State and Federal Prisoners: Profiles of Inmate Characteristics in 1991
and 1997 (Letter Report, 05/24/2000, GAO/GGD-00-117).

Pursuant to a congressional request, GAO provided information on the
profiles of felons incarcerated in federal and state correctional
facilities, focusing on: (1) the overall profiles for state and federal
prison inmates in 1997; and (2) acomparison of 1991 and 1997 profiles to
determine whether there were any changes in the overall profiles for
state and federal inmates.

GAO noted that: (1) in 1997, the majority of inmates in state and in
federal prisons were male, minority, and unmarried; (2) most inmates had
either a high school degree or its equivalent; (3) in 1997, at least
two-thirds of both federal and state inmates reported being employed in
the month before arrest (4) comparing 1991 and 1997, primary changes in
personal demographics involved the age of inmates in state prisons and
racial compositions; (5) in 1997, 44 percent of state inmates and 54
percent of federal inmates reported growing up in homes with both
parents present; (6) although in 1997, the majority of inmates reported
no family history of drug or alcohol abuse, 31 percent of the state
inmates and 20 percent of the federal inmates reported that they had
lived with parents who abused drugs or alcohol; (7) while most inmates
in 1997 reported that they had experienced no sexual or physical abuse
as children, differences between men and women were dramatic; (8) in
state prisons in 1997, 47 percent of the inmates reported that they had
been sentenced for violent crimes, 22 percent for property crimes and 20
percent for drug crimes, compared to 15 percent of federal inmates who
reported that they had been sentenced for violent crimes, 6 percent for
property crimes, and 62 percent for drug crimes; (9) in both federal and
state prisons in 1997, minority inmates were more likely to be
incarcerated for drug crimes; (10) 75 percent of state inmates and 60
percent of federal inmates in 1997 reported that they had served prior
sentences; (11) 46 percent of state inmates and 27 percent of federal
inmates in 1997 reported that they were on probation or parole at the
time of their most recent arrest; (12) the percentage of federal inmates
who reported no prior sentences decreased by almost 10-percentage points
from 1991 to in 1997, while the percentage of inmates who reported 3 or
more prior sentences increased by 8 percentage points; and (13) in 1997,
56 percent of inmates and 46 percent federal inmates reported they had
participated in alcohol/drug treatment programs.

--------------------------- Indexing Terms -----------------------------

 REPORTNUM:  GGD-00-117
     TITLE:  State and Federal Prisoners: Profiles of Inmate
	     Characteristics in 1991 and 1997
      DATE:  05/24/2000
   SUBJECT:  Statistical data
	     Correctional facilities
	     Prisoners
	     Crimes or offenses
	     Comparative analysis
	     Drug abuse
	     Surveys

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GAO/GGD-00-117

United States General Accounting Office
GAO

Report to the Honorable

Charles B. Rangel

House of Representatives

May 2000

GAO/GGD-00-117

STATE AND FEDERAL PRISONERS
Profiles of Inmate Characteristics in 1991 and

1997

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Contents
Page 101GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Profiles
Letter                                                                      1
                                                                             
Appendix I                                                                 14
Objectives, Scope, and
Methodology
                           Objectives                                      14
                           Overview of Our Scope and Methodology           14
                                                                             
Appendix II                                                                17
Bureau of Justice
Statistics Surveys of
State and Federal Prison
Inmates
                           BJS Uses a Two-Stage Process to                 17
                           Develop Its Samples
                           National Estimates of Prison Inmate             18
                           Characteristics
                           Other BJS Reports Provided Information          18
                           on U.S. Prison Inmates
                                                                             
Appendix III                                                               19
Overall Profiles of
State and Federal Prison
Inmates
                           Overall Profiles of State Inmates               19
                           Overall Profile of Federal Prison               26
                           Inmates
                           Differences Between the Overall State           34
                           and Federal Prison Inmate Profiles
                                                                             
Appendix IV                                                                36
Profiles of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
by Type of Current
Offense
                           Profiles of State Inmates by Type of            36
                           Current Offense
                           Profile of Federal Inmates by Type of           42
                           Current Offense
                           Differences Between State and Federal           49
                           Prison Inmate Profiles
                                                                             
Appendix V                                                                 52
Profiles of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
by Race
                           Profiles of State Inmates by Race               52
                           Differences Between State and Federal           68
                           Prison Inmate Profiles
                                                                             
Appendix VI                                                                70
Profiles of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
by Gender
                           Profiles of Male and Female State               70
                           Inmates
                           Profiles of Federal Male and Female             76
                           Prison Inmates
                           Differences Between State and Federal           83
                           Prison Inmate Profiles
Appendix VII                                                               84
GAO Contacts and Staff
Acknowledgments
                                                                             
Glossary                                                                   85
                                                                             
Bibliography                                                               87
                                                                             
Tables                     Table III.1: Overall Profile of State           20
                           Prison Inmates, 1997
                           Table III.2:  Overall Profile of State          25
                           Prison Inmates, 1991
                           Table III.3:  Overall Profile of                27
                           Federal Prison Inmates, 1997
                           Table III.4:  Overall Profile of                32
                           Federal Prison Inmates, 1991
                           Table IV.1:  Profile of State Prison            37
                           Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
                           1997
                           Table IV.2:  Profile of State Prison            41
                           Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
                           1991
                           Table IV.3:  Profile of Federal Prison          43
                           Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
                           1997
                           Table IV.4: Profile of Federal Prison           47
                           Inmates by Type of Current Offense,
                           1991
                           Table V.1:  Profile of State Prison             53
                           Inmates by Race, 1997
                           Table V.2:  State Inmates With                  55
                           Children, by Race, 1997
                           Table V.3:  Profile of State Prison             57
                           Inmates by Race, 1991
                           Table V.4:  State Inmates With                  59
                           Children, by Race, 1991
                           Table V.5:  Profile of Federal Prison           61
                           Inmates by Race, 1997
                           Table V.6:  Federal Inmates With                63
                           Children, by Race, 1997
                           Table V.7:  Profile of Federal Prison           66
                           Inmates by Race, 1991
                           Table V.8:  Federal Inmates With                68
                           Children, by Race, 1991
                           Table VI.1:  Profile of State Prison            71
                           Inmates by Gender, 1997
                           Table VI.2:  Profile of State Prison            75
                           Inmates by Gender, 1991
                           Table VI.3:  Profile of Federal Prison          77
                           Inmates by Gender, 1997
                           Table VI.4:  Profile of Federal Prison          81
                           Inmates by Gender, 1991
                                                                             
Figures                    Figure 1:  State and Federal Inmate              4
                           Populations in 1997, by Offense Type
                           Figure 2:  Growth in U.S. Prison                 7
                           Population, 1990 Through 1998
                                                                             

Abbreviations

BJS       Bureau of Justice Statistics
BOP       Bureau of Prisons
DOJ       Department of Justice
SIFCF     Survey of Inmates in Federal
Correctional Facilities
SISCF     Survey of Inmates in State Correctional
Facilities
OJP       Office of Justice Programs

B-284249

Page 8GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Prof
iles
     B-284249

     May 24, 2000

The Honorable Charles B. Rangel
House of Representatives
 
 Dear Mr. Rangel

     In response to your request, we prepared
profiles of felons incarcerated in federal and
state correctional facilities, using data provided
by the Department of Justice's (DOJ) Bureau of
Justice Statistics (BJS) from its two most recent
surveys1 of inmates in federal2 and state3
correctional facilities. As agreed with your
office, we addressed the following questions:

ï¿½    What were the overall profiles-personal
demographics, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation-for
state and for federal prison inmates in 1997 and
were there any differences between state and
federal inmates or by current offense type,4 race,
and gender?5

ï¿½    In comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, were
there any changes in the overall profiles for
state and for federal inmates or by current
offense type, race, and gender?
The BJS survey data provided detailed information
on the individual characteristics of state and
federal prison inmates, as reported by the inmates
surveyed in 1991 and 1997. Appendix II contains
additional information on how the surveys were
conducted and analyzed.

Results in Brief
Below is a summary of key observations from the
analysis presented in our report regarding the
overall profiles for state and for federal prison
inmates in 1997, with some comparisons across
offense type, race, and gender. Comparing the 1991
and 1997 data, this discussion also identifies
changes in the profiles. Appendixes III through VI
include more detailed information on the overall
profiles of state and federal prison inmates;
differences by current offense type, race, and
gender; and changes in profiles from 1991 to 1997.

Personal Demographics: Inmates' gender, race, age,
marital status, children, education level, and
employment status at the time of arrest comprised
the personal demographics category. Key
observations within this category included the
following:

ï¿½    In 1997, the majority of inmates in state and
in federal prisons were male (94 percent of state
inmates and 93 percent of federal inmates),
minority (64 percent of state inmates and 65
percent of federal inmates were black or
Hispanic), and unmarried (17 percent of state
inmates and 30 percent of federal inmates were
currently married).

ï¿½    About 67 percent of federal and of state
inmates in 1997 were between the ages of 25 and
45. A higher percentage of state inmates, however,
were under age 25 (20 percent) than federal
inmates (9 percent). Also, minorities were more
likely to be under age 35 than whites in both
state and federal prisons.
ï¿½    Most inmates had either a high school degree
(29 percent of state inmates and 46 percent of
federal inmates) or its equivalent (31 percent of
state inmates and 27 percent of federal inmates)
in 1997. White inmates had more education than did
minority inmates in state and federal prisons.
ï¿½    In 1997, at least two-thirds of both federal
and state inmates reported being employed in the
month before their arrest.
Comparing 1991 and 1997, the primary changes in
personal demographics involved the age of inmates
in state prisons and racial composition of federal
prisons:

ï¿½    In state prisons in 1991, 32 percent of
inmates were over age 35, as compared with 42
percent in 1997.

ï¿½    In federal prisons, in 1991, whites comprised
38 percent and blacks 30 percent of inmates,
compared with 30 percent whites and 38 percent
blacks in 1997.
Family Background: Family background
characteristics included the person with whom the
inmate lived while growing up, whether either
parent abused alcohol or drugs, and whether the
inmate had been physically or sexually abused as a
child. These data indicated the following:

ï¿½    In 1997, 44 percent of state inmates and 54
percent of federal inmates reported growing up in
homes with both parents present. However, a higher
percentage of whites and Hispanics (half or more
of white and Hispanic state inmates and about two-
thirds of white and Hispanic federal inmates) than
blacks (about one-third of black state and federal
inmates) reported growing up in homes with both
parents.

ï¿½    Although in 1997, the majority of inmates
reported no family history of drug or alcohol
abuse, 31 percent of the state inmates and 20
percent of the federal inmates reported that they
had lived with parents who abused drugs or
alcohol.
ï¿½    While most inmates in 1997, reported that
they had experienced no sexual or physical abuse
as children, differences between men and women
were dramatic. Among female inmates in 1997, 36
percent of state inmates and 25 percent of federal
inmates reported that they had been physically or
sexually abused as children; the corresponding
percentages for men were 14 percent in state
prisons and 6 percent in federal prisons. In state
and federal prisons in 1997, higher percentages of
violent offenders (19 and 15 percent,
respectively) reported that they had experienced
some abuse as children, as compared with property
offenders (15 and 7 percent, respectively) or drug
offenders (9 and 5 percent, respectively).
No notable changes in family demographics occurred
between 1991 and 1997.

Criminal Record: The criminal record information
for state and federal inmates included self-
reported data on their current offense type;
criminal justice status at the time of arrest;
prior sentences; and for drug offenders, the type
of drug involved in the current offense. Regarding
criminal records, one of the most distinctive
differences between the two prison systems in 1997
was in the types of offenders they housed. While
state inmates were most frequently incarcerated
for violent crimes, federal offenders were most
frequently incarcerated for drug crimes:

ï¿½    In state prisons in 1997, 47 percent of the
inmates reported that they had been sentenced for
violent crimes, 22 percent for property crimes,
and 20 percent for drug crimes. By comparison, 15
percent of federal inmates reported that they had
been sentenced for violent crimes, 6 percent for
property crimes, and 62 percent for drug crimes,
as shown in figure 1.

ï¿½    In both federal and state prisons in 1997,
minority inmates were more likely to be
incarcerated for drug crimes. Female inmates were
also more likely than male inmates to be
incarcerated for drug crimes, while male inmates
were more likely to be incarcerated for violent
crimes.
Figure 1:  State and Federal Inmate Populations in
1997, by Offense Type

Source: GAO analysis of data from Survey of
Inmates in Federal Correctional Facilities
(SIFCF), 1997 and Survey of Inmates in State
Correctional Facilities (SISCF), 1997.
Most of state prison inmates reported that they
had been incarcerated previously, and many
reported that they were under judicial supervision
at the time of their arrest. State inmates were
more likely than federal inmates to have been
previously incarcerated or under supervision at
the time of their arrest.

ï¿½    Seventy-five percent of state inmates and 60
percent of federal inmates in 1997 reported that
they had served prior sentences.

ï¿½    Forty-six percent of state inmates and 27
percent of federal inmates in 1997 reported that
they were on probation or parole at the time of
their most recent arrest.
Drug offenders in both state and federal prisons
reported crack cocaine and powder cocaine as the
drugs most commonly involved in the current
conviction, followed by methamphetamines and
marijuana. Among state and federal prison
populations:

ï¿½    Higher percentages of black drug offenders
(state 59 percent and federal 54 percent) than
Hispanic (17 percent and 7 percent) and white (11
percent and 6 percent) drug offenders reported
crack cocaine as the associated drug.

ï¿½    Although black drug offenders (state 30
percent and federal 40 percent) were also more
likely than white drug offenders (29 percent and
30 percent) to indicate powder cocaine as the drug
involved in their current offense, Hispanics (43
percent and 51 percent) were more likely than
blacks or whites to report powder cocaine as the
associated drug.
ï¿½    In contrast, higher percentages of white drug
offenders (state 36 percent and federal 32
percent) than black (0.7 percent and 0.2 percent)
or Hispanic (10 percent and 7 percent) drug
offenders identified methamphetamines as the drug
associated with their current offense.
ï¿½    White (state 20 percent and federal 30
percent) and Hispanic (18 percent and 26 percent)
drug offenders were more likely than black (8
percent and 6 percent) drug offenders to indicate
that marijuana was the drug associated with their
current offense.
There were few changes between the 1991 and the
1997 criminal records reported by state prison
inmates. However, there were a few differences for
federal prison inmates:

ï¿½    The percentage of federal inmates who
reported no prior sentences decreased by almost 10-
percentage points from 1991 to 1997, while the
percentage of inmates who reported 3 or more prior
sentences increased by 8 percentage points.

ï¿½    In federal prisons, the percentage of drug
offenses involving powder cocaine decreased from
53 percent in 1991 to 41 percent in 1997. In
contrast, the percentage of reported crack-
associated drug offenses increased from 9 percent
in 1991 to 26 percent in 1997.
Drug Histories: The drug histories of the total
populations of state and federal offenders
included data on the percentages of inmates who
reported (1) using various drugs in the month
before their arrest or (2) being under the
influence of various drugs at the time of their
arrest. The data showed the following patterns for
both state and federal inmates:

ï¿½    For the most part, marijuana was most
commonly reported by inmates as the drug used in
the month before arrest. Female inmates in state
prisons, however, reported having used crack
cocaine slightly more often than marijuana in the
month before their arrest.

ï¿½    Moreover, more inmates reported that they had
been under the influence of alcohol at the time of
their arrest than any other drug.
ï¿½    Drug and alcohol use were common among both
nondrug offenders and drug offenders. For example,
the percentages of property offenders in state
prisons who reported that they had used crack or
powder cocaine in the month before their current
arrest, and who reported that they had been under
the influence of crack or powder cocaine at the
time of their arrest, were very similar to the
percentages of drug offenders.
The patterns of drug use reported by inmates in
state and federal prisons changed little in 1997,
as compared with 1991.

ï¿½    Higher percentages of federal inmates in 1997
(30 percent) than in 1991 (19 percent) reported
using marijuana. The rates of marijuana use
increased for both male and female federal
inmates.

ï¿½    The percentage of female state inmates who
reported having used crack increased from 19
percent in 1991 to 30 percent in 1997.
ï¿½    White and black federal inmates were more
likely in 1997 (21 and 21 percent, respectively)
than in 1991 (12 and 10 percent, respectively) to
report being under the influence of alcohol at the
time of arrest.
ï¿½    Higher percentages of federal inmates in 1997
than in 1991 reported being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of their offense (20 and 11
percent, respectively).
Treatment Participation: We obtained data on
reported inmate participation in alcohol/drug
programs. In 1997, 56 percent of state inmates and
46 percent of federal inmates reported that they
had participated in alcohol/drug treatment
programs.  The percentage of inmates who reported
that they had participated in alcohol/drug
programs in 1997, as compared with 1991, did not
change.

Additional profile information extracted from the
BJS inmate surveys is presented in appendixes III
through VI.

DOJ officials reviewed a draft of this report and
commented that it (1) provided a comprehensive
breakdown of state and federal populations by
offense type, race, and gender and (2) was
consistent with BJS findings on inmate
characteristics, using the same survey data.

Background
According to BJS, between 1990 and the end of 1998
the rate of incarceration in our nation's prisons
increased from 292 to 461 sentenced inmates per
100,000 residents. BJS data also showed that
during that period the number of prisoners under
the jurisdiction of federal or state adult
correctional facilities increased from 773,919 to
1,302,019-an average annual increase of 6.7
percent (see fig. 2).

Figure 2:  Growth in U.S. Prison Population, 1990
Through 1998

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, Prisoners in
1996 and Prisoners in 1998.

     The relative percentage of inmates in state
and federal prisons has remained the same, with
approximately 91 and 9 percent of inmates in state
and federal prisons, respectively. The states
operate more than 1,000 prison facilities
primarily to confine violators of state and
territorial laws, and the federal government
operates about 100 prison facilities primarily to
confine persons convicted of federal crimes. The
federal prison system is administered by the DOJ's
Bureau of Prisons (BOP).

Scope and Methodology
The data on which we relied for the inmate
profiles in this report came from surveys
conducted by the U.S. Bureau of the Census for BJS
in 1991 and 1997. Between 1974 and 1997, BJS
sponsored periodic surveys of inmates in state and
federal correctional institutions6-five of state
and two of federal prison inmates. The BJS survey
data consisted of self-reported answers provided
by a random, probability sample of inmates in
confidential personal interviews conducted by
Census Bureau interviewers in federal and state
correctional facilities. The Census Bureau
collected the data using standard social survey
techniques. BJS has analyzed the sample survey
data to provide estimates for the entire
population of federal and state inmates. In
addition, to obtain background information and
perspective, we also reviewed selected relevant
academic, BJS, and other publications.

In this report, we presented the characteristics
of inmates incarcerated in federal and in state
correctional facilities; identified changes in the
1997 characteristics reported, as compared with
those reported in 1991; and pointed out
differences in the characteristics of state and
federal inmates. We did not, however, attempt to
explain the characteristics, changes, or
differences reported.

We performed our work from October 1999 through
April 2000 in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards. Appendix I of this
report includes additional information on the
methods we followed in analyzing and presenting
these data.

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
We provided a draft of this report to the Attorney
General for comment. Representatives of the Office
of Justice Programs (OJP), BJS, and BOP reviewed
the draft. On May 16, 2000, the OJP liaison
provided consolidated comments from these
agencies. The officials stated that the report
provided a comprehensive breakdown of state and
federal inmate populations by offense type, race,
and gender. In addition, they said that its
findings, with regard to inmate personal
demographics, family background, criminal records,
and drug histories were consistent with those
reported by BJS using the same survey data. DOJ
officials also provided some technical comments,
which have been incorporated, where appropriate.

As arranged with your office, unless you publicly
announce the contents of this report earlier, we
plan no further distribution until 30 days after
the date of this report. At that time, we will
send copies of this report to Senator Orrin Hatch,
Chairman, and Senator Patrick Leahy, Ranking
Minority Member, Senate Committee on the
Judiciary; Representative Henry Hyde, Chairman and
Representative John Conyers, Ranking Minority
Member, House Committee on the Judiciary; the
Honorable Janet Reno, Attorney General; the
Honorable Jan M. Chaiken, Director, Bureau of
Justice Statistics; and the Honorable Kathleen
Hawk Sawyer, Director, Bureau of Prisons. Copies
of this report will be made available to others
upon request.

If you or your staff have any questions about this
report, please contact me or Daniel C. Harris on
(202) 512-8777. Key contributors to this
assignment are acknowledged in appendix VII.

