Human Trafficking: Monitoring and Evaluation of International	 
Projects Are Limited, but Experts Suggest Improvements		 
(26-JUL-07, GAO-07-1034).					 
                                                                 
Human trafficking--a worldwide crime involving the exploitation  
of men, women, and children for others' financial gain--is a	 
violation of human rights. Victims are often lured or abducted	 
and forced to work in involuntary servitude. Since 2001, the U.S.
government has provided about $447 million to combat global human
trafficking. As GAO previously reported, estimates of the number 
of trafficking victims are questionable. In this report, GAO	 
examines (1) collaboration among organizations involved in	 
international antitrafficking efforts, (2) U.S. government	 
monitoring of antitrafficking projects and difficulties in	 
evaluating these projects, and (3) suggestions for strengthening 
monitoring and evaluation. GAO analyzed agency documents;	 
convened an expert panel; interviewed officials; and conducted	 
fieldwork in Indonesia, Thailand, and Mexico.			 
-------------------------Indexing Terms------------------------- 
REPORTNUM:   GAO-07-1034					        
    ACCNO:   A73431						        
  TITLE:     Human Trafficking: Monitoring and Evaluation of	      
International Projects Are Limited, but Experts Suggest 	 
Improvements							 
     DATE:   07/26/2007 
  SUBJECT:   Children						 
	     Crime prevention					 
	     Crime victims					 
	     Evaluation methods 				 
	     Federal aid to foreign countries			 
	     Foreign governments				 
	     Human rights violations				 
	     International cooperation				 
	     International relations				 
	     Program evaluation 				 
	     Strategic planning 				 

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GAO-07-1034

   

     * [1]Report to Congressional Requesters

          * [2]July 2007

     * [3]HUMAN TRAFFICKING

          * [4]Monitoring and Evaluation of International Projects Are
            Limited, but Experts Suggest Improvements

     * [5]Contents

          * [6]Results in Brief
          * [7]Background

               * [8]Human Trafficking Cases Often Follow a Similar Pattern
               * [9]U.S. Government and Multilateral Organizations' Projects
                 Focus on Three Areas
               * [10]U.S. Agency and International Organizations' Monitoring
                 and Evaluation Requirements Vary

          * [11]Organizations Have Taken Steps to Collaborate, but Continue
            to Face Challenges

               * [12]Global, Regional, and Country-Level Organizations
                 Recognize the Importance of Collaborating to Effectively
                 Combat Human Trafficking
               * [13]Organizations Face Challenges in Collaborating to Combat
                 Trafficking
               * [14]Organizations Have Taken Steps to Strengthen
                 Collaboration, but Challenges Remain at the Global,
                 Regional, and Country Levels

                    * [15]Global and Regional Collaboration Efforts Have
                      Recently Been Initiated
                    * [16]Country-Level Organizations Have Taken Some Steps
                      to Strengthen Collaboration, but Continue to Face
                      Difficult Challenges

          * [17]U.S. Government- Funded Antitrafficking Projects Lack Some
            Key Monitoring Elements; Little Is Known about Project Impact Due
            to Difficulties in Conducting Evaluations

               * [18]U.S. Government-Funded Antitrafficking Projects Lack
                 Some Important Monitoring Elements; State Is Taking Steps to
                 Strengthen Monitoring
               * [19]Factors Impede Evaluations of Antitrafficking Projects
                 and Little Is Known about Project Impact

                    * [20]Lack of Project-Level Baseline Estimates Limits
                      Evaluations
                    * [21]Elements of Project Design Impede Evaluations
                    * [22]Little Is Known about Project Impact

          * [23]Expert Panel Identified Ways to Address the Difficulties of
            Monitoring and Evaluating Antitrafficking Projects

               * [24]Conduct Research on the Nature and Severity of Human
                 Trafficking
               * [25]Address Monitoring and Evaluation Weaknesses in the
                 Design of Antitrafficking Projects

          * [26]Conclusions
          * [27]Recommendations for Executive Action
          * [28]Agency Comments and Our Evaluation

     * [29]Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
     * [30]Selected International Organizations Involved in Combating Human
       Trafficking
     * [31]Methods Suggested by Expert Panel to Estimate the Number of Human
       Trafficking Victims
     * [32]Comments from the Department of State

          * [33]GAO Comments

     * [34]Comments from the Department of Labor

          * [35]GAO Comments

     * [36]Comments from the United States Agency for International
       Development
     * [37]Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services
     * [38]GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments
     * [39]PDF6-Ordering Information.pdf

          * [40]Order by Mail or Phone

Report to Congressional Requesters

July 2007

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Monitoring and Evaluation of International Projects Are Limited, but
Experts Suggest Improvements

Letter

Contents

Tables

July 26, 2007

The Honorable Ileana Ros-Lehtinen
Ranking Member
Committee on Foreign Affairs
House of Representatives

The Honorable F. James Sensenbrenner, Jr.
House of Representatives

Human trafficking--a worldwide crime involving the exploitation of men,
women, and children for others' financial gain--is a violation of
fundamental human rights. Victims are often lured or abducted from their
homes and subsequently forced, through various means, to work in
prostitution, sweatshops, agricultural settings, or domestic service,
among other types of servitude. In addition to inflicting grave personal
damage upon its victims, trafficking undermines government authority,
fuels organized criminal groups and gangs, and imposes social and public
health costs. As we have previously reported, estimates of the number of
trafficking victims are questionable due to data and methodological
weaknesses.^1

To combat global human trafficking, the U.S. government directly
implements projects overseas and contributes financial support to the
United Nations (UN) and other international organizations. The U.S.
government has strongly supported antitrafficking efforts and, since 2001,
has provided approximately $447 million in foreign assistance to
nongovernmental organizations (NGO), international organizations, and
foreign governments to combat and help eliminate human trafficking.^2 In
addition, since the mid-1990s, the United States has played a leading role
in putting human trafficking on the international community's agenda. In
2000, Congress enacted the Trafficking Victims Protection Act^3 (TVPA) to
combat trafficking in persons; in 2003 and 2005, Congress reauthorized the
act,^4 which is due for reauthorization in 2007. In December 2005, the
United States became a party to the United Nations' Protocol to Prevent,
Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children,
Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational
Organized Crime,^5 which entered into force in 2003 and, as of July 2007,
has 117 signatories and 113 party nations.

^1GAO, Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S.
Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad, GAO-06-825 (Washington, D.C.: July 18, 2006).

^2In 2003, the President announced the launch of a $50 million initiative to support
organizations active in combating trafficking and child sex tourism, and in rescuing women
and children.

^3Pub. L. No. 106-386.

This review is part of a larger body of work that you requested on U.S.
and international efforts to combat human trafficking in the United States
and abroad.^6 To review efforts to combat human trafficking, we examined
(1) collaboration among organizations involved in international
antitrafficking efforts, (2) U.S. government agencies' monitoring of
antitrafficking projects and difficulties in evaluating these projects,
and (3) suggestions for strengthening monitoring and evaluation.

To address these objectives, we reviewed relevant planning, funding, and
project documents on human trafficking from the Departments of State,
Justice, Labor, Homeland Security (DHS), and Health and Human Services
(HHS) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). We also
reviewed planning and project documents from relevant UN and other
international agencies and offices, including the UN Office on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC), International Labor Organization (ILO), International
Organization for Migration (IOM), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF),
and UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). In addition, we discussed
international antitrafficking efforts with officials from the above
agencies and organizations, as well as foreign government officials and
NGO representatives, in Washington, D.C., and during our fieldwork in
Indonesia, Thailand, and Mexico. We selected these countries on the basis
of the amount of U.S. funding provided for international antitrafficking
projects and the number of U.S. government agencies and international
organizations working in each country. In April 2007, we worked with the
National Academy of Sciences to organize a 2-day expert panel on
challenges and alternative strategies for monitoring and evaluating
international antitrafficking projects. We conducted our review from
August 2006 to June 2007 in accordance with generally accepted government
auditing standards. Appendix I provides a detailed description of our
objectives, scope, and methodology.

^4Congress amended and reauthorized this actï¿½the Trafficking Victims Protection
Reauthorization Act of 2003 and the Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of
2005. (Pub. L. Nos. 108-193 and 109-164.)

^5This agreement, also known as the Palermo Protocol, seeks to prevent trafficking, protect
victims, and promote antitrafficking cooperation among nations. The protocol supplements
the U.N. Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime. It was opened for signature in
Palermo, Italy, in December 2000.

^6We issued our first report, GAO-06-825, in July 2006. See also Human Trafficking: A
Strategic Framework Could Help Enhance the Interagency Collaboration Needed to
Effectively Combat Trafficking Crimes, GAO-07-915 (Washington, D.C.: July 26, 2007),
which addresses U.S. federal law enforcement agenciesï¿½ efforts to investigate and prosecute
human trafficking crimes in the United States.

Results in Brief

While governments, international organizations, and NGOs have recognized
the importance of collaborating and have established some coordination
mechanisms and practices, they will need to overcome challenges that have
impeded collaboration in the past for their efforts to be successful. The
UN General Assembly passed a resolution in December 2006 recognizing that
broad international cooperation is essential for combating trafficking,
and UNODC launched the Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking in
March 2007. In two of the three countries we visited, we found that host
governments--which bear ultimate responsibility for combating trafficking
within their borders--have passed national antitrafficking laws and
enacted national action plans. However, organizations continue to face
numerous challenges when collaborating to combat human trafficking,
including varying levels of government commitment and capacity. For
example, some governments treat foreign trafficking victims as illegal
immigrants and deport rather than protect them. In addition, according to
officials in two of the three countries we visited, the ministries
responsible for coordinating antitrafficking efforts have limited
authority and operational capacity.

U.S. government-funded antitrafficking projects often lack some important
elements that allow projects to be monitored, and little is known about
project impact due to difficulties in conducting evaluations. Project
documents we reviewed generally include monitoring elements, such as an
overarching goal and related activities, but they often lack other
monitoring elements such as targets for measuring performance. To oversee
antitrafficking projects, State officials told us they need to supplement
their efforts with assistance from U.S. embassy staff, but they have not
established written guidance for oversight. Officials said that they are
working to improve performance measures and develop monitoring guidance.
Conducting impact evaluations of antitrafficking projects is difficult due
to several factors, including questionable project level estimates of the
number of trafficking victims. These estimates are needed for baselines by
which to evaluate how effectively specific interventions are reducing
trafficking. In addition, elements in the design of certain
antitrafficking projects, such as short time frames and objectives that
are too broad, further impede evaluation. Because of these difficulties,
few evaluations that determine impact have been completed. As a result,
little is known about the impact of antitrafficking interventions.

A GAO-convened panel of experts identified and discussed ways to address
the factors that make it difficult to monitor and evaluate antitrafficking
projects. Panelists' suggested approaches included improving information
on the nature and severity of human trafficking and addressing monitoring
and evaluation weaknesses in the design of antitrafficking projects. To
improve information on the nature and severity of human trafficking,
panelists suggested several sampling methods that have been used to sample
other hard-to-reach populations, including the homeless, hidden migrants,
missing and exploited children, and domestic violence victims. One
suggested method is sampling of "hot spots"--an intensive search for
victims in areas known to have high concentrations of victims or in areas
to which many victims return. To address weaknesses in project design that
impede monitoring and evaluation, panelists suggested that officials
design projects that clearly link activities to intended outcomes,
identify measurable indicators, and establish procedures for setting and
modifying targets. Panelists further advised officials to determine which
projects are ready to be evaluated before conducting an evaluation.

To improve the monitoring and evaluation of antitrafficking projects, we
are making two recommendations to the Secretaries of State and Labor and
the Administrator of USAID because they provided the most U.S. funding for
projects to combat global human trafficking. First, to improve information
about project impact on the nature and severity of human trafficking, we
are recommending that these three officials consider several actions,
where appropriate, such as developing better data about the incidence of
trafficking at the project level and applying rigorous evaluation
methodologies. Second, to address monitoring and evaluation weaknesses in
the design of antitrafficking projects, we are recommending that these
three officials consider other actions, such as developing frameworks that
clearly link activities with project-level goals, indicators, and targets;
conducting "evaluability assessments" to determine whether a project is
ready to be evaluated; and building evaluation into project design before
the project is implemented.

