Federal Electricity Subsidies: Information on Research Funding,  
Tax Expenditures, and Other Activities That Support Electricity  
Production (26-OCT-07, GAO-08-102).				 
                                                                 
Electricity is vital to our daily lives, powering homes,	 
businesses, and industries. Presently, electricity is generated  
largely by coal and other fossil fuels and nuclear power, with	 
hydropower, and, to a lesser extent, renewable energy sources,	 
such as wind. Because of electricity's importance to producers,  
consumers, and businesses, the federal government has undertaken 
a wide range of programs to develop the electricity sector, which
includes fuel suppliers, electric utilities, and others in the	 
electricity industry. These programs have sought to, among other 
things, develop the nation's electrical infrastructure, influence
the types of fuels used to produce electricity, increase the use 
of renewable energy, and limit the harmful effects of electricity
production. These programs are financed through federal 	 
subsidies, broadly defined as payments made or benefits provided 
by the federal government to encourage certain desired activities
or behaviors. For example, the federal government has, for many  
years, funded research and development (R&D) on fossil fuels,	 
nuclear energy, renewable energy, other energy technologies, and 
related efforts through the Department of Energy (DOE). In	 
addition, the federal government has provided favorable tax	 
treatment, such as tax credits to companies that make certain	 
types of energy investments. These tax preferences--which are	 
legally known as tax expenditures--result in forgone revenue for 
the federal government. The revenue losses can be viewed as	 
spending channeled through the tax system. As requested, we are  
providing information on (1) federal funding DOE receives for	 
electricity-related R&D, including funding by type of fuel; (2)  
tax expenditures the federal government provides to subsidize	 
electricity production, including expenditures by type of fuel;  
and (3) other ways the federal government subsidizes electricity.
As discussed with congressional offices, we examined federal	 
electricity-related subsidies over a 6-year period, from fiscal  
year 2002 through fiscal year 2007.				 
-------------------------Indexing Terms------------------------- 
REPORTNUM:   GAO-08-102 					        
    ACCNO:   A77708						        
  TITLE:     Federal Electricity Subsidies: Information on Research   
Funding, Tax Expenditures, and Other Activities That Support	 
Electricity Production						 
     DATE:   10/26/2007 
  SUBJECT:   Alternative fuels					 
	     Electricity demand 				 
	     Electricity restructuring				 
	     Energy development 				 
	     Energy management					 
	     Energy research					 
	     Federal agencies					 
	     Federal funds					 
	     Fossil fuels					 
	     Fuel research					 
	     Nuclear energy					 
	     Program management 				 
	     Renewable energy sources				 
	     Research and development				 
	     Research program management			 
	     Research programs					 
	     Subsidies						 
	     Program costs					 

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GAO-08-102

   

     * [1]Results in Brief
     * [2]Scope and Methodology
     * [3]Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
     * [4]GAO Comments

          * [5]Order by Mail or Phone

Report to Congressional Requesters

United States Government Accountability Office

GAO

October 2007

FEDERAL ELECTRICITY SUBSIDIES

Information on Research Funding, Tax Expenditures, and Other Activities
That Support Electricity Production

GAO-08-102

Contents

Letter 1

Results in Brief 2
Scope and Methodology 5
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation 7
Appendix I Briefing to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public
Works 9
Appendix II Comments from the Department of Energy's Power Marketing
Liaison Office 59
GAO Comments 62

Abbreviations

BPA Bonneville Power Administration
CBO Congressional Budget Office
CREBs Clean Renewable Energy Bonds
CRS Congressional Research Service
DOE Department of Energy
EIA Energy Information Administration
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
OMB Office of Management and Budget
PMA power marketing administration
R&D research and development
RUS Rural Utilities Service
SEPA Southeastern Power Administration
SWPA Southwestern Power Administration
Treasury Department of the Treasury
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority
USDA Department of Agriculture
WAPA Western Area Power Administration

This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright
protection in the United States. The published product may be reproduced
and distributed in its entirety without further permission from GAO.
However, because this work may contain copyrighted images or other
material, permission from the copyright holder may be necessary if you
wish to reproduce this material separately.