Sincerely yours,

Richard M. Stana
Associate Director,
Administration of Justice Issues
_______________________________
1 BJS has sponsored regular periodic (i.e., every
5 or 6 years) surveys of inmates in state and/or
federal correctional institutions. The facilities
included federal or state prisons, which usually
house felons (inmates sentenced to at least a year
and a day for a criminal conviction), and not
jails or juvenile facilities.
2 Survey of Inmates in Federal Correctional
Facilities (SIFCF), 1991 and 1997.
3 Survey of Inmates in State Correctional
Facilities (SISCF), 1991 and 1997.
4 Current offense is the most serious offense for
which the inmate was serving a sentence.
5 For additional information on female prison
inmates, see also Women in Prison: Issues and
Challenges Confronting U.S. Correctional Systems
(GAO/GGD-00-22, Dec. 28, 1999).
6 BOP officials noted that BOP had paid for the
1991 federal inmate survey and shared the cost of
the 1997 survey.

Appendix I
Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Page 16GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
Objectives
     In response to a request from Congressman
Charles B. Rangel, this report provides
information on the self-reported characteristics
of federal and state prison inmates in 1991 and
1997. Specifically, we developed profiles that
address the following questions:

ï¿½    What were the overall profiles-personal
demographics, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation-for
state and for federal prison inmates in 1997 and
were there any differences between state and
federal inmates or by current offense type,1 race,
and gender?2
ï¿½    In comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, were
there any changes in the overall profiles for
state and for federal inmates or by current
offense type, race, and gender?

Overview of Our Scope and Methodology
To address each of the questions, we relied on
federal and state prison inmate survey data
collected by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S.
Department of Commerce, for the Bureau of Justice
Statistics (BJS), an agency of the U.S. Department
of Justice. Specifically, BJS provided information
to us from its 1991 and 1997 Survey of Inmates in
State Correctional Facilities (SISCF) and 1991 and
1997 Survey of Inmates in Federal Correctional
Facilities (SIFCF). (See app. II for a description
of the BJS survey.) For 1991, we obtained the
SISCF and SIFCF survey data sets, which are
publicly available from BJS. However, the data
sets for BJS' 1997 surveys were not publicly
available at the time of our review. To enable us
to do our work, BJS provided data tables for
specific information we requested from the 1997
SISCF and SIFCF surveys.3 In addition, we obtained
BJS and Census Bureau documents and reports needed
to interpret the 1991 and 1997 BJS survey data.
The Census Bureau conducted the surveys in
accordance with standard social survey methods.

The accuracy of the percentages derived from these
surveys depends upon two types of errors: sampling
errors and nonsampling errors. Sampling error is
the variation that occurs by chance because a
sample rather than a complete enumeration of the
population was studied. Nonsampling errors arise
from the practical difficulties of conducting a
survey. For example, respondents may misinterpret
questions or interviewers may not accurately
record answers. For the BJS survey all of the
information, including information about factual
matters, comes from the inmates' own answers to
the questionnaires. We made no attempt to
independently verify inmates' answers about
subjects such as type of offense or participation
in educational programs. The amount of nonsampling
error in these and other sample surveys cannot be
fully assessed. The Census Bureau took steps to
reduce nonsampling errors in the BJS surveys by
pledging that answers would be confidential,
drawing a sample from a complete list of the
population, achieving a response rate of over 90
percent, and adjusting for some characteristics of
nonrespondents. The use of similar questions in
1991 and 1997 facilitated comparisons between
surveys--although in a few instances variations in
question wording, ordering, or the context in
which questions were asked made assessing changes
over time more difficult. This was particularly
true of questions pertaining to physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest.

     The amount of uncertainty due to sampling
errors can be expressed as confidence intervals.
For the percentages in this report, the
uncertainty is expressed using 95-percent
confidence intervals that are ranges of values
that would be expected to include the correct
inmate population results 19 out of 20 times that
a sample of this type is studied. The percentages
presented in this report are for the total state
and total federal inmate populations for both 1991
and 1997 and for eight subgroups of those
populations based on sex, race (white, black, and
Hispanic), and offender type (drug, violent, and
property). Information available from the BJS
survey reports indicated that the 95-percent
confidence intervals for all but two of these
groups are less than plus or minus 6-percentage
points of the reported percentage. For the 1997
federal survey, the confidence intervals are
estimated to be wider for two groups--violent
offenders (+/- 7 percent) and property offenders
(+/-11 percent). For comparisons of all other
groups, we are 95-percent confident that
differences of at least 8 percentage points
between groups are statistically significant and
thus are not due to sampling error. Many smaller
differences would also be statistically
significant. In this report, we primarily noted
differences of at least 8 percentage points to
identify differences that were statistically
significant.

     All of our estimated confidence intervals are
based on approximate predictors of sampling errors
calculated in the Census Bureau's analyses. We
could not directly compute sampling errors because
the 1997 data were not yet available for analysis
and because the 1991 data set that we analyzed did
not contain sufficient information about the
respondents' sampling groups. The sampling errors
from the Census Bureau's analyses were provided in
the form of generalized variance functions that
summarize the relationship between the size of a
population group and the amount of sampling error
for a broad range of variables. The Census
Bureau's analyses provided these generalized
variance functions for the total population; two
gender groups and, for all but one of the 1991
federal prisons, three racial groups. For the
three racial groups for federal prisons in 1991
and for the offender types (drug, violent, and
property) in all years, we adopted a variance
function from the same year and survey (state or
federal) for the sex or race group that predicted
the least precise sampling error. The estimate of
the sampling error for each percentage discussed
in this report is approximate since it represents
a summary of the calculated sampling errors for
many types of variables rather than the sampling
error for the specific variable discussed.

To enhance our analysis and interpretation of the
SISCF and SIFCF data, we reviewed related BJS
reports, selected academic articles and other
publications, and discussed our analysis of the
BJS data with BJS officials. We incorporated this
information as appropriate.

We conducted our work between October 1999 and
April 2000, in accordance with generally accepted
government auditing standards.

_______________________________
1 Current offense is the most serious offense for
which the inmate was serving a sentence.
2 For additional information on female prison
inmates, see also Women in Prison: Issues and
Challenges Confronting U.S. Correctional Systems
(GAO/GGD-00-22, Dec. 28, 1999).
3 In response to the initial request, we attempted
to obtain information on vocational training
received by state and federal inmates; however,
1997 BJS survey data on vocational training were
not available at the time of our review. We also
attempted to obtain information on mental health
problems among inmates and whether inmates had
been treated for such problems; however, data for
1991 and 1997 were not comparable. Information on
inmate mental health can be found in Paula Ditton,
Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and
Probationers, Bureau of Justice Statistics Special
Report, U.S. Department of Justice, July 1999.

Appendix II
Bureau of Justice Statistics Surveys of State and
Federal Prison Inmates
Page 18GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
To provide detailed information on individual
characteristics of prison inmates, BJS has
sponsored periodic (i.e., every 5 or 6 years)
surveys of inmates in state and/or federal
correctional institutions. Between 1974 and 1997,
BJS sponsored five state and two federal prison
inmate surveys. In 1991 and 1997, the U.S. Bureau
of the Census conducted the Survey of Inmates of
State Correctional Institutions (SISCF) for BJS
and Survey of Inmates of Federal Correctional
Institutions (SIFCF) for BJS and the Federal
Bureau of Prisons (BOP). Similar surveys of state
inmates were also conducted in 1974, 1979, and
1986. For the 1991 survey year, BJS based its
estimates on 765,649 inmates (711,642 inmates in
state correctional facilities and 54,006 sentenced
inmates in the custody of federally owned and
operated facilities). For the 1997 survey, BJS
based its estimates on 1,148,679 inmates
(1,059,607 inmates in state correctional
facilities and 89,072 sentenced inmates in the
custody of federally owned and operated
facilities). The questionnaires used in the state
and federal facilities in 1991 and 1997 contained
many identical questions that facilitated
comparison between the surveys.

BJS Uses a Two-Stage Process to Develop Its
Samples
     All of these surveys are based on two-stage,
probability sample designs. At the first stage a
sample of prisons was selected. At the second
stage a sample of inmates was selected from each
prison.

     Specifically, at the first stage a sample of
prisons was selected from the universe of state
and federal correctional institutions enumerated
in the 1990 or 1995 Census of State and Federal
Adult Correctional Facilities or opened after the
completion of the 1990 census or by June 30, 1996,
respectively, for the 1991 and 1997 surveys. The
universe of institutions for the 1991 survey
included 1,239 state prisons and the 72 federally
owned and operated facilities that held sentenced
inmates as of March 1991. In 1997, the universe
included 1,409 state prisons and 91 federally
owned and operated facilities that held sentenced
inmates as of June 30, 1996.

     In each survey year, male and female
facilities were sampled separately at different
rates. The state sample of facilities was
stratified by geographic area in both years. The
samples of facilities were also stratified by
facility type (confinement-based and community-
based facilities) and/or security level. Within
security levels, facilities were ordered by size
of population and then selected with probability
proportionate to size.

     The number of facilities from which inmates
samples were drawn were similar in both survey
years. In 1991, the federal survey included 53
facilities (45 male, 8 female) and the state
sample included 273 facilities (222 male, 47
female, and 4 facilities that housed both male and
female imates) of which 3 were ultimately not
surveyed. In 1997, the initial federal survey
sample included 40 facilities (32 male, 8 female),
all of which were in the final sample. The initial
1997 state sample included 280 facilities (220
male, 60 female); however, 5 of the female
facilities did not participate in the survey,
leaving a total of 275 state facilities of which
55 were female.

     At the second stage, inmates were
systematically selected for interviews from lists
of all inmates at the selected facilities, with a
total number of interviews based on the size of
the facility and sex of the inmates held. To
obtain a more balanced sample at federal
facilities in 1997, drug offenders in these
facilities were subsampled at a lower rate than
other offenders. The 1991 survey interviews were
carried out from June to August in 1991, with
13,986 interviews (11,163 male, 2,823 female) and
6,572 interviews (4,991 male, 1,581 female)
obtained for the state and federal surveys,
respectively. The 1997 interviews were carried out
from June to October 1997, with 14,285 interviews
(11,344 male, 2,941 female) and 4,041 interviews
(3,173 male, 868 female) completed for the state
and federal surveys, respectively. The response
rates were between 90 and 94 percent for both
federal and state surveys in each year.

National Estimates of Prison Inmate
Characteristics
     The analyses of the survey data yield
national estimates of the characteristics of the
prison population at the middle of 1991 and 1997.
To develop these estimates, BJS used weighting
factors based on the original probabilities of
being selected into the sample that were adjusted
for nonresponse and information about the sex,
race, age, and prison security level of the total
population. In 1997, information about type of
offense was also used.

Since the surveys are based on sample surveys, the
results available from the studies are estimates
of the population characteristics and are subject
to sampling error. BJS provides information that
allows readers to estimate these sampling errors
from the results of their analysis of the general
relationship between the estimated size of the
population and the magnitude of the sampling
errors.

Other BJS Reports Provided Information on U.S.
Prison Inmates
BJS has released several reports that present data
from the 1991 and 1997 surveys, including
publications that examine selected findings from
the survey results on issues such as the mental
health of inmates and prior physical or sexual
abuse. In addition, BJS has published reports
using other data sources on state and federal
prison inmates that are relevant to the discussion
of the 1991 and 1997 survey information. (See
bibliography.)

Appendix III
Overall Profiles of State and Federal Prison
Inmates
Page 35GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
This appendix presents overall profiles of state
and of federal inmates, including data on their
personal demographics, family background, criminal
record, drug history, and treatment participation.
These profiles were developed from BJS self-
reported survey data.1 The 1997 profiles for both
state and federal prison populations indicated
that most inmates were male, minority, unmarried,
and were employed in the month before their
arrest. State inmates were younger than federal
inmates, and most state and federal inmates had at
least a high school degree or its equivalent. Most
federal inmates and a large percentage of state
inmates, as children, lived in two-parent
households, and most had not experienced sexual or
physical abuse or parental drug or alcohol abuse.
The majority of both state and federal inmates had
served prior sentences.

Comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, the data
showed few changes for either the state or federal
inmate populations. The federal inmate profiles
indicated some changes in the racial distribution,
criminal records, and drug histories.

State and federal inmate profiles showed several
differences between the two populations. For
example, state inmates were younger than federal
inmates, and they tended to have more serious
criminal records than federal inmates. Moreover, a
higher percentage of federal inmates than state
inmates were drug offenders, while higher
percentages of state inmates were violent
offenders and property offenders.

Overall Profiles of State Inmates
According to BJS' 1997 survey data, most state
inmates were minority, male, between the ages of
25 and 44, and employed at the time they were
arrested for their current offense. A slightly
lower percentage of state inmates reported violent
crimes, as their current offense than reported all
categories of nonviolent crimes combined. Among
drug offenders, state inmates most frequently
identified either powder or crack cocaine as the
drug associated with their current offense.
However, state inmates most frequently reported
that they used marijuana in the month prior to
their arrest and were under the influence of
alcohol at the time of the offense (Data on
alcohol usage in the month before inmate's arrest
were not collected.). Although a comparison of the
1991 and 1997 overall state inmate profiles showed
little change in general, the 1997 data showed a
slightly larger percentage of inmates aged 35 or
older.

Overall Profile of State Inmates, 1997
     Table III.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
prisons, estimated from BJS' 1997 survey of state
prison inmates. The BJS survey results were based
on a state prison inmate population of 1,059,607.
All percentages presented below for state prison
inmates in 1997 were calculated using this number
as the base; adjustments were not made to
compensate for missing response rates to a
particular question.

Table III.1: Overall Profile of State Prison
Inmates, 1997
                                          Estimated number          Percent
Personal demographics                                                      
Sex                                                                         
Male                                               993,364             93.7
Female                                              66,242              6.3
Race                                                                        
White                                              352,864             33.3
Black                                              492,676             46.5
Hispanic                                           179,998             17.0
Other                                               34,069              3.2
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                                           209,343             19.8
25-34                                              404,034             38.1
35-44                                              311,999             29.4
45+                                                134,231             12.7
Marital status                                                              
Never married                                      604,093             57.0
Married                                            175,717             16.6
Other                                              277,992             26.2
Education                                                                   
Less than high school                              415,804             39.2
GED                                                330,349             31.2
High school graduate                               164,544             15.5
More than high school                              141,137             13.3
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                                           704,993             66.5
Not employed                                       329,003             31.0
Have children                                                               
Yes                                                695,160             65.6
No                                                 354,655             33.5
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father                             463,052             43.7
Mother only                                        408,275             38.5
Father only                                         38,026              3.6
Grandparents                                        87,220              8.2
Other                                               53,726              5.1
Either parent alcohol or                                                    
drug abuse
None                                               711,567             67.2
Alcohol only                                       245,716             23.2
Drugs only                                          18,812              1.8
Alcohol and drugs                                   68,163              6.4
Abused as a childa                                                          
Physical only                                       99,823              9.4
Sexual only                                         31,435              3.0
Physical and sexual                                 34,295              3.2
None                                               884,192             83.4
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                                            494,349             46.7
Property                                           230,177             21.7
Drug                                               216,254             20.4
Other                                              105,926             10.0
Type of drug involved in                                                    
drug offenseb
Powder cocaine                                      70,523             32.9
Crack cocaine                                       85,824             40.0
Heroin                                              27,015             12.6
Marijuana                                           27,145             12.7
Methamphetamines                                    20,907              9.8
Other                                                5,344              2.5
Criminal justice status                                                     
at time of arrest
None                                               551,072             52.0
Probation                                          255,007             24.1
Parole                                             231,745             21.9
Escape                                               7,359              0.7
Prior sentences                                                             
None                                               248,195             23.4
1 to 2                                             341,847             32.3
3 or more                                          446,843             42.2
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month before                                                    
arrestc
Heroin                                              96,529              9.1
Powder cocaine                                     167,858             15.8
Crack cocaine                                      152,979             14.4
Marijuana                                          409,798             38.7
Other                                              157,843             14.9
Under influence at time                                                     
of offensea, c
Heroin                                              58,018              5.5
Powder cocaine                                      78,390              7.4
Crack cocaine                                       87,719              8.3
Marijuana                                          156,933             14.8
Other                                               88,807              8.4
Alcohol                                            387,137             36.5
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug
program
Yes                                                591,469             55.8
No                                                 456,464             43.1
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 1,059,607 inmates in state prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
III.2) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 214,299 inmates who reported
being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Personal Demographics
BJS' 1997 state prison inmate survey produced the
following estimated demographic characteristics
for inmates in state prisons:

ï¿½    Ninety-four percent of state inmates were
male and 6 percent were female.
ï¿½    Minorities constituted the majority of state
prison inmates; 46 percent were black, and 17
percent were Hispanic. One-third of state inmates
were white.
ï¿½    Sixty-eight percent of state inmates were
between the ages of 25 and 44, while 20 percent
were under age 25, and 13 percent were age 45 or
older.
ï¿½    More than half of state inmates had never
been married, while 17 percent were married at the
time of the survey.
ï¿½    Sixty-six percent of state inmates had
children at the time of the 1997 survey.
ï¿½    Sixty percent of state inmates reported
having at least a GED or high school diploma,
while nearly 40 percent reported having less than
a high school diploma.
ï¿½    Two-thirds of the state inmates were employed
during the month before their arrest.

Family Background
The 1997 survey revealed the following information
about the reported family background of state
inmates:

ï¿½    Forty-four percent of state prison inmates
reported that they had grown up in two-parent
households; 38 percent reported that they had
grown up with only their mothers, 8 percent with
grandparents, 4 percent with fathers, and 5
percent with others.
ï¿½    Almost 70 percent of state inmates reported
that neither parent had abused drugs or alcohol.
Twenty-three percent of inmates indicated that one
of their parents had abused alcohol. Few inmates
indicated parental abuse of both alcohol and drugs
(6 percent) or drug abuse only (2 percent).
ï¿½    Eighty-three percent of state prison inmates
reported that they had not experienced physical or
sexual abuse as a child; 9 percent reported that
they had encountered physical abuse, 3 percent
sexual abuse, and 3 percent both sexual and
physical abuse.

Criminal Records
Regarding criminal records, the BJS 1997 survey
indicated the percentage of state inmates who
reported their current offense as a violent crime
was slightly less than the total percentage of
inmates reporting all categories of nonviolent
crimes combined. Specifically,

ï¿½    forty-seven percent of state prison inmates
reported they were violent offenders, and
ï¿½    twenty percent reported they were drug
offenders, 22 percent property offenders, and 10
percent indicated other2 as their offense.

Drug offenders most frequently identified cocaine
as the drug involved in their current offense:3

ï¿½    Thirty-three percent of drug offenders
indicated powder cocaine and 40 percent indicated
crack cocaine as the drug associated with their
current offense.
ï¿½    Among the remaining drug offenders, 13
percent identified heroin, 13 percent marijuana,
10 percent methamphetamines, and 2 percent
identified "other"4 as the drug involved in their
current offense.

Most state prison inmates had served prior
sentences, but were not under judicial supervision
at the time of their arrest:

ï¿½    Twenty-three percent reported having no prior
sentence, 42 percent reported having 3 or more
prior sentences, and 32 percent reported having 1
to 2 prior sentences.
ï¿½    At the time of arrest for their current
offense, 52 percent of state inmates had no
criminal justice status, 24 percent were on
probation, and 22 percent were on parole.

Drug Histories
State inmates most frequently identified marijuana
as the drug used during the month before their
arrest and being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of the offense:5

ï¿½    Almost 40 percent of state inmates indicated
that they had used marijuana during the month
before their arrest
ï¿½    Sixteen percent reported that they had used
powder cocaine, 14 percent crack cocaine, 9
percent heroin, and 15 percent used other drugs
during the month before their arrest.
ï¿½    State inmates most frequently (36 percent)
reported being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of their offense. Fifteen percent
reported that they were under the influence of
marijuana at the time of their offense. Less than
10 percent of state inmates reported being under
the influence of crack, powder cocaine, heroin, or
other drugs at the time of their offense.

Treatment Participation
     The 1997 BJS survey provided information on
whether state inmates had ever participated in
alcohol/drug programs. Fifty-six percent of state
prison inmates said that they had participated in
such programs.

Few Changes in the 1997, Compared With the 1991
Overall State Inmate Profile
     According to the BJS surveys, the total state
prison population increased from 711,642 in 1991
to 1,059,607 in 1997. A comparison of table III.1
with table III.2, which provides information on
selected characteristics from BJS' 1991 state
prison inmate survey, showed few changes in the
overall 1997 profiles of state inmates, as
compared with 1991.

Most personal demographic characteristics of state
inmates showed little change from 1991 to 1997,
with the exception of slight changes in the age of
inmates. The state inmate population aged
slightly, with 42 percent of state inmates being
age 35 or older in 1997, compared with 32 percent
in 1991.

In 1997, as compared with 1991, there were no
significant changes in state inmates' family
background characteristics, criminal records, and
drug histories. Since in 1991 BJS did not collect
data on the drug involved in the current offense
of state drug offenders, we could not ascertain
whether there had been any changes in the drugs
associated with drug offenses.

