parents had not abused drugs were higher than the
percentage of violent offenders (72 percent).
� The percentages of property offenders (95
percent) and drug offenders (94 percent) who
reported that they had not been abused as children
were also higher than the percentage of violent
offenders (83 percent).
Criminal Records
Reported criminal records also differed across the
three types of offenders in federal prisons in
1997:
� A higher percentage of violent offenders (24
percent) than property offenders (13 percent) and
drug offenders (10 percent) were on parole at the
time of their arrest, while a higher percentage of
drug offenders (76 percent) than violent offenders
(64 percent) were under no form of criminal
justice supervision. Seventy-one percent of
property offenders were not under criminal justice
supervision.
� A higher percentage of violent offenders (44
percent) had served three or more prior sentences
than property offenders (27 percent) and drug
offenders (23 percent). While 51 percent of
property offenders had never served time before,
the same was true of 41 percent of drug offenders
and 28 percent of violent offenders.
Drug Histories
Reported drug and alcohol use in the month prior
to arrest and being under the influence at the
time of the offense did not differ markedly across
the three types of offenders, with a few
exceptions:
� A higher percentage of drug offenders (18
percent) than property offenders (9 percent)
reported having used powder cocaine in the month
before their arrest; 17 percent of violent
offenders reported having used powder cocaine.
� A smaller percentage of property offenders
(17 percent) than violent offenders (32 percent)
or drug offenders (32 percent) reported having
used marijuana in the month prior to their arrest.
� A higher percentage of violent offenders (24
percent) than property offenders (15 percent)
reported having been under the influence of
alcohol when they committed their offenses; 20
percent of drug offenders were under the influence
of alcohol.
Treatment Participation
Participation in alcohol/drug programs was less
common among the property offenders than among the
other two groups. While 50 percent of violent
offenders and 46 percent of drug offenders
reported that they had participated in
alcohol/drug programs, 32 percent of property
offenders reported having done so.
Few Significant Changes in 1997, Compared With the
1991 Inmate Profiles of Federal Violent, Property,
and Drug Offenders
A comparison of 1991 and 1997 BJS federal survey
data indicated few sizable changes in the
characteristics of different types of offenders.
The changes identified included the following:
� The percentage of black drug offenders rose
from 28 percent in 1991 to 41 percent in 1997.
� The percentage of married drug offenders
declined from 42 percent in 1991 to 32 percent in
1997.
� The criminal records of violent offenders in
federal prisons were similar in 1991 and 1997,
though property offenders and drug offenders
showed some changes in their prior sentences. The
percentage of federal prison inmates with no prior
sentences rose from 42 percent to 51 percent among
property offenders, and declined from 57 percent
to 41 percent among drug offenders.
� The drug histories of violent offenders and
property offenders in federal prisons changed
little between 1991 and 1997: however, there was
some change for drug offenders. The percentage of
drug offenders who had used marijuana in the month
preceding their arrest increased from 18 percent
to 32 percent, and the percentage of drug
offenders who were under the influence of alcohol
at the time of their offense increased from 8 to
20 percent.
Table IV.4: Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1991
Violent Property Drugs
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent Estimate Percent
number number d number
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 8,943 96.5 4,018 87.7 28,341 91.1
Female 323 3.5 564 12.3 2,762 8.9
Race
White 3,878 41.9 2,713 59.2 9,548 30.7
Black 3,585 38.7 1,419 31.0 8,817 28.3
Hispanic 905 9.8 297 6.5 12,084 38.9
Other 897 9.7 153 3.3 654 2.1
Age group
Under 25 714 7.7 272 5.9 3,395 10.9
25-34 3,437 37.1 1,464 32.0 11,691 37.6
35-44 3,240 35.0 1,524 33.3 10,061 32.3
45+ 1,874 20.2 1,322 28.8 5,956 19.2
Marital status
Never married 4,049 43.7 1,181 25.8 9,699 31.2
Married 1,955 21.1 1,800 39.3 13,031 41.9
Other 3,147 34.0 1,566 34.2 7,997 25.7
Education
Less than high school 1,638 17.7 669 14.6 27.1
8,451
GED 3,314 35.8 812 17.7 6,314 20.3
High school graduate 2,023 21.8 702 15.3 7,310 23.5
More than high school 2,238 24.2 2,389 52.1 8,937 28.7
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 5,654 61.0 3,566 77.8 23,716 76.2
Not employed 3,562 38.4 1,013 22.1 7,221 23.2
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 4,648 50.2 2,847 62.1 18,253 58.7
Mother only 2,962 32.0 1,103 24.1 8,714 28.0
Father only 283 3.1 189 4.1 1,135 3.6
Grandparents 687 7.4 252 5.5 1,582 5.1
Other 596 6.4 175 3.8 1,150 3.7
Either parent alcohol or
drug abuse
None 6,830 73.7 3,803 83.0 26,833 86.3
Alcohol only 2,077 22.4 702 15.3 3,639 11.7
Drugs only 45 0.5 12 0.3 86 0.3
Alcohol and drugs 234 2.5 41 0.9 232 0.7
Abused as a child
Physical only 491 5.3 151 3.3 868 2.8
Sexual only 104 1.1 80 1.7 237 0.8
Physical and sexual 228 2.5 117 2.6 241 0.8
None 8,442 91.1 4,234 92.4 29,757 95.7
Criminal records
Criminal justice status
at time of arrest
None 5,661 61.1 3,044 66.4 25,674 82.5
Probation 1,100 11.9 877 19.1 3,075 9.9
Parole 2,262 24.4 547 11.9 2,224 7.1
Escape 232 2.5 104 2.3 79 0.3
Prior sentences
None 2,693 29.1 1,925 42.0 17,605 56.6
1 to 2 3,134 33.8 1,528 33.3 9,206 29.6
3 or more 3,438 37.1 1,129 24.6 4,292 13.8
Drug histories
Drug use in month before
arresta
Heroin 1,101 11.9 250 5.5 1,069 3.4
Powder cocaine 1,717 18.5 423 9.2 4,271 13.7
Crack cocaine 540 5.8 117 2.6 1,040 3.3
Marijuana 2,415 26.1 472 10.3 5,728 18.4
Other 964 10.4 216 4.7 1,825 5.9
Under influence at time
of offensea
Heroin 732 7.9 182 4.0 848 2.7
Powder cocaine 827 8.9 157 3.4 2,121 6.8
Crack cocaine 280 3.0 60 1.3 462 1.5
Marijuana 689 7.4 172 3.8 1,830 5.9
Other 510 5.5 178 3.9 1,050 3.4
Alcohol 1,890 20.4 341 7.4 2,559 8.2
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 4,951 53.4 1,585 34.6 13,742 44.2
No 4,314 46.6 2,996 65.4 17,361 55.8
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 9,265 violent offenders, 4,582 property
offenders, and 31,103 drug offenders in federal
prisons in 1991. Percentages may not add to 100
because of missing data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Differences Between State and Federal Prison
Inmate Profiles
Comparing state and federal inmate profiles showed
several differences between types of offenders in
state and federal prison.
Regarding the personal background characteristics
reported by state and federal inmates for 1997,
the data showed the following:
� The percentage of white property offenders
was higher in federal prisons (57 percent) than in
state prisons (43 percent), while the percentage
of black property offenders was lower in federal
prisons (24 percent) than in state prisons (40
percent).
� The percentage of Hispanic drug offenders was
higher in federal prisons (32 percent) than in
state prisons (23 percent), while the percentage
of black drug offenders was lower in federal
prisons (41 percent) than in state prisons (56
percent).
� The percentage of black violent offenders was
higher in state prisons (48 percent) than in
federal prisons (39 percent).
� The percentages of older inmates among all
three groups of offenders were higher in federal
prisons than in state prisons. While 25 percent of
violent offenders, 36 percent of property
offenders, and 22 percent of drug offenders were
age 45 or older in federal prisons, the
corresponding percentages in state prisons were
15, 9, and 12 percent, respectively.
� The percentages of married inmates were also
higher in federal prisons than in state prisons
for property offenders (38 versus 15 percent) and
drug offenders (32 versus 19 percent).
� The level of education was higher for all
three groups of offenders among federal inmates
than among state inmates. The percentages of
violent offenders, property offenders, and drug
offenders with more than a high school education
in federal prisons were 26, 50, and 24 percent,
respectively, compared with 13, 14, and 14
percent, respectively, in state prisons.
� Property offenders in the two prison systems
also differed in their employment status; 79
percent of property offenders were employed at the
time of their arrest among federal prison inmates,
compared with 67 percent of property offenders
among state prison inmates.
Differences in family background reported were
found across crime types, for example:
� The percentages of inmates who grew up in two-
parent families were higher for both property
offenders (65 percent) and drug offenders (54
percent) in federal prisons than for property
offenders (44 percent) and drug offenders (42
percent) in state prisons.
� A higher percentage of property offenders (82
percent) and drug offenders (80 percent) in
federal prisons than in state prisons (66 percent
and 71 percent, respectively) reported that
neither parent had abused alcohol or drugs.
However, a higher percentage of property offenders
in state prisons (25 percent) than in federal
prisons (16 percent) said that their parents had
abused alcohol only.
� A higher percentage of property offenders in
federal prisons (95 percent) than in state prisons
(85 percent) said that they had never been
physically or sexually abused as children.
The criminal records reported by federal and state
inmates differed in several instances:
� The percentages of property offenders (18
percent) and drug offenders (14 percent) in
federal prisons who were on probation at the time
of their arrest were lower than the percentages of
property offenders (28 percent) and drug offenders
(26 percent) in state prisons.
� Similar differences existed in the
percentages of property offenders and drug
offenders on parole (13 and 10 percent,
respectively) in federal prisons, compared with
state prisons (33 and 27 percent, respectively).
