    Intercollegiate Athletics: Recent Trends in Teams and
    Participants in National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports
    (12-JUL-07, GAO-07-535).

    Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes
    have changed in higher education, with female enrollment
    surpassing male enrollment, and female athletic participation
    showing gains as well. These changes have generated public
    interest in whether women participate in athletics at comparable
    levels to men and whether men's opportunities have decreased as a
    result of the increased opportunities for women. Under the
    Comptroller General's authority, GAO assessed the extent to which
    the numbers of men's and women's intercollegiate sports teams and
    participants at 4-year colleges have changed from the 1991-1992
    through 2004-2005 school years.
    -------------------------Indexing Terms-------------------------
    REPORTNUM:   GAO-07-535
        ACCNO:   A72550
      TITLE:     Intercollegiate Athletics: Recent Trends in Teams and
    Participants in National Collegiate Athletic Association Sports
         DATE:   07/12/2007
      SUBJECT:   College students
    	     Colleges and universities
    	     Comparative analysis
    	     Internal controls
    	     Sports
    	     Statistical data
    	     Women

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    GAO-07-535

         * [1]NCAA OpenGroup Athletic Data
         * [2]NCAA ClosedGroup Athletic Data
         * [3]SportbySport Analyses
         * [4]Department of Education Enrollment Data
         * [5]GAO Contact
         * [6]Staff Acknowledgments
         * [7]GAO's Mission
         * [8]Obtaining Copies of GAO Reports and Testimony

              * [9]Order by Mail or Phone

         * [10]To Report Fraud, Waste, and Abuse in Federal Programs
         * [11]Congressional Relations
         * [12]Public Affairs

    Report to Congressional Addressees

    United States Government Accountability Office

    GAO

    July 2007

    INTERCOLLEGIATEATHLETICS

    Recent Trends in Teams and Participants in National Collegiate Athletic
    Association Sports

    GAO-07-535

    Contents

    Letter 1

    Appendix I Briefing Slides 5
    Appendix II Scope and Methodology 26
    NCAA Open-Group Athletic Data 29
    NCAA Closed-Group Athletic Data 30
    Sport-by-Sport Analyses 31
    Department of Education Enrollment Data 33
    Appendix III Schools Included in the Open Group 35
    Appendix IV Schools Included in the Closed Group 50
    Appendix V Comments from the Department of Education 61
    Appendix VI GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments 63
    Related GAO Products 64

    Tables

    Table 1: Availability of Team and Participant Data from Various Sources 29
    Table 2: Sports Included in the NCAA Report and Analyzed for This Report
    33
    Table 3: Open-Group Schools (state abbreviation) 35
    Table 4: Closed-Group Schools (state abbreviation) 50

    Abbreviations

    A & M Agricultural and Mechanical
    A & T Agricultural and Technical
    CUNY (The) City University of New York
    EADA Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act
    Education Department of Education
    IPEDS Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
    NAIA National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics
    NCAA National Collegiate Athletic Association
    NCCAA National Christian College Athletic Association
    NCES National Center for Education Statistics
    NFHS National Federation of State High School Associations
    NJCAA National Junior College Athletic Association
    SUNY (The) State University of New York
    USCAA United States Collegiate Athletic Association

    This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright
    protection in the United States. It may be reproduced and distributed in
    its entirety without further permission from GAO. However, because this
    work may contain copyrighted images or other material, permission from the
    copyright holder may be necessary if you wish to reproduce this material
    separately.

    United States Government Accountability Office
    Washington, DC 20548

    July 12, 2007

    The Honorable Edward M. Kennedy
    Chairman
    The Honorable Michael B. Enzi
    Ranking Member

    Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions
    United States Senate

    The Honorable Joseph I. Lieberman
    Chairman
    Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
    United States Senate

    The Honorable George Miller
    Chairman
    The Honorable Howard P. "Buck" McKeon
    Ranking Member
    Committee on Education and Labor
    House of Representatives

    The Honorable Patty Murray
    United States Senate

    Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes at
    colleges and universities have changed significantly. In particular,
    women's undergraduate enrollment has increased more than twice as fast as
    men's since 1970, and, by 1978, female enrollment surpassed male
    enrollment for the first time. During this same time period, women's
    opportunities in college athletics have increased as well, both in terms
    of the number of female participants and the number of women's teams.
    Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes at
    colleges and universities have changed significantly. In particular,
    women's undergraduate enrollment has increased more than twice as fast as
    men's since 1970, and, by 1978, female enrollment surpassed male
    enrollment for the first time. During this same time period, women's
    opportunities in college athletics have increased as well, both in terms
    of the number of female participants and the number of women's teams.

    These changes have generated public interest in whether women participate
    in athletics at comparable levels to men and whether men's opportunities
    have decreased as a result of increased opportunities for women. To
    explore these issues, we addressed the following two questions under the
    Comptroller General's authority: These changes have generated public
    interest in whether women participate in athletics at comparable levels to
    men and whether men's opportunities have decreased as a result of
    increased opportunities for women. To explore these issues, we addressed
    the following two questions under the Comptroller General's authority:

               o To what extent have the numbers of men's and women's
               intercollegiate sports teams at 4-year schools changed in recent
               years?  o To what extent have the numbers of men's and women's
               intercollegiate sports teams at 4-year schools changed in recent
               years?
               o To what extent have the numbers of male and female participants
               in intercollegiate sports at 4-year schools changed in recent
               years?

    During the week of March 26-30, 2007, we briefed interested congressional
    staff on the results of our study, and this report formally conveys
    information provided during those briefings. In general, we found that
    women exhibited greater gains than men in athletic opportunities from the
    1991-1992 to 2004-2005 school years. More specifically, we found that:

               o The number of women's teams showed large increases over the
               period and surpassed the number of men's teams by the mid-to-late
               1990s. For example, the number of women's golf, lacrosse, and
               soccer teams more than doubled from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005. The
               overall number of men's teams showed more modest increases, with
               the number of wrestling teams actually decreasing over the period.

               o The numbers of both male and female participants steadily
               increased from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005. Female participants did
               show larger rates of increase, but men's participation levels were
               greater than women's, both in absolute terms and relative to their
               respective enrollments, throughout this time period. Female
               participation increased from 1991-1992 levels more than female
               enrollment, whereas male participation increased at rates similar
               to male enrollment. However, at the school level, overall athletic
               participation rates were significantly^1 greater for men in at
               least three out of four coed colleges and universities from
               1991-1992 to 2004-2005.

    To determine these changes in the numbers of teams and participants at
    4-year schools, we obtained athletic data from the National Collegiate
    Athletics Association (NCAA)^2--the largest athletic association in the
    U.S.--for two groups of colleges and universities:

               o Open Group--This group includes the entire NCAA membership,
               which increased from 847 schools in 1991-1992 to 1,045 schools in
               2004-2005. Data for this group were obtained from the NCAA's
               published reports on sports sponsorship and participation. Trends
               observed for this group may reflect both school-level decisions to
               add, drop, expand, or contract teams and changes in NCAA
               membership.
               o Closed Group--This group includes the 750 colleges and
               universities that were consistent members of the NCAA throughout
               the time period^3 and that consistently reported team and
               participant information in each year. Data for this group were
               customized by the NCAA for this report. Trends observed for this
               group reflect school-level decisions only.

    ^1 "Significantly" designates 5 percentage points or greater.

    ^2 We used NCAA data because they were the only viable option for
    analyzing annual athletic trends for teams and participants over an
    extended period.

    For our report, we examined all 27 NCAA sports that were consistently
    reported throughout the time period, and we reviewed full-time
    undergraduate enrollment data from the Department of Education for both
    groups of schools to understand the context for the athletic trends.^4 To
    determine the reliability of the athletic data, we interviewed NCAA
    officials, assessed the process by which the data were collected,
    performed internal consistency checks, examined year-to-year fluctuations,
    and compared equivalent items across the open and closed groups. To assess
    the reliability of enrollment data, we reviewed a data reliability study
    conducted by the department and performed internal quality control checks
    on the enrollment data. Through this process, we determined that both the
    athletic and enrollment data we used were reliable for the purposes of
    this report. For additional information on our study review, please see
    appendix II. For additional results of our analysis by sport, please see
    GAO-07-744SP.^5 We conducted our work from December 2005 to June 2007 in
    accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards.

    This study focused on recent team and participant trends in
    intercollegiate sports for both men and women.^6 We did not assess the
    extent to which these trends may be caused or affected by external
    factors--such as gender-equity concerns, budget fluctuations, changes in
    high school and college student populations, or the popularity of any one
    sport--because this was beyond the scope of our work. In addition,
    available data did not allow us to assess the causal relationship between
    athletic trends and these external factors.

    ^3These schools were not members of the National Association of
    Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA).

    ^4Schools in our study varied in the number of NCAA sports they sponsored.

    ^5GAO, Intercollegiate Athletics: Trends by Sport in National Collegiate
    Athletic Association Sports, [13]GAO-07-744SP (Washington, D.C.: June
    2007).

    ^6This report measures trends in teams and participants in intercollegiate
    athletics. In contrast, the Department of Education has separate standards
    it uses to determine whether institutions of higher education provide
    equal athletic opportunity for members of both sexes pursuant to Title IX
    of the Education Amendments of 1972 (20 U.S.C. SS1681-88). This report
    does not address--and is not intended to address--compliance with federal
    laws or regulations.

    We provided a draft of this report to officials of the U.S. Department of
    Education for review and comment, and also for technical review. In
    written comments on our draft report, Education did not explicitly agree
    or disagree with our findings, but did highlight our finding that men had
    greater overall participation levels than women throughout our study
    period, both in absolute terms and relative to their respective
    enrollments. Education also recommended that we include a footnote
    clarifying that the measures used in this report are distinct from the
    department's standards for assessing compliance with federal laws, and we
    included footnote 6 above. Education further explained that it measures
    whether equal athletic opportunities are provided to men and women based
    on the number of athletic participants, but not the number of teams
    sponsored. In particular, Education said that one of the measures the
    department uses to assess a school's compliance with federal laws is
    whether the percent of male and female athletes at the school is
    "substantially proportionate" to the percent of male and female students
    enrolled in the school. Education's written comments appear in appendix V.
    We also incorporated Education's technical comments, where appropriate.
    Because they are technical and not substantive in nature, they are not
    published in this report.

    We also provided a draft of this report to NCAA officials for technical
    review and incorporated their technical comments, where appropriate.

    We are sending copies of this report to relevant congressional committees
    and other interested parties and will make copies available to others upon
    request. In addition, this report will be available at no charge on GAO's
    Web site at [14]http://www.gao.gov . If you or your staff has any
    questions about this report, please contact me at (202) 512-7215 or
    [15]ScottG@gao.gov . Contact points for our Offices of Congressional
    Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report.
    Other major contributors to this report are listed in appendix VI.

    George A. Scott
    Director, Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues

    Appendix I: Briefing Slides

    Appendix II: Scope and Methodology

    To determine the recent trends in teams and participants in
    intercollegiate athletics, we analyzed athletic data from the National
    Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) and enrollment data from the
    department of Education (Education) for two groups of colleges and
    universities:

               o Open Group--This group includes the entire NCAA membership,
               which increased from 847 schools in the 1991-1992 school year to
               1,045 schools in the 2004-2005 school year. Observed trends for
               this group will reflect both school-level sports sponsorship
               decisions and changes in NCAA membership. The primary source of
               athletic data for this group was the NCAA's 1981-82 to 2004-05
               Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates Report, which is
               available from the NCAA Web site (
               [16]http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/media_and_events/ncaa_publications/research
               ). Data from this publication were modified for the purposes of
               this report via correspondence with NCAA officials, as discussed
               below. The source of aggregate enrollment data for this group was
               Education's Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS)
               Peer Analysis System, also available on the Internet (
               [17]http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas ). See appendix III for the list
               of schools that were included in the open group at any time during
               the study period.

               o Closed Group--This group includes the fixed group of 750
               colleges and universities that were consistent members of the NCAA
               throughout the time period, that were not members of the National
               Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) at any time during
               the time period,^1 and that reported team and participant
               information in each year of our time period. The NCAA analyzed its
               internal school-level data and provided us customized team and
               participant aggregate statistics for use in this report, as
               discussed hereafter. The source of enrollment data for this group
               was also Education's IPEDS Peer Analysis System. For the
               school-level comparison between athletic participation and
               enrollment, we provided the NCAA school-level enrollment data for
               its members from IPEDS, and the NCAA used these data in concert
               with its school-level athletic data to generate the results of
               this comparison. See appendix IV for the list of 750 schools that
               were included in the closed group.

    ^1The NAIA is the second-largest national intercollegiate association in
    the United States. We eliminated colleges and universities that were joint
    members of the NCAA and NAIA to reduce the possibility of schools not
    having reported complete information to the NCAA.

    Annual athletic data for the open group are available from the NCAA for
    the 1981-1982 through 2004-2005 school years, but data for the closed
    group are available only for the 1991-1992 through 2004-2005 school years.
    Thus, the focus of this report is on the 1991-1992 through 2004-2005
    period. For both groups, total participant counts reflect the sum of the
    number of individuals participating in each of the individual sports that
    were consistently reported throughout the time period. To the extent that
    some athletes participated on more than one team, the number of
    participants may be overstated.

    Enrollment data are available from Education from the 1991-1992 through
    1998-1999 and 2000-2001 through 2004-2005 school years; data for the
    1999-2000 school year for aggregate analysis have not been publicly
    released, and Education has no plans to release such data in the future.^2
    As a result, enrollment data for this school year were omitted from the
    aggregate comparisons between athletic participation and enrollment
    provided on slides 19 and 20 of appendix I. However, school-level data for
    school-level analysis are available for 1999-2000, so this year was
    included for schools reporting enrollment data for the school-level
    comparison provided on slide 21 of appendix I.

