Higher Education: Federal Science, Technology, Engineering, and  
Mathematics Programs and Related Trends (12-OCT-05, GAO-06-114). 
                                                                 
The United States has long been known as a world leader in	 
scientific and technological innovation. To help maintain this	 
advantage, the federal government has spent billions of dollars  
on education programs in the science, technology, engineering,	 
and mathematics (STEM) fields for many years. However, concerns  
have been raised about the nation's ability to maintain its	 
global technological competitive advantage in the future. This	 
report presents information on (1) the number of federal programs
funded in fiscal year 2004 that were designed to increase the	 
number of students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees and	 
occupations or improve educational programs in STEM fields, and  
what agencies report about their effectiveness; (2) how the	 
numbers, percentages, and characteristics of students, graduates,
and employees in STEM fields have changed over the years; and (3)
factors cited by educators and others as affecting students'	 
decisions about pursing STEM degrees and occupations, and	 
suggestions that have been made to encourage more participation. 
GAO received written and/or technical comments from several	 
agencies. While one agency, the National Science Foundation,	 
raised several questions about the findings, the others generally
agreed with the findings and conclusion and several agencies	 
commended GAO for this work.					 
-------------------------Indexing Terms------------------------- 
REPORTNUM:   GAO-06-114 					        
    ACCNO:   A39437						        
  TITLE:     Higher Education: Federal Science, Technology,	      
Engineering, and Mathematics Programs and Related Trends	 
     DATE:   10/12/2005 
  SUBJECT:   College students					 
	     Education program evaluation			 
	     Engineering					 
	     Higher education					 
	     Life sciences					 
	     Mathematics					 
	     Physical sciences					 
	     Statistical data					 
	     Technology 					 
	     Strategic planning 				 
	     Education programs 				 

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GAO-06-114

United States Government Accountability Office

    GAO	Report to the Chairman, Committee on Rules, House of Representatives

October 2005

HIGHER EDUCATION

 Federal Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Programs and Related
                                     Trends

GAO-06-114

[IMG]

October 2005

HIGHER EDUCATION

Federal Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Programs and Related
Trends

                                 What GAO Found

Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies reported spending about $2.8
billion in fiscal year 2004 for 207 education programs designed to
increase the numbers of students and graduates or improve educational
programs in STEM fields, but agencies reported little about their
effectiveness. The National Institutes of Health and the National Science
Foundation had most of the programs and spent most of the funds. Officials
also reported that evaluations were completed or under way for about half
of the programs.

Federal STEM Education Programs and Funding by Agency, Fiscal Year 2004

Dollars in millions National Institutes of Health (NIH)

800 Environmental Protection 600 Agency (EPA) 400 Health Resources and
Services 200 Administration (HRSA)

0

                                      NIH

                                      (51)

                                      NSF

                                      (48)

                                      NASA

                                    (5) (4)

                                   Education

AEP

(21)

                                      HRSA

                                      (3)

s

                                      (75)

                                   All other

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

While the total numbers of students, graduates, and employees in STEM
fields increased, changes in the numbers and percentages of women,
minorities, and international students varied during the periods reviewed.
From academic year 1995-1996 to 2003-2004, the percentage of students in
STEM fields increased from 21 to 23 percent. Changes in the percentages of
domestic minority students varied by group. From academic year 1994-1995
to 2002-2003, the number of graduates in STEM fields increased 8 percent,
but this was less than the 30 percent increase in graduates in non-STEM
fields. International graduates continued to earn about one-third or more
of the advanced degrees in three STEM fields. Between calendar years 1994
and 2003, employment in STEM fields increased 23 percent compared to 17
percent in non-STEM fields, and there was no statistically significant
change in the percentage of women employees.

Educators and others cited several factors that affected students'
decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and made
suggestions to encourage more participation. They said teacher quality at
the kindergarten to 12th grades, the mathematics and science courses
completed in high school, and a mentor, especially for women and
minorities, influenced domestic students' decisions. Also, these sources
said that opportunities outside the United States and the visa process
affected international students' decisions. To encourage more
participation in STEM fields, educators and others made several
suggestions. But before adopting any of them, it is important to know the
extent to which existing STEM education programs are appropriately
targeted and making the best use of available federal resources.

                 United States Government Accountability Office

Contents

  Letter

Results in Brief
Background
More than 200 Federal Education Programs Are Designed to

Increase the Numbers of Students and Graduates or Improve Educational
Programs in STEM Fields, but Most Have Not Been Evaluated

Numbers of Students, Graduates, and Employees in STEM Fields Generally
Increased, but Percentage Changes Varied

University Officials and Others Cited Several Factors That Influence
Decisions about Participation in STEM Fields and Suggested Ways to
Encourage Greater Participation

Concluding Observations
Agency Comments and Our Evaluation

                                       1

                                      3 5

10

18

32 41 42

Appendix I Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

Appendix II List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

Appendix III	Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or More

  Appendix IV Data on Students and Graduates in STEM Fields

     Appendix V       Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at 
                      the Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral Levels        79 
     Appendix VI        Confidence Intervals for Estimates of STEM      
                   Employment by Gender, Race or Ethnicity, and         
                                    Wages and Salaries                     88 

            Appendix VII Comments from the Department of Commerce 91

Appendix VIII	Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services

Appendix IX Comments from the National Science Foundation

Appendix X	Comments from the National Science and Technology Council

Appendix XI GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments

Bibliography

  Tables

Table 1: Sources of Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and Years
Analyzed 2 Table 2: List of STEM Fields Based on NCES's NPSAS and IPEDS
Data and BLS's CPS Data 6

Table 3: Percentage of the U.S. Population for Selected Racial or Ethnic
Groups in the Civilian Labor Force, Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 8

Table 4: Number of STEM Education Programs Reported by Federal Civilian
Agencies 11 Table 5: Funding Levels for Federal STEM Education Programs in
Fiscal Year 2004 13 Table 6: Program Goals and Numbers of STEM Programs
with One or Multiple Goals 14 Table 7: Numbers of STEM Programs with One
or Multiple Types of Assistance and Beneficiaries 14

Table 8: Numbers of STEM Programs Targeted to One Group and Multiple
Groups 15

Table 9: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of Students in
the STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All Education Levels, Academic Years
1995-1996 and 20032004 20

Table 10: Estimated Percentage Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of
Domestic Minority Students in STEM fields for All Education Levels for
Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 21

Table 11: Estimated Changes in Numbers of International Students in STEM
fields by Education Levels from the 1995-1996 Academic Year to the
2003-2004 Academic Year 22

Table 12: Numbers of Graduates and Percentage Changes in STEM and Non-STEM
Fields across All Degree Levels from the 1994-1995 Academic Year to the
2002-2003 Academic Year 23

Table 13: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Men and Women Graduates with
STEM Degrees by Education Level and Field for Academic Years 1994-1995 and
2002-2003 25

Table 14: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Domestic Minority Graduates in
STEM Fields by Education Levels and Race or Ethnicity for Academic Years
1994-1995 and 2002-2003 26

Table 15: Changes in Numbers and Percentages of International Graduates in
STEM fields at the Master's and Doctoral Degree Levels, 1994-1995 and
2002-2003 Academic Years 27

Table 16: Estimated Numbers and Percentages of Employees in STEM Fields by
Gender in Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 (numbers in thousands) 29

Table 17: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees by Selected Racial or
Ethnic Group for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 30 Table 18: Sources of
Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and

Years Analyzed 48 Table 19: Classification codes and Occupations,
2002-2003 51 Table 20: Classification codes and occupations, 1994-2001 52
Table 21: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded in FY 2004 57 Table 22:
Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million

or More during Fiscal Year 2004 or Fiscal Year 2005 64

Table 23: Estimated Numbers of Students in STEM Fields by Education Level
for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 20032004 74

Table 24: Estimated Percentages of Students by Gender and STEM Field for
Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 75

Table 25: Estimated Number of Women Students and Percentage Change by
Education Level and STEM Field for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004
77

Table 26: Comparisons in the Percentage of STEM Graduates by Field and
Gender for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 20022003 78

Table 27: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of Students in
the STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All Education Levels, Academic Years
1995-1996 and 20032004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 79

Table 28: Numbers of Students by Education Level in all STEM Fields for
Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals)
80

Table 29: Estimated Numbers and Percentage Changes in Women Students in
STEM Fields, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence
intervals) 81

Table 30: Estimated Percentage Changes in Bachelor's, Master's, and
Doctoral Students in STEM Fields, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004
(95 percent confidence intervals) 83

Table 31: Estimates of STEM Students by Gender and Field for Academic
Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals) 84

Table 32: Estimates of Students for Selected Racial or Ethnic Groups in
STEM Fields for All Education Levels and Fields for the Academic Years
1995-1996 and 2002-2003 (95 percent fonfidence intervals) 86

Table 33: Estimates of International Students in STEM Fields by Education
Levels for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 20032004 (95 percent confidence
intervals) 87

Table 34: Estimated Total Number of Employees by STEM Field between
Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 88 Table 35: Estimated Numbers of Employees
in STEM Fields by Gender for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 89 Table 36:
Estimated Changes in STEM Employment by Gender for Calendar Years 1994 and
2003 89 Table 37: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees for Selected
Racial or Ethnic Groups for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 90 Table 38:
Estimated Changes in Median Annual Wages and Salaries in the STEM Fields
for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 90

  Figures

Figure 1: Amounts Funded by Agencies for STEM-Related Federal
Education Programs in Fiscal Year 2004 12
Figure 2: Key Changes in Students, Graduates, and Employees in
STEM Fields 19

Figure 3: Percentage Changes in Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral
Graduates in STEM Fields from Academic Year 1994-1995
to Academic Year 2002-2003 24

Figure 4: Estimated Numbers of Employees in STEM Fields from
Calendar Years 1994 through 2003 28
Figure 5: Estimated Median Annual Wages and Salaries in STEM
Fields for Calendar Years 1994 through 2003 32

Abbreviations

BEST Building Engineering and Science Talent
BLS Bureau of Labor Statistics
CGS Council of Graduate Schools
CLF civilian labor force
COS Committee on Science
CPS Current Population Survey
DHS Department of Homeland Security
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
HHS Health and Human Services
HRSA Health Resources and Services Administration
IPEDS Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCES National Center for Education Statistics
NCLBA No Child Left Behind Act
NIH National Institutes of Health
NPSAS National Postsecondary Student Aid Study
NSF National Science Foundation
NSTC National Science and Technology Council
SAO Security Advisory Opinion
SEVIS Student and Exchange Visitor Information System
STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics

This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright
protection in the United States. It may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without further permission from GAO. However, because this
work may contain copyrighted images or other material, permission from the
copyright holder may be necessary if you wish to reproduce this material
separately.

United States Government Accountability Office Washington, DC 20548

October 12, 2005

The Honorable David Dreier Chairman, Committee on Rules House of
Representatives

Dear Mr. Chairman:

The United States has long been known as a world leader in scientific and
technological innovation. To help maintain this advantage, the federal
government has spent billions of dollars on education programs in the
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields for many
years. Some of these programs were designed to increase the numbers of
women and minorities pursuing degrees in STEM fields. In addition, for
many years, thousands of international students came to the United States
to study and work in STEM fields. However, concerns have been raised about
the nation's ability to maintain its global technological competitive
advantage in the future. In spite of the billions of dollars spent to
encourage students and graduates to pursue studies in STEM fields or
improve STEM educational programs, the percentage of United States
students earning bachelor's degrees in STEM fields has been relatively
constant-about a third of bachelor's degrees-since 1977. Furthermore,
after the events of September 11, 2001, the United States established
several new systems and processes to help enhance border security. In some
cases, implementation of these new systems and processes, which
established requirements for several federal agencies, higher education
institutions, and potential students, made it more difficult for
international students to enter this country to study and work.

In the last few years, many reports and news articles have been published,
and several bills have been introduced in Congress that address issues
related to STEM education and occupations. This report presents
information on (1) the number of federal civilian education programs
funded in fiscal year 2004 that were designed to increase the numbers of
students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees and occupations or improve
educational programs in STEM fields and what agencies report about their
effectiveness; (2) how the numbers, percentages, and characteristics of
students, graduates, and employees in STEM fields have changed over the
years; and (3) factors cited by educators and others as influencing
people's decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and
suggestions that have been made to encourage greater

participation in STEM fields. To determine the number of programs designed
to increase the numbers of students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees
and occupations, we identified 15 federal departments and agencies as
having STEM programs, and we developed and conducted a survey asking each
department or agency to provide information on its education programs,
including information about their effectiveness.1 We received responses
from 14 of them, the Department of Defense did not participate, and we
determined that at least 13 agencies had STEM education programs during
fiscal year 2004 that met our criteria.

To describe how the numbers of students, graduates, and employees in STEM
fields have changed, we analyzed and reported data from the Department of
Education's (Education) National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)
and the Department of Labor's (Labor) Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Specifically, as shown in table 1, we used the National Postsecondary
Student Aid Study (NPSAS) and the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data
System (IPEDS) from NCES and the Current Population Survey (CPS) data from
BLS. We assessed the data for reliability and reasonableness and found
them to be sufficiently reliable for the purposes of this report.

 Table 1: Sources of Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and Years Analyzed

                                                    Time   
                                                    span   
Department Agency Database    Data obtained    of data    Years analyzed   
Education   NCES   NPSAS       College student          Academic years     
                                       enrollment 9 years  1995-1996 and      
                                                               2003-2004      
Education   NCES   IPEDS                                Academic years     
                              Graduation/degrees  9 years  1994-1995 and      
                                                               2002-2003      
     Labor     BLS     CPS                                     Calendar years 
                                  Employment      10 years  1994 through 2003 

Sources: NCES's National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) and
Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and BLS's Current
Population Survey (CPS) data.

Note: Enrollment and employment information are based on sample data and
are subject to sampling error. The 95-percent confidence intervals for
student enrollment estimates are contained in appendix V of this report.
Percentage estimates for STEM employment have 95-percent confidence
intervals of within +/- 6 percentage points and other employment estimates
(such as wages and salaries) have confidence intervals of within +/- 10
percent of the estimate, unless otherwise noted. See appendixes I, V, and
VI for additional information.

1For the purposes of this report, we will use the term "agency" when
referring to any of the 13 federal departments and agencies that responded
to our survey.

To obtain perspectives on the factors that influence people's decisions
about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and to obtain suggestions for
encouraging greater participation in STEM fields, we interviewed educators
and administrators in eight colleges and universities (the University of
California Los Angeles and the University of Southern California in
California; Clark Atlanta University, Georgia Institute of Technology, and
Spelman College in Georgia; the University of Illinois; Purdue University
in Indiana; and Pennsylvania State University). We selected these colleges
and universities to include a mix of public and private institutions,
provide geographic diversity, and include a few minority-serving
institutions, including one (Spelman College) that serves only women
students. In addition, most of the institutions had large total numbers of
students, including international students, enrolled in STEM fields. We
also asked officials from the eight universities to identify current
students to whom we could send an e-mail survey. We received responses
from 31 students from five of these institutions. In addition, we
interviewed federal agency officials and representatives from associations
and education organizations, and analyzed reports on various topics
related to STEM education and occupations. Appendix I contains a more
detailed discussion of our scope and methodology. We conducted our work
between October 2004 and October 2005 in accordance with generally
accepted government auditing standards.

Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies reported having 207 education
programs funded in fiscal year 2004 that were designed to increase the
numbers of students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees and occupations or
improve educational programs in STEM fields, but they reported little
about the effectiveness of these programs. The 13 agencies reported
spending about $2.8 billion in fiscal year 2004 for these programs.
According to the survey responses, the National Institutes of Health (NIH)
and the National Science Foundation (NSF) sponsored 99 of the 207 programs
and spent about $2 billion of the approximate $2.8 billion. The program
costs ranged from $4,000 for a national scholars program sponsored by the
Department of Agriculture (USDA) to about $547 million for an NIH program
that is designed to develop and enhance research training opportunities
for individuals in biomedical, behavioral, and clinical research by
supporting training programs at institutions of higher learning. Officials
reported that most of the 207 programs had multiple goals, and many were
targeted to multiple groups. For example, 2 programs were identified as
having one goal of attracting and preparing students at any education
level to pursue coursework in STEM areas, while 112 programs had this as
one of multiple goals. Agency officials also

  Results in Brief

reported that evaluations were completed or under way for about half of
the programs, and most of the completed evaluations reported that the
programs had been effective and achieved established goals. However, some
programs that have not been evaluated have operated for many years.

While the total numbers of students, graduates, and employees have
increased in STEM fields, changes in the numbers and percentages of women,
minorities and international students varied during the periods reviewed.
From the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, the
number of students increased in STEM fields by 21 percent- more than the
11 percent increase in non-STEM fields. Also, students enrolled in STEM
fields increased from 21 percent to 23 percent of all students. Changes in
the numbers and percentages of domestic minority students varied by group.
For example, the number of African American students increased 69 percent
and the number of Hispanic students increased 33 percent. The total number
of graduates in STEM fields increased by 8 percent from the 1994-1995
academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year, while graduates in non-STEM
fields increased 30 percent. Further, the numbers of graduates decreased
in at least four of eight STEM fields at each education level. The total
number of domestic minority graduates in STEM fields increased, and
international graduates continued to earn about one-third or more of the
master's and doctoral degrees in three fields. Moreover, from 1994 to
2003, employment increased by 23 percent in STEM fields as compared with
17 percent in non-STEM fields. African American employees continued to be
less than 10 percent of all STEM employees, and there was no statistically
significant change in the percentage of women employees.

Educators and others cited several factors as influencing students'
decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and they suggested
many ways to encourage more participation in STEM fields. Studies,
education experts, university officials, and others cited teacher quality
at the kindergarten through 12th grade levels and students' high school
preparation in mathematics and science courses as major factors that
influence domestic students' decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and
occupations. In addition, university officials, students, and studies
identified mentoring as a key factor for women and minorities. Also,
according to university officials, education experts, and reports,
international students' decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and
occupations in the United States are influenced by yet other factors,
including more stringent visa requirements and increased educational
opportunities outside the United States. We have reported that several

aspects of the visa process have been improved, but further steps could be
taken. In order to promote participation in the STEM fields, officials at
most of the eight universities visited and current students offered
suggestions that focused on four areas: teacher quality, mathematics and
science preparation and courses, outreach to underrepresented groups, and
the federal role in STEM education. The students who responded to our
e-mail survey generally agreed with most of the suggestions and expressed
their desires for better mathematics and science preparation for college.
However, before adopting such suggestions, it is important to know the
extent to which existing STEM education programs are appropriately
targeted and making the best use of available federal resources.

We received written comments on a draft of this report from the Department
of Commerce, the Department of Health and Human Services, and the National
Science and Technology Council. These agencies generally agreed with our
findings and conclusions. We also received written comments from the
National Science Foundation which questioned our findings related to
program evaluations, interagency collaboration, and the methodology we
used to support our findings on the factors that influenced decisions
about pursing STEM fields. Also, the National Science Foundation provided
information to clarify examples cited in the report, stated that the data
categories were not clear, and commented on the graduate level enrollment
data we used. We revised the report to acknowledge that the National
Science Foundation uses a variety of mechanisms to evaluate its programs
and we added a bibliography that identifies the reports and research used
during the course of this review to address the comment about our
methodology related to the factors that influenced decisions about
pursuing STEM fields. We also revised the report to clarify the examples
and the data categories and to explain the reasons for selecting the
enrollment data we used. However, we did not make changes to address the
comment related to interagency collaboration for the reason explained in
the agency comments section of this report. The written comments are
reprinted in appendixes VII, VIII, IX, and X. In addition, we received
technical comments from the Departments of Commerce, Health and Human
Services, Homeland Security, Labor, and Transportation, and the
Environmental Protection Agency and National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, which we incorporated when appropriate.

Background 	STEM includes many fields of study and occupations. Based on
the National Science Foundations' categorization of STEM fields, we

developed STEM fields of study from NCES's National Postsecondary Student
Aid Study (NPSAS) and Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
(IPEDS), and identified occupations from BLS's Current Population Survey
(CPS). Using these data sources, we developed nine STEM fields for
students, eight STEM fields for graduates, and four broad STEM fields for
occupations. Table 2 lists these STEM fields and occupations and examples
of subfields. Additional information on STEM occupations is provided in
appendix I.

Table 2: List of STEM Fields Based on NCES's NPSAS and IPEDS Data and
BLS's CPS Data

Enrollment-NCES' NPSAS
data Degrees-NCES' IPEDS data Occupations-BLS' CPS data

Agricultural sciences Biological/agricultural sciences

o  Botany

o  Zoology

o  Dairy

Biological sciences  o  Forestry

o  Poultry

o  Wildlife management

                     Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences

o  Geology

o  Geophysics and seismology

Science

o  Agricultural and food scientists

o  Astronomers and physicists

o  Atmospheric and space scientists

o  Biological scientists

o  Chemists and materials scientists

o  Environmental scientists and geoscientists

o  Nurses

o  Psychologists

o  Sociologists

o  Urban and regional planners

Physical sciences Physical sciences

o  Chemistry

o  Physics

Psychology Psychology

o  Clinical

o  Social

Social sciences Social sciences

o  Political science

o  Sociology

Technology  Technology                      Technology                     
                o  Solar             o  Clinical laboratory technologists and 
                                                                  technicians 
              o  Automotive           o  Diagnostic-related technologists and 
               engineering                                        technicians 
                              o  Medical, dental, and ophthalmic laboratory   
                                               technicians                    

Enrollment-NCES' NPSAS
data Degrees-NCES' IPEDS data Occupations-BLS' CPS data

Engineering Engineering

o  	Aerospace, aeronautical, and astronautical

o  Architectural

o  Chemical

o  Civil

o  	Electrical, electronics, and communication

o  Nuclear

Engineering

o  Architects, except naval

o  Aerospace engineers

o  Chemical engineers

o  Civil engineers

o  Electrical and electronic engineers

o  Nuclear engineers

Computer sciences Mathematics/computer sciences Mathematics and computer   
                                                   sciences                   
      Mathematics        o  Actuarial science      o  Computer scientists and 
                                                             systems analysts 
                        o  Applied mathematics      o  Computer programmers   
                      o  Mathematical statistics      o  Computer software    
                                                           engineers          
                        o  Operations research            o  Actuaries        
                          o  Data processing           o  Mathematicians      
                            o  Programming              o  Statisticians      

Sources: NCES for NPSAS and IPEDS data; CPS for occupations.