� The percentages of property offenders (71
percent) and drug offenders (76 percent) in
federal prisons who had no criminal justice status
at the time of their arrest were higher than the
percentages of property offenders (37 percent) and
drug offenders (46 percent) in state prisons.
� There was no difference in the percentage of
inmates with no prior sentences among violent
offenders in state and federal prisons, though
higher percentages of property offenders (51
percent) and drug offenders (41 percent) in
federal prisons than in state prisons (14 and 22
percent, respectively) had no prior sentences.
� Violent offenders in federal prisons were
more likely to have three or more prior sentences
than violent offenders in state prisons (44 versus
34 percent); however, lower percentages of
property offenders (27 percent) and drug offenders
(23 percent) in federal prisons than in state
prisons (55 and 42 percent, respectively) had
three or more prior sentences.
Moreover, the data showed the following
differences in drug histories among offender
groups:
� Property offenders in federal prisons were
less likely than their state counterparts to have
used powder cocaine (9 versus 19 percent), crack
cocaine (3 versus 22 percent), and marijuana (17
versus 39 percent) in the month before their
arrest.
� Higher percentages of drug offenders in state
prisons used crack cocaine 21 percent), marijuana
(41 percent), and heroin (13 percent) compared
with drug offenders in federal prisons (6 percent
used crack cocaine, 32 percent used marijuana, and
4 percent used heroin) in the month before arrest.
� Property offenders in federal prisons were
also less likely than those in state prisons to
have been under the influence, at the time of the
offense, of crack cocaine (1 versus 12 percent),
marijuana (4 versus 14 percent), and alcohol (15
versus 34 percent).
� No similar difference existed for drug
offenders, and the only substantial difference for
violent offenders in federal and state prisons
involved alcohol. Twenty-four percent of violent
offenders in federal prisons, compared with 41
percent of violent offenders in state prisons,
were under the influence of alcohol at the time of
their offense.
Regarding participation in alcohol/drug
programs by federal and state inmates, the data
indicated differences for some types of offenders
but not others:
� While no differences were found for violent
offenders in the two prison systems, the data
showed differences for drug offenders and property
offenders. Lower percentages of property offenders
(32 percent) and drug offenders (46 percent) in
federal prisons had participated in such programs
than property offenders (62 percent) and drug
offenders (61 percent) in state prisons.
Appendix V
Profiles of State and Federal Prison Inmates by
Race
Page 64GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
This appendix presents profiles of state and
federal inmates by race, including self-reported
information on their personal demographics, family
background, criminal record, drug history, and
treatment participation. The BJS 1991 and 1997
state and federal surveys indicated that inmates
were quite similar across racial and ethnic
groups, although some differences were revealed.
In 1997, minority inmates were more likely than
white inmates to be under 35 years of age, and
overall, they had less education. A higher
percentage of white and Hispanic state and federal
inmates reported that they had grown up in two-
parent households. In both federal and state
prisons, minority inmates were more likely than
white inmates to have been convicted of a drug
crime. Federal and state drug offenders varied, by
race and ethnicity, in the drug associated with
their current offense. A comparison of the 1991
and 1997 profiles showed few changes. However,
higher percentages of white and black federal
inmates reported that they had been under the
influence of alcohol at the time of their arrest.
In addition, for federal drug offenders, crack
cocaine was the drug involved for a higher
percentage of black inmates in 1997 than in 1991,
and a higher percentage of whites in 1997 than in
1991 identified methamphetamines as the drug
involved.
Profiles of State Inmates by Race
The 1997 state prison inmate profiles by race
revealed some differences. Personal demographic
and family background characteristics showed that
a higher percentage of minority inmates were
younger and had less education than white inmates,
and smaller percentages of whites than blacks and
Hispanics reported that they had experienced no
childhood physical or sexual abuse. Drug offenders
in state prisons differed by race in the drug
associated with their current offense, with a
higher percentage of white inmates reporting
methamphetamines, black inmates reporting crack
cocaine, and Hispanic inmates citing powder
cocaine. White inmates more frequently than black
or Hispanic inmates reported that they had
participated in alcohol/drug programs.
A comparison of the 1991 and 1997 profiles
showed few changes. However, the percentage of
black and white inmates age 35 and older increased
and a higher percentage of black state inmates
used marijuana in the month before their arrest in
1997 than in 1991.
Profile of State Prison Inmates by Race, 1997
Table V.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
correctional facilities by race, as reported in
BJS' 1997 state prison inmate survey. BJS reported
a total population of 352,864 white inmates,
492,676 black inmates, and 179,998 Hispanic
inmates in state prisons in 1997. All percentages
presented in table V.1 for white, black, and
Hispanic state prison inmates in 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.
Table V.1: Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Race, 1997
White Black Hispanic
Estimate Percent Estimate Percent Estimate Percen
d d d t
number number number
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 330,852 93.8 461,088 93.6 169,799 94.3
Female 22,013 6.2 31,588 6.4 10,199 5.7
Age group
Under 25 55,615 15.8 100,915 20.5 44,445 24.7
25-34 124,790 35.4 194,590 39.5 72,315 40.2
35-44 110,951 31.4 146,856 29.8 45,590 25.3
45+ 61,508 17.4 50,315 10.2 17,649 9.8
Marital status
Never married 151,559 43.0 334,929 68.0 97,870 54.4
Married 59,573 16.9 69,197 14.0 41,288 22.9
Other 140,861 39.9 87,702 17.8 40,755 22.6
Education
Less than high school 94,574 26.8 214,711 43.6 94,420 52.5
GED 135,335 38.4 134,480 27.3 48,722 27.1
High school graduate 60,350 17.1 79,982 16.2 19,910 11.1
More than high school 60,401 17.1 59,506 12.1 15,548 8.6
Employment status in month
before arrest
Employed 256,374 72.7 302,826 61.5 123,844 68.8
Not employed 88,187 25.0 177,910 36.1 52,176 29.0
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 197,630 56.0 161,186 32.7 89,136 49.5
Mother only 100,310 28.4 236,213 47.9 59,923 33.3
Father only 17,883 5.1 13,063 2.7 5,346 3.0
Grandparents 18,609 5.3 52,373 10.6 13,884 7.7
Other 15,966 4.5 24,746 5.0 10,140 5.6
Either parent alcohol or
drug abuse
None 210,056 59.5 349,489 70.9 131,287 72.9
Alcohol only 106,028 30.0 96,570 19.6 34,193 19.0
Drugs only 5,094 1.4 10,734 2.2 2,629 1.5
Alcohol and drugs 27,398 7.8 28,036 5.7 9,457 5.3
Abused as a childa
Physical only 49,516 14.0 31,926 6.5 13,856 7.7
Sexual only 14,645 4.2 12,628 2.6 3,311 1.8
Physical and sexual 20,657 5.9 9,114 1.8 3,514 2.0
None 265,529 75.2 433,775 88.0 157,390 87.4
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 163,043 46.2 235,604 47.8 77,774 43.2
Property 98,109 27.8 93,148 18.9 32,888 18.3
Drug 40,917 11.6 121,827 24.7 48,934 27.2
Other 44,664 12.7 37,631 7.6 19,062 10.6
Type of drug involved in
offenseb
Powder cocaine 11,642 28.7 36,884 30.5 20,731 43.0
Crack cocaine 4,442 10.9 71,861 59.4 8,012 16.6
Heroin 4,263 10.5 11,309 9.3 10,987 22.8
Marijuana 8,076 19.9 9,763 8.1 8,534 17.7
Methamphetamines 14,489 35.7 887 0.7 4,643 9.6
Other 2,622 6.5 1,091 0.9 1,397 2.9
Criminal justice status at
time of arrest
None 193,536 54.8 245,735 49.9 92,663 51.5
Probation 80,676 22.9 106,724 21.7 37,272 20.7
Parole 70,034 19.8 132,114 26.8 46,620 25.9
Escape 3,870 1.1 2,450 0.5 659 0.4
Prior sentences
None 82,768 23.5 103,777 21.1 52,877 29.4
1 to 2 100,184 28.4 173,135 35.1 58,633 32.6
3 or more 164,054 46.5 203,188 41.2 65,096 36.2
Drug histories
Drug use in month before
arrest c
Heroin 32,546 9.2 32,952 6.7 28,456 15.8
Powder cocaine 54,162 15.3 72,595 14.7 36,960 20.5
Crack cocaine 36,973 10.5 96,193 19.5 16,524 9.2
Marijuana 134,596 38.1 201,195 40.8 60,861 33.8
Other 94,954 26.9 31,266 6.3 25,423 14.1
Under influence at time of
offensea, c
Heroin 18,171 5.1 18,827 3.8 19,663 10.9
Powder cocaine 23,445 6.6 33,920 6.9 19,471 10.8
Crack cocaine 20,169 5.7 57,529 11.7 8,480 4.7
Marijuana 52,308 14.8 77,434 15.7 23,100 12.8
Other 52,018 14.7 19,525 4.0 13,668 7.6
Alcohol 148,679 42.1 159,455 32.4 65,063 36.1
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 223,376 63.3 262,654 53.3 86,182 47.9
No 126,403 35.8 223,615 45.4 91,958 51.1
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 352,864 white inmates, 492,676 black inmates,
and 179,998 Hispanic inmates in state prisons in
1997. Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in 1991 (see table V.3)
and 1997 inmate reports of physical and sexual
abuse and being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of arrest may have been due to changes in
question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 40,566 white inmates, 120,980
black inmates, and 48,255 Hispanic inmates who
reported being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Table V.2: State Inmates With Children, by Race,
1997
White Black Hispanic
Estimat Percent Estimat Percent Estimat Percent
ed ed ed
number number number
Do you have children
Male
Yes 199,874 60.9 310,257 68.0 114,103 67.7
No 128,147 39.1 146,068 32.0 54,317 32.3
Female
Yes 17,058 77.9 25,617 81.8 7,985 78.7
No 4,849 22.1 5,688 18.2 2,164 21.3
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population of 328,022 white, 456,325
black, and 168,420 Hispanic male state inmates and
21,907 white, 31,305 black, and 10,149 Hispanic
female state inmates in 1997.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
Among state inmates in the 1997 survey, the
profiles revealed few differences in demographics
based on race or ethnicity:
� In state prisons, higher percentages of
minority inmates were under the age of 35 than
white inmates. Sixty-five percent of Hispanic
inmates, 60 percent of black inmates, and 51
percent of white inmates were under age 35.