    We interviewed NCAA officials and performed internal quality control
    checks on both the athletic and enrollment data and determined that these
    data were reliable for the purposes of this report. We conducted our work
    from December 2005 to June 2007 in accordance with generally accepted
    government auditing standards.

    We did not assess the extent to which these trends may be caused or
    affected by external factors--such as gender-equity concerns, budget
    fluctuations, changes in high school and college student populations, or
    the popularity of any one sport--because this was beyond the scope of our
    work. However, in 2001 we presented reasons self-reported by school
    administrators for why teams were added and dropped.^3 Also, the
    introduction to the NCAA sports sponsorship and participation report
    presents several other potentially influential factors as well.

    ^2Officials from Education note that the agency did not complete
    reliability testing of data for the 1999-2000 school year because
    reporting rates were particularly low for this year. Please see the
    associated discussion in "Department of Education Enrollment Data" below.

    ^3For more information, see GAO, Intercollegiate Athletics: Four-Year
    Colleges' Experiences Adding and Discontinuing Teams, [18]GAO-01-297
    (Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2001).

    For this report, we examined the possibility of using data from the other
    national athletic associations--including the NAIA, the National Christian
    College Athletic Association (NCCAA), the National Junior College Athletic
    Association (NJCAA), and the United States Collegiate Athletic Association
    (USCAA)--as well as individual athletic conferences (e.g., Big Ten
    Conference), institutions of higher education, the National Federation of
    State High School Associations (NFHS), and state governing organizations
    for high schools. We found that nationally representative team and
    participant annual data are not systematically available at either the
    college or high school level for before the 2000-2001 school year.^4
    Education now collects and stores athletic team and participant data via
    the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act (EADA), but Education does not have
    these data for before the 2000-2001 school year. Furthermore, Education
    officials expressed some concerns about the reliability of EADA data.^5
    Thus, we determined that the NCAA data were the only viable option for
    analyzing annual athletic trends for teams and participants for both open
    and closed groups of colleges and universities over an extended period.

    ^4 The EADA generally requires institutions of higher education to
    annually collect and make publicly available team, participant, and other
    athletic data for the immediately preceding school year starting in
    October 1996 for the 1995-1996 school year. However, the EADA does not
    require institutions to retain those data for subsequent years.

    ^5 For example, the definition of "reporting year" has varied from school
    to school, with some schools reporting over an 8 month period, and other
    schools reporting over different 12 month periods. Education noted that
    the very first year of data collection (2000-2001) was particularly
    problematic because submissions varied dramatically from school to school
    and for other reasons.

    Table 1: Availability of Team and Participant Data from Various Sources

                                 Availability of information, by source
    Information                                  Athletic
    required         Schools    Conferences      associations       Education
    Number of men's  Media guides  Annual    NCAA: NAIA: 1991-1992  EADA data
    and women's                    reports   NCCAA:USCAA - present  for
    sports teams, by (data quality for all   NJCAA:      2000-2001
    school           may vary by   years     NFHS:       - present  2000-2001
                        year and by                         Not        - present
                        gender)                             available
                                                            2004-2005
                        EADA records                        - present
                                                            2004-2005
                                                            - present
                                                            Not
                                                            available
    Numbers of men   Media guides  Not       NCAA: NAIA: 1991-1992  EADA data
    and women        and squad     available NCCAA:USCAA - present  for
    participating in lists                   NJCAA:      2000-2001
    school sports,                           NFHS:       - present  2000-2001
    by school        (data quality                       Not        - present
                        may vary by                         available
                        year and by                         2004-2005
                        gender)                             - present
                                                            2004-2005
                        EADA records                        - present
                                                            Not
                                                            available
    Men's and        Not available Not       NCAA: NAIA: 1981-1982  EADA data
    women's sports                 available NCCAA:USCAA - present  for
    teams and                                NJCAA:      Unknown
    participants, in                         NFHS:       1994-1995  2000-2001
    aggregate                                            - present  - present
                                                            2001-2002
                                                            - present
                                                            2000-2001
                                                            - present
                                                            1971-1972
                                                            - present

    Source: GAO interviews with school, conference, association, and Education
    officials.

    NCAA Open-Group Athletic Data

    The NCAA's 1981-82 to 2004-05 Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates
    Report provides annual data on the number of teams sponsored and the
    number of participants by sport and in aggregate for all men's (27) and
    women's (27) sports sponsored by the NCAA. Please see this original report
    for variable definitions and factors influencing historical trends, such
    as changes in data collection procedures that occurred between 1981-1982
    and 2004-2005. This NCAA report is based on reports provided by schools to
    the NCAA each year,^6 and the NCAA uses these school reports to help
    manage its sports championships, scholarships, and divisional championship
    realignment. We used the team and participant data directly from the NCAA
    report.

    ^6 For school years 1991-1992 through 1994-1995 and 1999-2000 through
    2004-2005, the report uses annual NCAA membership reports provided by
    schools. For school years 1995-1996 through 1998-1999, the report is based
    on athletic records collected by schools to meet the requirements of the
    EADA.

    Because the NCAA membership has changed annually, changes in the aggregate
    figures for the NCAA may reflect both school-level decisions to add, drop,
    expand, or contract teams and the changing membership itself.

    We modified some data presented in the tables of the NCAA report to
    resolve apparent inconsistencies and unexplained fluctuations of those
    published data. With regard to consistency, we compared aggregate figures
    for each sport to the sum of disaggregated figures for the corresponding
    sports. Where internal inconsistency or large and unexplained fluctuations
    (e.g., apparent numerical typographical errors) were found, we determined,
    in concert with NCAA officials, whether and how to correct those data to
    resolve those inconsistencies. With regard to fluctuations, we examined
    year-to-year fluctuations in the athletic data for each sport and in
    aggregate. Where large and unexplained fluctuations were found--such as
    with the case of apparent numerical/typographical errors--we determined,
    in concert with NCAA officials, whether and how to correct those data as
    well. Thus, there are a small number of data points used for this report
    that differ from what is published in the NCAA report.

    NCAA Closed-Group Athletic Data

    To isolate the effect of school-level decisions to add, drop, expand, or
    contract sport teams on athletic trends from (a) the changing NCAA
    membership, (b) the effect of schools being members of both the NCAA and
    another athletic association and not reporting comprehensive athletic
    information to the NCAA, and (c) inconsistent annual reporting by certain
    schools, we constructed, in concert with the NCAA, a fixed, or "closed,"
    group of schools that met all three (3) of the following criteria:

               o They were members of the NCAA in each year from 1991-1992 to
               2004-2005.
               o They were not also members of the second-largest athletic
               association, the NAIA, in any year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005.
               o They reported team and participant information in each year from
               1991-1992 to 2004-2005.

    This yielded a group of 750 schools, or just over 88 percent of the
    overall NCAA membership in 1991-1992 and just under 72 percent of the
    overall membership in 2004-2005. Of this group, 14 schools reported to
    Education via IPEDS that they were also members of an athletic
    organization other than the NAIA in at least one year of our study period.
    To the extent that these schools progressively reported more of their
    female sport information to the NCAA over time, increases in female trends
    relative to male trends may be slightly overstated. To the extent that
    these schools progressively reported more of their male sport information
    over time, increases in female trends relative to male trends may be
    slightly understated.

    The NCAA has retained school-level team and participant data for its
    entire membership from the 1991-1992 school year to the present. Because
    the NCAA classifies its school-level information as private, the NCAA
    analyzed team and participant data for this closed group in-house and then
    provided aggregate figures for this closed group and the programming code
    used to generate these figures. NCAA officials noted that data for school
    years 1993-1994, 1998-1999, and 2000-2001 may be slightly less consistent
    than data for the other school years of the study period. We reviewed the
    NCAA's programming code and had the NCAA make adjustments and corrections
    where necessary. We examined the internal consistency of the data for the
    closed group that resulted from this code by comparing aggregate figures
    to the sum of disaggregated figures and by examining year-to-year
    fluctuations in the athletic data. We also compared figures for the
    closed-group to the equivalent figures for the open group. Where internal
    inconsistency, inconsistency between the open and closed group, or large
    and unexplained fluctuations were found, we eliminated those data from our
    analysis, as discussed below. Through our assessment and the elimination
    of inconsistent data, we determined that data used for the closed group
    were sufficient for the purposes of our report.

    Sport-by-Sport Analyses

    Our sport-by-sport and aggregate figures reflect the 14 men's and 13
    women's sports that had team and participant information reported
    throughout the study period, that are comparable across the open and
    closed groups, and for which male and female data exist separately. This
    report does not contain all the results of our trend analysis. A more
    detailed analysis by sport can be viewed at [19]GAO-07-744SP .

    With regard to reporting consistency, the NCAA has retained historical
    figures for each of its sports for each year in which either the sport was
    identified as emerging or the NCAA held a championship for that sport as
    well as various other years. To the extent that several sports have
    emerged or added a championship since the 1991-1992 school year, data tend
    to be more comprehensive across the 54 NCAA sports in recent years
    relative to the beginning of our study period. However, to become an
    emerging sport, there must already be 20 or more NCAA-sponsored and/or
    competitive club teams that exist in that sport, and there must be other
    signs of sustained and increasing interest in the sport. Thus, nonentries
    in a given year of NCAA data do not necessarily reflect a lack of
    sponsorship or participation in that year. Furthermore, several sports
    have data for the beginning and end of our study period, but not the
    intervening years. To account for the inconsistency of reporting across
    sports and across time, the NCAA included in its customized data only the
    subset of sports for which data were reported in each year of the study
    period.

    To enable a direct comparison between the open and closed groups, we
    analyzed only those sports for which data existed in each year and in both
    the open and closed groups. The sports included in the closed-group data
    narrowed the list of included sports substantially, but we also compared
    figures across the two groups for external consistency as well. In
    particular, we eliminated four sports where aggregate figures for the
    closed group were larger than aggregate figures for the open group, which
    is impossible by construction.

    With regard to the reporting of male and female participant counts, the
    NCAA has reported male and female athletic data for coed/mixed-gender
    sports differently over time. For some years, overall participant counts
    for mixed-gender sports were divided in half when allocated to male and
    female participant counts, and for other years actual counts were
    recorded. Because of this inconsistency in reporting, participant counts
    for sports such as fencing, rifle, and skiing for certain years may not
    reflect actual male and female participants, and thus these sports were
    not included in this report. In summary, the sports we analyzed

               (a) have data reported in each year of the study period,
               (b) were common to or reported in both groups of data analyzed
               (open group and closed group), and
               (c) excluded certain coed-mixed gender sports because of
               inconsistent reporting across the study period.

    Ultimately, this yielded the 14 men's and 13 women's sports analyzed in
    this report, whose participants reflect 98 percent of the NCAA's overall
    male participation and 99 percent of the overall female participation in
    1991-1992, and 99 percent and 93 percent of male and female participation,
    respectively, in 2004-2005. See Table 2 for the sports included in the
    NCAA report and analyzed for this report.

    Table 2: Sports Included in the NCAA Report and Analyzed for This Report

    Men's sports         Men's sports  Women's sports         Women's sports
    included in both the included only included in both the   included only in
    NCAA and GAO reports in the NCAA   NCAA and GAO reports   the NCAA report
    (14)                 report (13)   (13)                   (14)
    Baseball             Archery       Basketball             Archery

    Basketball           Badminton     Cross-Country          Badminton

    Cross-Country        Bowling       Field Hockey           Bowling

    Football             Equestrian    Golf                   Equestrian

    Golf                 Fencing       Gymnastics             Fencing

    Ice Hockey           Gymnastics    Lacrosse               Ice Hockey

    Lacrosse             Rifle         Soccer                 Rifle

    Soccer               Rowing        Softball               Rowing

    Swimming/Diving      Rugby         Swimming/Diving        Rugby

    Tennis               Sailing       Tennis                 Skiing

    Track, Indoor        Skiing        Track, Indoor          Squash

    Track, Outdoor       Squash        Track, Outdoor         Synchronized
                                                                 Swimming
    Volleyball           Water Polo    Volleyball
                                                                 Team Handball
    Wrestling
                                                                 Water Polo

    Source: GAO analysis.

    Department of Education Enrollment Data

    For both aggregate and school-level enrollment, we obtained full-time,
    undergraduate enrollment data from IPEDS, which is the core postsecondary
    education data collection program for the National Center for Education
    Statistics (NCES), which, in turn, is the primary federal entity for
    collecting and analyzing data related to education. Specifically, IPEDS is
    a single, comprehensive system of surveys designed to collect
    institution-level data from all primary providers of postsecondary
    education in such areas as student enrollment and program completion,
    faculty and staff characteristics, and school finances. We obtained
    aggregate enrollment data for both the open and closed groups based on the
    schools listed in the annual NCAA membership directories and the list of
    750 schools included in the closed group. These data are the basis for our
    aggregate comparisons between participation and enrollment, presented in
    slides 19 and 20 of appendix I. Officials from Education noted that the
    agency did not complete data reliability testing for the purpose of
    extrapolating reported institutional data from the 1999-2000 school year
    to generate aggregate figures because reporting for this earlier period
    was optional to the schools and reporting rates were particularly low for
    this year. Thus, we did not include aggregate figures for 1999-2000 for
    this analysis.