We received written comments on a draft of this report from State, Labor,
USAID, and HHS, which are reprinted in appendixes IV, V, VI, and VII,
along with our responses to specific points. State said that the report
confirms several challenges inherent in foreign assistance efforts,
including antihuman trafficking programs. However, State disagreed with
our finding that monitoring is limited, stating that monitoring is in
place at the department and improving. While we recognize that State and
other U.S. agencies have certain elements of monitoring in place, we
report that most projects lack other important elements, including a logic
model that clearly explains how activities are linked to project goals and
targets that will establish benchmarks for measuring performance. Labor
said the report provides a good overall assessment of international
cooperation regarding antitrafficking efforts and the need to enhance
collaboration, and highlights important areas for improving monitoring and
evaluation. However, Labor stated that the report does not fully reflect
several mechanisms it uses, including audits and process evaluations, to
monitor and oversee antitrafficking projects. In response, we revised the
text to further clarify Labor's monitoring and evaluation efforts. USAID
commented that it is concerned with the challenges of coordination,
monitoring, and evaluation, and agreed to continue working to make
improvements in these areas. State agreed to implement our
recommendations, while Labor and USAID did not directly respond to our
recommendations. HHS said that the report substantively covers the range
of programs and services available to combat human trafficking.

Background

Human trafficking generally involves the use of force, fraud, or coercion
to enslave individuals in situations that are exploitative and often
illegal and dangerous. Since 2001, the U.S. government has contributed
approximately $447 million worldwide to foreign governments, NGOs, and
international organizations--such as UNODC, ILO, and IOM--to combat human
trafficking. U.S. agency and international organization projects generally
aim to prevent trafficking, protect victims, and prosecute traffickers.
Organizations have different requirements for monitoring and evaluating
their antitrafficking projects.

Human Trafficking Cases Often Follow a Similar Pattern

Although the crime of human trafficking can take different forms in
different regions and countries around the world, most human trafficking
cases follow a similar pattern--that is, traffickers use acquaintances or
false advertisements to recruit men, women, and children in or near their
homes, and then transfer them to and exploit them in another city, region,
or country.^7  According to the TVPA, victims of severe forms of
trafficking include those who are recruited or transported for labor
through the use of force, fraud, or coercion and for the purpose of
subjecting them to involuntary servitude.^8 The use of fraud, force, or
coercion typically distinguishes human trafficking victims from
individuals who are smuggled. In some cases, individuals may enter freely
into agreement with and pay smugglers to help them cross international
borders. After arriving at their destination, however, individuals who do
not understand the destination country's language or culture may be
exploited by individuals who take advantage of their vulnerability.

Traffickers control their victims' living and working conditions by
physically confining them, taking away their identity documents, and
threatening their families. Traffickers also exploit victims' fears that
authorities will prosecute or deport them if they seek help. Victims may
be forced to work in legal or illegal and often dangerous areas, including
brothels, sweatshops, agricultural businesses, and people's homes.
Documented human trafficking cases have involved victims such as children
forced to beg for money in cities, work in carpet shops, and participate
in pornography and sex acts with adults; women held in slavery-like
conditions as domestic servants, strip club dancers, and prostitutes; and
men forced to perform work in the agricultural sector and on fishing
vessels.

^7The Palermo Protocol defines trafficking in persons as the recruitment, transportation,
transfer, harboring, or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other
forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a
position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the
consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation includes, at a minimum, the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other
forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery, or practices similar to slavery,
servitude, or the removal of organs.

^8Under the TVPA, victims of severe forms of trafficking are defined as those persons subject
to (1) sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion,
or in which the person induced to perform such acts is under age 18 or (2) the recruitment,
harboring, transportation, provision, or obtaining of a person for labor or services, through
the use of force, fraud, or coercion, for the purpose of subjection to involuntary servitude,
peonage, debt bondage, or slavery. The TVPA does not specify movement across
international boundaries as a condition of trafficking; it does not require the transportation
of victims from one locale to another. (Pub. L. No. 106-386.)

U.S. Government and Multilateral Organizations' Projects Focus on Three
Areas

To combat the diverse forms of global human trafficking, 5 U.S.
departments, USAID, and at least 15 international organizations have
provided assistance to governments and civil society organizations in more
than 100 countries. Assistance generally aimed to enhance efforts to

1.prevent human trafficking through public awareness, outreach, education,
and advocacy campaigns;

2.protect and assist victims by providing shelters as well as health,
psychological, legal, and vocational services; and

3.investigate and prosecute human trafficking crimes by providing training
and technical assistance for law enforcement officials, such as police,
prosecutors, and judges.

These categories of interrelated victim-centered assistance
activities--prevention, protection, and prosecution--are commonly referred
to as "the three p's." Each type of assistance is viewed as critical for
reducing the incidence of human trafficking.

Since 2001, U.S. government agencies have provided approximately $447
million in foreign assistance to international organizations, NGOs, and
foreign governments to combat human trafficking (see table 1). Of the U.S.
agencies, State, Labor, and USAID have provided the most funding to combat
global human trafficking.

Table 1: U.S. Funding Obligated for Activities to Combat Global Human
Trafficking, Fiscal Years 2001-2006
                                       

       Dollars in     
        millions      
                      FY 2001 FY 2002 FY 2003 FY 2004 FY 2005 FY 2006   Total 
State               $11.47  $23.01  $28.13  $33.36  $34.41  $18.36 $148.74 
USAID                 6.74   10.72   15.42   27.59   21.34   27.31  109.12 
Labor ^a             22.26   32.93   48.31   18.65   35.90   28.05  186.10 
Justice^b                0       0       0    0.20       0       0    0.20 
HHS                      0       0       0       0    2.20       0    2.20 
DHS^c                  n/a       0       0    0.20       0       0    0.20 
Total               $40.47  $66.66  $91.86  $80.00  $93.85  $73.72 $446.56 

Source: GAO analysis of data provided by the Department of State's Office
to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons and the Department of Labor.

Note: Funding is reported upon obligation by agencies in the year in which
it is obligated.

^aIn response to inquiries from GAO, Labor reclassified projects funded in
2001 and 2005 and subsequently revised figures for these years. In
addition to the $28,048,000 allocated for projects to combat trafficking
in 2006, Labor provided $300,000 for a trafficking research project.

^bIn addition to the $200,000 in Justice funding, State provided
additional funding to the department's Office of Overseas Prosecutorial
Development, Assistance and Training and International Criminal
Investigative Training Assistance Program to conduct training overseas. In
fiscal year 2004, State provided a total of $6.50 million to the two
Justice programs; in fiscal year 2005, it provided $2.08 million. In
fiscal year 2006, State and USAID provided $1.90 million. These amounts
are reflected in the State total in this table.

^cDHS officials stated that additional funds used to carry out
antitrafficking activities, including law enforcement activities, come
from its regular budget and cannot be broken out.

As we have previously mentioned, U.S. agencies support antitrafficking
projects implemented worldwide by various international organizations,
which also receive funding from other donor governments and organizations.
As shown in table 2, for UNODC, ILO, and IOM, total resources allocated to
combating trafficking since 2000 totaled about $255 million. The U.S.
government provided about $122  million to UNODC, ILO, and IOM to combat
human trafficking, according to data provided by these organizations and
State's Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking and Persons (G/TIP). In
addition, according to UNICEF's annual reports, between 2003 and 2005,
UNICEF allocated more than $453 million to its worldwide child protection
program, which includes projects to combat trafficking and the sexual
exploitation of children.^9

Table 2: Selected International Organizations' Funding for Antitrafficking
Projects

                                        

     Dollars in millions                                                      
                           U.S. government funding          Total funding for 
                               for antitrafficking   antitrafficking projects 
                                        projects^a from the United States and 
                                                                 other donors 
Worldwide organizations 
UNODC ^b                        $5.28 (2002-06)   $18.16 (2002 to present) 
ILO ^c                  46.35 (2000 to present)    84.47 (2000 to present) 
IOM ^d                  70.10 (2000 to present)   152.18 (2000 to present) 
Total                                   $121.73                    $254.81 
Regional organizations  
Organization for              $0.69 (2004-2006)          $5.50 (2004-2006) 
Security and                                                               
Cooperation in Europe                                                      
(OSCE)^e                                                                   
Organization of          1.21 (2000 to present)     1.40 (2000 to present) 
American States (OAS)^f                                                    
Multilateral            
development banks       
Inter-American                                                       $1.43 
Development Bank                                                           
(IDB)^g                                                                    
Asian Development Bank                                                1.69 
(ADB)^h                                                                    

Source: GAO analysis of data provided by State, UN agencies, multilateral
development banks, and regional organizations.

Note: Organizations included in this table were able to separate funding
amounts for trafficking-specific projects. Information on other
international organizations involved in combating human trafficking--but
for which funding information for trafficking-specific projects was not
available--is included in appendix II.

^aAmounts reflect U.S. government extrabudgetary support specifically for
antitrafficking projects. Amounts do not reflect the U.S. government's
regular contributions to these organizations.

^bAmount of U.S. government funding to UNODC was based on GAO analysis of
data provided by State G/TIP. Amount of total UNODC funding for
antitrafficking projects was based on GAO analysis of data provided by
State and UNODC.

^cAmounts of U.S. government funding and total ILO funding were provided
by ILO.

^dAmounts of U.S. government funding and total IOM funding were provided
by IOM. Totals were calculated, in part, on the basis of U.S. dollar
amounts converted from other currencies using exchange rates as of May
2007.

^eAmounts reflect donor pledge amounts provided by OSCE for a 2-year
period (2004-2006), as of May 2007. Funding amounts in Euros--552,617 and
4,387,454--were converted to U.S. dollars using a weighted average annual
exchange rate for the period beginning 2004 and ending March 2007.
According to GAO analysis of State G/TIP data, total U.S. funding for OSCE
antitrafficking projects for the 4-year period from 2002 to 2006 was
approximately $1.5 million.

^fAmounts reflect funding data provided by OAS's Department of Public
Security for its antitrafficking projects. In addition, according to State
G/TIP data, USAID provided $367,150 to the OAS Inter-American Commission
on Women for antitrafficking projects in fiscal year 2003, and G/TIP
provided $405,548 to implement an OAS coordinator's antitrafficking
activities in fiscal year 2004.

^gIDB also funded two countries' security programs, one capacity-building
project and one gender mainstreaming project, that each included
antitrafficking components.

^hAccording to ADB, this amount was allocated to trafficking-specific
activities included in five technical assistance projects. In addition,
ADB included human trafficking prevention components in 16 transport
projects totaling $2.3 billion. The amount of trafficking-specific
components in these projects was not available.

^9UNICEF was not able to break out budget data for trafficking-specific projects or activities.
According to State G/TIP data, U.S. government support to UNICEF for antitrafficking
projects from fiscal years 2002 to 2006 totaled $7.14 million.

Some U.S. agencies and international organizations have provided
assistance that, although not specifically related to human trafficking,
may help to combat trafficking by reducing individuals' vulnerability to
becoming victims and by strengthening countries' judicial systems. For
example, USAID, the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the
Inter-American Development Bank have implemented projects to root out
corruption, build host governments' legal systems, and improve the
economic conditions of vulnerable populations in developing countries. See
appendix II for additional information on international organizations'
missions and antitrafficking activities.

U.S. Agency and International Organizations' Monitoring and Evaluation
Requirements Vary

Monitoring and evaluation are important tools for managing projects and
should be considered when designing projects. Performance measurement
involves developing a logic framework to explain how an intervention is to
achieve its intended outcomes. Monitoring helps agencies determine whether
the project is meeting its goals, update and adjust interventions and
activities as needed, and ensure that funds are used responsibly.
Monitoring includes, among other things, the development of indicators
that are linked as closely as possible to the variables identified in the
logic framework. These indicators are to be used throughout implementation
to assess whether the project is likely to achieve the desired results.
Monitoring also involves the choice of baseline and target values for each
indicator and includes plans for periodic performance reports and data
quality reviews. Evaluation is needed to assess a project's impact or
effectiveness. Project evaluation involves the development of a
methodology that will be used to assess the project's impact and describes
plans for collecting baseline, interim, and final data on project results.