Note: This table is not designed to show a direct relationship from
enrollment to occupation, but to provide examples of majors, degrees, and
occupations in STEM fields from the three sources of data.

Many of the STEM fields require completion of advanced courses in
mathematics or science, subjects that are introduced and developed at the
kindergarten through 12th grade level, and the federal government has
taken steps to help improve achievement in these and other subjects.
Enacted in 2002, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLBA) seeks to improve the
academic achievement of all of the nation's school-aged children. NCLBA
requires that states develop and implement academic content and
achievement standards in mathematics, science and the reading or language
arts. All students are required to participate in statewide assessments
during their elementary and secondary school years. Improving teacher
quality is another goal of NCLBA as a strategy to raise student academic
achievement. Specifically, all teachers teaching core academic subjects
must be highly qualified by the end of the 2005-2006 school year.2 NCLBA
generally defines highly qualified teachers as those that have (1) a
bachelor's degree, (2) state certification, and (3) subject area knowledge
for each academic subject they teach.

2Core subjects include English, reading or language arts, mathematics,
science, foreign languages, civics and government, economics, arts,
history, and geography.

The federal government also plays a role in coordinating federal science
and technology issues. The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC)
was established in 1993 and is the principal means for the Administration
to coordinate science and technology among the diverse parts of the
federal research and development areas. One objective of NSTC is to
establish clear national goals for federal science and technology
investments in areas ranging from information technologies and health
research to improving transportation systems and strengthening fundamental
research. NSTC is responsible for preparing research and development
strategies that are coordinated across federal agencies in order to
accomplish these multiple national goals.

In addition, the federal government, universities and colleges, and others
have developed programs to provide opportunities for all students to
pursue STEM education and occupations.3 Additional steps have been taken
to increase the numbers of women, minorities, and students with
disadvantaged backgrounds in the STEM fields, such as providing additional
academic and research opportunities. According to the 2000 Census, 52
percent of the total U.S. population 18 and over were women; in 2003,
members of racial or ethnic groups constituted from 0.5 percent to 12.6
percent of the civilian labor force (CLF), as shown in table 3.

Table 3: Percentage of the U.S. Population for Selected Racial or Ethnic
Groups in the Civilian Labor Force, Calendar Years 1994 and 2003

                                             Percentage of      Percentage of 
                                            U.S. population   U.S. population 
                          Race or ethnicity in the CLF, 1994 in the CLF, 2003 
                  Hispanic or Latino origin              8.9             12.6 
                  Black or African American             10.8             10.7 
                                      Asian              2.8              4.4 
           American Indian or Alaska Native              0.5              0.5 

Source: GAO calculations based upon March 1994 and March 2003 CPS data.

In addition to domestic students, international students have pursued STEM
degrees and worked in STEM occupations in the United States. To

3Other federal programs that are not specifically designed to attract
students to STEM education and occupations, such as Pell Grants, may
provide financial assistance to students who obtain degrees in STEM
fields.

do so, international students and scholars must obtain visas.4
International students who wish to study in the United States must first
apply to a Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS)
certified school. In order to enroll students from other nations, U.S.
colleges and universities must be certified by the Student and Exchange
Visitor Program within the Department of Homeland Security's Immigration
and Customs Enforcement organization. As of February 2004, nearly 9,000
technical schools and colleges and universities had been certified. SEVIS,
is an Internet-based system that maintains data on international students
and exchange visitors before and during their stay in the United States.
Upon admitting a student, the school enters the student's name and other
information into the SEVIS database. At this time the student may apply
for a student visa. In some cases, a Security Advisory Opinion (SAO) from
the Department of State (State) may be needed to determine whether or not
to issue a visa to the student. SAOs are required for a number of reasons,
including concerns that a visa applicant may engage in the illegal
transfer of sensitive technology. An SAO based on technology transfer
concerns is known as Visas Mantis and, according to State officials, is
the most common type of SAO applied to science applicants.5 In April 2004,
the Congressional Research Service reported that State maintains a
technology alert list that includes 16 sensitive areas of study. The list
was produced in an effort to help the United States prevent the illegal
transfer of controlled technology and includes chemical and biotechnology
engineering, missile technology, nuclear technology, robotics, and
advanced computer technology.6

Many foreign workers enter the United States annually through the H-1B
visa program, which assists U.S. employers in temporarily filling
specialty

4There are several types of visas that authorize people to study and work
in the United States. F, or student, visas, are for study at 2- and 4-year
colleges and universities and other academic institutions; the exchange
visitor, or J, visas are for people who will be participating in a
cultural exchange program; and M visas are for nonacademic study at
institutions, such as vocational and technical schools. In addition, H-1B
visas allow noncitizens to work in the United States.

5GAO, Border Security: Streamlined Visas Mantis Program Has Lowered Burden
on Foreign Science Students and Scholars, but Further Refinements Needed,
GAO-05-198 (Washington, D.C.: Feb. 18, 2005).

6Congressional Research Service, Science, Engineering, and Mathematics
Education: Status and Issues, 98-871 STM, April 27, 2004, Washington, D.C.

  More than 200 Federal Education Programs Are Designed to Increase the Numbers
  of Students and Graduates or Improve Educational Programs in STEM Fields, but
  Most Have Not Been Evaluated

occupations.7 Employed workers may stay in the United States on an H-1B
visa for up to 6 years. The current cap on the number of H-1B visas that
can be granted is 65,000. The law exempts certain workers, however, from
this cap, including those who are employed or have accepted employment in
specified positions. Moreover, up to 20,000 exemptions are allowed for
those holding a master's degree or higher.

Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies reported having 207 education
programs funded in fiscal year 2004 that were specifically established to
increase the numbers of students and graduates pursuing STEM degrees and
occupations, or improve educational programs in STEM fields, but they
reported little about the effectiveness of these programs.8 These 13
federal agencies reported spending about $2.8 billion for their STEM
education programs. Taken together, NIH and NSF sponsored nearly half of
the programs and spent about 71 percent of the funds. In addition,
agencies reported that most of the programs had multiple goals, and many
were targeted to multiple groups. Although evaluations have been done or
were under way for about half of the programs, little is known about the
extent to which most STEM programs are achieving their desired results.
Coordination among the federal STEM education programs has been limited.
However, in 2003, the National Science and Technology Council formed a
subcommittee to address STEM education and workforce policy issues across
federal agencies.

7A specialty occupation is defined as one that requires the application of
a body of highly specialized knowledge, and the attainment of at least a
bachelor's degree (or its equivalent), and the possession of a license or
other credential to practice the occupation if required.

8 GAO asked agencies to include STEM and related education programs with
one or more of the following as a primary objective: (1) attract and
prepare students at any education level to pursue coursework in STEM
areas, (2) attract students to pursue degrees (2-year degrees through post
doctoral) in STEM fields, (3) provide growth and research opportunities
for college and graduate students in STEM fields, such as working with
researchers and/or conducting research to further their education, (4)
attract graduates to pursue careers in STEM fields, (5) improve teacher
(pre-service, in-service, and postsecondary) education in STEM areas, and
(6) improve or expand the capacity of institutions to promote or foster
STEM fields.

Federal Civilian Agencies Officials from 13 federal civilian agencies
provided information on 207 Reported Sponsoring over STEM education
programs funded in fiscal year 2004. The numbers of 200 STEM Education
programs ranged from 51 to 1 per agency with two agencies, NIH and NSF,

sponsoring nearly half of the programs-99 of 207. Table 4 provides
aPrograms and Spending summary of the numbers of programs by agency, and
appendix II containsBillions in Fiscal Year 2004 a list of the 207 STEM
education programs and funding levels for fiscal

year 2004 by agency.

Table 4: Number of STEM Education Programs Reported by Federal Civilian
Agencies

Number of STEM Federal agency education programs

Department of Health and Human Services/ National Institutes of Health

National Science Foundation

Department of Energy

                        Environmental Protection Agency

Department of Agriculture

Department of Commerce

Department of the Interior

                 National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Department of Education

Department of Transportation

Department of Health and Human Services/Health Resources and Services
Administration

Department of Health and Human Services/Indian Health Service

                        Department of Homeland Security

Total

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

Federal civilian agencies reported that approximately $2.8 billion was
spent on STEM education programs in fiscal year 2004.9 The funding levels
for STEM education programs among the agencies ranged from about $998
million to about $4.7 million. NIH and NSF accounted for about 71 percent
of the total-about $2 billion of the approximate $2.8 billion. NIH spent

9The program funding levels, as provided by agency officials, contain both
actual and estimated amounts for fiscal year 2004.

about $998 million in fiscal year 2004, about 3.6 percent of its $28
billion appropriation, and NSF spent about $997 million, which represented
18 percent of its appropriation. Four other agencies, some with a few
programs, spent about 23 percent of the total: $636 million. For example,
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spent about $231
million on 5 programs and the Department of Education (Education) spent
about $221 million on 4 programs during fiscal year 2004. Figure 1 shows
the 6 federal civilian agencies that used the most funds for STEM
education programs and the funds used by the remaining 7 agencies.

Figure 1: Amounts Funded by Agencies for STEM-Related Federal Education
Programs in Fiscal Year 2004

                              Dollars in millions

1,200

                                    998 997

1,000

800

600

400

200 0 National Institutes

e National Sciencof Health Foundation

National Aeronautics and

                         Space AdministrationEducation

y

Agencomental Protection

Health Resources and

sAll Other

Services Administration

virEn

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

The funding reported for individual STEM education programs varied
significantly, and many of the programs have been funded for more than 10
years. The funding ranged from $4,000 for an USDA-sponsored program that
offered scholarships to U.S. citizens seeking bachelor's degrees at
Hispanic-serving institutions, to about $547 million for a NIH grant
program that is designed to develop and enhance research training
opportunities for individuals in biomedical, behavioral, and clinical
research by supporting training programs at institutions of higher
education. As shown in table 5, most programs were funded at $5 million or
less and 13 programs were funded at more than $50 million in fiscal year
2004. About half of the STEM education programs were first funded after
1998. The oldest program began in 1936, and 72 programs are over 10

years old.10 Appendix III describes the STEM education programs that
received funding of $10 million or more during fiscal year 2004 or 2005.11

Table 5: Funding Levels for Federal STEM Education Programs in Fiscal Year 2004

                                     Numbers of STEM Percentage of total STEM 
           Program funding levels education programs       education programs 
             Less than $1 million                 93 
                 $1 million to $5                 51 
                          million                    
              $5.1 million to $10                 19 
                          million                    
             $10.1 million to $50                 31 
                          million                    
            More than $50 million                 13 
                            Total                207 

             Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

    Federal Agencies Reported Most STEM Programs Had Multiple Goals and Were
    Targeted to Multiple Groups

Agencies reported that most of the STEM education programs had multiple
goals. Survey respondents reported that 80 percent (165 of 207) of the
education programs had multiple goals, with about half of these
identifying four or more goals for individual programs.12 Moreover,
according to the survey responders, few programs had a single goal. For
example, 2 programs were identified as having one goal of attracting and
preparing students at any education level to pursue coursework in the STEM
areas, while 112 programs identified this as one of multiple goals. Table
6 shows the program goals and numbers of STEM programs aligned with them.

10Six survey respondents did not include the date the program was
initially funded.

11Fiscal year 2005 funding levels were not available for all of the 207
STEM education programs.

12Three survey respondents did not identify the program goals.

Table 6: Program Goals and Numbers of STEM Programs with One or Multiple
Goals

                                                Programs with  Total programs 
                                  Programs with multiple goals with this goal 
           Program goal          only this goal including this      and other 
                                                goal                  goal(s) 
Attract and prepare students                                
     at any education level to                                 
     pursue coursework in STEM                2            112 
               areas                                           
    Attract students to pursue                                 
      degrees (2-year through                                  
              Ph.D.)                                           
and postdoctoral appointments              6            131 
    Provide growth and research                                
opportunities for college and                               
     graduate students in STEM                3            100 
              fields                                           
    Attract graduates to pursue              17            114 
      careers in STEM fields                                   
Improve teacher education in               8             65 
            STEM areas                                         
       Improve or expand the                                   
    capacity of institutions to                                
              promote                                          
       or foster STEM fields                  3             87 

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

The STEM education programs provided financial assistance to students,
educators, and institutions. According to the survey responses, 131
programs provided financial support for students or scholars, and 84
programs provided assistance for teacher and faculty development.13 Many
of the programs provided financial assistance to multiple beneficiaries,
as shown in table 7.

 Table 7: Numbers of STEM Programs with One or Multiple Types of Assistance and
                                 Beneficiaries

                                   Programs that Programs that Total programs 
                                                 provide       
                                    provide only this type and   that provide 
                                            this     other               this 
         Type of assistance           type of      types of           type of 
                                    assistance    assistance       assistance 
Financial support for students             54            77 
             or scholars                                       
      Institutional support to                                 
         improve educational                                   
               quality                         6            70 
Support for teacher and faculty            12            72 
             development                                       
       Institutional physical                  1            26 
       infrastructure support                                  

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

Most of the programs were not targeted to a specific group but aimed to
serve a wide range of students, educators, and institutions. Of the 207
programs, 54 were targeted to 1 group and 151 had multiple target

13One survey respondent did not identify the type of assistance supported
by the program.

groups.14 In addition, many programs were targeted to the same group. For
example, while 12 programs were aimed solely at graduate students, 88
other programs had graduate students as one of multiple target groups.
Fewer programs were targeted to elementary and secondary teachers and
kindergarten through 12th grade students than to other target groups.
Table 8 summarizes the numbers of STEM programs targeted to one group and
multiple groups.

  Table 8: Numbers of STEM Programs Targeted to One Group and Multiple Groups

Targeted to Targeted to this Total programs Targeted group only this group
and other groups targeted to this group

                     Kindergarten through grade 12 students

Elementary school students 0 28

Middle or junior high school students 1 33

High school students 3 50

                             Undergraduate students

2-year college students 1 57

4-year college students 4 92

                  Graduate students and postdoctoral scholars

Graduate students 12 88

Postdoctoral scholars 12 58

               Teachers, college faculty and instructional staff

              Elementary school teachers                  0           39      
               Secondary school teachers                  3           47      
        College faculty or instructional staff            4           75      
                     Institutions                         5           77      

Source: GAO survey responses from13 federal agencies.

Some programs limited participation to certain groups. According to survey
respondents, U.S. citizenship was required to be eligible for 53 programs,
and an additional 75 programs were open only to U.S. citizens or permanent
residents.15 About one-fourth of the programs had no

14Two survey respondents did not identify the group targeted by the
program.

15Lawful permanent residents, also commonly referred to as immigrants, are
legally accorded the privilege of residing permanently in the United
States. They may be issued immigrant visas by the Department of State
overseas or adjusted to permanent resident status by the Department of
Homeland Security in the United States.

citizenship requirement, and 24 programs allowed noncitizens or permanent
residents to participate in some cases. According to a NSF official,
students receiving scholarships or fellowships through NSF programs must
be U.S. citizens or permanent residents. In commenting on a draft of this
report, NSF reported that these restrictions are considered to be an
effective strategy to support its goal of creating a diverse, competitive,
and globally-engaged U.S. workforce of scientists, engineers,
technologists, and well-prepared citizens. Officials at two universities
said that some research programs are not open to non-citizens. Such
restrictions may reflect concerns about access to sensitive areas. In
addition to these restrictions, some programs are designed to increase
minority representation in STEM fields. For example, NSF sponsors a
program called Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the Geosciences to
increase participation by African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Native
Americans (American Indians and Alaskan Natives), Native Pacific Islanders
(Polynesians or Micronesians), and persons with disabilities.

    Agency Officials Reported That Evaluations Were Completed or Under Way for
    About Half of the Federal Programs

Evaluations had been completed or were under way for about half of the
STEM education programs. Agency officials responded that evaluations were
completed for 55 of the 207 programs and that for 49 programs, evaluations
were under way at the time we conducted our survey. Agency officials
provided us documentation for evaluations of 43 programs, and most of the
completed evaluations reviewed reported that the programs met their
objectives or goals. For example, a March 2004 report on the outcomes and
impacts of NSF's Minority Postdoctoral Research Fellowships program
concluded that there was strong qualitative and quantitative evidence that
this program is meeting its broad goal of preparing scientists from those
ethnic groups that are significantly underrepresented in tenured U.S.
science and engineering professorships and for positions of leadership in
industry and government.

However, evaluations had not been done for 103 programs, some of which
have been operating for many years. Of these, it may have been too soon to
expect evaluations for about 32 programs that were initially funded in
fiscal year 2002 or later. However, of the remaining 71 programs, 17 have
been operating for over 15 years and have not been evaluated. In
commenting on a draft of this report NSF noted that all of its programs
undergo evaluation and that it uses a variety of mechanisms for program
evaluation. We reported in 2003 that several agencies used various

strategies to develop and improve evaluations.16 Evaluations play an
important role in improving program operations and ensuring an efficient
use of federal resources. Although some of the STEM education programs are
small in terms of their funding levels, evaluations can be designed to
consider the size of the program and the costs associated with measuring
outcomes and collecting data.

    A Subcommittee Was Established in 2003 to Help Coordinate STEM Education
    Programs among Federal Agencies

Coordination of federal STEM education programs has been limited. In
January 2003 the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), Committee
on Science (COS), established a subcommittee on education and workforce
development. The purpose of the subcommittee is to advise and assist COS
and NSTC on policies, procedures, and programs relating to STEM education
and workforce development. According to its charter, the subcommittee will
address education and workforce policy issues and research and development
efforts that focus on STEM education issues at all levels, as well as
current and projected STEM workforce needs, trends, and issues. The
members include representatives from 20 agencies and offices-the 13
agencies that responded to our survey as well as the Departments of
Defense, State, and Justice, and the Office of Science and Technology
Policy, the Office of Management and Budget, the Domestic Policy Council,
and the National Economic Council. The subcommittee has working groups on
(1) human capacity in STEM areas, (2) minority programs, (3) effective
practices for assessing federal efforts, and (4) issues affecting graduate
and postdoctoral researchers. The Human Capacity in STEM working group is
focused on three strategic initiatives: defining and assessing national
STEM needs, including programs and research projects; identifying and
analyzing the available data regarding the STEM workforce; and creating
and implementing a comprehensive national response that enhances STEM
workforce development.

NSTC reported that as of June 2005 the subcommittee had a number of
accomplishments and projects under way that related to attracting students
to STEM fields. For example, it has (1) surveyed federal agency education
programs designed to increase the participation of women and
underrepresented minorities in STEM studies; (2) inventoried federal
fellowship programs for graduate students and postdoctoral fellows; and
(3) coordinated the Excellence in Science, Technology, Engineering, and

16GAO, Program Evaluation: An Evaluation Culture and Collaborative
Partnerships Help Build Agency Capacity, GAO-03-454 (Washington, D.C.: May
2, 2003).

  Numbers of Students, Graduates, and Employees in STEM Fields Generally
  Increased, but Percentage Changes Varied

Mathematics Education Week activities, which provide an opportunity for
the nation's schools to focus on improving mathematics and science
education. In addition, the subcommittee is developing a Web site for
federal educational resources in STEM fields and a set of principles that
agencies would use in setting levels of support for graduate and
postdoctoral fellowships and traineeships.

While the total numbers of students, graduates, and employees have
increased in STEM fields, percentage changes for women, minorities, and
international students varied during the periods reviewed. The increase in
the percentage of students in STEM fields was greater than the increase in
non-STEM fields, but the change in percentage of graduates in STEM fields
was less than the percentage change in non-STEM fields. Moreover,
employment increased more in STEM fields than in non-STEM fields. Further,
changes in the percentages of minority students varied by race or ethnic
group, international graduates continued to earn about a third or more of
the advanced degrees in three STEM fields, and there was no statistically
significant change in the percentage of women employees. Figure 2
summarizes key changes in the students, graduates, and employees in STEM
fields.

Figure 2: Key Changes in Students, Graduates, and Employees in STEM Fields

  Source: GAO analysis of CPS, IPEDS, and NPSAS data; graphics in part by Art
                                   Explosion.

    Numbers of Students in STEM Fields Grew, but This Increase Varied by
    Education Level and Student Characteristics

Total enrollments of students in STEM fields have increased, and the
percentage change was greater for STEM fields than non-STEM fields, but
the percentage of students in STEM fields remained about the same. From
the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, total
enrollments in STEM fields increased 21 percent-more than the 11 percent
enrollment increase in non-STEM fields. The number of students enrolled in
STEM fields represented 23 percent of all students enrolled during the
2003-2004 academic year, a modest increase from the 21 percent these
students constituted in the 1995-1996 academic year. Table 9 summarizes
the changes in overall enrollment across all education levels from the
1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year.

Table 9: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of Students in
the STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All Education Levels, Academic Years
19951996 and 2003-2004

Academic year Academic year 1995-1996 2003-2004

                                                 Non-                    Non- 
                Enrollment measures   STEM       STEM      STEM          STEM 
              Students enrolled (in                                
                         thousands)   4,132     15,243     4,997       16,883 
                Percentage of total                                
                         enrollment        21     79            23 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data.

Note: The totals for STEM and non-STEM enrollment include students in
bachelor's, master's, and doctoral programs as well as students enrolled
in certificate, associate's, other undergraduate, firstprofessional
degree, and post-bachelor's or post-master's certificate programs. The
percentage changes between the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years for
STEM and non-STEM students are statistically significant. See appendix V
for confidence intervals associated with these estimates.

The increase in the numbers of students in STEM fields is mostly a result
of increases at the bachelor's and master's levels. Of the total increase
of about 865,000 students in STEM fields, about 740,000 was due to the
increase in the numbers of students at the bachelor's and master's levels.
See table 23 in appendix IV for additional information on the estimated
numbers of students in STEM fields in academic years 1995-1996 and
20032004.

The percentage of students in STEM fields who are women increased from the
1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, and in the
2003-2004 academic year women students constituted at least 50 percent of
the students in 3 STEM fields-biological sciences, psychology, and social
sciences. However, in the 2003-2004 academic year, men students continued
to outnumber women students in STEM fields, and men constituted an
estimated 54 percent of the STEM students overall. In addition, men
constituted at least 76 percent of the students enrolled in computer
sciences, engineering, and technology.17 See tables 24 and 25 in appendix
IV for additional information on changes in the numbers and

17In 2004, we reported on women's participation in federally funded
science programs. Among other issues, this report discussed priorities
pertaining to compliance with provisions of Title IX of the Education
Amendments of 1972. For additional information, see GAO, Gender Issues:
Women's Participation in the Sciences Has Increased, but Agencies Need to
Do More to Ensure Compliance with Title IX, GAO-04-639, (Washington, D.C.:
July 22, 2004).

percentages of women students in the STEM fields for academic years
1995-1996 and 2003-2004.