Table III.2:  Overall Profile of State Prison
Inmates, 1991
                                            Estimated number        Percent
Personal demographics                                                      
Sex                                                                         
Male                                                 672,847           94.5
Female                                                38,796            5.5
Race                                                                        
White                                                252,038           35.4
Black                                                324,165           45.6
Hispanic                                             118,634           16.7
Other                                                 16,807            2.4
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                                             155,881           21.9
25-34                                                325,429           45.7
35-44                                                161,651           22.7
45+                                                   68,682            9.7
Marital status                                                              
Never married                                        389,302           54.7
Married                                              127,389           17.9
Other                                                187,045           26.3
Education                                                                   
Less than high school                                295,352           41.5
GED                                                  174,979           24.6
High school graduate                                 136,087           19.2
More than high school                                104,238           14.7
Employment status in month                                                  
before arrest
Employed                                             476,726           67.0
Not employed                                         232,280           32.6
Have children                                                               
Yes                                                  456,409           64.1
No                                                   255,234           35.9
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father                               305,082           42.9
Mother only                                          277,423           39.0
Father only                                           27,798            3.9
Grandparents                                          54,228            7.6
Other                                                 43,677            6.1
Either parent alcohol or                                                    
drug abuse
None                                                 517,111           72.7
Alcohol only                                         156,405           22.0
Drugs only                                             5,730            0.8
Alcohol and drugs                                     26,074            3.7
Abused as a child                                                           
Physical only                                         48,503            6.8
Sexual only                                           17,118            2.4
Physical and sexual                                   30,668            4.3
None                                                 615,354           86.5
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                                              327,958           46.1
Property                                             174,534           24.5
Drug                                                 150,304           21.1
Other                                                 58,846            8.3
Criminal justice status at                                                  
time of arrest
None                                                 378,834           53.2
Probation                                            162,688           22.9
Parole                                               156,415           22.0
Escape                                                 7,856            1.1
Prior sentences                                                             
None                                                 145,376           20.4
1 to 2                                               253,114           35.6
3 or more                                            313,153           44.0
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month before                                                    
arresta
Heroin                                                62,930            8.8
Powder cocaine                                       144,512           20.3
Crack cocaine                                         71,055           10.0
Marijuana                                            226,978           31.9
Other                                                 93,843           13.2
Under influence at time of                                                  
offensea
Heroin                                                42,237            5.9
Powder cocaine                                        79,741           11.2
Crack cocaine                                         36,036            5.1
Marijuana                                             81,788           11.5
Other                                                 58,336            8.2
Alcohol                                              229,090           32.2
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                                                  387,306           54.4
No                                                   324,336           45.6
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 711,642 inmates in
state prisons in 1991.  Percentages may not add to
100 because of missing data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Overall Profile of Federal Prison Inmates
     The 1997 BJS federal prison inmate survey
showed that most federal inmates were male,
minority, and between the ages of 25 and 44.
Federal inmates most frequently cited drug crimes
as their current offense. Among drug offenders,
powder and crack cocaine were the drugs most often
identified with their current offense. Among all
offenders, marijuana was the drug most often
reported having been used in the month before
arrest. (Data on alcohol usage in the month before
the inmate's arrest were not collected.) Regarding
drug use at the time of their arrest, in 1997, the
largest percentage of inmates (20 percent)
reported being under the influence of alcohol.
Comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, few changes
in the federal inmate population were identified.
However, the percentage of black inmates increased
somewhat, and the percentage of white inmates
decreased by the same percentage points. In
addition, the percentages of inmates indicating
marijuana use in the month before arrest and being
under the influence of alcohol or marijuana at the
time of the offense increased.

Overall Profile of Federal Prison Inmates, 1997
     Table III.3 presents an overall profile of
federal prison inmates using self-reported data
from BJS' 1997 federal prison inmate survey.
According to the survey, the federal prison
population in 1997 was 89,072 inmates. All
percentages presented below for federal prison
inmates for 1997 were calculated using this number
as the base; adjustments were not made to
compensate for missing response rates to a
particular question.

Table III.3:  Overall Profile of Federal Prison
Inmates, 1997
                                         Estimated number           Percent
Personal demographics                                                      
Sex                                                                         
Male                                               82,646              92.8
Female                                              6,426               7.2
Race                                                                        
White                                              26,616              29.9
Black                                              33,697              37.8
Hispanic                                           24,349              27.3
Other                                               4,411               5.0
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                                            7,933               8.9
25-34                                              32,634              36.6
35-44                                              27,259              30.6
45+                                                21,247              23.9
Marital status                                                              
Never married                                      36,989              41.5
Married                                            27,000              30.3
Other                                              24,900              28.0
Education                                                                   
Less than high school                              23,101              25.9
GED                                                23,632              26.5
High school graduate                               17,757              19.9
More than high school                              23,544              26.4
Employment status in month before                                           
arrest
Employed                                           61,946              69.5
Not employed                                       24,428              27.4
Have Children                                                               
Yes                                                68,434              76.8
No                                                 19,745              22.2
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while growing up                                          
Both mother and father                             47,955              53.8
Mother only                                        28,044              31.5
Father only                                         2,532               2.8
Grandparents                                        6,712               7.5
Other                                               2,864               3.2
Either parent alcohol or drug abuse                                         
None                                               69,504              78.0
Alcohol only                                       14,604              16.4
Drugs only                                            735               0.8
Alcohol and drugs                                   2,767               3.1
Abused as a child a                                                         
Physical only                                       3,837               4.3
Sexual only                                         1,297               1.5
Physical and sexual                                 1,100               1.2
None                                               81,719              91.7
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                                            13,021              14.6
Property                                            5,826               6.5
Drug                                               55,069              61.8
Other                                              13,712              15.4
Type of drug involved in drug offenseb                                      
Powder cocaine                                     22,579              41.1
Crack cocaine                                      14,398              26.2
Heroin                                              5,318               9.7
Marijuana                                          10,198              18.6
Methamphetamines                                    5,869              10.7
Other                                               1,887               3.4
Criminal justice status at time of                                          
arrest
None                                               64,240              72.1
Probation                                          11,952              13.4
Parole                                             11,811              13.3
Escape                                                248               0.3
Prior sentences                                                             
None                                               34,075              38.3
1 to 2                                             27,386              30.7
3 or more                                          25,610              28.8
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month before arrestc                                            
Heroin                                              4,762               5.3
Powder cocaine                                     14,452              16.2
Crack cocaine                                       5,606               6.3
Marijuana                                          26,561              29.8
Other                                               9,352              10.5
Under influence at time of offensea, c                                      
Heroin                                              2,634               3.0
Powder cocaine                                      5,706               6.4
Crack cocaine                                       2,852               3.2
Marijuana                                           9,381              10.5
Other                                               5,471               6.1
Alcohol                                            17,829              20.0
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in alcohol/drug                                           
program
Yes                                                40,755              45.8
No                                                 47,084              52.9
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on a total estimated population
of 89,072 inmates in federal prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
III.4) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 54,933 inmates who reported
being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Personal Demographics
BJS' 1997 federal prison inmate survey indicated
the following demographic characteristics for
those in federal correctional facilities:

ï¿½    Ninety-three percent of federal prison
inmates were male and 7 percent were female.
ï¿½    Blacks constituted the largest single group
of inmates (38 percent) followed by whites (30
percent), Hispanics (27 percent), and other (5
percent).
ï¿½    Two-thirds of federal inmates were between 25
and 44 years of age, 37 percent were between 25
and 34 years of age, and 31 percent were between
35 and 44 years of age. Twenty-four percent of
federal inmates were over age 45 and 9 percent
were under age 25.
ï¿½    The largest percentage of federal inmates (42
percent) had never married, while 30 percent were
married at the time of the survey.
ï¿½    Seventy-seven percent of federal inmates had
children at the time of the 1997 survey.
ï¿½    Twenty-six percent of federal inmates had
more than a high school diploma, with another 46
percent reporting either a high school diploma or
GED. However, 26 percent of federal inmates had
less than a high school education.
ï¿½    Seventy percent of federal inmates were
employed during the month before their arrest.

Family Background
     Regarding family background, the 1997 BJS
survey showed the following:

ï¿½    Fifty-four percent of federal inmates
reported that they had grown up in households with
two parents, and 32 percent reported that they had
lived with their mother only. Eight percent
reported that they had lived with grandparents, 3
percent with fathers, and 3 percent with other
relatives.
ï¿½    Seventy eight percent of federal inmates
indicated that neither parent had abused alcohol
or drugs. Another 16 percent, however, indicated
parental alcohol abuse, while 1 and 3 percent,
respectively, specified parental drug or drug and
alcohol abuse.
ï¿½    The overwhelming majority of federal inmates
(92 percent) reported no physical or sexual abuse
as a child. Four percent indicated they had been
physically abused, and 2 and 1 percent,
respectively, reported either sexual abuse or
physical and sexual abuse.

Criminal Records
     In 1997, federal inmates most frequently
indicated drug crimes (62 percent) as their
current offense type. Violent (15 percent),
property (6 percent), and other offenses (15
percent) were reported less frequently.

     Federal drug offenders in 1997 most often
identified cocaine as the type of drug involved in
their current offense:6

ï¿½    Of those indicating that cocaine was involved
in their offense, 41 percent specified powder
cocaine and 26 percent crack cocaine.
ï¿½    In addition, 19 percent of federal inmates
identified marijuana, 11 percent,
methamphetamines, 10 percent heroin, and 3 percent
"other" drug as the type of drug associated with
their offense.

     Most federal offenders reported that they had
served prior sentences, although they were not
necessarily on parole or probation at the time of
arrest for their current offense:

ï¿½    Thirty-eight percent of federal inmates had
no prior sentence, 31 percent had 1 or 2, and 29
percent had 3 or more prior sentences.
ï¿½    Seventy-two percent of the inmates had no
criminal justice status at the time of their
arrest, while 13 percent were on parole and 13
percent were on probation.

Drug Histories
     Federal offenders most frequently cited
marijuana as the drug used in the month before
their arrest and being under the influence of
alcohol when they committed their offense:7

ï¿½    Thirty percent indicated that they had used
marijuana during the month before their arrest and
10 percent reported being under the influence of
marijuana at the time of the offense.
ï¿½    Powder cocaine (16 percent) was the next most
frequently reported drug used in the month before
arrest.
ï¿½    Twenty percent of federal inmates reported
having been under the influence of alcohol at the
time of their offense.
ï¿½    Reported usage of all other drugs either in
the month before or at the time of arrest was less
than 10 percent.

Treatment Participation
     The 1997 BJS survey included information on
whether federal inmates had ever participated in
alcohol/drug programs. Forty-six percent of
federal prison inmates reported having
participated in such programs.

Few Changes in the 1997, Compared With the 1991
Overall Federal Prison Inmate Profile
     According to BJS, the total federal prison
population increased from 54,006 to 89,072 between
1991 and 1997. Table III.4 depicts selected
characteristics of federal prison inmates in 1991.
A comparison of tables III.4 and III.3 indicated
few changes in the 1997 as compared with the 1991
overall federal inmate profile.

     Comparing the 1991 and 1997 federal inmate
profiles indicated few changes in the personal
demographics of federal inmates:

ï¿½    While the number of male and female inmates
increased, the relative proportion of male and
female inmates in federal prisons remained
essentially the same.
ï¿½    In 1991, whites comprised the largest single
racial/ethnic group of inmates, (38 percent),
followed by blacks (30 percent), Hispanics (28
percent), and other (4 percent). In contrast, in
1997, the proportions of whites and blacks were
reversed (30 and 38 percent, respectively), with
the percentages of Hispanics and other remaining
essentially the same.
ï¿½    The percentage of inmates who had never been
married increased from 32 percent to 42 percent.

     Comparing the 1991 and 1997 federal inmate
profiles revealed  few changes in the criminal
record of federal inmates:

ï¿½    The percentage of federal inmates reporting
more serious criminal records increased slightly.
Those reporting having had no prior sentences
decreased by almost 10-percentage points between
1991 and 1997.
ï¿½    Among those incarcerated for drug offenses,
powder cocaine remained the drug most frequently
associated with the current offense, although the
percentage of those reporting powder cocaine
decreased from 53 percent to 41 percent, and the
percentage reporting crack cocaine as the
associated drug increased from 9 to 26 percent.

There were also few changes in inmates' drug
histories reported in 1997, compared with 1991.
Higher percentages of federal inmates in 1997 (30
percent) than in 1991 (19 percent) reported using
marijuana, and higher percentages of inmates in
1997 (20 percent) than in 1991 (11 percent) said
they were under the influence of alcohol when they
committed their offense.

Table III.4:  Overall Profile of Federal Prison
Inmates, 1991
                                          Estimated number          Percent
Personal demographics                                                      
Sex                                                                        
Male                                                49,784             92.2
Female                                               4,222              7.8
Race                                                                       
White                                               20,732             38.4
Black                                               16,143             29.9
Hispanic                                            15,101             28.0
Other                                                2,031              3.8
Age group                                                                  
Under 25                                             5,012              9.3
25-34                                               19,431             36.0
35-44                                               17,769             32.9
45+                                                 11,794             21.8
Marital status                                                             
Never married                                       17,382             32.2
Married                                             20,225             37.4
Other                                               15,710             29.1
Education                                                                  
Less than high school                               12,837             23.8
GED                                                 12,336             22.8
High school graduate                                11,851             21.9
More than high school                               16,809             31.1
Employment status in month before                                          
arrest
Employed                                            39,881             73.8
Not employed                                        13,833             25.6
Have Children                                                              
Yes                                                 40,776             75.5
No                                                  13,230             24.5
Family background                                                          
Person lived with while growing up                                         
Both mother and father                              31,219             57.8
Mother only                                         15,237             28.2
Father only                                          1,815              3.4
Grandparents                                         3,032              5.6
Other                                                2,246              4.2
Either parent alcohol or drug abuse                                        
None                                                44,885             83.1
Alcohol only                                         7,827             14.5
Drugs only                                             159              0.3
Alcohol and drugs                                      593              1.1
Abused as a child                                                          
Physical only                                        1,937              3.6
Sexual only                                            539              1.0
Physical and sexual                                    720              1.3
None                                                50,810             94.1
Criminal records                                                           
Offense type                                                               
Violent                                              9,265             17.2
Property                                             4,582              8.5
Drug                                                31,103             57.6
Other                                                9,056             16.8
Type of drug involved in drug                                              
offensea
Powder cocaine                                      16,579             53.4
Crack cocaine                                        2,957              9.5
Heroin                                               3,460             11.1
Marijuana                                            5,993             19.3
Methamphetamines                                     1,951              6.3
Other                                                  968              3.1
Criminal justice status at time of                                         
arrest
None                                                40,794             75.5
Probation                                            6,284             11.6
Parole                                               6,250             11.6
Escape                                                 483              0.9
Prior sentences                                                            
None                                                26,221             48.6
1 to 2                                              16,479             30.5
3 or more                                           11,306             20.9
Drug histories                                                             
Drug use in month before arrestb                                           
Heroin                                               2,714              5.0
Powder cocaine                                       7,350             13.6
Crack cocaine                                        2,003              3.7
Marijuana                                           10,229             18.9
Other                                                3,544              6.6
Under influence at time of offenseb                                        
Heroin                                               1,952              3.6
Powder cocaine                                       3,563              6.6
Crack cocaine                                          994              1.8
Marijuana                                            3,197              5.9
Other                                                2,001              3.7
Alcohol                                              5,906             10.9
Treatment participation                                                    
Ever participated in alcohol/drug                                          
program
Yes                                                 24,001             44.4
No                                                  30,004             55.6
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 54,006 inmates in federal prisons in 1991.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 31,052 inmates who reported
being sentenced for drug offenses.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Differences Between the Overall State and Federal
Prison Inmate Profiles
     Although the state and federal inmate
profiles in 1997 were generally similar, we
observed several differences.

     We identified a few differences in the
personal demographics reported by state and
federal inmates:

ï¿½    Although minorities constituted the majority
of inmates in both federal and state prisons, the
composition of the minority prison populations
differed between state and federal facilities.
Blacks constituted a higher percentage of state
inmates (46 percent) compared with federal inmates
(38 percent). In contrast, there was a higher
percentage of Hispanics in federal prisons (27
percent) than in state prisons (17 percent).
ï¿½    Overall, federal inmates were older than
state inmates. Over half of federal inmates (54
percent) were age 35 or older; however, fifty-
eight percent of state inmates were age 34 or
younger.
ï¿½    Fifty-seven percent of state inmates,
compared with 42 percent of federal inmates,
reported never being married. At the same time, 30
percent of federal inmates, compared with 17
percent of state inmates, reported being married.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of state inmates (39
percent) than federal inmates (26 percent) had
less than a high school education and a higher
percentage of federal inmates (26 percent) than
state inmates (13 percent) had more than a high
school education.

 Regarding family background characteristics,
federal and state inmates were generally similar,
with a few exceptions:

ï¿½    A greater percentage of federal inmates (54
percent) than state inmates (44 percent) reported
that they had grown up in a two-parent household.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of state (16 percent)
than federal (7 percent) inmates reported that
they had experienced physical and/or sexual abuse,
although a majority of inmates in both populations
reported not encountering these situations (83
percent of state inmates and 92 percent of federal
inmates).
ï¿½    A higher percentage of state (31 percent)
than federal (20 percent) inmates reported having
lived in a family where a parent abused drugs or
alcohol, although a majority of both populations
did not (67 percent of state inmates and 78
percent of federal inmates).

 One of the largest differences between state and
federal inmates was in the type of crime for which
they were incarcerated.

ï¿½    Drug offenders accounted for over 60 percent
of federal inmates in 1997 but for 20 percent of
state inmates.
ï¿½    In contrast, violent offenders accounted for
47 percent of state inmates but 15 percent of
federal inmates in 1997.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of state inmates (22
percent) than federal inmates (6 percent) were
property offenders.
ï¿½    In addition, in 1997 higher percentages of
federal than state inmates reported serving no
prior sentence (38 percent of federal inmates and
23 percent of state inmates) and having no
criminal justice status at the time of arrest (72
percent of federal inmates and 52 percent of state
inmates).

There were few differences in the drug histories
of state and federal inmates. However, higher
percentages of state inmates than federal inmates
used marijuana in the month before their arrest
(39 percent of state inmates and 30 percent of
federal inmates) and were under the influence of
alcohol at the time of their offense (36 percent
of state inmates and 20 percent of federal
inmates).

_______________________________
1 Throughout appendixes III through VI, total
percentages above or below 100 percent are usually
due to rounding. Where indicated, however, inmates
may have been allowed to indicate more than one
answer, leading to total percentages greater than
100 percent. In some instances, missing data may
result in total percentages less than 100 percent.
In rounding, when the value was exactly half way
between one desired rounding level and the next,
we rounded the desired rounding level digit up
when that digit was an odd number and did not
change the desired rounding level digit (that is,
rounded down) when it was an even number.
2 Other offenses included the BJS' categories of
public-order offenses (i.e., weapons and other
public order offenses, such as driving while
intoxicated; escape from custody; regulatory
violations; and commercialized vice) and other
offenses, which are not enumerated.
3 More than one drug might be associated with a
single offense.
4 Other drugs include depressants and
hallucinogens.
5 A single inmate might report more than one drug
used in the month before or at the time of arrest.
6 More than one drug might be associated with a
single offense.
7 A single inmate might report more than one drug
when reporting drug use during the month before or
at the time of arrest.

Appendix IV
Profiles of State and Federal Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense
Page 49GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
This appendix presents profiles of state and
federal inmates by the type of their current
offense, including self-reported data on their
personal demographics, family background, criminal
record, drug history, and treatment participation.
While the demographic and family background
characteristics reported by state inmates were
quite similar across different types of offenders,
federal inmates differed substantially. The
criminal records of both state and federal inmates
differed considerably across offender types. For
example, in state prisons a higher percentage of
property offenders than drug or violent offenders
had served three or more prior sentences, and in
the federal system a higher percentage of violent
offenders than drug or property offenders had
served three or more prior sentences. Drug and
alcohol use tended to be more common among state
than federal inmates; for example, higher
percentages of property offenders in state prisons
than in federal prisons used crack or powder
cocaine and marijuana in the month before their
arrest.

Comparing the 1991 and 1997 profiles, the data
indicated some changes across crime types. The
percentage of black federal drug offenders rose
from 28 percent to 41 percent. Finally, although
the drug histories of violent offenders and
property offenders in federal prisons changed
little, the percentage of drug offenders who had
used marijuana in the month preceding their arrest
increased from 18 percent to 32 percent.

Profiles of State Inmates by Type of Current
Offense
     The 1997 state inmate profile, by type of
current offense, indicated some differences
reported across offense types. Although state
inmates did not report substantial differences for
most personal and family background
characteristics, the data showed some differences
in race, education, and experience of child abuse.
For example, a higher percentage of blacks was
found among drug offenders than among violent or
property offenders and a higher percentage of
inmates without a high school education was found
among drug offenders.