United States Government Accountability Office
Washington, DC 20548

October 26, 2007

The Honorable Thomas Carper
Chairman
Subcommittee on Clean Air and Nuclear Safety
Committee on Environment and Public Works

The Honorable Lamar Alexander
Ranking Member
Subcommittee on Public Sector Solutions to Global Warming, Oversight,
and Children's Health Protection
Committee on Environment and Public Works
United States Senate

Electricity is vital to our daily lives, powering homes, businesses, and
industries. Presently, electricity is generated largely by coal and other
fossil fuels and nuclear power, with hydropower, and, to a lesser extent,
renewable energy sources, such as wind. Because of electricity's
importance to producers, consumers, and businesses, the federal government
has undertaken a wide range of programs to develop the electricity sector,
which includes fuel suppliers, electric utilities, and others in the
electricity industry. These programs have sought to, among other things,
develop the nation's electrical infrastructure, influence the types of
fuels used to produce electricity, increase the use of renewable energy,
and limit the harmful effects of electricity production. Electricity is
vital to our daily lives, powering homes, businesses, and industries.
Presently, electricity is generated largely by coal and other fossil fuels
and nuclear power, with hydropower, and, to a lesser extent, renewable
energy sources, such as wind. Because of electricity's importance to
producers, consumers, and businesses, the federal government has
undertaken a wide range of programs to develop the electricity sector,
which includes fuel suppliers, electric utilities, and others in the
electricity industry. These programs have sought to, among other things,
develop the nation's electrical infrastructure, influence the types of
fuels used to produce electricity, increase the use of renewable energy,
and limit the harmful effects of electricity production.

These programs are financed through federal subsidies, broadly defined as
payments made or benefits provided by the federal government to encourage
certain desired activities or behaviors. For example, the federal
government has, for many years, funded research and development (R&D) on
fossil fuels, nuclear energy, renewable energy, other energy technologies,
and related efforts through the Department of Energy (DOE). In addition,
the federal government has provided favorable tax treatment, such as tax
credits to companies that make certain types of energy investments. These
tax preferences--which are legally known as tax expenditures--result in
forgone revenue for the federal government. The revenue losses can be
viewed as spending channeled through the tax system. These programs are
financed through federal subsidies, broadly defined as payments made or
benefits provided by the federal government to encourage certain desired
activities or behaviors. For example, the federal government has, for many
years, funded research and development (R&D) on fossil fuels, nuclear
energy, renewable energy, other energy technologies, and related efforts
through the Department of Energy (DOE). In addition, the federal
government has provided favorable tax treatment, such as tax credits to
companies that make certain types of energy investments. These tax
preferences--which are legally known as tax expenditures--result in
forgone revenue for the federal government. The revenue losses can be
viewed as spending channeled through the tax system.

As requested, we are providing information on (1) federal funding DOE
receives for electricity-related R&D, including funding by type of fuel;
(2) tax expenditures the federal government provides to subsidize
electricity production, including expenditures by type of fuel; and (3)
other ways the federal government subsidizes electricity. As discussed
with your offices, we examined federal electricity-related subsidies over
a 6-year period, from fiscal year 2002 through fiscal year 2007.

On September 6, 2007, we provided your offices with a briefing on the
results of this review, including our scope and methodology. This report
transmits the briefing slides, which are reprinted as appendix I.1

Results in Brief

We estimate that DOE's appropriations for electricity-related R&D,
adjusted for inflation, totaled $11.5 billion from fiscal year 2002
through fiscal year 2007.2 These appropriations grew by 35 percent during
the 6-year period we examined, increasing from $1.6 billion in fiscal year
2002 to $2.2 billion in fiscal year 2007. Funding for DOE's
electricity-related R&D by fuel type (nuclear, fossil fuel, and
renewables) include the following programs:

           o Nuclear programs. Nuclear programs received the largest share of
           electricity-related R&D funding, with appropriations totaling $6.2
           billion from fiscal year 2002 through fiscal year 2007.
           Appropriations for nuclear programs grew by 59 percent, increasing
           from $775 million in fiscal year 2002 to $1.2 billion in fiscal
           year 2007. The greatest variation in funding within these programs
           occurred in the environmental cleanup program, which funds the
           cleanup of sites contaminated by nuclear research. Funding for
           this program increased from $168 million in fiscal year 2002 to
           $462 million in fiscal year 2005, before declining to $350 million
           in fiscal year 2007. Other nuclear energy programs include
           research on fusion energy and the Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative,
           which seeks to reduce nuclear fuel waste requiring geologic
           disposal.
			  
^1Many of the briefing slides presented in app. I consist of high-level
talking points and were not designed to represent a complete or exhaustive
review of the programs and issues discussed.