While the numbers of domestic minority students in STEM fields also
increased, changes in the percentages of minority students varied by
racial or ethnic group. For example, Hispanic students increased 33
percent, from the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year.
In comparison, the number of African American students increased about 69
percent. African American students increased from 9 to 12 percent of all
students in STEM fields while Asian/Pacific Islander students continued to
constitute about 7 percent. Table 10 shows the numbers and percentages of
minority students in STEM fields for the 1995-1996 academic year and the
2003-2004 academic year.

Table 10: Estimated Percentage Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of
Domestic Minority Students in STEM fields for All Education Levels for
Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004

                                         Percentage    Minority      Minority 
                                         change in     group as a  group as a 
                   Numbers of Numbers of   the numbers  percentage percentage 
                                                    of          of         of 
                   students,  students,       students students in   students 
                   1995-      2003-            between        STEM    in STEM 
                     1996 (in   2004 (in academic          fields,    fields, 
                                         years 1995-      academic   academic 
       Race or     thousands) thousands)      1996 and        year       year 
      ethnicity                              2003-2004   1995-1996  2003-2004 
      Black or                                                     
       African                                                     
      American            360        608           +69           9 
    Asian/Pacific                                                  
      Islander            289        345           +19           7 
     Hispanic or                                                   
       Latino                                                      
       origin             366        489           +33           9 
American Indian         18         38          +107           0 
Other/Multiple                                                  
     minorities            29        166          +475           1 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data.

Note: All percentage changes are statistically significant. See appendix V
for confidence intervals associated with these estimates.

From the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, the
number of international students in STEM fields increased by about 57
percent solely because of an increase at the bachelor's level. The numbers
of international students in STEM fields at the master's and doctoral
levels declined, with the largest decline occurring at the doctoral level.
Table 11 shows the numbers and percentage changes in international
students from the 1995-1996 academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year.

Table 11: Estimated Changes in Numbers of International Students in STEM
fields by Education Levels from the 1995-1996 Academic Year to the
2003-2004 Academic Year

                         Number of            Number of       
                       international        international     
Education level   students, 1995-1996 students, 2003-2004       Percentage 
                                                                       change 
     Bachelor's                   31,858              139,875            +339 
      Master's                    40,025               22,384 
      Doctoral                    36,461                7,582 
        Total                    108,344              169,841             +57 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data.

Note: Changes in enrollment between the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic
years are significant at the 95 percent confidence level for international
students and for all education levels. See appendix V for confidence
intervals associated with these estimates.

According to the Institute of International Education, from the 2002-2003
academic year to the 2003-2004 academic year, the number of international
students declined for the first time in over 30 years, and that was the
second such decline since the 1954-1955 academic year, when the institute
began collecting and reporting data on international students.18 Moreover,
in November 2004, the Council of Graduate Schools (CGS) reported a 6
percent decline in first-time international graduate student enrollment
from 2003 to 2004. Following a decade of steady growth, CGS also reported
that the number of first-time international students studying in the
United States decreased between 6 percent and 10 percent for 3 consecutive
years.

    Total Numbers of Graduates with STEM Degrees Increased, but Numbers
    Decreased in Some Fields, and Percentages of Minority Graduates at the
    Master's and Doctoral Levels Did Not Change

The number of graduates with degrees in STEM fields increased by 8 percent
from the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year. However,
during this same period the number of graduates with degrees in non-STEM
fields increased by 30 percent. From academic year 1994-1995 to academic
year 2002-2003, the percentage of graduates with STEM degrees decreased
from 32 percent to 28 percent of total graduates. Table 12 provides data
on the changes in the numbers and percentages of graduates in STEM and
non-STEM fields.

18Institute of International Education, Open Doors: Report on
International Educational Exchange, 2004, New York.

Table 12: Numbers of Graduates and Percentage Changes in STEM and Non-STEM
Fields across All Degree Levels from the 1994-1995 Academic Year to the
2002-2003 Academic Year

                          STEM fields Non-STEM fields

                                    Percentage                     Percentage 
    Graduation  1994-1995 2002-2003     change 1994-1995 2002-2003     change 
     measures                                                      
    Graduates                                                                 
       (in            519       560         +8     1,112     1,444        +30
    thousands)                                                     
    Percentage                                                                
     of total          32        28         -4        68        72         +4
    graduates                                                      

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data.

Decreases in the numbers of graduates occurred in some STEM fields at each
education level, but particularly at the doctoral level. The numbers of
graduates with bachelor's degrees decreased in four of eight STEM fields,
the numbers with master's degrees decreased in five of eight fields, and
the numbers with doctoral degrees decreased in six of eight STEM fields.
At the doctoral level, these declines ranged from 14 percent in
mathematics/computer sciences to 74 percent in technology. Figure 3 shows
the percentage change in graduates with degrees in STEM fields from the
1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year.

Figure 3: Percentage Changes in Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral
Graduates in STEM Fields from Academic Year 19941995 to Academic Year
2002-2003

Percent change

                                     72 -74

                                    sciences

                            Biological/agricultural

th,Ear

and ocean sciences

                       atmospheric, Engineering sciences

                              Mathematics/computer

ysical sciencesPh

                       Psychology Social sciences hnology

ceT

Bachelor's

Master's

Ph.D.s

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data.

From the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year, the total
number of women graduates increased in four of the eight fields, and the
percentages of women earning degrees in STEM fields increased in six of
the eight fields at all three educational levels. Conversely, the total
number of men graduates decreased, and the percentages of men graduates
declined in six of the eight fields at all three levels from the 1994-1995
academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year. However, men continued to
constitute over 50 percent of the graduates in five of eight fields at all
three education levels. Table 13 summarizes the numbers of graduates by
gender, level, and field. Table 26 in appendix IV provides additional data
on the percentages of men and women graduates by STEM field and education
level.

Table 13: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Men and Women Graduates with
STEM Degrees by Education Level and Field for Academic Years 1994-1995 and
2002-2003

                          Number of men Percentage Number of women Percentage 
                               graduates change in    graduates     change in 
Education                                   men                      women 
     level    STEM field 1994-1995 2002-2003       1994-1995        graduates 
              graduates                            2002-2003       
Bachelor's       Biological/agricultural                        
     level    sciences 36,108 23,266 -36             35,648 35,546 
                    Earth, atmospheric, and                        
              ocean sciences 2,954 2,243 -24           1,524 1,626         +7 
              Engineering 52,562 48,214 -8           10,960 11,709         +7 
                    Mathematics and computer                       
              sciences 25,258 46,381 +84             13,651 20,436        +50 
              Physical sciences 9,607 8,739 -9         5,292 6,222        +18 
              Psychology 19,664 18,616 -5            53,010 64,470        +22 
              Social sciences 56,643 63,465 +12      56,624 77,701        +37 
              Technology 14,349 9,174 -36              1,602 1,257 
    Master's        Biological/agricultural                        
     level    sciences 4,768 2,413 -49                 4,340 2,934 
                    Earth, atmospheric, and                        
              ocean sciences 1,032 805 -22                 451 552        +22 
              Engineering 24,031 20,258 -16            4,643 5,271        +14 
                    Mathematics and computer                       
              sciences 10,398 14,531 +40               4,474 7,517        +68 
              Physical sciences 2,958 2,350 -21        1,283 1,299         +1 
              Psychology 4,013 3,645 -9              10,319 12,433        +20 
              Social sciences 11,952 11,057 -7       11,398 13,674        +20 
              Technology 927 467 -50                       222 173 
    Doctoral        Biological/agricultural                        
     level    sciences 3,616 1,526 -58                 2,160 1,161 
                    Earth, atmospheric, and                        
              ocean sciences 488 315 -35                   134 125         -7 
              Engineering 5,401 4,159 -23                  728 839        +15 
                    Mathematics and computer                       
              sciences 1,690 1,378 -18                     434 439         +1 
              Physical sciences 2,939 2,396 -18            922 892         -3 
              Psychology 1,529 1,380 -10               2,511 3,086        +23 
              Social sciences 2,347 2,111 -10          1,463 1,729        +18 
              Technology 24 7 -71                              3 0       -100 
               Source: GAO calculations based upon                 
                                       IPEDS data.                 

The total numbers of domestic minority graduates in STEM fields increased,
although the percentage of minority graduates with STEM degrees at the
master's or doctoral level did not change from the 1994-1995 academic year
to the 2002-2003 academic year. For example, while the number of Native
American graduates increased 37 percent, Native American graduates
remained less than 1 percent of all STEM graduates at the master's and
doctoral levels. Table 14 shows the percentages and numbers of domestic
minority graduates for the 1994-1995 academic year and the 2002-2003
academic year.

Table 14: Numbers and Percentage Changes in Domestic Minority Graduates in
STEM Fields by Education Levels and Race or Ethnicity for Academic Years
1994-1995 and 2002-2003

                               Number of  Number of             Percentage of 
                                                                Percentage of 
                                                             Percentage total 
                            graduates in graduates in         graduates total 
                                                                    graduates 
                            STEM fields, STEM fields,       change in in STEM 
                                                      fields, in STEM fields, 
Race or ethnicity Degree    1994-1995  2002-2003       graduates 1994-1995 
            Level                                                   2002-2003 
    Black or African Total        33,121       44,475                 +34 6 8 
     American Bachelor's          28,236       37,195                 +32 5 7 
                   Master's        4,358        6,588          +51 1          
                   Doctoral          527          692          +31 0          
      Hispanic or Latino          25,781       37,056          +44 5          
         origin Total                                 
                 Bachelor's       22,268       32,255          +45 4          
                   Master's        3,015        4,121          +37 1          
                   Doctoral          498          680          +37 0          
Asian/Pacific Islanders        37,393       46,941          +26 7          
            Total                                     
                 Bachelor's       29,389       39,030          +33 6          
                   Master's        6,064        6,814          +12 1          
                   Doctoral        1,940        1,097          -43 0          
    Native Americans Total         2,488        3,409          +37 0          
                 Bachelor's        2,115        2,903          +37 0          
                   Master's          320          425          +33 0          
                   Doctoral           53           81                 +53 0 0 

Source: GAO calculations based upon IPEDS data.

International students earned about one-third or more of the degrees at
both the master's and doctoral levels in several fields in the 1994-1995
and the 2002-2003 academic years. For example, in academic year 2002-2003,
international students earned between 45 percent and 57 percent of all
degrees in engineering and mathematics/computer sciences at the master's
and doctoral levels. However, at each level there were changes in the

numbers and percentages of international graduates. At the master's level,
the total number of international graduates increased by about 31 percent
from the 1994-1995 academic year to the 2002-2003 academic year; while the
number of graduates decreased in four of the fields and the percentages of
international graduates declined in three fields. At the doctoral level,
the total number of international graduates decreased by 12 percent, while
the percentage of international graduates increased or remained the same
in all fields. Table 15 shows the numbers and percentages of international
graduates in STEM fields.

Table 15: Changes in Numbers and Percentages of International Graduates in
STEM fields at the Master's and Doctoral Degree Levels, 1994-1995 and
2002-2003 Academic Years

                       1994-1995 2002-2003 Doctoral level

                                         Percentage of          Percentage of 
                                              all                         all 
          Masters' level         Number    graduates    Number      graduates 
      Agriculture/biological      1,549              17    633 
             sciences                                          
Earth, atmospheric, and ocean                               
             sciences               285              19    192 
            Engineering           9,720              34 11,512 
       Mathematics/computer                                    
             sciences             5,105              34 10,335 
         Physical sciences        1,467              35  1,171 
            Psychology              493               3    704 
          Social sciences         3,749              16  4,795 
            Technology              169              15    118 
               Total             22,537                 29,460 

Agriculture/biological sciences             1,616              28  743  
    Earth, atmospheric, and ocean                                          
              sciences                          183               29  140  
             Engineering                       3,001              49 2,853 
        Mathematics/computer                                               
              sciences                          927               44  895  49 
          Physical sciences                    1,290              33 1,281 39 
             Psychology                         186               5   202   5 
           Social sciences                     1,123              29 1,192 31 
             Technology                          9                33   4   57 
                Total                          8,335                 7,310 
                                   Source: GAO calculations based          
                                                 upon IPEDS data.          

    STEM Employment Rose, but the Percentage of Women Remained About the Same
    and Minorities Continued to be Underrepresented

While the total number of STEM employees increased, this increase varied
across STEM fields. Employment increased by 23 percent in STEM fields as
compared to 17 percent in non-STEM fields from calendar year 1994 to
calendar year 2003. Employment increased by 78 percent in the
mathematics/computer sciences field and by 20 percent in the science field
over this period. The changes in number of employees in the engineering
and technology fields were not statistically significant. Employment
estimates from 1994 to 2003 in the STEM fields are shown in figure 4.

Figure 4: Estimated Numbers of Employees in STEM Fields from Calendar
Years 1994 through 2003

Number of employees (in millions)

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Calendar year

Science

Technology

Engineering

Mathematics/computer sciences

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data.

Note: Estimated number of employees have confidence intervals of within
+/-9 percent of the estimate itself. See appendix VI for confidence
intervals associated with these estimates.

From calendar years 1994 to 2003, the estimated number of women employees
in STEM fields increased from about 2.7 million to about 3.5 million.
Overall, there was not a statistically significant change in the
percentage of women employees in the STEM fields. Table 16 shows the
numbers and percentages of men and women employed in the STEM fields for
calendar years 1994 and 2003.

Table 16: Estimated Numbers and Percentages of Employees in STEM Fields by
Gender in Calendar Years 1994 and 2003 (numbers in thousands)

                                   1994 2003

                        Men             Women        Men            Women     
      STEM field     Number Percent Number        Number Percent       Number 
                                    Percent                           Percent 
        Science         792      32      1,711 68  829        28    2,179     
      Technology        955      68        445 32 1,050       71     425      
      Engineering     1,658      92        *141 8 1,572       90     *169     
     Mathematics/                                                
computer sciences  1,056      71        432 29 1,952       74     695      
         Total        4,461      62      2,729 38 5,404       61    3,467     

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data.

Note: Estimated employee numbers noted by an asterisk have a 95 percent
confidence interval of within +/- 25 percent of the estimate itself. All
other estimated employee numbers have a 95 percent confidence interval of
within +/- 16 percent of the estimate. See appendix VI for confidence
intervals associated with these estimates. Calculations of percentages and
numbers may differ due to rounding.

In addition, the estimated number of minorities employed in the STEM
fields as well as the percentage of total STEM employees they constituted
increased, but African American and Hispanic employees remain
underrepresented relative to their percentages in the civilian labor
force.19 Between 1994 and 2003, the estimated number of African American
employees increased by about 44 percent, the estimated numbers of Hispanic
employees increased by 90 percent, as did the estimated numbers of other
minorities employed in STEM fields.20 In calendar year 2003, African
Americans comprised about 8.7 percent of STEM employees compared to about
10.7 percent of the CLF. Similarly, Hispanic employees comprised about 10
percent of STEM employees in calendar year 2003, compared to about 12.6
percent of the CLF. Table 17 shows the estimated percentages of STEM
employees by selected racial or ethnic groups in 1994 and 2003.

19On the basis of March 2004 CPS estimates, the Pew Hispanic Research
Center reported that over 10 million unauthorized immigrants resided in
the United States and that people of Hispanic and Latino origin
constituted a significant portion of these unauthorized immigrants.

20Other minorities include Asian/Pacific Islanders and American Indian or
Alaska Native.

Table 17: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees by Selected Racial or
Ethnic Group for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003

                                     Percentage of total  Percentage of total 
                  Race or ethnicity STEM employees, 1994 STEM employees, 2003 
          Black or African American                  7.5                  8.7 
          Hispanic or Latino origin                  5.7                 10.0 
                  aOther minorities                  4.5                  6.9 

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data.

Note: Estimated percentages have 95 percent confidence intervals of +/- 1
percentage point. Changes for African Americans between calendar years
1994 and 2003 were not statistically significant at the 95-percent
confidence level. Differences for Hispanic or Latino origin and other
minorities were statistically significant. See appendix VI for confidence
intervals associated with these estimates.

aOther minorities include Asian/Pacific Islanders and American Indian or
Alaska Native.

International employees have filled hundreds of thousands of positions,
many in STEM fields, through the H-1B visa program. However, the numbers
and types of occupations have changed over the years. We reported that
while the limit for the H-1B program was 115,000 in 1999, the number of
visas approved exceeded the limit by more than 20,000 because of problems
with the system used to track the data.21 Available data show that in
1999, the majority of the approved occupations were in STEM fields.
Specifically, an estimated 60 percent of the positions approved in fiscal
year 1999 were related to information technology and 5 percent were for
electrical/electronics engineering. By 2002, the limit for the H-1B
program had increased to 195,000, but the number approved, 79,000, did not
reach this limit. In 2003, we reported that the number of approved H1B
petitions in certain occupations had declined. For example, the number of
approvals for systems analysis/programming positions declined by

22

106,671 from 2001 to 2002.

Although the estimated total number of employees in STEM fields increased
from 1994 to 2003, according to an NSF report, many with STEM degrees were
not employed in these occupations. In 2004, NSF reported that about 67
percent of employees with degrees in science or engineering

21GAO, H-1B Foreign Workers: Better Controls Needed to Help Employers and
Protect Workers, GAO/HEHS-00-157 (Washington, D.C.: Sept. 7, 2000).

22GAO, H-1B Foreign Workers: Better Tracking Needed to Help Determine H-1B
Program's Effects on U.S. Workforce, GAO-03-883 (Washington, D.C.: Sept.
10, 2003).

were employed in fields somewhat or not at all related to their degree.23
Specifically, 70 percent of employees with bachelor's degrees, 51 percent
with master's degrees, and 54 percent with doctoral degrees reported that
their employment was somewhat or not at all related to their degree in
science or engineering.

In addition to increases in the numbers of employees in STEM fields,
inflation-adjusted median annual wages and salaries increased in all four
STEM fields over the 10-year period (1994 to 2003). These increases ranged
from 6 percent in science to 15 percent in engineering. Figure 5 shows
trends in median annual wages and salaries for STEM fields.

23National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators, 2004,
Volume 1, National Science Board, January 15, 2004.

Figure 5: Estimated Median Annual Wages and Salaries in STEM Fields for
Calendar Years 1994 through 2003

Annual wages and salaries (in thousands of dollars) 70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Calendar year

                                    Science

                                   Technology

                                  Engineering

                         Mathematics/computer sciences

Source: GAO calculations based upon CPS data.

Note: Median annual wages and salaries have been adjusted for inflation.
Estimated median annual wages and salaries have 95 percent confidence
intervals of within +/- 2.3 percent. See appendix VI for confidence
intervals associated with these estimates.

University officials, researchers, and students identified several factors
that influenced students' decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and
occupations, and they suggested some ways to encourage more participation
in STEM fields. Specifically, university officials said and researchers
reported that the quality of teachers in kindergarten through 12th grades
and the levels of mathematics and science courses completed during high
school affected students' success in and decisions about STEM fields. In
addition, several sources noted that mentoring played a key role in the
participation of women and minorities in STEM fields. Current students
from five universities we visited generally agreed with these
observations, and several said that having good mathematics and science
instruction was important to their overall educational success.
International students' decisions about participating in STEM education

  University Officials and Others Cited Several Factors That Influence Decisions
  about Participation in STEM Fields and Suggested Ways to Encourage Greater
  Participation

and occupations were affected by opportunities outside the United States
and the visa process. To encourage more student participation in the STEM
fields, university officials, researchers, and others have made several
suggestions, and four were made repeatedly. These suggestions focused on
teacher quality, high school students' math and science preparation,
outreach activities, and the federal role in STEM education.

    Teacher Quality and Mathematics and Science Preparation Were Cited as Key
    Factors Affecting Domestic Students' STEM Participation Decisions

University officials frequently cited teacher quality as a key factor that
affected domestic students' interest in and decisions about pursuing STEM
degrees and occupations. Officials at all eight universities we visited
expressed the view that a student's experience from kindergarten through
the 12th grades played a large role in influencing whether the student
pursued a STEM degree. Officials at one university we visited said that
students pursuing STEM degrees have associated their interests with
teachers who taught them good skills in mathematics or excited them about
science. On the other hand, officials at many of the universities we
visited told us that some teachers were unqualified and unable to impart
the subject matter, causing students to lose interest in mathematics and
science. For example, officials at one university we visited said that
some elementary and secondary teachers do not have sufficient training to
effectively teach students in the STEM fields and that this has an adverse
effect on what students learn in these fields and reduces the interest and
enthusiasm students express in pursuing coursework in high school, degree
programs in college, or careers in these areas.

Teacher quality issues, in general, have been cited in past reports by
Education. In 2002, Education reported that in the 1999-2000 school year,
14 to 22 percent of middle-grade students taking English, mathematics, and
science were in classes led by teachers without a major, minor, or
certification in these subjects-commonly referred to as "out-of-field"
teachers.24 Also, approximately 30 to 40 percent of the middle-grade
students in biology/life science, physical science, or English as a second
language/bilingual education classes had teachers lacking these
credentials. At the high school level, 17 percent of students enrolled in
physics and 36 percent of those enrolled in geology/earth/space science
were in classes instructed by out-of-field teachers. The percentages of

24National Center for Education Statistics, Qualifications of the Public
School Teacher Workforce: Prevalence of Out-of-Field Teaching 1987-88 to
1999-2000, May 2002, revised August 2004,Washington, D.C.

students taught by out-of-field teachers were significantly higher when
the criteria used were teacher certification and a major in the subject
taught. For example, 45 percent of the high school students enrolled in
biology/life science and approximately 30 percent of those enrolled in
mathematics, English, and social science classes had out-of-field
teachers. During the 2002-2003 school year, Education reported that the
number and distribution of teachers on waivers-which allowed prospective
teachers in classrooms while they completed their formal training-was
problematic. Also, states reported that the problem of underprepared
teachers was worse on average in districts that serve large proportions of
high-poverty children-the percentage of teachers on waivers was larger in
high-poverty school districts than all other school districts in 39
states. Moreover, in 2004, Education reported that 48 of the 50 states
granted waivers.25

In addition to teacher quality, students' high school preparation in
mathematics and science was cited by university officials and others as
affecting students' success in college-level courses and their decisions
about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations. University officials at six
of the eight universities we visited cited students' ability to opt out of
mathematics and science courses during high school as a factor that
influenced whether they would participate and succeed in the STEM fields
during undergraduate and graduate school. University officials said, for
example, that because many students had not taken higher-level mathematics
and science courses such as calculus and physics in high school, they were
immediately behind other students who were better prepared. In July 2005,
on the basis of findings from the 2004 National Assessment of Educational
Progress, the National Center for Education Statistics reported that 17
percent of the 17-year-olds reported that they had taken calculus, and
this represents the highest percentage in any previous assessment year.26
In a study that solicited the views of several hundred students who had
left the STEM fields, researchers found that the effects of inadequate
high school preparation contributed to college students' decisions to
leave the science fields.27 These researchers found

25U.S. Department of Education, The Secretary's Third Annual Report on
Teacher Quality, Office of Postsecondary Education, 2004, Washington, D.C.

