International Affairs: Information on U.S. Agencies' Efforts to
Address Islamic Extremism (16-SEP-05, GAO-05-852).
U.S. government and other experts have reported that Islamic
extremism is on the rise and that the spread of Islamic extremism
is the pre-eminent threat facing the United States. In addition,
various sources alleged that Saudi Arabia is one source that has
supported and funded the spread of Islamic extremism globally.
GAO was asked to determine (1) what efforts U.S. government
agencies are implementing to identify, monitor, and counter
support and funding for the global propagation of Islamic
extremism, particularly support and funding originating in Saudi
Arabia; (2) what U.S. agencies and other entities have reported
regarding support and funding for the global propagation of
Islamic extremism, particularly any provided by Saudi sources
(private entities, individuals, and the Saudi government), as
well as sources in other countries; and (3) what efforts the
Saudi government has taken to address Islamic extremism. GAO
submitted this report to the intelligence agencies, the
Departments of Defense (DOD), State, and the Treasury, and the
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) for their
review and comment. The agencies had no formal comments, and
their technical comments were incorporated, as appropriate.
-------------------------Indexing Terms-------------------------
REPORTNUM: GAO-05-852
ACCNO: A37077
TITLE: International Affairs: Information on U.S. Agencies'
Efforts to Address Islamic Extremism
DATE: 09/16/2005
SUBJECT: Counterterrorism
Foreign governments
International relations
Strategic planning
Terrorism
Monitoring
Religious extremism
Middle East
Middle East Partnership Initiative
Saudi Arabia
******************************************************************
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GAO-05-852
United States Government Accountability Office
GAO
Report to Congressional Requesters
September 2005
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Information on U.S. Agencies' Efforts to Address Islamic Extremism
This report was originally issued on September 16, 2005. It was reissued
on September 22, 2005, with the following changes to Results in Brief,
page 4, paragraph 1:
Sentence 2 was revised to read: "Agencies' efforts focus on Saudi Arabia
but also attempt to address the propagation of Islamic extremism
worldwide, including diminishing the underlying conditions of extremism."
Sentence 5 was revised to read: "In addition, State and USAID are
implementing efforts to counter Islamic extremism, including the South
Asia Regional Program, intended to diminish the underlying conditions of
extremism through education, democracy building, economic cooperation and
development, and conflict mitigation projects."
GAO-05-852
[IMG]
September 2005
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Information on U.S. Agencies' Efforts to Address Islamic Extremism
What GAO Found
The intelligence agencies, DOD, State, and USAID are implementing various
efforts to identify, monitor, and counter the support and funding of the
global propagation of Islamic extremism. The intelligence agencies and DOD
are carrying out identification and monitoring efforts, primarily in
counterintelligence and force protection. State and USAID are carrying out
efforts to counter the global propagation of Islamic extremism, with
State's efforts focused primarily on traditional diplomacy,
counterterrorism, and public diplomacy and USAID's efforts focused on
development programs to diminish underlying conditions of extremism. We
are preparing a classified report, to be subsequently released, with a
more complete description of U.S. efforts to address the global spread of
Islamic extremism.
Examples of Agencies' Efforts to Address Islamic Extremism Agency Efforts
to address Islamic extremism
DOD Collection and All-Source Analysis by Air Force Office of Special
Investigations: collects, analyzes, and disseminates threat information on
Islamic extremism and provides threat notifications that could negatively
impact the protection of U.S. Air Force personnel and resources worldwide.
State Terrorist Exclusion List: places entities such as al Manar, the
media arm of Hezbollah, on the terrorist exclusion list to help curb the
propagation of Islamic extremism.
State and South Asia Regional Program: intends to address the root causes
of extremism
USAID through education, democracy, economic cooperation and development,
and conflict mitigation projects.
Sources: DOD, State, and USAID.
A number of sources have reported that Saudi private entities and
individuals, as well as sources from other countries, are allegedly
financing or supporting Islamic extremism. For example, in July 2005, a
Treasury official testified before Congress that Saudi Arabia-based and
-funded organizations remain a key source for the promotion of ideologies
used by terrorists and violent extremists around the world to justify
their agenda. However, according to the 9/11 Commission Report, the
Commission found no persuasive evidence that the Saudi government
knowingly supported al Qaeda. The agencies also told GAO that Islamic
extremism is being propagated by sources in countries other than Saudi
Arabia, such as Iran, Kuwait, and Syria. The agencies are still examining
Saudi Arabia's relationship, and that of other sources in other countries,
to Islamic extremism.