     Reported criminal records also differed
substantially across offense types. For example, a
greater percentage of property offenders reported
having served three or more prior sentences than
violent or drug offenders. Generally, inmate drug
histories were similar across crime types, except
drug and property offenders more frequently than
violent offenders reported using crack cocaine in
the month before their arrest. A comparison of the
1991 and 1997 state inmate profiles indicated few
notable changes in characteristics; for example,
the percentage of drug offenders using marijuana
in the month prior to their arrest increased.

Profile of State Prison Inmates by Type of Current
Offense, 1997
Table IV.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
correctional facilities separately for violent,
property, and drug offenders, as reported in BJS'
1997 state prison inmate survey. BJS reported a
total population of 493,349 violent offenders,
230,177 property offenders, and 216,254 drug
offenders in state prisons in 1997. All
percentages presented in table IV.1 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.

Table IV.1:  Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1997
                               Violent          Property          Drugs
                           Estimate Percent Estimated Percent Estimate Percent
                          d number            number         d number
Personal demographics                                                      
Sex                                                                       
Male                       475,794    96.2   212,689    92.4 193,630   89.5
Female                      18,554     3.8    17,488     7.6  22,624   10.5
Race                                                                        
White                      163,043    33.0    98,109    42.6  40,917   18.9
Black                      235,604    47.7    93,148    40.5 121,827   56.3
Hispanic                    77,774    15.7    32,888    14.3  48,934   22.6
Other                       17,929     3.6     6,032     2.6   4,576    2.1
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                   110,344    22.3    43,235    18.8  37,103   17.2
25-34                      171,168    34.6    97,291    42.3  88,671   41.0
35-44                      139,450    28.2    69,531    30.2  65,381   30.2
45+                         73,386    14.8    20,120     8.7  25,099   11.6
Marital status                                                              
Never married              281,152    57.0   133,398    58.0 126,057   58.3
Married                     79,326    16.1    34,971    15.2  41,975   19.4
Other                      132,933    26.9    61,633    26.8  48,029   22.2
Education                                                                   
Less than high school      181,818    36.8    86,154    37.4  99,711   46.1
GED                        170,800    34.6    76,059    33.0  51,669   23.9
High school graduate        75,706    15.3    34,311    14.9  34,258   15.8
More than high school       62,765    12.7    31,890    13.9  29,273   13.5
Employment status in month                                                  
before arrest
Employed                   338,458    68.6   153,352    66.6 131,097   60.6
Not employed               143,758    29.1    71,142    30.9  81,184   37.5
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father     216,244    43.8   100,582    43.7  91,222   42.2
Mother only                191,154    38.7    86,353    37.5  87,866   40.6
Father only                 16,760     3.4     9,614     4.2   7,580    3.5
Grandparents                39,483     8.0    19,672     8.5  19,008    8.8
Other                       26,350     5.3    12,014     5.2   9,364    4.3
Either parent alcohol or                                                    
drug abuse
None                       328,754    66.6   151,221    65.7 152,568   70.6
Alcohol only               116,008    23.5    56,810    24.7  44,369   20.5
Drugs only                   8,708     1.8     3,068     1.3   5,237    2.4
Alcohol and drugs           33,352     6.8    16,175     7.0  11,659    5.4
Abused as a childa                                                          
Physical only               55,743    11.3    20,689     9.0  12,377    5.7
Sexual only                 18,336     3.7     5,778     2.5   3,690    1.7
Physical and sexual         19,964     4.0     7,307     3.2   3,634    1.7
None                       395,752    80.2   194,626    84.6 194,801   90.1
Criminal records                                                            
Criminal justice status at                                                  
time of arrest
None                       324,655    65.8    84,596    36.8  98,875   45.7
Probation                   76,925    15.6    65,014    28.2  55,459   25.6
Parole                      85,443    17.3    76,421    33.2  58,658   27.1
Escape                       2,807     0.6     1,901     0.8   1,098    0.5
Prior sentences                                                             
None                       147,509    29.9    32,307    14.0  46,693   21.6
1 to 2                     167,753    34.0    66,345    28.8  73,660   34.1
3 or more                  168,838    34.2   126,733    55.1  91,888   42.5
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month before                                                    
arrestb
Heroin                      32,067     6.5    27,456    11.9  27,756   12.8
Powder cocaine              67,991    13.8    44,303    19.2  44,519   20.6
Crack cocaine               47,502     9.6    49,803    21.6  45,404   21.0
Marijuana                  197,001    39.9    89,106    38.7  88,468   40.9
Other                       68,286    13.8    39,678    17.2  32,879   15.2
Under influence at time of                                                  
offensea, b
Heroin                      17,890     3.6    16,043     7.0  18,335    8.5
Powder cocaine              34,676     7.0    19,267     8.4  19,476    9.0
Crack cocaine               27,500     5.6    27,370    11.9  27,958   12.9
Marijuana                   80,756    16.4    31,742    13.8  33,323   15.4
Other                       40,664     8.2    21,067     9.2  18,093    8.4
Alcohol                    202,032    41.0    78,447    34.1  58,728   27.2
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                        245,521    49.8   142,550    61.9 132,329   61.2
No                         242,869    49.2    85,817    37.3  82,147   38.0
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 493,349 violent
offenders, 230,177 property offenders, and 216,254
drug offenders in state prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
IV.2) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Personal Demographics
According to the BJS 1997 survey data, the primary
types of offenders (violent, property, and drug)
in state prisons did not vary substantially by
sex, age, marital status, and employment status at
the time of their arrest. The data did, however,
indicate differences in race and education between
groups:

ï¿½    A higher percentage of drug offenders (56
percent) than property offenders (41 percent) was
black; 48 percent of violent offenders were black.
Property offenders (43 percent) were more likely
than violent offenders (33 percent) to be white
and violent offenders more likely than drug
offenders (19 percent) to be white.
ï¿½    Similar percentages of all three offender
types reported having graduated from high school
or having more than a high school education.
However, a higher percentage of drug offenders (46
percent) than violent offenders (37 percent) and
property offenders (37 percent) had less than a
high school education. Also, higher percentages of
violent offenders (35 percent) and property
offenders (33 percent) than drug offenders (24
percent) had earned a GED.

Family Background
Violent, property, and drug offenders had similar
family backgrounds. Fewer than half of the inmates
in all three groups grew up in two-parent
families. About two-thirds of each group reported
that neither parent abused alcohol or drugs. The
only notable difference across offender types
involved reports of abuse as a child. A higher
percentage of drug offenders (90 percent) than
violent offenders (80 percent) reported no
physical or sexual abuse; and property offenders
(85 percent) were in between the other two
categories of offenders.

Criminal Records
The BJS data showed substantial differences in
criminal records across the three groups of
offenders:

ï¿½    Higher percentages of property offenders (28
percent) and drug offenders (26 percent) were on
probation at the time of their arrest than violent
offenders (16 percent). Similarly, higher
percentages of property offenders (33 percent) and
drug offenders (27 percent) than violent offenders
(17 percent) were on parole at the time of their
arrest.
ï¿½    A lower percentage of property offenders (14
percent) than violent offenders (30 percent) had
served no prior sentences.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of property offenders (55
percent) than violent offenders (34 percent) and
drug offenders (42 percent) had served three or
more prior sentences.

Drug Histories
The use of most drugs in the month before arrest
and the likelihood of having been under the
influence of drugs at the time of the offense were
quite similar for violent, property, and drug
offenders, with two exceptions:

ï¿½    Higher percentages of drug offenders (21
percent) and property offenders (22 percent)
reported that they had used crack cocaine in the
month before their arrest than violent offenders
(10 percent).
ï¿½    A higher percentage of violent offenders (41
percent) than drug offenders (27 percent) reported
that they had been under the influence of alcohol
at the time of their offense; 34 percent of
property offenders reported being under the
influence of alcohol at the time of their offense.

Treatment Participation
Violent, property, and drug offenders differed in
their participation in alcohol/drug programs.
Higher percentages of property offenders (62
percent) and drug offenders (61 percent) had
participated in such programs than violent
offenders (50 percent).

Few Notable Changes in Profiles of State Violent,
Property, and Drug Offenders in 1997, Compared
With 1991
A comparison of the 1991 and 1997 BJS data,
indicated few notable changes in the
characteristics of violent, property, and drug
offenders in state prisons.

ï¿½    The percentage of inmates who were age 35 or
older rose from 25 percent to 39 percent among
property offenders and from 30 percent to 42
percent among drug offenders.
ï¿½    The percentage of drug offenders who had used
marijuana in the month preceding their arrest
increased from 31 percent to 41 percent.
ï¿½    The percentage of drug offenders who were
under the influence of alcohol at the time of
their offense increased from 18 percent to 27
percent.

Table IV.2:  Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1991
                           Violent           Property           Drugs
                      Estimated Percent   Estimated Percen Estimated Percent
                         number              number     t    number
Personal                                                                 
demographics
Sex                                                                      
Male                    315,557    96.2     163,510  93.7   137,672    91.6
Female                   12,400     3.8      11,024   6.3    12,633     8.4
Race                                                                        
White                   121,972    37.2      75,015  43.0    29,751    19.8
Black                   151,629    46.2      70,621  40.5    80,126    53.3
Hispanic                 45,437    13.9      24,182  13.9    38,807    25.8
Other                     8,920     2.7       4,716   2.7     1,620     1.1
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                 62,164    19.0      48,021  27.5    34,730    23.1
25-34                   146,393    44.6      83,396  47.8    69,843    46.5
35-44                    78,062    23.8      34,533  19.8    34,517    23.0
45+                      41,339    12.6       8,584   4.9    11,215     7.5
Marital status                                                              
Never married           172,841    52.7     103,117  59.1    85,571    56.9
Married                  55,540    16.9      27,697  15.9    31,980    21.3
Other                    96,118    29.3      41,654  23.9    31,248    20.8
Education                                                                   
Less than high          129,060    39.4      73,194  41.9    69,365    46.1
school
GED                      89,101    27.2      44,832  25.7    28,235    18.8
High school graduate     63,196    19.3      31,349  18.0    29,534    19.6
More than high           46,283    14.1      25,018  14.3    22,839    15.2
school
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                227,333    69.3     112,438  64.4    94,093    62.6
Not employed             99,343    30.3      61,696  35.3    55,547    37.0
Family background                                                           
Person lived with                                                           
while growing up
Both mother and         142,361    43.4      73,206  41.9    61,094    40.6
father
Mother only             127,222    38.8      66,892  38.3    63,052    41.9
Father only              11,764     3.6       8,673   5.0     5,281     3.5
Grandparents             23,889     7.3      13,397   7.7    12,419     8.3
Other                    20,854     6.4      11,674   6.7     7,825     5.2
Either parent                                                               
alcohol or drug
abuse
None                    235,413    71.8     119,821  68.7   119,446    79.5
Alcohol only             75,013    22.9      43,150  24.7    24,650    16.4
Drugs only                2,090     0.6       1,886   1.1     1,535     1.0
Alcohol and drugs        12,272     3.7       8,154   4.7     3,619     2.4
Abused as a child                                                           
Physical only            26,670     8.1      12,612   7.2     5,513     3.7
Sexual only              10,163     3.1       3,675   2.1     1,930     1.3
Physical and sexual      18,611     5.7       6,190   3.5     3,116     2.1
None                    272,514    83.1     152,058  87.1   139,747    93.0
Criminal records                                                            
Criminal justice                                                            
status at time of
arrest
None                    215,841    65.8      64,775  37.1    76,588    51.0
Probation                52,163    15.9      50,403  28.9    41,943    27.9
Parole                   55,951    17.1      55,791  32.0    30,009    20.0
Escape                    3,217     1.0       2,725   1.6       963     0.6
Prior sentences                                                             
None                     90,138    27.5      14,878   8.5    31,248    20.8
1 to 2                  117,386    35.8      58,088  33.3    60,244    40.1
3 or more               120,433    36.7     101,568  58.2    58,812    39.1
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month                                                           
before arresta
Heroin                   20,096     6.1      20,072  11.5    19,091    12.7
Powder cocaine           54,912    16.7      38,173  21.9    42,896    28.5
Crack cocaine            23,210     7.1      21,739  12.5    22,860    15.2
Marijuana               108,128    33.0      59,417  34.0    46,601    31.0
Other                    42,401    12.9      26,411  15.1    18,503    12.3
Under influence at                                                          
time of offensea
Heroin                   12,727     3.9      14,112   8.1    12,979     8.6
Powder cocaine           31,756     9.7      21,195  12.1    22,731    15.1
Crack cocaine            12,907     3.9      10,843   6.2    11,419     7.6
Marijuana                43,636    13.3      20,477  11.7    14,370     9.6
Other                    29,962     9.1      15,165   8.7     9,884     6.6
Alcohol                 122,955    37.5      55,562  31.8    27,167    18.1
Treatment                                                                   
participation
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                     159,971    48.8     105,246  60.3    88,345    58.8
No                      167,986    51.2      69,289  39.7    61,960    41.2
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 327,958 violent
offenders, 174,534 property offenders, and 150,304
drug offenders in state prisons in 1991.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Profile of Federal Inmates by Type of Current
Offense
     The 1997 federal offender profile, by current
offense type, showed substantial differences in
demographic characteristics, family background,
and criminal records reported across crime types.
For example, property offenders were better
educated and more likely to have been employed
than violent or drug offenders. Federal violent
offenders had more serious criminal records than
either drug or property offenders. The percentage
of federal inmates who reported having
participated in alcohol/drug programs also
differed according to offense type, with a smaller
percentage of property offenders than violent or
drug offenders reported having participated in
such programs. A comparison of the 1991 and 1997
BJS federal survey data indicated few sizable
changes in the characteristics of the three
offender groups. However, drug and property
offenders showed some change in their criminal
records, with the percentage who reported having
no prior histories decreasing for drug offenders
and increasing for property offenders.

Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by Type of
Current Offense, 1997
     Table IV.3 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in federal
correctional facilities for each of the three
types of offenses, as reported in BJS' 1997
federal prison inmate survey. The federal prison
population was made up of 13,021 violent
offenders, 5,826 property offenders, and 55,069
drug offenders in 1997. All percentages presented
below for federal prison inmates for 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base; and
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.

Table IV.3:  Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1997
                            Violent           Property           Drugs
                       Estimated  Percent Estimated Percent Estimate Percent
                          number             number               d
                                                             number
Personal                                                                 
demographics
Sex                                                                      
Male                      12,592     96.7     5,064   86.9   50,486    91.7
Female                       429      3.3       762   13.1    4,583     8.3
Race                                                                        
White                      4,895     37.6     3,347   57.4   13,026    23.7
Black                      5,080     39.0     1,389   23.8   22,350    40.6
Hispanic                   1,649     12.7       623   10.7   17,876    32.5
Other                      1,397     10.7       466    8.0    1,817     3.3
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                   1,391     10.7       296    5.1    4,901     8.9
25-34                      4,291     33.0     1,691   29.0   20,978    38.1
35-44                      4,050     31.1     1,731   29.7   16,902    30.7
45+                        3,289     25.3     2,108   36.2   12,287    22.3
Marital status                                                              
Never married              6,466     49.6     1,629   28.0   22,886    41.6
Married                    2,216     17.0     2,190   37.6   17,777    32.3
Other                      4,278     32.9     2,008   34.5   14,315    26.0
Education                                                                   
Less than high             2,752     21.1       842   14.5   15,090    27.4
school
GED                        4,411     33.9       900   15.4   14,058    25.5
High school graduate       2,409     18.5     1,130   19.4   11,895    21.6
More than high             3,352     25.7     2,886   49.5   13,428    24.4
school
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                   8,155     62.6     4,617   79.2   38,218    69.4
Not employed               4,442     34.1     1,066   18.3   15,687    28.5
Family background                                                           
Person lived with                                                           
while growing up
Both mother and            6,273     48.2     3,787   65.0   29,619    53.8
father
Mother only                4,440     34.1     1,390   23.9   17,849    32.4
Father only                  521      4.0       209    3.6    1,322     2.4
Grandparents               1,000      7.7       328    5.6    4,164     7.6
Other                        677      5.2       195    3.3    1,530     2.8
Either parent                                                               
alcohol or drug
abuse
None                       9,368     71.9     4,746   81.5   43,779    79.5
Alcohol only               2,658     20.4       963   16.5    8,483    15.4
Drugs only                   140      1.1        34    0.6      368     0.7
Alcohol and drugs            615      4.7       153    2.6    1,651     3.0
Abused as a childa                                                          
Physical only              1,339     10.3       176    3.0    1,521     2.8
Sexual only                  345      2.6       125    2.1      621     1.1
Physical and sexual          308      2.4        90    1.5      588     1.1
None                      10,868     83.5     5,517   94.7   51,670    93.8
Criminal records                                                            
Criminal justice                                                            
status at time of
arrest
None                       8,318     63.9     4,156   71.3   41,605    75.6
Probation                  1,281      9.8     1,023   17.6    7,537    13.7
Parole                     3,170     24.3       755   13.0    5,562    10.1
Escape                       140      1.1         0    0.0       93     0.2
Prior sentences                                                             
None                       3,614     27.8     2,962   50.8   22,717    41.3
1 to 2                     3,440     26.4     1,255   21.5   18,526    33.6
3 or more                  5,749     44.2     1,556   26.7   12,909    23.4
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month                                                           
before arrestb
Heroin                     1,571     12.1       212    3.6    2,178     4.0
Powder cocaine             2,165     16.6       507    8.7   10,078    18.3
Crack cocaine              1,287      9.9       200    3.4    3,450     6.3
Marijuana                  4,201     32.3       988   17.0   17,435    31.7
Other                      1,476     11.3       497    8.5    5,963    10.8
Under influence at                                                          
time of offensea, b
Heroin                       901      6.9        83    1.4    1,355     2.5
Powder cocaine               873      6.7       139    2.4    4,003     7.3
Crack cocaine                579      4.4        82    1.4    1,911     3.5
Marijuana                  1,304     10.0       230    3.9    6,595    12.0
Other                        824      6.3       323    5.5    3,632     6.6
Alcohol                    3,112     23.9       885   15.2   10,714    19.5
Treatment                                                                   
participation
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                        6,554     50.3     1,890   32.4   25,602    46.5
No                         6,282     48.2     3,863   66.3   28,744    52.2
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 13,021 violent
offenders, 5,826 property offenders, and 55,069
drug offenders in federal prisons in 1997.
Percentages may not add to 100 because of missing
data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
IV.4) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
 bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Personal Demographics
The demographic characteristics reported by
violent, property, and drug offenders in federal
prisons in 1997 differed substantially:

ï¿½    A smaller percentage of violent offenders (3
percent) than property offenders (13 percent) were
female; 8 percent of drug offenders were female.
ï¿½    Property offenders (57 percent) were more
likely than violent offenders (38 percent) to be
white, and violent offenders were more likely than
drug offenders (24 percent) to be white. A larger
percentage of violent offenders (39 percent) and
drug offenders (41 percent) than property
offenders (24 percent) were black, while a larger
percentage of drug offenders (32 percent) than
violent offenders (13 percent) and property
offenders (11 percent) were Hispanic.
ï¿½    Property offenders tended to be older than
the other two groups. Thirty-six percent of
property offenders were 45 or older, compared with
25 percent of violent offenders and 22 percent of
drug offenders.
ï¿½    A considerably smaller percentage of violent
offenders (17 percent) were married than property
offenders (38 percent) and drug offenders (32
percent).
ï¿½    Property offenders were better educated than
the other two groups. A higher percentage of
property offenders (50 percent) than violent
offenders (26 percent) and drug offenders (24
percent) had more than a high school education.
ï¿½    Property offenders were also more likely to
have been employed at the time of their arrest (79
percent) than drug offenders (69 percent) and
violent offenders (63 percent).

Family Background
The family backgrounds reported by violent,
property, and drug offenders in federal prisons in
1997 were quite dissimilar:

ï¿½    A higher percentage of property offenders (65
percent) grew up in two-parent families than drug
offenders (54 percent) and violent offenders (48
percent).
ï¿½    The percentages of property offenders (82
percent) and drug offenders (80 percent) whose
parents had not abused drugs were higher than the
percentage of violent offenders (72 percent).
ï¿½    The percentages of property offenders (95
percent) and drug offenders (94 percent) who
reported that they had not been abused as children
were also higher than the percentage of violent
offenders (83 percent).

Criminal Records
Reported criminal records also differed across the
three types of offenders in federal prisons in
1997:

ï¿½    A higher percentage of violent offenders (24
percent) than property offenders (13 percent) and
drug offenders (10 percent) were on parole at the
time of their arrest, while a higher percentage of
drug offenders (76 percent) than violent offenders
(64 percent) were under no form of criminal
justice supervision. Seventy-one percent of
property offenders were not under criminal justice
supervision.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of violent offenders (44
percent) had served three or more prior sentences
than property offenders (27 percent) and drug
offenders (23 percent). While 51 percent of
property offenders had never served time before,
the same was true of 41 percent of drug offenders
and 28 percent of violent offenders.