� Higher percentages of minorities in state
prisons than whites had never been married. Sixty-
eight percent of black, 54 percent of Hispanic,
and 43 percent of white inmates had never been
married.
� Fifty-two percent of Hispanic and 44 percent
of black state prison inmates had less than a high
school degree or its equivalent, compared with 27
percent of white inmates.
� Seventy-three percent of white state inmates
were employed in the month before their arrest,
compared with about 62 percent of black inmates;
69 percent of Hispanic inmates were employed.
Family Background
Family backgrounds reported by state inmates
differed among racial and ethnic groups, including
the following:
� Higher percentages of white (56 percent) and
Hispanic (50 percent) state inmates than black
inmates (33 percent) lived with both parents when
growing up. A higher percentage of black state
inmates had lived with only their mother (48
percent), compared with white (28 percent) and
Hispanic (33 percent) inmates.
� Seventy-one percent of black and 73 percent
of Hispanic state inmates said that neither parent
had abused alcohol or drugs, compared with 60
percent of white inmates. A higher percentage of
white inmates (30 percent) than black (20 percent)
or Hispanic (19 percent) inmates said that a
parent had abused alcohol only.
� Although most state inmates had not
experienced physical or sexual abuse as a child, a
lower percentage of white (75 percent) than black
(88 percent) and Hispanic (87 percent) inmates had
not been abused.
Criminal Records
The types of nonviolent crimes committed and the
types of drugs involved in drug crimes differed by
racial or ethnic group:
� Regardless of race or ethnicity, state
inmates in 1997 most frequently had been convicted
of a violent crime. However, concerning nonviolent
crimes, a higher percentage of white inmates (28
percent) than black (19 percent) and Hispanic (18
percent) inmates were in prison for a property
crime, while a higher percentage of black (25
percent) and Hispanic (27 percent) inmates than
white inmates (12 percent) were in prison for a
drug crime.
� Among drug offenders, the type of drug
involved in the crime varied by racial group. A
higher percentage of black state inmates (59
percent) than Hispanic (17 percent) or white
inmates (11 percent) who were convicted of drug
crimes said that crack cocaine was involved in the
crime. However, a higher percentage of Hispanic
inmates (43 percent) than black (30 percent) and
white (29 percent) inmates said that powder
cocaine was involved.
� Methamphetamines were involved for a higher
percentage of white inmates convicted of drug
crimes (36 percent) than Hispanic (10 percent) or
black (1 percent) inmates.
� Marijuana was more likely to be involved for
white (20 percent) and Hispanic (18 percent)
inmates than black (8 percent) inmates. A higher
percentage of Hispanic inmates (23 percent) than
white (10 percent) and black inmates (9 percent)
indicated heroin.
� A higher percentage of white (47 percent)
than Hispanic (36 percent) inmates had served
three or more prior sentences; 41 percent of black
inmates had served three or more prior sentences.
Drug Histories
The drug histories reported by state inmates in
1997 across the racial and ethnic groups were
quite similar, with the following exceptions:
� In the month before arrest, a higher
percentage of black state inmates (20 percent)
than white (10 percent) and Hispanic (9 percent)
inmates used crack cocaine.
� A higher percentage of Hispanic inmates (16
percent) than black inmates (7 percent) used
heroin; 9 percent of white inmates used heroin
during this period.
� White inmates (27 percent) were more likely
than Hispanic (14 percent) and black (6 percent)
inmates to have used a drug other than marijuana,
cocaine, or heroin during the month before their
arrest.
� A higher percentage of white inmates (42
percent) than black inmates (32 percent) were
under the influence of alcohol when they committed
their offense; 36 percent of Hispanic inmates were
under the influence of alcohol.
Treatment Participation
State inmates' reports of participation in
alcohol/drug programs differed across racial and
ethnic groups. A higher percentage of white
inmates (63 percent) than black (53 percent) and
Hispanic (48 percent) inmates reported that they
had participated in such programs.
Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Profiles of
White, Black, and Hispanic Inmates in State
Prisons
A comparison of table V.1 with table V.3, which
provides information on selected characteristics
from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of state prison
inmates, showed little change in state inmate
profiles based on race or ethnicity between 1991
and 1997. There were a few differences, however:
� The percentages of white and black state
inmates under age 35 decreased from 1991 (62 and
71 percent, respectively) to 1997 (51 and 60
percent, respectively).
� A higher percentage of black state inmates
had used marijuana in the month before their
arrest in 1997 (41 percent) than in 1991 (30
percent).
Table V.3: Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Race, 1991
White Black Hispanic
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent Estimated Percent
number number number
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 238,012 94.4 306,329 94.5 113,113 95.3
Female 14,026 5.6 17,836 5.5 5,521 4.7
Age group
Under 25 47,296 18.8 76,923 23.7 27,923 23.5
25-34 108,839 43.2 153,577 47.4 55,830 47.1
35-44 59,857 23.7 72,640 22.4 24,802 20.9
45+ 36,045 14.3 21,025 6.5 10,079 8.5
Marital status
Never married 104,821 41.6 216,330 66.7 60,395 50.9
Married 46,512 18.5 47,336 14.6 29,825 25.1
Other 97,551 38.7 56,569 17.5 27,735 23.4
Education
Less than high school 75,408 29.9 148,543 45.8 65,669 55.4
GED 78,262 31.1 67,647 20.9 24,027 20.3
High school graduate 52,948 21.0 64,108 19.8 16,628 14.0
More than high school 45,191 17.9 43,310 13.4 12,110 10.2
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 183,015 72.6 202,958 62.6 80,221 67.6
Not employed 68,171 27.0 119,909 37.0 37,998 32.0
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 140,935 55.9 102,804 31.7 54,463 45.9
Mother only 69,366 27.5 160,184 49.4 42,680 36.0
Father only 12,269 4.9 9,757 3.0 4,784 4.0
Grandparents 12,954 5.1 32,294 10.0 8,092 6.8
Other 15,469 6.1 17,222 5.3 8,216 6.9
Either parent alcohol
or drug abuse
None 158,675 63.0 257,248 79.4 91,633 77.2
Alcohol only 76,397 30.3 53,493 16.5 20,552 17.3
Drugs only 1,812 0.7 2,346 0.7 1,533 1.3
Alcohol and drugs 13,359 5.3 7,952 2.5 3,795 3.2
Abused as a child
Physical only 26,712 10.6 14,540 4.5 5,648 4.8
Sexual only 9,849 3.9 5,105 1.6 1,890 1.6
Physical and sexual 19,149 7.6 6,849 2.1 2,824 2.4
None 196,328 77.9 297,671 91.8 108,273 91.3
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 121,972 48.4 151,926 46.9 45,437 38.3
Property 75,015 29.8 70,621 21.8 24,182 20.4
Drug 29,751 11.8 80,126 24.7 38,807 32.7
Other 25,299 10.0 21,789 6.7 10,207 8.6
Criminal justice status
at time of arrest
None 140,585 55.8 168,446 52.0 60,920 51.4
Probation 56,501 22.4 74,734 23.1 27,932 23.5
Parole 48,695 19.3 75,743 23.4 28,048 23.6
Escape 4,370 1.7 2,418 0.7 663 0.6
Prior sentences
None 52,520 20.8 60,486 18.7 28,601 24.1
1 to 2 79,605 31.6 126,081 38.9 42,688 36.0
3 or more 119,912 47.6 137,597 42.4 47,344 39.9
Drug histories
Drug use in month
before arresta
Heroin 17,013 6.8 22,993 7.1 22,116 18.6
Powder cocaine 44,882 17.8 66,187 20.4 30,551 25.8
Crack cocaine 16,218 6.4 44,535 13.7 9,461 8.0
Marijuana 90,880 36.1 96,856 29.9 33,571 28.3
Other 55,955 22.2 19,685 6.1 14,348 12.1
Under influence at time
of offensea
Heroin 11,579 4.6 13,590 4.2 16,533 13.9
Powder cocaine 25,272 10.0 37,382 11.5 15,354 12.9
Crack cocaine 7,484 3.0 24,045 7.4 4,115 3.5
Marijuana 33,740 13.4 34,993 10.8 11,049 9.3
Other 36,005 14.3 12,482 3.9 7,159 6.0
Alcohol 99,860 39.6 83,889 25.9 37,969 32.0
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 151,902 60.3 161,861 49.9 63,281 53.3
No 100,136 39.7 162,303 50.1 55,352 46.7
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated population of 252,038 white inmates,
324,165 black inmates, and 118,634 Hispanic
inmates in state prisons in 1991. Percentages may
not add to 100 because of missing data or
rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Table V.4: State Inmates With Children, by Race,
1991
White Black Hispanic
Estimate Percent Estimate Percent Estimate Percent
d number d number d number
Do you have children
Male
Yes 136,990 57.6 204,573 66.8 75,397 66.7
No 101,022 42.4 101,756 33.2 37,716 33.3
Female
Yes 10,322 73.6 14,086 79.0 4,490 81.3
No 3,703 26.4 3,749 21.0 1,031 18.7
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population of 238,012 white, 306,329
black, and 113,113 Hispanic male state inmates and
14,025 white, 17,835 black, and 5,521 Hispanic
female state inmates in 1991.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
The 1997 federal prison inmate profiles
revealed a few differences in personal
demographics and family background based on race
or ethnicity. While federal inmates of all races
were most likely to report that their current
incarceration was for a drug crime, the likelihood
of committing drug crimes, as opposed to violent
or property crimes varied across racial groups.