^2All dollar amounts for R&D funding and tax expenditures discussed in this
report are inflation adjusted to 2007 dollars. Of the $11.5 billion
amount, we could assign $10.7 billion to fuel types. The remaining
unassigned portion of R&D funding was related to efforts to improve the
transmission of electricity. In nominal dollars, we estimate that DOE's
appropriations for electricity-related R&D totaled $10.8 billion from
fiscal year 2002 through fiscal year 2007.

           o Fossil fuel programs. Fossil fuel programs were appropriated
           $3.1 billion in electricity-related R&D funding from fiscal year
           2002 through fiscal year 2007. Appropriations for these programs
           were relatively constant during the 6-year period we examined.
           Appropriations totaled $531 million in fiscal year 2002, peaked at
           $574 million in fiscal year 2004, and then returned to $531
           million in fiscal year 2007. Most of the funding variation within
           these programs was due to the Clean Coal Power Initiative, which
           is aimed at accelerating the deployment of advanced technologies
           to reduce air emissions and other pollutants from coal-burning
           power plants. Funding for the Clean Coal Power Initiative
           decreased from $210 million in fiscal year 2004 to $62 million in
           fiscal year 2005, before increasing to $75 million in fiscal year
           2007. Other significant fossil fuel energy programs include the
           fuels and power systems program, which provides research funding
           aimed at reducing coal-burning power plant carbon emissions, and
           the FutureGen program, which focuses on the technical capability
           of coproducing electricity and hydrogen with near-zero emissions.

           o Renewable programs. Renewable programs were appropriated $1.4
           billion in electricity-related R&D funding from fiscal year 2002
           through fiscal year 2007. During this period, appropriations for
           these programs grew by 23 percent, increasing from $248 million in
           fiscal year 2002 to $305 million in fiscal year 2007. Variations
           in funding were primarily attributable to funding for the Solar
           program, which makes up the largest share of renewable program
           funding. Here, funding more than doubled between fiscal year 2006
           and 2007, rising from $99 million to $203 million. Other renewable
           energy programs include wind, biomass, and geothermal programs.
           The hydrogen R&D program was not included in our analysis as
           hydrogen primarily is used as an alternative fuel for
           transportation.

           Based on our review of the Department of the Treasury (Treasury)
           estimates, the sum of revenue loss estimates associated with tax
           expenditures specifically related to electricity totaled $18.2
           billion from fiscal year 2002 to fiscal year 2007.^3 Over this
           period, revenue loss estimates associated with these tax
           expenditures increased by 88 percent, growing from $2.2 billion to
           $4.1 billion annually. Electricity-related tax expenditures by
           type of fuel include the following:

           o Fossil fuels. Fossil fuels received the largest share of
           electricity-related tax expenditures. We estimate that tax
           expenditures to support electricity production from fossil fuels
           totaled $13.7 billion from fiscal year 2002 through fiscal year
           2007. Revenue loss estimates associated with these tax
           expenditures grew by 43 percent during the 6-year period we
           reviewed, increasing from $1.9 billion in fiscal year 2002 to $2.7
           billion in fiscal year 2007. These revenue loss estimates stemmed
           from 12 different tax expenditures. The largest tax expenditure
           supporting electricity production from fossil fuels was the
           alternative fuel production credit, which Treasury estimated at
           $2.1 billion for fiscal year 2007.^4

^3Summing tax expenditure estimates provides a gauge of general magnitude
but does not take into account interactions between individual provisions.
Of the $18.2 billion amount, we could assign $16.5 billion to fuel types.
We could not assign one electricity-related tax expenditure, deferral of
gain from dispositions of transmission property, to a fuel type. This tax
expenditure totaled $1.7 billion during the period of our analysis. All
tax expenditure estimates are based on projections using prior year data;
whereas historical data are available for federal receipts and outlays,
the last available values for tax expenditures remain estimates.

^4The tax credit for alternative fuel is scheduled to expire at the end of
calendar year 2007. If this tax credit expires, the total tax expenditures
for fossil fuels used for electricity production would fall significantly.

           o Renewables. We estimate that tax expenditures to support
           electricity production from renewable sources totaled $2.8 billion
           from fiscal year 2002 through fiscal year 2007. Revenue loss
           estimates associated with these tax expenditures grew by 232
           percent during the 6-year period we reviewed, increasing from $238
           million in fiscal year 2002 to $790 million in fiscal year 2007.
           These revenue loss estimates stemmed from three tax
           expenditures--Clean Renewable Energy Bond tax credits, exclusion
           of interest on energy facility bonds, and the new technology tax
           credit for renewable electricity production and renewable energy
           investment. The new technology credit, which reduces the cost of
           electricity generation from wind, geothermal, and solar energy, is
           the largest tax expenditure directed at renewable electricity
           production. Revenue loss estimates for this tax credit totaled
           $690 million in fiscal year 2007.

           o Nuclear. We did not identify tax expenditures directed at
           nuclear power production during the 6-year period we examined. A
           key tax expenditure directed at nuclear power production, the
           advanced nuclear power facilities production tax credit, was
           enacted in the 2005 Energy Policy Act. However, this tax credit
           has not been used because no nuclear power plant has been built
           recently.