The Saudi government has announced and, in some cases, undertaken some
reform efforts to address Islamic extremism. For example, the government
is undertaking educational and religious reforms, including revising
textbooks and conducting a 3-year enlightenment program, to purge
extremism and intolerance from religious education. However, U.S. agencies
do not know the extent of the Saudi government's efforts to limit the
activities of Saudi sources that have allegedly propagated Islamic
extremism outside of Saudi Arabia.
United States Government Accountability Office
Contents
Letter
Results in Brief
Background
Agencies Are Implementing Efforts to Identify, Monitor, and
Counter Islamic Extremism
Various Sources Have Reported That Saudi Sources and Sources
from Other Countries Support and Fund Propagation of Islamic
Extremism
The Government of Saudi Arabia and U.S. Agencies Have Reported
Saudi Efforts to Combat Domestic Extremism, but Extent of
Saudi Arabia's International Efforts Is Not Known
Conclusions
Agency Comments
1
4 5
10
16
18 21 21
Appendix I Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Appendix II GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments
Related GAO Products
Figure
Figure 1: Key Areas of Islamic Extremist Activities Since 1992
Abbreviations
AFOSI Air Force Office of Special Investigations
DOD Department of Defense
MEPI Middle East Partnership Initiative
MWO Muslim World Outreach
PACOM Pacific Command
PCC Policy Coordination Committee
TEL Terrorist Exclusion List
UN United Nations
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
USCIRF U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom
This is a work of the U.S. government and is not subject to copyright
protection in the United States. It may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without further permission from GAO. However, because this
work may contain copyrighted images or other material, permission from the
copyright holder may be necessary if you wish to reproduce this material
separately.
United States Government Accountability Office Washington, DC 20548
September 16, 2005
The Honorable Susan M. Collins
Chairman
The Honorable Joseph I. Lieberman
Ranking Minority Member
Committee on Homeland Security and
Governmental Affairs United States Senate
The Honorable Tom Davis
Chairman
The Honorable Henry A. Waxman
Ranking Minority Member
Committee on Government Reform
House of Representatives
The Honorable Dan Burton
The Honorable Diane E. Watson
House of Representatives
U.S. government and other experts on the issue of Islamic extremism have
reported that Islamic extremism is on the rise and that the spread of
Islamic extremism is one of the major threats facing the United States.
Some U.S. officials and experts believe that Islamic extremism, rather
than
al Qaeda-the organization responsible for the attacks on the United
States on September 11, 2001-is the pre-eminent threat to U.S. interests.
The Defense Intelligence Agency and other experts agree that the rise in
Islamic extremism stems from various factors, including economic
stagnation; a disproportionate concentration of population in the
15- to 29-year-old range ("youth bulges"), especially in most Middle
Eastern countries; repressive and corrupt governments; and anti-Western
sentiments, particularly due to negative perceptions of the United States'
foreign policy. In addition, various sources alleged that Saudi Arabia is
one
source that has supported and funded the spread of Islamic extremism
globally. Moreover, according to a report by the 9/11 Commission,1 some
charitable organizations, such as the Saudi-based al Haramain Islamic
Foundation, have been exploited by extremists to further their goal of
violence against non-Muslims.2 Pursuant to the International Religious
Freedom Act of 1998,3 in September 2004 the Secretary of State designated
Saudi Arabia, for the first time, as a country of particular concern for
its severe violations of religious freedom within its borders.4 The
Department of State's 2004 International Religious Freedom Report to
Congress states that freedom of religion does not exist in Saudi Arabia
and that basic religious freedoms are denied to all but those who adhere
to Saudi Arabia's sanctioned version of Sunni Islam.
GAO was asked to answer the following questions:
1. What efforts are U.S. government agencies implementing to identify,
monitor, and counter support and funding for the global propagation of
Islamic extremism, particularly support and funding originating in Saudi
Arabia?5
2. What have U.S. agencies and other entities reported regarding support
and funding for the global propagation of Islamic extremism, particularly
any provided by Saudi sources (private entities,
1The 9/11 Commission-formally known as the National Commission on
Terrorist Attacks upon the United States-is an independent bipartisan
entity created by Congress in 2002 to prepare an account of the
circumstances surrounding the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks upon
the United States.