    For the school-level comparisons between participation and enrollment, we
    provided the NCAA with school-by-school enrollment for each year in our
    study period for schools that reported enrollment information through
    IPEDS in each year and that had male and female enrollment each of at
    least 100 in each year of the study period, characterized as "coed
    schools." In addition, several college and university campuses reported
    either athletic data to the NCAA or enrollment data to Education jointly
    with other campuses. To ensure the compatibility of athletic and
    enrollment data, we merged the data for these campuses together and
    treated the campuses collectively as one unit. This resulted in enrollment
    data being provided for 715 schools or school-campus combinations in the
    closed group, and the resultant NCAA analysis is what is presented in
    slide 21 of appendix I. Although Education has not released enrollment
    figures for 1999-2000 for aggregate reporting purposes, officials from
    Education noted that data that have been reported are reliable for
    school-level reporting purposes, so 1999-2000 is included in this
    analysis.

    Because IPEDS data are statistical agency data that are collected and
    audited within the NCES, we focused our reliability testing on the
    consistency between internal NCES data documentation and downloaded data,
    and we examined the consistency of summary statistics and the frequency of
    missing values across years. Our testing found no differences between our
    files and the IPEDS data dictionaries, no unusual increases in the
    frequency of missing variables across years (other than for 1999-2000),
    and no changes in the mean or standard deviation of enrollment above 5
    percent and no changes in the maximum or minimum enrollment per school
    above 10 percent from one year to the next. In addition, NCES has
    completed individual data reliability testing for its 1991-1992 through
    2005-2006 data and released a 2005 report detailing the reliability of its
    enrollment data, among other data. (See
    [20]http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2005175 to access this
    report.) Therefore, we determined that the IPEDS enrollment data are
    sufficiently reliable for the purposes of this report.

    Appendix III: Schools Included in the Open Group

    The following 1,052 schools were included in the overall NCAA membership
    for at least one year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005. This list is based on
    the NCAA's annual membership lists for this period.

    Table 3: Open-Group Schools (state abbreviation)

    Abilene Christian University (Tex.)     Armstrong Atlantic State
                                               University (Ga.)
    Adams State College (Colo.)
                                               Asbury College (Ky.)
    Adelphi University (N.Y.)
                                               Ashland University (Ohio)
    Adrian College (Mich.)
                                               Assumption College (Mass.)
    Agnes Scott College (Ga.)
                                               Auburn University Main Campus
    Alabama A & M University (Ala.)         (Ala.)

    Alabama State University (Ala.)         Augsburg College (Minn.)

    Albany State University (Ga.)           Augusta State University (Ga.)

    Albertus Magnus College (Conn.)         Augustana College (Ill.)

    Albion College (Mich.)                  Augustana College (S.D.)

    Albright College (Pa.)                  Aurora University (Ill.)

    Alcorn State University (Miss.)         Austin College (Tex.)

    Alderson Broaddus College (W.Va.)       Austin Peay State University
                                               (Tenn.)
    Alfred University (N.Y.)
                                               Averett University (Va.)
    Allegheny College (Pa.)
                                               Babson College (Mass.)
    Alma College (Mich.)
                                               Baldwin-Wallace College (Ohio)
    Alvernia College (Pa.)
                                               Ball State University (Ind.)
    Alverno College (Wis.)
                                               Baptist Bible College and Seminary
    American International College (Mass.)  (Pa.)

    American University (D.C.)              Bard College (N.Y.)

    American University of Puerto Rico      Barnard College (N.Y.)
    (P.R.)
                                               Barry University (Fla.)
    Amherst College (Mass.)
                                               Barton College (N.C.)
    Anderson College (S.C.)
                                               Bates College (Maine)
    Anderson University (Ind.)
                                               Bay Path College (Mass.)
    Angelo State University (Tex.)
                                               Baylor University (Tex.)
    Anna Maria College (Mass.)
                                               Becker College (Mass.)
    Appalachian State University (N.C.)
                                               Bellarmine University (Ky.)
    Arcadia University (Pa.)
                                               Belmont Abbey College (N.C.)
    Arizona State University at the Tempe
    Campus (Ariz.)                          Belmont University (Tenn.)

    Arkansas State University-Main Campus   Beloit College (Wis.)
    (Ark.)
                                               Bemidji State University (Minn.)
    Arkansas Tech University (Ark.)
                                               Benedict College (S.C.)

                                               Benedictine University (Ill.)

    Bennett College (N.C.)               California State
                                            University-Bakersfield (Calif.)
    Bentley College (Mass.)
                                            California State University-Chico
    Berea College (Ky.)                  (Calif.)

    Bethany College (W.Va.)              California State University-Dominguez
                                            Hills (Calif.)
    Bethel University (Minn.)
                                            California State University-East Bay
    Bethune Cookman College (Fla.)       (Calif.)

    Birmingham Southern College (Ala.)   California State University-Fresno
                                            (Calif.)
    Blackburn College (Ill.)
                                            California State University-Fullerton
    Bloomfield College (N.J.)            (Calif.)

    Bloomsburg University of             California State University-Long
    Pennsylvania (Pa.)                   Beach (Calif.)

    Bluefield State College (W.Va.)      California State University-Los
                                            Angeles (Calif.)
    Bluffton University (Ohio)
                                            California State
    Boise State University (Idaho)       University-Northridge (Calif.)

    Boston College (Mass.)               California State
                                            University-Sacramento (Calif.)
    Boston University (Mass.)
                                            California State University-San
    Bowdoin College (Maine)              Bernardino (Calif.)

    Bowie State University (Md.)         California State
                                            University-Stanislaus (Calif.)
    Bowling Green State University-Main
    Campus (Ohio)                        California University of Pennsylvania
                                            (Pa.)
    Bradley University (Ill.)
                                            Calvin College (Mich.)
    Brandeis University (Mass.)
                                            Cameron University (Okla.)
    Bridgewater College (Va.)
                                            Campbell University Inc (N.C.)
    Bridgewater State College (Mass.)
                                            Canisius College (N.Y.)
    Brigham Young University (Utah)
                                            Capital University (Ohio)
    Brigham Young University-Hawaii
    Campus (Hawaii)                      Carleton College (Minn.)

    Brown University (R.I.)              Carnegie Mellon University (Pa.)

    Bryant University (R.I.)             Carroll College (Wis.)

    Bryn Mawr College (Pa.)              Carson-Newman College (Tenn.)

    Bucknell University (Pa.)            Carthage College (Wis.)

    Buena Vista University (Iowa)        Case Western Reserve University
                                            (Ohio)
    Butler University (Ind.)
                                            Castleton State College (Vt.)
    Cabrini College (Pa.)
                                            Catawba College (N.C.)
    Caldwell College (N.J.)
                                            Catholic University of America (D.C.)
    California Institute of Technology
    (Calif.)                             Cazenovia College (N.Y.)

    California Lutheran University       Cedar Crest College (Pa.)
    (Calif.)
                                            Centenary College (N.J.)
    California Polytechnic State
    University-San Luis Obispo (Calif.)  Centenary College of Louisiana (La.)

    California State Polytechnic
    University-Pomona (Calif.)

    Central College (Iowa)                College of Saint Benedict (Minn.)

    Central Connecticut State University  College of Saint Elizabeth (N.J.)
    (Conn.)
                                             College of St Catherine (Minn.)
    Central Michigan University (Mich.)
                                             College of the Holy Cross (Mass.)
    Central Missouri State University
    (Mo.)                                 College of William and Mary (Va.)

    Central Washington University (Wash.) College of Wooster (Ohio)

    Centre College (Ky.)                  Colorado Christian University
                                             (Colo.)
    Chadron State College (Neb.)
                                             Colorado College (Colo.)
    Chaminade University of Honolulu
    (Hawaii)                              Colorado School of Mines (Colo.)

    Chapman University (Calif.)           Colorado State University (Colo.)

    Charleston Southern University (S.C.) Colorado State University-Pueblo
                                             (Colo.)
    Chatham College (Pa.)
                                             Columbia Union College (Md.)
    Chestnut Hill College (Pa.)
                                             Columbia University in the City of
    Cheyney University of Pennsylvania    New York (N.Y.)
    (Pa.)
                                             Columbus State University (Ga.)
    Chicago State University (Ill.)
                                             Concord University (W.Va.)
    Chowan College (N.C.)
                                             Concordia College (N.Y.)
    Christian Brothers University (Tenn.)
                                             Concordia College at Moorhead
    Christopher Newport University (Va.)  (Minn.)

    Citadel Military College of South     Concordia University (Ill.)
    Carolina (S.C.)
                                             Concordia University at Austin
    Claremont McKenna College (Calif.)    (Tex.)

    Clarion University of Pennsylvania    Concordia University-St Paul (Minn.)
    (Pa.)
                                             Concordia University-Wisconsin
    Clark Atlanta University (Ga.)        (Wis.)

    Clark University (Mass.)              Connecticut College (Conn.)

    Clarke College (Iowa)                 Converse College (S.C.)

    Clarkson University (N.Y.)            Coppin State University (Md.)

    Clayton College and State University  Cornell College (Iowa)
    (Ga.)
                                             Cornell University-Endowed Colleges
    Clemson University (S.C.)             (N.Y.)

    Cleveland State University (Ohio)     Creighton University (Neb.)

    Coastal Carolina University (S.C.)    CUNY Bernard M Baruch College (N.Y.)

    Coe College (Iowa)                    CUNY Brooklyn College (N.Y.)

    Coker College (S.C.)                  CUNY City College (N.Y.)

    Colby College (Maine)                 CUNY College of Staten Island (N.Y.)

    Colby-Sawyer College (N.H.)           CUNY Hunter College (N.Y.)

    Colgate University (N.Y.)             CUNY John Jay College Criminal
                                             Justice (N.Y.)
    College Misericordia (Pa.)
                                             CUNY Lehman College (N.Y.)
    College of Charleston (S.C.)
                                             CUNY Medgar Evers College (N.Y.)
    College of Mount Saint Joseph (Ohio)
                                             CUNY New York City College of
    College of Mount Saint Vincent (N.Y.) Technology (N.Y.)

    College of Notre Dame of Maryland     CUNY Queens College (N.Y.)
    (Md.)

    College of Our Lady of the Elms
    (Mass.)
    CUNY York College (N.Y.)              Eastern New Mexico University-Main
                                             Campus (N.M.)
    Curry College (Mass.)
                                             Eastern Oregon University (Ore.)
    Dallas Baptist University (Tex.)
                                             Eastern University (Pa.)
    Daniel Webster College (N.H.)
                                             Eastern Washington University
    Dartmouth College (N.H.)              (Wash.)

    Davidson College (N.C.)               Eckerd College (Fla.)

    Davis and Elkins College (W.Va.)      Edgewood College (Wis.)

    Defiance College (Ohio)               Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
                                             (Pa.)
    Delaware State University (Del.)
                                             Elizabeth City State University
    Delaware Valley College (Pa.)         (N.C.)

    Delta State University (Miss.)        Elizabethtown College (Pa.)

    Denison University (Ohio)             Elmhurst College (Ill.)

    Depaul University (Ill.)              Elmira College (N.Y.)

    Depauw University (Ind.)              Elon University (N.C.)

    Desales University (Pa.)              Emerson College (Mass.)

    Dickinson College (Pa.)               Emmanuel College (Mass.)

    Dominican College of Blauvelt (N.Y.)  Emory and Henry College (Va.)

    Dominican University (Ill.)           Emory University (Ga.)

    Dowling College (N.Y.)                Emporia State University (Kan.)

    Drake University (Iowa)               Endicott College (Mass.)

    Drew University (N.J.)                Erskine College and Seminary (S.C.)

    Drexel University (Pa.)               Eureka College (Ill.)

    Drury University (Mo.)                Fairfield University (Conn.)

    Duke University (N.C.)                Fairleigh Dickinson
                                             University-College at Florham (N.J.)
    Duquesne University (Pa.)
                                             Fairleigh Dickinson
    D'Youville College (N.Y.)             University-Metropolitan Campus
                                             (N.J.)
    Earlham College (Ind.)
                                             Fairmont State University (W.Va.)
    East Carolina University (N.C.)
                                             Farmingdale State University of New
    East Central University (Okla.)       York (N.Y.)

    East Stroudsburg University of        Fayetteville State University (N.C.)
    Pennsylvania (Pa.)
                                             Felician College (N.J.)
    East Tennessee State University
    (Tenn.)                               Ferris State University (Mich.)

    East Texas Baptist University (Tex.)  Ferrum College (Va.)

    Eastern Connecticut State University  Fisk University (Tenn.)
    (Conn.)
                                             Fitchburg State College (Mass.)
    Eastern Illinois University (Ill.)
                                             Florida Agricultural and Mechanical
    Eastern Kentucky University (Ky.)     University (Fla.)

    Eastern Mennonite University (Va.)    Florida Atlantic University-Boca
                                             Raton (Fla.)
    Eastern Michigan University (Mich.)
                                             Florida Gulf Coast University (Fla.)
    Eastern Nazarene College (Mass.)
    Florida Institute of                  Greensboro College (N.C.)
    Technology-Melbourne (Fla.)
                                             Greenville College (Ill.)
    Florida International University
    (Fla.)                                Grinnell College (Iowa)

    Florida Southern College (Fla.)       Grove City College (Pa.)

    Florida State University (Fla.)       Guilford College (N.C.)

    Fontbonne University (Mo.)            Gustavus Adolphus College (Minn.)

    Fordham University (N.Y.)             Gwynedd Mercy College (Pa.)

    Fort Hays State University (Kan.)     Hamilton College (N.Y.)

    Fort Lewis College (Colo.)            Hamline University (Minn.)

    Fort Valley State University (Ga.)    Hampden-Sydney College (Va.)

    Framingham State College (Mass.)      Hampton University (Va.)

    Francis Marion University (S.C.)      Hanover College (Ind.)

    Franklin and Marshall College (Pa.)   Harding University (Ark.)

    Franklin College (Ind.)               Hardin-Simmons University (Tex.)