The TVPA requires the President's Interagency Task Force to Monitor and
Combat Trafficking in Persons to measure and evaluate the progress of the
U.S. government's efforts to combat trafficking. The Trafficking Victims
Protection Reauthorization Act of 2003 (TVPRA 2003) includes a
congressional finding that additional research is needed to fully
understand the phenomenon of trafficking in persons and to determine the
most effective strategies for combating trafficking. The TVPRA 2003 also
requires an annual report from the U.S. Attorney General to Congress to
provide information on U.S. government activities to combat trafficking in
persons. In addition to these reports, Justice began preparing annual
assessments of U.S. government activities to combat trafficking in persons
in 2003. All six U.S. organizations' guidelines also require implementers
to monitor and report on project performance. In addition, Labor also
requires independent midterm and final evaluations for all international
antitrafficking projects.

Organizations Have Taken Steps to Collaborate, but Continue to Face
Challenges

Global, regional, and country-level organizations recognize the importance
of collaborating to effectively combat human trafficking. Although
organizations involved in combating trafficking--governments, multilateral
organizations, and donors--have implemented some practices to strengthen
collaboration, to succeed they will need to overcome challenges that can
impede collaboration, including varying levels of government commitment
and capacity.

Global, Regional, and Country-Level Organizations Recognize the Importance
of Collaborating to Effectively Combat Human Trafficking

At the global level, several UN organizations have acknowledged the
importance of collaborating to effectively combat human trafficking. The
UN Chief Executives Board^10  recognized the challenges in countering
human trafficking and proposed establishing an interagency mechanism to
strengthen coordination in 2005. In July 2006, a UN Economic and Social
Committee resolution requested that UNODC organize a meeting to coordinate
the technical assistance that UN and other intergovernmental organizations
provide. In December 2006, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution
recognizing  that broad international cooperation between member states
and intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations is essential for
effectively countering the threat of human trafficking, and underlined the
importance of bilateral, subregional, and regional partnerships,
initiatives, and actions. This resolution further encouraged member states
to initiate and develop working-level contacts among countries of origin,
transit, and destination, especially among police, prosecutors, and social
authorities.

Organizations at the regional level have also recognized the importance of
collaboration. For example, in a September 2006 report, the Organization
for Security and Cooperation in Europe's (OSCE) antitrafficking unit noted
that, since trafficking is a transnational crime, collaboration is crucial
to enable transnational mechanisms of communication and cooperation among
governments, law enforcement, judiciary, and NGOs. In addition, six
countries in the Mekong subregion of Southeast Asia have called for
strengthened cooperation to combat human trafficking under a process
called the Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative Against Trafficking
(COMMIT).

^10The Chief Executives Board furthers coordination and cooperation on substantive and
management issues facing UN system organizations. The board brings together on a regular
basis the executive heads of the organizations of the UN system, under the chairmanship of
the UN Secretary General.

At the country level, donor governments and UN organizations have also
recognized the need to establish coordination mechanisms to, among other
things, share information and leverage the comparative advantages of each
organization. The Paris Declaration of Aid Effectiveness^11 establishes
the importance of donor coordination, stating that excessive fragmentation
of aid at the global, country, or sector level impairs its effectiveness.
It further states that a pragmatic approach to the division of labor and
burden sharing increases complementarity and can reduce costs. Through the
declaration, donors committed to make use of their respective comparative
advantage at a sector or country level by delegating authority to lead
donors for the execution of projects, activities, and tasks. To draw on
the collective strengths of the UN agencies and programs operating in a
country, UN country teams and the host government develop a national
analysis, called a common country assessment. They subsequently produce a
national development assistance framework, which describes the collective
UN response and the expected results to achieve national priorities.

For U.S. government agencies, a 2002 presidential directive stated that
strong coordination among agencies working on domestic and foreign policy
is crucial.^12 The directive called for departments and agencies to
coordinate U.S. foreign assistance programs, including those that provide
funding to governmental or nongovernmental organizations to combat
trafficking in persons. State officials told us that this is done through
the Senior Policy Operating Group (SPOG), which, among other activities,
facilitates a review by SPOG programming agencies of each other's grant
proposals for antitrafficking projects.

^11The Paris Declaration, endorsed on March 2, 2005, is an international agreement under the
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development that aims to provide a practical,
action-oriented road map to improve the quality of aid and its impact on development. The
56 partnership commitments are organized around 5 key principles: ownership, alignment,
harmonization, managing for results, and mutual accountability. The United States is one of
the participating countries.

^12National Security Presidential Directive 22 (signed on Dec. 16, 2002).

Organizations Face Challenges in Collaborating to Combat Trafficking

Organizations--governments, multilateral organizations, and NGOs--face
several challenges in collaborating to combat human trafficking, including
the following:

oGovernment commitment varies. State's annual Trafficking in Persons
Report, which  analyzes and ranks foreign governments' compliance with
minimum standards to combat trafficking, as outlined in the TVPA,
illustrates governments' varied efforts to address the issue. For example,
governments might not recognize trafficking as a problem. They may treat
foreign trafficking victims as illegal immigrants and deport them back to
their home countries, rather than protect them. They also may not
recognize trafficking within their own borders as a problem. Moreover,
some government officials are themselves involved in human trafficking.

oGovernment capacity varies. Governments with greater resources and more
established institutions have a greater capacity to address trafficking
than countries that are poorer or less stable. In addition, changes in
government leadership and personnel, due to elections, coups,
assassinations, or other events, may result in the loss of expertise in
combating human trafficking. Furthermore, governments may put trafficking
under the purview of ministries with limited authority, such as women's
ministries.

oOrganizations that combat trafficking vary in perspective and may be in
competition for limited funds. Combating trafficking involves
organizations--at the international and country levels--with expertise in
raising awareness, assisting child and adult victims, and investigating
trafficking cases, among other areas. Organizations may view trafficking
through their own mandates or viewpoints and may perceive each other not
only as collaborators but also as competitors for scarce resources. As
such, they may not share information, which could lead to duplication and
waste of funds.^13

oUnderstanding of trafficking varies across languages and cultures.
Countries approach trafficking in different ways. For example, some
countries' national antitrafficking strategies do not include men as
potential trafficking victims; also, in some countries, parents in
villages often sell their children to work as domestic servants in large
cities. Furthermore, translation issues can complicate establishing a
common understanding of what constitutes trafficking. For example,
although the legal term in Spanish for human trafficking is "trata de
personas," English speakers have translated human trafficking into Spanish
as "trafico de personas," which in fact means human smuggling.

^13UN Chief Executives Board High Level Committee on Programs, Follow-up to CEB/HLCP
decisions: Curbing Transnational Crime, CEB/2004/HLCP/VIII/CRP (Sept. 9, 2004).

Organizations Have Taken Steps to Strengthen Collaboration, but Challenges
Remain at the Global, Regional, and Country Levels

Global and Regional Collaboration Efforts Have Recently Been Initiated

Organizations at the global level have defined a common outcome--to end
human trafficking and slavery--and have recently initiated various efforts
to strengthen collaboration. In March 2007, UNODC launched the Global
Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking to generate political will, an
action plan, and financial resources to combat trafficking worldwide. The
steering committee of the initiative includes the six leading
international organizations involved in combating trafficking in persons:
UNODC, ILO, IOM, UNICEF, OSCE, and the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights. UNODC also created the Interagency
Cooperation Group Against Trafficking in Persons in September 2006 with
the intended outcome of improving coordination between UN agencies and
other international organizations, and to facilitate a holistic approach
to preventing and combating human trafficking. The group's functions
include exchanging information and promoting the effective and efficient
use of resources.

Most existing regional coordination efforts that we reviewed have defined
a common outcome and established action plans for carrying out
antitrafficking activities. These efforts vary regarding whether they are
specifically directed against trafficking or are included in discussions
on migration or smuggling. In addition, they vary in number of
participating members from as few as 6 countries in the Mekong subregion
to as many as
56 countries in Europe, Asia, and North America. For example, the
governments involved in a UN project that specifically focused on
strengthening cooperation to combat trafficking in the Mekong subregion
have agreed to undertake 18 actions to combat human trafficking, as part
of an effort called the COMMIT process. Officials stated that this
agreement strengthens these countries' incentives to undertake the actions
through mutual accountability. In addition, COMMIT developed an action
plan that groups existing activities into a single framework delineating
roles and responsibilities of UN organizations, implementing partners, and
governments in the six Mekong countries. Officials contrasted the COMMIT
process, which includes a small group of countries in one region with
interconnected trafficking problems, to larger organizations such as the
Bali Process, which approaches trafficking issues in conjunction with
issues related to smuggling in the Asia-Pacific region and has a larger
geographic scope, consisting of 38 governments across several regions.
These officials stated that having a larger geographic scope makes it more
difficult for the governments of these countries to hold each other
accountable for implementing the regional action plan. In addition to
these examples, OSCE initiated the Alliance against Trafficking in
Persons, which established a partnership with major actors working to
combat human trafficking to, among other things, develop joint strategies
and provide OSCE participating states and others with harmonized
decision-making aids. In Southeastern Europe, the International Center for
Migration Policy Development has begun a project to facilitate the
creation of a transnational referral mechanism by 10 governments in the
region and national NGOs to improve transnational case management and
victim protection. Furthermore, in the western hemisphere, the
Organization of American States (OAS) held a conference in 2006 that
resulted in guidelines for the 34 member states and OAS to combat human
trafficking.

Organizations continue to face obstacles as they work on global and
regional initiatives to collaborate to combat trafficking. For example,
governments disagree on whether there is a difference between "forced" and
"voluntary" prostitution. Such disagreements can hinder collaborative
efforts in combating sex trafficking. These global and regional
initiatives may eventually implement additional practices to enhance
collaboration, but it is too early to determine the success of the current
initiatives.

Country-Level Organizations Have Taken Some Steps to Strengthen
Collaboration, but Continue to Face Difficult Challenges

Although organizations--including host governments, UN organizations, U.S.
government agencies, and other donor governments--in the three countries
we visited have implemented practices to strengthen collaboration in
combating trafficking, they continue to face challenges. None of the three
countries has mechanisms to coordinate the efforts of all organizations
involved in combating trafficking. Host governments bear ultimate
responsibility for combating trafficking within their borders, and
governments of the countries we visited have taken some steps to
collaborate. For example, the Indonesian and Thai governments have passed
national antitrafficking laws and enacted national action plans that
define common outcomes, outline strategies, and assign roles and
responsibilities. However, neither government's action plan includes
trafficking of men in its definition of human trafficking. Officials in
Indonesia stated that they expect to revise the plan to include the
trafficking of men, as well as women and children, based on legislation
passed in 2007. Although both the Indonesian and Thai governments hold
interagency meetings, the ministries responsible for coordinating
antitrafficking efforts have limited authority and operational capacity,
according to officials we interviewed. Unlike Indonesia and Thailand,
Mexico has neither a national antitrafficking law nor an action plan.
Mexican officials stated that they convened one interagency meeting on
human trafficking and plan to institute additional coordination mechanisms
after the government passes a national antitrafficking law.

In Indonesia and Thailand, UN organizations, in conjunction with host
governments, have developed country assessments and assistance frameworks
to articulate overall development goals--including combating
trafficking--joint strategies, and roles and responsibilities. UN
organizations working on trafficking in Thailand also meet as part of the
Mekong regional project that we previously discussed; although, according
to one donor government official, attendance among UN organizations is
sporadic. UN officials in Indonesia told us that they share information
informally, but do not meet on a regular basis to discuss trafficking.

According to U.S. government officials in Indonesia and Thailand, donor
governments have made sporadic and informal efforts to leverage resources
and avoid duplication of effort.^14 For example, as a result of informal
coordination, Justice and French government officials worked together on a
criminal justice training project in Indonesia. In Thailand, according to
a U.S. official, although most of the major donors attend the Mekong
regional project's meetings, these meetings are generally focused on UN
activities, with little opportunity for donors to coordinate. Officials in
Indonesia and Thailand acknowledged the need to establish regular
bilateral donor coordination efforts on trafficking issues and, at the
time of our fieldwork, had begun discussing the establishment of regular
coordination meetings.