Drug Histories
Reported drug and alcohol use in the month prior
to arrest and being under the influence at the
time of the offense did not differ markedly across
the three types of offenders, with a few
exceptions:

ï¿½    A higher percentage of drug offenders (18
percent) than property offenders (9 percent)
reported having used powder cocaine in the month
before their arrest; 17 percent of violent
offenders reported having used powder cocaine.
ï¿½    A smaller percentage of property offenders
(17 percent) than violent offenders (32 percent)
or drug offenders (32 percent) reported having
used marijuana in the month prior to their arrest.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of violent offenders (24
percent) than property offenders (15 percent)
reported having been under the influence of
alcohol when they committed their offenses; 20
percent of drug offenders were under the influence
of alcohol.

Treatment Participation
Participation in alcohol/drug programs was less
common among the property offenders than among the
other two groups.  While 50 percent of violent
offenders and 46 percent of drug offenders
reported that they had participated in
alcohol/drug programs, 32 percent of property
offenders reported having done so.

Few Significant Changes in 1997, Compared With the
1991 Inmate Profiles of Federal Violent, Property,
and Drug Offenders
A comparison of 1991 and 1997 BJS federal survey
data indicated few sizable changes in the
characteristics of different types of offenders.
The changes identified included the following:

ï¿½    The percentage of black drug offenders rose
from 28 percent in 1991 to 41 percent in 1997.
ï¿½    The percentage of married drug offenders
declined from 42 percent in 1991 to 32 percent in
1997.
ï¿½    The criminal records of violent offenders in
federal prisons were similar in 1991 and 1997,
though property offenders and drug offenders
showed some changes in their prior sentences. The
percentage of federal prison inmates with no prior
sentences rose from 42 percent to 51 percent among
property offenders, and declined from 57 percent
to 41 percent among drug offenders.
ï¿½    The drug histories of violent offenders and
property offenders in federal prisons changed
little between 1991 and 1997: however, there was
some change for drug offenders. The percentage of
drug offenders who had used marijuana in the month
preceding their arrest increased from 18 percent
to 32 percent, and the percentage of drug
offenders who were under the influence of alcohol
at the time of their offense increased from 8 to
20 percent.

Table IV.4: Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Type of Current Offense, 1991
                               Violent          Property          Drugs
                          Estimated Percent Estimated Percent Estimate Percent
                             number           number         d number
Personal demographics                                                     
Sex                                                                       
Male                          8,943    96.5    4,018    87.7  28,341   91.1
Female                          323     3.5      564    12.3   2,762    8.9
Race                                                                        
White                         3,878    41.9    2,713    59.2   9,548   30.7
Black                         3,585    38.7    1,419    31.0   8,817   28.3
Hispanic                        905     9.8      297     6.5  12,084   38.9
Other                           897     9.7      153     3.3     654    2.1
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                        714     7.7      272     5.9   3,395   10.9
25-34                         3,437    37.1    1,464    32.0  11,691   37.6
35-44                         3,240    35.0    1,524    33.3  10,061   32.3
45+                           1,874    20.2    1,322    28.8   5,956   19.2
Marital status                                                              
Never married                 4,049    43.7    1,181    25.8   9,699   31.2
Married                       1,955    21.1    1,800    39.3  13,031   41.9
Other                         3,147    34.0    1,566    34.2   7,997   25.7
Education                                                                   
Less than high school         1,638    17.7      669    14.6           27.1
                                                               8,451
GED                           3,314    35.8      812    17.7   6,314   20.3
High school graduate          2,023    21.8      702    15.3   7,310   23.5
More than high school         2,238    24.2    2,389    52.1   8,937   28.7
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                      5,654    61.0    3,566    77.8  23,716   76.2
Not employed                  3,562    38.4    1,013    22.1   7,221   23.2
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father        4,648    50.2    2,847    62.1  18,253   58.7
Mother only                   2,962    32.0    1,103    24.1   8,714   28.0
Father only                     283     3.1      189     4.1   1,135    3.6
Grandparents                    687     7.4      252     5.5   1,582    5.1
Other                           596     6.4      175     3.8   1,150    3.7
Either parent alcohol or                                                    
drug abuse
None                          6,830    73.7    3,803    83.0  26,833   86.3
Alcohol only                  2,077    22.4      702    15.3   3,639   11.7
Drugs only                       45     0.5       12     0.3      86    0.3
Alcohol and drugs               234     2.5       41     0.9     232    0.7
Abused as a child                                                           
Physical only                   491     5.3      151     3.3     868    2.8
Sexual only                     104     1.1       80     1.7     237    0.8
Physical and sexual             228     2.5      117     2.6     241    0.8
None                          8,442    91.1    4,234    92.4  29,757   95.7
Criminal records                                                            
Criminal justice status                                                     
at time of arrest
None                          5,661    61.1    3,044    66.4  25,674   82.5
Probation                     1,100    11.9      877    19.1   3,075    9.9
Parole                        2,262    24.4      547    11.9   2,224    7.1
Escape                          232     2.5      104     2.3      79    0.3
Prior sentences                                                             
None                          2,693    29.1    1,925    42.0  17,605   56.6
1 to 2                        3,134    33.8    1,528    33.3   9,206   29.6
3 or more                     3,438    37.1    1,129    24.6   4,292   13.8
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month before                                                    
arresta
Heroin                        1,101    11.9      250     5.5   1,069    3.4
Powder cocaine                1,717    18.5      423     9.2   4,271   13.7
Crack cocaine                   540     5.8      117     2.6   1,040    3.3
Marijuana                     2,415    26.1      472    10.3   5,728   18.4
Other                           964    10.4      216     4.7   1,825    5.9
Under influence at time                                                     
of offensea
Heroin                          732     7.9      182     4.0     848    2.7
Powder cocaine                  827     8.9      157     3.4   2,121    6.8
Crack cocaine                   280     3.0       60     1.3     462    1.5
Marijuana                       689     7.4      172     3.8   1,830    5.9
Other                           510     5.5      178     3.9   1,050    3.4
Alcohol                       1,890    20.4      341     7.4   2,559    8.2
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                           4,951    53.4    1,585    34.6  13,742   44.2
No                            4,314    46.6    2,996    65.4  17,361   55.8
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 9,265 violent offenders, 4,582 property
offenders, and 31,103 drug offenders in federal
prisons in 1991. Percentages may not add to 100
because of missing data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Differences Between State and Federal Prison
Inmate Profiles
Comparing state and federal inmate profiles showed
several differences between types of offenders in
state and federal prison.

Regarding the personal background characteristics
reported by state and federal inmates for 1997,
the data showed the following:

ï¿½    The percentage of white property offenders
was higher in federal prisons (57 percent) than in
state prisons (43 percent), while the percentage
of black property offenders was lower in federal
prisons (24 percent) than in state prisons (40
percent).
ï¿½    The percentage of Hispanic drug offenders was
higher in federal prisons (32 percent) than in
state prisons (23 percent), while the percentage
of black drug offenders was lower in federal
prisons (41 percent) than in state prisons (56
percent).
ï¿½    The percentage of black violent offenders was
higher in state prisons (48 percent) than in
federal prisons (39 percent).
ï¿½    The percentages of older inmates among all
three groups of offenders were higher in federal
prisons than in state prisons. While 25 percent of
violent offenders, 36 percent of property
offenders, and 22 percent of drug offenders were
age 45 or older in federal prisons, the
corresponding percentages in state prisons were
15, 9, and 12 percent, respectively.
ï¿½    The percentages of married inmates were also
higher in federal prisons than in state prisons
for property offenders (38 versus 15 percent) and
drug offenders (32 versus 19 percent).
ï¿½    The level of education was higher for all
three groups of offenders among federal inmates
than among state inmates. The percentages of
violent offenders, property offenders, and drug
offenders with more than a high school education
in federal prisons were 26, 50, and 24 percent,
respectively, compared with 13, 14, and 14
percent, respectively, in state prisons.
ï¿½    Property offenders in the two prison systems
also differed in their employment status; 79
percent of property offenders were employed at the
time of their arrest among federal prison inmates,
compared with 67 percent of property offenders
among state prison inmates.

Differences in family background reported were
found across crime types, for example:

ï¿½    The percentages of inmates who grew up in two-
parent families were higher for both property
offenders (65 percent) and drug offenders (54
percent) in federal prisons than for property
offenders (44 percent) and drug offenders (42
percent) in state prisons.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of property offenders (82
percent) and drug offenders (80 percent) in
federal prisons than in state prisons (66 percent
and 71 percent, respectively) reported that
neither parent had abused alcohol or drugs.
However, a higher percentage of property offenders
in state prisons (25 percent) than in federal
prisons (16 percent) said that their parents had
abused alcohol only.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of property offenders in
federal prisons (95 percent) than in state prisons
(85 percent) said that they had never been
physically or sexually abused as children.

The criminal records reported by federal and state
inmates differed in several instances:

ï¿½    The percentages of property offenders (18
percent) and drug offenders (14 percent) in
federal prisons who were on probation at the time
of their arrest were lower than the percentages of
property offenders (28 percent) and drug offenders
(26 percent) in state prisons.
ï¿½    Similar differences existed in the
percentages of property offenders and drug
offenders on parole (13 and 10 percent,
respectively) in federal prisons, compared with
state prisons (33 and 27 percent, respectively).
ï¿½    The percentages of property offenders (71
percent) and drug offenders (76 percent) in
federal prisons who had no criminal justice status
at the time of their arrest were higher than the
percentages of property offenders (37 percent) and
drug offenders (46 percent) in state prisons.
ï¿½    There was no difference in the percentage of
inmates with no prior sentences among violent
offenders in state and federal prisons, though
higher percentages of property offenders (51
percent) and drug offenders (41 percent) in
federal prisons than in state prisons (14 and 22
percent, respectively) had no prior sentences.
ï¿½    Violent offenders in federal prisons were
more likely to have three or more prior sentences
than violent offenders in state prisons (44 versus
34 percent); however, lower percentages of
property offenders (27 percent) and drug offenders
(23 percent) in federal prisons than in state
prisons (55 and 42 percent, respectively) had
three or more prior sentences.

     Moreover, the data showed the following
differences in drug histories among offender
groups:

ï¿½    Property offenders in federal prisons were
less likely than their state counterparts to have
used powder cocaine (9 versus 19 percent), crack
cocaine (3 versus 22 percent), and marijuana (17
versus 39 percent) in the month before their
arrest.
ï¿½    Higher percentages of drug offenders in state
prisons used crack cocaine 21 percent), marijuana
(41 percent), and heroin (13 percent) compared
with drug offenders in federal prisons (6 percent
used crack cocaine, 32 percent used marijuana, and
4 percent used heroin) in the month before arrest.
ï¿½    Property offenders in federal prisons were
also less likely than those in state prisons to
have been under the influence, at the time of the
offense, of crack cocaine (1 versus 12 percent),
marijuana (4 versus 14 percent), and alcohol (15
versus 34 percent).
ï¿½    No similar difference existed for drug
offenders, and the only substantial difference for
violent offenders in federal and state prisons
involved alcohol. Twenty-four percent of violent
offenders in federal prisons, compared with 41
percent of violent offenders in state prisons,
were under the influence of alcohol at the time of
their offense.

     Regarding participation in alcohol/drug
programs by federal and state inmates, the data
indicated differences for some types of offenders
but not others:

ï¿½    While no differences were found for violent
offenders in the two prison systems, the data
showed differences for drug offenders and property
offenders. Lower percentages of property offenders
(32 percent) and drug offenders (46 percent) in
federal prisons had participated in such programs
than property offenders (62 percent) and drug
offenders (61 percent) in state prisons.

Appendix V
Profiles of State and Federal Prison Inmates by
Race
Page 64GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
     This appendix presents profiles of state and
federal inmates by race, including self-reported
information on their personal demographics, family
background, criminal record, drug history, and
treatment participation. The BJS 1991 and 1997
state and federal surveys indicated that inmates
were quite similar across racial and ethnic
groups, although some differences were revealed.
In 1997, minority inmates were more likely than
white inmates to be under 35 years of age, and
overall, they had less education. A higher
percentage of white and Hispanic state and federal
inmates reported that they had grown up in two-
parent households. In both federal and state
prisons, minority inmates were more likely than
white inmates to have been convicted of a drug
crime. Federal and state drug offenders varied, by
race and ethnicity, in the drug associated with
their current offense. A comparison of the 1991
and 1997 profiles showed few changes. However,
higher percentages of white and black federal
inmates reported that they had been under the
influence of alcohol at the time of their arrest.
In addition, for federal drug offenders, crack
cocaine was the drug involved for a higher
percentage of black inmates in 1997 than in 1991,
and a higher percentage of whites in 1997 than in
1991 identified methamphetamines as the drug
involved.

Profiles of State Inmates by Race
     The 1997 state prison inmate profiles by race
revealed some differences. Personal demographic
and family background characteristics showed that
a higher percentage of minority inmates were
younger and had less education than white inmates,
and smaller percentages of whites than blacks and
Hispanics reported that they had experienced no
childhood physical or sexual abuse. Drug offenders
in state prisons differed by race in the drug
associated with their current offense, with a
higher percentage of white inmates reporting
methamphetamines, black inmates reporting crack
cocaine, and Hispanic inmates citing powder
cocaine. White inmates more frequently than black
or Hispanic inmates reported that they had
participated in alcohol/drug programs.

     A comparison of the 1991 and 1997 profiles
showed few changes. However, the percentage of
black and white inmates age 35 and older increased
and a higher percentage of black state inmates
used marijuana in the month before their arrest in
1997 than in 1991.

Profile of State Prison Inmates by Race, 1997
     Table V.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
correctional facilities by race, as reported in
BJS' 1997 state prison inmate survey. BJS reported
a total population of 352,864 white inmates,
492,676 black inmates, and 179,998 Hispanic
inmates in state prisons in 1997. All percentages
presented in table V.1 for white, black, and
Hispanic state prison inmates in 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.

Table V.1:  Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Race, 1997
                                  White           Black         Hispanic
                             Estimate Percent Estimate Percent Estimate Percen
                                   d               d               d      t
                              number          number          number
Personal demographics                                                       
Sex                                                                         
Male                         330,852   93.8  461,088    93.6 169,799   94.3
Female                        22,013    6.2   31,588     6.4  10,199    5.7
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                      55,615   15.8  100,915    20.5  44,445   24.7
25-34                        124,790   35.4  194,590    39.5  72,315   40.2
35-44                        110,951   31.4  146,856    29.8  45,590   25.3
45+                           61,508   17.4   50,315    10.2  17,649    9.8
Marital status                                                              
Never married                151,559   43.0  334,929    68.0  97,870   54.4
Married                       59,573   16.9   69,197    14.0  41,288   22.9
Other                        140,861   39.9   87,702    17.8  40,755   22.6
Education                                                                   
Less than high school         94,574   26.8  214,711    43.6  94,420   52.5
GED                          135,335   38.4  134,480    27.3  48,722   27.1
High school graduate          60,350   17.1   79,982    16.2  19,910   11.1
More than high school         60,401   17.1   59,506    12.1  15,548    8.6
Employment status in month                                                  
before arrest
Employed                     256,374   72.7  302,826    61.5 123,844   68.8
Not employed                  88,187   25.0  177,910    36.1  52,176   29.0
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father       197,630   56.0  161,186    32.7  89,136   49.5
Mother only                  100,310   28.4  236,213    47.9  59,923   33.3
Father only                   17,883    5.1   13,063     2.7   5,346    3.0
Grandparents                  18,609    5.3   52,373    10.6  13,884    7.7
Other                         15,966    4.5   24,746     5.0  10,140    5.6
Either parent alcohol or                                                    
drug abuse
None                         210,056   59.5  349,489    70.9 131,287   72.9
Alcohol only                 106,028   30.0   96,570    19.6  34,193   19.0
Drugs only                     5,094    1.4   10,734     2.2   2,629    1.5
Alcohol and drugs             27,398    7.8   28,036     5.7   9,457    5.3
Abused as a childa                                                          
Physical only                 49,516   14.0   31,926     6.5  13,856    7.7
Sexual only                   14,645    4.2   12,628     2.6   3,311    1.8
Physical and sexual           20,657    5.9    9,114     1.8   3,514    2.0
None                         265,529   75.2  433,775    88.0 157,390   87.4
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                      163,043   46.2  235,604    47.8  77,774   43.2
Property                      98,109   27.8   93,148    18.9  32,888   18.3
Drug                          40,917   11.6  121,827    24.7  48,934   27.2
Other                         44,664   12.7   37,631     7.6  19,062   10.6
Type of drug involved in                                                    
offenseb
Powder cocaine                11,642   28.7   36,884    30.5  20,731   43.0
Crack cocaine                  4,442   10.9   71,861    59.4   8,012   16.6
Heroin                         4,263   10.5   11,309     9.3  10,987   22.8
Marijuana                      8,076   19.9    9,763     8.1   8,534   17.7
Methamphetamines              14,489   35.7      887     0.7   4,643    9.6
Other                          2,622    6.5    1,091     0.9   1,397    2.9
Criminal justice status at                                                  
time of arrest
None                         193,536   54.8  245,735    49.9  92,663   51.5
Probation                     80,676   22.9  106,724    21.7  37,272   20.7
Parole                        70,034   19.8  132,114    26.8  46,620   25.9
Escape                         3,870    1.1    2,450     0.5     659    0.4
Prior sentences                                                             
None                          82,768   23.5  103,777    21.1  52,877   29.4
1 to 2                       100,184   28.4  173,135    35.1  58,633   32.6
3 or more                    164,054   46.5  203,188    41.2  65,096   36.2
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month before                                                    
arrest c
Heroin                        32,546    9.2   32,952     6.7  28,456   15.8
Powder cocaine                54,162   15.3   72,595    14.7  36,960   20.5
Crack cocaine                 36,973   10.5   96,193    19.5  16,524    9.2
Marijuana                    134,596   38.1  201,195    40.8  60,861   33.8
Other                         94,954   26.9   31,266     6.3  25,423   14.1
Under influence at time of                                                  
offensea, c
Heroin                        18,171    5.1   18,827     3.8  19,663   10.9
Powder cocaine                23,445    6.6   33,920     6.9  19,471   10.8
Crack cocaine                 20,169    5.7   57,529    11.7   8,480    4.7
Marijuana                     52,308   14.8   77,434    15.7  23,100   12.8
Other                         52,018   14.7   19,525     4.0  13,668    7.6
Alcohol                      148,679   42.1  159,455    32.4  65,063   36.1
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                          223,376   63.3  262,654    53.3  86,182   47.9
No                           126,403   35.8  223,615    45.4  91,958   51.1
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 352,864 white inmates, 492,676 black inmates,
and 179,998 Hispanic inmates in state prisons in
1997. Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in 1991 (see table V.3)
and 1997 inmate reports of physical and sexual
abuse and being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of arrest may have been due to changes in
question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 40,566 white inmates, 120,980
black inmates, and 48,255 Hispanic inmates who
reported being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Table V.2:  State Inmates With Children, by Race,
1997
                                    White          Black        Hispanic
                               Estimat Percent Estimat Percent Estimat Percent
                                    ed             ed             ed
                                number         number         number
Do you have children                                                      
Male                                                                        
Yes                            199,874   60.9 310,257   68.0 114,103   67.7
No                             128,147   39.1 146,068   32.0  54,317   32.3
Female                                                                      
Yes                             17,058   77.9  25,617   81.8   7,985   78.7
No                               4,849   22.1   5,688   18.2   2,164   21.3
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population of 328,022 white, 456,325
black, and 168,420 Hispanic male state inmates and
21,907 white, 31,305 black, and 10,149 Hispanic
female state inmates in 1997.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Personal Demographics
     Among state inmates in the 1997 survey, the
profiles revealed few differences in demographics
based on race or ethnicity:

ï¿½    In state prisons, higher percentages of
minority inmates were under the age of 35 than
white inmates. Sixty-five percent of Hispanic
inmates, 60 percent of black inmates, and 51
percent of white inmates were under age 35.
ï¿½    Higher percentages of minorities in state
prisons than whites had never been married. Sixty-
eight percent of black, 54 percent of Hispanic,
and 43 percent of white inmates had never been
married.
ï¿½    Fifty-two percent of Hispanic and 44 percent
of black state prison inmates had less than a high
school degree or its equivalent, compared with 27
percent of white inmates.
ï¿½    Seventy-three percent of white state inmates
were employed in the month before their arrest,
compared with about 62 percent of black inmates;
69 percent of Hispanic inmates were employed.