26U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
Institute of Education Sciences, The Nation's Report Card, NAEP 2004:
Trends in Academic Progress, July 2005, Washington, D.C.

27Seymour, Elaine, and Nancy M. Hewitt, Talking about Leaving: Why
Undergraduates Leave the Sciences, Westview Press, 1997, Boulder,
Colorado.

that approximately 40 percent of those college students who left the
science fields reported some problems related to high school science
preparation. The underpreparation was often linked to problems such as not
understanding calculus; lack of laboratory experience or exposure to
computers, and no introduction to theoretical material or to analytic
modes of thought. Further, 12 current students we interviewed said they
were not adequately prepared for college mathematics or science. For
example, one student stated that her high school courses had been limited
because she attended an all-girls school where the curriculum catered to
students who were not interested in STEM, and so it had been difficult to
obtain the courses that were of interest to her.

Several other factors were mentioned during our interviews with university
officials, students, and others as influencing decisions about
participation in STEM fields. These factors included relatively low pay in
STEM fields, additional tuition costs to obtain STEM degrees, lack of
commitment on the part of some students to meet the rigorous academic
demands, and the inability of some professors in STEM fields to
effectively impart their knowledge to students in the classrooms. For
example, officials from five universities said that low pay in STEM fields
relative to other fields such as law and business dissuaded students from
pursuing STEM degrees in some areas. Also, in a study that solicited the
views of college students who left the STEM fields as well as those who
continued to pursue STEM degrees, researchers found that students
experienced greater financial difficulties in obtaining their degrees
because of the extra time needed to obtain degrees in certain STEM fields.
Researchers also noted that poor teaching at the university level was the
most common complaint among students who left as well as those who
remained in STEM fields. Students reported that faculty do not like to
teach, do not value teaching as a professional activity, and therefore
lack any incentive to learn to teach effectively.28 Finally, 11 of the
students we interviewed commented about the need for professors in STEM
fields to alter their methods and to show more interest in teaching to
retain students' attention.

28Seymour and Hewitt.

    Mentoring Cited as a Key Factor Affecting Women's and Minorities' STEM
    Participation Decisions

University officials and students said that mentoring is important for all
students but plays a vital role in the academic experiences of women and
minorities in the STEM fields. Officials at seven of the eight
universities discussed the important role that mentors play, especially
for women and minorities in STEM fields. For example, one professor said
that mentors helped students by advising them on the best track to follow
for obtaining their degrees and achieving professional goals. Also, four
students we interviewed-three women and one man-expressed the importance
of mentors. Specifically, while all four students identified mentoring as
critical to academic success in the STEM fields, two students expressed
their satisfaction since they had mentors, while the other two students
said that it would have been helpful to have had someone who could have
been a mentor or role model.

Studies have also reported that mentors play a significant role in the
success of women and minorities in the STEM fields. In 2004, some of the
women students and faculty with whom we talked reported a strong mentor
was a crucial part in the academic training of some of the women
participating in sciences, and some women had pursued advanced degrees
because of the encouragement and support of mentors.29 In September 2000,
a congressional commission reported that women were adversely affected
throughout the STEM education pipeline and career path by a lack of role
models and mentors.30 For example, the report found that girls rejection
of mathematics and science may be partially driven by teachers, parents,
and peers when they subtly, and not so subtly, steer girls away from the
informal technical pastimes (such as working on cars, fixing bicycles, and
changing hardware on computers) and science activities (such as science
fairs and clubs) that too often were still thought of as the province of
boys. In addition, the commission reported that a greater proportion of
women switched out of STEM majors than men, relative to their
representation in the STEM major population. Reasons cited for the higher
attrition rate among women students included lack of role models, distaste
for the competitive nature of science and engineering education, and
inability to obtain adequate academic guidance or advice. Further,
according to the report, women's retention and graduation in STEM graduate
programs were affected by their interaction with faculty,

29GAO-04-639.

30Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and
Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Development, Land of
Plenty: Diversity as America's Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering,
and Technology, September 2000.

integration into the department (versus isolation), and other factors,
including whether there were role models, mentors, and women faculty.

    International Students' STEM Participation Decisions Were Affected by
    Opportunities Outside the United States and the Visa Process

Officials at seven of the eight universities visited, along with education
policy experts, told us that competition from other countries for top
international students, and educational or work opportunities, affected
international students' decisions about studying in the United States.
They told us that other countries, including Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, and the United Kingdom, had seized the opportunity since
September 11 to compete against the United States for international
students who were among the best students in the world, especially in the
STEM fields. Also, university officials told us that students from several
countries, including China and India, were being recruited to attend
universities and get jobs in their own countries. In addition, education
organizations and associations have reported that global competition for
the best science and engineering students and scholars is under way. One
organization, NAFSA: Association of International Educators reported that
the international student market has become highly competitive, and the
United States is not competing as

31

well as other countries.

According to university officials, international students' decisions about
pursuing STEM degrees and occupations in the United States were also
influenced by the perceived unwelcoming attitude of Americans and the visa
process. Officials from three of the universities said that the perceived
unwelcoming attitude of Americans had affected the recruitment of
international students to the United States. Also, officials at six of the
eight universities visited expressed their concern about the impact of the
tightened visa procedures and/or increased security measures since
September 11 on international graduate school enrollments. For example,
officials at one university stated that because of the time needed to
process visas, a few students had missed their class start dates.
Officials from one university told us that they were being more proactive
in helping new international students navigate the visa system, to the
extent possible. While some university officials acknowledged that visa
processing had significantly improved, since 2003 several education
associations have

31NAFSA: Association of International Educators, In America's Interest:
Welcoming International Students, Report of the Strategic Task Force on
International Student Access, January 14, 2003, Washington, D.C.

requested further changes in U.S. visa policies because of the lengthy
procedures and time needed to obtain approval to enter the country.

We have reported on various aspects of the visa process, made several
recommendations, and noted that some improvements have been made. In
October 2002 we cited the need for a clear policy on how to balance
national security concerns with the desire to facilitate legitimate travel
when issuing visas and we made several recommendations to help improve the
visa process.32 In 2003, we reported that the Departments of State,
Homeland Security, and Justice could more effectively manage the visa
function if they had clear and comprehensive policies and procedures and
increased agency coordination and information sharing.33 In February 2004
and February 2005, we reported on the State Department's efforts to
improve the program for issuing visas to international science students
and scholars. In 2004 we found that the time to adjudicate a visa depended
largely on whether an applicant had to undergo a security check known as
Visas Mantis, which is designed to protect against sensitive technology
transfers. Based on a random sample of Visas Mantis cases for science
students and scholars, it took State an average of 67 days to complete the
process.34 In 2005, we reported a significant decline in Visas Mantis
processing times and in the number of cases pending more than 60 days.35
We also reported that, in some cases, science students and scholars can
obtain a visa within 24 hours.

We have also issued several reports on SEVIS operations. In June 2004 we
noted that when SEVIS began operating, significant problems were
reported.36 For example, colleges and universities and exchange programs
had trouble gaining access to the system, and when access was obtained,
these users' sessions would "time out" before they could complete their
tasks. In that report we also noted that SEVIS performance had improved,

32GAO, Border Security: Visa Process Should Be Strengthened as an
Antiterrorism Tool, GAO-03-132NI (Washington, D.C.: Oct. 21, 2002).

33GAO, Border Security: New Policies and Increased Interagency
Coordination Needed to Improve Visa Process, GAO-03-1013T (Washington, D.
C.: July 15, 2003).

34GAO, Border Security: Improvements Needed to Reduce Time Taken to
Adjudicate Visas for Science Students and Scholars, GAO-04-371
(Washington, D.C.: Feb. 25, 2004).

35GAO-05-198.

36GAO, Homeland Security: Performance of Information System to Monitor
Foreign Students and Exchange Visitors Has Improved, but Issues Remain,
GAO-04-690 (Washington, D.C.: June 18, 2004).

but that several key system performance requirements were not being
measured. In March 2005, we reported that the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS) had taken steps to address our recommendations and that
educational organizations generally agreed that SEVIS performance had
continued to improve.37 However, educational organizations continued to
cite problems, which they believe created hardships for students and
exchange visitors.

    Several Suggestions Were Made to Encourage More Participation in the STEM
    Fields

To increase the number of students entering STEM fields, officials from
seven universities and others stated that teacher quality needs to
improve. Officials of one university said that kindergarten through 12th
grade classrooms need teachers who are knowledgeable in the mathematics
and science content areas. As previously noted, Education has reported on
the extent to which classes have been taught by teachers with little or no
content knowledge in the STEM fields. The Congressional Commission on the
Advancement of Women and Minorities reported that teacher effectiveness is
the most important element in a good education.38 The commission also
suggested that boosting teacher effectiveness can do more to improve
education than any other single factor. States are taking action to meet
NCLBA's requirement of having all teachers of core academic subjects be
highly qualified by the end of the 2005-2006 school year.

University officials and some students suggested that better preparation
and mandatory courses in mathematics and science were needed for students
during their kindergarten through 12th grade school years. Officials from
five universities suggested that mandatory mathematics and science
courses, especially in high school, may lead to increased student interest
and preparation in the STEM fields. With a greater interest and depth of
knowledge, students would be better prepared and more inclined to pursue
STEM degrees in college. Further, nearly half of the students who replied
to this question suggested that students needed additional mathematics and
science training prior to college. However, adding

37GAO, Homeland Security: Performance of Foreign Student and Exchange
Visitor Information System Continues to Improve, but Issues Remain,
GAO-05-440T (Washington, D.C.: March 17, 2005).

38Report of the Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and
Minorities in Science, Engineering and Technology Development, Land of
Plenty: Diversity as America's Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering,
and Technology, September 2000.

mathematics and science classes has resource implications, since more
teachers in these subjects would be needed. Also this change could require
curriculum policy changes that would take time to implement.

More outreach, especially to women and minorities from kindergarten
through the 12th grade, was suggested by university officials, students,
and other organizations. Officials from six of the universities we visited
suggested that increased outreach activities are needed to help create
more interest in mathematics and science for younger students. For
example, at one university we visited, officials told us that through
inviting students to their campuses or visiting local schools, they have
provided some students with opportunities to engage in science
laboratories and hands-on activities that foster interest and excitement
for students and can make these fields more relevant in their lives.
Officials from another university told us that these experiences were
especially important for women and minorities who might not have otherwise
had these opportunities. The current students we interviewed also
suggested more outreach activities. Specifically, two students said that
outreach was needed to further stimulate students' interest in the STEM
fields. One organization, Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST),
suggested that research universities increase their presence in
prekindergarten through 12th grade mathematics and science education in
order to strengthen domestic students' interests and abilities. BEST
reported that one model producing results entailed universities adopting
students from low-income school districts from 7th through 12th grades and
providing them advanced instruction in algebra, chemistry, physics, and
trigonometry. However, officials at one university told us that because of
limited resources, their efforts were constrained and only a few students
would benefit from this type of outreach.

Furthermore, university officials from the eight schools and other
education organizations made suggestions regarding the role of the federal
government. University officials suggested that the federal government
could enhance its role in STEM education by providing more effective
leadership through developing and implementing a national agenda for STEM
education and increasing federal funding for academic research. Officials
at six universities suggested that the federal government undertake a new
initiative modeled after the National Defense Education Act of 1958,
enacted in response to the former Soviet Union's achievement in its space
program, which provided new funding for mathematics and science education
and training at all education levels. In June 2005, CGS called for a
renewed commitment to graduate education by the federal government through
actions such as providing funds to support students

trained at the doctoral level in the sciences, technology, engineering,
and mathematics; expanding U.S. citizen participation in doctoral study in
selected fields through graduate support awarded competitively to
universities across the country; requiring recruitment, outreach, and
mentoring activities that promote greater participation and success,
especially for underrepresented groups; and fostering interdisciplinary
research preparation. In August 2003, the National Science Board
recommended that the federal government direct substantial new support to
students and institutions in order to improve success in science and
engineering studies by domestic undergraduate students from all
demographic groups. According to this report, such support could include
scholarships and other forms of financial assistance to students,
incentives to institutions to expand and improve the quality of their
science and engineering programs in areas in which degree attainment is
insufficient, financial support to community colleges to increase the
success of students in transferring to 4-year science and engineering
programs, and expanded funding for programs that best succeed in
graduating underrepresented minorities and women in science and
engineering. BEST also suggested that the federal government allocate
additional resources to expand the mathematics and science education
opportunities for underrepresented groups. However, little is known about
how well federal resources have been used in the past. Changes that would
require additional federal funds would likely have an impact on other
federal programs, given the nation's limited resources and growing fiscal
imbalance, and changing the federal role could take several years.

While the total numbers of STEM graduates have increased, some fields have
experienced declines, especially at the master's and doctoral levels.
Given the trends in the numbers and percentages of students pursuing STEM
degrees, particularly advanced degrees, and recent developments that have
influenced international students' decisions about pursuing degrees in the
United States, it is uncertain whether the number of STEM graduates will
be sufficient to meet future academic and employment needs and help the
country maintain its technological competitive advantage. Moreover, it is
too early to tell if the declines in international graduate student
enrollments will continue in the future. In terms of employment, despite
some gains, the percentage of women in the STEM workforce has not changed
significantly, minority employees remain underrepresented, and many with
degrees in STEM fields are not employed in STEM occupations.

  Concluding Observations

  Agency Comments
  and Our Evaluation

To help improve the trends in the numbers of students, graduates, and
employees in STEM fields, university officials and others made several
suggestions, such as increasing the federal commitment to STEM education
programs. However, before making changes, it is important to know the
extent to which existing STEM education programs are appropriately
targeted and making the best use of available federal resources.
Additionally, in an era of limited financial resources and growing federal
deficits, information about the effectiveness of these programs can help
guide policy makers and program managers.

We received written comments on a draft of this report from Commerce, the
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), NSF, and NSTC. These
comments are reprinted in appendixes VII, VIII, IX, and X, respectively.
We also received technical comments from the Departments of Commerce,
Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Labor, and Transportation;
and the Environmental Protection Agency and National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, which we incorporated when appropriate.

In commenting on a draft of this report, Commerce, HHS, and NSTC commended
GAO for this work. Commerce explicitly concurred with several findings and
agreed with our overall conclusion. However, Commerce suggested that we
revise the conclusion to point out that despite overall increases in STEM
students, the numbers of graduates in certain fields have declined. We
modified the concluding observations to make this point. HHS agreed with
our conclusion that it is important to evaluate ongoing programs to
determine the extent to which they are achieving their desired results.
The comments from NSTC cited improvements made to help ensure that
international students, exchange visitors, and scientists are able to
apply for and receive visas in a timely manner. We did not make any
changes to the report since we had cited another GAO product that
discussed such improvements in the visa process.

NSF commented about several of our findings. NSF stated that our program
evaluations finding may be misleading largely because the type of
information GAO requested and accepted from agencies was limited to
program level evaluations and did not include evaluations of individual
underlying projects. NSF suggested that we include information on the
range of approaches used to assure program effectiveness. Our finding is
based on agency officials' responses to a survey question that did not
limit or stipulate the types of evaluations that could have been included.

Nonetheless, we modified the report to acknowledge that NSF uses various
approaches to evaluate its programs.

NSF criticized the methodology we used to support our finding on the
factors that influence decisions about pursuing STEM fields and suggested
that we make it clearer in the body of the report that the findings are
based on interviews with educators and administrators from 8 colleges and
universities, and responses from 31 students. Also, NSF suggested that we
improve the report by including corroborating information from reports and
studies. Our finding was not limited to interviews at the 8 colleges and
universities and responses from 31 current students but was also based on
interviews with numerous representatives and policy experts from various
organizations as well as findings from research and reports-which are
cited in the body of the report. Using this approach, we were able to
corroborate the testimonial evidence with data from reports and research
as well as to determine whether information in the reports and research
remained accurate by seeking the views of those currently teaching or
studying in STEM fields. As NSF noted, this approach yielded reasonable
observations. Additional information about our methodology is listed in
appendix I, and we added a bibliography that identifies the reports and
research used during the course of this review.

NSF also commented that the report mentions the NSTC efforts for
interagency collaboration, but does not mention other collaboration
efforts such as the Federal Interagency Committee on Education and the
Federal Interagency Coordinating Council. NSF also pointed out that
interagency collaboration occurs at the program level. We did not modify
the report in response to this comment. In conducting our work, we
determined that the NSTC effort was the primary mechanism for interagency
collaboration focused on STEM programs. The coordinating groups cited by
NSF are focused on different issues. The Federal Interagency Committee on
Education was established to coordinate the federal programs, policies,
and practices affecting education broadly, and the Federal Interagency
Coordinating Council was established to minimize duplication of programs
and activities relating to children with disabilities.

In addition, NSF provided information to clarify examples related to their
programs that we cited in the report, stated that some data categories
were not clear, and commented on the graduate level enrollment data we
used in the report. NSF pointed out that while its program called
Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the Geosciences is designed to
increase participation by minorities, it does not limit eligibility to
minorities. Also, NSF noted that while the draft report correctly
indicated

that students receiving scholarships or fellowships from NSF must be U.S.
citizens or permanent residents, the reason given for limiting
participation in these programs in the draft report was not accurate.
According to NSF, these restrictions are considered to be an effective
strategy to support its goal of creating a diverse, competitive and
globally engaged U.S. workforce of scientists, engineers, technologists
and well prepared citizens. We revised the report to reflect these
changes. Further, NSF commented that the data categories were not clear,
particularly the technology degrees and occupations, and that the data did
not include associate degrees. We added information that lists all of the
occupations included in the analysis, and we added footnotes to clarify
which data included associate degrees and which ones did not. In addition,
NSF commented that the graduate level enrollment data for international
students based on NPSAS data are questionable in comparison with other
available data and that this may be because the NPSAS data include a
relatively small sample for graduate education. We considered using NPSAS
and other data but decided to use the NPSAS data for two reasons: NPSAS
data were more comprehensive and more current. Specifically, the NPSAS
data were available through the 2003-2004 academic year and included
numbers and characteristics of students enrolled for all degree
fields-STEM and non-STEM-for all education levels, and citizenship
information.

Copies of this report are being sent to the Secretaries of Agriculture,
Commerce, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Interior, Homeland
Security, Labor, and Transportation; the Administrators for the
Environmental Protection Agency and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration; and the Directors of the National Science Foundation and
the National Science and Technology Council; appropriate congressional
committees; and interested parties. Copies will be made available to
others upon request. The report is also available on GAO's Web site at
http://www.gao.gov.

If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact
me
on (202) 512-7215 or [email protected]. Contact points for our Offices of
Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page
of this report. GAO staff who made major contributions to this report are
listed in appendix VII.

Sincerely yours,

Cornelia M. Ashby, Director
Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

  Objectives

Scope and Methodology

Survey

The objectives of our study were to determine (1) the number of federal
civilian education programs funded in fiscal year 2004 that were
specifically designed to increase the number of students and graduates
pursuing science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) degrees
and occupations, or improve educational programs in STEM fields, and what
agencies report about their effectiveness; (2) how the numbers,
percentages, and characteristics of students, graduates, and employees in
STEM fields have changed over the years; and (3) factors cited by
educators and others as influencing people's decisions about pursuing STEM
degrees and occupations, and suggestions to encourage greater
participation in STEM fields.

In conducting our review, we used multiple methodologies. We (1) conducted
a survey of federal departments and agencies that sponsored education
programs specifically designed to increase the number of students and
graduates pursuing STEM degrees and occupations or improve educational
programs in STEM fields; (2) obtained and analyzed data, including the
most recent data available, on students, graduates, and employees in STEM
fields and occupations; (3) visited eight colleges and universities; (4)
reviewed reports and studies; and (5) interviewed agency officials,
representatives and policy experts from various organizations, and current
students. We conducted our work between October 2004 and October 2005 in
accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards.

To provide Congress with a better understanding of what programs federal
agencies were supporting to increase the nation's pool of scientists,
technologists, engineers, and mathematicians, we designed a survey to
determine (1) the number of federal education programs (prekindergarten
through postdoctorate) designed to increase the quantity of students and
graduates pursuing STEM degrees and occupations or improve the educational
programs in STEM fields and (2) what agencies reported about the
effectiveness of these programs. The survey asked the officials to
describe the goals, target population, and funding levels for fiscal years
2003, 2004, and 2005 of such programs. In addition, the officials were
asked when the programs began and if the programs had been or were being
evaluated.

We identified the agencies likely to support STEM education programs by
reviewing the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance and the Department of
Education's Eisenhower National Clearinghouse, Guidebook of Federal

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

Resources for K-12 Mathematics and Science, 2004-05. Using these
resources, we identified 15 agencies with STEM education programs. The
survey was conducted via e-mail using an ActiveX enabled MSWord
attachment. A contact point was designated for each agency, and
questionnaires were sent to that individual. One questionnaire was
completed for each program the agency sponsored. Agency officials were
asked to provide confirming documentation for their responses whenever
possible.