2Charitable giving, or zakat, is one of the five pillars of Islam. Zakat,
a form of tithe or charity payable for those in need, is an annual flat
rate of 2.5 percent of a Muslim's assessable capital. Zakat is broader and
more pervasive than Western ideas of charity, functioning as a form of
income tax, educational assistance, and foreign aid and a source of
political influence.
3Pub. L. 105-292.
4Countries so designated are subject to punitive actions, including
economic sanctions by the United States. This designation applies only to
violations in Saudi Arabia and does not address any alleged violations
related to Islamic extremism outside of Saudi Arabia.
5In this report, "propagation of Islamic extremism" refers to the spread
of an Islamic ideology that denies the legitimacy of nonbelievers and
practitioners of other forms of Islam and that explicitly promotes hatred,
intolerance, and violence that could lead to future terrorist activities
that threaten U.S. national security interests. We derived this definition
from various sources, including meetings with U.S. agency officials and
outside experts, as well as a review of the literature on Islamic
extremism and related issues.
individuals, and the government of Saudi Arabia), as well as sources in
other countries?6
3. What efforts has the government of Saudi Arabia undertaken to address
Islamic extremism?
For a more complete description of U.S. efforts to address the global
propagation of Islamic extremism, see our classified report.7 We obtained
information from intelligence agencies, the Departments of Defense (DOD),
State (State), and the Treasury (Treasury),8 and the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID). We focused on these agencies primarily
because of their missions and goals relating to areas such as traditional
diplomacy (exercising diplomatic relations with other countries and
international organizations), public diplomacy (engaging, informing, and
influencing key international audiences), intelligence collection,
counterterrorism (including terrorist financing), economic and
humanitarian assistance, and governance (including democracy and human
rights), as well as our initial review of information indicating that
these agencies may be involved in efforts to address Islamic extremism. To
determine what U.S. government agencies are doing to identify, monitor,
and counter sources and funding for Islamic extremism, we analyzed
relevant agency documents. To determine what U.S. agencies and other
entities have reported regarding support and funding for the propagation
of Islamic extremism provided by Saudi and other sources, we obtained and
analyzed documents from various U.S. agencies. To identify efforts that
the government of Saudi Arabia has taken to address Islamic extremism, we
reviewed public information on the government's Web site and U.S.
documents related to this issue. We interviewed officials from each of the
agencies we reviewed as well as numerous outside experts.
6Throughout the report, distinctions are made when referring to the Saudi
government, Saudi private entities, and Saudi individuals.
7We are preparing a classified report, to be subsequently released, with a
more complete description of U.S. efforts to identify, monitor, and
counter the global propagation of Islamic extremism.
8Officials from Treasury's Office of Foreign Asset Control informed us
that it identifies, monitors, and counters terrorism through the
designation of terrorists, terrorist groups, and their support structures,
including those that are Islamic extremist to the extent they engage in
terrorist activities or support. Once terrorists, terrorist groups, and
their support structures are identified, Treasury participates in the U.S.
government's process for determining the appropriate U.S. government
actions to apply. However, Treasury does not identify, monitor, or counter
the support and funding for the global propagation of Islamic extremism as
it relates to an ideology.
Information on agencies' efforts is incomplete because some of the
agencies stated they wanted to ensure the protection of their sources and
methods and therefore did not share such information. In addition, other
agencies, such as the National Security Agency and the National Security
Council, may also be undertaking efforts to address Islamic extremism. We
performed our work from June 2004 through July 2005 in accordance with
generally accepted government auditing standards. (See app. I for further
details on our scope and methodology.)
Results in Brief
The U.S. agencies we reviewed are implementing a variety of efforts to
identify, monitor, and counter support and funding for the global
propagation of Islamic extremism. Agencies' efforts focus on Saudi Arabia
but also attempt to address the propagation of Islamic extremism
worldwide, including diminishing the underlying conditions of extremism.