    Franklin Pierce College (N.H.)        Hartwick College (N.Y.)

    Frostburg State University (Md.)      Harvard University (Mass.)

    Furman University (S.C.)              Harvey Mudd College (Calif.)

    Gallaudet University (D.C.)           Haverford College (Pa.)

    Gannon University (Pa.)               Hawaii Pacific University (Hawaii)

    Gardner-Webb University (N.C.)        Heidelberg College (Ohio)

    George Fox University (Ore.)          Henderson State University (Ark.)

    George Mason University (Va.)         Hendrix College (Ark.)

    George Washington University (D.C.)   High Point University (N.C.)

    Georgetown University (D.C.)          Hilbert College (N.Y.)

    Georgia College and State University  Hillsdale College (Mich.)
    (Ga.)
                                             Hiram College (Ohio)
    Georgia Institute of Technology-Main
    Campus (Ga.)                          Hobart William Smith Colleges (N.Y.)

    Georgia Southern University (Ga.)     Hofstra University (N.Y.)

    Georgia State University (Ga.)        Hollins University (Va.)

    Georgian Court University (N.J.)      Holy Family University (Pa.)

    Gettysburg College (Pa.)              Hood College (Md.)

    Glenville State College (W.Va.)       Hope College (Mich.)

    Goldey-Beacom College (Del.)          Howard Payne University (Tex.)

    Gonzaga University (Wash.)            Howard University (D.C.)

    Gordon College (Mass.)                Humboldt State University (Calif.)

    Goucher College (Md.)                 Huntingdon College (Ala.)

    Grambling State University (La.)      Husson College (Maine)

    Grand Canyon University (Ariz.)       Idaho State University (Idaho)

    Grand Valley State University (Mich.) Illinois College (Ill.)

    Green Mountain College (Vt.)
    Illinois State University (Ill.)      Lafayette College (Pa.)

    Illinois Wesleyan University (Ill.)   Lagrange College (Ga.)

    Immaculata University (Pa.)           Lake Erie College (Ohio)

    Indiana State University (Ind.)       Lake Forest College (Ill.)

    Indiana University of                 Lake Superior State University
    Pennsylvania-Main Campus (Pa.)        (Mich.)

    Indiana University-Bloomington (Ind.) Lakeland College (Wis.)

    Indiana University-Purdue             Lamar University (Tex.)
    University-Fort Wayne (Ind.)
                                             Lander University (S.C.)
    Indiana University-Purdue
    University-Indianapolis (Ind.)        Lane College (Tenn.)

    Iona College (N.Y.)                   Lasell College (Mass.)

    Iowa State University (Iowa)          Lawrence University (Wis.)

    Ithaca College (N.Y.)                 Le Moyne College (N.Y.)

    Jackson State University (Miss.)      Le Moyne-Owen College (Tenn.)

    Jacksonville State University (Ala.)  Lebanon Valley College (Pa.)

    Jacksonville University (Fla.)        Lees-Mcrae College (N.C.)

    James Madison University (Va.)        Lehigh University (Pa.)

    Jarvis Christian College (Tex.)       Lenoir-Rhyne College (N.C.)

    John Carroll University (Ohio)        Lesley University (Mass.)

    Johns Hopkins University (Md.)        Letourneau University (Tex.)

    Johnson & Wales University (R.I.)     Lewis & Clark College (Ore.)

    Johnson C Smith University (N.C.)     Lewis University (Ill.)

    Johnson State College (Vt.)           Liberty University (Va.)

    Juniata College (Pa.)                 Limestone College (S.C.)

    Kalamazoo College (Mich.)             Lincoln Memorial University (Tenn.)

    Kansas State University (Kan.)        Lincoln University (Mo.)

    Kean University (N.J.)                Lincoln University (Pa.)

    Keene State College (N.H.)            Linfield College (Ore.)

    Kennesaw State University (Ga.)       Lipscomb University (Tenn.)

    Kent State University-Main Campus     Livingstone College (N.C.)
    (Ohio)
                                             Lock Haven University of
    Kentucky State University (Ky.)       Pennsylvania (Pa.)

    Kentucky Wesleyan College (Ky.)       Long Island University-Brooklyn
                                             Campus (N.Y.)
    Kenyon College (Ohio)
                                             Long Island University-C W Post
    Keuka College (N.Y.)                  Campus (N.Y.)

    Kings College (Pa.)                   Longwood University (Va.)

    Knox College (Ill.)                   Loras College (Iowa)

    Kutztown University of Pennsylvania   Louisiana College (La.)
    (Pa.)
                                             Louisiana State Univ & Ag & Mech &
    La Roche College (Pa.)                Hebert Laws Ctr (La.)

    La Salle University (Pa.)
    Louisiana Tech University (La.)       Meredith College (N.C.)

    Loyola College in Maryland (Md.)      Merrimack College (Mass.)

    Loyola Marymount University (Calif.)  Mesa State College (Colo.)

    Loyola University Chicago (Ill.)      Messiah College (Pa.)

    Luther College (Iowa)                 Methodist College (N.C.)

    Lycoming College (Pa.)                Metropolitan State College of Denver
                                             (Colo.)
    Lynchburg College (Va.)
                                             Miami University-Oxford (Ohio)
    Lynn University (Fla.)
                                             Michigan State University (Mich.)
    Macalester College (Minn.)
                                             Michigan Technological University
    MacMurray College (Ill.)              (Mich.)

    Maine Maritime Academy (Maine)        Middle Tennessee State University
                                             (Tenn.)
    Manchester College (Ind.)
                                             Middlebury College (Vt.)
    Manhattan College (N.Y.)
                                             Midwestern State University (Tex.)
    Manhattanville College (N.Y.)
                                             Miles College (Ala.)
    Mansfield University of Pennsylvania
    (Pa.)                                 Millersville University of
                                             Pennsylvania (Pa.)
    Maranatha Baptist Bible College Inc
    (Wis.)                                Millikin University (Ill.)

    Marian College of Fond Du Lac (Wis.)  Mills College (Calif.)

    Marietta College (Ohio)               Millsaps College (Miss.)

    Marist College (N.Y.)                 Milwaukee School of Engineering
                                             (Wis.)
    Marquette University (Wis.)
                                             Minnesota State University-Mankato
    Mars Hill College (N.C.)              (Minn.)

    Marshall University (W.Va.)           Minnesota State University-Moorhead
                                             (Minn.)
    Martin Luther College (Minn.)
                                             Mississippi College (Miss.)
    Mary Baldwin College (Va.)
                                             Mississippi State University (Miss.)
    Marymount University (Va.)
                                             Mississippi University For Women
    Maryville College (Tenn.)             (Miss.)

    Maryville University of Saint Louis   Mississippi Valley State University
    (Mo.)                                 (Miss.)

    Marywood University (Pa.)             Missouri Southern State University
                                             (Mo.)
    Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts
    (Mass.)                               Missouri Western State College (Mo.)

    Massachusetts Institute of Technology Molloy College (N.Y.)
    (Mass.)
                                             Monmouth College (Ill.)
    Massachusetts Maritime Academy
    (Mass.)                               Monmouth University (N.J.)

    McDaniel College (Md.)                Montana State University-Billings
                                             (Mont.)
    McMurry University (Tex.)
                                             Montana State University-Bozeman
    McNeese State University (La.)        (Mont.)

    Medaille College (N.Y.)               Montclair State University (N.J.)

    Menlo College (Calif.)                Moravian College and Theological
                                             Seminary (Pa.)
    Mercer University (Ga.)

    Mercy College-Main Campus (N.Y.)

    Mercyhurst College (Pa.)
    Morehead State University (Ky.)       North Park University (Ill.)

    Morehouse College (Ga.)               Northeastern Illinois University
                                             (Ill.)
    Morgan State University (Md.)
                                             Northeastern State University
    Morningside College (Iowa)            (Okla.)

    Morris Brown College (Ga.)            Northeastern University (Mass.)

    Mount Holyoke College (Mass.)         Northern Arizona University (Ariz.)

    Mount Ida College (Mass.)             Northern Illinois University (Ill.)

    Mount Olive College (N.C.)            Northern Kentucky University (Ky.)

    Mount Saint Mary College (N.Y.)       Northern Michigan University (Mich.)

    Mount St Mary's University (Md.)      Northern State University (S.D.)

    Mount Union College (Ohio)            Northland College (Wis.)

    Muhlenberg College (Pa.)              Northwest Missouri State University
                                             (Mo.)
    Murray State University (Ky.)
                                             Northwest Nazarene University
    Muskingum College (Ohio)              (Idaho)

    Nazareth College of Rochester (N.Y.)  Northwestern College (Wis.)

    Nebraska Wesleyan University (Neb.)   Northwestern State University of
                                             Louisiana (La.)
    Neumann College (Pa.)
                                             Northwestern University (Ill.)
    New England College (N.H.)
                                             Northwood University (Mich.)
    New Jersey City University (N.J.)
                                             Norwich University (Vt.)
    New Jersey Institute of Technology
    (N.J.)                                Notre Dame De Namur University
                                             (Calif.)
    New Mexico Highlands University
    (N.M.)                                Nova Southeastern University (Fla.)

    New Mexico State University-Main      Nyack College (N.Y.)
    Campus (N.M.)
                                             Oakland City University (Ind.)
    New York Institute of Technology-Old
    Westbury (N.Y.)                       Oakland University (Mich.)

    New York University (N.Y.)            Oberlin College (Ohio)

    Newberry College (S.C.)               Occidental College (Calif.)

    Newbury College-Brookline (Mass.)     Oglethorpe University (Ga.)

    Niagara University (N.Y.)             Ohio Northern University (Ohio)

    Nicholls State University (La.)       Ohio State University-Main Campus
                                             (Ohio)
    Nichols College (Mass.)
                                             Ohio University-Main Campus (Ohio)
    Norfolk State University (Va.)
                                             Ohio Valley College (W.Va.)
    North Carolina A & T State University
    (N.C.)                                Ohio Wesleyan University (Ohio)

    North Carolina Central University     Oklahoma Panhandle State University
    (N.C.)                                (Okla.)

    North Carolina State University at    Oklahoma State University-Main
    Raleigh (N.C.)                        Campus (Okla.)

    North Carolina Wesleyan College       Old Dominion University (Va.)
    (N.C.)
                                             Olivet College (Mich.)
    North Central College (Ill.)
                                             Oral Roberts University (Okla.)
    North Dakota State University-Main
    Campus (N.D.)                         Oregon State University (Ore.)

    North Greenville College (S.C.)
    Otterbein College (Ohio)              Regis University (Colo.)

    Ouachita Baptist University (Ark.)    Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
                                             (N.Y.)
    Pace University-New York (N.Y.)
                                             Rhode Island College (R.I.)
    Pacific Lutheran University (Wash.)
                                             Rhodes College (Tenn.)
    Pacific University (Ore.)
                                             Rice University (Tex.)
    Paine College (Ga.)
                                             Rider University (N.J.)
    Peace College (N.C.)
                                             Ripon College (Wis.)
    Pennsylvania State University-Main
    Campus (Pa.)                          Rivier College (N.H.)

    Pennsylvania State University-Penn    Roanoke College (Va.)
    State Altoona (Pa.)
                                             Robert Morris University (Pa.)
    Pennsylvania State Univ-Penn St
    Erie-Behrend Coll (Pa.)               Rochester Institute of Technology
                                             (N.Y.)
    Pepperdine University (Calif.)
                                             Rockford College (Ill.)
    Pfeiffer University (N.C.)
                                             Rockhurst University (Mo.)
    Philadelphia Biblical
    University-Langhorne (Pa.)            Roger Williams University (R.I.)

    Philadelphia University (Pa.)         Rollins College (Fla.)

    Piedmont College (Ga.)                Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
                                             (Ind.)
    Pine Manor College (Mass.)
                                             Rosemont College (Pa.)
    Pittsburg State University (Kan.)
                                             Rowan University (N.J.)
    Pitzer College (Calif.)
                                             Rust College (Miss.)
    Plymouth State University (N.H.)
                                             Rutgers University-Camden (N.J.)
    Polytechnic University (N.Y.)
                                             Rutgers University-New Brunswick
    Pomona College (Calif.)               (N.J.)

    Portland State University (Ore.)      Rutgers University-Newark (N.J.)

    Post University (Conn.)               Sacred Heart University (Conn.)

    Prairie View A & M University (Tex.)  Saginaw Valley State University
                                             (Mich.)
    Presbyterian College (S.C.)
                                             Saint Anselm College (N.H.)
    Princeton University (N.J.)
                                             Saint Augustines College (N.C.)
    Principia College (Ill.)
                                             Saint Bonaventure University (N.Y.)
    Providence College (R.I.)
                                             Saint Cloud State University (Minn.)
    Purdue University-Main Campus (Ind.)
                                             Saint Edward's University (Tex.)
    Queens University of Charlotte (N.C.)
                                             Saint Francis University (Pa.)
    Quincy University (Ill.)
                                             Saint John Fisher College (N.Y.)
    Quinnipiac University (Conn.)
                                             Saint Johns University (Minn.)
    Radford University (Va.)
                                             Saint Joseph College (Conn.)
    Ramapo College of New Jersey (N.J.)
                                             Saint Josephs College (Ind.)
    Randolph-Macon College (Va.)
                                             Saint Josephs College (Maine)
    Randolph-Macon Woman's College (Va.)
                                             Saint Josephs College-Suffolk Campus
    Regis College (Mass.)                 (N.Y.)

                                             Saint Josephs University (Pa.)

                                             Saint Leo University (Fla.)
    Saint Louis University-Main Campus    Slippery Rock University of
    (Mo.)                                 Pennsylvania (Pa.)

    Saint Martins College (Wash.)         Smith College (Mass.)