The questionnaire was forwarded to agencies on February 15, 2005, and
responses were received through early May 2005. We received 244 completed
surveys and determined that 207 of them met the criteria for STEM
programs. The following agencies participated in our survey: the
Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Education, Energy, Homeland
Security, Interior, Labor, and Transportation. In addition, the Health
Resources and Services Administration, Indian Health Service, and National
Institutes of Health, all part of Health and Human Services, took part in
the survey. Also participating were the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency; the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; and the
National Science Foundation. Labor's programs did not meet our criteria
for 2004 and the Department of Defense (DOD) did not submit a survey.
According to DOD officials, DOD needed 3 months to complete the survey and
therefore could not provide responses within the time frames of our work.
We obtained varied amounts of documentation from 13 civilian agencies for
the 207 STEM education programs funded in 2004 and information about the
effectiveness of some programs.

Because we administered the survey to all of the known federal agencies
sponsoring STEM education programs, our results are not subject to
sampling error. However, the practical difficulties of conducting any
survey may introduce other types of errors, commonly referred to as
nonsampling errors. For example, differences in how a particular question
is interpreted, the sources of information available to respondents in
answering a question, or the types of people who do not respond can
introduce unwanted variability into the survey results. We included steps
in the development of the survey, the collection of data, and the editing
and analysis of data for the purpose of minimizing such nonsampling
errors. To reduce nonsampling error, the questionnaire was reviewed by
survey specialists and pretested in person with three officials from
agencies familiar with STEM education programs to develop a questionnaire
that was relevant, easy to comprehend, unambiguous, and unbiased. We made
changes to the content and format of the questionnaire based on the
specialists' reviews and the results of the pretests. To further

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

  Analyses of Student, Graduate, and Employee Data

reduce nonsampling error, data for this study returned electronically were
entered directly into the instrument by the respondents and converted into
a database for analysis. Completed questionnaires returned as hard copy
were keypunched, and a sample of these records was verified by comparing
them with their corresponding questionnaires, and any errors were
corrected. When the data were analyzed, a second, independent analyst
checked all computer programs. Finally, to assess the reliability of key
data obtained from our survey about some of the programs, we compared the
responses with the documentation provided, or we independently researched
the information from other publicly available sources.

To determine how the numbers and characteristics of students, graduates,
and employees in STEM fields have changed, we obtained and analyzed data
from the Department of Education (Education) and the Department of Labor.
Specifically, we analyzed the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study
(NPSAS) data and the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
(IPEDS) data from the Department of Education's National Center for
Education Statistics (NCES), and we analyzed data from the Department of
Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics' (BLS) Current Population Survey (CPS).
Based on National Science Foundation's categorization of STEM fields, we
developed STEM fields of study from NPSAS and IPEDS, and identified
occupations from the CPS. Using these data sources, we developed nine STEM
fields for students, eight STEM fields for graduates, and four broad STEM
fields for occupations.

For our data reliability assessment, we reviewed agency documentation on
the data sets and conducted electronic tests of the files. On the basis of
these reviews, we determined that the required data elements from NPSAS,
IPEDS and CPS were sufficiently reliable for our purposes. These data
sources, type, time span, and years analyzed are shown in table 18.

Table 18: Sources of Data, Data Obtained, Time Span of Data, and Years Analyzed

                                                               Time span      
Department Agency Database        Data obtained           of data Years    
                                                               analyzed       
                                                          9 years Academic    
Education   NCES   NPSAS                               years 1995-1996 and 
                               College student enrollment 2003-               
                                                                 2004         
                                                          9 years Academic    
Education   NCES   IPEDS                               years 1994-1995 and 
                                  Graduation/degrees      2002-               
                                                                 2003         
                                                           10 years Calendar  
     Labor     BLS     CPS            Employment          years 1994 through  
                                                                 2003         
                              Sources: NPSAS, IPEDS, and  
                              CPS data.                   
                                                           GAO-06-114 Federal 
                                                               STEM Education 
                                        Page 48                      Programs 

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

NPSAS is a comprehensive nationwide study designed to determine how
students and their families pay for postsecondary education, and to
describe some demographic and other characteristics of those enrolled. The
study is based on a nationally representative sample of students in
postsecondary education institutions, including undergraduate, graduate,
and first-professional students. The NPSAS has been conducted every
several years since the 1986-1987 academic year. For this report, we
analyzed the results of the NPSAS survey for the 1995-1996 academic year
and the 2003-2004 academic year to compare student enrollment and
demographic characteristics between these two periods for the nine STEM
fields and non-STEM fields.

Because the NPSAS sample is a probability sample of students, the sample
is only one of a large number of samples that might have been drawn. Since
each sample could have provided different estimates, confidence in the
precision of the particular sample's results is expressed as a 95-percent
confidence interval (for example, plus or minus 4 percentage points). This
is the interval that would contain the actual population value for 95
percent of the samples that could have been drawn. As a result, we are 95
percent confident that each of the confidence intervals in this report
will include the true values in the study population. NPSAS estimates used
in this report and the upper and lower bounds of the 95 percent confidence
intervals for each estimate relied on in this report are presented in
appendix V.

IPEDS is a single, comprehensive system designed to encompass all
institutions and educational organizations whose primary purpose is to
provide postsecondary education. IPEDS is built around a series of
interrelated surveys to collect institution-level data in such areas as
enrollments, program completions, faculty, staff, and finances. For this
report, we analyzed the results of IPEDS data for the 1994-1995 academic
year and the 2002-2003 academic year to compare the numbers and
characteristics of graduates with degrees in eight STEM fields and
non-STEM fields.

To analyze changes in employees in STEM and non-STEM fields, we obtained
employment estimates from BLS's Current Population Survey March supplement
for 1995 through 2004 (calendar years 1994 through 2003). The CPS is a
monthly survey of households conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau (Census)
for BLS. The CPS provides a comprehensive body of information on the
employment and unemployment experience of the nation's population,
classified by age, sex, race, and a variety of other characteristics. A
more complete description of the survey, including

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

sample design, estimation, and other methodology can be found in the CPS
documentation prepared by Census and BLS.1

This March supplement (the Annual Demographic Supplement) is specifically
designed to estimate family characteristics, including income from all
sources and occupation and industry classification of the job held longest
during the previous year. It is conducted during the month of March each
year because it is believed that since March is the month before the
deadline for filing federal income tax returns, respondents would be more
likely to report income more accurately than at any other point during the
year.2

We used the CPS data to produce estimates on (1) four STEM fields, (2) men
and women, (3) two separate minority groups (Black or African American,
and Hispanic or Latino origin), and (4) median annual wages and salaries.
The measures of median annual wages and salaries could include bonuses,
but do not include noncash benefits such as health insurance or pensions.
CPS salary reported in March of each year was for the longest held
position actually worked the year before and reported by the worker
himself (or a knowledgeable member of the household). Tables 19 and 20
list the classification codes and occupations included in our analysis of
CPS data over a 10-year period (1994-2003). In developing the STEM groups,
we considered the occupational requirements and educational attainment of
individuals in certain occupations. We also excluded doctors and other
health care providers except registered nurses. During the period of
review, some codes and occupation titles were changed; we worked with BLS
officials to identify variations in codes and occupations and accounted
for these changes where appropriate and possible.

1See Technical Paper 63RV:Current Population Survey-Design and
Methodology, issued Mar. 2002. Electronic version available at
http://www.censusgov/prod/2002pubs/tp63rv.pdf.

2See Technical Paper 63RV, page 11-4.

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

           Table 19: Classification codes and Occupations, 2002-2003

                                                        Mathematics/Computer  
       Science        Technology       Engineering            Science         
        1600 -          1540 -                                                
Agricultural and    Drafters    1300 - Architects,  1000 - Computer        
         food                      except naval        scientists
      scientists                                        and systems analysts  
        1610 -      1550 -                                                    
      Biological    Engineering    1310 - Surveyors,   
      scientists    technicians,   cartographers,         1010 - Computer
                        except             and              programmers       
                       drafters     photogrammetrists  
        1640 -          1560 -                                                
     Conservation   Surveying and   1320 - Aerospace      1020 - Computer     
                       mapping          engineers             software
    scientists and   technicians                             engineers        
      foresters                                        
    1650 - Medical      1900 -                                                
      scientists     Agricultural  1330 - Agricultural    1040 - Computer     
                       and food         engineers             support
                       science                              specialists       
                     technicians                       
        1700 -          1910 -                                                
Astronomers and    Biological    1340 - Biomedical     1060 - Database
                     technicians        engineers      
      physicists                                           administrators     
                        1920 -                                                
        1710 -         Chemical      1350 - Chemical     1100 - Network and
Atmospheric and   technicians        engineers      
space scientists                                       computer systems    
                                                           administrators     
1720 - Chemists  1930 -                                                    
         and        Geological and    1360 - Civil     1110 - Network systems 
                    petroleum           engineers                         and
      materials      technicians                        data communications   
      scientists                                       
                                                              analysts        
        1740 -      1940 - Nuclear   1400 - Computer      1200 - Actuaries    
    Environmental    technicians        hardware       
    scientists and                                     
    geoscientists                       engineers      

1760 - Physical   1960 - Other life,   1410 - Electrical      1210 -       
scientists, all      physical, and     and electronic     Mathematicians   
        other          social science         engineers     
                         technicians                        
        1800 -                            1420 -                              
      Economists       3300 - Clinical    Environmental     1220 - Operations 
                         laboratory       engineers                  research
                      technologists and                                       
                         technicians                            analysts

1810 - Market and         7010 - Computer,      1430 -      1230 -         
        survey               automated teller    Industrial    Statisticians  
                                                 engineers,    
      researchers       and office machine    including health 
                            repairers            and safety    
        1820 -       8760 - Medical, dental,   1440 - Marine           1240 - 
     Psychologists             and             engineers and    Miscellaneous 
                     ophthalmic laboratory    naval architects   mathematical 
                     technicians                                      science 
                                                                occupations   

1830 - Sociologists

1840 - Urban and regional planners

1860 - Miscellaneous social scientists and related workers

2010 - Social workers 3130 - Registered nurses 6010 - Agricultural
inspectors 1450 - Materials engineers 1460 - Mechanical engineers

1500 - Mining and geological engineers, including mining safety engineers

1510 - Nuclear engineers

1520 - Petroleum engineers

1530 - Engineers, all other

            Source: GAO analysis of CPS occupation classifications.

                 Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

           Table 20: Classification codes and occupations, 1994-2001

                                                         Mathematics/Computer 
       Science         Technology       Engineering           Science         
        069 -        203 - Clinical        043 -                              
Physicists and      laboratory       Architects     064 - Computer systems
     astronomers   technologists and                  analysts and scientists 
                   technicians                        
073 - Chemists, 213 - Electrical   044 - Aerospace                         
       except      and electronic     engineers        065 - Operations and
     biochemists      technicians                     systems researchers and 
                                                             analysts         

074 - Atmospheric and space 214 - Industrial engineering 045 -
Metallurgical and materials 066 - Actuaries scientists technicians
engineers

    075 - Geologists     215 - Mechanical      046 - Mining   067 -           
           and              engineering         engineers     Statisticians   
       geodesists           technicians                       
     076 - Physical    216 - Engineering     047 - Petroleum            068 - 
       scientists,     technicians,             engineers        Mathematical 
         n.e.c.               n.e.c.                            scientists,   
                                                                  n.e.c.      
077 - Agricultural     217 - Drafting      048 - Chemical                  
        and food            occupations         engineers     229 - Computer
       scientists                                               programmers   
    078 - Biological    218 - Surveying and   049 - Nuclear   
        and life              mapping           engineers     
       scientists           technicians                       
                         223 - Biological      053 - Civil    
079 - Forestry and       technicians         engineers     
      conservation                                            
       scientists                                             
      083 - Medical       224 - Chemical          054 -       
       scientists           technicians        Agricultural   
                                                engineers     
    095 - Registered   225 - Science         055 - Electrical 
         Nurses        technicians, n.e.c.   and electronic   
                                                engineers     
    166 - Economists    235 - Technicians,   056 - Industrial 
                              n.e.c.            engineers     
                       525 - Data processing 057 - Mechanical 
167 - Psychologists equipment                engineers     
                             repairers                        

168 - Sociologists 058 - Marine and naval architects

169 - Social scientists, n.e.c. 059 - Engineers, n.e.c.

173 - Urban planners 	063 - Surveyors and mapping scientists

174 - Social workers

489 - Inspectors, agricultural products

Source: GAO analysis of CPS occupation classifications.

Note: For occupations not elsewhere classified (n.e.c.).

Because the CPS is a probability sample based on random selections, the
sample is only one of a large number of samples that might have been
drawn. Since each sample could have provided different estimates,
confidence in the precision of the particular sample's results is
expressed as a 95 percent confidence interval (e.g., plus or minus 4
percentage points). This is the interval that would contain the actual
population value

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

  College and University Visits

for 95 percent of the samples that could have been drawn. As a result, we
are 95 percent confident that each of the confidence intervals in this
report will include the true values in the study population. We use the
CPS general variance methodology to estimate this sampling error and
report it as confidence intervals. Percentage estimates we produce from
the CPS data have 95 percent confidence intervals of plus or minus 6
percentage points or less. Estimates other than percentages have 95
percent confidence intervals of no more than plus or minus 10 percent of
the estimate itself, unless otherwise noted. Consistent with the CPS
documentation guidelines, we do not produce estimates based on the March
supplement data for populations of less than 75,000.

GAO's internal control procedures provide reasonable assurance that our
data analyses are appropriate for the purposes we are using them. These
procedures include, but are not limited to, having skilled staff perform
the analyses, supervisory review by senior analysts, and
indexing/referencing (confirming that the analyses are supported by the
underlying audit documentation) activities.

We interviewed administrators and professors during site visits to eight
colleges and universities-the University of California at Los Angeles and
the University of Southern California in California; Clark Atlanta
University, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Spelman College in
Georgia; the University of Illinois; Purdue University in Indiana; and
Pennsylvania State University. These colleges and universities were
selected based on the following factors: large numbers of domestic and
international students in STEM fields, a mix of public and private
institutions, number of doctoral degrees conferred, and some geographic
diversity. We also selected three minority-serving colleges and
universities, one of which serves only women students. Clark Atlanta
University and Spelman College were selected, in part, because of their
partnerships with the College of Engineering at the Georgia Institute of
Technology. During these visits we asked the university officials about
factors that influenced whether people pursue a STEM education or
occupations and suggestions for addressing those factors that may
influence participation. For example, we asked university officials to
identify (1) issues related to the education pipeline; (2) steps taken by
their university to alleviate some of the conditions that may discourage
student participation in STEM areas; and (3) the federal role, if any, in
attracting and retaining domestic students in STEM fields. We also
obtained documents on programs they sponsored to help support STEM
students and graduates.

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

  Reviews of Reports and Studies

We reviewed several articles, reports, and books related to trends in STEM
enrollment and factors that have an effect on people's decisions to pursue
STEM fields. For two studies, we evaluated the methodological soundness
using common social science and statistical practices. We examined each
study's methodology, including its limitations, data sources, analyses,
and conclusions.

o  	Talking about Leaving: Why Undergraduates Leave the Sciences, by
Elaine Seymour and Nancy Hewitt.3 This study used interviews and focus
groups/group interviews at selected universities to identify selfreported
reasons for changing majors from science, mathematics, or engineering. The
study had four primary objectives: (1) to identify sources of qualitative
differences in educational experiences of science, mathematics, and
engineering students at higher educational institutions of different
types; (2) to identify differences in structure, culture, and pedagogy of
science, mathematics, and engineering departments and the impact on
student retention; (3) to compare and contrast causes of science,
mathematics, and engineering students' attrition by race/ethnicity and
gender; and (4) to estimate the relative importance of factors found to
contribute to science, mathematics, and engineering students' attrition.
The researchers selected seven universities to represent the types of
colleges and universities that supply most of the nations' scientists,
mathematicians, and engineers. The types of institutions were selected to
test whether there are differences in educational experiences, culture and
pedagogy, race/ethnicity and gender attrition, and reasons for attrition
by type of institution. Because the selection of students was not strictly
random and because there is no documentation that the data were weighted
to reflect the proportions of types of students selected, it is not
possible to determine confidence intervals. Thus it is not possible to say
which differences are statistically significant. The findings are now more
than a decade old and thus might not reflect current pedagogy and other
factors about the educational experience, students, or the socioeconomic
environment. It is important to note that the quantitative results of this
study are based on the views of one constituency or stakeholder-students.
Views of faculty, school administrators, graduates, professional
associations, and employers are not included.

3Seymour, Elaine, and Nancy M. Hewitt, Talking about Leaving: Why
Undergraduates Leave the Sciences, Westview Press, 1997, Boulder,
Colorado.

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

o  	NCES's Qualifications of the Public School Teacher Workforce:
Prevalence of Out-of-Field Teaching, 1987-1988 to 1999-2000 report. This
study is an analysis based upon the Schools and Staffing Survey for
1999-2000. The report was issued in 2004 by the Institute of Education
Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. NCES's Schools and Staffing Survey
(SASS) is a representative sample of U.S. schools, districts, principals,
and teachers. The report focusing on teacher's qualifications uses data
from the district and teacher portion of SASS. The 1999-2000 SASS included
a nationally representative sample of public schools and universe of all
public charter schools with students in any of grades 1 through 12 and in
operation in school year 1999-2000. The 1999-2000 SASS administration also
included nationally representative samples of teachers in the selected
public and public charter schools who taught students in grades
kindergarten through 12 in school year 1999-2000. There were 51,811 public
school teachers in the sample and 42,086 completed public school teacher
interviews. In addition, there are 3,617 public charter school teachers in
the sample with 2,847 completed interviews. The overall weighted teacher
response rate was 76.7 percent for public school teachers and 71.8 percent
for public charter school teachers. NCES has strong standards for carrying
out educational surveys. The Office of Management and Budget vetted the
questionnaire and sample design. The Census Bureau carried out survey
quality control and data editing. One potential limitation is the amount
of time it takes the Census Bureau to get the data from field collection
to public release, but this is partly due to the thoroughness of the data
quality steps followed. The SASS survey meets GAO standards for use as
evidence in a report.

Interviews 	We interviewed officials from 13 federal agencies with STEM
education programs to obtain information about the STEM programs and their
views on related topics, including factors that influence students'
decisions about pursuing STEM degrees and occupations, and the extent of
coordination among the federal agencies. We also interviewed officials
from the National Science and Technology Council to discuss coordination
efforts. In addition, we interviewed representatives and policy experts
from various organizations. These organizations were the American
Association for the Advancement of Science, the Commission on
Professionals in Science and Technology, the Council of Graduate Schools,
NAFSA: Association of International Educators, the National Academies, and
the Council on Competitiveness.

We also conducted interviews via e-mail with 31 students. We asked
officials from the eight universities visited to identify students to
complete

Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology

our e-mail interviews, and students who completed the interviews attended
five of the colleges we visited. Of the 31 students: 16 attended Purdue
University, 6 attended the University of Southern California, 6 attended
Spelman College, 2 attended the University of California Los Angeles, and
1 attended the Georgia Institute of Technology. In addition, 19 students
were undergraduates and 12 were graduate students; 19 students identified
themselves as women and 12 students identified themselves as men. Of the
19 undergraduate students, 9 said that they plan to pursue graduate work
in a STEM field.

Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

Based on surveys submitted by officials representing the 13 civilian
federal agencies, table 21 contains a list of the 207 science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education programs funded in fiscal
year 2004.