Family Background
Family backgrounds reported by state inmates
differed among racial and ethnic groups, including
the following:

ï¿½    Higher percentages of white (56 percent) and
Hispanic (50 percent) state inmates than black
inmates (33 percent) lived with both parents when
growing up. A higher percentage of black state
inmates had lived with only their mother (48
percent), compared with white (28 percent) and
Hispanic (33 percent) inmates.
ï¿½    Seventy-one percent of black and 73 percent
of Hispanic state inmates said that neither parent
had abused alcohol or drugs, compared with 60
percent of white inmates. A higher percentage of
white inmates (30 percent) than black (20 percent)
or Hispanic (19 percent) inmates said that a
parent had abused alcohol only.
ï¿½    Although most state inmates had not
experienced physical or sexual abuse as a child, a
lower percentage of white (75 percent) than black
(88 percent) and Hispanic (87 percent) inmates had
not been abused.

Criminal Records
The types of nonviolent crimes committed and the
types of drugs involved in drug crimes differed by
racial or ethnic group:

ï¿½    Regardless of race or ethnicity, state
inmates in 1997 most frequently had been convicted
of a violent crime. However, concerning nonviolent
crimes, a higher percentage of white inmates (28
percent) than black (19 percent) and Hispanic (18
percent) inmates were in prison for a property
crime, while a higher percentage of black (25
percent) and Hispanic (27 percent) inmates than
white inmates (12 percent) were in prison for a
drug crime.
ï¿½    Among drug offenders, the type of drug
involved in the crime varied by racial group. A
higher percentage of black state inmates (59
percent) than Hispanic (17 percent) or white
inmates (11 percent) who were convicted of drug
crimes said that crack cocaine was involved in the
crime. However, a higher percentage of Hispanic
inmates (43 percent) than black (30 percent) and
white (29 percent) inmates said that powder
cocaine was involved.
ï¿½    Methamphetamines were involved for a higher
percentage of white inmates convicted of drug
crimes (36 percent) than Hispanic (10 percent) or
black (1 percent) inmates.
ï¿½    Marijuana was more likely to be involved for
white (20 percent) and Hispanic (18 percent)
inmates than black (8 percent) inmates. A higher
percentage of Hispanic inmates (23 percent) than
white (10 percent) and black inmates (9 percent)
indicated heroin.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of white (47 percent)
than Hispanic (36 percent) inmates had served
three or more prior sentences; 41 percent of black
inmates had served three or more prior sentences.

Drug Histories
The drug histories reported by state inmates in
1997 across the racial and ethnic groups were
quite similar, with the following exceptions:

ï¿½    In the month before arrest, a higher
percentage of black state inmates (20 percent)
than white (10 percent) and Hispanic (9 percent)
inmates used crack cocaine.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of Hispanic inmates (16
percent) than black inmates (7 percent) used
heroin; 9 percent of white inmates used heroin
during this period.
ï¿½    White inmates (27 percent) were more likely
than Hispanic (14 percent) and black (6 percent)
inmates to have used a drug other than marijuana,
cocaine, or heroin during the month before their
arrest.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of white inmates (42
percent) than black inmates (32 percent) were
under the influence of alcohol when they committed
their offense; 36 percent of Hispanic inmates were
under the influence of alcohol.

Treatment Participation
State inmates' reports of participation in
alcohol/drug programs differed across racial and
ethnic groups. A higher percentage of white
inmates (63 percent) than black (53 percent) and
Hispanic (48 percent) inmates reported that they
had participated in such programs.

Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Profiles of
White, Black, and Hispanic Inmates in State
Prisons
A comparison of table V.1 with table V.3, which
provides information on selected characteristics
from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of state prison
inmates, showed little change in state inmate
profiles based on race or ethnicity between 1991
and 1997. There were a few differences, however:

ï¿½    The percentages of white and black state
inmates under age 35 decreased from 1991 (62 and
71 percent, respectively) to 1997 (51 and 60
percent, respectively).
ï¿½    A higher percentage of black state inmates
had used marijuana in the month before their
arrest in 1997 (41 percent) than in 1991 (30
percent).

Table V.3:  Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Race, 1991
                              White            Black           Hispanic
                        Estimated Percent Estimated Percent Estimated Percent
                          number            number           number
Personal demographics                                                    
Sex                                                                      
Male                     238,012    94.4   306,329    94.5  113,113    95.3
Female                    14,026     5.6    17,836     5.5    5,521     4.7
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                  47,296    18.8    76,923    23.7   27,923    23.5
25-34                    108,839    43.2   153,577    47.4   55,830    47.1
35-44                     59,857    23.7    72,640    22.4   24,802    20.9
45+                       36,045    14.3    21,025     6.5   10,079     8.5
Marital status                                                              
Never married            104,821    41.6   216,330    66.7   60,395    50.9
Married                   46,512    18.5    47,336    14.6   29,825    25.1
Other                     97,551    38.7    56,569    17.5   27,735    23.4
Education                                                                   
Less than high school     75,408    29.9   148,543    45.8   65,669    55.4
GED                       78,262    31.1    67,647    20.9   24,027    20.3
High school graduate      52,948    21.0    64,108    19.8   16,628    14.0
More than high school     45,191    17.9    43,310    13.4   12,110    10.2
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                 183,015    72.6   202,958    62.6   80,221    67.6
Not employed              68,171    27.0   119,909    37.0   37,998    32.0
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father   140,935    55.9   102,804    31.7   54,463    45.9
Mother only               69,366    27.5   160,184    49.4   42,680    36.0
Father only               12,269     4.9     9,757     3.0    4,784     4.0
Grandparents              12,954     5.1    32,294    10.0    8,092     6.8
Other                     15,469     6.1    17,222     5.3    8,216     6.9
Either parent alcohol                                                       
or drug abuse
None                     158,675    63.0   257,248    79.4   91,633    77.2
Alcohol only              76,397    30.3    53,493    16.5   20,552    17.3
Drugs only                 1,812     0.7     2,346     0.7    1,533     1.3
Alcohol and drugs         13,359     5.3     7,952     2.5    3,795     3.2
Abused as a child                                                           
Physical only             26,712    10.6    14,540     4.5    5,648     4.8
Sexual only                9,849     3.9     5,105     1.6    1,890     1.6
Physical and sexual       19,149     7.6     6,849     2.1    2,824     2.4
None                     196,328    77.9   297,671    91.8  108,273    91.3
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                  121,972    48.4   151,926    46.9   45,437    38.3
Property                  75,015    29.8    70,621    21.8   24,182    20.4
Drug                      29,751    11.8    80,126    24.7   38,807    32.7
Other                     25,299    10.0    21,789     6.7   10,207     8.6
Criminal justice status                                                     
at time of arrest
None                     140,585    55.8   168,446    52.0   60,920    51.4
Probation                 56,501    22.4    74,734    23.1   27,932    23.5
Parole                    48,695    19.3    75,743    23.4   28,048    23.6
Escape                     4,370     1.7     2,418     0.7      663     0.6
Prior sentences                                                             
None                      52,520    20.8    60,486    18.7   28,601    24.1
1 to 2                    79,605    31.6   126,081    38.9   42,688    36.0
3 or more                119,912    47.6   137,597    42.4   47,344    39.9
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month                                                           
before arresta
Heroin                    17,013     6.8    22,993     7.1   22,116    18.6
Powder cocaine            44,882    17.8    66,187    20.4   30,551    25.8
Crack cocaine             16,218     6.4    44,535    13.7    9,461     8.0
Marijuana                 90,880    36.1    96,856    29.9   33,571    28.3
Other                     55,955    22.2    19,685     6.1   14,348    12.1
Under influence at time                                                     
of offensea
Heroin                    11,579     4.6    13,590     4.2   16,533    13.9
Powder cocaine            25,272    10.0    37,382    11.5   15,354    12.9
Crack cocaine              7,484     3.0    24,045     7.4    4,115     3.5
Marijuana                 33,740    13.4    34,993    10.8   11,049     9.3
Other                     36,005    14.3    12,482     3.9    7,159     6.0
Alcohol                   99,860    39.6    83,889    25.9   37,969    32.0
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                      151,902    60.3   161,861    49.9   63,281    53.3
No                       100,136    39.7   162,303    50.1   55,352    46.7
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated population of 252,038 white inmates,
324,165 black inmates, and 118,634 Hispanic
inmates in state prisons in 1991. Percentages may
not add to 100 because of missing data or
rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Table V.4:  State Inmates With Children, by Race,
1991
                                 White           Black          Hispanic
                            Estimate Percent Estimate Percent Estimate Percent
                            d number        d number        d number
Do you have children                                                     
Male                                                                        
Yes                          136,990   57.6  204,573   66.8  75,397    66.7
No                           101,022   42.4  101,756   33.2  37,716    33.3
Female                                                                      
Yes                           10,322   73.6   14,086   79.0   4,490    81.3
No                             3,703   26.4    3,749   21.0   1,031    18.7
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population of 238,012 white, 306,329
black, and 113,113 Hispanic male state inmates and
14,025 white, 17,835 black, and 5,521 Hispanic
female state inmates in 1991.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

     The 1997 federal prison inmate profiles
revealed a few differences in personal
demographics and family background based on race
or ethnicity. While federal inmates of all races
were most likely to report that their current
incarceration was for a drug crime, the likelihood
of committing drug crimes, as opposed to violent
or property crimes varied across racial groups.
Moreover, among drug offenders, the drugs likely
to be associated with the current offense differed
by race and ethnicity. For example, a higher
percentage of white drug offenders than other drug
offenders cited methamphetamines, black drug
offenders were more likely than other drug
offenders to report crack cocaine, and Hispanic
drug offenders  were more likely than other drug
offenders to report powder cocaine as the
associated drug. Moreover, greater percentages of
white and black federal inmates than Hispanic
inmates had serious criminal records. The drug
histories of federal inmates also varied by race
and ethnicity, with a greater percentage of black
inmates reporting that they had used marijuana in
the month before arrest, a greater percentage of
Hispanic inmates reporting that they had used
powder cocaine, and a greater percentage of white
inmates reporting that they had used other drugs.
In 1997, higher percentages of white and black
federal inmates than Hispanic inmates reported
that they had participated in alcohol/drug
programs.

     A comparison of the 1991 and 1997 federal
profiles showed few changes by race. However,
white and black inmates were more likely in 1997
than 1991 to have been under the influence of
alcohol at the time of their arrest. In addition,
a higher percentage of black drug offenders in
1997 than in 1991 said crack cocaine was the drug
involved in their current offense, and a higher
percentage of white inmates identified
methamphetamines as the drug involved.

Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by Race, 1997
     Table V.5 summarizes selected self-reported
personal demographic, family background, criminal
record, drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in federal
correctional facilities derived from BJS' 1997
federal prison inmate survey. The federal prison
population included 26,616 white, 33,697 black,
and 24,349 Hispanic inmates. All percentages
presented below for federal prison inmates for
1997 were calculated using those numbers as the
base; adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing responses to a particular question.

Table V.5:  Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Race, 1997
                              White             Black           Hispanic
                        Estimated  Percent Estimated  Percent Estimate Percent
                          number            number          d number
Personal demographics                                                     
Sex                                                                       
Male                      24,746     93.0   31,481     93.4   22,280   91.5
Female                     1,870      7.0    2,216      6.6    2,069    8.5
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                   1,099      4.1    4,216     12.5    1,981    8.1
25-34                      6,134     23.0   16,119     47.8    8,849   36.3
35-44                      9,111     34.2    8,537     25.3    8,309   34.1
45+                       10,272     38.6    4,825     14.3    5,210   21.4
Marital status                                                              
Never married              6,978     26.2   20,169     59.9    7,812   32.1
Married                    8,016     30.1    7,681     22.8   10,001   41.1
Other                     11,548     43.4    5,754     17.1    6,518   26.8
Education                                                                   
Less than high school      3,105     11.7   10,117     30.0    8,985   36.9
GED                        7,556     28.4    8,594     25.5    6,372   26.2
High school graduate       5,495     20.6    7,555     22.4    3,873   15.9
More than high school     10,188     38.3    7,169     21.3    4,682   19.2
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                  18,955     71.2   21,545     63.9   18,207   74.8
Not employed               6,946     26.1   11,235     33.3    5,169   21.2
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father    17,991     67.6   12,286     36.5   15,380   63.2
Mother only                6,173     23.2   15,381     45.6    5,325   21.9
Father only                  836      3.1      743      2.2      829    3.4
Grandparents                 645      2.4    4,031     12.0    1,553    6.4
Other                        560      2.1    1,014      3.0      988    4.1
Either parent alcohol                                                       
or drug abuse
None                      19,562     73.5   26,228     77.8   20,523   84.3
Alcohol only               5,281     19.8    5,274     15.7    3,047   12.5
Drugs only                   163      0.6      441      1.3       66    0.3
Alcohol and drugs            994      3.7    1,311      3.9      326    1.3
Abused as a childa                                                          
Physical only              1,861      7.0      937      2.8      535    2.2
Sexual only                  478      1.8      426      1.3      318    1.3
Physical and sexual          630      2.4      235      0.7      164    0.7
None                      23,137     86.9   31,810     94.4   23,010   94.5
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                    4,895     18.4    5,080     15.1    1,649    6.8
Property                   3,347     12.6    1,389      4.1      623    2.6
Drug                      13,026     48.9   22,350     66.3   17,876   73.4
Other                      4,839     18.2    4,359     12.9    3,956   16.2
Type of drug involved                                                       
in offenseb
Powder cocaine             3,833     29.5    8,990     40.3    9,153   51.3
Crack cocaine                769      5.9   12,165     54.5    1,298    7.3
Heroin                       618      4.8    1,650      7.4    2,639   14.8
Marijuana                  3,832     29.5    1,366      6.1    4,607   25.8
Methamphetamines           4,177     32.2       42      0.2    1,305    7.3
Other                        921      7.1      542      2.4      255    1.4
Criminal justice status                                                     
at time of arrest
None                      19,809     74.4   22,767     67.6   17,960   73.8
Probation                  2,534      9.5    5,617     16.7    3,290   13.5
Parole                     3,911     14.7    4,989     14.8    2,730   11.2
Escape                       121      0.5       18      0.1       93    0.4
Prior sentences                                                             
None                       9,950     37.4    9,294     27.6   12,468   51.2
1 to 2                     7,649     28.7   11,759     34.9    7,019   28.8
3 or more                  8,421     31.6   12,004     35.6    4,193   17.2
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month                                                           
before arrestc
Heroin                     1,916      7.2    1,186      3.5    1,532    6.3
Powder cocaine             4,027     15.1    4,520     13.4    5,510   22.6
Crack cocaine              1,417      5.3    3,178      9.4      786    3.2
Marijuana                  7,871     29.6   12,411     36.8    5,109   21.0
Other                      6,269     23.6      984      2.9    1,348    5.5
Under influence at time                                                     
of offensea, c
Heroin                     1,009      3.8      715      2.1      830    3.4
Powder cocaine             1,493      5.6    2,012      6.0    2,094    8.6
Crack cocaine                678      2.5    1,534      4.6      479    2.0
Marijuana                  2,519      9.5    4,999     14.8    1,520    6.2
Other                      3,948     14.8      687      2.0      383    1.6
Alcohol                    5,697     21.4    6,989     20.7    4,011   16.5
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                       13,975     52.5   16,119     47.8    8,764   36.0
No                        12,045     45.3   17,208     51.1   15,317   62.9
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 26,616 white inmates, 33,697 black inmates, and
24,349 Hispanic inmates in federal prisons in
1997.  Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
V.7) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 12,982 white inmates, 22,302
black inmates, and 17,833 Hispanic inmates who
reported being sentenced for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Table V.6:  Federal Inmates With Children, by
Race, 1997
                                 White           Black         Hispanic
                            Estimate Percent Estimat Percent Estimate Percent
                           d number             ed         d number
                                            number
Do you have children                                                     
Male                                                                        
Yes                          16,985    69.7 25,885    82.9   17,591    79.8
No                            7,383    30.3  5,325    17.1    4,460    20.2
Female                                                                      
Yes                           1,453    77.9  1,844    83.7    1,771    85.6
No                              412    22.1    360    16.3      298    14.4
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population of 24,368 white, 31,210
black, and 22,051 Hispanic male federal inmates
and 1,866 white, 2,205 black, and 2,069 Hispanic
female federal inmates in 1997.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Personal Demographics
Examination of BJS' 1997 federal prison inmate
survey data revealed few differences between
racial and ethnic groups in their general
demographic characteristics:

ï¿½    In federal prisons in 1997, minority inmates
were more likely than white inmates to be under
the age of 35. Sixty percent of black inmates were
under the age of 35, with nearly half (48 percent)
being between 25 and 34 years old; 44 percent of
Hispanic inmates were younger than 35, with about
one-third (36 percent) being between 25 and 34.
About one-quarter of white inmates (27 percent)
were younger than 35 years old. A higher
percentage of white (39 percent) than other
inmates (14 percent of black and 21 percent of
Hispanic inmates) were 45 years of age or older.
ï¿½    Concerning marital status, black federal
inmates (60 percent) were the most likely to
report never having been married, Hispanic inmates
(41 percent) were the most likely to indicate
being married currently, and white inmates (43
percent) were the most likely to report marital
statuses other than never married or married
(i.e., divorced, separated, or widowed).
ï¿½    A higher percentage of white federal inmates
had more education than did minority inmates.
Specifically, 38 percent of white inmates had more
education than a high school degree or GED,
compared with 21 percent of black and 19 percent
of Hispanic inmates. Greater percentages of
Hispanic (37 percent) and black (30 percent)
federal inmates had less than a high school degree
than did white inmates (12 percent).
ï¿½    A higher percentage of Hispanic inmates (75
percent) than black inmates (64 percent) were
employed in the month before their arrest; 71
percent of white inmates were employed.
ï¿½    Black (83 percent) and Hispanic (80 percent)
male federal inmates were more likely than white
male inmates (70 percent) to have children.

Family Background
While there were few racial differences in the
family background characteristics reported by
federal prison inmates in 1997, we found the
following:

ï¿½    In federal prisons, higher percentages of
white (68 percent) and Hispanic (63 percent)
inmates than black inmates (37 percent) reported
that they had lived with both parents when growing
up. Forty-six percent of black inmates (46
percent) lived with only their mother, compared
with white (23 percent) and Hispanic (22 percent)
inmates.
ï¿½    Hispanic inmates (84 percent) were more
likely than white inmates (74 percent) to report
no parental abuse of alcohol or drugs; 78 percent
of black inmates reported no parental abuse of
alcohol or drugs.

Criminal Records
There were differences in federal inmates'
criminal records, according to race or ethnicity.
The type of current offense reported varied across
racial groups in the following ways:

ï¿½    Higher percentages of Hispanic (73 percent)
and black (66 percent) inmates than white inmates
(49 percent) were drug offenders.
ï¿½    White (18 percent) and black (15 percent)
inmates were more likely than Hispanic inmates (7
percent) to be violent offenders.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of white inmates (13
percent) than black (4 percent) and Hispanic (3
percent) inmates were property offenders.

There were racial and ethnic differences in the
types of drugs federal drug offenders said were
associated with their current offense:

ï¿½    Drug offenders who were members of minority
groups were more likely than white drug offenders
to cite powder cocaine as the drug involved in
their current offense. Fifty-one percent of
Hispanic inmates, 40 percent of black inmates, and
30 percent of white inmates cited powder cocaine.
ï¿½    Fifty-four percent of black drug offenders
compared with 7 percent of Hispanic and 6 percent
of white drug offenders indicated crack cocaine as
the drug involved in their current offense.
ï¿½    White drug offenders (32 percent) were more
likely than Hispanic (7 percent) or black (0.2
percent) drug offenders to identify
methamphetamines as the associated drug.
ï¿½    Marijuana was involved in the current offense
for a higher percentage of white (30 percent) and
Hispanic (26 percent) drug offenders than black
drug offenders (6 percent).

There were some racial and ethnic differences
among federal inmates in their reported previous
experience with the criminal justice system:

ï¿½    Hispanic inmates (51 percent) were more
likely than white inmates (37 percent) and white
inmates more likely than black inmates (28
percent) to have served no prior sentences.
ï¿½    Black (36 percent) and white (32 percent)
inmates were about twice as likely as Hispanic
inmates (17 percent) to have served three or more
prior sentences.

Drug Histories
The drug histories reported by federal inmates
also differed across racial groups:

ï¿½    Higher percentages of black (37 percent) and
white (30 percent) inmates than Hispanic inmates
(21 percent) had used marijuana in the month prior
to the arrest for their current offense.
ï¿½    Hispanic inmates (23 percent) were more
likely than white (15 percent) or black (13
percent) inmates to have used powder cocaine in
the month prior to their arrest.
ï¿½    Twenty-four percent of white inmates compared
with 6 percent of Hispanic and 3 percent of black
inmates used a drug other than marijuana, cocaine,
or heroin in the month before their arrest.

Treatment Participation
In 1997, the percentage of federal prison inmates
who reported they had participated in alcohol/drug
programs differed by race and ethnicity, with
greater percentages of white and black inmates
than Hispanic inmates having participated in such
treatment. White (52 percent) and black (48
percent) federal inmates were more likely than
Hispanic inmates (36 percent) to report having
participated in alcohol/drug programs.