    Saint Mary's College (Ind.)           Sonoma State University (Calif.)

    Saint Marys College of California     South Carolina State University
    (Calif.)                              (S.C.)

    Saint Mary's University of Minnesota  South Dakota State University (S.D.)
    (Minn.)
                                             Southampton College of Long Island
    Saint Michaels College (Vt.)          University (N.Y.)

    Saint Norbert College (Wis.)          Southeast Missouri State University
                                             (Mo.)
    Saint Olaf College (Minn.)
                                             Southeastern Louisiana University
    Saint Pauls College (Va.)             (La.)

    Saint Peters College (N.J.)           Southeastern Oklahoma State
                                             University (Okla.)
    Saint Thomas Aquinas College (N.Y.)
                                             Southern Arkansas University Main
    Salem International University        Campus (Ark.)
    (W.Va.)
                                             Southern Connecticut State
    Salem State College (Mass.)           University (Conn.)

    Salisbury University (Md.)            Southern Illinois University
                                             Carbondale (Ill.)
    Salve Regina University (R.I.)
                                             Southern Illinois University
    Sam Houston State University (Tex.)   Edwardsville (Ill.)

    Samford University (Ala.)             Southern Methodist University (Tex.)

    San Diego State University (Calif.)   Southern New Hampshire University
                                             (N.H.)
    San Francisco State University
    (Calif.)                              Southern University and A & M
                                             College (La.)
    San Jose State University (Calif.)
                                             Southern Utah University (Utah)
    Santa Clara University (Calif.)
                                             Southern Vermont College (Vt.)
    Savannah College of Art and Design
    (Ga.)                                 Southwest Baptist University (Mo.)

    Savannah State University (Ga.)       Southwest Minnesota State University
                                             (Minn.)
    Schreiner University (Tex.)
                                             Southwest Missouri State University
    Scripps College (Calif.)              (Mo.)

    Seattle Pacific University (Wash.)    Southwestern Oklahoma State
                                             University (Okla.)
    Seattle University (Wash.)
                                             Southwestern University (Tex.)
    Seton Hall University (N.J.)
                                             Spelman College (Ga.)
    Sewanee: The University of the South
    (Tenn.)                               Springfield College (Mass.)

    Shaw University (N.C.)                St Andrews Presbyterian College
                                             (N.C.)
    Shenandoah University (Va.)
                                             St Francis College (N.Y.)
    Shepherd University (W.Va.)
                                             St John's University-New York (N.Y.)
    Shippensburg University of
    Pennsylvania (Pa.)                    St Lawrence University (N.Y.)

    Siena College (N.Y.)

    Simmons College (Mass.)

    Simpson College (Iowa)

    Skidmore College (N.Y.)
    St Mary's College of Maryland (Md.)   Texas A & M University-Commerce
                                             (Tex.)
    St Marys University (Tex.)
                                             Texas A & M University-Corpus
    Stanford University (Calif.)          Christi (Tex.)

    State University of West Georgia      Texas A & M University-Kingsville
    (Ga.)                                 (Tex.)

    Stephen F Austin State University     Texas Christian University (Tex.)
    (Tex.)
                                             Texas Lutheran University (Tex.)
    Stephens College (Mo.)
                                             Texas Southern University (Tex.)
    Stetson University (Fla.)
                                             Texas State University-San Marcos
    Stevens Institute of Technology       (Tex.)
    (N.J.)
                                             Texas Tech University (Tex.)
    Stillman College (Ala.)
                                             Texas Woman's University (Tex.)
    Stonehill College (Mass.)
                                             The College of New Jersey (N.J.)
    Suffolk University (Mass.)
                                             The College of New Rochelle (N.Y.)
    Sul Ross State University (Tex.)
                                             The College of Saint Rose (N.Y.)
    SUNY at Albany (N.Y.)
                                             The College of Saint Scholastica
    SUNY at Binghamton (N.Y.)             (Minn.)

    SUNY at Buffalo (N.Y.)                The Richard Stockton College of New
                                             Jersey (N.J.)
    SUNY at Stony Brook (N.Y.)
                                             The Sage Colleges-Troy Campus (N.Y.)
    SUNY College at Brockport (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Alabama (Ala.)
    SUNY College at Buffalo (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Findlay (Ohio)
    SUNY College at Cortland (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Montana-Missoula
    SUNY College at Fredonia (N.Y.)       (Mont.)

    SUNY College at Geneseo (N.Y.)        The University of Tampa (Fla.)

    SUNY College at New Paltz (N.Y.)      The University of Tennessee (Tenn.)

    SUNY College at Old Westbury (N.Y.)   The University of
                                             Tennessee-Chattanooga (Tenn.)
    SUNY College at Oneonta (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Tennessee-Martin
    SUNY College at Oswego (N.Y.)         (Tenn.)

    SUNY College at Plattsburgh (N.Y.)    The University of Texas at Arlington
                                             (Tex.)
    SUNY Institute of Technology at
    Utica-Rome (N.Y.)                     The University of Texas at Austin
                                             (Tex.)
    SUNY Maritime College (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Texas at Dallas
    SUNY-Potsdam (N.Y.)                   (Tex.)

    Susquehanna University (Pa.)          The University of Texas at El Paso
                                             (Tex.)
    Swarthmore College (Pa.)
                                             The University of Texas at San
    Sweet Briar College (Va.)             Antonio (Tex.)

    Syracuse University (N.Y.)            The University of Texas-Pan American
                                             (Tex.)
    Tarleton State University (Tex.)
                                             The University of West Florida
    Temple University (Pa.)               (Fla.)

    Tennessee State University (Tenn.)    Thiel College (Pa.)

    Tennessee Technological University    Thomas College (Maine)
    (Tenn.)
                                             Thomas More College (Ky.)
    Texas A & M University (Tex.)
    Tiffin University (Ohio)              University of Central Oklahoma
                                             (Okla.)
    Towson University (Md.)
                                             University of Charleston (W.Va.)
    Transylvania University (Ky.)
                                             University of Chicago (Ill.)
    Trinity College (Conn.)
                                             University of Cincinnati-Main Campus
    Trinity University (D.C.)             (Ohio)

    Trinity University (Tex.)             University of Colorado at Boulder
                                             (Colo.)
    Troy State University-Main Campus
    (Ala.)                                University of Colorado at Colorado
                                             Springs (Colo.)
    Truman State University (Mo.)
                                             University of Connecticut (Conn.)
    Tufts University (Mass.)
                                             University of Dallas (Tex.)
    Tulane University of Louisiana (La.)
                                             University of Dayton (Ohio)
    Tusculum College (Tenn.)
                                             University of Delaware (Del.)
    Tuskegee University (Ala.)
                                             University of Denver (Colo.)
    Union College (N.Y.)
                                             University of Detroit Mercy (Mich.)
    United States Air Force Academy
    (Colo.)                               University of Dubuque (Iowa)

    United States Coast Guard Academy     University of Evansville (Ind.)
    (Conn.)
                                             University of Florida (Fla.)
    United States Merchant Marine Academy
    (N.Y.)                                University of Georgia (Ga.)

    United States Military Academy (N.Y.) University of Hartford (Conn.)

    United States Naval Academy (Md.)     University of Hawaii at Hilo
                                             (Hawaii)
    University of Akron Main Campus
    (Ohio)                                University of Hawaii at Manoa
                                             (Hawaii)
    University of Alabama at Birmingham
    (Ala.)                                University of Houston-University
                                             Park (Tex.)
    University of Alabama in Huntsville
    (Ala.)                                University of Idaho (Idaho)

    University of Alaska Anchorage        University of Illinois at Chicago
    (Alaska)                              (Ill.)

    University of Alaska Fairbanks        University of Illinois at
    (Alaska)                              Urbana-Champaign (Ill.)

    University of Arizona (Ariz.)         University of Indianapolis (Ind.)

    University of Arkansas at Little Rock University of Iowa (Iowa)
    (Ark.)
                                             University of Kansas Main Campus
    University of Arkansas at Monticello  (Kan.)
    (Ark.)
                                             University of Kentucky (Ky.)
    University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
    (Ark.)                                University of La Verne (Calif.)

    University of Arkansas Main Campus    University of Louisiana at Lafayette
    (Ark.)                                (La.)

    University of Bridgeport (Conn.)      University of Louisiana at Monroe
                                             (La.)
    University of California-Berkeley
    (Calif.)                              University of Louisville (Ky.)

    University of California-Davis        University of Maine (Maine)
    (Calif.)
                                             University of Maine at Farmington
    University of California-Irvine       (Maine)
    (Calif.)
                                             University of Mary Hardin-Baylor
    University of California-Los Angeles  (Tex.)
    (Calif.)
                                             University of Mary Washington (Va.)
    University of California-Riverside
    (Calif.)

    University of California-San Diego
    (Calif.)

    University of California-Santa
    Barbara (Calif.)

    University of California-Santa Cruz
    (Calif.)

    University of Central Arkansas (Ark.)

    University of Central Florida (Fla.)
    University of Maryland-Baltimore      University of North Carolina at
    County (Md.)                          Greensboro (N.C.)

    University of Maryland-College Park   University of North Carolina at
    (Md.)                                 Pembroke (N.C.)

    University of Maryland-Eastern Shore  University of North
    (Md.)                                 Carolina-Wilmington (N.C.)

    University of Massachusetts-Amherst   University of North Dakota-Main
    (Mass.)                               Campus (N.D.)

    University of Massachusetts-Boston    University of North Florida (Fla.)
    (Mass.)
                                             University of North Texas (Tex.)
    University of Massachusetts-Dartmouth
    (Mass.)                               University of Northern Colorado
                                             (Colo.)
    University of Massachusetts-Lowell
    (Mass.)                               University of Northern Iowa (Iowa)

    University of Memphis (Tenn.)         University of Notre Dame (Ind.)

    University of Miami (Fla.)            University of Oklahoma Norman Campus
                                             (Okla.)
    University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
    (Mich.)                               University of Oregon (Ore.)

    University of Minnesota-Crookston     University of Pennsylvania (Pa.)
    (Minn.)
                                             University of Pittsburgh-Bradford
    University of Minnesota-Duluth        (Pa.)
    (Minn.)
                                             University of Pittsburgh-Greensburg
    University of Minnesota-Morris        (Pa.)
    (Minn.)
                                             University of Pittsburgh-Johnstown
    University of Minnesota-Twin Cities   (Pa.)
    (Minn.)
                                             University of Pittsburgh-Main Campus
    University of Mississippi Main Campus (Pa.)
    (Miss.)
                                             University of Portland (Ore.)
    University of Missouri-Columbia (Mo.)
                                             University of Puerto Rico-Bayamon
    University of Missouri-Kansas City    (P.R.)
    (Mo.)
                                             University of Puerto Rico-Cayey
    University of Missouri-Rolla (Mo.)    University College (P.R.)

    University of Missouri-St Louis (Mo.) University of Puerto Rico-Humacao
                                             (P.R.)
    University of Montevallo (Ala.)
                                             University of Puerto Rico-Mayaguez
    University of Nebraska at Kearney     (P.R.)
    (Neb.)
                                             University of Puerto Rico-Rio
    University of Nebraska at Lincoln     Piedras Campus (P.R.)
    (Neb.)
                                             University of Puget Sound (Wash.)
    University of Nebraska at Omaha
    (Neb.)                                University of Redlands (Calif.)

    University of Nevada-Las Vegas (Nev.) University of Rhode Island (R.I.)

    University of Nevada-Reno (Nev.)      University of Richmond (Va.)

    University of New England (Maine)     University of Rochester (N.Y.)

    University of New Hampshire-Main      University of San Diego (Calif.)
    Campus (N.H.)
                                             University of San Francisco (Calif.)
    University of New Haven (Conn.)
                                             University of Scranton (Pa.)
    University of New Mexico-Main Campus
    (N.M.)                                University of South Alabama (Ala.)

    University of New Orleans (La.)

    University of North Alabama (Ala.)

    University of North Carolina at
    Asheville (N.C.)

    University of North Carolina at
    Chapel Hill (N.C.)

    University of North Carolina at
    Charlotte (N.C.)
    University of South Carolina Upstate  Upper Iowa University (Iowa)
    (S.C.)
                                             Upsala College (N.J.)
    University of South Carolina-Aiken
    (S.C.)                                Ursinus College (Pa.)

    University of South Carolina-Columbia Utah State University (Utah)
    (S.C.)
                                             Utica College (N.Y.)
    University of South Dakota (S.D.)
                                             Valdosta State University (Ga.)
    University of South Florida (Fla.)
                                             Valparaiso University (Ind.)
    University of Southern California
    (Calif.)                              Vanderbilt University (Tenn.)

    University of Southern Indiana (Ind.) Vassar College (N.Y.)

    University of Southern Maine (Maine)  Villa Julie College (Md.)

    University of Southern Mississippi    Villanova University (Pa.)
    (Miss.)
                                             Virginia Commonwealth University
    University of St Francis (Ill.)       (Va.)

    University of St Thomas (Minn.)       Virginia Military Institute (Va.)

    University of the District of         Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
    Columbia (D.C.)                       State Univ (Va.)

    University of the Incarnate Word      Virginia State University (Va.)
    (Tex.)
                                             Virginia Union University (Va.)
    University of the Ozarks (Ark.)
                                             Virginia Wesleyan College (Va.)
    University of the Pacific (Calif.)
                                             Wabash College (Ind.)
    University of the Sciences in
    Philadelphia (Pa.)                    Wagner College (N.Y.)

    University of Toledo (Ohio)           Wake Forest University (N.C.)

    University of Tulsa (Okla.)           Wartburg College (Iowa)

    University of Utah (Utah)             Washburn University (Kan.)