^14The United States is the only government donor that implements antitrafficking
projects in Mexico.

While U.S. government agencies overseas have developed some collaboration
mechanisms to combat trafficking, they continue to face challenges in
coordinating their efforts. The U.S. embassies in the three countries we
visited, Indonesia, Thailand, and Mexico, include trafficking in persons
in their mission performance plans, which establish combating trafficking
as a component of the U.S. government's overall strategy in each country.
U.S. officials in these countries told us they organize
trafficking-specific meetings that include U.S. government agencies and
their implementing partners, primarily to share information. The U.S.
government officials who were involved in antitrafficking issues were
responsible for other issues as well. In Indonesia, for example, the
primary U.S. embassy contact for trafficking was also temporarily assigned
deputy chief of mission in East Timor. In Mexico, one agency official,
whose responsibilities consisted solely of human trafficking issues, had
been named to also serve as coordinator and primary contact for all U.S.
antitrafficking efforts. After this official's departure in December 2006,
her portfolio was added to the existing portfolio of another official from
the same U.S. agency. At the time of our visit in February 2007, State,
USAID, and DHS officials, who also covered other issues, were holding
meetings to coordinate their antitrafficking efforts internally. However,
a new U.S. antitrafficking coordinator for Mexico had not been designated.
Consequently, some Mexican government officials expressed uncertainty
about which U.S. agency official had the role of lead U.S. government
coordinator for trafficking in Mexico.

Furthermore, some U.S. government officials noted challenges in
coordinating between officials in Washington, D.C., and those overseas.
For example, a U.S. official in Thailand was unaware of a U.S.-funded
project in the country until that project hosted a conference and
requested additional funding from the U.S. embassy. The project had not
been included in the list of antitrafficking activities in Thailand that
the official received from State's trafficking office, which is based in
Washington. According to some agency officials overseas, not knowing what
other agencies and bureaus plan to spend on antitrafficking activities in
a particular country makes it difficult for them to determine how much of
their budgets to allocate to antitrafficking activities. Although State's
new Office of Foreign Assistance has begun to address the issue of better
coordinating all U.S. foreign assistance by bringing together core State
and USAID teams to discuss U.S. development priorities in each recipient
country, some U.S. officials expressed uncertainty regarding which part of
the U.S. government would be responsible for outlining a new country-level
strategy and budget for combating trafficking.

U.S. Government-Funded Antitrafficking Projects Lack Some Key Monitoring
Elements; Little Is Known about Project Impact Due to Difficulties in
Conducting Evaluations

Antitrafficking project documents we reviewed generally include monitoring
elements, such as an overarching goal and related activities; however,
they often lack other monitoring elements, such as targets for measuring
performance. Various other factors also make it difficult to evaluate the
impact of antitrafficking projects. These factors include questionable
estimates of the number of trafficking victims at the project level, which
are needed to evaluate the effectiveness of specific antitrafficking
interventions. Certain project elements may further impede evaluations,
including short time frames and overly broad objectives. Because of these
factors, few evaluations that determine impact have been completed. As a
result, little is known about the impact of antitrafficking interventions.

U.S. Government-Funded Antitrafficking Projects Lack Some Important
Monitoring Elements; State Is Taking Steps to Strengthen Monitoring

Most of the project documents we reviewed generally include one or more
monitoring elements, but lack others. We reviewed documents for 23 U.S.
government-funded antitrafficking projects in Indonesia, Thailand, and
Mexico, which generally include statements of project goals and a
description of activities.^15 However, the majority of these documents
lack a logic framework that clearly links activities with project-level
goals, indicators, and targets. Specifically:

^15To inform our site visits in Mexico, Indonesia, and Thailand, we requested project
documents for U.S.-funded antitrafficking projects that were being implemented during the
time of our review. These documents are not generalizable to a larger universe. We received
documents for 23 projects. The projects are illustrative of the U.S. agencies' currently
applied monitoring practices. The 23 projects were funded or implemented by 6 U.S.
agencies: State (11), Labor (4), USAID (3), Justice (2), HHS (2), and DHS (1).

oEighteen of the 23 projects do not clearly explain how activities will
achieve stated goals. For example, the project proposal for a State-funded
project in Thailand does not provide clear linkages demonstrating how the
training of local officials and screenings of a public awareness video
will achieve the project's overall goal of reducing trafficking among
vulnerable adolescents and women. In contrast, all 4 Labor-funded projects
in Indonesia, Mexico, and Thailand clearly link project goals and
activities. For example, 1 goal of a project in Mexico is to develop a
system to identify networks of exploiters. Activities to achieve this goal
include developing computer software and training government officials in
its use.

oTwenty-one of the 23 projects identify indicators, but of these, only 10
specify targets by which performance is measured. For example, a
State-funded project in Thailand included the "number of victims rescued"
and the "number of arrests of traffickers" as performance indicators, but
did not set numerical targets for measuring performance. In contrast, a
State-funded project implemented by IOM in Indonesia established an
expected result that 500 victims of trafficking receive rehabilitation and
reintegration assistance. For the 13 projects that did not specify
targets, the performance standards to which grantees were held accountable
were not clear. Of the 10 projects that did specify targets, 5 explained
how targets were set. These 5 projects included all 4 of the Labor
projects we reviewed.

Another element of monitoring project performance is to supplement
implementing partners' reporting of programmatic and financial progress
with independent review through site visits at the field level. For
example, Labor officials reported that the International Labor Affairs
Bureau's Office of Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking has
engaged ILO's external auditor to conduct audits of a sample of ILO's
international program for the elimination of child labor projects. This
office also has contracted with a certified public accounting firm to
conduct independent attestation engagements of its Education Initiative
projects. Among the objectives of these audits and attestation engagements
is an assessment of the accuracy and reliability of performance data from
grantees' progress reports.

State G/TIP has 4 Washington, D.C.-based staff members who are responsible
for overseeing projects in approximately 70 countries.^16 G/TIP officials
stated that because they cannot visit all of the projects, they rely on
U.S. embassy staff to provide additional field-level oversight. However,
the office has not established written guidance for conducting such
oversight. During our fieldwork, an embassy official expressed frustration
at the lack of clear guidance and procedures. Embassy officials also told
us that they meet with project staff, but have other responsibilities that
limit the time they can devote to overseeing antitrafficking projects.
According to State's Bureau of Population, Refugees,and Migration (PRM)
officials, the bureau has only 3 staff to monitor and oversee its
antitrafficking projects currently being implemented in over 20 countries,
and these staff cannot conduct site visits to all projects. PRM staff also
stated that they review progress reports submitted by project
implementers, but do not have a database or system for compiling the
information they receive from the field.

To address some of these concerns, State officials told us that they are
taking steps to strengthen monitoring, including developing new indicators
and written guidance for monitoring antitrafficking projects. State G/TIP
officials told us that they are developing a system of key indicators to
better inform management decision making that would be consistently used
for each of the three main types of antitrafficking programs--prevention,
protection, and prosecution. State PRM and IOM, its key implementing
partner, have also been involved in an effort to develop and standardize
an indicator framework across IOM missions, although this effort was not
completed during the time of our review. Officials stated that this effort
will serve as a way to exchange ideas about best practices in different
parts of the world and will provide managers with information on
implementation needed to make decisions about current or future projects.

Factors Impede Evaluations of Antitrafficking Projects and Little Is Known
about Project Impact

Various factors impede impact evaluations of antitrafficking projects.
First, data on human trafficking are questionable, including estimates of
the number of trafficking victims, making it difficult to determine a
preproject baseline. Second, elements of project design, such as overly
broad objectives or short project duration, diffuse potential impact.
Because of these factors, it has been difficult to evaluate the
effectiveness of antitrafficking interventions, and few evaluations that
determine impact have been completed. As a result, little is known about
the impact of antitrafficking interventions.

^16State G/TIP officials told us that the office has had 4 program officers for only a few
months. For more than a year, the office had 2 or fewer officers.

Lack of Project-Level Baseline Estimates Limits Evaluations

The lack of accurate baseline estimates of the number of trafficking
victims is a limitation to conducting evaluations. As we have previously
reported, the accuracy of current estimates is questionable.^17 Without
estimates of the scope of human trafficking to use as baselines in project
locations, it is very difficult to determine where interventions are most
needed or where interventions would have the greatest impact. Developing
baseline estimates is difficult for the following reasons:

oVictims are a hidden population. Victims may be unaware, unwilling, or
unable to acknowledge that they are trafficking victims. Therefore, it is
difficult to reach them to collect information using standard sampling
techniques.

oService providers may be unwilling to share victim data due to
confidentiality concerns. For example, the global database maintained by
IOM^18 is not publicly available since assisted victims are in a
precarious position and revealing their identity could have a detrimental
effect on their safety.^19

oThe definition of the term "trafficking in persons" is broad and varies
in meaning across different languages. As we previously discussed, the
understanding of trafficking varies across languages and cultures. These
variations in definition hinder the comparability of data across countries
and organizations.

oThere are no commonly agreed-upon criteria for identification of human
trafficking victims. This lack of criteria hinders the ability to identify
victims, create consistent statistical databases, and design analytical
tools for surveys and estimates.^20

^17GAO-06-825.

^18IOM has the only global database, which contains systematically collected standardized
data on actual victims assisted by IOM. According to IOM, 30 missions input data into the
global database in 2007. The information covers information about trafficked victims from
more than 100 source and destination countries.

^19In commenting on a draft of this report, IOM noted that it can share with external parties
nonpersonal aggregate data from the database upon written request. The IOM Counter-
Trafficking Division also produces quarterly statistical reports based on the data from the
database.

oExisting data may not be reliable. Developing countries, which are
typically the countries of origin, have limited capacity for data
collection, and their governments' commitment to combating trafficking may
be insufficient. Thus, sufficiently reliable data needed for estimating
trafficking incidence may not be available.

Elements of Project Design Impede Evaluations

Elements in the design of certain antitrafficking projects, including a
tendency to focus on very broad, high-level objectives across a diverse
range of activities, diffuse projects' potential impact and create
challenges for evaluations.

When projects focus on overly broad objectives and contain too many types
of activities, their potential impact is diffused, which makes them
difficult to evaluate.^21 For example, some antitrafficking projects have
very high-level goals or objectives, such as "creating an environment for
effective action against trafficking," or "strengthening the initiatives
of government and others against human trafficking" and contain activities
covering 2 or more of the 3 key types of antitrafficking
interventions--prevention, protection, and prosecution. Of 153 U.S.
international antitrafficking projects funded in fiscal year 2004, 2005,
or 2006, 56 percent included 2 or more of these interventions and 29
percent included all 3 interventions. Activities included public awareness
campaigns, victim assistance, and training for law enforcement officials.

While projects funded with greater resources could lead to more noticeable
longer-term changes, the impact of a shorter-term, smaller-scale
intervention may be difficult to attribute and quantify. Antitrafficking
projects vary significantly in terms of their time frames and funding
levels. For example, the projects we reviewed varied in duration from 1
year to about 4 years, and projects' funding levels varied from $15,000 to
$6 million. Officials stated that some organizations, such as State G/TIP,
tend to fund smaller, shorter-term projects, while Labor usually funds
larger, longer-term projects. Overall, experts told us that organizations
also have generally limited funding for impact evaluations and for
research on the nature and scope of human trafficking.

^20G/TIP, in collaboration with PRM, IOM, and other organizations, is currently developing
core indicators in an attempt to work toward commonly agreed-upon criteria for victim
identification and assistance as well as for data collection and analysis.

^21In commenting on a draft of this report, ILO suggested that it is useful to clearly define the
scope of the impact that can be measured within the time frame and levels of results. For
example, the expected impact on trafficking differs depending on whether one is looking at
one project only, a collection of projects from one source of funding within a country, all of
the projects and activities within a country, or the impact of all projects in all countries from
one source of funding.