Few Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Profiles
of Federal White, Black, and Hispanic Inmates
A comparison of table V.5 with table V.7, which
provides information on selected characteristics
from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of federal prison
inmates, generally, showed little overall change
in federal inmate profiles by race and ethnicity
between 1991 and 1997. However, some changes did
occur:

ï¿½    Higher percentages of black and Hispanic
inmates in 1997 (60 and 32 percent, respectively)
than in 1991 (50 and 23 percent, respectively)
were never married.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of black inmates in 1997
(66 percent) than in 1991 (55 percent) was in
prison for a drug crime.
ï¿½    Black inmates were nearly twice as likely to
cite crack cocaine in 1997 (54 percent) than in
1991 (29 percent) as the drug involved, and the
percentage of white inmates who indicated
methamphetamines nearly doubled also between 1997
(32 percent) and 1991 (17 percent).
ï¿½    Lower percentages of Hispanic and black
federal inmates in 1997 (51 and 28 percent,
respectively) than in 1991 (65 and 40 percent,
respectively) had served no prior sentences. A
higher percentage of black inmates in 1997 (36
percent) than in 1991 (26 percent) had served
three or more prior sentences.
ï¿½    A greater percentage of Hispanic federal
inmates had used powder cocaine in the month
before their arrest in 1997 (23 percent) than in
1991 (13 percent). A higher percentage of white
inmates in 1997 (21 percent) than in 1991 (12
percent) had used a drug other than marijuana,
cocaine, or heroin.
ï¿½    White and black federal inmates were more
likely in 1997 (21 and 21 percent, respectively)
than in 1991 (12 and 10 percent, respectively) to
report being under the influence of alcohol at the
time of arrest.

Table V.7:  Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Race, 1991
                              White             Black          Hispanic
                       Estimated  Percent Estimate Percent Estimate Percent
                          number          d number         d number
Personal demographics                                                    
Sex                                                                      
Male                      19,506     94.1   14,514    89.9   13,856    91.8
Female                     1,226      5.9    1,629    10.1    1,245     8.2
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                     950      4.6    2,475    15.3    1,330     8.8
25-34                      6,205     29.9    6,717    41.6    5,667    37.5
35-44                      7,221     34.8    4,805    29.8    5,149    34.1
45+                        6,356     30.7    2,147    13.3    2,955    19.6
Marital status                                                              
Never married              4,899     23.6    8,150    50.5    3,445    22.8
Married                    7,549     36.4    4,520    28.0    7,556    50.0
Other                      7,979     38.5    3,199    19.8    4,010    26.6
Education                                                                   
Less than high school      3,024     14.6    4,562    28.3    4,718    31.2
GED                        4,653     22.4    3,534    21.9    3,592    23.8
High school graduate       4,724     22.8    3,639    22.5    3,097    20.5
More than high school      8,259     39.8    4,369    27.1    3,642    24.1
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                  15,368     74.1   10,921    67.7   12,033    79.7
Not employed               5,241     25.3    5,107    31.6    3,012    19.9
Family background                                                           
Person lived with                                                           
while growing up
Both mother and father    14,202     68.5    6,520    40.4    9,375    62.1
Mother only                4,281     20.6    6,777    42.0    3,717    24.6
Father only                  765      3.7      491     3.0      483     3.2
Grandparents                 572      2.8    1,398     8.7      827     5.5
Other                        755      3.6      740     4.6      626     4.1
Either parent alcohol                                                       
or drug abuse
None                      16,334     78.8   13,358    82.7   13,650    90.4
Alcohol only               3,815     18.4    2,358    14.6    1,228     8.1
Drugs only                    47      0.2       60     0.4       51     0.3
Alcohol and drugs            345      1.7      149     0.9       47     0.3
Abused as a child                                                           
Physical only              1,125      5.4      392     2.4      314     2.1
Sexual only                  296      1.4      144     0.9       88     0.6
Physical and sexual          396      1.9      196     1.2       77     0.5
None                      18,915     91.2   15,412    95.5   14,621    96.8
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                    3,878     18.7    3,585    22.2      905     6.0
Property                   2,713     13.1    1,419     8.8      297     2.0
Drug                       9,548     46.1    8,817    54.6   12,084    80.0
Other                      4,593     22.2    2,322    14.4    1,815    12.0
Type of drug involved                                                       
in offensea
Powder cocaine             4,354     45.6    4,500    51.1    7,477    62.0
Crack cocaine                 87      0.9    2,570    29.2      290     2.4
Heroin                       451      4.7    1,305    14.8    1,437    11.9
Marijuana                  2,712     28.4      477     5.4    2,731    22.7
Methamphetamines           1,652     17.3       30     0.3      203     1.7
Other                        502      5.3      396     4.5       48     0.4
Criminal justice                                                            
status at time of
arrest
None                      15,538     74.9   11,259    69.7   12,363    81.9
Probation                  2,281     11.0    2,362    14.6    1,428     9.5
Parole                     2,519     12.1    2,375    14.7    1,182     7.8
Escape                       344      1.7       83     0.5       56     0.4
Prior sentences                                                             
None                       8,996     43.4    6,376    39.5    9,756    64.6
1 to 2                     6,664     32.1    5,631    34.9    3,731    24.7
3 or more                  5,072     24.5    4,136    25.6    1,614    10.7
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month                                                           
before arrestb
Heroin                       869      4.2      950     5.9      780     5.2
Powder cocaine             2,925     14.1    2,279    14.1    1,974    13.1
Crack cocaine                586      2.8    1,139     7.1      216     1.4
Marijuana                  4,395     21.2    3,629    22.5    1,876    12.4
Other                      2,348     11.3      608     3.8      399     2.6
Under influence at                                                          
time of offenseb
Heroin                       634      3.1      693     4.3      550     3.6
Powder cocaine             1,481      7.1    1,077     6.7      931     6.2
Crack cocaine                238      1.1      636     3.9       99     0.7
Marijuana                  1,268      6.1    1,157     7.2      665     4.4
Other                      1,426      6.9      294     1.8      163     1.1
Alcohol                    2,410     11.6    1,600     9.9    1,274     8.4
Treatment                                                                   
participation
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                       10,778     52.0    6,602    40.9    5,730    37.9
No                         9,954     48.0    9,541    59.1    9,371    62.1
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 20,732 White inmates, 16,143 Black inmates, and
15,101 Hispanic inmates in federal prisons in
1991.  Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 9,538 white inmates, 8,804
black inmates, and 12,056 Hispanic inmates who
reported being sentenced for drug offenses.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Table V.8:  Federal Inmates With Children, by
Race, 1991
                            White             Black            Hispanic
                      Estimated Percent Estimated  Percent Estimated Percent
                         number           number             number
Do you have children                                                     
Male                                                                        
Yes                      13,613    69.8   11,307     77.9    11,227    81.0
No                        5,893    30.2    3,206     22.1     2,629    19.0
Female                                                                      
Yes                         929    75.7     1316     80.7     1,040    83.5
No                          297    24.3      314     19.3       205    16.5
Note: These percentages were based on the
estimated population total of 19,506 white, 14,513
black, and 13,856 Hispanic male federal inmates
and 1,226 white, 1,630 black, and 1,245 Hispanic
female federal inmates in 1991.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Differences Between State and Federal Prison
Inmate Profiles
We identified several differences between state
and federal inmate populations in 1997 that were
related to race:

ï¿½    White and Hispanic state inmates tended to be
younger than white and Hispanic federal inmates.
Higher percentages of white and Hispanic state
inmates were under age 35 (51 and 65 percent,
respectively), while higher percentages of white
and Hispanic federal inmates were age 35 or older
(73 and 56 percent, respectively).
ï¿½    Higher percentages of white (68 percent) and
Hispanic (63 percent) inmates in federal prisons
than in state prisons (56 percent of white and 50
percent of Hispanic inmates) lived with both
parents when growing up. A higher percentage of
Hispanic state inmates (33 percent) than Hispanic
federal inmates (22 percent) lived with their
mother only.
ï¿½    Higher percentages of white (74 percent) and
Hispanic (84 percent) inmates in federal prisons
than in state prisons (60 percent of whites and 73
percent of Hispanics) said that neither parent had
abused alcohol or drugs. However, a higher
percentage of white state inmates (30 percent)
than white federal inmates (20 percent) said that
a parent had abused alcohol only.
ï¿½    A lower percentage of white state inmates (75
percent) than white federal inmates (87 percent)
said that they had not been physically and/or
sexually abused as a child.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of white state inmates
(23 percent) than white federal inmates (10
percent) said that they had been on probation at
the time of their arrest. Higher percentages of
state black (27 percent) and Hispanic inmates (26
percent) than federal black (15 percent) and
Hispanic inmates (11 percent) were on parole at
the time of their arrest.
ï¿½    Among drug offenders, higher percentages of
federal black inmates (40 percent) and Hispanic
inmates (51 percent) than state black inmates (30
percent) and Hispanic inmates (43 percent) cited
powder cocaine as the drug involved in the crime.
Higher percentages of federal white inmates (30
percent) and Hispanic inmates (26 percent) than
state white inmates (20 percent) and Hispanic
inmates (18 percent) indicated marijuana.
ï¿½    Higher percentages of state white inmates (46
percent) and Hispanic inmates (36 percent) than
federal white inmates (32 percent) and Hispanic
inmates (17 percent) had served 3 or more prior
sentences.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of black state inmates
(20 percent) than black federal inmates (9
percent) had used crack cocaine in the month
before their arrest, and a higher percentage of
Hispanic state inmates (34 percent) than Hispanic
federal inmates (21 percent) had used marijuana.
ï¿½    Higher percentages of state white (63
percent) and Hispanic inmates (48 percent) than
federal white (52 percent) and Hispanic inmates
(36 percent) had participated in alcohol/drug
programs.

Appendix VI
Profiles of State and Federal Prison Inmates by
Gender
Page 80GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
     This appendix presents profiles of state and
federal inmates by gender, including their self-
reported personal demographics, family background,
criminal record, drug history, and treatment
participation.1 While few differences were found
between male and female inmates in state and
federal prisons in 1991 and 1997, some differences
were striking. In 1997, 36 percent of female state
inmates and 23 percent of female federal inmates
reported being physically and/or sexually abused
as children, compared with 14 and 6 percent of
male state and federal inmates, respectively. In
both state and federal prisons, female inmates
were more likely than male inmates to report drug
crimes as their current offense; whereas, a higher
percentage of male state inmates reported that
their current offense was a violent crime.
Moreover, among state inmates, females were more
likely than males to report having used crack
cocaine in the month before arrest; however, males
were more likely to report using marijuana. Among
federal inmates, similar percentages of males and
females reported using all types of drugs except
marijuana in the month before arrest. Higher
percentages of males than females reported using
marijuana.

Profiles of Male and Female State Inmates
     The 1997 state inmate survey revealed some
differences between male and female inmates. In
state prisons, males were somewhat younger than
females. Although the majority of state inmates
reported no sexual or physical abuse as a child,
female inmates more frequently reported abuse than
male inmates. Male and female state prison inmates
also had different current offenses. A higher
percentage of male than female inmates were
currently incarcerated for violent crimes, while a
higher percentage of female than male inmates were
incarcerated for drug crimes. Male and female
inmates also reported different drug use patterns.
For example, while a higher percentage of male
than female inmates reported using marijuana in
the month before arrest, a higher percentage of
female inmates reported using crack cocaine or
heroin in the month their arrest. Comparing the
1997 and 1991 profiles, few changes were
identified. However, the percentage of female
state inmates who reported having experienced
physical and sexual abuse as a child decreased,
and the percentage of female inmates who used
crack cocaine in the month before arrest
increased.

Profile of Male and Female State Inmates, 1997
     Table VI.1 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information for inmates incarcerated in state
correctional facilities separately for males and
females, as reported in BJS' 1997 state prison
inmate survey. BJS reported a total population of
993,364 males and 66,242 females in state prisons
in 1997. All percentages presented below for male
and female state prison inmates in 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.

Table VI.1:  Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1997
                                            Male               Female
                                    Estimated    Percent Estimated  Percent
                                       number               number
Personal demographics                                                       
Race                                                                        
White                                 330,852       33.3    22,013     33.2
Black                                 461,088       46.4    31,588     47.7
Hispanic                              169,799       17.1    10,199     15.4
Other                                  31,626        3.2     2,443      3.7
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                              201,713       20.3     7,631     11.5
25-34                                 375,253       37.8    28,781     43.4
35-44                                 289,378       29.1    22,621     34.1
45+                                   127,021       12.8     7,210     10.9
Marital status                                                              
Never married                         572,976       57.7    31,117     47.0
Married                               164,289       16.5    11,428     17.3
Other                                 254,490       25.6    23,502     35.5
Education                                                                   
Less than high school                 388,476       39.1    27,328     41.3
GED                                   314,058       31.6    16,291     24.6
High school graduate                  153,503       15.5    11,041     16.7
More than high school                 130,101       13.1    11,036     16.7
Employment status in month before                                           
arrest
Employed                              671,999       67.6    32,994     49.8
Not employed                          296,951       29.9    32,052     48.4
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while growing up                                          
Both mother and father                435,818       43.9    27,234     41.1
Mother only                           382,702       38.5    25,572     38.6
Father only                            35,697        3.6     2,328      3.5
Grandparents                           80,557        8.1     6,663     10.1
Other                                  49,912        5.0     3,814      5.8
Either parent alcohol or drug abuse                                         
None                                  670,786       67.5    40,781     61.6
Alcohol only                          228,188       23.0    17,529     26.5
Drugs only                             17,322        1.7     1,490      2.2
Alcohol and drugs                      62,773        6.3     5,390      8.1
Abused as a childa                                                          
Physical only                          92,390        9.3     7,432     11.2
Sexual only                            24,022        2.4     7,413     11.2
Physical and sexual                    25,135        2.5     9,159     13.8
None                                  842,772       84.8    41,420     62.5
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                               475,794       47.9    18,554     28.0
Property                              212,689       21.4    17,488     26.4
Drug                                  193,630       19.5    22,624     34.2
Other                                  98,858       10.0     7,069     10.7
Type of drug involved in drug                                               
offenseb
Powder cocaine                         64,652       33.7     5,871     26.3
Crack cocaine                          74,780       38.9    11,044     49.5
Heroin                                 23,593       12.3     3,422     15.4
Marijuana                              25,713       13.4     1,432      6.4
Methamphetamines                       19,046        9.9     1,860      8.3
Other                                   4,567        2.4       778      3.5
Criminal justice status at time of                                          
arrest
None                                  520,670       52.4    30,403     45.9
Probation                             209,627       21.1    22,118     33.4
Parole                                243,122       24.5    11,885     17.9
Escape                                  6,821        0.7       538      0.8
Prior sentences                                                              
None                                  225,444       22.7    22,751     34.3
1 to 2                                320,714       32.3    21,133     31.9
3 or more                             426,187       42.9    20,656     31.2
Drug Histories                                                              
Drug use in month before arrestc                                            
Heroin                                 85,977        8.7    10,552     15.9
Powder cocaine                        154,136       15.5    13,723     20.7
Crack cocaine                         132,590       13.3    20,389     30.8
Marijuana                             392,449       39.5    17,349     26.2
Other                                 147,557       14.9    10,286     15.5
Under influence at time of                                                  
offensea, c
Heroin                                 51,221        5.2     6,797     10.3
Powder cocaine                         71,972        7.2     6,418      9.7
Crack cocaine                          75,331        7.6    12,388     18.7
Marijuana                             151,492       15.3     5,441      8.2
Other                                  83,115        8.4     5,692      8.6
Alcohol                               368,194       37.1    18,943     28.6
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in alcohol/drug                                           
program
Yes                                   551,780       55.5    39,689     59.9
No                                    430,817       43.4    25,647     38.7
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on an estimated total population
of 993,364 male inmates and 66,242 female inmates
in state prisons in 1997.  Percentages may not add
to 100 because of missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in 1991 (see table VI.2)
and 1997 inmate reports of physical and sexual
abuse and being under the influence of alcohol at
the time of arrest may have been due to changes in
question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 192,006 male inmates and
22,293 female inmates who reported being sentenced
for drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Personal Demographics
Examination of BJS' 1997 state prison inmate
survey data revealed a few differences between
male and female state prison inmates in their
general demographic characteristics:

ï¿½    A higher percentage of male (20 percent) than
female (11 percent) state inmates were under age
25.
ï¿½    While about 17 percent of both male and
female inmates were married, 58 percent of the
male inmates had never been married, compared with
47 percent of the female inmates. Likewise, a
higher percentage of female (36 percent) than male
(26 percent) inmates had some "other" marital
status (i.e., divorced, separated, widowed).
ï¿½    Two-thirds of state male inmates were
employed in the month before their arrest,
compared with half of female inmates.

Family Background
While male and female state inmates in 1997 had
similar family backgrounds, higher percentages of
females than males reported having been sexually
and/or physically abused as a child. About 25
percent of female state inmates reported some kind
of sexual abuse, compared with 5 percent of male
inmates.

Criminal Records
Male and female state inmates in 1997 reported
different crimes and criminal records:

ï¿½    Forty-eight percent of the male state inmates
were incarcerated for violent crimes, compared
with 28 percent of the female inmates. A larger
percentage of female than male inmates, however,
were incarcerated for drug crimes--34 percent of
females, compared with 20 percent of male inmates.
ï¿½    While about half of both male and female
state inmates had no criminal justice status at
the time of arrest, 33 percent of the female
inmates were on probation when arrested, compared
with 21 percent of the male inmates.
ï¿½    Male inmates were more likely to have served
prior sentences than female state inmates. While
23 percent of male state inmates had not served
prior sentences, 34 percent of female inmates had
served no prior sentences.
ï¿½    Among drug offenders, 50 percent of female
inmates, compared with 39 percent of male inmates,
were incarcerated for offenses involving crack
cocaine.

Drug Histories
Male and female state inmates also reported
different patterns of drug use:

ï¿½    Almost 40 percent of male state inmates
indicated that they had used marijuana during the
month before their arrest, compared with 26
percent of female inmates. A higher percentage of
female state inmates (31 percent) than males (13
percent) reported using crack cocaine in the month
before their arrest.
ï¿½    Female state inmates were more than twice as
likely as male state inmates to have been under
the influence of crack cocaine when they committed
their offense. Nineteen percent of female state
inmates reported being under the influence of
crack cocaine, compared with 8 percent of male
inmates.

Treatment Participation
     In 1997, male and female state inmates had
similar rates of participation in alcohol/drug
programs.

Few Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Male and
Female State Inmate Profiles
     A comparison of table VI.1 with table VI.2,
which provides information on selected
characteristics from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of
state prison inmates, shows that while the
differences between male and female state prison
inmates were similar in 1991 and 1997, there were
a few changes:

ï¿½    The percentage of female state inmates who
reported being both sexually and physically abused
as a child decreased from 24 percent in 1991 to 14
percent in 1997. The percentages for male state
inmates remained about the same, and as a result,
the difference between male and female inmates was
less in 1997 than in 1991.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of female state inmates
in 1997 (31 percent) than in 1991 (19 percent)
reported they had used crack cocaine in the month
before their arrest. Male inmates showed little
change. Moreover, the percentage of female inmates
who reported being under the influence of crack
cocaine at the time of committing the offense
increased from 10 percent in 1991 to 19 percent in
1997.