    University of Vermont and State       Washington & Jefferson College (Pa.)
    Agricultural Coll (Vt.)
                                             Washington and Lee University (Va.)
    University of Virginia-Main Campus
    (Va.)                                 Washington College (Md.)

    University of Washington-Seattle      Washington State University (Wash.)
    Campus (Wash.)
                                             Washington University in St Louis
    University of West Alabama (Ala.)     (Mo.)

    University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire    Wayne State College (Neb.)
    (Wis.)
                                             Wayne State University (Mich.)
    University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
    (Wis.)                                Waynesburg College (Pa.)

    University of Wisconsin-La Crosse     Weber State University (Utah)
    (Wis.)
                                             Webster University (Mo.)
    University of Wisconsin-Madison
    (Wis.)                                Wellesley College (Mass.)

    University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee     Wells College (N.Y.)
    (Wis.)
                                             Wentworth Institute of Technology
    University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh       (Mass.)
    (Wis.)
                                             Wesley College (Del.)
    University of Wisconsin-Parkside
    (Wis.)                                Wesleyan College (Ga.)

    University of Wisconsin-Platteville   Wesleyan University (Conn.)
    (Wis.)

    University of Wisconsin-River Falls
    (Wis.)

    University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
    (Wis.)

    University of Wisconsin-Stout (Wis.)

    University of Wisconsin-Superior
    (Wis.)

    University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
    (Wis.)

    University of Wyoming (Wyo.)
    West Chester University of            Wichita State University (Kan.)
    Pennsylvania (Pa.)
                                             Widener University-Main Campus (Pa.)
    West Liberty State College (W.Va.)
                                             Wiley College (Tex.)
    West Texas A & M University (Tex.)
                                             Wilkes University (Pa.)
    West Virginia State University
    (W.Va.)                               Willamette University (Ore.)

    West Virginia University (W.Va.)      William Paterson University of New
                                             Jersey (N.J.)
    West Virginia University Institute of
    Technology (W.Va.)                    William Penn University (Iowa)

    West Virginia Wesleyan College        Williams College (Mass.)
    (W.Va.)
                                             Wilmington College (Del.)
    Western Carolina University (N.C.)
                                             Wilmington College (Ohio)
    Western Connecticut State University
    (Conn.)                               Wilson College (Pa.)

    Western Illinois University (Ill.)    Wingate University (N.C.)

    Western Kentucky University (Ky.)     Winona State University (Minn.)

    Western Michigan University (Mich.)   Winston-Salem State University
                                             (N.C.)
    Western New England College (Mass.)
                                             Winthrop University (S.C.)
    Western New Mexico University (N.M.)
                                             Wisconsin Lutheran College (Wis.)
    Western Oregon University (Ore.)
                                             Wittenberg University (Ohio)
    Western State College of Colorado
    (Colo.)                               Wofford College (S.C.)

    Western Washington University (Wash.) Worcester Polytechnic Institute
                                             (Mass.)
    Westfield State College (Mass.)
                                             Worcester State College (Mass.)
    Westminster College (Mo.)
                                             Wright State University-Main Campus
    Westminster College (Pa.)             (Ohio)

    Wheaton College (Ill.)                Xavier University (Ohio)

    Wheaton College (Mass.)               Yale University (Conn.)

    Wheeling Jesuit University (W.Va.)    Yeshiva University (N.Y.)

    Wheelock College (Mass.)              York College Pennsylvania (Pa.)

    Whitman College (Wash.)               Youngstown State University (Ohio)

    Whittier College (Calif.)

    Whitworth College (Wash.)

    Source: NCAA and Department of Education.

    Notes: For some schools, "A & M" no longer signifies "Agricultural and
    Mechanical" but is simply part of the school name

    School names are listed as they were reported to the Department of
    Education through the IPEDS system. Thus, some names may differ from how
    they are listed in the NCAA membership directories.

    Appendix IV: Schools Included in the Closed Group

    The following 750 schools were included in the closed group of NCAA
    members that met the following three criteria:

               o They were members of the NCAA in each year from 1991-1992 to
               2004-2005.
               o They were not also members of the second-largest athletic
               association, the NAIA, in any year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005.
               o They reported team and participant information consistently each
               year from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005.

    Table 4: Closed-Group Schools (state abbreviation)

    Abilene Christian University (Tex.)   Augustana College (Ill.)

    Adelphi University (N.Y.)             Augustana College (S.D.)

    Adrian College (Mich.)                Aurora University (Ill.)

    Alabama A & M University (Ala.)       Austin Peay State University (Tenn.)

    Alabama State University (Ala.)       Averett University (Va.)

    Albany State University (Ga.)         Babson College (Mass.)

    Albertus Magnus College (Conn.)       Baldwin-Wallace College (Ohio)

    Albion College (Mich.)                Ball State University (Ind.)

    Albright College (Pa.)                Barnard College (N.Y.)

    Alcorn State University (Miss.)       Barry University (Fla.)

    Alfred University (N.Y.)              Bates College (Maine)

    Allegheny College (Pa.)               Baylor University (Tex.)

    Alma College (Mich.)                  Bellarmine University (Ky.)

    American International College        Beloit College (Wis.)
    (Mass.)
                                             Bemidji State University (Minn.)
    American University (D.C.)
                                             Benedictine University (Ill.)
    Angelo State University (Tex.)
                                             Bentley College (Mass.)
    Anna Maria College (Mass.)
                                             Bethany College (W.Va.)
    Appalachian State University (N.C.)
                                             Bethel University (Minn.)
    Arizona State University at the Tempe
    Campus (Ariz.)                        Bethune Cookman College (Fla.)

    Arkansas State University-Main Campus Blackburn College (Ill.)
    (Ark.)
                                             Bloomsburg University of
    Armstrong Atlantic State University   Pennsylvania (Pa.)
    (Ga.)
                                             Bluffton University (Ohio)
    Ashland University (Ohio)
                                             Boise State University (Idaho)
    Assumption College (Mass.)
                                             Boston College (Mass.)
    Auburn University Main Campus (Ala.)
                                             Boston University (Mass.)
    Augsburg College (Minn.)
                                             Bowdoin College (Maine)
    Augusta State University (Ga.)
    Bowie State University (Md.)          Campbell University Inc (N.C.)

    Bowling Green State University-Main   Canisius College (N.Y.)
    Campus (Ohio)
                                             Capital University (Ohio)
    Bradley University (Ill.)
                                             Carleton College (Minn.)
    Brandeis University (Mass.)
                                             Carnegie Mellon University (Pa.)
    Bridgewater College (Va.)
                                             Carroll College (Wis.)
    Bridgewater State College (Mass.)
                                             Carthage College (Wis.)
    Brigham Young University (Utah)
                                             Case Western Reserve University
    Brown University (R.I.)               (Ohio)

    Bryant University (R.I.)              Catholic University of America
                                             (D.C.)
    Bryn Mawr College (Pa.)
                                             Centenary College of Louisiana (La.)
    Bucknell University (Pa.)
                                             Central College (Iowa)
    Buena Vista University (Iowa)
                                             Central Connecticut State University
    Cabrini College (Pa.)                 (Conn.)

    California Institute of Technology    Central Michigan University (Mich.)
    (Calif.)
                                             Central Missouri State University
    California Lutheran University        (Mo.)
    (Calif.)
                                             Centre College (Ky.)
    California Polytechnic State
    University-San Luis Obispo (Calif.)   Chaminade University of Honolulu
                                             (Hawaii)
    California State Polytechnic
    University-Pomona (Calif.)            Chapman University (Calif.)

    California State                      Charleston Southern University
    University-Bakersfield (Calif.)       (S.C.)

    California State University-Chico     Cheyney University of Pennsylvania
    (Calif.)                              (Pa.)

    California State University-Dominguez Christopher Newport University (Va.)
    Hills (Calif.)
                                             Citadel Military College of South
    California State University-Fresno    Carolina (S.C.)
    (Calif.)
                                             Claremont Mckenna College (Calif.)
    California State University-Fullerton
    (Calif.)                              Clarion University of Pennsylvania
                                             (Pa.)
    California State University-Long
    Beach (Calif.)                        Clark Atlanta University (Ga.)

    California State University-Los       Clark University (Mass.)
    Angeles (Calif.)
                                             Clarkson University (N.Y.)
    California State
    University-Northridge (Calif.)        Clemson University (S.C.)

    California State                      Cleveland State University (Ohio)
    University-Sacramento (Calif.)
                                             Coastal Carolina University (S.C.)
    California State University-San
    Bernardino (Calif.)                   Coe College (Iowa)

    California State                      Colby College (Maine)
    University-Stanislaus (Calif.)
                                             Colby-Sawyer College (N.H.)
    California University of Pennsylvania
    (Pa.)                                 Colgate University (N.Y.)

    Calvin College (Mich.)                College of Charleston (S.C.)

    Cameron University (Okla.)            College of Notre Dame of Maryland
                                             (Md.)

                                             College of Our Lady of the Elms
                                             (Mass.)

                                             College of Saint Benedict (Minn.)
    College of Saint Elizabeth (N.J.)     Desales University (Pa.)

    College of St Catherine (Minn.)       Dickinson College (Pa.)

    College of the Holy Cross (Mass.)     Dowling College (N.Y.)

    College of William and Mary (Va.)     Drake University (Iowa)

    College of Wooster (Ohio)             Drew University (N.J.)

    Colorado Christian University (Colo.) Drexel University (Pa.)

    Colorado College (Colo.)              Duke University (N.C.)

    Colorado State University (Colo.)     Duquesne University (Pa.)

    Colorado State University-Pueblo      Earlham College (Ind.)
    (Colo.)
                                             East Carolina University (N.C.)
    Columbus State University (Ga.)
                                             East Stroudsburg University of
    Concordia College (N.Y.)              Pennsylvania (Pa.)

    Concordia College at Moorhead (Minn.) East Tennessee State University
                                             (Tenn.)
    Concordia University (Ill.)
                                             Eastern Connecticut State University
    Connecticut College (Conn.)           (Conn.)

    Coppin State University (Md.)         Eastern Illinois University (Ill.)

    Cornell College (Iowa)                Eastern Kentucky University (Ky.)

    Cornell University-Endowed Colleges   Eastern Mennonite University (Va.)
    (N.Y.)
                                             Eastern Michigan University (Mich.)
    Creighton University (Neb.)
                                             Eastern Nazarene College (Mass.)
    CUNY City College (N.Y.)
                                             Eastern New Mexico University-Main
    CUNY College of Staten Island (N.Y.)  Campus (N.M.)

    CUNY Hunter College (N.Y.)            Eastern Washington University
                                             (Wash.)
    CUNY John Jay College Criminal
    Justice (N.Y.)                        Eckerd College (Fla.)

    CUNY Lehman College (N.Y.)            Edinboro University of Pennsylvania
                                             (Pa.)
    CUNY Medgar Evers College (N.Y.)
                                             Elizabeth City State University
    CUNY Queens College (N.Y.)            (N.C.)

    CUNY York College (N.Y.)              Elizabethtown College (Pa.)

    Curry College (Mass.)                 Elmhurst College (Ill.)

    Daniel Webster College (N.H.)         Elmira College (N.Y.)

    Dartmouth College (N.H.)              Emerson College (Mass.)

    Davidson College (N.C.)               Emmanuel College (Mass.)

    Defiance College (Ohio)               Emory and Henry College (Va.)

    Delaware State University (Del.)      Emory University (Ga.)

    Delaware Valley College (Pa.)         Fairfield University (Conn.)

    Delta State University (Miss.)        Fairleigh Dickinson
                                             University-College at Florham (N.J.)
    Denison University (Ohio)
                                             Fairleigh Dickinson
    Depaul University (Ill.)              University-Metropolitan Campus
                                             (N.J.)
    Depauw University (Ind.)
                                             Fayetteville State University (N.C.)
    Ferris State University (Mich.)       Gustavus Adolphus College (Minn.)

    Ferrum College (Va.)                  Hamilton College (N.Y.)

    Fisk University (Tenn.)               Hamline University (Minn.)

    Fitchburg State College (Mass.)       Hampden-Sydney College (Va.)

    Florida Agricultural and Mechanical   Hampton University (Va.)
    University (Fla.)
                                             Hartwick College (N.Y.)
    Florida Atlantic University-Boca
    Raton (Fla.)                          Harvard University (Mass.)

    Florida Institute of                  Haverford College (Pa.)
    Technology-Melbourne (Fla.)
                                             Heidelberg College (Ohio)
    Florida International University
    (Fla.)                                Hiram College (Ohio)

    Florida Southern College (Fla.)       Hobart William Smith Colleges (N.Y.)

    Florida State University (Fla.)       Hofstra University (N.Y.)

    Fontbonne University (Mo.)            Hollins University (Va.)

    Fordham University (N.Y.)             Hood College (Md.)

    Fort Valley State University (Ga.)    Hope College (Mich.)

    Framingham State College (Mass.)      Howard University (D.C.)

    Franklin and Marshall College (Pa.)   Humboldt State University (Calif.)

    Franklin Pierce College (N.H.)        Idaho State University (Idaho)

    Frostburg State University (Md.)      Illinois College (Ill.)

    Furman University (S.C.)              Illinois State University (Ill.)

    Gallaudet University (D.C.)           Illinois Wesleyan University (Ill.)

    Gannon University (Pa.)               Immaculata University (Pa.)

    George Mason University (Va.)         Indiana State University (Ind.)