          Table 21: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded in FY 2004

Fiscal year Program number Program name 04 funding

                           Department of Agriculture

1. 1890 Institution Teaching and Research Capacity Building Grants Program
$11.4 million

2. Higher Education Challenge Grants Program $4.6 million

3. Hispanic-Serving Institutions Education Grants Program $4.6 million

4. 	Alaska Native-Serving and Native Hawaiian-Serving Institutions
Education Grants $3 million
Program

5. 	Food and Agricultural Sciences National Needs Graduate and
Postdoctoral Fellowships $2.9 million
Grants Program

6. Tribal Colleges Endowment Program $1.9 million

7. Tribal Colleges Education Equity Grants Program $1.7 million

8. Tribal Colleges Research Grant Program $1.1 million

9. Higher Education Multicultural Scholars Program $986,000

10. International Science and Education Competitive Grants Program
$859,000

11. 	Secondary and Two-Year Postsecondary Agricultural Education Challenge
Grants $839,000
Program

12. Agriculture in the Classroom $623,000

13. Career Intern Program $272,000

14. Veterinary Medical Doctoral Program $140,000

15. 1890 National Scholars Program $16,000

16. Hispanic Scholars Program $4,000
Department of Commerce

17. Educational Partnership Program with Minority Serving Institutions
$7.4 million

18. National Marine Sanctuaries Education Program $4.4 million

19. National Sea Grant College Program $4 million

20. Chesapeake Bay Watershed Education and Training Program $2.5 million

21. Coral Reef Conservation Program $1.8 million

22. Exploration, Education and Outreach $1.3 million

23. National Estuarine Research Reserve Graduate Research Fellowship
Program $1 million

24. Bay Watershed Education and Training Hawaii Program $500,000

25. Monterey Bay Watershed Education and Training Program $500,000

26. Dr. Nancy Foster Scholarship Program $494,000

            Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

Fiscal year Program number Program name 04 funding

27. EstuaryLive $115,000

28. Teacher at Sea Program $95,000

29. High School-High Tech $11,000

                            Department of Education

30. Mathematics and Science Partnerships Program $149 million

31. Upward Bound Math and Science Program $32.8 million

32. Graduate Assistance in Areas of National Need $30.6 million

33. Minority Science and Engineering Improvement Program $8.9 million

                              Department of Energy

34. Science Undergraduate Laboratory Internship $2.5 million

35. Computational Science Graduate Fellowship $2 million

36. Global Change Education Program $1.4 million

37. Laboratory Science Teacher Professional Development $1 million

38. National Science Bowl $702,000

39. Community College Institute of Science and Technology $605,000

40. Albert Einstein Distinguished Educator Fellowship $600,000

41. QuarkNet $575,000

42. Fusion Energy Sciences Fellowship Program $555,000

43. Pre-Service Teacher Fellowships $510,000

44. 	National Undergraduate Fellowship Program in Plasma Physics and
Fusion Energy $300,000
Sciences

45. Fusion Energy Postdoctoral Research Program $243,000

46. Faculty and Student Teams $215,000

47. Advancing Precollege Science and Mathematics Education $209,000

48. Pan American Advanced Studies Institute $200,000

49. Trenton Community Partnership $200,000

50. Fusion/Plasma Education $125,000

51. National Middle School Science Bowl $100,000

52. 	Research Project on the Recruitment, Retention, and Promotion of
Women in the $100,000
Chemical Sciences

53. Used Energy Related Laboratory Equipment $80,000

54. Plasma Physics Summer Institute for High School Physics Teachers
$78,000

55. Pre-Service Teacher Program $45,000

56. Wonders of Physics Traveling Show $45,000

57. Hampton University Graduate Studies $40,000

58. Contemporary Physics Education Project $23,000

            Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

Fiscal year Program number Program name 04 funding

59. Cooperative Education Program $17,000

                        Environmental Protection Agency

60. Science to Achieve Results Research Grants Program $93.3 million

61. Science to Achieve Results Graduate Fellowship Program $10 million

62. Post-Doctoral Fellows Environmental Research Growth Opportunities $7.4
million

63. Intern Program $3 million

64. Environmental Science and Engineering Fellows Program $2.5 million

65. Greater Research Opportunities Graduate Fellowship Program $1.5
million

66. 	Environmental Risk & Impact in Communities of Color and Economically
Disadvantaged $824,000
Communities

67. Research Internship for Students in Ecology $698,000

68. National Network for Environmental Management Studies Fellowship
Program $589,000

69. Cooperative Agreements for Training Cooperative Partnerships $352,000

70. University of Cincinnati/EPA Research Training Grant $300,000

71. P3 Award: National Student Design Competition for Sustainability
$150,000

72. 	Environmental Protection Agency and the Hispanic Association of
Colleges and $121,000
Universities Cooperative Agreement

73. Environmental Science Program $100,000

74. Environmental Career Organization's Internship Program $89,000

75. EPA-Cincinnati Research Apprenticeship Program $75,000

76. Environmental Protection Internship Program Summer Training Initiative
$72,000

77. Tribal Lands Environmental Science Scholarship Program $60,000

78. Internship Program for University of Arizona Engineering Students
$50,000

79. Teacher Professional Development Workshop for Teachers Grade 6-12
$18,000

80. Saturday Academy, Apprenticeships in Science and Engineering Program
$6,000
Department of Health and Human Services/Health Resources and Services
Administration

81. Scholarships for Disadvantaged Students Program $45.5 million

82. Nursing Workforce Diversity $16 million

83. Faculty Loan Repayment Program $1.1 million
Department of Health and Human Services/Indian Health Service

84. Indian Health Professions Scholarship $8.1 million

85. Health Professions Scholarship Program for Indians $3.7 million
Department of Health and Human Services/National Institutes of Health

86. 	Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award Institutional
Research Training $546.9 million
Grants

87. 	Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards for Individual
Postdoctoral $72.6 million
Fellows

88. Research Supplements to Promote Diversity in Health-Related Research
$70 million

            Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

Fiscal year Program number Program name 04 funding

89. Postdoctoral Visiting Fellow Program $64.8 million

90. Clinical Research Loan Repayment Program $40.6 million

91. 	Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards for Individual
Predoctoral $33.8 million
Fellows, Predoctoral Minority Students, and Predoctoral Students with
Disabilities

92. Minority Access to Research Careers Program $30.7 million

93. Postdoctoral Intramural Research Training Award Program $30.2 million

94. Science Education Partnership Award $16 million

95. Pediatric Research Loan Repayment Program $15.9 million

96. Post-baccalaureate Intramural Research Training Award Program $9.1
million

97. 	Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award Short-Term
Institutional Research $9 million
Training Grants

98. Health Disparities Research Loan Repayment Program $8.7 million

99. Graduate Program Partnerships $7.4 million

100.    Student Intramural Research Training Award Program    $6.3 million 
101. Career Opportunities in Research Education and Training   $5 million  
        Honors Undergraduate                                     
                        Research Training Grant                  
102.         General Research Loan Repayment Program          $4.9 million 
103. Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards for $4.7 million 
        Individual M.D./Ph.D.                                    
                          Predoctoral Fellows                    
104.      Science Education Drug Abuse Partnership Award      $3.1 million 
105.     Pharmacology Research Associate Training Program     $2.7 million 
106.       Technical Intramural Research Training Award       $1.9 million 
107.     Fellowships in Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics      $1.8 million 
108. Clinical Research Loan Repayment Program for Individuals $1.7 million 
        from Disadvantaged                                       
                              Backgrounds                        
109.  Contraception and Infertility Research Loan Repayment    $1 million  
                                Program                          
110.           Medical Infomatics Training Program              $853,000   
111.   Undergraduate Scholarship Program for Individuals from   $838,000   
                                       Disadvantaged Backgrounds 
112.               Curriculum Supplement Series                 $788,000   
113.   National Science Foundation and the National Institute              
                                       of Biomedical Imaging and   $782,000
                             Bioengineering                      
114.      Summer Institute for Training in Biostatistics        $694,000   
115. Summer Institute on Design and Conduct of Randomized                  
        Clinical Trials Involving                                  $622,000
                        Behavioral Interventions                 
116. Clinical Research Loan Repayment Program for Individuals              
        from Disadvantaged                                         $551,000
                               Background                        
117.            Clinical Research Training Program              $407,000   
118.                       NIH Academy                          $385,000   
119.         Health Communications Internship Program           $340,000   

            Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

                                                                  Fiscal year 
Program number                  Program name                    04 funding 
        120.      NIH/National Institute of Standards and          $338,000   
                  Technology Joint Postdoctoral Program           
        121.                 Summer Genetics Institute             $323,000   
        122.           AIDS Research Loan Repayment Program        $271,000   
        123.          Intramural NIAID Research Opportunities      $271,000   
        124.           Cancer Research Interns in Residence        $250,000   
        125.         Comparative Molecular Pathology Research      $199,000   
                                 Training Program                 
        126.          Office of Research on Women's Health-funded             
                           Programs with the Office of Intramural  $179,000
                                     Research                     
        127.         Summer Institute for Social Work Research     $144,000   
        128.          Office of Research on Women's Health-funded             
                           Programs with the Office of Intramural  $119,000
                              Training and Education              
        129.           CCR/JHU Master of Science in Biotechnology  $111,000   
                           Concentration in Molecular Targets and 
                            Drug Discovery Technologies           
        130.          Introduction to Cancer Research Careers       $96,000   
        131.       Fellows Award for Research Excellence Program    $61,000   
        132.      Office of Research on Women's Health-funded                 
                  Programs Supplements to Promote                   $60,000
                  Reentry into Biomedical and Behavioral Research 
                                      Careers                     
        133.        Translational Research in Clinical Oncology     $28,000   
        134.      National Institute of Environmental Health                  
                  Sciences Office of Fellows' Career                $20,000
                                    Development                   
        135.      Mobilizing for Action to Address the Unequal      $10,000   
                  Burden of Cancer: NIH Research and              
                              Training Opportunities              
        136.        Sallie Rosen Kaplan Fellowship for Women in               
                                  Cancer Research                   $5,000

Department of Homeland Security

137. Scholars and Fellows Program $4.7 million

Department of the Interior

138. Cooperative Research Units Program $15.3 million
139. Water Resources Research Act Program $6.4 million
140. U.S. Geological Survey Mendenhall Postdoctoral Research Fellowship
Program $3.5 million
141. Student Educational Employment Program $1.8 million
142. EDMAP Component of the National Cooperative Geologic Mapping Program
$490,000
143. Student Career Experience Program $177,000
144. Cooperative Development Energy Program $60,000
145. Diversity Employment Program $30,000
146. Cooperative Agreement with Langston University $15,000
147. Mathematics, Science, and Engineering Academy $15,000
148. Shorebird Sister Schools Program $15,000
149. Build a Bridge Contest $14,000

            Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

Fiscal year Program number Program name 04 funding

150. VIVA Technology $8,000

National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Science Foundation

    151.    Minority University Research Education Program     $106.6 million 
    152.                   Higher Education                     $77.4 million 
    153.          Elementary and Secondary Education            $31.3 million 
    154.                      E-Education                        $9.7 million 
    155.                  Informal Education                     $5.5 million 

156.          Math and Science Partnership Program          $138.7 million 
157.          Graduate Research Fellowship Program           $96 million   
158.      Integrative Graduate Education and Research        $67.7 million 
                         Traineeship Program                   
159.             Teacher Professional Continuum              $61.5 million 
160.        Research Experiences for Undergraduates          $51.7 million 
161.      Graduate Teaching Fellows in K-12 Education        $49.8 million 
162.            Advanced Technological Education             $45.9 million 
163.     Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement      $40.7 million 
164.           Research on Learning and Education            $39.4 million 
165.     Computer Science, Engineering, and Mathematics      $33.9 million 
                             Scholarships                      
166.   Louis Stokes Alliances for Minority Participation     $33.3 million 
167.           Centers for Learning and Teaching             $30.8 million 
168.          Instructional Materials Development            $29.3 million 
169.      Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics  $25 million   
                                      Talent Expansion Program 
170.      Historically Black Colleges and Universities       $23.8 million 
                        Undergraduate Program                  
171.       Interagency Education Research Initiative         $23.6 million 
172.  Information Technology Experiences for Students and    $20.9 million 
                               Teachers                        
173.  Enhancing the Mathematical Sciences Workforce in the   $20.6 million 
                             21st Century                      
174.     Centers of Research Excellence in Science and       $19.8 million 
                              Technology                       
175.  ADVANCE: Increasing the Participation and Advancement  $19.4 million 
                                          of Women in Academic 
                   Science and Engineering Careers             
176.     Federal Cyber Service: Scholarship for Service      $15.8 million 
177. Alliances for Graduate Education and the Professoriate  $15.3 million 
178.     Research on Gender in Science and Engineering       $10 million   
179.        Tribal Colleges and Universities Program         $10 million   
180.           Model Institutions for Excellence             $9.7 million  
181.              Grants for the Department-Level Reform of  $8.2 million  
                           Undergraduate Engineering Education 
182.            Robert Noyce Scholarship Program              $8 million   
183.           Research Experiences for Teachers             $5.8 million  

            Appendix II: List of 207 Federal STEM Education Programs

                                                                  Fiscal year 
Program number                  Program name                    04 funding 
        184.       Nanoscale Science and Engineering Education   $4.8 million 
        185.            Research in Disabilities Education       $4.6 million 
        186.       Opportunities for Enhancing Diversity in the    $4 million 
                                   Geosciences                   
        187.       Mathematical Sciences Postdoctoral Research   $3.7 million 
                                   Fellowships                   
        188.      Minority Postdoctoral Research Fellowships and $3.2 million 
                  Supporting Activities                          
        189.        Partnerships for Research and Education in     $3 million 
                                    Materials                    
        190.              Undergraduate Research Centers           $3 million 
        191.      Centers for Ocean Science Education Excellence $2.8 million 
        192.         Undergraduate Mentoring in Environmental    $2.2 million 
                                     Biology                     
        193.       Director's Award for Distinguished Teaching   $1.8 million 
                                     Scholars                    
        194.         Astronomy and Astrophysics Postdoctoral     $1.6 million 
                                Fellowship Program               
        195.                   Geoscience Education              $1.5 million 
        196.         Internships in Public Science Education     $1.2 million 
        197.            Discovery Corps Fellowship Program       $1.1 million 
        198.      East Asia & Pacific Summer Institutes for U.S.   $1 million 
                                Graduate Students                
        199.         Pan-American Advanced Studies Institutes        $800,000 
        200.         Distinguished International Postdoctoral                 
                               Research Fellowships                  $788,000

201. Postdoctoral Fellowships in Polar Regions Research $667,000
202. Arctic Research and Education $300,000
203. Developing Global Scientists and Engineers $172,000

Department of Transportation

204. University Transportation Centers Program $32.5 million
205. Dwight David Eisenhower Transportation Fellowship Program $2 million
206. Summer Transportation Institute $2 million
207. Summer Transportation Internship Program for Diverse Groups $925,000

             Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or More

The federal civilian agencies reported that the following science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education programs were
funded with at least $10 million in either fiscal year 2004 or 2005.
However, programs that received $10 million or more in fiscal year 2004
but were unfunded for fiscal year 2005 were excluded from table 22. Agency
officials also provided the program descriptions in table 22.

 Table 22: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or More during
                      Fiscal Year 2004 or Fiscal Year 2005

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

        Program                 Description            First year 2004   2005 
     Department of                                                      
      Agriculture                                                       
                         Is intended to strengthen                            
1890 Institution  teaching and research programs in       1990 $11.4 $12.5
Teaching and                     the                                 
Research Capacity food and agricultural sciences by                  
       Building      building the institutional                         
                     capacities                                         
                          of the 1890 Land-Grant                        
                         Institutions and Tuskegee                      
    Grants Program            University and                            

West Virginia State University through cooperative linkages with federal
and nonfederal entities. The program supports projects that strengthen
teaching programs in the food and agricultural sciences in the targeted
educational need areas of curriculum design and materials development,
faculty preparation and enhancement of teaching, student experiential
learning, and student recruitment and retention.

Department of Education

Mathematics and Science Is intended to increase the academic achievement
of students in 2002 $149 $180

Partnerships Program	mathematics and science by enhancing the content
knowledge and teaching skills of classroom teachers. Partnerships are
between high-need school districts and the science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics faculties of institutions of higher
education.

Upward Bound Math and Designed to prepare low-income, first-generation
college students 1990 $32.8 $32.8 Science Program for postsecondary
education programs that lead to careers in the fields of math and science.

Graduate Assistance in Areas Provides fellowships in academic areas of
national need to assist 1988 $30.6 $30.4 of National Need graduate
students with excellent academic records who

demonstrate financial need and plan to pursue the highest degree available
in their courses of study.

Environmental Protection Agency

Science to Achieve Results Funds research grants in numerous environmental
science and

                    1995 $93.3 $80.1 Research Grants Program

engineering disciplines. The program engages the nation's best scientists
and engineers in targeted research. The grant program is currently focused
on the health effects of particulate matter, drinking water, water
quality, global change, ecosystem assessment and restoration, human health
risk assessment, endocrine disrupting chemicals, pollution prevention and
new technologies, children's health, and socio-economic research.

    Science to Achieve Results The purpose of this fellowship program is to
          encourage promising 1995 $10 $10 Graduate Fellowship Program

students to obtain advanced degrees and pursue careers in environmentally
related fields.

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

                    Program Description First year 2004 2005

Department of Health and Human Services/Health Resources and Services
Administration

      Scholarships for     Funds are awarded to accredited  1991 $45.5    Not 
                           schools of allopathic medicine,             
Disadvantaged Students osteopathic medicine, dentistry,             avail. 
                           optometry, pharmacy, podiatric              
                          medicine, veterinary medicine,               
          Program         nursing, public health,                      
                          chiropractic, or                             
                          allied health, and schools                   
                          offering graduate programs in                
                          behavioral                                   
                          and mental health practice.                  
                          Priority is given to schools                 
                          based on the                                 
                          proportion of graduating students            
                            going into primary care, the               
                           proportion of underrepresented              
                           minority students enrolled, and             
                          graduates working in medically               
                          underserved communities. Schools             
                            select qualified students and              
                          provide scholarships that cannot             
                            exceed tuition and reasonable              
                          educational and living expenses.             

Nursing Workforce To increase nursing education opportunities 1989 $16 $16 
       Diversity               for individuals who are                    
                      from disadvantaged backgrounds (including           
                                  racial and ethnic                       
                          minorities underrepresented among               
                           registered nurses) by providing                
                      student stipends, pre-entry preparation,            
                              and retention activities.                   

     Department of Health and Human Services/National Institutes of Health

     Ruth L. Kirschstein     Is designed to develop and                       
          National            enhance research training    1975 $546.9    Not
                                    opportunities                      
                           for individuals in biomedical,                     
Research Service Award     behavioral, and clinical                 avail.
                                     research by                       
                           supporting training programs at             
Institutional Research      institutions of higher                  
                                     education.                        
                            These institutional training               
       Training Grants      grants allow the director of               
                                     the program                       
                            to select the trainees and to              
                            develop a curriculum of study              
                                         and                           
                           research experiences necessary              
                               to provide high-quality                 
                                      research                         
                              training. The grant helps                
                           offset the cost of stipends and             
                                     tuition for                       
                               the appointed trainees.                 
                           Graduate students, postdoctoral             
                                      trainees,                        
                               and short-term research                 
                                 training for health                   
                              professional students can                
                             be supported by this grant.               

     Ruth L. Kirschstein   To support the advanced training 1975 $72.6    Not 
          National         of individual students who have             
Research Service Awards    recently received doctoral               avail. 
             for           degrees. This phase of research             
                              education and training is                
Individual Postdoctoral    performed under the direct               
                                   supervision of a                    
                               sponsor who is an active                
           Fellows         investigator in the area of the             
                                       proposed                        
                              research. The training is                
                           designed to enhance the fellow's            
                                 understanding of the                  
                             health-related sciences and               
                                    extend his/her                     
                           potential to become a productive            
                              scientist who can perform                
                                       research                        
                            in biomedical, behavioral, or              
                                   clinical fields.                    

Research Supplements to    To improve the diversity of the    1989 $70 $70 
                           research workforce by recruiting and           
    Promote Diversity in     supporting students, postdoctoral            
           Health-          fellows, and eligible investigators           
      Related Research      from groups that have been shown to           
                               be underrepresented, such as               
                             individuals from underrepresented            
                                 racial and ethnic groups,                
                            individuals with disabilities, and            
                              individuals from disadvantaged              
                                       backgrounds.                       

Postdoctoral Visiting    To provide advanced practical    1950 $64.8 $70.7 
          Fellow          biomedical research experience to             
                             individuals who are foreign                
          Program          nationals and are 1 to 5 years               
                                       beyond                           
                              obtaining their Ph.D. or                  
                         professional doctorate (e.g., M.D.,            
                                        DDS,                            
                                       etc.).                           

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

                    Program Description First year 2004 2005

Clinical Research    To attract health professionals to   2002 $40.6 $42.6 
          Loan            careers in clinical research.                 
Repayment Program  Clinical research is defined as                   
                      "patient-oriented clinical research               
                        conducted with human subjects, or               
                            research on the causes and                  
                      consequences of disease in human                  
                      populations involving material of                 
                      human origin (such as tissue specimens            
                      and cognitive phenomena)                          
                      for which an investigator or colleague            
                      directly interacts with human                     
                      subjects in an outpatient or inpatient            
                      setting to clarify a problem in                   
                      human physiology, pathophysiology or              
                      disease, or epidemiologic or                      
                      behavioral studies, outcomes research             
                      or health services research,                      
                      or developing new technologies,                   
                      therapeutic interventions, or clinical            
                                     trials."                           

Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Awards for Individual
Predoctoral Fellows, Predoctoral Minority Students, and Predoctoral
Students with Disabilities Provides predoctoral fellowships to students
who are candidates for doctoral degrees and are performing dissertation
research and training under the supervision of a mentor who is an active
and established investigator in the area of the proposed research. The
applicant and mentor must provide evidence of potential for a productive
research career based upon the quality of previous research training,
academic record, and training program. The applicant and mentor must
propose a research project that will enhance the student's ability to
understand and perform scientific research. The training program should be
carried out in a research environment that includes appropriate resources
and is demonstrably committed to the student's training.

1975 $33.8 Not avail.

Minority Access to    Offers special research training    1972 $30.7 $30.7 
        Research           support to 4-year colleges,                  
    Careers Program   universities, and health professional             
                             schools with substantial                   
                        enrollments of minorities such as               
                           African Americans, Hispanic                  
                      Americans, Native Americans (including            
                               Alaska Natives), and                     
                         natives of U.S. Pacific Islands.               
                         Individual fellowships are also                
                        provided for graduate students and              
                                     faculty.                           

Postdoctoral Intramural To provide advanced practical biomedical research
experience to 1986 $30.2 $33.3
Research Training Award individuals who are 1 to 5 years beyond obtaining
their Ph.D. or
Program professional doctorate (e.g., M.D., DDS, etc.).

Science Education Provides funds for the development,         1992 $16 $16 
                     implementation, and evaluation                       
Partnership Award of innovative kindergarten through 12th              
                     grade (K-12) science                                 
                     education programs, teaching materials, and          
                                       science                            
                     center/museum programs. This program                 
                     supports partnerships                                
                     linking biomedical, clinical researchers,            
                     and behavioral scientists                            
                     with K-12 teachers and schools, museum and           
                     science educators,                                   
                         media experts, and other interested              
                                   organizations.                         

Pediatric Research A program to attract health              2002 $15.9 $16 
          Loan        professionals to careers in pediatric               
Repayment Program   research. Qualified pediatric research             
                              is defined as "research                     
                      directly related to diseases, disorders,            
                              and other conditions in                     
                                     children."                           

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

    Program Description First year 2004 2005 Department of Homeland Security
 Department of the Interior Department of Labor National Aeronautics and Space
                                 Administration

                                To provide (1) recent college                 
        Post-baccalaureate      graduates (graduated no more  1996 $9.1 $12.3
                                           than 2                       
                                years prior to activation of            
Intramural Research Training traineeship), an introduction           
                                       early in their                   
                                    careers to biomedical               
          Award Program          research fields; encourage             
                                      their pursuit of                  
                                   professional careers in              
                                  biomedical research; and              
                                      allow additional                  
                                  time to pursue successful             
                                    application to either               
                                     graduate or medical                
                                   school programs or (2)               
                                   students who have been               
                                        accepted into                   
                                graduate, other doctoral, or            
                                medical degree programs, and            
                                             who                        
                                have written permission from            
                                    their school to delay               
                                     entrance for up to                 
                                           1 year.                      

University Programs       Provides scholarships for        2003 $4.7 $10.7 
                         undergraduate and fellowships for              
                       graduate students pursuing degrees in            
                       mission-relevant fields and                      
                       postdoctoral fellowships for their               
                       contributions to Department of                   
                       Homeland Security research projects.             
                       Students receive professional                    
                       mentoring and complete a summer                  
                       internship to connect academic                   
                       interests with homeland security                 
                       initiatives. Postdoctoral scholars               
                        are also mentored by DHS scientists.            

Cooperative Research   The program links graduate science   1936 $15.3 $15 
          Units            training with the research needs               
         Program          of state and federal agencies, and              
                            provides students with one-on-                
                          one mentoring by federal research               
                              scientists working on both                  
                         applied and basic research needs of              
                               interest to the program.                   
                           Program cooperators and partners               
                              provide graduate training                   
                              opportunities and support.                  

                                    To build the capacity of                  
             Community           community colleges to train in  2005 $0 $250
                                          high-growth,                   
      College/Community Based     high-demand industries and to          
                                 actually train workers in those         
Job Training Grant Initiative industries through partnerships         
                                   that also include workforce           
                                      investment boards and              
                                           employers.                    