Table VI.2:  Profile of State Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1991
                                          Male                 Female
                                   Estimated    Percent Estimated   Percent
                                      number               number
Personal demographics                                                
Race                                                                 
White                                238,012       35.4    14,026      36.2
Black                                306,329       45.5    17,836      46.0
Hispanic                             113,113       16.8     5,521      14.2
Other                                 15,393        2.3     1,414       3.6
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                             149,534       22.2     6,346      16.4
25-34                                305,883       45.5    19,545      50.4
35-44                                151,766       22.6     9,885      25.5
45+                                   65,663        9.8     3,020       7.8
Marital status                                                              
Never married                        371,928       55.3    17,374      44.8
Married                              120,731       17.9     6,658      17.2
Other                                172,577       25.6    14,467      37.3
Education                                                                   
Less than high school                279,066       41.5    16,287      42.0
GED                                  166,994       24.8     7,985      20.6
High school graduate                 128,501       19.1     7,587      19.6
More than high school                 97,374       14.5     6,864      17.7
Employment status in month                                                  
before arrest
Employed                             458,780       68.2    17,946      46.3
Not employed                         211,558       31.4    20,722      53.4
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while growing                                             
up
Both mother and father               288,876       42.9    16,206      41.8
Mother only                          262,415       39.0    15,008      38.7
Father only                           26,504        3.9     1,295       3.3
Grandparents                          50,645        7.5     3,583       9.2
Other                                 41,138        6.1     2,538       6.5
Either parent alcohol or drug                                               
abuse
None                                 491,491       73.0    25,620      66.0
Alcohol only                         146,281       21.7    10,124      26.1
Drugs only                             5,111        0.8       618       1.6
Alcohol and drugs                     23,895        3.6     2,179       5.6
Abused as a child                                                           
Physical only                         45,048        6.7     3,455       8.9
Sexual only                           13,543        2.0     3,575       9.2
Physical and sexual                   21,391        3.2     9,278      23.9
None                                 592,865       88.1    22,488      58.0
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                              315,557       46.9    12,400      32.0
Property                             163,510       24.3    11,024      28.4
Drug                                 137,672       20.5    12,633      32.6
Other                                 56,107        8.3     2,739       7.1
Criminal justice status at time                                             
of arrest
None                                 358,220       53.2    20,614      53.1
Probation                            151,403       22.5    11,285      29.1
Parole                               150,161       22.3     6,254      16.1
Escape                                 7,587        1.1       269       0.7
Prior sentences                                                             
None                                 138,038       20.5    11,339      29.2
1 to 2                               238,822       35.5    14,291      36.8
3 or more                            299,986       44.6    13,166      33.9
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month before                                                    
arresta
Heroin                                57,211        8.5     5,719      14.7
Powder cocaine                       134,438       20.0    10,074      26.0
Crack cocaine                         63,706        9.5     7,348      18.9
Marijuana                            219,105       32.6     7,873      20.3
Other                                 88,249       13.1     5,594      14.4
Under influence at time of                                                  
offensea
Heroin                                37,877        5.6     4,360      11.2
Powder cocaine                        73,899       11.0     5,842      15.1
Crack cocaine                         31,984        4.8     4,052      10.4
Marijuana                             79,975       11.9     1,812       4.7
Other                                 55,299        8.2     3,037       7.8
Alcohol                              220,488       32.8     8,601      22.2
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                                  365,234       54.3    22,073      56.9
No                                   307,613       45.7    16,723      43.1
Note: All percentages above were based on an
estimated total population of 672,847 male inmates
and 38,796 female inmates in state prisons in
1991. Percentages may not add to 100 because of
missing data or rounding.
aMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Profiles of Federal Male and Female Prison Inmates
The 1997 federal survey showed some differences
between males and females. As with state inmates,
a higher percentage of female than male federal
inmates reported having experienced some sexual
abuse as a child. The offenses and criminal
records of male and female federal inmates were
also somewhat different. While both male and
female federal inmates were most frequently
incarcerated for drug offenses, the percentage of
females serving a sentence for a drug crime was
greater than the percentage was for males. Male
federal inmates were more likely than females to
have had a criminal justice status at the time of
arrest and to have served prior sentences. Male
federal inmates more frequently reported using
marijuana in the month before arrest than female
inmates. There were few significant changes in the
gender differences reported by federal inmates
from 1991 to 1997. However, while the percentage
of female and male drug offenders who said that
powder cocaine was associated with their drug
crime decreased from 1991 to 1997, the decrease
was greater for females than males.

Profile of Federal Prison Inmates, 1997
     Table VI.3 summarizes selected personal
demographic, family background, criminal record,
drug history, and treatment participation
information about inmates incarcerated in federal
correctional facilities, as reported in BJS' 1997
federal prison inmate survey. The federal prison
population was made up of 82,646 male inmates and
6,426 female inmates. All percentages presented
below for federal prison inmates for 1997 were
calculated using these numbers as the base;
adjustments were not made to compensate for
missing response rates to a particular question.

Table VI.3:  Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1997
                                  Male                     Female
                           Estimated     Percent     Estimated      Percent
                              number                    number
Personal demographics                                                       
Race                                                                        
White                         24,746        29.9         1,870         29.1
Black                         31,481        38.1         2,216         34.5
Hispanic                      22,280        27.0         2,069         32.2
Other                          4,139         5.0           272          4.2
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                       7,380         8.9           553          8.6
25-34                         30,361        36.7         2,273         35.4
35-44                         25,202        30.5         2,056         32.0
45+                           19,704        23.8         1,543         24.0
Marital status                                                              
Never married                 34,834        42.1         2,155         33.5
Married                       25,107        30.4         1,893         29.5
Other                         22,522        27.3         2,378         37.0
Education                                                                   
Less than high school         21,513        26.0         1,588         24.7
GED                           22,004        26.6         1,627         25.3
High school graduate          16,424        19.9         1,333         20.7
More than high school         21,699        26.3         1,845         28.7
Employment status in                                                        
month before arrest
Employed                      57,903        70.1         4,043         62.9
Not employed                  22,093        26.7         2,335         36.3
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father        44,447        53.8         3,508         54.6
Mother only                   26,183        31.7         1,861         29.0
Father only                    2,344         2.8           188          2.9
Grandparents                   6,103         7.4           609          9.5
Other                          2,650         3.2           213          3.3
Either parent alcohol                                                       
or drug abuse
None                          64,784        78.4         4,719         73.4
Alcohol only                  13,341        16.1         1,263         19.7
Drugs only                       647         0.8            88          1.4
Alcohol and drugs              2,486         3.0           281          4.4
Abused as a childa                                                          
Physical only                  3,293         4.0           544          8.5
Sexual only                      762         0.9           534          8.3
Physical and sexual              717         0.9           383          6.0
None                          76,834        93.0         4,885         76.0
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                       12,592        15.2           429          6.7
Property                       5,064         6.1           762         11.9
Drug                          50,486        61.1         4,583         71.3
Other                         13,140        15.9           573          8.9
Type of drug involved                                                       
in drug offenseb
Powder cocaine                20,868        41.4         1,711         37.3
Crack cocaine                 13,255        26.3         1,143         24.9
Heroin                         4,471         8.9           847         18.5
Marijuana                      9,435        18.7           763         16.6
Methamphetamines               5,279        10.5           589         12.9
Other                          1,740         3.5           147          3.2
Criminal justice status                                                     
at time of arrest
None                          58,800        71.1         5,441         84.7
Probation                     11,128        13.5           682         10.6
Parole                        11,703        14.2           249          3.9
Escape                           201         0.2            47          0.7
Prior sentences                                                             
None                          29,778        36.0         4,297         66.9
1 to 2                        26,069        31.5         1,317         20.5
3 or more                     24,870        30.1           740         11.5
Drug histories                                                              
Drug use in month                                                           
before arrestc
Heroin                         4,467         5.4           295          4.6
Powder cocaine                13,784        16.7           668         10.4
Crack cocaine                  5,105         6.2           502          7.8
Marijuana                     25,259        30.6         1,302         20.3
Other                          8,597        10.4           754         11.7
Under influence at time                                                     
of offensea, c
Heroin                         2,410         2.9           223          3.5
Powder cocaine                 5,498         6.7           208          3.2
Crack cocaine                  2,648         3.2           203          3.2
Marijuana                      8,957        10.8           425          6.6
Other                          5,045         6.1           426          6.6
Alcohol                       16,876        20.4           954         14.8
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                           38,191        46.2         2,563         39.9
No                            43,310        52.4         3,774         58.7
Note:  Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on a total estimated population
of 82,646 male inmates and 6,426 female inmates in
federal prisons in 1997.  Percentages may not add
to 100 because of missing data or rounding.
aSome of the differences in the 1991 (see table
VI.4) and 1997 inmate reports of physical and
sexual abuse and being under the influence of
alcohol at the time of arrest may have been due to
changes in question wording, order, and context.
bThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 50,350 male inmates and 4,583
female inmates who reported being sentenced for
drug offenses.
cMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.

Personal Demographics
The personal demographic characteristics of male
and female federal inmates in 1997 were quite
similar. The only difference was that 27 percent
of male federal inmates were unemployed in the
month before their arrest, compared with 36
percent of female inmates.

Family Background
Male and female federal inmates in 1997 had
similar family backgrounds. More female inmates,
however, reported that they had experienced
physical and/or sexual abuse as a child. Twenty-
three percent of female federal inmates reported
abuse, compared with 6 percent of males. About 14
percent of female federal inmates reported some
kind of sexual abuse, compared with about 2
percent of male inmates.

Criminal Records
Male and female federal inmates in 1997 reported
different offenses and criminal records:

ï¿½    While both male and female federal inmates
were most often incarcerated for drug offenses,
the rate was higher for females (71 percent) than
for males (61 percent).
ï¿½    About 85 percent of female federal inmates
had no criminal justice status at the time of the
arrest that resulted in their current
incarceration, compared with 71 percent of male
inmates. Male federal inmates (14 percent) were
more likely than female inmates (4 percent) to be
on parole at the time of their arrest.
ï¿½    Male federal inmates were more likely to have
prior sentences than females. Thirty-two percent
of female federal inmates reported having prior
sentences, compared with 62 percent of the male
inmates.
ï¿½    While both female and male federal drug
offenders were more often incarcerated for
offenses involving powder cocaine than any other
drug, more female offenders (18 percent) were
incarcerated for offenses involving heroin than
male offenders (9 percent).2

Drug Histories
     Male and female federal inmates in 1997
generally had similar drug histories. However, a
higher percentage of males (31 percent) than
females (20 percent) reported using marijuana in
the month before arrest.3

Treatment Participation
     Male and female inmates reported that they
had participated in alcohol/drug  programs at
about the same rates.

Few Changes in 1997, Compared With 1991 Federal
Prison Inmate Profiles, by Gender
     A comparison of table VI.3 with table VI.4,
which provides information on selected
characteristics from BJS' 1991 inmate survey of
federal prison inmates, showed that in general the
differences between male and female inmates were
similar in 1991 and 1997. A few changes, however,
stand out:

ï¿½    In 1997, as compared with 1991, the racial
distributions of male and female federal inmates
were more similar. In 1991, 39 percent of male
federal inmates were white, but 29 percent of
female federal inmates were white. In 1997, 30
percent of male federal inmates were white, as
were 29 percent of the female federal inmates. The
percentage of black male inmates increased from 29
percent in 1991 to 38 percent in 1997; however,
the percentage of black female inmates remained
about the same-39 percent in 1991 and 34 percent
in 1997.
ï¿½    Male federal inmates were less likely in 1991
than in 1997 to have reported a prior criminal
record. A lower percentage of male inmates in 1997
(36 percent) than in 1991 (47 percent) reported
that they had not served any prior sentences.
ï¿½    Female federal drug offenders who indicated
powder cocaine as the drug associated with their
current incarceration decreased from 61 percent in
1991 to 37 percent in 1997, compared with male
drug offenders whose reported usage decreased from
53 percent in 1991 to 41 percent in 1997.

Table VI.4:  Profile of Federal Prison Inmates by
Gender, 1991
                                      Male                   Female
                               Estimated     Percent    Estimated   Percent
                                  number                   number
Personal demographics                                                       
Race                                                                        
White                             19,506        39.2        1,226      29.0
Black                             14,514        29.2        1,629      38.6
Hispanic                          13,856        27.8        1,245      29.5
Other                              1,908         3.8          122       2.9
Age group                                                                   
Under 25                           4,535         9.1          477      11.3
25-34                             17,733        35.6        1,699      40.2
35-44                             16,448        33.0        1,322      31.3
45+                               11,069        22.2          725      17.2
Marital status                                                              
Never married                     16,028        32.2        1,355      32.1
Married                           19,019        38.2        1,207      28.6
Other                             14,082        28.3        1,628      38.6
Education                                                                   
Less than high school             11,681        23.5        1,156      27.4
GED                               11,504        23.1          832      19.7
High school graduate              10,889        21.9          962      22.8
More than high school             15,545        31.2        1,264      29.9
Employment status in month                                                  
before arrest
Employed                          37,221        74.8        2,660      63.0
Not employed                      12,281        24.7        1,552      36.8
Family background                                                           
Person lived with while                                                     
growing up
Both mother and father            29,005        58.3        2,213      52.4
Mother only                       13,949        28.0        1,289      30.5
Father only                        1,713         3.4          102       2.4
Grandparents                       2,653         5.3          379       9.0
Other                              2,022         4.1          224       5.3
Either parent alcohol or                                                    
drug abuse
None                              41,504        83.4        3,382      80.1
Alcohol only                       7,154        14.4          674      16.0
Drugs only                           130         0.3           29       0.7
Alcohol and drugs                    483         1.0          111       2.6
Abused as a child                                                           
Physical only                      1,684         3.4          253       6.0
Sexual only                          282         0.6          257       6.1
Physical and sexual                  336         0.7          384       9.1
None                              47,482        95.4        3,328      78.8
Criminal records                                                            
Offense type                                                                
Violent                            8,943        18.0          323       7.6
Property                           4,018         8.1          564      13.4
Drug                              28,341        56.9        2,762      65.4
Other                              8,482        17.0          574      13.6
Type of drug involved in                                                    
drug offensea
Powder cocaine                    14,899        52.7        1,680      60.9
Crack cocaine                      2,663         9.4          294      10.7
Heroin                             3,093        10.9          367      13.3
Marijuana                          5,712        20.2          281      10.2
Methamphetamines                   1,781         6.3          170       6.2
Other                                873         3.1           96       3.5
Criminal justice status at                                                  
time of arrest
None                              37,337        75.0        3,457      81.9
Probation                          5,769        11.6          515      12.2
Parole                             6,033        12.1          217       5.1
Escape                               455         0.9           28       0.7
Prior sentences                                                             
None                              23,356        46.9        2,865      67.9
1 to 2                            15,511        31.2          967      22.9
3 or more                         10,916        21.9          390       9.2
Drug Histories                                                              
Drug use in month before                                                    
arrestb
Heroin                             2,436         4.9          278       6.6
Powder cocaine                     6,840        13.7          510      12.1
Crack cocaine                      1,738         3.5          265       6.3
Marijuana                          9,742        19.6          487      11.5
Other                              3,239         6.5          305       7.2
Under influence at time of                                                  
offenseb
Heroin                             1,729         3.5          222       5.3
Powder cocaine                     3,277         6.6          286       6.8
Crack cocaine                        869         1.7          125       3.0
Marijuana                          3,071         6.2          126       3.0
Other                              1,822         3.7          179       4.2
Alcohol                            5,682        11.4          225       5.3
Treatment participation                                                     
Ever participated in                                                        
alcohol/drug program
Yes                               22,383        45.0        1,619      38.3
No                                27,401        55.0        2,603      61.7
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all percentages
above were based on a total estimated population
of 49,784 male inmates and 4,222 female inmates in
federal prisons in 1991.  Percentages may not add
to 100 because of missing data or rounding.
aThese percentages were based on the estimated
population total of 28,292 male inmates and 2,759
female inmates who reported being sentenced for
drug offenses.
bMore than one drug may have been indicated.
Source:  Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Differences Between State and Federal Prison
Inmate Profiles
     We identified several differences between
state and federal inmate profiles in 1997:

ï¿½    A higher percentage of female federal inmates
(63 percent) than female state inmates (50
percent) reported that they had been employed in
the month before their arrest. There was no
difference in the percentages of male federal and
state inmates who reported being employed at the
time of arrest.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of female federal inmates
(76 percent) than female state inmates (62
percent) had not been physically and/or sexually
abused as a child.
ï¿½    Female federal drug offenders were more
likely to be incarcerated for crimes involving
powder cocaine or marijuana (37 and 17 percent,
respectively) than female state drug offenders (26
and 6 percent, respectively).
ï¿½    Female state inmates were more likely to
report having used heroin (16 percent), powder
cocaine (21 percent), or crack cocaine (31
percent) in the month before arrest than female
federal inmates (5 percent used heroin, 10 percent
used powder cocaine, and 8 percent used crack
cocaine). There was no difference in the use of
these drugs for males. A higher percentage of male
state inmates (40 percent) than male federal
inmates (30 percent) had used marijuana. There was
no difference in the use of marijuana between
female state and federal inmates.
ï¿½    A higher percentage of female state inmates
(19 percent) than female federal inmates (3
percent) indicated that they were under the
influence of crack cocaine when they committed
their offense. There was no difference in whether
male state and federal inmates were under the
influence of crack cocaine.

_______________________________
1 For additional information on female prison
inmates, see also Women in Prison: Issues and
Challenges Confronting U.S. Correctional Systems
(GAO/GGD-00-22, Dec. 28, 1999).
2 More than one drug might be associated with a
single offense.
3 An inmate might have used more than one drug in
the month before arrest.

Appendix VII
GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments
Page 84GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
GAO Contacts
Richard M. Stana, (202) 512-8777
Daniel C. Harris,  (202) 512-8777

Acknowledgments
     In addition to those named above, Barbara A.
Stolz, Douglas M. Sloane, David P. Alexander,
Wendy Ahmed, George Quinn, James Fields, and
Michael H. Little made major contributions to this
report.

Glossary
Page 86GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
Inmate Profile Terms
This glossary includes definitions of terms used
in the inmate profiles presented in this report.
These definitions were taken from the 1991 and
1997 BJS surveys, which were the source of the
data presented in our report.

Violent offenses
Violent offenses include murder, negligent
manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, other sexual
assault, robbery, assault, and other violent
offenses  (e.g., extortion, hit-and-run driving,
and criminal endangerment).

Property offenses
     Property offenses include burglary,
larceny/theft, motor vehicle theft, arson, fraud,
stolen property, and other property (e.g.,
destruction of property, trespassing, and
possession of burglary tools).

Drug offenses
     Drug offenses include possession,
trafficking, and other/unspecified (e.g., forged
prescriptions, possession of drug paraphernalia,
and unspecified drug violations).

Other offenses
     Other offenses include the Bureau of Justice
Statistics' categories of public-order offenses
(i.e., weapons and other public order offenses,
such as driving while intoxicated, escape from
custody, regulatory violations, and commercialized
vice) and other offenses, which are not
enumerated.

Current offense
     Current offense is the most serious offense
for which the inmate was serving a sentence.

Prior offenses
     Prior offenses are offenses for which an
inmate was sentenced before the current offense.

Drugs
     The categories of drugs used without
prescription include:

         Marijuana:              Marijuana and
hashish

         Heroin/opiates:      Heroin, opiates, and
methadone

         Barbiturates:          Barbiturates and
Quaaludes or downers

         Stimulants:             Amphetamines and
methamphetamines

         Hallucinogens:        LSD, PCP, and other
hallucinogens

Race and Hispanic origin
     White, black, and other categories presented
for race include only inmates describing
themselves as non-Hispanic.  Inmates with Asian,
Native American, or Pacific Islander heritage were
categorized as other.  Hispanic inmates include
persons of all races who reported having a
Hispanic background.  Where statistics for
Hispanic inmates are reported with statistics for
white or black inmates, the categories do not
overlap.

Abuse
     Abuse (sexual or physical), in the BJS survey
questions, relied on the respondents definition,
within the context of their own lives, to recall
their pasts, and to report what they remembered.

Bibliography
Page 88GAO/GGD-00-117 State and Federal Inmate Pro
files
Beck, Allen J., and Christopher J. Mumola.
Prisoners in 1998, Bureau of Justice Statistics
Bulletin, U.S. Department of Justice, Aug. 1999.

Beck, Allen J., et al. Survey of Prison Inmates,
1991, Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S.
Department of Justice, Mar. 1993.

Bonczar, Thomas P., and Allen J. Beck. Lifetime
Likelihood of Going to State and Federal Prison,
Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, U.S.
Department of Justice, Mar. 1997.

Correctional Populations in the United States,
1996, Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S.
Department of Justice, Apr. 1999.

Ditton, Paula M. Mental Health and Treatment of
Inmates and Probationers, Bureau of Justice
Statistics Special Report, U.S. Department of
Justice, July 1999.

Gilliard, Darrell K., and Allen J. Beck. Prison
and Jail Inmates at Midyear  1997, Bureau of
Justice Statistics Bulletin, U.S. Department of
Justice, Jan. 1998.

Gilliard, Darrell K., and Allen J. Beck. Prisoners
in 1997, Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin,
U.S. Department of Justice, Aug. 1998.

Harlow, Caroline Wolf. Comparing Federal and State
Prison Inmates, 1991, Bureau of Justice
Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice, Sept.
1994.

Harlow, Caroline Wolf. Prior Abuse Reported by
Inmates and Probationers, Bureau of Justice
Statistics Selected Findings, U.S. Department of
Justice, Apr. 1999.

Mumola, Christopher J., and Allen J. Beck.
Prisoners in 1996, Bureau of Justice Statistics
Bulletin, U.S. Department of Justice, June 1997.

     Mumola, Christopher J. Substance Abuse and
Treatment, State and Federal Prisoners, 1997,
Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, U.S.
Department of Justice, Jan. 1999.

     Sabol, William J.  and John McGready. Time
Served in Prison by Federal Offenders, 1986-1987,
Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, U.S.
Department of Justice, June 1999.

Snell, Tracy L. Women in Prison: Survey of State
Prison Inmates, 1991, Bureau of Justice Statistics
Special Report, U.S. Department of Justice, Mar.
1994.

These reports can be found on the BJS Internet
site (URL: http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs).

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