Moreover, among drug offenders, the drugs likely
to be associated with the current offense differed
by race and ethnicity. For example, a higher
percentage of white drug offenders than other drug
offenders cited methamphetamines, black drug
offenders were more likely than other drug
offenders to report crack cocaine, and Hispanic
drug offenders were more likely than other drug
offenders to report powder cocaine as the
associated drug. Moreover, greater percentages of
white and black federal inmates than Hispanic
inmates had serious criminal records. The drug
histories of federal inmates also varied by race
and ethnicity, with a greater percentage of black
inmates reporting that they had used marijuana in
the month before arrest, a greater percentage of
Hispanic inmates reporting that they had used
powder cocaine, and a greater percentage of white
inmates reporting that they had used other drugs.
In 1997, higher percentages of white and black
federal inmates than Hispanic inmates reported
that they had participated in alcohol/drug
programs.
A comparison of the 1991 and 1997 federal
profiles showed few changes by race. However,
white and black inmates were more likely in 1997
than 1991 to have been under the influence of
alcohol at the time of their arrest. In addition,
a higher percentage of black drug offenders in
1997 than in 1991 said crack cocaine was the drug
involved in their current offense, and a higher
percentage of white inmates identified
methamphetamines as the drug involved.
Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by Race, 1997
Table V.5 summarizes selected self-reported
personal demographic, family background, criminal
record, drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in federal
correctional facilities derived from BJS' 1997
federal prison inmate survey. The federal prison
population included 26,616 white, 33,697 black,
and 24,349 Hispanic inmates. All percentages
presented below for federal prison inmates for
1997 were calculated using those numbers as the
base; adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing responses to a particular question.
Table V.5: Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Race, 1997
White Black Hispanic
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent Estimate Percent
number number d number
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 24,746 93.0 31,481 93.4 22,280 91.5
Female 1,870 7.0 2,216 6.6 2,069 8.5
Age group
Under 25 1,099 4.1 4,216 12.5 1,981 8.1
25-34 6,134 23.0 16,119 47.8 8,849 36.3
35-44 9,111 34.2 8,537 25.3 8,309 34.1
45+ 10,272 38.6 4,825 14.3 5,210 21.4
Marital status
Never married 6,978 26.2 20,169 59.9 7,812 32.1
Married 8,016 30.1 7,681 22.8 10,001 41.1
Other 11,548 43.4 5,754 17.1 6,518 26.8
Education
Less than high school 3,105 11.7 10,117 30.0 8,985 36.9
GED 7,556 28.4 8,594 25.5 6,372 26.2
High school graduate 5,495 20.6 7,555 22.4 3,873 15.9
More than high school 10,188 38.3 7,169 21.3 4,682 19.2
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 18,955 71.2 21,545 63.9 18,207 74.8
Not employed 6,946 26.1 11,235 33.3 5,169 21.2
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 17,991 67.6 12,286 36.5 15,380 63.2
Mother only 6,173 23.2 15,381 45.6 5,325 21.9
Father only 836 3.1 743 2.2 829 3.4
Grandparents 645 2.4 4,031 12.0 1,553 6.4
Other 560 2.1 1,014 3.0 988 4.1
Either parent alcohol
or drug abuse
None 19,562 73.5 26,228 77.8 20,523 84.3
Alcohol only 5,281 19.8 5,274 15.7 3,047 12.5
Drugs only 163 0.6 441 1.3 66 0.3
Alcohol and drugs 994 3.7 1,311 3.9 326 1.3
Abused as a childa
Physical only 1,861 7.0 937 2.8 535 2.2
Sexual only 478 1.8 426 1.3 318 1.3
Physical and sexual 630 2.4 235 0.7 164 0.7
None 23,137 86.9 31,810 94.4 23,010 94.5
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 4,895 18.4 5,080 15.1 1,649 6.8
Property 3,347 12.6 1,389 4.1 623 2.6
Drug 13,026 48.9 22,350 66.3 17,876 73.4
Other 4,839 18.2 4,359 12.9 3,956 16.2
Type of drug involved
in offenseb
Powder cocaine 3,833 29.5 8,990 40.3 9,153 51.3
Crack cocaine 769 5.9 12,165 54.5 1,298 7.3
Heroin 618 4.8 1,650 7.4 2,639 14.8
Marijuana 3,832 29.5 1,366 6.1 4,607 25.8
Methamphetamines 4,177 32.2 42 0.2 1,305 7.3
Other 921 7.1 542 2.4 255 1.4
Criminal justice status
at time of arrest
None 19,809 74.4 22,767 67.6 17,960 73.8
Probation 2,534 9.5 5,617 16.7 3,290 13.5
Parole 3,911 14.7 4,989 14.8 2,730 11.2
Escape 121 0.5 18 0.1 93 0.4
Prior sentences
None 9,950 37.4 9,294 27.6 12,468 51.2
1 to 2 7,649 28.7 11,759 34.9 7,019 28.8
3 or more 8,421 31.6 12,004 35.6 4,193 17.2
Drug histories
Drug use in month
before arrestc
Heroin 1,916 7.2 1,186 3.5 1,532 6.3
Powder cocaine 4,027 15.1 4,520 13.4 5,510 22.6
Crack cocaine 1,417 5.3 3,178 9.4 786 3.2
Marijuana 7,871 29.6 12,411 36.8 5,109 21.0
Other 6,269 23.6 984 2.9 1,348 5.5
Under influence at time
of offensea, c
Heroin 1,009 3.8 715 2.1 830 3.4
Powder cocaine 1,493 5.6 2,012 6.0 2,094 8.6
Crack cocaine 678 2.5 1,534 4.6 479 2.0
Marijuana 2,519 9.5 4,999 14.8 1,520 6.2
Other 3,948 14.8 687 2.0 383 1.6
Alcohol 5,697 21.4 6,989 20.7 4,011 16.5
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 13,975 52.5 16,119 47.8 8,764 36.0
No 12,045 45.3 17,208 51.1 15,317 62.9
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 26,616 white inmates, 33,697 black inmates, and
24,349 Hispanic inmates in federal prisons in
1997. Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
V.7) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 12,982 white inmates, 22,302
black inmates, and 17,833 Hispanic inmates who
reported being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Table V.6: Federal Inmates With Children, by
Race, 1997
White Black Hispanic
Estimate Percent Estimat Percent Estimate Percent
d number ed d number
number
Do you have children
Male
Yes 16,985 69.7 25,885 82.9 17,591 79.8
No 7,383 30.3 5,325 17.1 4,460 20.2
Female
Yes 1,453 77.9 1,844 83.7 1,771 85.6
No 412 22.1 360 16.3 298 14.4
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population of 24,368 white, 31,210
black, and 22,051 Hispanic male federal inmates
and 1,866 white, 2,205 black, and 2,069 Hispanic
female federal inmates in 1997.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
Examination of BJS' 1997 federal prison inmate
survey data revealed few differences between
racial and ethnic groups in their general
demographic characteristics:
� In federal prisons in 1997, minority inmates
were more likely than white inmates to be under
the age of 35. Sixty percent of black inmates were
under the age of 35, with nearly half (48 percent)
being between 25 and 34 years old; 44 percent of
Hispanic inmates were younger than 35, with about
one-third (36 percent) being between 25 and 34.
About one-quarter of white inmates (27 percent)
were younger than 35 years old. A higher
percentage of white (39 percent) than other
inmates (14 percent of black and 21 percent of
Hispanic inmates) were 45 years of age or older.
� Concerning marital status, black federal
inmates (60 percent) were the most likely to
report never having been married, Hispanic inmates
(41 percent) were the most likely to indicate
being married currently, and white inmates (43
percent) were the most likely to report marital
statuses other than never married or married
(i.e., divorced, separated, or widowed).
� A higher percentage of white federal inmates
had more education than did minority inmates.
Specifically, 38 percent of white inmates had more
education than a high school degree or GED,
compared with 21 percent of black and 19 percent
of Hispanic inmates. Greater percentages of
Hispanic (37 percent) and black (30 percent)
federal inmates had less than a high school degree
than did white inmates (12 percent).
� A higher percentage of Hispanic inmates (75
percent) than black inmates (64 percent) were
employed in the month before their arrest; 71
percent of white inmates were employed.
� Black (83 percent) and Hispanic (80 percent)
male federal inmates were more likely than white
male inmates (70 percent) to have children.
Family Background
While there were few racial differences in the
family background characteristics reported by
federal prison inmates in 1997, we found the
following:
� In federal prisons, higher percentages of
white (68 percent) and Hispanic (63 percent)
inmates than black inmates (37 percent) reported
that they had lived with both parents when growing
up. Forty-six percent of black inmates (46
percent) lived with only their mother, compared
with white (23 percent) and Hispanic (22 percent)
inmates.
� Hispanic inmates (84 percent) were more
likely than white inmates (74 percent) to report
no parental abuse of alcohol or drugs; 78 percent
of black inmates reported no parental abuse of
alcohol or drugs.
Criminal Records
There were differences in federal inmates'
criminal records, according to race or ethnicity.
The type of current offense reported varied across
racial groups in the following ways:
� Higher percentages of Hispanic (73 percent)
and black (66 percent) inmates than white inmates
(49 percent) were drug offenders.
� White (18 percent) and black (15 percent)
inmates were more likely than Hispanic inmates (7
percent) to be violent offenders.
� A higher percentage of white inmates (13
percent) than black (4 percent) and Hispanic (3
percent) inmates were property offenders.