    George Washington University (D.C.)   Indiana University of
                                             Pennsylvania-Main Campus (Pa.)
    Georgetown University (D.C.)
                                             Indiana University-Bloomington
    Georgia College and State University  (Ind.)
    (Ga.)
                                             Indiana University-Purdue
    Georgia Institute of Technology-Main  University-Fort Wayne (Ind.)
    Campus (Ga.)
                                             Iona College (N.Y.)
    Georgia Southern University (Ga.)
                                             Iowa State University (Iowa)
    Georgia State University (Ga.)
                                             Ithaca College (N.Y.)
    Gettysburg College (Pa.)
                                             Jackson State University (Miss.)
    Gonzaga University (Wash.)
                                             Jacksonville State University (Ala.)
    Goucher College (Md.)
                                             Jacksonville University (Fla.)
    Grambling State University (La.)
                                             James Madison University (Va.)
    Grand Valley State University (Mich.)
                                             John Carroll University (Ohio)
    Greensboro College (N.C.)
                                             Johns Hopkins University (Md.)
    Grinnell College (Iowa)
                                             Johnson C Smith University (N.C.)
    Grove City College (Pa.)
                                             Juniata College (Pa.)
    Guilford College (N.C.)
    Kalamazoo College (Mich.)             Luther College (Iowa)

    Kansas State University (Kan.)        Lycoming College (Pa.)

    Kean University (N.J.)                Lynchburg College (Va.)

    Keene State College (N.H.)            Macalester College (Minn.)

    Kent State University-Main Campus     MacMurray College (Ill.)
    (Ohio)
                                             Manhattan College (N.Y.)
    Kentucky State University (Ky.)
                                             Manhattanville College (N.Y.)
    Kenyon College (Ohio)
                                             Mansfield University of Pennsylvania
    Keuka College (N.Y.)                  (Pa.)

    Kings College (Pa.)                   Marietta College (Ohio)

    Knox College (Ill.)                   Marist College (N.Y.)

    Kutztown University of Pennsylvania   Marquette University (Wis.)
    (Pa.)
                                             Marshall University (W.Va.)
    La Salle University (Pa.)
                                             Mary Baldwin College (Va.)
    Lafayette College (Pa.)
                                             Marymount University (Va.)
    Lake Forest College (Ill.)
                                             Maryville College (Tenn.)
    Lake Superior State University
    (Mich.)                               Maryville University of Saint Louis
                                             (Mo.)
    Lamar University (Tex.)
                                             Marywood University (Pa.)
    Lander University (S.C.)
                                             Massachusetts College of Liberal
    Lawrence University (Wis.)            Arts (Mass.)

    Le Moyne College (N.Y.)               Massachusetts Institute of
                                             Technology (Mass.)
    Le Moyne-Owen College (Tenn.)
                                             Massachusetts Maritime Academy
    Lebanon Valley College (Pa.)          (Mass.)

    Lewis University (Ill.)               McDaniel College (Md.)

    Liberty University (Va.)              McNeese State University (La.)

    Lincoln Memorial University (Tenn.)   Mercer University (Ga.)

    Lincoln University (Mo.)              Mercy College-Main Campus (N.Y.)

    Lincoln University (Pa.)              Mercyhurst College (Pa.)

    Livingstone College (N.C.)            Merrimack College (Mass.)

    Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania Messiah College (Pa.)
    (Pa.)
                                             Methodist College (N.C.)
    Long Island University-Brooklyn
    Campus (N.Y.)                         Metropolitan State College of Denver
                                             (Colo.)
    Long Island University-C W Post
    Campus (N.Y.)                         Miami University-Oxford (Ohio)

    Loras College (Iowa)                  Michigan State University (Mich.)

    Louisiana State Univ & Ag & Mech &    Michigan Technological University
    Hebert Laws Ctr (La.)                 (Mich.)

    Louisiana Tech University (La.)       Middle Tennessee State University
                                             (Tenn.)
    Loyola College in Maryland (Md.)
                                             Middlebury College (Vt.)
    Loyola Marymount University (Calif.)
                                             Miles College (Ala.)
    Loyola University Chicago (Ill.)
                                             Millersville      University      of
                                             Pennsylvania (Pa.)
    Millikin University (Ill.)            North Carolina Wesleyan College
                                             (N.C.)
    Millsaps College (Miss.)
                                             North Central College (Ill.)
    Minnesota State University-Mankato
    (Minn.)                               North Dakota State University-Main
                                             Campus (N.D.)
    Mississippi College (Miss.)
                                             North Park University (Ill.)
    Mississippi State University (Miss.)
                                             Northeastern University (Mass.)
    Mississippi Valley State University
    (Miss.)                               Northern Arizona University (Ariz.)

    Missouri Southern State University    Northern Illinois University (Ill.)
    (Mo.)
                                             Northern Kentucky University (Ky.)
    Molloy College (N.Y.)
                                             Northern Michigan University (Mich.)
    Monmouth College (Ill.)
                                             Northwestern State University of
    Monmouth University (N.J.)            Louisiana (La.)

    Montana State University-Billings     Northwestern University (Ill.)
    (Mont.)
                                             Norwich University (Vt.)
    Montana State University-Bozeman
    (Mont.)                               Oberlin College (Ohio)

    Montclair State University (N.J.)     Occidental College (Calif.)

    Morehead State University (Ky.)       Oglethorpe University (Ga.)

    Morehouse College (Ga.)               Ohio Northern University (Ohio)

    Morgan State University (Md.)         Ohio State University-Main Campus
                                             (Ohio)
    Mount Holyoke College (Mass.)
                                             Ohio University-Main Campus (Ohio)
    Mount Saint Mary College (N.Y.)
                                             Ohio Wesleyan University (Ohio)
    Mount St Mary's University (Md.)
                                             Oklahoma State University-Main
    Mount Union College (Ohio)            Campus (Okla.)

    Muhlenberg College (Pa.)              Old Dominion University (Va.)

    Murray State University (Ky.)         Olivet College (Mich.)

    Muskingum College (Ohio)              Oregon State University (Ore.)

    Nazareth College of Rochester (N.Y.)  Otterbein College (Ohio)

    New England College (N.H.)            Pace University-New York (N.Y.)

    New Jersey City University (N.J.)     Paine College (Ga.)

    New Jersey Institute of Technology    Pennsylvania State University-Main
    (N.J.)                                Campus (Pa.)

    New Mexico State University-Main      Pennsylvania State Univ-Penn St
    Campus (N.M.)                         Erie-Behrend Coll (Pa.)

    New York University (N.Y.)            Pepperdine University (Calif.)

    Niagara University (N.Y.)             Philadelphia University (Pa.)

    Nicholls State University (La.)       Pine Manor College (Mass.)

    Nichols College (Mass.)               Pittsburg State University (Kan.)

    Norfolk State University (Va.)        Pitzer College (Calif.)

    North Carolina A & T State University Plymouth State University (N.H.)
    (N.C.)
                                             Polytechnic University (N.Y.)
    North Carolina Central University
    (N.C.)

    North Carolina State University at
    Raleigh (N.C.)
    Portland State University (Ore.)      Saint Leo University (Fla.)

    Princeton University (N.J.)           Saint Louis University-Main Campus
                                             (Mo.)
    Principia College (Ill.)
                                             Saint Mary's College (Ind.)
    Providence College (R.I.)
                                             Saint Marys College of California
    Purdue University-Main Campus (Ind.)  (Calif.)

    Queens University of Charlotte (N.C.) Saint Mary's University of Minnesota
                                             (Minn.)
    Quinnipiac University (Conn.)
                                             Saint Michaels College (Vt.)
    Radford University (Va.)
                                             Saint Norbert College (Wis.)
    Ramapo College of New Jersey (N.J.)
                                             Saint Pauls College (Va.)
    Randolph-Macon College (Va.)
                                             Saint Peters College (N.J.)
    Regis College (Mass.)
                                             Salem State College (Mass.)
    Regis University (Colo.)
                                             Salisbury University (Md.)
    Rhode Island College (R.I.)
                                             Salve Regina University (R.I.)
    Rhodes College (Tenn.)
                                             Sam Houston State University (Tex.)
    Rice University (Tex.)
                                             Samford University (Ala.)
    Rider University (N.J.)
                                             San Diego State University (Calif.)
    Ripon College (Wis.)
                                             San Francisco State University
    Roanoke College (Va.)                 (Calif.)

    Robert Morris University (Pa.)        San Jose State University (Calif.)

    Rochester Institute of Technology     Santa Clara University (Calif.)
    (N.Y.)
                                             Savannah State University (Ga.)
    Rockford College (Ill.)
                                             Seattle Pacific University (Wash.)
    Rollins College (Fla.)
                                             Seton Hall University (N.J.)
    Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
    (Ind.)                                Sewanee: The University of the South
                                             (Tenn.)
    Rosemont College (Pa.)
                                             Shaw University (N.C.)
    Rowan University (N.J.)
                                             Shenandoah University (Va.)
    Rust College (Miss.)
                                             Shippensburg University of
    Rutgers University-Camden (N.J.)      Pennsylvania (Pa.)

    Rutgers University-New Brunswick      Siena College (N.Y.)
    (N.J.)
                                             Simmons College (Mass.)
    Rutgers University-Newark (N.J.)
                                             Simpson College (Iowa)
    Saginaw Valley State University
    (Mich.)                               Skidmore College (N.Y.)

    Saint Anselm College (N.H.)           Slippery Rock University of
                                             Pennsylvania (Pa.)
    Saint Augustines College (N.C.)
                                             Smith College (Mass.)
    Saint Bonaventure University (N.Y.)
                                             Sonoma State University (Calif.)
    Saint Cloud State University (Minn.)
                                             South Carolina State University
    Saint Francis University (Pa.)        (S.C.)

    Saint John Fisher College (N.Y.)      South Dakota State University (S.D.)

    Saint Johns University (Minn.)        Southeast Missouri State University
                                             (Mo.)
    Saint Josephs College (Ind.)
                                             Southeastern Louisiana University
    Saint Josephs University (Pa.)        (La.)
    Southern Connecticut State University SUNY Maritime College (N.Y.)
    (Conn.)
                                             SUNY-Potsdam (N.Y.)
    Southern Illinois University
    Carbondale (Ill.)                     Susquehanna University (Pa.)

    Southern Illinois University          Swarthmore College (Pa.)
    Edwardsville (Ill.)
                                             Sweet Briar College (Va.)
    Southern Methodist University (Tex.)
                                             Syracuse University (N.Y.)
    Southern New Hampshire University
    (N.H.)                                Temple University (Pa.)

    Southern University and A & M College Tennessee State University (Tenn.)
    (La.)
                                             Tennessee Technological University
    Southern Utah University (Utah)       (Tenn.)

    Southwest Baptist University (Mo.)    Texas A & M University (Tex.)

    Southwest Missouri State University   Texas A & M University-Commerce
    (Mo.)                                 (Tex.)

    Southwest Missouri State University   Texas A & M University-Kingsville
    (Mo.)                                 (Tex.)

    Springfield College (Mass.)           Texas Christian University (Tex.)

    St Francis College (N.Y.)             Texas State University-San Marcos
                                             (Tex.)
    St John's University-New York (N.Y.)
                                             Texas Tech University (Tex.)
    St Lawrence University (N.Y.)
                                             Texas Woman's University (Tex.)
    St Mary's College of Maryland (Md.)
                                             The College of New Jersey (N.J.)
    State University of West Georgia
    (Ga.)                                 The College of New Rochelle (N.Y.)

    Stephen F Austin State University     The College of Saint Rose (N.Y.)
    (Tex.)
                                             The Richard Stockton College of New
    Stetson University (Fla.)             Jersey (N.J.)

    Stevens Institute of Technology       The University of Alabama (Ala.)
    (N.J.)
                                             The University of Montana-Missoula
    Stonehill College (Mass.)             (Mont.)

    Suffolk University (Mass.)            The University of Tampa (Fla.)

    SUNY at Albany (N.Y.)                 The University of Tennessee (Tenn.)

    SUNY at Binghamton (N.Y.)             The University of
                                             Tennessee-Chattanooga (Tenn.)
    SUNY at Buffalo (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Tennessee-Martin
    SUNY at Stony Brook (N.Y.)            (Tenn.)

    SUNY College at Brockport (N.Y.)      The University of Texas at Arlington
                                             (Tex.)
    SUNY College at Buffalo (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Texas at Austin
    SUNY College at Cortland (N.Y.)       (Tex.)

    SUNY College at Fredonia (N.Y.)       The University of Texas at El Paso
                                             (Tex.)
    SUNY College at Geneseo (N.Y.)
                                             The University of Texas at San
    SUNY College at New Paltz (N.Y.)      Antonio (Tex.)

    SUNY College at Old Westbury (N.Y.)   The University of Texas-Pan American
                                             (Tex.)
    SUNY College at Oneonta (N.Y.)
                                             Thiel College (Pa.)
    SUNY College at Oswego (N.Y.)
                                             Thomas More College (Ky.)
    SUNY College at Plattsburgh (N.Y.)
                                             Towson University (Md.)
    SUNY Institute of Technology at
    Utica-Rome (N.Y.)
    Trinity College (Conn.)               University of Georgia (Ga.)

    Trinity University (Tex.)             University of Hartford (Conn.)

    Troy State University-Main Campus     University of Hawaii at Manoa
    (Ala.)                                (Hawaii)

    Truman State University (Mo.)         University of Idaho (Idaho)

    Tufts University (Mass.)              University of Illinois at Chicago
                                             (Ill.)
    Tuskegee University (Ala.)
                                             University of Illinois at
    Union College (N.Y.)                  Urbana-Champaign (Ill.)