           As requested, we also identified a number of other potential
           federal government subsidies of electricity production. However,
           as discussed with your staff during our briefing, additional work
           would be required in order to determine the extent to which these
           activities are subsidies and to develop reasonable estimates.
           Among these:

           o The federal government provides low-cost financing to federal
           power entities. For example, the power marketing administrations
           (PMA)^5 other than the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA)
           finance capital expenditures through federally appropriated debt.
           While PMAs repay appropriated debt to Treasury with interest,
           financing subsidies may exist if Treasury's cost of funds is
           greater than the interest rates on PMA-appropriated debt. Critics
           also have noted the rates, terms, and conditions of PMA debt may
           be preferential when compared to market rates, terms, and
           conditions.

           o The Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Rural Utilities Service^6
           provides loans and loan guarantees to rural electric cooperatives
           at low rates. Authorized amounts of these electricity loans and
           loan guarantees totaled $21.9 billion from fiscal year 2002 to
           fiscal year 2006.

           o The federal government, through the Price-Anderson Act, limits
           nuclear plant operator liability for accidents. This may be
           considered a subsidy because it could reduce insurance coverage
           needs and related insurance costs for nuclear plant operators.
			  
			  Scope and Methodology
	
           To estimate the federal funding DOE has received for
           electricity-related R&D, we conducted detailed reviews of DOE's
           R&D budget documents and included prior year balances and
           transfers from other agencies in our analysis, as well as funding
           for nuclear fusion energy, considered basic research by some. We
           also used Energy Information Administration (EIA) data on the
           types, amounts, and percentage of fuels used to produce
           electricity to estimate DOE's electricity-related R&D spending by
           fuel type. We discussed our allocation methodology with EIA
           officials.

           To estimate the amount of tax expenditures the federal government
           provides to subsidize electricity production, we reviewed
           Treasury's tax expenditure data and identified specific
           electricity-related tax expenditures. We excluded broad tax
           expenditures available to most businesses. We used Treasury
           revenue loss estimates to determine the costs of these tax
           expenditures from fiscal year 2002 through fiscal year 2007. We
           also used EIA data on the types, amounts and percentage of fuels
           used to produce electricity to assign the electricity-related
           portion of these tax expenditure estimates by fuel type. We also
           reviewed our allocation methodology with EIA officials and staff
           in Treasury's Office of Tax Analysis.
			  
^5The PMAs are BPA, Southeastern Power Administration, Southwestern Power
Administration, and Western Area Power Administration.

^6The Rural Utilities Service, an agency of USDA, will be referred to in
this report as Rural Development.

           To identify other ways the federal government subsidizes
           electricity, we reviewed relevant reports and studies prepared by
           GAO and other federal agencies including the Congressional Budget
           Office, the Congressional Research Service, and EIA. We reviewed
           studies by trade associations and nongovernmental groups. We
           interviewed relevant federal agency staff and other experts at
           trade associations and non-governmental groups. We conducted
           limited reviews of activities at the PMAs, the Tennessee Valley
           Authority, and USDA. In addition, we identified measures to
           calculate net federal financing support for loan and loan
           guarantee programs.

           Several limitations apply to our review, including:

           o We did not analyze subsidies related to electricity end use or
           consumption, such as those designed to promote energy efficiency
           and conservation or to provide low-income energy assistance.

           o We did not gather data on possible electricity-related R&D
           funding by federal agencies other than DOE.

           o We did not audit or verify data provided by agencies. We
           determined that DOE budget data were sufficiently reliable to
           provide useful information about the agency's electricity-related
           R&D funding.

           o Although we present the tax expenditure estimates in aggregate
           and the sums are reliable as a gauge of general magnitude, they do
           not take into account interactions between individual provisions.
           We determined that Treasury's list of tax expenditures and revenue
           loss estimates were sufficiently reliable to provide perspective
           on electricity-related tax programs.

           o We did not attempt to determine the market value of
           electricity-related subsidies.

           We conducted this performance audit from April 2007 through
           September 2007 in accordance with generally accepted government
           auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and
           perform the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to
           provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based
           on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained
           provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based
           on our audit objectives.
			  