There were racial and ethnic differences in the
types of drugs federal drug offenders said were
associated with their current offense:
� Drug offenders who were members of minority
groups were more likely than white drug offenders
to cite powder cocaine as the drug involved in
their current offense. Fifty-one percent of
Hispanic inmates, 40 percent of black inmates, and
30 percent of white inmates cited powder cocaine.
� Fifty-four percent of black drug offenders
compared with 7 percent of Hispanic and 6 percent
of white drug offenders indicated crack cocaine as
the drug involved in their current offense.
� White drug offenders (32 percent) were more
likely than Hispanic (7 percent) or black (0.2
percent) drug offenders to identify
methamphetamines as the associated drug.
� Marijuana was involved in the current offense
for a higher percentage of white (30 percent) and
Hispanic (26 percent) drug offenders than black
drug offenders (6 percent).
There were some racial and ethnic differences
among federal inmates in their reported previous
experience with the criminal justice system:
� Hispanic inmates (51 percent) were more
likely than white inmates (37 percent) and white
inmates more likely than black inmates (28
percent) to have served no prior sentences.
� Black (36 percent) and white (32 percent)
inmates were about twice as likely as Hispanic
inmates (17 percent) to have served three or more
prior sentences.
Drug Histories
The drug histories reported by federal inmates
also differed across racial groups:
� Higher percentages of black (37 percent) and
white (30 percent) inmates than Hispanic inmates
(21 percent) had used marijuana in the month prior
to the arrest for their current offense.
� Hispanic inmates (23 percent) were more
likely than white (15 percent) or black (13
percent) inmates to have used powder cocaine in
the month prior to their arrest.
� Twenty-four percent of white inmates compared
with 6 percent of Hispanic and 3 percent of black
inmates used a drug other than marijuana, cocaine,
or heroin in the month before their arrest.
Treatment Participation
In 1997, the percentage of federal prison inmates
who reported they had participated in alcohol/drug
programs differed by race and ethnicity, with
greater percentages of white and black inmates
than Hispanic inmates having participated in such
treatment. White (52 percent) and black (48
percent) federal inmates were more likely than
Hispanic inmates (36 percent) to report having
participated in alcohol/drug programs.
Few Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Profiles
of Federal White, Black, and Hispanic Inmates
A comparison of table V.5 with table V.7, which
provides information on selected characteristics
from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of federal prison
inmates, generally, showed little overall change
in federal inmate profiles by race and ethnicity
between 1991 and 1997. However, some changes did
occur:
� Higher percentages of black and Hispanic
inmates in 1997 (60 and 32 percent, respectively)
than in 1991 (50 and 23 percent, respectively)
were never married.
� A higher percentage of black inmates in 1997
(66 percent) than in 1991 (55 percent) was in
prison for a drug crime.
� Black inmates were nearly twice as likely to
cite crack cocaine in 1997 (54 percent) than in
1991 (29 percent) as the drug involved, and the
percentage of white inmates who indicated
methamphetamines nearly doubled also between 1997
(32 percent) and 1991 (17 percent).
� Lower percentages of Hispanic and black
federal inmates in 1997 (51 and 28 percent,
respectively) than in 1991 (65 and 40 percent,
respectively) had served no prior sentences. A
higher percentage of black inmates in 1997 (36
percent) than in 1991 (26 percent) had served
three or more prior sentences.
� A greater percentage of Hispanic federal
inmates had used powder cocaine in the month
before their arrest in 1997 (23 percent) than in
1991 (13 percent). A higher percentage of white
inmates in 1997 (21 percent) than in 1991 (12
percent) had used a drug other than marijuana,
cocaine, or heroin.
� White and black federal inmates were more
likely in 1997 (21 and 21 percent, respectively)
than in 1991 (12 and 10 percent, respectively) to
report being under the influence of alcohol at the
time of arrest.
Table V.7: Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Race, 1991
White Black Hispanic
Estimated Percent Estimate Percent Estimate Percent
number d number d number
Personal demographics
Sex
Male 19,506 94.1 14,514 89.9 13,856 91.8
Female 1,226 5.9 1,629 10.1 1,245 8.2
Age group
Under 25 950 4.6 2,475 15.3 1,330 8.8
25-34 6,205 29.9 6,717 41.6 5,667 37.5
35-44 7,221 34.8 4,805 29.8 5,149 34.1
45+ 6,356 30.7 2,147 13.3 2,955 19.6
Marital status
Never married 4,899 23.6 8,150 50.5 3,445 22.8
Married 7,549 36.4 4,520 28.0 7,556 50.0
Other 7,979 38.5 3,199 19.8 4,010 26.6
Education
Less than high school 3,024 14.6 4,562 28.3 4,718 31.2
GED 4,653 22.4 3,534 21.9 3,592 23.8
High school graduate 4,724 22.8 3,639 22.5 3,097 20.5
More than high school 8,259 39.8 4,369 27.1 3,642 24.1
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 15,368 74.1 10,921 67.7 12,033 79.7
Not employed 5,241 25.3 5,107 31.6 3,012 19.9
Family background
Person lived with
while growing up
Both mother and father 14,202 68.5 6,520 40.4 9,375 62.1
Mother only 4,281 20.6 6,777 42.0 3,717 24.6
Father only 765 3.7 491 3.0 483 3.2
Grandparents 572 2.8 1,398 8.7 827 5.5
Other 755 3.6 740 4.6 626 4.1
Either parent alcohol
or drug abuse
None 16,334 78.8 13,358 82.7 13,650 90.4
Alcohol only 3,815 18.4 2,358 14.6 1,228 8.1
Drugs only 47 0.2 60 0.4 51 0.3
Alcohol and drugs 345 1.7 149 0.9 47 0.3
Abused as a child
Physical only 1,125 5.4 392 2.4 314 2.1
Sexual only 296 1.4 144 0.9 88 0.6
Physical and sexual 396 1.9 196 1.2 77 0.5
None 18,915 91.2 15,412 95.5 14,621 96.8
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 3,878 18.7 3,585 22.2 905 6.0
Property 2,713 13.1 1,419 8.8 297 2.0
Drug 9,548 46.1 8,817 54.6 12,084 80.0
Other 4,593 22.2 2,322 14.4 1,815 12.0
Type of drug involved
in offensea
Powder cocaine 4,354 45.6 4,500 51.1 7,477 62.0
Crack cocaine 87 0.9 2,570 29.2 290 2.4
Heroin 451 4.7 1,305 14.8 1,437 11.9
Marijuana 2,712 28.4 477 5.4 2,731 22.7
Methamphetamines 1,652 17.3 30 0.3 203 1.7
Other 502 5.3 396 4.5 48 0.4
Criminal justice
status at time of
arrest
None 15,538 74.9 11,259 69.7 12,363 81.9
Probation 2,281 11.0 2,362 14.6 1,428 9.5
Parole 2,519 12.1 2,375 14.7 1,182 7.8
Escape 344 1.7 83 0.5 56 0.4
Prior sentences
None 8,996 43.4 6,376 39.5 9,756 64.6
1 to 2 6,664 32.1 5,631 34.9 3,731 24.7
3 or more 5,072 24.5 4,136 25.6 1,614 10.7
Drug histories
Drug use in month
before arrestb
Heroin 869 4.2 950 5.9 780 5.2
Powder cocaine 2,925 14.1 2,279 14.1 1,974 13.1
Crack cocaine 586 2.8 1,139 7.1 216 1.4
Marijuana 4,395 21.2 3,629 22.5 1,876 12.4
Other 2,348 11.3 608 3.8 399 2.6
Under influence at
time of offenseb
Heroin 634 3.1 693 4.3 550 3.6
Powder cocaine 1,481 7.1 1,077 6.7 931 6.2
Crack cocaine 238 1.1 636 3.9 99 0.7
Marijuana 1,268 6.1 1,157 7.2 665 4.4
Other 1,426 6.9 294 1.8 163 1.1
Alcohol 2,410 11.6 1,600 9.9 1,274 8.4
Treatment
participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 10,778 52.0 6,602 40.9 5,730 37.9
No 9,954 48.0 9,541 59.1 9,371 62.1
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 20,732 White inmates, 16,143 Black inmates, and
15,101 Hispanic inmates in federal prisons in
1991. Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 9,538 white inmates, 8,804
black inmates, and 12,056 Hispanic inmates who
reported being sentenced for drug offenses.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Table V.8: Federal Inmates With Children, by
Race, 1991
White Black Hispanic
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent Estimated Percent
number number number
Do you have children
Male
Yes 13,613 69.8 11,307 77.9 11,227 81.0
No 5,893 30.2 3,206 22.1 2,629 19.0
Female
Yes 929 75.7 1316 80.7 1,040 83.5
No 297 24.3 314 19.3 205 16.5
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population total of 19,506 white, 14,513
black, and 13,856 Hispanic male federal inmates
and 1,226 white, 1,630 black, and 1,245 Hispanic
female federal inmates in 1991.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Differences Between State and Federal Prison
Inmate Profiles
We identified several differences between state
and federal inmate populations in 1997 that were
related to race:
� White and Hispanic state inmates tended to be
younger than white and Hispanic federal inmates.
Higher percentages of white and Hispanic state
inmates were under age 35 (51 and 65 percent,
respectively), while higher percentages of white
and Hispanic federal inmates were age 35 or older
(73 and 56 percent, respectively).
� Higher percentages of white (68 percent) and
Hispanic (63 percent) inmates in federal prisons
than in state prisons (56 percent of white and 50
percent of Hispanic inmates) lived with both
parents when growing up. A higher percentage of
Hispanic state inmates (33 percent) than Hispanic
federal inmates (22 percent) lived with their
mother only.
� Higher percentages of white (74 percent) and
Hispanic (84 percent) inmates in federal prisons
than in state prisons (60 percent of whites and 73
percent of Hispanics) said that neither parent had
abused alcohol or drugs. However, a higher
percentage of white state inmates (30 percent)
than white federal inmates (20 percent) said that
a parent had abused alcohol only.