Experts stated that another factor impeding evaluations is that little
attention has generally been devoted at the start of projects to
evaluation design. For example, questions related to determining the
control group, the type of design for impact evaluation, the data that
would be collected, and the analytical methods that would be most suitable
are often not addressed before implementation. Furthermore, experts stated
that although projects target several groups of beneficiaries, it is
generally unclear how they can be reached and to which group they would be
compared. As a result, it is difficult to determine what would constitute
successful project implementation.

Little Is Known about Project Impact

Because of the difficulties in evaluating antitrafficking projects, the
few evaluations that have been completed are qualitative rather than
quantitative, focus on process rather than impact, and rarely trace
victims over time.

The few evaluations completed used qualitative methods that are valuable
for documenting victims' perceptions and experiences, but, unlike
quantitative methods, they cannot be used to generalize results to broader
populations.^22 For example, IOM's Office of Inspector General has carried
out impact evaluations of a select number of antitrafficking projects. Our
review of these evaluations shows that they covered interventions in
various parts of the world funded by different donors. All of the
available evaluations applied qualitative methodologies, consisting of
document reviews, site visits, interviews, and focus groups with
stakeholders. In addition, in a USAID-funded assessment of child
trafficking victims residing at a shelter in Nepal, an evaluator used
qualitative methods, such as observations and interviews, to collect
information on their daily lives, needs, and preparation for reintegration
into the community. The evaluator concluded that skill-based training
provided by the shelter does not adequately prepare the girls for their
reintegration into their communities; however, this qualitative result
could not be generalized to the national level.

^22Agencies have required or employed various qualitative methodologies such as interviews,
focus group discussions, direct observation techniques, and rapid assessment techniques

Completed evaluations also typically focused on process rather than
impact.^23 Process evaluations are an important tool for improving service
delivery and assessing program effectiveness by assessing whether
activities conform to program design. Impact evaluations assess the net
effect of a program by comparing program outcomes with an estimate of what
would have happened in the absence of the program. However, impact
evaluations are an emerging field in antitrafficking interventions. For
example, a process evaluation of a Labor-funded project aimed at reducing
the victimization of minors who have been trafficked or are at risk of
being trafficked in Thailand focused on the project's planning,
implementation, and management. This process evaluation was designed to
monitor implementation and assess project outcomes. However, the
evaluation did not ultimately assess the project's impact in reducing the
victimization of minors.

Finally, our review identified few evaluations that track individual
victims who have been reintegrated into their communities over time. For
example, ILO is currently pilot-testing an application of a tracer study
methodology in the context of trafficking prevention. In addition,
according to Labor officials, in some cases the office has conducted
follow-up studies that examine a sample of beneficiaries to document
changes that have occurred. Furthermore, IOM officials noted that several
of its missions provided statistical information to gauge the success of
its victim reintegration efforts over time based on specific
indicators.^24 According to experts, such evaluations are costly and
time-consuming. Tracking victims by country can also be difficult because
country boundaries are permeable and many trafficking routes cross
national borders.

^23According to GAOï¿½s Performance Measurement and Evaluation: Definitions and
Relationships, GAO-05-739SP (Washington, D.C.: May 2005), there are four types of
evaluations: process, outcome, impact, and cost-benefit analysis.

^24For example, according to IOM officials, IOMï¿½s mission in Kiev uses indicators such as
employment rates, reinsertion into the educational system, return abroad, and retrafficking
as tools for its caseload management by identifying more-effective mechanisms for victim
identification and referral.

Expert Panel Identified Ways to Address the Difficulties of Monitoring and
Evaluating Antitrafficking Projects

A GAO-convened panel of experts identified and discussed ways to address
the factors that make it difficult to monitor and evaluate antitrafficking
projects. Panelists suggested approaches to improve the monitoring and
evaluation of antitrafficking projects, by improving information on the
severity of human trafficking and addressing weaknesses in the design of
antitrafficking projects.

Conduct Research on the Nature and Severity of Human Trafficking

Panelists acknowledged that the lack of existing data on the nature and
severity of human trafficking limits evaluations of antitrafficking
projects, and suggested ways to improve information on the nature and
severity of human trafficking. According to the panelists, researchers
need to gather evidence to answer the following questions:

oWhat is the nature and severity of human trafficking? Panelists stated
that it is necessary to understand the nature of trafficking in terms of
its underlying conditions and the types of traffickers and victims.
Trafficking is a multidimensional, complex problem that involves a wide
range of victims; recruiters, brokers, and intermediaries; and abusive
employers and sexual exploiters. Understanding the incentives of the
people engaged in trafficking is an important first step.

The severity of human trafficking can be measured by using qualitative and
quantitative methodologies. Panel members suggested several sampling
methods that have been used to sample other hard-to-reach populations,
including the homeless, hidden migrants, missing and exploited children,
domestic violence victims, inmates, and drug users. One suggested method
is sampling of "hot spots"--an intensive search for victims in areas known
to have high concentrations of victims or in areas to which many victims
return. Other methods include adaptive cluster, double, indirect, and
snowball sampling. (For a more detailed discussion of sampling methods,
see app. III.) These methods could be used individually or in combination.
Panelists further emphasized that, whenever feasible, it is important to
use methodologies that are appropriate for the location sampled. In
addition, it is critical to determine whether the results are unique to a
certain location or whether they can be generalized to other locations.
Panelists recommended that research start at the local level. Such
research would identify successful small-scale interventions, increase the
knowledge of victims' needs, and develop meaningful performance measures.
Lessons learned at the local level could then be expanded to national and
regional levels.

oWhat is the projects' estimated effect on the nature and severity of
human trafficking? Panelists emphasized the necessity of designing
rigorous methods to evaluate antitrafficking projects, such as randomized
control trials.^25 For example, as baseline estimates in trafficking hot
spots are obtained and interventions are undertaken in that location to
reduce trafficking, the use of "place-randomized trials"^26 for evaluation
would become possible. To determine the interventions' impact, data
obtained from interventions in hot spots could then be compared with
locations where there had been no interventions. Although randomized
trials may be difficult to execute for many trafficking projects, they are
important ways to generate evidence about interventions' effectiveness.
Randomized trials should be pilot-tested in carefully chosen settings so
that the evaluator can identify and correct any problems encountered
before expanding the trials to larger populations or areas. Panelists
pointed out that such rigorous evaluation has occurred in the fields of
public health and criminal justice. For example, a randomized study was
done of brothels in Thailand to obtain information on the HIV/AIDS rates
of prostitutes.

^25According to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), randomized control trials meet
the highest standards of impact evaluation and should be used whenever feasible. As
defined by OMBï¿½s guidance, a randomized controlled trial is ï¿½a study that measures an
interventionï¿½s effect by randomly assigning individuals or other units into an intervention
group, which receives the intervention, and into a control group, which does not. At some
point following intervention, measurements are taken to establish the difference between
the intervention group and the control group.ï¿½ However, randomized controlled trials are
not suitable for every program and generally can be employed only under special
circumstances. See OMB, ï¿½What Constitutes Strong Evidence of a Programï¿½s Effectiveness?ï¿½
(http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/part/2004_program_eval.pdf).

^26A place-randomized trial is a study in which a number of places are randomly assigned to
two or more interventions to learn which intervention works best.

Address Monitoring and Evaluation Weaknesses in the Design of
Antitrafficking Projects

To address weaknesses in project design that impede monitoring and
evaluation, such as projects with very broad, high-level objectives,
panelists made the following recommendations:

oDevelop a logic framework. Given the weaknesses of some antitrafficking
projects that have overly broad objectives across a diverse range of
activities, panelists suggested that officials design projects with a
logic framework that has clear objectives and narrow the focus of
interventions. They also recommended that officials design projects that
clearly link activities to intended outcomes, identify measurable
indicators, and establish procedures for setting and modifying targets.
Measurable indicators with mutually agreed-upon targets allow project
officials to assess how a project is achieving its overall goals and
objectives. For example, a Labor-funded project implemented by ILO in
Mexico includes a logic framework that links project activities and
outputs to outcome objectives, and includes clear indicators and means of
verification. The project's overall goal of eliminating the commercial
sexual exploitation of children in Mexico links to four immediate
objectives that, in turn, link back to project activities and outputs. One
objective--that at least 300 child victims of sexual exploitation or
at-risk children and their families receive assistance--is linked to 28
activities and 8 outputs, such as increasing families' employment
opportunities. These 28 activities include disseminating employment
promotion programs, organizing employment training, and monitoring and
analyzing the impact of these dissemination and training efforts.
Panelists emphasized that donors and implementers should agree on the
project's logic framework during the design phase.

oDetermine whether a project is ready to be evaluated. Given the
significant variance in project duration and funding levels, panelists
emphasized that evaluators would not be able to evaluate all existing
projects, but should first determine which projects are ready to be
evaluated. In conducting such "evaluability assessments," evaluators
determine, among other things, whether (1) the project is large enough,
has sufficient resources, and has been implemented long enough to make an
impact; (2) the project is reaching its target population; (3) project
documents specify and clearly link objectives, goals, and activities; and
(4) sufficient information exists to determine impact. For example,
larger, long-term projects are more likely to have an impact and, thus,
may be better candidates for evaluation than smaller, short-term projects.
Because larger antitrafficking projects generally include a diverse range
of interventions, panelists suggested narrowing the evaluation to focus on
discrete interventions or aspects of the project.

oBuild monitoring and evaluation into project design. Given that
evaluation is not generally considered during design, panelists emphasized
that project officials should consider how the project will be evaluated
before the project is implemented. Most importantly, organizations need to
define the project's intended impact and how that impact will be measured.
To do this, organizations would have to determine the project
beneficiaries and to which group they would be compared, the data they
would have to collect, and how they would analyze those data. Management
would not only need to collect data during implementation to monitor if
the project works according to plan, but also collect data before and
after implementation to determine what works best.

Conclusions

The United States has played an important role in combating global human
trafficking and spurring other governments to increase their efforts in
doing so. As organizations around the world increasingly collaborate in
combating trafficking, their ultimate success will depend on the extent to
which they are able to overcome difficult challenges, such as varying
levels of government commitment and capacity, that have impeded
collaboration in the past. More than 7 years after the passage of the UN
protocol, little is known about which interventions have been the most
effective in preventing human trafficking, protecting victims, and
prosecuting traffickers.

The United States and other governments, international organizations, and
NGOs continue their efforts to fight trafficking, but there is little
information available to inform their decisions about project
implementation and selection. Although antitrafficking projects contain
some important elements for monitoring, they often lack other important
elements for measuring performance on a real-time basis, such as targets.
Such elements are critical in monitoring project performance to determine
whether interventions are being implemented as expected, or whether they
need to be changed to better combat human trafficking. Evaluation is also
important in determining whether antitrafficking projects have been
effective. However, few impact evaluations have been completed due to the
difficulties involved. As a result, little is known about the impact of
antitrafficking interventions.

Given the grave personal suffering of victims and negative impacts on
society that human trafficking creates, strengthening collaboration,
monitoring performance, and evaluating impact are important to ensure that
organizations fund antitrafficking interventions with the greatest impact,
where they are most needed, and through the effective and efficient use of
resources.

Recommendations for Executive Action

We recommend that the Secretaries of State and Labor and the Administrator
of USAID improve the monitoring and evaluation of their projects to combat
global human trafficking by considering the following actions, where
appropriate:

1.Improve information about project impact on the nature and severity of
human trafficking, including

odeveloping better data about the incidence of trafficking at the project
level and

oapplying rigorous evaluation methodologies.

2.Address monitoring and evaluation weaknesses in the design of
antitrafficking projects, including

odeveloping a framework that clearly links activities with project-level
goals, indicators, and targets;

oconducting "evaluability assessments" to determine whether a project is
ready to be evaluated; and

obuilding monitoring and evaluation into project design before the project
is implemented.

We are addressing our recommendations to State, Labor, and USAID because
they provided the most U.S. funding for projects to combat global human
trafficking.