    United States Air Force Academy       University of Indianapolis (Ind.)
    (Colo.)
                                             University of Iowa (Iowa)
    United States Coast Guard Academy
    (Conn.)                               University of Kansas Main Campus
                                             (Kan.)
    United States Military Academy (N.Y.)
                                             University of Kentucky (Ky.)
    United States Naval Academy (Md.)
                                             University of La Verne (Calif.)
    University of Akron Main Campus
    (Ohio)                                University of Louisiana at Lafayette
                                             (La.)
    University of Alabama at Birmingham
    (Ala.)                                University of Louisiana at Monroe
                                             (La.)
    University of Alabama in Huntsville
    (Ala.)                                University of Louisville (Ky.)

    University of Alaska Anchorage        University of Maine (Maine)
    (Alaska)
                                             University of Mary Washington (Va.)
    University of Alaska Fairbanks
    (Alaska)                              University of Maryland-Baltimore
                                             County (Md.)
    University of Arizona (Ariz.)
                                             University of Maryland-College Park
    University of Arkansas at Little Rock (Md.)
    (Ark.)
                                             University of Maryland-Eastern Shore
    University of Arkansas Main Campus    (Md.)
    (Ark.)
                                             University of Massachusetts-Amherst
    University of Bridgeport (Conn.)      (Mass.)

    University of California-Davis        University of Massachusetts-Boston
    (Calif.)                              (Mass.)

    University of California-Irvine       University of
    (Calif.)                              Massachusetts-Dartmouth (Mass.)

    University of California-Riverside    University of Massachusetts-Lowell
    (Calif.)                              (Mass.)

    University of California-San Diego    University of Memphis (Tenn.)
    (Calif.)
                                             University of Miami (Fla.)
    University of California-Santa
    Barbara (Calif.)                      University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
                                             (Mich.)
    University of Central Florida (Fla.)
                                             University of Minneasota-Twin Cities
    University of Central Oklahoma        (Minn.)
    (Okla.)
                                             University of Mississippi Main
    University of Chicago (Ill.)          Campus (Miss.)

    University of Cincinnati-Main Campus  University of Missouri-Columbia
    (Ohio)                                (Mo.)

    University of Colorado at Boulder     University of Missouri-Kansas City
    (Colo.)                               (Mo.)

    University of Dayton (Ohio)           University of Missouri-Rolla (Mo.)

    University of Delaware (Del.)         University of Missouri-St Louis
                                             (Mo.)
    University of Denver (Colo.)
                                             University of  Nebraska  at  Kearney
    University of Detroit Mercy (Mich.)   (Neb.)

    University of Dubuque (Iowa)          University of  Nebraska  at  Lincoln
                                             (Neb.)
    University of Evansville (Ind.)

    University of Florida (Fla.)
    University of Nebraska at Omaha       University of South Carolina Upstate
    (Neb.)                                (S.C.)

    University of Nevada-Las Vegas (Nev.) University of South Carolina-Aiken
                                             (S.C.)
    University of Nevada-Reno (Nev.)
                                             University of South
    University of New Hampshire-Main      Carolina-Columbia (S.C.)
    Campus (N.H.)
                                             University of South Dakota (S.D.)
    University of New Haven (Conn.)
                                             University of South Florida (Fla.)
    University of New Mexico-Main Campus
    (N.M.)                                University of Southern California
                                             (Calif.)
    University of New Orleans (La.)
                                             University of Southern Indiana
    University of North Alabama (Ala.)    (Ind.)

    University of North Carolina at       University of Southern Maine (Maine)
    Asheville (N.C.)
                                             University of Southern Mississippi
    University of North Carolina at       (Miss.)
    Chapel Hill (N.C.)
                                             University of St Thomas (Minn.)
    University of North Carolina at
    Charlotte (N.C.)                      University of the District of
                                             Columbia (D.C.)
    University of North Carolina at
    Greensboro (N.C.)                     University of the Pacific (Calif.)

    University of North Carolina at       University of Toledo (Ohio)
    Pembroke (N.C.)
                                             University of Tulsa (Okla.)
    University of North
    Carolina-Wilmington (N.C.)            University of Utah (Utah)

    University of North Dakota-Main       University of Vermont and State
    Campus (N.D.)                         Agricultural Coll (Vt.)

    University of North Texas (Tex.)      University of Virginia-Main Campus
                                             (Va.)
    University of Northern Colorado
    (Colo.)                               University of Washington-Seattle
                                             Campus (Wash.)
    University of Northern Iowa (Iowa)
                                             University of West Alabama (Ala.)
    University of Notre Dame (Ind.)
                                             University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
    University of Oklahoma Norman Campus  (Wis.)
    (Okla.)
                                             University of Wisconsin-La Crosse
    University of Oregon (Ore.)           (Wis.)

    University of Pennsylvania (Pa.)      University of Wisconsin-Madison
                                             (Wis.)
    University of Pittsburgh-Main Campus
    (Pa.)                                 University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
                                             (Wis.)
    University of Portland (Ore.)
                                             University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh
    University of Redlands (Calif.)       (Wis.)

    University of Rhode Island (R.I.)     University of Wisconsin-Stout (Wis.)

    University of Richmond (Va.)          University of Wisconsin-Superior
                                             (Wis.)
    University of Rochester (N.Y.)
                                             University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
    University of San Diego (Calif.)      (Wis.)

    University of San Francisco (Calif.)  University of Wyoming (Wyo.)

    University of Scranton (Pa.)          Upper Iowa University (Iowa)

    University of South Alabama (Ala.)    Ursinus College (Pa.)

                                             Utah State University (Utah)

                                             Utica College (N.Y.)

                                             Valdosta State University (Ga.)

                                             Valparaiso University (Ind.)

                                             Vanderbilt University (Tenn.)

                                             Vassar College (N.Y.)

                                             Villanova University (Pa.)
    Virginia Commonwealth University      Western Carolina University (N.C.)
    (Va.)
                                             Western Connecticut State University
    Virginia Military Institute (Va.)     (Conn.)

    Virginia Polytechnic Institute and    Western Illinois University (Ill.)
    State Univ (Va.)
                                             Western Kentucky University (Ky.)
    Virginia State University (Va.)
                                             Western Michigan University (Mich.)
    Virginia Union University (Va.)
                                             Western New England College (Mass.)
    Virginia Wesleyan College (Va.)
                                             Westfield State College (Mass.)
    Wabash College (Ind.)
                                             Wheaton College (Ill.)
    Wagner College (N.Y.)
                                             Wheaton College (Mass.)
    Wake Forest University (N.C.)
                                             Whittier College (Calif.)
    Wartburg College (Iowa)
                                             Wichita State University (Kan.)
    Washburn University (Kan.)
                                             Widener University-Main Campus (Pa.)
    Washington & Jefferson College (Pa.)
                                             Wilkes University (Pa.)
    Washington and Lee University (Va.)
                                             William Paterson University of New
    Washington College (Md.)              Jersey (N.J.)

    Washington State University (Wash.)   Williams College (Mass.)

    Washington University in St Louis     Wilmington College (Del.)
    (Mo.)
                                             Winston-Salem State University
    Wayne State College (Neb.)            (N.C.)

    Wayne State University (Mich.)        Winthrop University (S.C.)

    Waynesburg College (Pa.)              Wittenberg University (Ohio)

    Weber State University (Utah)         Wofford College (S.C.)

    Webster University (Mo.)              Worcester Polytechnic Institute
                                             (Mass.)
    Wellesley College (Mass.)
                                             Worcester State College (Mass.)
    Wells College (N.Y.)
                                             Wright State University-Main Campus
    Wentworth Institute of Technology     (Ohio)
    (Mass.)
                                             Xavier University (Ohio)
    Wesley College (Del.)
                                             Yale University (Conn.)
    Wesleyan University (Conn.)
                                             Yeshiva University (N.Y.)
    West    Chester     University     of
    Pennsylvania (Pa.)                    York College Pennsylvania (Pa.)

    West Texas A & M University (Tex.)    Youngstown State University (Ohio)

    West Virginia University (W.Va.)

    Sources: NCAA and Department of Education.

    Notes: For some schools, "A & M" no longer signifies "Agricultural and
    Mechanical" but is simply part of the school name.

    School names are listed as they were reported to the Department of
    Education through the IPEDS system. Thus, some names may differ from how
    they are listed in the NCAA membership directories.

    Appendix V: Comments from the Department of Education

    Appendix VI: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments

    GAO Contact

    George A. Scott, Director, (202) 512-7215, [21]ScottG@gao.gov .

    Staff Acknowledgments

    Melissa Emrey-Arras, Assistant Director, and Jeffrey W. Weinstein,
    Analyst-in-Charge, managed this assignment. Other staff members who made
    key contributions throughout the assignment include Cornelia Ashby, Jeff
    Appel, Claudine Pauselli, Ann-Marie Udale, Rachael Valliere, and Carla
    Craddock. Luann Moy assisted with methodology and data reliability
    testing. Sheila McCoy provided legal assistance. Lisa Mirel, Alice
    Feldesman, Karen Burke, and Avy Ashery provided assistance with graphics
    and layout.

    Related GAO Products

    Intercollegiate Athletics: Trends by Sport in National Collegiate Athletic
    Association Sports. [22]GAO-07-744SP . Washington, D.C.: July 12, 2007.

    Intercollegiate Athletics: Four-Year Colleges' Experiences Adding and
    Discontinuing Teams. [23]GAO-01-297 . Washington, D.C.: March 8, 2001.

    Gender Equity: Men's and Women's Participation in Higher Education.
    [24]GAO-01-128 . Washington, D.C.: December 15, 2000.

    Intercollegiate Athletics: Comparison of Selected Characteristics for
    Men's and Women's Programs. [25]HEHS-99-3R . Washington, D.C.: June 18,
    1999.

    Intercollegiate Athletics: Status of Efforts to Promote Gender Equity.
    [26]HEHS-97-10 . Washington, D.C.: October 25, 1996.

    Intercollegiate Athletics: Compensation Varies for Selected Personnel in
    Athletic Departments. [27]HRD-92-121 . Washington, D.C.: August 19, 1992.

    (130543)

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    [34]www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-535 .

    To view the full product, including the scope and methodology, click on
    the link above. To view the e-supplement online, click on
    www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt? [35]GAO-07-744SP . For more information,
    contact George A. Scott at (202) 512-7215 or ScottG@gao.gov.

    Highlights of [36]GAO-07-535 , a report to congressional addressees

    July 2007

    INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

    Recent Trends in Teams and Participants in National Collegiate Athletic
    Association Sports

    Since the 1970s, the roles of women as both students and athletes have
    changed in higher education, with female enrollment surpassing male
    enrollment, and female athletic participation showing gains as well. These
    changes have generated public interest in whether women participate in
    athletics at comparable levels to men and whether men's opportunities have
    decreased as a result of the increased opportunities for women. Under the
    Comptroller General's authority, GAO assessed the extent to which the
    numbers of men's and women's intercollegiate sports teams and participants
    at 4-year colleges have changed from the 1991-1992 through 2004-2005
    school years.

    To address these issues, GAO analyzed athletic data from the National
    Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) for two groups of colleges: (a) the
    entire NCAA membership, or open group, for which trends will reflect
    school-level decisions and membership changes, and (b) the consistent
    members of the NCAA throughout this period, or closed group, for which
    trends will reflect school-level decisions only. We used NCAA data because
    they were the only viable option for analyzing annual athletic trends for
    teams and participants over an extended period. We analyzed those sports
    for which team and participant data were reported each year for both
    groups of colleges.

    While the numbers of both men's and women's intercollegiate sports teams
    increased from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005, women's teams showed greater gains
    than men's teams. In fact, there have been more women's than men's teams
    since the mid-to-late 1990s for both the entire NCAA membership and the
    group of colleges that were consistent members of the NCAA throughout this
    period. For both groups of schools, most women's sports and some men's
    sports showed increases in teams, but many men's sports showed mixed or
    small changes in the number of teams.

    The numbers of both male and female athletic participants increased from
    1991-1992 to 2004-2005--with female participants showing larger rates of
    increase--but men's participation levels were greater than women's
    throughout this time period, both in absolute terms and relative to their
    respective enrollments. Most women's sports and half of men's sports
    showed increases in the number of participants across both groups of
    schools. In the context of enrollment, female participation grew at a
    faster rate than female enrollment in both groups of schools. However,
    from 1991-1992 to 2004-2005, overall participation rates were
    significantly greater for men in at least three out of four coed schools
    in the closed group.

    Number of Male and Female Participants in the Open and Closed Groups,
    1991-1992 to 2004-2005 School Years

    Notes: These counts reflect the sum of the participants in each of the
    individual sports that were consistently reported throughout the time
    period. To the extent that athletes participated on more than one team,
    the number of participants may be overstated.

    For the open group, counts for 1995-1996 through 2004-2005 include
    colleges that had applied for but not yet been given full NCAA membership
    status; counts for 1991-1992 through 1994-1995 do not include such
    colleges.

    Open-group participant counts for 1995-1996 through 1998-1999 are NCAA
    estimates based on athletic records collected by schools to meet the
    requirements of the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act.

    References

    Visible links
      13. ://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
      14. http://www.gao.gov/
      15. mailto:ScottG@gao.gov
      16. http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/media_and_events/ncaa_publications/research
      17. http://nces.ed.gov/ipedspas
      18. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-01-297
      19. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
      20. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2005175
      21. mailto:ScottG@gao.gov
      22. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
      23. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-01-297
      24. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-01-128
      25. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?HEHS-99-3R
      26. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?HEHS-97-10
      27. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?HRD-92-121
      28. http://www.gao.gov/
      29. http://www.gao.gov/
      30. http://www.gao.gov/fraudnet/fraudnet.htm
      31. mailto:fraudnet@gao.gov
      32. mailto:JarmonG@gao.gov
      33. mailto:AndersonP1@gao.gov
      34. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-535
      35. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-744SP
      36. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-535
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