� A lower percentage of white state inmates (75
percent) than white federal inmates (87 percent)
said that they had not been physically and/or
sexually abused as a child.
� A higher percentage of white state inmates
(23 percent) than white federal inmates (10
percent) said that they had been on probation at
the time of their arrest. Higher percentages of
state black (27 percent) and Hispanic inmates (26
percent) than federal black (15 percent) and
Hispanic inmates (11 percent) were on parole at
the time of their arrest.
� Among drug offenders, higher percentages of
federal black inmates (40 percent) and Hispanic
inmates (51 percent) than state black inmates (30
percent) and Hispanic inmates (43 percent) cited
powder cocaine as the drug involved in the crime.
Higher percentages of federal white inmates (30
percent) and Hispanic inmates (26 percent) than
state white inmates (20 percent) and Hispanic
inmates (18 percent) indicated marijuana.
� Higher percentages of state white inmates (46
percent) and Hispanic inmates (36 percent) than
federal white inmates (32 percent) and Hispanic
inmates (17 percent) had served 3 or more prior
sentences.
� A higher percentage of black state inmates
(20 percent) than black federal inmates (9
percent) had used crack cocaine in the month
before their arrest, and a higher percentage of
Hispanic state inmates (34 percent) than Hispanic
federal inmates (21 percent) had used marijuana.
� Higher percentages of state white (63
percent) and Hispanic inmates (48 percent) than
federal white (52 percent) and Hispanic inmates
(36 percent) had participated in alcohol/drug
programs.
Appendix VI
Profiles of State and Federal Prison Inmates by
Gender
Page 80GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
This appendix presents profiles of state and
federal inmates by gender, including their self-
reported personal demographics, family background,
criminal record, drug history, and treatment
participation.1 While few differences were found
between male and female inmates in state and
federal prisons in 1991 and 1997, some differences
were striking. In 1997, 36 percent of female state
inmates and 23 percent of female federal inmates
reported being physically and/or sexually abused
as children, compared with 14 and 6 percent of
male state and federal inmates, respectively. In
both state and federal prisons, female inmates
were more likely than male inmates to report drug
crimes as their current offense; whereas, a higher
percentage of male state inmates reported that
their current offense was a violent crime.
Moreover, among state inmates, females were more
likely than males to report having used crack
cocaine in the month before arrest; however, males
were more likely to report using marijuana. Among
federal inmates, similar percentages of males and
females reported using all types of drugs except
marijuana in the month before arrest. Higher
percentages of males than females reported using
marijuana.
Profiles of Male and Female State Inmates
The 1997 state inmate survey revealed some
differences between male and female inmates. In
state prisons, males were somewhat younger than
females. Although the majority of state inmates
reported no sexual or physical abuse as a child,
female inmates more frequently reported abuse than
male inmates. Male and female state prison inmates
also had different current offenses. A higher
percentage of male than female inmates were
currently incarcerated for violent crimes, while a
higher percentage of female than male inmates were
incarcerated for drug crimes. Male and female
inmates also reported different drug use patterns.
For example, while a higher percentage of male
than female inmates reported using marijuana in
the month before arrest, a higher percentage of
female inmates reported using crack cocaine or
heroin in the month their arrest. Comparing the
1997 and 1991 profiles, few changes were
identified. However, the percentage of female
state inmates who reported having experienced
physical and sexual abuse as a child decreased,
and the percentage of female inmates who used
crack cocaine in the month before arrest
increased.
Profile of Male and Female State Inmates, 1997
Table VI.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
correctional facilities separately for males and
females, as reported in BJS' 1997 state prison
inmate survey. BJS reported a total population of
993,364 males and 66,242 females in state prisons
in 1997. All percentages presented below for male
and female state prison inmates in 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.
Table VI.1: Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1997
Male Female
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent
number number
Personal demographics
Race
White 330,852 33.3 22,013 33.2
Black 461,088 46.4 31,588 47.7
Hispanic 169,799 17.1 10,199 15.4
Other 31,626 3.2 2,443 3.7
Age group
Under 25 201,713 20.3 7,631 11.5
25-34 375,253 37.8 28,781 43.4
35-44 289,378 29.1 22,621 34.1
45+ 127,021 12.8 7,210 10.9
Marital status
Never married 572,976 57.7 31,117 47.0
Married 164,289 16.5 11,428 17.3
Other 254,490 25.6 23,502 35.5
Education
Less than high school 388,476 39.1 27,328 41.3
GED 314,058 31.6 16,291 24.6
High school graduate 153,503 15.5 11,041 16.7
More than high school 130,101 13.1 11,036 16.7
Employment status in month before
arrest
Employed 671,999 67.6 32,994 49.8
Not employed 296,951 29.9 32,052 48.4
Family background
Person lived with while growing up
Both mother and father 435,818 43.9 27,234 41.1
Mother only 382,702 38.5 25,572 38.6
Father only 35,697 3.6 2,328 3.5
Grandparents 80,557 8.1 6,663 10.1
Other 49,912 5.0 3,814 5.8
Either parent alcohol or drug abuse
None 670,786 67.5 40,781 61.6
Alcohol only 228,188 23.0 17,529 26.5
Drugs only 17,322 1.7 1,490 2.2
Alcohol and drugs 62,773 6.3 5,390 8.1
Abused as a childa
Physical only 92,390 9.3 7,432 11.2
Sexual only 24,022 2.4 7,413 11.2
Physical and sexual 25,135 2.5 9,159 13.8
None 842,772 84.8 41,420 62.5
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 475,794 47.9 18,554 28.0
Property 212,689 21.4 17,488 26.4
Drug 193,630 19.5 22,624 34.2
Other 98,858 10.0 7,069 10.7
Type of drug involved in drug
offenseb
Powder cocaine 64,652 33.7 5,871 26.3
Crack cocaine 74,780 38.9 11,044 49.5
Heroin 23,593 12.3 3,422 15.4
Marijuana 25,713 13.4 1,432 6.4
Methamphetamines 19,046 9.9 1,860 8.3
Other 4,567 2.4 778 3.5
Criminal justice status at time of
arrest
None 520,670 52.4 30,403 45.9
Probation 209,627 21.1 22,118 33.4
Parole 243,122 24.5 11,885 17.9
Escape 6,821 0.7 538 0.8
Prior sentences
None 225,444 22.7 22,751 34.3
1 to 2 320,714 32.3 21,133 31.9
3 or more 426,187 42.9 20,656 31.2
Drug Histories
Drug use in month before arrestc
Heroin 85,977 8.7 10,552 15.9
Powder cocaine 154,136 15.5 13,723 20.7
Crack cocaine 132,590 13.3 20,389 30.8
Marijuana 392,449 39.5 17,349 26.2
Other 147,557 14.9 10,286 15.5
Under influence at time of
offensea, c
Heroin 51,221 5.2 6,797 10.3
Powder cocaine 71,972 7.2 6,418 9.7
Crack cocaine 75,331 7.6 12,388 18.7
Marijuana 151,492 15.3 5,441 8.2
Other 83,115 8.4 5,692 8.6
Alcohol 368,194 37.1 18,943 28.6
Treatment participation
Ever participated in alcohol/drug
program
Yes 551,780 55.5 39,689 59.9
No 430,817 43.4 25,647 38.7
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 993,364 male inmates and 66,242 female inmates
in state prisons in 1997. Percentages may not add
to 100 because of missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in 1991 (see table VI.2)
and 1997 inmate reports of physical and sexual
abuse and being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of arrest may have been due to changes in
question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 192,006 male inmates and
22,293 female inmates who reported being sentenced
for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
Examination of BJS' 1997 state prison inmate
survey data revealed a few differences between
male and female state prison inmates in their
general demographic characteristics:
� A higher percentage of male (20 percent) than
female (11 percent) state inmates were under age
25.
� While about 17 percent of both male and
female inmates were married, 58 percent of the
male inmates had never been married, compared with
47 percent of the female inmates. Likewise, a
higher percentage of female (36 percent) than male
(26 percent) inmates had some "other" marital
status (i.e., divorced, separated, widowed).
� Two-thirds of state male inmates were
employed in the month before their arrest,
compared with half of female inmates.
Family Background
While male and female state inmates in 1997 had
similar family backgrounds, higher percentages of
females than males reported having been sexually
and/or physically abused as a child. About 25
percent of female state inmates reported some kind
of sexual abuse, compared with 5 percent of male
inmates.
Criminal Records
Male and female state inmates in 1997 reported
different crimes and criminal records:
� Forty-eight percent of the male state inmates
were incarcerated for violent crimes, compared
with 28 percent of the female inmates. A larger
percentage of female than male inmates, however,
were incarcerated for drug crimes--34 percent of
females, compared with 20 percent of male inmates.
� While about half of both male and female
state inmates had no criminal justice status at
the time of arrest, 33 percent of the female
inmates were on probation when arrested, compared
with 21 percent of the male inmates.
� Male inmates were more likely to have served
prior sentences than female state inmates. While
23 percent of male state inmates had not served
prior sentences, 34 percent of female inmates had
served no prior sentences.
� Among drug offenders, 50 percent of female
inmates, compared with 39 percent of male inmates,
were incarcerated for offenses involving crack
cocaine.
Drug Histories
Male and female state inmates also reported
different patterns of drug use:
� Almost 40 percent of male state inmates
indicated that they had used marijuana during the
month before their arrest, compared with 26
percent of female inmates. A higher percentage of
female state inmates (31 percent) than males (13
percent) reported using crack cocaine in the month
before their arrest.
� Female state inmates were more than twice as
likely as male state inmates to have been under
the influence of crack cocaine when they committed
their offense. Nineteen percent of female state
inmates reported being under the influence of
crack cocaine, compared with 8 percent of male
inmates.