Agency Comments and Our Evaluation

We requested comments on a draft of this report from the Secretaries of
State, Justice, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, and Labor;
the Administrator of USAID; and cognizant officials at UNODC, IOM, ILO,
OAS, OSCE, the World Bank, IDB, and ADB or their designees. We received
written comments from State, Labor, USAID, and HHS, which are reprinted in
appendixes IV, V, VI, and VII along with our responses to specific points.

In its comment letter, State noted that it will implement the
recommendations in the report in ways that are relevant and appropriate to
the mandates of the State offices working on antitrafficking efforts.
State further noted that the recommendations are entirely consistent with
the department's current activities and direction. State also generally
agreed that the antitrafficking field is well-served by more information
about the nature and severity of human trafficking and recognized that
effective project design is critical to successful project implementation
and program monitoring and can lay the foundation for evaluation. However,
State disagreed with our finding that monitoring is limited, stating that
monitoring is in place at the department and improving. While we recognize
that State and other U.S. agencies have certain elements of monitoring in
place, we report that they lack others. For example, we found that for the
23 antitrafficking projects we reviewed, the majority do not have a logic
model that clearly explains how activities are linked to project goals. In
addition, the majority of these projects do not specify targets that will
establish benchmarks for measuring performance. State also emphasized that
many of its projects are designed to be of more limited size, scope, and
duration than those of other agencies, such as Labor. State further noted
that these projects of limited duration are worthy of funding, but are not
necessarily appropriate for evaluation. In the report, we state that the
impact of a shorter-term, smaller-scale intervention may be difficult to
attribute and quantify.

Labor commented that the report provides a good overall assessment of
international cooperation and the need to enhance collaboration among key
agencies and governments regarding antitrafficking efforts. Labor also
commented that the report highlights important areas for improving
monitoring and evaluation of U.S.-funded antitrafficking programs.
However, Labor stated that the report does not fully reflect efforts
particular federal agencies are taking in the monitoring and evaluation of
antitrafficking projects. As an example, Labor stated that it uses several
mechanisms, including audits and process evaluations, in its monitoring
and oversight of international technical assistance projects, including
antitrafficking projects, to ensure that U.S. funds lead to planned
outputs and results. In response, we made additions or revisions to the
text to further clarify Labor's monitoring and evaluation efforts. We
believe the overall monitoring of antitrafficking projects is limited
because the projects funded by the other five agencies did not have the
elements of monitoring we found in Labor's projects.

USAID said it appreciates the thoughtfulness of GAO's report. USAID also
commented that it is concerned with the challenges of coordination,
monitoring, and evaluation, and that while it has made considerable
efforts to coordinate within the U.S. government and with other
organizations, it will continue to work within the interagency process in
Washington and in the field. USAID also agrees that monitoring and
evaluation of its antitrafficking efforts are very important and that they
rely on the availability of both human and financial resources. USAID
further agrees that the issues inherent in the evaluation of
antitrafficking activities are particularly challenging because there is
no baseline against which to measure progress.

HHS said the report is a sound document that substantively covers the wide
range of programs and services available to combat human trafficking.

We also received technical comments from Justice and DHS, as well as from
UNODC, IOM, ILO, OAS, OSCE, the World Bank, IDB, and ADB, which we have
incorporated in the report as appropriate.

We are sending copies of this report to interested congressional
committees; the Secretaries of State, Justice, Health and Human Services,
Homeland Security, and Labor; the Administrator of USAID; ILO; IOM; and
UNODC. We will also provide copies to others on request. In addition, the
report will be available at no charge on the GAO Web site at
[41]http://www.gao.gov .

If you or your staffs have any questions about this report, please contact
me at (202) 512-9601. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional
Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report.
GAO staff who made major contributions to this report are listed in
appendix VIII.

Thomas Melito
Director, International Affairs and Trade

Appendix I:  Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

Our objectives were to examine (1) collaboration among organizations
involved in international antitrafficking efforts, (2) U.S. government
agencies' monitoring of antitrafficking projects and difficulties in
evaluating these projects, and (3) suggestions for strengthening
monitoring and evaluation.

To examine collaboration among organizations involved in international
antitrafficking efforts, we reviewed relevant planning, funding, and
project documents on human trafficking from the Departments of State,
Justice, Labor, Homeland Security, and Health and Human Services and the
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). We reviewed planning
and project documents from relevant United Nations (UN) and other
international agencies and offices, including the UN Office on Drugs and
Crime (UNODC), International Labor Organization (ILO), International
Organization for Migration (IOM), United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF),
and UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). We also reviewed UN reports
and resolutions that address coordination as well as documents from
regional organizations, such as the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the Coordinated Mekong Ministerial
Initiative Against Trafficking (COMMIT), and the Regional Conference on
Migration.

In addition, we reviewed documents from and discussed international
antitrafficking efforts with officials from the above agencies and
organizations as well as officials from host government, donor government,
and nongovernmental organizations (NGO), in Washington, D.C., and during
our fieldwork in Indonesia, Thailand, and Mexico. We also reviewed
documents describing these countries' national mechanisms to combat
trafficking, including legislation and action plans, where applicable. We
selected Thailand because it is the country with the largest number of
international organizations working to combat human trafficking. We
selected Indonesia and Mexico because they receive a large amount of U.S.
funding for international antitrafficking projects and have a relatively
large number of U.S. government agencies and international organizations
working in each country. All 3 countries are origin, transit, and
destination countries for human trafficking victims and have projects
addressing prevention, protection, and prosecution.

To examine organizations' monitoring and evaluation of antitrafficking
programs, we reviewed documentation from 23 projects in the 3 countries we
visited and illustrative projects from other countries. We worked with
U.S. agency officials in Washington and in the field to identify
U.S.-funded antitrafficking projects in Indonesia, Thailand, and Mexico
that were ongoing during the time of our review (August 2006 to June
2007). We requested project documents--including proposals, grant
agreements, and progress reports--from these U.S. officials for projects
identified in these countries. In response to this request, we received
documents for 23 antitrafficking projects that were funded or implemented
by 6 U.S. agencies involved in international antitrafficking efforts. We
examined the project documents for the following elements: statement of
goals or objectives, statement of activities, identification of indicators
and targets, explanation of how targets were selected, and inclusion of a
logic model or framework. While we recognize that these 23 projects may
not be the complete universe of antitrafficking projects in these 3
countries, we consider these 23 projects sufficient for the purposes of
our review.^1 Although we cannot assume that the issues we identified
exist across all projects, they nevertheless represent areas for
improvement in monitoring antitrafficking projects. We also reviewed a set
of 4 State Office to Combat and Monitor Trafficking in Persons (G/TIP)
antitrafficking projects in India, Israel, Afghanistan, and Costa Rica.
These projects were selected to illustrate some current monitoring and
evaluation practices for existing projects in different parts of the world
and different types of exploitation. They showed the variation in
monitoring practices that can only increase with sample size. Thus, the
projects provided the background information and context needed to
understand State G/TIP's current efforts to standardize monitoring
requirements. The reviewed documents for all projects included proposals,
applications for assistance, project descriptions, strategy papers,
concept papers, causal models, cooperative or grant agreements, and
periodic and final reports.

We also reviewed articles and books on monitoring, evaluation, and
statistics, such as Sampling by Steven K. Thompson, Wiley Series in
Probability and Mathematical Statistics (1992); Adaptive Sampling by
Stephen K. Thompson and George A.F., Seber, Wiley Series in Probability
and Mathematical Statistics (1996); Better Evaluation for Evidence-Based
Policy: Place Randomized Trials in Education, Criminology, Welfare, and
Health by Robert Baruch, The Annals of the American Academy of Political
and Social Science (2005), vol. 599, 6-18; Program Evaluation Methods:
Measurement and Attribution of Program Results, Third Edition, Treasury
Board of Canada, Secretariat; and Monitoring and Evaluation: Some Tools,
Methods and Approaches, the World Bank (2004).

^1We could not determine the universe of projects currently being implemented in these three
countries because multiple U.S. agencies are involved in international antitrafficking efforts
and there is no one central repository to identify all U.S.-funded projects.

To examine suggestions for strengthening monitoring and evaluation, we
worked with the National Academy of Sciences to organize a 2-day expert
panel on challenges and alternative strategies for monitoring and
evaluating the results of international antitrafficking programs and
projects in April 2007. We invited the following groups of panel
participants:

oExperts with broad-based, subject-area knowledge of human trafficking.

oExperts with specialized knowledge of monitoring and evaluation of
programs aimed at hidden populations similar to trafficking victims, such
as the homeless and irregular migrants. This group included experts with
specific knowledge of baseline data estimation of such populations.

Panelists had backgrounds in academia, research, consulting, and project
implementation in the field. Using a nominal group technique, panelists
chose to focus on the intervention "safe return" as a starting point for
discussion. Experts provided presentations and participated in a
discussion and cross-fertilization of ideas. Using a nominal group
technique, panel members also ranked two topics in order of importance to
the human trafficking field--estimating the number of trafficking victims
and evaluability assessments. None of the panel members were compensated
for their work on this project. The following experts participated in the
panel:

oRichard Berk, Professor of Criminology and Statistics, Department of
Criminology, University of Pennsylvania

oRobert Boruch, University Trustee Chair Professor, Graduate School of
Education and Statistics Department, Wharton School, University of
Pennsylvania

oMario Thomas Gaboury, Professor and Chair of Criminal Justice, University
of New Haven

oAdele Harrell, Consultant

oKristiina Kangaspunta, Chief, Anti-Human Trafficking Unit, United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime

oJonathan Martens, Counter-Trafficking Project Specialist,
Counter-Trafficking Division, International Organization for Migration

oJeffrey S. Passel, Senior Research Associate, Pew Hispanic Center

oLisa Rende-Taylor, Technical Advisor to the United Nations Inter-Agency
Project on Human Trafficking in the Greater Mekong Subregion

oPeter Reuter, Professor, School of Public Policy, Department of
Criminology, University of Maryland

oW. Courtland Robinson, Assistant Professor, Center for Refugee and
Disaster Response, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

oDebra Rog, Associate Director, Westat Corporation

oJane Nady Sigmon, Senior Coordinator for International Programs, Office
to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, U.S. Department of State

We conducted our review from August 2006 to June 2007 in accordance with
generally accepted government auditing standards.

Appendix II:  Selected International Organizations Involved in Combating Human
Trafficking 

This appendix describes the general mission and antitrafficking activities
of 15 international organizations that implement international
antitrafficking projects.