Minority University Research Education Program

To expand and advance NASA's scientific and technological base through
collaborative efforts with Historically Black Colleges and Universities
(HBCU) and other minority universities (OMU), including Hispanic-serving
institutions and Tribal colleges and universities. This program also
provides K-12 awards to build and support successful pathways for students
to progress to the next level of mathematics and science, through a
college preparatory curriculum, and enrollment in college.
Higher-education awards are also given that seek to improve the rate at
which underrepresented minorities are awarded degrees in STEM disciplines
through increased research training and exposure to cutting-edge
technologies that better prepare them to enter STEM graduate programs, the
NASA workforce pipeline, and employment in NASA-related industries.

                               2002 $106.6 $73.6

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

      Program Description First year 2004 2005 National Science Foundation

Higher Education The Higher Education Program focuses on  2002 $77.4 $62.4 
                    supporting institutions of                          
                    higher education in strengthening their             
                    research capabilities and                           
                    providing opportunities that attract and            
                    prepare increasing numbers                          
                    of students for NASA-related careers.               
                    The research conducted by                           
                    the institutions will contribute to the             
                    research needs of NASA's                            
                    Mission Directorates. The student                   
                    projects serve as a major link in                   
                    the student pipeline for addressing                 
                    NASA's human capital strategies                     
                    and the President's management agenda by            
                    helping to build,                                   
                    sustain, and effectively deploy the                 
                    skilled, knowledgeable, diverse,                    
                    and high-performing workforce needed to             
                    meet the current and                                
                      emerging needs of government and its              
                                   citizens.                            

Elementary and To increase the rigor of STEM experiences  2002 $31.3 $23.2 
     Secondary                 provided to K-12                         
     Education        students through workshops, summer                
                          internships, and classroom                    
                  activities; provide high-quality                      
                  professional development to teachers                  
                    in STEM through NASA programs; develop              
                            technological avenues                       
                  through the NASA Web site that will allow             
                           families to have common                      
                    experiences with learning about space               
                            exploration; encourage                      
                     inquiry teaching in K-12 classrooms;               
                        improve the content and focus                   
                   of grade level/science team meetings in              
                            NASA Explorer Schools;                      
                  and share the knowledge gained through the            
                              Educator Astronaut                        
                     Program with teachers, students, and               
                                  families.                             

Informal Education The principal purpose of the informal   2002 $5.5 $10.2 
                      education program is to                           
                       support projects designed to increase            
                                public interest in,                     
                      understanding of, and engagement in               
                      STEM activities. The goal of                      
                      all informal education programs is an             
                      informed citizenry that has                       
                      access to the ideas of science and                
                      engineering and understands its                   
                      role in enhancing the quality of life             
                      and the health, prosperity,                       
                      welfare, and security of the nation.              
                      Informal learning is self-directed,               
                      voluntary, and motivated mainly by                
                      intrinsic interests, curiosity,                   
                       exploration, and social interaction.             

Math and Science     The MSP is a major research and     2002 $138.7 $79.4 
                        development effort that supports                
      Partnership      innovative partnerships to improve               
     (MSP)Program        kindergarten through grade 12                  
                     student achievement in mathematics and             
                     science. MSP projects are                          
                     expected to both raise the achievement             
                           levels of all students and                   
                     significantly reduce achievement gaps              
                             in the mathematics and                     
                     science performance of diverse student             
                            populations. Successful                     
                      projects serve as models that can be              
                              widely replicated in                      
                      educational practice to improve the               
                            mathematics and science                     
                        achievement of all the nation's                 
                                   students.                            

Graduate Research  The purpose of the GRFP is to ensure the 1952 $96 $96.6 
                             vitality of the scientific                 
Fellowship Program    and technological workforce in the             
         (GRFP)          United States and to reinforce its             
                       diversity. The program recognizes and            
                                supports outstanding                    
                         graduate students in the relevant              
                              science and engineering                   
                            disciplines who are pursuing                
                        research-based master's and doctoral            
                        degrees. NSF fellows are expected to            
                              become knowledge experts                  
                        who can contribute significantly to             
                              research, teaching, and                   
                      innovations in science and engineering.           

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

                    Program Description First year 2004 2005

                          This program provides support to                    
    Integrative Graduate  universities for student positions   1998 $67.7 $69
                          in                                              
Education and Research  interdisciplinary areas of science             
                             and engineering. Traineeships                
    Traineeship Program   focus on multidisciplinary and                  
                          intersectoral research opportunities            
                             and prepare future faculty in                
                              effective teaching methods,                 
                          applications of advanced educational            
                               technologies, and student                  
                                 mentoring techniques.                    

Teacher Professional The program addresses critical       2004 $61.5 $60.2 
                        issues and needs regarding the                  
        Continuum       recruitment, preparation, induction,            
                              retention, and lifelong                   
                        development of kindergarten through             
                        grade 12 STEM teachers. Its                     
                        goals are to improve the quality and            
                        coherence of teacher learning                   
                        experiences across the continuum                
                        through research that informs                   
                        teaching practice and the                       
                        development of innovative resources             
                        for                                             
                        the professional development of                 
                        kindergarten through grade 12                   
                                   STEM teachers.                       

Research Experiences     This program supports active     1987 $51.7 $51.1 
           for             participation by undergraduate               
      Undergraduates    students in research projects in any            
                        of the areas of research funded                 
                        by the National Science Foundation.             
                        The program seeks to involve                    
                         students in meaningful ways in all             
                             kinds of research-whether                  
                        disciplinary, interdisciplinary, or             
                        educational in focus-linked to the              
                        efforts of individual investigators,            
                           research groups, centers, and                
                        national facilities. Particular                 
                        emphasis is given to the recruitment            
                        of                                              
                        women, minorities, and persons with             
                                   disabilities.                        

Graduate Teaching  This program supports fellowships and  1999 $49.8 $49.9 
      Fellows in            associated training that                    
    K-12 Education         enable graduate students in                  
                        NSF-supported STEM disciplines to               
                       acquire additional skills that will              
                            broadly prepare them for                    
                      professional and scientific careers.              
                            Through interactions with                   
                     teachers, graduate students can improve            
                                communication and                       
                      teaching skills while enriching STEM              
                           instruction in kindergarten                  
                     through grade 12 schools. This program             
                          also provides institutions of                 
                     higher education with an opportunity to            
                             make a permanent change                    
                     in their graduate programs by including            
                          partnerships with schools in                  
                       a manner that will mutually benefit              
                             faculties and students.                    

Advanced Technological Education (ATE)

With an emphasis on 2-year colleges, the ATE program focuses on the
education of technicians for the high-technology fields that drive our
nation's economy. The program involves partnerships between academic
institutions and employers to promote improvement in the education of
science and engineering technicians at the undergraduate and secondary
school levels. The ATE program supports curriculum development,
professional development of college faculty and secondary school teachers,
career pathways to 2-year colleges from secondary schools and from 2-year
colleges to 4-year institutions, and other activities. The program also
invites proposals focusing on applied research relating to technician
education.

                                1994 $45.9 $45.1

Course, Curriculum, and This program emphasizes projects  1999 $40.7 $40.6 
                             that build on prior work and               
Laboratory Improvement  contribute to the knowledge base             
                           of undergraduate STEM education              
                               research and practice. In                
                               addition, projects should                
                                     contribute to                      
                           building a community of scholars             
                             who work in related areas of               
                               undergraduate education.                 

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

                    Program Description First year 2004 2005

Research on Learning The program seeks to capitalize on   2000 $39.4 $38.2 
           and          important developments across                   
        Education        a wide range of fields related to              
                             human learning and to STEM                 
                        education. It supports research                 
                        across a continuum that includes (1)            
                           the biological basis of human                
                        learning; (2) behavioral, cognitive,            
                        affective, and social aspects of                
                        STEM learning; (3) STEM learning in             
                        formal and informal educational                 
                        settings; (4) STEM policy research;             
                           and (5) the diffusion of STEM                
                                    innovations.                        

      Computer Science,     This program supports scholarships 1999 $33.9 $75 
                                for academically talented,                
       Engineering, and        financially needy students,                
                             enabling them to enter the high-             
Mathematics Scholarships   technology workforce following              
                               completion of an associate,                
                             baccalaureate, or graduate-level             
                               degree in computer science,                
                            computer technology, engineering,             
                                engineering technology, or                
                            mathematics. Academic institutions            
                               apply for awards to support                
                            scholarship activities and are                
                            responsible for selecting                     
                            scholarship                                   
                            recipients, reporting demographic             
                                information about student                 
                            scholars, and managing the project            
                                   at the institution.                    

Louis Stokes Alliances  The program is aimed at increasing  1991 $33.3 $35 
             for               the quality and quantity of                
Minority Participation   students successfully completing              
                                STEM baccalaureate degree                 
                           programs and increasing the number             
                               of students interested in,                 
                             academically qualified for, and              
                              matriculated into programs of               
                            graduate study. It also supports              
                               sustained and comprehensive                
                               approaches that facilitate                 
                            achievement of the long-term goal             
                                           of                             
                           increasing the number of students              
                           who earn doctorates in STEM,                   
                           particularly those from populations            
                                underrepresented in STEM                  
                                         fields.                          

Centers for Learning The program focuses on the advanced  2000 $30.8 $28.4 
           and                  preparation of STEM                     
                        educators, as well as the                       
         Teaching       establishment of meaningful                     
                        partnerships                                    
                           among education stakeholders,                
                             especially Ph.D.-granting                  
                        institutions, school systems, and               
                        informal education performers. Its              
                        goals are to renew and diversify the            
                              cadre of leaders in STEM                  
                        education; to increase the number of            
                                kindergarten through                    
                        undergraduate educators capable of              
                        delivering high-quality STEM                    
                         instruction and assessment; and to             
                             conduct research into STEM                 
                        education issues of national import,            
                        such as the nature of learning,                 
                          teaching strategies, and reform               
                               policies and outcomes.                   

Instructional Materials    This program contains three    1983 $29.3 $28.5 
                            components. It supports (1) the             
         Development       creation and substantial revision            
                           of comprehensive curricula and               
                            supplemental materials that are             
                                research-based, enhance                 
                              classroom instruction, and                
                            reflect standards for science,              
                           mathematics, and technology                  
                           education developed by                       
                           professional                                 
                           organizations; (2) the creation              
                           of tools for assessing student               
                           learning                                     
                           that are tied to nationally                  
                           developed standards and reflect              
                           the most                                     
                           current thinking on how students             
                           learn mathematics and science;               
                           and (3) research for development             
                           of this program and projects.                

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

                    Program Description First year 2004 2005

Science, Technology,   The program seeks to increase the    2002 $25 $25.3 
                               number of students (U.S.                 
     Engineering, and      citizens or permanent residents)             
                                receiving associate or                  
    Mathematics Talent  baccalaureate degrees in established            
                        or emerging fields within                       
    Expansion Program   STEM. Type 1 proposals that provide             
                        for full implementation efforts                 
                        at academic institutions are                    
                        solicited. Type 2 proposals that                
                        support                                         
                        educational research projects on                
                        associate or baccalaureate degree               
                        attainment in STEM are also solicited.          

      Historically Black    This program provides awards to  1998 $23.8 $25.2 
           Colleges           enhance the quality of STEM               
and Universities (HBCU)     instructional and outreach               
                            programs at HBCUs as a means to             
    Undergraduate Program     broaden participation in the              
                            nation's STEM workforce. Project            
                             strategies include curriculum              
                                  enhancement, faculty                  
                                      professional                      
                               development, undergraduate               
                             research, academic enrichment,             
                               infusion of technology to                
                               enhance STEM instruction,                
                                     collaborations                     
                            with research institutions and              
                            industry, and other activities              
                            that meet                                   
                                  institutional needs.                  

Interagency Education This is a collaborative effort with 1999 $23.6 $13.8 
                         the U.S. Department of Education.              
    Research Initiative   The goal is to support scientific             
                           research that investigates the               
                         effectiveness of educational                   
                         interventions in reading,                      
                         mathematics,                                   
                         and the sciences as they are                   
                         implemented in varied school                   
                         settings                                       
                          with diverse student populations.             

                                The program is designed to                    
    Information Technology    increase the opportunities for   2003 $20.9 $25
                                         students                         
Experiences for Students    and teachers to learn about,               
             and             experience, and use information              
           Teachers         technologies within the context of            
                               STEM, including information                
                               technology courses. It is in               
                              direct response to the concern              
                                          about                           
                            shortages of technology workers in            
                              the United States. It has two               
                               components: (1) youth-based                
                             projects with strong emphasis on             
                             career and educational paths and             
                              (2) comprehensive projects for              
                                  students and teachers.                  

       Enhancing the     The long-range goal of this program 2004 $20.6 $20.7 
       Mathematical         is to increase the number of                
Sciences Workforce in    U.S. citizens, nationals, and               
            the           permanent residents who are well              
       21st Century         prepared in the mathematical                
                         sciences and who pursue careers in             
                          the mathematical sciences and in              
                          other NSF-supported disciplines.              

                         This program makes resources                         
    Centers of Research  available to significantly enhance  1987 $19.8 $15.9
                         the                                            
Excellence in Science      research capabilities of                  
            and             minority-serving institutions               
                                     through the                        
        Technology          establishment of centers that               
                         effectively integrate education and            
                              research. It promotes the                 
                            development of new knowledge,               
                         enhancements of the research                   
                         productivity of individual faculty,            
                         and                                            
                             an expanded diverse student                
                            presence in STEM disciplines.               

ADVANCE: Increasing the  The program goal is to increase  2001 $19.4 $19.8 
                                the representation and                  
      Participation and    advancement of women in academic             
                                science and engineering                 
Advancement of Women in careers, thereby contributing to             
                           the development of a more diverse            
                                science and engineering                 
    Academic Science and         workforce. Members of                  
                                   underrepresented                     
     Engineering Careers    minority groups and individuals             
                           with disabilities are especially             
                                 encouraged to apply.                   

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

                    Program Description First year 2004 2005

                 Federal Cyber Service: Scholarship for Service

This program seeks to increase the number of qualified students entering
the fields of information assurance and computer security and to increase
the capacity of the United States' higher education enterprise to continue
to produce professionals in these fields to meet the needs of our
increasingly technological society. The program has two tracks: provides
funds to colleges and universities to (1) award scholarships to students
to pursue academic programs in the information assurance and computer
security fields for the final 2 years of undergraduate study, or for 2
years of master's-level study, or for the final 2 years of Ph.D.-level
study, and (2) improve the quality and increase the production of
information assurance and computer security professionals.

                                2001 $15.8 $14.1

                          This program is intended to                         
Alliances for Graduate increase significantly the number  1998 $15.3 $14.8
                          of                                            
                          domestic students receiving                   
     Education and the    doctoral degrees in STEM, with                
                          special                                       
       Professoriate      emphasis on those population                  
                          groups underrepresented in these              
                          fields. The program is interested             
                             in increasing the number of                
                            minorities who will enter the               
                                professoriate in these                  
                                     disciplines.                       
                          Specific objectives are to develop            
                          (1) and implement innovative                  
                          models for recruiting, mentoring,             
                          and retaining minority students in            
                          STEM doctoral programs, and (2)               
                          effective strategies for                      
                          identifying                                   
                          and supporting underrepresented               
                          minorities who want to pursue                 
                                  academic careers.                     

    Research on Gender in  The program seeks to broaden the     1993 $10 $9.8 
                           participation of girls and women              
Science and Engineering  in all fields of STEM education by           
                                   supporting research,                  
                           dissemination of research, and                
                           extension services in education that          
                              will lead to a larger and more             
                               diverse domestic science and              
                              engineering workforce. Typical             
                             projects will contribute to the             
                           knowledge base addressing                     
                           gender-related differences in                 
                           learning                                      
                            and in the educational experiences           
                              that affect student interest,              
                           performance, and choice of careers,           
                                   and how pedagogical                   
                           approaches and teaching styles,               
                           curriculum, student services, and             
                           institutional culture contribute to           
                           causing or closing gender gaps that           
                                persist in certain fields.               

Tribal Colleges and Universities Program This program provides awards to
enhance the quality of STEM instructional and outreach programs, with
special attention to the use of information technologies at Tribal
colleges and universities, Alaskan Native-serving institutions, and Native
Hawaiian-serving institutions. Support is available for the implementation
of comprehensive institutional approaches to strengthen STEM teaching and
learning in ways that improve access to, retention within, and graduation
from STEM programs, particularly those that have a strong technological
foundation. Through this program, assistance is provided to eligible
institutions in their efforts to bridge the digital divide and prepare
students for careers in information technology, science, mathematics, and
engineering fields.

                                 2001 $10 $9.8

Appendix III: Federal STEM Education Programs Funded at $10 Million or
More

                       Funding (in millions of dollars)a

     Program Description First year 2004 2005 Department of Transportation

University Transportation Centers Program (UTC) The UTC program's mission
is to advance U.S. technology and expertise in the many disciplines
comprising transportation through the mechanisms of education, research,
and technology transfer at university-based centers of excellence. The UTC
program's goals include (1) developing a multidisciplinary program of
coursework and experiential learning that reinforces the transportation
theme of the center; (2) increasing the numbers of students, faculty, and
staff who are attracted to and substantially involved in the
undergraduate, graduate, and professional programs of the center; and (3)
having students, faculty, and staff who reflect the growing diversity of
the U.S. workforce and are substantially involved in the undergraduate,
graduate, and professional programs of the center.

                                1998 $32.5 $32.5

Source: GAO survey responses from 13 federal agencies.

aThe dollar amounts for fiscal years 2004 and 2005 contain actual and
estimated program funding levels.

Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates in STEM Fields

Table 23 provides estimates for the numbers of students in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields by education level
for the 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years. Tables 24 and 25 provide
additional information regarding students in STEM fields by gender for the
1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years. Table 26 provides additional
information regarding graduates in STEM fields by gender for the 1994-1995
and 2002-2003 academic years. Appendix V contains confidence intervals for
these estimates.

Table 23: Estimated Numbers of Students in STEM Fields by Education Level
for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004

Academic year Academic year Education level/STEM field 1995-1996 2003-2004
Percentage change

                                Bachelor's level

               Total                 2,218,510         2,876,721     
       Agricultural sciences               101,885      87,025              b 
        Biological sciences                407,336      351,595      
         Computer sciences                 261,139      456,303      
            Engineering                    363,504      422,230      
            Mathematics                     57,133      64,307              b 
         Physical sciences                 107,832      129,207             b 
            Psychology                     309,810      409,827      
          Social sciences                  536,487      825,495      
            Technology                      73,384      130,733      

Master's level

Total 321,293 403,200

a a

Agricultural sciences 12,977

Biological sciences 34,701 19,467

b

Computer sciences 49,071 58,939

b

Engineering 66,296 90,234

a a

Mathematics 12,531

a a

Physical sciences 22,008

b

Psychology 30,008 31,918
Social sciences 82,177 144,895 76

a a

Technology 10,231

Doctoral level

b

Total 217,395 198,504

a a

Agricultural sciences 5,983

a a

Biological sciences 33,884

Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates in STEM Fields

                               Academic year  Academic year 
Education level/STEM field       1995-1996     2003-2004 Percentage change 
        Computer sciences                   a         9,196                 a 
           Engineering                 32,181        35,687                 b 
           Mathematics                      a         9,412                 a 
        Physical sciences              38,058        24,973                 b 
           Psychology                  30,291        33,994                 b 
         Social sciences               54,092        42,464                 b 
           Technology                       a         2,912                 a 

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data.

Note: Enrollment totals differ from those cited in table 9 because table 9
includes students enrolled in certificate, associate's, other
undergraduate, first-professional degree, and post-bachelor's or
postmaster's certificate programs.

aSample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates.

bChanges between academic years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 are not
statistically significant at the 95-percent confidence level. See table 30
for significance of percentage changes.

    Table 24: Estimated Percentages of Students by Gender and STEM Field for
               Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 Male Female

  Percent: 1995-1996 Percent: 2003-2004 Percent: 1995-1996 Percent: 2003-2004
                             Agricultural sciences

Total 58 55 42

Bachelor's 56 54 44

a a a a

Master's

a a

Doctorate 61

                              Biological sciences

                    Total 46 42 54 58 Bachelor's 45 42 55 58

a a

Master's 26 74

a a

Doctorate 50 50

Computer sciences

Total 67 76 33 24 Bachelor's 69 77 31 23

a a

Master's 69 31

a a

Doctorate 72 28

Engineering

Total 83 83 17 17 Bachelor's 83 83 17 17

a a

Master's 81 19

Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates in STEM Fields

Male Female

Percent: 1995-1996 Percent: 2003-2004 Percent: 1995-1996 Percent:
2003-2004

a a

                                Doctorate 78 22

Mathematics

Total 62 55 38

Bachelor's 57 54 43

a a a a

Master's

a a

Doctorate 68

                               Physical sciences

Total 62 56 38

Bachelor's 56 53 44

a a a a

Master's

a a

Doctorate 68

Psychology

Total 26 26 74

Bachelor's 26 26 74

a a

Master's 21

a

Doctorate 30 a

Social sciences

           Total              54            41           46                59 
        Bachelor's            52            42           48                58 
         Master's             51            35           49                65 
         Doctorate            83            46           17                54 
        Technology                                               
           Total              89            81           11                19 
        Bachelor's            88            81           12                19 

a a a a

Master's

a a a a

Doctorate

                Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data.

        aSample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates.

Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates in STEM Fields

Table 25: Estimated Number of Women Students and Percentage Change by
Education Level and STEM Field for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004

Number of women students

                                                                   Percentage 
                                                                    change in 
                     Education level/STEM  1995-1996 2003-2004 women students 
                            field                              
Bachelor's level Agricultural sciences   44,444      39,702              b 
                     Biological sciences    222,323    203,038              b 
                      Computer sciences     82,013     104,824              b 
                         Engineering        59,985      70,353              b 
                         Mathematics        24,597      29,791              b 
                      Physical sciences     47,421      60,203              b 
                          Psychology        229,772    304,712            +33 
                       Social sciences      258,023    475,544            +84 
                          Technology           8,871    25,227           +184 
    Master's level  Agricultural sciences          a         a              a 
                     Biological sciences           a    14,415              a 
                      Computer sciences            a    18,000              a 
                         Engineering               a    17,042              a 
                         Mathematics               a     5,562              a 
                      Physical sciences            a     8,497              a 

b

Psychology 23,857 25,342
Social sciences 40,395 94,169 +133

a a

                                Technology 1,280

a a

Doctoral level Agricultural sciences 2,353

a a

                           Biological sciences 17,074

a a

                            Computer sciences 2,556

a a

                               Engineering 7,868

a a

                               Mathematics 3,042

a a

                            Physical sciences 8,105

a a

Psychology 23,843
Social sciences 9,440 22,931 +143

a a

                                 Technology 692

Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data.

a Sample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates.

bChanges between academic years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 are not
statistically significant at the 95-percent confidence level. See table 29
for confidence intervals.