Treatment Participation
In 1997, male and female state inmates had
similar rates of participation in alcohol/drug
programs.
Few Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Male and
Female State Inmate Profiles
A comparison of table VI.1 with table VI.2,
which provides information on selected
characteristics from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of
state prison inmates, shows that while the
differences between male and female state prison
inmates were similar in 1991 and 1997, there were
a few changes:
� The percentage of female state inmates who
reported being both sexually and physically abused
as a child decreased from 24 percent in 1991 to 14
percent in 1997. The percentages for male state
inmates remained about the same, and as a result,
the difference between male and female inmates was
less in 1997 than in 1991.
� A higher percentage of female state inmates
in 1997 (31 percent) than in 1991 (19 percent)
reported they had used crack cocaine in the month
before their arrest. Male inmates showed little
change. Moreover, the percentage of female inmates
who reported being under the influence of crack
cocaine at the time of committing the offense
increased from 10 percent in 1991 to 19 percent in
1997.
Table VI.2: Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1991
Male Female
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent
number number
Personal demographics
Race
White 238,012 35.4 14,026 36.2
Black 306,329 45.5 17,836 46.0
Hispanic 113,113 16.8 5,521 14.2
Other 15,393 2.3 1,414 3.6
Age group
Under 25 149,534 22.2 6,346 16.4
25-34 305,883 45.5 19,545 50.4
35-44 151,766 22.6 9,885 25.5
45+ 65,663 9.8 3,020 7.8
Marital status
Never married 371,928 55.3 17,374 44.8
Married 120,731 17.9 6,658 17.2
Other 172,577 25.6 14,467 37.3
Education
Less than high school 279,066 41.5 16,287 42.0
GED 166,994 24.8 7,985 20.6
High school graduate 128,501 19.1 7,587 19.6
More than high school 97,374 14.5 6,864 17.7
Employment status in month
before arrest
Employed 458,780 68.2 17,946 46.3
Not employed 211,558 31.4 20,722 53.4
Family background
Person lived with while growing
up
Both mother and father 288,876 42.9 16,206 41.8
Mother only 262,415 39.0 15,008 38.7
Father only 26,504 3.9 1,295 3.3
Grandparents 50,645 7.5 3,583 9.2
Other 41,138 6.1 2,538 6.5
Either parent alcohol or drug
abuse
None 491,491 73.0 25,620 66.0
Alcohol only 146,281 21.7 10,124 26.1
Drugs only 5,111 0.8 618 1.6
Alcohol and drugs 23,895 3.6 2,179 5.6
Abused as a child
Physical only 45,048 6.7 3,455 8.9
Sexual only 13,543 2.0 3,575 9.2
Physical and sexual 21,391 3.2 9,278 23.9
None 592,865 88.1 22,488 58.0
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 315,557 46.9 12,400 32.0
Property 163,510 24.3 11,024 28.4
Drug 137,672 20.5 12,633 32.6
Other 56,107 8.3 2,739 7.1
Criminal justice status at time
of arrest
None 358,220 53.2 20,614 53.1
Probation 151,403 22.5 11,285 29.1
Parole 150,161 22.3 6,254 16.1
Escape 7,587 1.1 269 0.7
Prior sentences
None 138,038 20.5 11,339 29.2
1 to 2 238,822 35.5 14,291 36.8
3 or more 299,986 44.6 13,166 33.9
Drug histories
Drug use in month before
arresta
Heroin 57,211 8.5 5,719 14.7
Powder cocaine 134,438 20.0 10,074 26.0
Crack cocaine 63,706 9.5 7,348 18.9
Marijuana 219,105 32.6 7,873 20.3
Other 88,249 13.1 5,594 14.4
Under influence at time of
offensea
Heroin 37,877 5.6 4,360 11.2
Powder cocaine 73,899 11.0 5,842 15.1
Crack cocaine 31,984 4.8 4,052 10.4
Marijuana 79,975 11.9 1,812 4.7
Other 55,299 8.2 3,037 7.8
Alcohol 220,488 32.8 8,601 22.2
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 365,234 54.3 22,073 56.9
No 307,613 45.7 16,723 43.1
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 672,847 male inmates
and 38,796 female inmates in state prisons in
1991. Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Profiles of Federal Male and Female Prison Inmates
The 1997 federal survey showed some differences
between males and females. As with state inmates,
a higher percentage of female than male federal
inmates reported having experienced some sexual
abuse as a child. The offenses and criminal
records of male and female federal inmates were
also somewhat different. While both male and
female federal inmates were most frequently
incarcerated for drug offenses, the percentage of
females serving a sentence for a drug crime was
greater than the percentage was for males. Male
federal inmates were more likely than females to
have had a criminal justice status at the time of
arrest and to have served prior sentences. Male
federal inmates more frequently reported using
marijuana in the month before arrest than female
inmates. There were few significant changes in the
gender differences reported by federal inmates
from 1991 to 1997. However, while the percentage
of female and male drug offenders who said that
powder cocaine was associated with their drug
crime decreased from 1991 to 1997, the decrease
was greater for females than males.
Profile of Federal Prison Inmates, 1997
Table VI.3 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information about inmates incarcerated in federal
correctional facilities, as reported in BJS' 1997
federal prison inmate survey. The federal prison
population was made up of 82,646 male inmates and
6,426 female inmates. All percentages presented
below for federal prison inmates for 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.
Table VI.3: Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1997
Male Female
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent
number number
Personal demographics
Race
White 24,746 29.9 1,870 29.1
Black 31,481 38.1 2,216 34.5
Hispanic 22,280 27.0 2,069 32.2
Other 4,139 5.0 272 4.2
Age group
Under 25 7,380 8.9 553 8.6
25-34 30,361 36.7 2,273 35.4
35-44 25,202 30.5 2,056 32.0
45+ 19,704 23.8 1,543 24.0
Marital status
Never married 34,834 42.1 2,155 33.5
Married 25,107 30.4 1,893 29.5
Other 22,522 27.3 2,378 37.0
Education
Less than high school 21,513 26.0 1,588 24.7
GED 22,004 26.6 1,627 25.3
High school graduate 16,424 19.9 1,333 20.7
More than high school 21,699 26.3 1,845 28.7
Employment status in
month before arrest
Employed 57,903 70.1 4,043 62.9
Not employed 22,093 26.7 2,335 36.3
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 44,447 53.8 3,508 54.6
Mother only 26,183 31.7 1,861 29.0
Father only 2,344 2.8 188 2.9
Grandparents 6,103 7.4 609 9.5
Other 2,650 3.2 213 3.3
Either parent alcohol
or drug abuse
None 64,784 78.4 4,719 73.4
Alcohol only 13,341 16.1 1,263 19.7
Drugs only 647 0.8 88 1.4
Alcohol and drugs 2,486 3.0 281 4.4
Abused as a childa
Physical only 3,293 4.0 544 8.5
Sexual only 762 0.9 534 8.3
Physical and sexual 717 0.9 383 6.0
None 76,834 93.0 4,885 76.0
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 12,592 15.2 429 6.7
Property 5,064 6.1 762 11.9
Drug 50,486 61.1 4,583 71.3
Other 13,140 15.9 573 8.9
Type of drug involved
in drug offenseb
Powder cocaine 20,868 41.4 1,711 37.3
Crack cocaine 13,255 26.3 1,143 24.9
Heroin 4,471 8.9 847 18.5
Marijuana 9,435 18.7 763 16.6
Methamphetamines 5,279 10.5 589 12.9
Other 1,740 3.5 147 3.2
Criminal justice status
at time of arrest
None 58,800 71.1 5,441 84.7
Probation 11,128 13.5 682 10.6
Parole 11,703 14.2 249 3.9
Escape 201 0.2 47 0.7
Prior sentences
None 29,778 36.0 4,297 66.9
1 to 2 26,069 31.5 1,317 20.5
3 or more 24,870 30.1 740 11.5
Drug histories
Drug use in month
before arrestc
Heroin 4,467 5.4 295 4.6
Powder cocaine 13,784 16.7 668 10.4
Crack cocaine 5,105 6.2 502 7.8
Marijuana 25,259 30.6 1,302 20.3
Other 8,597 10.4 754 11.7
Under influence at time
of offensea, c
Heroin 2,410 2.9 223 3.5
Powder cocaine 5,498 6.7 208 3.2
Crack cocaine 2,648 3.2 203 3.2
Marijuana 8,957 10.8 425 6.6
Other 5,045 6.1 426 6.6
Alcohol 16,876 20.4 954 14.8
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 38,191 46.2 2,563 39.9
No 43,310 52.4 3,774 58.7
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on a total estimated population
of 82,646 male inmates and 6,426 female inmates in
federal prisons in 1997. Percentages may not add
to 100 because of missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
VI.4) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 50,350 male inmates and 4,583
female inmates who reported being sentenced for
drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
The personal demographic characteristics of male
and female federal inmates in 1997 were quite
similar. The only difference was that 27 percent
of male federal inmates were unemployed in the
month before their arrest, compared with 36
percent of female inmates.
Family Background
Male and female federal inmates in 1997 had
similar family backgrounds. More female inmates,
however, reported that they had experienced
physical and/or sexual abuse as a child. Twenty-
three percent of female federal inmates reported
abuse, compared with 6 percent of males. About 14
percent of female federal inmates reported some
kind of sexual abuse, compared with about 2
percent of male inmates.
Criminal Records
Male and female federal inmates in 1997 reported
different offenses and criminal records:
� While both male and female federal inmates
were most often incarcerated for drug offenses,
the rate was higher for females (71 percent) than
for males (61 percent).
� About 85 percent of female federal inmates
had no criminal justice status at the time of the
arrest that resulted in their current
incarceration, compared with 71 percent of male
inmates. Male federal inmates (14 percent) were
more likely than female inmates (4 percent) to be
on parole at the time of their arrest.