Table 3: Selected International Organization Missions and Activities to
Combat Human Trafficking

                                        

     Organization/General mission     Activities to combat human trafficking  
Worldwide organizations                                                    
United Nations Office on Drugs    As the Secretariat of the Conference of  
and Crime (UNODC): Assist member  the Parties to the UN Convention against 
countries to combat illicit       Transnational Organized Crime and its    
drugs, crime, and terrorism.      protocols, including the Trafficking in  
                                     Persons Protocol, UNODC is required to   
                                     "ensure the necessary coordination with  
                                     the secretariats of relevant             
                                     international and regional               
                                     organizations."                          
                                                                              
                                     UNODC's Global Program to Combat         
                                     Trafficking in Persons comprises data    
                                     collection, assessment, and technical    
                                     cooperation.                             
International Labor Organization  The International Program on the         
(ILO): Promote social justice and Elimination of Child Labor aims to       
internationally recognized human  eliminate child labor by strengthening   
and labor rights. The ILO         national capacities and creating a       
Declaration on Fundamental        worldwide movement to combat it.         
Principles and Rights at Work                                              
expresses the commitment of       The Special Action Program to Combat     
governments and employers' and    Forced Labor seeks to                    
workers' organizations in four                                             
areas, including the elimination  oraise global awareness and              
of forced, compulsory, and child  understanding of forced labor;           
labor.                                                                     
                                     oassist governments to develop and       
                                     implement new laws, policies, and action 
                                     plans;                                   
                                                                              
                                     odevelop and disseminate guidance and    
                                     training materials on forced labor and   
                                     trafficking; and                         
                                                                              
                                     oimplement programs that integrate       
                                     policy, institutional capacity building, 
                                     and direct support for the prevention of 
                                     forced labor and identification and      
                                     rehabilitation of victims.               
International Organization for    IOM's counter-trafficking projects       
Migration (IOM): Ensure the       primarily aim to prevent human           
orderly and humane management of  trafficking, and to protect victims      
migration, to promote             while offering options of safe and       
international cooperation on      sustainable reintegration and/or return. 
migration issues; to assist in    Activities include:                      
the search for practical                                                   
solutions to migration problems;  oInformation campaigns that educate the  
and to provide humanitarian       public about human trafficking and equip 
assistance to migrants, including vulnerable populations with the          
refugees and internally displaced information necessary to protect         
people.                           themselves from the recruitment tactics  
                                     of traffickers.                          
                                                                              
                                     oResearch on human trafficking that      
                                     explores routes and trends, the causes   
                                     and consequences of human trafficking as 
                                     well as the structures, motivations, and 
                                     modus operandi of organized criminal     
                                     groups.                                  
                                                                              
                                     oDirect assistance to trafficking        
                                     victims that provides accommodation in   
                                     safe places, medical and psychosocial    
                                     support, skills development and          
                                     vocational training, reintegration       
                                     assistance, and the options of voluntary 
                                     and dignified return to the country of   
                                     origin or resettlement to a third        
                                     country in extreme cases.                
                                                                              
                                     oTechnical cooperation that builds the   
                                     capacity of government and civil society 
                                     institutions to better address the       
                                     challenges posed by human trafficking    
                                     through specialized training and         
                                     technical support in the development of  
                                     counter-trafficking policies and         
                                     procedures, legal frameworks, and        
                                     infrastructural upgrades.                
United Nations Children's Fund    UNICEF's Child Protection Program        
(UNICEF): Advocate for the        focuses on                               
protection of children's rights,                                           
help meet children's basic needs, ogovernment commitment and capacity;     
and aim to expand their                                                    
opportunities.                    olegislation and enforcement;            
                                                                              
                                     oattitudes, customs and practices;       
                                                                              
                                     oopen discussion;                        
                                                                              
                                     ochildren's life skills, knowledge, and  
                                     participation;                           
                                                                              
                                     ofamily and community capacity;          
                                                                              
                                     oessential services, including           
                                     prevention, recovery, and reintegration; 
                                     and                                      
                                                                              
                                     oeffective monitoring, reporting, and    
                                     oversight.                               
Joint United Nations Program on   Using a human rights approach, UNAIDS    
HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS): Support        aims to address the root causes of human 
efforts of 10 UN system           trafficking, including poverty, limited  
organizations to help the world   access to education and jobs, and social 
prevent new HIV/AIDS infections,  and cultural attitudes and practices     
provide care for those already    that devalue women, girls, and children. 
infected, and mitigate the impact UNAIDS promotes law enforcement and      
of the epidemic.                  other activities to prevent trafficking; 
                                     protect victims; punish traffickers; and 
                                     target demand for the services of        
                                     trafficked workers, women, and girls.    
                                     UNAIDS also advocates for voluntary      
                                     counseling and testing, the provision of 
                                     HIV care and treatment services, and the 
                                     elimination of stigma and                
                                     discrimination.                          
United Nations Development        UNDP approaches trafficking as a         
Program (UNDP): Increase          voluntary and involuntary migration      
knowledge, experience, and        issue. UNDP aims to identify the factors 
resources to developing countries that increase women's and girls'         
in such areas as poverty,         vulnerability to trafficking and to      
HIV/AIDS, energy and the          develop responses for the facilitation   
environment, democratic           of safe mobility.                        
governance, and crisis prevention                                          
and recovery. Focus on                                                     
encouraging human rights and                                               
women's empowerment.                                                       
United Nations Educational,       UNESCO undertakes policy-oriented        
Scientific, and Cultural          research on specific factors leading to  
Organization (UNESCO): Promote    the trafficking of women and children in 
international cooperation in the  pilot countries in Africa and Asia.      
fields of education, science,                                              
culture, and communication.       The Project to Fight Human Trafficking   
                                     in Africa aims to promote effective and  
                                     culturally appropriate policymaking to   
                                     combat trafficking in Western and        
                                     Southern Africa. It organizes training   
                                     workshops for policymakers, NGOs,        
                                     community leaders, and the media to      
                                     raise awareness and inspire innovative   
                                     policymaking.                            
                                                                              
                                     The Trafficking and HIV/AIDS Project     
                                     attempts to solve the problems of        
                                     HIV/AIDS, trafficking, and               
                                     nontraditional drug use in the Greater   
                                     Mekong subregion, by researching,        
                                     developing, and implementing programs    
                                     that work to support sustainable,        
                                     locally managed projects with ethnic     
                                     minorities.                              
United Nations Development Fund   UNIFEM addresses the trafficking of      
for Women (UNIFEM): Provide       women within the context of violence     
financial and technical           against women--as a violation of their   
assistance to programs and        human rights and as a development issue. 
strategies to foster women's                                               
empowerment and gender equality.                                           
Cover the gender issues of                                                 
HIV/AIDS, poverty, economics, and                                          
violence.                                                                  
United Nations High Commissioner  UNHCR provides a safeguard to the rights 
for Refugees (UNHCR): Coordinate  and well-being of refugees so that they  
international action to protect   can exercise the right to seek asylum    
refugees and resolve refugee      and find safe refuge in another country, 
problems worldwide.               with the option to return home           
                                     voluntarily, integrate locally, or       
                                     resettle in a third country.             
Regional organizations                                                     
Organization for Security and     The Office of the Special Representative 
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE):     and Coordinator for Combating            
Address a wide range of security  Trafficking in Human Beings supports the 
concerns, including arms control, development and implementation of        
confidence- and                   antitrafficking policies in OSCE         
security-building, human rights,  participating countries. In addition,    
national minorities,              the office coordinates the activities of 
democratization, policing         OSCE bodies, promotes cooperation among  
strategies, counterterrorism,     the participating states, and raises the 
antitrafficking, and economic and public and political profile of          
environmental activities.         trafficking in persons.                  
                                                                              
                                     The Office for Democratic Institutions   
                                     and Human Rights assists countries in    
                                     preventing trafficking and protecting    
                                     victims by                               
                                                                              
                                     osupporting the establishment of         
                                     national referral mechanisms,            
                                                                              
                                     oimproving victim identification and     
                                     assistance, and                          
                                                                              
                                     oenhancing trafficking victims'          
                                     awareness of their rights.               
                                                                              
                                     The Office of the Coordinator of OSCE    
                                     Economic and Environmental Activities    
                                     aims to address both the demand and      
                                     supply side of trafficking in human      
                                     beings by                                
                                                                              
                                     opromoting self-regulation of the        
                                     private sector;                          
                                                                              
                                     oraising the awareness of trafficking in 
                                     countries of destination, in particular  
                                     in western countries; and                
                                                                              
                                     ocreating economic empowerment           
                                     opportunities for potential victims of   
                                     trafficking in countries of origin.      
                                                                              
                                     The OSCE Secretariat's Action Against    
                                     Terrorism Unit, Conflict Prevention      
                                     Center, Strategic Police Matters Unit,   
                                     Border Unit, the Office of the Senior    
                                     Gender Adviser, and field offices are    
                                     also engaged in combating human          
                                     trafficking.                             
Organization of American States   The Anti-Trafficking in Persons          
(OAS): Strengthen cooperation on  Section's goals are to carry out         
democratic values, defend common  antitrafficking efforts with a regional  
interests, and debate the major   perspective that allows OAS to address   
issues facing the western         human trafficking in a way that is       
hemisphere and the world.         difficult for any single national        
                                     government. The section provides the     
                                     necessary logistical information for     
                                     training seminars, technical assistance  
                                     to governments, exchange of information, 
                                     and proposals. Also, the section         
                                     develops new information, monitors new   
                                     literature in the field, and catalogues  
                                     existing reports and documents. The      
                                     focus of antitrafficking efforts         
                                     consists of                              
                                                                              
                                     obroadening awareness and understanding  
                                     of trafficking in persons,               
                                                                              
                                     osharing information with governments    
                                     and civil society,                       
                                                                              
                                     oidentifying policies that will reduce   
                                     human trafficking,                       
                                                                              
                                     oworking with officials on implementing  
                                     concrete antitrafficking measures, and   
                                                                              
                                     oidentifying new partners and financial  
                                     resources for fighting trafficking in    
                                     the hemisphere.                          
                                                                              
                                     Four key areas of action are to          
                                                                              
                                     ofoster national action by governments;  
                                                                              
                                     oadvance effective antitrafficking best  
                                     practices in prevention, protection,     
                                     investigation, and prosecution;          
                                                                              
                                     ogain new allies for the hemisphere; and 
                                                                              
                                     oimplement existing antitrafficking      
                                     projects and training programs as well   
                                     as develop new ones.                     
Association of Southeast Asian    In 1997, ASEAN member countries signed   
Nations (ASEAN): Accelerate       the Declaration on Transnational Crime,  
economic growth, social progress, which commits members to taking measures 
and cultural development for the  to combat transnational crimes,          
participating countries in the    including human trafficking. The         
southeast region of Asia. Promote organization's work program to implement 
regional peace and stability      this declaration includes actions to     
through respect for justice and   enhance information exchange, increase   
the rule of law.                  awareness of trafficking, support the    
                                     criminalization of trafficking, and      
                                     develop regional training programs.      
                                                                              
                                     In 2004, ASEAN member countries signed   
                                     the Declaration Against Trafficking in   
                                     Persons, Particularly Women and          
                                     Children, which commits members to       
                                     establishing a regional focal network to 
                                     combat trafficking and adopting measures 
                                     to prevent the fraudulent use of         
                                     identity documents, among other things.  
Multilateral development banks                                             
World Bank: Provide financial and The World Bank conducts analytical work  
technical assistance to           on topics, such as gender or migration,  
developing countries to promote   that may address the incidence of and    
education, health,                factors leading to human trafficking and 
infrastructure, and               child labor.                             
communications to reduce global                                            
poverty and improve living        The International Finance Corporation    
standards.                        supports job creation and skills         
                                     improvement projects in Asia that assist 
                                     vulnerable populations, including human  
                                     trafficking victims. In addition, the    
                                     corporation applies its performance      
                                     standard related to child labor to the   
                                     projects it finances, in an effort to    
                                     help client companies assess and manage  
                                     these issues.                            
Asian Development Bank (ADB):     ADB conducts regional research           
Reduce poverty in Asia and the    addressing the incidence and factors     
Pacific. ADB helps improve the    leading to the trafficking of women and  
quality of people's lives by      children in Asia. Where trafficking      
providing loans and technical     vulnerabilities are identified, ADB      
assistance for a broad range of   recommends that its borrowers include an 
development activities.           antitrafficking component (normally      
                                     involving community and laborer          
                                     awareness raising, targeted poverty      
                                     reduction program for women and          
                                     children, and capacity building of NGOs  
                                     and community groups) often in           
                                     conjunction with an HIV/AIDS prevention  
                                     component. ADB also facilitates policy   
                                     dialogues within and among countries in  
                                     Asia, especially through its active      
                                     regional cooperation assistance.         
Inter-American Development Bank   IDB seeks opportunities within its       
(IDB): Contribute to the          Poverty Reduction and Social Equity and  
acceleration of the process of    Social Development Strategies to address 
economic and social development   the issue of human trafficking in its    
of the regional developing member borrowing member countries. IDB promotes 
countries.                        mainstreaming the subject in the         
                                     traditionally financed operations in the 
                                     areas of violence, social exclusion,     
                                     attention to vulnerable groups, gender,  
                                     citizen security, justice reform, and    
                                     corruption. IDB encourages countries to  
                                     include human trafficking in their       
                                     country strategies and provides          
                                     technical assistance grants and citizen  
                                     security loans with trafficking          
                                     elements. In addition, IDB has launched  
                                     communications campaigns to improve      
                                     awareness and visibility of human        
                                     trafficking and promote the use of       
                                     emergency hotlines, which are also used  
                                     to gather information on origin and      
                                     destination locations of trafficking     
                                     victims and trafficking routes.          

Sources: International organizations and development banks.