Appendix IV: Data on Students and Graduates in STEM Fields

Table 26: Comparisons in the Percentage of STEM Graduates by Field and
Gender for Academic Years 1994-1995 and 20022003

                                  Percentage Percentage Percentage Percentage
          graduates, men, graduates, men, graduates, women, graduates, women,
                    STEM Degree/field 1994-1995 2002-2003 1994-1995 2002-2003

                               Bachelor's degree

         Biological/agricultural sciences           50        40        50    
      Earth, atmospheric, and ocean sciences        66        58        34    
                    Engineering                     83        80        17    
         Mathematics and computer sciences          65        69        35    
                 Physical sciences                  64        58        36    
                    Psychology                      27        22        73    
                  Social sciences                   50        45        50    
                    Technology                      90        88        10    

Master's degree

    Biological/agricultural sciences               52               45  48 
     Earth, atmospheric, and ocean                 70               59  30 
                sciences                                                   
              Engineering                          84               79  16 
Mathematics and computer sciences               70               66  30 
           Physical sciences                       70               64  30 
               Psychology                          28               23  72 
            Social sciences                        51               45  49 55 
               Technology                          81               73  19 27 
            Doctoral degree                                                
    Biological/agricultural sciences               63               57  37 43 
     Earth, atmospheric, and ocean                 78               72  22 28 
                sciences                                                   
              Engineering                          88               83  12 17 
Mathematics and computer sciences               80               76  20 24 
           Physical sciences                       76               73  24 27 
               Psychology                          38               31  62 69 
            Social sciences                        62               55  38 45 
               Technology                          89               100 11  0 
                                      Source: GAO calculations             
                                      based upon IPEDS data.               

Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the Bachelor's,
Master's, and Doctoral Levels

Because the National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS) sample is a
probability sample of students, the sample is only one of a large number
of samples that might have been drawn. Since each sample could have
provided different estimates, confidence in the precision of the
particular sample's results is expressed as a 95-percent confidence
interval (for example, plus or minus 4 percentage points). This is the
interval that would contain the actual population value for 95 percent of
the samples that could have been drawn. As a result, we are 95 percent
confident that each of the confidence intervals in this report will
include the true values in the study population. The upper and lower
bounds of the 95 percent confidence intervals for each estimate relied on
in this report are presented in the following tables.

Table 27: Estimated Changes in the Numbers and Percentages of Students in
the STEM and Non-STEM Fields across All Education Levels, Academic Years
1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals)

  Lower and upper bounds of 95 percent confidence interval STEM field Non-STEM
                                     field

        Lower bound: number of students: 1995-1996 3,941,589 14,885,171

        Upper bound: number of students: 1995-1996 4,323,159 15,601,065

20

Upper bound: percentage of students: 1995-1996 22

      Lower bound: number of students: 2003-2004       4,911,850   16,740,049 
      Upper bound: number of students: 2003-2004       5,082,515   17,025,326 
    Lower bound: percentage of students: 2003-2004            22 
    Upper bound: percentage of students: 2003-2004            23 

15

Upper bound: percentage change: 1995/96-2003/04 26.9

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data.

Note: The totals for STEM and non-STEM enrollments include students in
addition to the bachelor's, master's, and doctorate education levels.
These totals also include students enrolled in certificate, associate's,
other undergraduate, first-professional degree, and post-bachelor's or
post-master's certificate programs. The percentage changes between the
1995-1996 and 2003-2004 academic years for STEM and non-STEM students are
statistically significant.

Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the
Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral Levels

Table 28: Numbers of Students by Education Level in all STEM Fields for
Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals)

                       Total Bachelors Masters Doctorate

2,880,529 2,322,704 377,821 271,230

                                    2,633,867  2,114,316   271,208    171,824 
                                    3,411,004  2,819,206   366,141    185,230 
                                    3,545,844  2,934,236   442,938    212,471 
                                    93,346      78,241            a         a 
                                   151,132      130,144           a         a 
                                    93,543      76,472      7,296       4,661 
                                   119,613      98,590     21,202       7,553 
                                   416,315      360,553    18,883           a 
                                   524,615      454,119    57,066           a 
                                   383,277      330,834    13,728      30,401 
                                   427,502      372,355    26,694      37,367 
                                   275,804      224,616    31,634           a 
                                   363,084      297,662    71,242           a 
                                   495,359      428,927    47,669       7,427 
                                   554,747      483,679    70,210      11,243 

411,868 321,464 45,912 16,620            
516,391 405,544 90,768 54,155            
514,794 400,252 63,632 32,113            
583,058 444,208 116,835 39,261           
                                        a a 

68,083 42,910

aa

119,165 74,456 75,705 55,314 7,869 7,687 97,848 74,318 18,867 11,392

a

139,416 87,966 21,279

a

214,274 130,658 60,546 160,895 116,479 14,944 22,043 192,534 142,894
31,092 27,903 327,359 271,188 17,600 16,929 416,804 348,432 47,037 48,601
449,858 385,660 24,218 27,846 502,696 433,995 41,116 40,142 608,199
478,659 60,792 33,489 742,107 594,315 103,562 79,414

                         974,279 791,462 125,457 38,291

Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the
Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral Levels

                       Total Bachelors Masters Doctorate

a a

104,308 92,251

                                    1,052,506  859,527    164,333      46,636 
                                    63,910      57,446            a         a 
                                   130,347     118,492     5,556        1,814 
                                   158,418     143,848     17,158       4,421 

    Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data.

aSample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates.

Table 29: Estimated Numbers and Percentage Changes in Women Students in
STEM Fields, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence
intervals)

        Lower Upper      Lower      Upper        Lower bound:    Upper bound: 
       bound: bound:     bound:     bound:                    
    Number of  Number of  Number of Number of      Percentage      Percentage 
    Students:  Students:  Students: Students:         Change:         Change: 
    1995-1996  1995-1996  2003-2004 2003-2004 1995/96-2003/04 1995/96-2003/04 

Total

           Total          1,100,766 1,260,962 1,546,340 1,638,269 24.9  
Agricultural sciences   33,541    67,797    39,678    56,710   -41.2 
    Biological sciences    215,624   293,386   217,669   251,384  -23.4 
     Computer sciences     78,956    129,858   110,119   140,642  -12.6 
        Engineering        60,568    100,683   84,556    105,970  -14.3 
        Mathematics        21,805    46,907    31,207    45,593   -34.1 
     Physical sciences     42,352    91,230    66,408    87,203   -29.9 
         Psychology        236,730   311,792   331,616   376,179   9.6  
      Social sciences      267,155   348,561   562,529   622,759  65.2  119.8 
         Technology           5,136  13,993    21,339    33,060   52.3    361 
         Bachelor's                                                     
           Total           909,030  1,045,868 1,271,939 1,354,847 24.1   44.7 
Agricultural sciences   27,943    60,945    32,293    47,111   -47.8  26.4 
    Biological sciences    188,204   256,442   187,283   218,793  -24.4     7 
     Computer sciences     61,719    102,307   90,851    118,798  -8.1   63.7 
        Engineering        45,013    74,957    61,142    79,563   -15.8  50.3 
        Mathematics        16,558    32,636    23,487    36,094    -26   68.3 
     Physical sciences     32,641    62,201    51,259    69,147   -16.9  70.8 
         Psychology        197,530   262,014   284,138   325,287   12    53.3 
      Social sciences      220,004   296,042   449,103   501,985  55.3  113.3 
         Technology           5,185  13,867    19,582    30,872   40.2  328.6 

Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the
Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral Levels

        Lower Upper      Lower      Upper        Lower bound:    Upper bound: 
       bound: bound:     bound:     bound:                    
    Number of  Number of  Number of Number of      Percentage      Percentage 
    Students:  Students:  Students: Students:         Change:         Change: 
    1995-1996  1995-1996  2003-2004 2003-2004 1995/96-2003/04 1995/96-2003/04 

Master's Doctorate

            Total           109,116  183,302  170,116  210,777   -5.6  
    Agricultural sciences          a        a        a    a       a         a 
     Biological sciences           a        a  11,330   16,806    a         a 
      Computer sciences            a        a  11,907   24,093    a         a 
         Engineering               a        a  10,989   24,604    a         a 
         Mathematics               a        a  2,979    8,336     a         a 
      Physical sciences            a        a  4,713    12,802    a         a 
         Psychology         15,901    28,488   21,284   28,384  -58.1  
       Social sciences      26,605    54,185   79,619  108,720   45.8   220.5 
         Technology                a        a   235     3,485     a         a 

            Total           38,103   79,875   81,553   95,377   -6.3    115.6 
    Agricultural Sciences         a        a  1,441    3,265     a          a 
     Biological Sciences          a        a  14,455   19,692    a          a 
      Computer Sciences           a        a  1,745    3,503     a          a 
         Engineering              a        a  5,870    9,867     a          a 

a a a a

Mathematics 1,999 4,085

a a a a

Physical Sciences 6,298 9,913

a a a a

Psychology 19,198 28,489
Social Sciences 4,098 17,371 19,778 26,083 4.2 281.6

a a a a

Technology 254 1,339

                Source: GAO calculations based upon NPSAS data.

        aSample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates.

 Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the Bachelor's,
                         Master's, and Doctoral Levels

Table 30: Estimated Percentage Changes in Bachelor's, Master's, and
Doctoral Students in STEM Fields, Academic Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004
(95 percent confidence intervals)

            Lower and upper bounds of 95 percent confidence interval

a a

no no

                       Total Bachelor's Master's Doctoral

a a

-34.8 -38.7

a a

11.9 9.5

a

-24.4 -24.8 -79.6

a

-2.6 -2.5 -8.3

a

yes yes yes

a

41.1 48.1 -34.8

a

89.5 101.3 75

                                                                            a 
                                            yes    yes         no     
                                            3.5    1.4       -27.5    
                                           33.8    30.9       99.7    
                                            yes    yes         no          no 
                                          -33.5   -21.8        a            a 

a a

23 46.9

a a

no no

a

-21.7 -6.6

a

24.4 46.3 1.4

                                   a    
no no no                             
11.7 14 -51.2 -48.8                  
45.4 50.5 63.9 73.3                  
yes yes no no                        
34.6 36.1 24.7 -59.3                 
66.5 71.6 127.9 16.3                 
yes yes yes no                       
                                  a a   

30 33.4

a a

119.6 122.9

a a

yes yes

                                                           20 23.1 1.8  -29.5 
                                                         32.3 36.3 49.2  12.1 
                                                           yes yes yes     no 
                 Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and      
                                             2003-2004 NPSAS data.      

        aSample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates.

Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the
Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral Levels

Table 31: Estimates of STEM Students by Gender and Field for Academic
Years 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 (95 percent confidence intervals)

                                               Women:         Women: 2003-    
                                               1995-       
                  Men:        Men: 2003-2004   1996          2004 academic    
                1995-1996                      academic    
              academic year   academic year       year            year        
                                   Lower Upper                    Lower Upper 
               Lower Upper       Statistically Lower Upper      Statistically 
      STEM     bound bound         bound bound bound bound        bound bound 
     fields                        significant                    significant 

                             Agricultural sciences

                    Bachelor's 44 69 48 61 no 31 56 39 52 no

a a a a a a a a a a

Master's

a a a a a a

Doctoral 49 72 28 51

                              Biological sciences

                    Bachelor's 40 51 39 45 no 49 60 55 61 no

a a a a a a

Master's 14 46 54 89

a a a a a a

Doctoral 44 55 45 56

                               Computer sciences

                    Bachelor's 62 75 74 80 no 25 38 20 26 no

a a a a a a

Master's 61 78 22 39

a a a a a a

Doctoral 62 81 19 38

Engineering

                    Bachelor's 80 87 81 85 no 13 20 15 19 no

a a a a a a

Master's 73 88 12 27

a a a a a a

Doctoral 73 83 17 27

Mathematics

Bachelor's 44 70 46 61 no 30 56 39 54 no

a a a a a a a a a a

Master's

a a a a a a

Doctoral 59 77 23 41

Physical sciences

Bachelor's 46 66 48 59 no 34 54 41 52 no

a a a a a a a a a a

Master's

a a a a a a

Doctoral 62 73 27 38

Psychology

Bachelor's 20 32 23 28 no 68 80 72 77 no

a a a a a a

Master's 10 35 65 90

a a a a a a

Doctoral 20 39 61 80

Social sciences

Bachelor's 46 57 40 45 yes 43 54 55 60 yes Master's 38 64 28 42 no 36 62
58 72 no

Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the
Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral Levels

                                                    Women:      Women: 2003-  
                                                    1995-       
                   Men:          Men: 2003-2004     1996        2004 academic 
                 1995-1996                          academic    
               academic year     academic year         year         year      
                                        Lower Upper               Lower Upper 
                Lower Upper           Statistically Lower Upper Statistically 
STEM fields  bound bound             bound bound bound bound   bound bound 
                                        significant               significant 
    Doctoral           70 91              41 51 yes        9 30     49 59 yes 

Technology

                    Bachelor's 81 93 77 85 no 7 19 15 23 no

a a a a a a a a a a

Master's

a a a a a a a a a a

Doctoral

Total students

       Total      55    60    53    55    yes    40    45    45    47     yes 
    Bachelor's    54    58    53    55     no    42    46    45    47      no 
     Master's     46    63    48    57     no    37    54    43    52      no 
     Doctoral     63    82    53    58    yes    18    37    42    47     yes 

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data.

        aSample sizes are insufficient to accurately produce estimates.

 Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the Bachelor's,
                         Master's, and Doctoral Levels

Table 32: Estimates of Students for Selected Racial or Ethnic Groups in
STEM Fields for All Education Levels and Fields for the Academic Years
1995-1996 and 2002-2003 (95 percent confidence intervals)

                          Lower bound: Upper bound: Lower bound: Upper bound: 
                          number       number       number             number 
                          of students, of students, of students, of students, 
                          academic     academic     academic         academic 
     Race or ethnicity           year,        year,        year,        year, 
                             1995-1996    1995-1996    2003-2004    2003-2004 
      African American         303,832      416,502      577,854      639,114 
          Hispanic             285,381      446,621      461,738      515,423 
Asian/Pacific Islander      247,347      330,541      322,738      367,377 
      Native American           11,464       28,103       30,064       47,694 
       Other/multiple                                                         
         minorities             17,708       44,434      150,264      183,174

                                       .

 Appendix V: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of Students at the Bachelor's,
                         Master's, and Doctoral Levels

                          Lower bound: Upper bound: Lower bound: Upper bound:
         Lower bound: percentage of percentage of percentage of percentage of
      percentage Upper bound: students, academic students, academic students,
                                                  academic students, academic
change percentage change year 1995-1996 year 1995-1996 year 2003-2004 year
                                                                    2003-2004

         41              97              7             10            12       
          3              64              7             11             9       
          1              38              6             8              6       
          8              206             0             1              1       
         219             732             0             1              3       

Source: GAO Calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data.

Table 33: Estimates of International Students in STEM Fields by Education
Levels for Academic Years 1995-1996 and 20032004 (95 percent confidence
intervals)

                Lower     Upper   Lower         Upper 
               bound:    bound:   bound:              
              number of number of number of bound:         Lower bound: Upper 
                                            number                     bound: 
              students, students, students,        of                         
                                            students,   percentage percentage
Education  1995-1996 1995-1996 2003-2004 2003-2004           change change 
     level                                            
     Total       80,812   142,192   154,466   186,322           12            
Bachelor's    20,254    47,684   125,950   154,911           155           
    Master's     23,063    64,587    16,359    29,899           -76           
    Doctoral     20,525    59,861     5,168    10,735           -90           

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1995-1996 and 2003-2004 NPSAS data.

Appendix VI: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of STEM Employment by Gender,
Race or Ethnicity, and Wages and Salaries

The current population survey (CPS) was used to obtain estimates about
employees and wages and salaries in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) fields. Because the current population survey (CPS) is
a probability sample based on random selections, the sample is only one of
a large number of samples that might have been drawn. Since each sample
could have provided different estimates, confidence in the precision of
the particular sample's results is expressed as a 95 percent confidence
interval (e.g., plus or minus 4 percentage points). This is the interval
that would contain the actual population value for 95 percent of the
samples that could have been drawn. As a result, we are 95 percent
confident that each of the confidence intervals in this report will
include the true values in the study population. We use the CPS general
variance methodology to estimate this sampling error and report it as
confidence intervals. Percentage estimates we produce from the CPS data
have 95 percent confidence intervals of plus or minus 6 percentage points
or less. Estimates other than percentages have 95 percent confidence
intervals of no more than plus or minus 10 percent of the estimate itself,
unless otherwise noted. Consistent with the CPS documentation guidelines,
we do not produce estimates based on the March supplement data for
populations of less than 75,000.

  Table 34: Estimated Total Number of Employees by STEM Field between Calendar
                              Years 1994 and 2003

                      Lower      Upper      Lower      Upper    
                      bound:     bound:     bound:     bound:   
                     calendar   calendar   calendar   calendar  Statistically 
                       year       year       year       year    
     STEM fields          1994       1994       2003       2003   significant 
       Science       2,349,605  2,656,451  2,874,347 3,143,071            yes 
      Technology     1,285,321  1,515,671  1,379,375 1,568,189             no 
     Engineering     1,668,514  1,929,240  1,638,355 1,843,427             no 
     Mathematics/                                               
       computer      1,369,047  1,606,395  2,520,858 2,773,146                
       sciences                                                           yes

Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data.

 Appendix VI: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of STEM Employment by Gender,
                   Race or Ethnicity, and Wages and Salaries

Table 35: Estimated Numbers of Employees in STEM Fields by Gender for
Calendar Years 1994 and 2003

Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper

bound: bound: bound: bound: bound: bound: bound: bound:

    calendar calendar calendar calendar calendar calendar calendar calendar

year year year year year year year year

1994, 1994, 2003, 2003, Statistically 1994, 1994, 2003, 2003,
Statistically STEM fields women women women women significant men men men
men significant

     Science      1,594,527 1,827,685   yes 708,673 875,171 733,358        no 
                  2,031,124 2,327,390   925,548                           
    Technology  385,433 505,329 357,805 no 863,785 1,046,445 941,960       no 
                489,899                 1,157,900                         
Engineering  107,109 174,669 126,947 no 1,538,198 1,777,778 1,440,510   no 
                210,407                 1,703,920                         
Mathematics/                                                           
     computer                                                             
     sciences   372,953 491,053 610,649 yes 959,765 1,151,681 1,805,505       
                779,525                 2,098,325                         yes

          Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data.

Table 36: Estimated Changes in STEM Employment by Gender for Calendar
Years 1994 and 2003

                                      Lower bound: Upper bound: 
                        Lower bound: Upper bound: calendar year Statistically 
                                                  calendar year 
      STEM fields    calendar year 1994 calendar year 1994 2003   significant 
                     2003                                       
                                      Men Men                   
        Science                         28.87 34.40 24.84 30.30           yes 
      Technology                        64.50 71.90 67.29 75.19            no 
      Engineering                       90.28 94.05 87.93 92.69            no 
     Mathematics/                                               
computer sciences                    67.46 74.46 70.87 76.61            no 
                                    Women Women                 
        Science                         65.71 71.01 69.81 75.05           yes 
      Technology                        28.26 35.35 24.97 32.55            no 
      Engineering                          6.03 9.64 7.41 11.97            no 
     Mathematics/                                               
computer sciences                    25.69 32.39 23.51 29.01            no 
                      Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994  
                                 and 2003 CPS data.             

 Appendix VI: Confidence Intervals for Estimates of STEM Employment by Gender,
                   Race or Ethnicity, and Wages and Salaries

Table 37: Estimated Percentages of STEM Employees for Selected Racial or Ethnic
                    Groups for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003

Lower bound: Upper bound: Lower bound: Upper bound: Statistically Race or
Ethnicity calendar year 1994 calendar year 1994 calendar year 2003
calendar year 2003 significant

       Black or African                                              
           American           6.49      8.46      7.66       9.79          no 
      Hispanic or Latino                                             
            origin            4.76      6.60      8.83      11.09         yes 
       Other minorities       3.64      5.28      5.89       7.81         yes 

          Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data.

Table 38: Estimated Changes in Median Annual Wages and Salaries in the
STEM Fields for Calendar Years 1994 and 2003

                          Lower     Upper     Lower     Upper   
                         bound:    bound:    bound:    bound:   
                        calendar  calendar  calendar  calendar  Statistically 
                          year      year      year      year    
       STEM fields           1994      1994      2003      2003   significant 
         Science          $42,212   $45,241   $44,650  $47,008            yes 
        Technology        $36,241   $39,769   $38,554  $41,286            yes 
       Engineering        $59,059   $63,134   $67,634  $71,749            yes 
Mathematics/computer                                         
         sciences         $51,922   $55,905   $58,801  $61,679            yes 

          Source: GAO calculations based upon 1994 and 2003 CPS data.

Appendix VII: Comments from the Department of Commerce

Appendix VII: Comments from the Department of Commerce

Appendix VII: Comments from the Department of Commerce

Appendix VII: Comments from the Department of Commerce

Appendix VIII: Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services

Appendix VIII: Comments from the Department of Health and Human Services

Appendix IX: Comments from the National Science Foundation

Appendix IX: Comments from the National Science Foundation

Appendix IX: Comments from the National Science Foundation

Appendix XI: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments

GAO Contact Cornelia M. Ashby (202) 512-7215

Staff 	In addition to the contact named above, Carolyn M. Taylor,
Assistant Director; Tim Hall, Analyst in Charge; Mark Ward; Dorian
Herring; Patricia

Acknowledgments 	Bundy; Paula Bonin; Scott Heacock; Wilfred Holloway; Lise
Levie; John Mingus; Mark Ramage; James Rebbe; and Monica Wolford made key
contributions to this report.

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