� Male federal inmates were more likely to have
prior sentences than females. Thirty-two percent
of female federal inmates reported having prior
sentences, compared with 62 percent of the male
inmates.
� While both female and male federal drug
offenders were more often incarcerated for
offenses involving powder cocaine than any other
drug, more female offenders (18 percent) were
incarcerated for offenses involving heroin than
male offenders (9 percent).2
Drug Histories
Male and female federal inmates in 1997
generally had similar drug histories. However, a
higher percentage of males (31 percent) than
females (20 percent) reported using marijuana in
the month before arrest.3
Treatment Participation
Male and female inmates reported that they
had participated in alcohol/drug programs at
about the same rates.
Few Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Federal
Prison Inmate Profiles, by Gender
A comparison of table VI.3 with table VI.4,
which provides information on selected
characteristics from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of
federal prison inmates, showed that in general the
differences between male and female inmates were
similar in 1991 and 1997. A few changes, however,
stand out:
� In 1997, as compared with 1991, the racial
distributions of male and female federal inmates
were more similar. In 1991, 39 percent of male
federal inmates were white, but 29 percent of
female federal inmates were white. In 1997, 30
percent of male federal inmates were white, as
were 29 percent of the female federal inmates. The
percentage of black male inmates increased from 29
percent in 1991 to 38 percent in 1997; however,
the percentage of black female inmates remained
about the same-39 percent in 1991 and 34 percent
in 1997.
� Male federal inmates were less likely in 1991
than in 1997 to have reported a prior criminal
record. A lower percentage of male inmates in 1997
(36 percent) than in 1991 (47 percent) reported
that they had not served any prior sentences.
� Female federal drug offenders who indicated
powder cocaine as the drug associated with their
current incarceration decreased from 61 percent in
1991 to 37 percent in 1997, compared with male
drug offenders whose reported usage decreased from
53 percent in 1991 to 41 percent in 1997.
Table VI.4: Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1991
Male Female
Estimated Percent Estimated Percent
number number
Personal demographics
Race
White 19,506 39.2 1,226 29.0
Black 14,514 29.2 1,629 38.6
Hispanic 13,856 27.8 1,245 29.5
Other 1,908 3.8 122 2.9
Age group
Under 25 4,535 9.1 477 11.3
25-34 17,733 35.6 1,699 40.2
35-44 16,448 33.0 1,322 31.3
45+ 11,069 22.2 725 17.2
Marital status
Never married 16,028 32.2 1,355 32.1
Married 19,019 38.2 1,207 28.6
Other 14,082 28.3 1,628 38.6
Education
Less than high school 11,681 23.5 1,156 27.4
GED 11,504 23.1 832 19.7
High school graduate 10,889 21.9 962 22.8
More than high school 15,545 31.2 1,264 29.9
Employment status in month
before arrest
Employed 37,221 74.8 2,660 63.0
Not employed 12,281 24.7 1,552 36.8
Family background
Person lived with while
growing up
Both mother and father 29,005 58.3 2,213 52.4
Mother only 13,949 28.0 1,289 30.5
Father only 1,713 3.4 102 2.4
Grandparents 2,653 5.3 379 9.0
Other 2,022 4.1 224 5.3
Either parent alcohol or
drug abuse
None 41,504 83.4 3,382 80.1
Alcohol only 7,154 14.4 674 16.0
Drugs only 130 0.3 29 0.7
Alcohol and drugs 483 1.0 111 2.6
Abused as a child
Physical only 1,684 3.4 253 6.0
Sexual only 282 0.6 257 6.1
Physical and sexual 336 0.7 384 9.1
None 47,482 95.4 3,328 78.8
Criminal records
Offense type
Violent 8,943 18.0 323 7.6
Property 4,018 8.1 564 13.4
Drug 28,341 56.9 2,762 65.4
Other 8,482 17.0 574 13.6
Type of drug involved in
drug offensea
Powder cocaine 14,899 52.7 1,680 60.9
Crack cocaine 2,663 9.4 294 10.7
Heroin 3,093 10.9 367 13.3
Marijuana 5,712 20.2 281 10.2
Methamphetamines 1,781 6.3 170 6.2
Other 873 3.1 96 3.5
Criminal justice status at
time of arrest
None 37,337 75.0 3,457 81.9
Probation 5,769 11.6 515 12.2
Parole 6,033 12.1 217 5.1
Escape 455 0.9 28 0.7
Prior sentences
None 23,356 46.9 2,865 67.9
1 to 2 15,511 31.2 967 22.9
3 or more 10,916 21.9 390 9.2
Drug Histories
Drug use in month before
arrestb
Heroin 2,436 4.9 278 6.6
Powder cocaine 6,840 13.7 510 12.1
Crack cocaine 1,738 3.5 265 6.3
Marijuana 9,742 19.6 487 11.5
Other 3,239 6.5 305 7.2
Under influence at time of
offenseb
Heroin 1,729 3.5 222 5.3
Powder cocaine 3,277 6.6 286 6.8
Crack cocaine 869 1.7 125 3.0
Marijuana 3,071 6.2 126 3.0
Other 1,822 3.7 179 4.2
Alcohol 5,682 11.4 225 5.3
Treatment participation
Ever participated in
alcohol/drug program
Yes 22,383 45.0 1,619 38.3
No 27,401 55.0 2,603 61.7
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on a total estimated population
of 49,784 male inmates and 4,222 female inmates in
federal prisons in 1991. Percentages may not add
to 100 because of missing data or rounding.
aThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 28,292 male inmates and 2,759
female inmates who reported being sentenced for
drug offenses.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Differences Between State and Federal Prison
Inmate Profiles
We identified several differences between
state and federal inmate profiles in 1997:
� A higher percentage of female federal inmates
(63 percent) than female state inmates (50
percent) reported that they had been employed in
the month before their arrest. There was no
difference in the percentages of male federal and
state inmates who reported being employed at the
time of arrest.
� A higher percentage of female federal inmates
(76 percent) than female state inmates (62
percent) had not been physically and/or sexually
abused as a child.
� Female federal drug offenders were more
likely to be incarcerated for crimes involving
powder cocaine or marijuana (37 and 17 percent,
respectively) than female state drug offenders (26
and 6 percent, respectively).
� Female state inmates were more likely to
report having used heroin (16 percent), powder
cocaine (21 percent), or crack cocaine (31
percent) in the month before arrest than female
federal inmates (5 percent used heroin, 10 percent
used powder cocaine, and 8 percent used crack
cocaine). There was no difference in the use of
these drugs for males. A higher percentage of male
state inmates (40 percent) than male federal
inmates (30 percent) had used marijuana. There was
no difference in the use of marijuana between
female state and federal inmates.
� A higher percentage of female state inmates
(19 percent) than female federal inmates (3
percent) indicated that they were under the
influence of crack cocaine when they committed
their offense. There was no difference in whether
male state and federal inmates were under the
influence of crack cocaine.
_______________________________
1 For additional information on female prison
inmates, see also Women in Prison: Issues and
Challenges Confronting U.S. Correctional Systems
(GAO/GGD-00-22, Dec. 28, 1999).
2 More than one drug might be associated with a
single offense.
3 An inmate might have used more than one drug in
the month before arrest.
Appendix VII
GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments
Page 84GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
GAO Contacts
Richard M. Stana, (202) 512-8777
Daniel C. Harris, (202) 512-8777
Acknowledgments
In addition to those named above, Barbara A.
Stolz, Douglas M. Sloane, David P. Alexander,
Wendy Ahmed, George Quinn, James Fields, and
Michael H. Little made major contributions to this
report.
Glossary
Page 86GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
Inmate Profile Terms
This glossary includes definitions of terms used
in the inmate profiles presented in this report.
These definitions were taken from the 1991 and
1997 BJS surveys, which were the source of the
data presented in our report.
Violent offenses
Violent offenses include murder, negligent
manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, other sexual
assault, robbery, assault, and other violent
offenses (e.g., extortion, hit-and-run driving,
and criminal endangerment).
Property offenses
Property offenses include burglary,
larceny/theft, motor vehicle theft, arson, fraud,
stolen property, and other property (e.g.,
destruction of property, trespassing, and
possession of burglary tools).
Drug offenses
Drug offenses include possession,
trafficking, and other/unspecified (e.g., forged
prescriptions, possession of drug paraphernalia,
and unspecified drug violations).
Other offenses
Other offenses include the Bureau of Justice
Statistics' categories of public-order offenses
(i.e., weapons and other public order offenses,
such as driving while intoxicated, escape from
custody, regulatory violations, and commercialized
vice) and other offenses, which are not
enumerated.
Current offense
Current offense is the most serious offense
for which the inmate was serving a sentence.
Prior offenses
Prior offenses are offenses for which an
inmate was sentenced before the current offense.
Drugs
The categories of drugs used without
prescription include:
Marijuana: Marijuana and
hashish
Heroin/opiates: Heroin, opiates, and
methadone
Barbiturates: Barbiturates and
Quaaludes or downers
Stimulants: Amphetamines and
methamphetamines
Hallucinogens: LSD, PCP, and other
hallucinogens
Race and Hispanic origin
White, black, and other categories presented
for race include only inmates describing
themselves as non-Hispanic. Inmates with Asian,
Native American, or Pacific Islander heritage were
categorized as other. Hispanic inmates include
persons of all races who reported having a
Hispanic background. Where statistics for
Hispanic inmates are reported with statistics for
white or black inmates, the categories do not
overlap.
Abuse
Abuse (sexual or physical), in the BJS survey
questions, relied on the respondents definition,
within the context of their own lives, to recall
their pasts, and to report what they remembered.
Bibliography
Page 88GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
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Beck, Allen J., et al. Survey of Prison Inmates,
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