Appendix III:  Methods Suggested by Expert Panel to Estimate the Number of Human
Trafficking Victims

This appendix describes the sampling methods suggested by a GAO-convened
panel of experts to estimate the number of human trafficking victims.

Table 4: Sampling Methods Suggested by Expert Panel to Estimate the Number
of Human Trafficking Victims

                                        

           Method           Description of method      Application to human   
                                                           trafficking        
Stratified random      The population is divided  Geographic areas are     
sampling to oversample into subgroups, and random divided into subareas,   
rare units             samples are selected from  which allows for a       
                          each subgroup.             more-intensive search of 
                                                     cases in trafficking     
                                                     "hot spots."             
Double sampling        After selecting a sample   First, a preliminary     
                          of primary units to obtain estimate of human        
                          preliminary estimates, a   trafficking cases is     
                          sample of secondary units  obtained from reported   
                          is selected to obtain more cases in certain         
                          accurate counts.           geographic areas.        
                                                     Second, a more precise   
                                                     estimate of actual       
                                                     victims is obtained by   
                                                     focusing on the areas    
                                                     with a higher            
                                                     concentration of         
                                                     reported cases.          
Adaptive cluster       After an initial set of    After an initial         
sampling               units is selected,         trafficking case is      
                          additional units in its    identified, additional   
                          neighborhood are added to  cases in its "vicinity"  
                          the sample.                are identified. The goal 
                                                     is to find clusters that 
                                                     are usually defined      
                                                     geographically.          
Capture-recapture      Two random samples are     Two random samples of    
sampling               independently drawn, and   reported trafficking     
                          the number of common and   cases are independently  
                          different units is used to drawn, and the number of 
                          estimate the size of the   common and different     
                          population.                cases is used to         
                                                     estimate the total       
                                                     number of reported       
                                                     cases.^a                 
Indirect sampling      A "sisterhood approach" to Relatives or friends of  
                          sampling involves sampling trafficking victims are  
                          a related population that  interviewed, and an      
                          is not as difficult to     estimate is obtained on  
                          sample as the population   the basis of the         
                          of interest. An estimate   relationship between the 
                          is obtained by using the   two groups.              
                          relationship between the                            
                          "hard-" and                                         
                          "easy-to-reach"                                     
                          populations.                                        
Sentinel site          A nonrandom sample of      Sites with higher        
surveillance           sites is selected over     concentrations of        
                          time to observe changes in trafficking cases can be 
                          characteristics.           identified and observed  
                                                     over time to determine   
                                                     whether there is a       
                                                     change in the number of  
                                                     victims found or         
                                                     rescued, or both.        
Snowball sampling      An initial observation is  An identified victim     
                          taken and augmented by the identifies other victims 
                          participants. This is a    with whom he or she has  
                          participant-driven         been in contact. In      
                          approach.                  turn, these victims      
                                                     identify others.         
Model-based estimator  A model of human           Based on the underlying  
                          trafficking is developed,  relationships of a human 
                          followed by empirical work trafficking model, a     
                          aimed at obtaining         multiplier of identified 
                          parameter estimates.       cases is used to         
                                                     extrapolate to a total   
                                                     or aggregate estimate.   
Use of decoys          Decoys are used to         An initial estimate of   
                          estimate an elusive        reported victims can be  
                          population. For example,   adjusted on the basis of 
                          the U.S. Census Bureau     the number of decoys     
                          used decoys in studies of  that are not found by    
                          the homeless to estimate   the enumerators to       
                          how many of the homeless   account for victims who  
                          were not found.            may have been missed.    
Random approximation   This procedure is an       Every 5^th or 10^th      
                          approximation of and is    employment               
                          more practical than true   establishment,           
                          random sampling. For       household, or            
                          example, systematic random reintegrated trafficking 
                          sampling requires random   victim is selected to    
                          sampling in the first      generate an estimate     
                          step, while the units in   that can be used without 
                          the second step are        losing the ability to    
                          selected in some           generalize.              
                          systematic fashion.                                 
Sampling with          Particular units are       Some geographic areas    
certainty              removed from the sampling  with a known high        
                          design to reduce the       incidence of trafficking 
                          variation in the           can be included in the   
                          estimates. These units are estimation with          
                          selected "with certainty," certainty, while         
                          while the "noncertainty"   sampling procedures can  
                          units are randomly         be applied in other      
                          selected.                  parts of a country or    
                                                     region.                  

Source: GAO analysis of expert panel proceedings.

^aThis procedure was used by ILO to obtain its global estimate of forced
labor. For a detailed discussion, see Patrick Belser, Michaelle de Cock,
and Ferhad Mehran, ILO Minimum Estimate of Forced Labour in the World, ILO
(Geneva: April 2005).

Appendix IV:  Comments from the Department of State

The following are GAO's comments on the Department of State letter dated
July 13, 2007.

GAO Comments

1.State said that the report's title is not apt because program monitoring
is in place and improving. We believe that monitoring is limited for the
following reasons: for the 23 projects we reviewed, the majority did not
have a logic model that clearly explains how activities are linked to
project goals; the majority of these projects also did not specify targets
that establish benchmarks for measuring performance; of the 10 projects
that did specify targets, only 5 explained how targets were set; and,
finally, State lacked written guidance for field-level oversight.

2.State noted that many of its projects are designed to be of more limited
size, scope, and duration, and that such projects are not necessarily
suitable for evaluation. They also added that larger and longer-term
projects are more suitable candidates for impact evaluation than shorter
projects. Finally, State commented that a relatively short time frame for
projects is not a design weakness. In the report, we state that the impact
of a shorter-term, smaller-scale intervention may be difficult to
attribute and quantify.

3.State noted that baseline data are not required for all interventions.
We disagree. In the report, we state that baseline and target values of
indicators are needed to assess project performance. For example,
baselines for a victim assistance program could include the number of
victims served or assisted, or the number of vocational training sessions
held. Moreover, project-level estimates are needed for baselines by which
to evaluate how effectively interventions are reducing trafficking. For
this type of baseline, panelists suggested methods for baseline
estimation, such as gathering data in trafficking hot spots, that would
allow for more rigorous impact evaluations.

Appendix V:  Comments from the Department of Labor

The following are GAO's comments on the Department of Labor letter dated
July 13, 2007.

GAO Comments

1.Labor noted that federal agencies are carrying out monitoring and
evaluation activities or are making efforts to improve monitoring and
evaluation of antitrafficking activities. Labor also provided details of
its monitoring policies, procedures, and activities. We recognize that
Labor has monitoring procedures and activities in place, and we revised
text in several locations to provide further clarification on Labor's
activities. We clarified that all four Labor projects in Indonesia,
Mexico, and Thailand clearly link goals and activities, specify targets,
and explain how targets were set. We added language stating that Labor
engaged ILO's external auditor to conduct audits of a sample of ILO's
projects to eliminate child labor and contracted with a certified public
accounting firm to conduct independent attestation engagements of its
Education Initiative projects. We believe the overall monitoring of
antitrafficking projects is limited because the projects funded by the
other five agencies did not have the elements of monitoring we found in
Labor's projects.

2.Labor stated that it requires midterm and final evaluations for its
technical assistance projects, and that, in some cases, it engages in
longer-term follow-up studies. We revised the text to further clarify and
recognize Labor's evaluation requirements and activities. In addition, we
added text specifying that Labor funds follow-up studies to document
changes that have occurred to a sample of beneficiaries over time.

3.Labor agreed with the need to carry out more systematic impact
evaluations, but also emphasized that process evaluations are an important
prerequisite of impact evaluations. Labor further commented that
randomized trials are not appropriate for all projects, and requested that
we specify where agencies should conduct randomized trials and where other
methods would be more appropriate. We agree that process evaluations are
important and revised the text to further differentiate process
evaluations from impact evaluations. We believe each agency should
determine whether randomized trials are appropriate for the specific
project they are evaluating.

4.We made changes to the draft of this report on the basis of Labor's
specific technical comments, where appropriate.

Appendix VI:  Comments from the United States Agency for International
Development

Appendix VII:  Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services

Appendix VIII:  GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments

Thomas Melito (202) 512-9601 or [42][email protected]

Cheryl Goodman, Assistant Director; Jeremy Latimer; Christina Werth; Todd
M. Anderson; Gergana Danailova-Trainor; Terry Richardson; and Debbie Chung
made key contributions to this report. In addition, Elizabeth Curda, Bruce
Kutnick, Mary Moutsos, Barbara Stolz, and Susanna Kuebler provided
technical or legal assistance.

(320444)

[43]www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-07-1034 .

To view the full product, including the scope
and methodology, click on the link above.

For more information, contact Thomas Melito at (202) 512-9601 or
[email protected].

Highlights of [44]GAO-07-1034 , a report to congressional requesters

July 2007

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Monitoring and Evaluation of International Projects Are Limited, but
Experts Suggest Improvements

Human trafficking--a worldwide crime involving the exploitation of men,
women, and children for others' financial gain--is a violation of human
rights. Victims are often lured or abducted and forced to work in
involuntary servitude. Since 2001, the U.S. government has provided about
$447 million to combat global human trafficking. As GAO previously
reported, estimates of the number of trafficking victims are questionable.
In this report, GAO examines (1) collaboration among organizations
involved in international antitrafficking efforts, (2) U.S. government
monitoring of antitrafficking projects and difficulties in evaluating
these projects, and (3) suggestions for strengthening monitoring and
evaluation. GAO analyzed agency documents; convened an expert panel;
interviewed officials; and conducted fieldwork in Indonesia, Thailand, and
Mexico.

[45]What GAO Recommends

GAO recommends that the Secretaries of State and Labor and the
Administrator of USAID consider taking actions to

(1) improve information about project impact on human trafficking and (2)
address monitoring and evaluation in project design. In their comments,
State agreed to implement the recommendations. While agreeing that
monitoring and evaluation are important, Labor and USAID did not directly
respond to GAO's recommendations.

While governments, international organizations, and nongovernmental
organizations have recognized the importance of collaborating and have
established some coordination mechanisms and practices, they will need to
overcome challenges that have impeded collaboration in the past for their
efforts to be successful. In two of the three countries GAO visited, it
found that host governments--which bear ultimate responsibility for
combating trafficking within their borders--have passed national
antitrafficking laws and enacted national action plans. However,
organizations continue to face numerous challenges when collaborating to
combat human trafficking, including varying levels of government
commitment and capacity. For example, some governments treat foreign
trafficking victims as illegal immigrants and deport rather than protect
them. In addition, according to officials in two of the three countries
GAO visited, the ministries responsible for coordinating antitrafficking
efforts have limited authority and capacity.

U.S. government-funded antitrafficking projects often lack some important
elements that allow projects to be monitored, and little is known about
project impact due to difficulties in conducting evaluations. Project
documents GAO reviewed generally include monitoring elements, such as an
overarching goal and related activities, but often lack other monitoring
elements, such as targets for measuring performance. To oversee projects,
State officials supplement their efforts with assistance from U.S. embassy
staff, but have not established written guidance for oversight. Officials
said that they are working to improve performance measures and develop
monitoring guidance. Conducting impact evaluations of antitrafficking
projects is difficult due to several factors, including questionable
project-level estimates of the number of trafficking victims. These
estimates are needed for baselines by which to evaluate how effectively
specific interventions are reducing trafficking. Elements in the design of
certain projects, such as objectives that are too broad, further impede
evaluation. Because of these difficulties, few impact evaluations have
been completed, and little is known about the impact of antitrafficking
interventions.

A GAO-convened panel of experts identified and discussed ways to address
the factors that make it difficult to monitor and evaluate antitrafficking
projects. Panelists' suggested approaches included improving information
on the nature and severity of trafficking and addressing monitoring and
evaluation in project design. To improve information on trafficking,
panelists suggested methods that have been used to sample other
hard-to-reach populations, including domestic violence victims. One
suggested method is sampling of "hot spots"--an intensive search for
victims in areas known to have high concentrations of victims. To address
weaknesses in project design that impede monitoring and evaluation,
panelists suggested that officials design projects that clearly link
activities to intended outcomes, identify measurable indicators, and
establish procedures for setting and modifying targets.

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References

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