			  Agency Comments and Our Evaluation

           We provided a draft of this report to the Department of
           Agriculture, the Department of Energy, the Department of the
           Treasury, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and the Tennessee
           Valley Authority for review and comment. We received technical
           comments from the Department of Agriculture, the Department of
           Energy, the Department of the Treasury and the Nuclear Regulatory
           Commission, which we incorporated as appropriate. We received
           written comments from the Department of Energy's Power Marketing
           Liaison Office, which represents the Southeastern Power
           Administration, Southwestern Power Administration, and Western
           Area Power Administration. These comments generally address
           methodologies used in previous GAO reports and technical comments
           on the briefing slides. These comments and our evaluation are in
           appendix II.

           We will send copies of this report to the appropriate
           congressional committees; interested Members of Congress; the
           Secretaries of Agriculture, Energy, and the Treasury; the Chairman
           of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission; the Tennessee Valley
           Authority's board of directors; and other interested parties. We
           also will make copies available to others on request. In addition,
           the report will be available at no charge on the GAO Web site at
           http://www.gao.gov.

           Should you or your staffs have any questions on the matters
           discussed in this report, please contact Mark Gaffigan at (202)
           512-3841 or [email protected], or Jeanette Franzel at (202)
           512-9406 or [email protected]. Contact points for our Offices of
           Congressional Relations and Public Affairs can be found on the
           last page of this report.

           Key contributors to this report were Marcia Carlsen, Daniel Egan,
           Philip Farah, Brenna Guarneros, Carol Henn, Steve Lowrey, Jon
           Ludwigson, Tim Minelli, Mehrzad Nadji, Alison O'Neill, Glenn
           Slocum, MaryLynn Sergent, Anne Stevens, and Barbara Timmerman.

           Mark Gaffigan
			  Acting Director, Natural Resources and Environment

           Jeanette Franzel
			  Director, Financial Management and Assurance
			  
			  Appendix I: Briefing to the Senate Committee on Environment and
			  Public Works
			  
			  Appendix II: Comments from the Department of Energy's Power
			  Marketing Liaison Office

Note: GAO comments supplementing those in the report text appear at the
end of this appendix.

See comment 1.

See comment 1.

See comment 6.

See comment 5.

See comment 4.

See comment 3.

See comment 2.

GAO Comments

           The following are GAO's comments on the Department of Energy's
           Power Marketing Liaison Office letter dated October 16, 2007.
			  
                        1. We acknowledged PMA concerns during our previous
                        work cited in the Liaison Office comments. We stand
                        by the methodologies used when performing this
                        earlier work, and our responses to PMA concerns
                        regarding this earlier work are still valid.
                        2. The briefing slides included points for overall
                        discussion rather than detailed information about the
                        rates, terms, and conditions of PMA financing versus
                        investor-owned utility financing. As we note in Power
                        Marketing Administrations: Their Ratesetting
                        Practices Compared With Those of Nonfederal
                        Utilities, [12]GAO/AIMD-00-114 (Washington, D.C.:
                        Mar. 30, 2000), direct comparisons of financing costs
                        are somewhat difficult because the financing
                        structures of PMAs and investor-owned utilities
                        differ. We note that the PMAs' ability to defer
                        repayment of appropriated debt and repay highest
                        interest rate appropriated debt first offsets their
                        general inability to refinance appropriated debt. We
                        note this could be a disadvantage during times of
                        declining interest rates. Here, Treasury bears the
                        risk of increases in interest rates and PMAs, to some
                        degree, bear the risk of decreases in interest rates.
                        3. This sentence is taken from the Department of
                        Energy's Power Marketing Liaison Office letter
                        commenting on the GAO report, rather than the actual
                        GAO report. As noted, this portion of the briefing
                        included points for overall discussion rather than
                        detailed conclusions about the rates, terms, and
                        conditions of PMA financing. As noted in the
                        briefing, more work would be needed to do better
                        quantify the subsidy, if any.
                        4. As noted, this portion of the briefing included
                        points for overall discussion rather than detailed
                        conclusions about the rates, terms, and conditions of
                        PMA financing.
                        5. Comparing financing costs among federal, public,
                        and investor-owned utilities is difficult and the
                        briefing slide was meant for overall discussion
                        rather than specific conclusions about relative
                        financing costs. We indicate that we would need to do
                        additional work in this area to provide Congress with
                        more information on the relative financing costs of
                        these groups.
                        6. Any future work we do in this area would include
                        close coordination and input from the PMAs.
			  
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