Agencies' efforts to identify, monitor, and counter sources and funding
focus primarily on counterintelligence, counterterrorism, traditional
diplomacy, force protection, public diplomacy, and economic and
humanitarian assistance. For example, DOD is implementing efforts to
monitor international terrorism that may threaten U.S. interests, as well
as provide humanitarian assistance and promote civic action programs to
"win hearts and minds" in areas vulnerable to Islamic extremism. In
addition, State and USAID are implementing efforts to counter Islamic
extremism, including the South Asia Regional Program, intended to diminish
the underlying conditions of extremism through education, democracy
building, economic cooperation and development, and conflict mitigation
projects.
A number of government and nongovernment sources reported that Saudi
private entities and individuals, as well as sources from other countries,
are allegedly financing or supporting Islamic extremism. For example, in
July 2005, a Treasury official testified before Congress that Saudi
Arabiabased and -funded organizations remain a key source for the
promotion of ideologies used by terrorists and violent extremists around
the world to justify their agenda. In addition, according to State's 2005
International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Saudi donors and
unregulated charities have been a major source of financing to extremist
and terrorist groups over the past 25 years. The 9/11 Commission reported
that despite numerous allegations of the government of Saudi Arabia's
involvement with al Qaeda, the commission has found no persuasive evidence
that the government as an institution or senior officials within the
government knowingly supported al Qaeda. The agencies we reviewed also
told us that the threat of the global propagation of Islamic extremism is
emerging not
only from Saudi sources but also from sources in other countries, such as
Iran, Kuwait, and Syria, as well as from indigenous groups within some
countries. U.S. agencies we reviewed are still examining Saudi Arabia's
relationship, and that of other sources in other countries, to Islamic
extremism.
The government of Saudi Arabia has publicly announced and, in some cases,
undertaken some reform efforts to address Islamic extremism; however, U.S.
agencies do not know the extent of the Saudi government's efforts to limit
the activities of Saudi sources that have allegedly propagated Islamic
extremism outside of Saudi Arabia. First, the government is implementing
educational and religious reforms, including revising textbooks and
conducting a 3-year enlightenment program to purge extremism and
intolerance from religious education. However, as of July 2005, agency
officials did not know if the government of Saudi Arabia had taken steps
to ensure that Saudi-funded curricula or religious activities in other
countries do not propagate extremism. Second, the government is
undertaking legal, regulatory, and institutional reforms to address
vulnerabilities in Saudi financial and charitable systems. For example,
according to the government of Saudi Arabia, and State and Treasury
officials, Saudi Arabia is undertaking a number of charity reforms,
including requiring all private Saudi donations marked for international
distribution to flow through a new National Commission for Relief and
Charity Work Abroad. However, as of July 2005, this commission was not yet
fully operational, according to Treasury. In addition, in 2004, Saudi
Arabia and the United States announced that they had jointly designated as
terrorist financiers nine branch offices of the al Haramain Islamic
Foundation under United Nations Security Resolution 1267. According to
State, the government of Saudi Arabia also announced its intentions to
close al Haramain Islamic Foundation, but in May 2005, a Treasury official
told us it was unclear whether the government of Saudi Arabia had
implemented its plans. State officials also told us that the government of
Saudi Arabia had undertaken some political reforms, including establishing
a human rights association to implement human rights charters and a center
for national dialogue to facilitate discussion of issues such as education
and extremism.
Background U.S. government and nongovernment experts use different terms
to refer to Islamic extremism. They agree that no single factor accounts
for the rise of Islamic extremism in the Muslim world and that Islamic
extremism or its rise stems from underlying factors such as political and
economic failure resulting in repressive and corrupt governments; external
funding
and propagation of fundamentalism and extremism, particularly by Saudi
sources; anti-Westernism, with the United States seen as the primary
source; the lack of a forum for moderate Muslim voices; and the emergence
of the new mass media.
Various government and nongovernment sources report that Saudi funding and
export of a particular version of Islam that predominates in Saudi Arabia
has had the effect, whether intended or not, of promoting the growth of
religious extremism globally. In the 1960s, funding of religious outreach
activities overseas became a central feature of Saudi policy through
organizations such as the Muslim World League and the World Assembly of
Muslim Youth. Activities of these organizations include providing medicine
and food and building mosques, schools, and shelters. The Saudi donations
to support its aid efforts and the spread of its religious ideology come
from public and private sources and are channeled through a variety of
foundations and middlemen to recipients around the world. Saudi Arabia's
multibillion-dollar petroleum industry, although largely owned by the
government, has fostered the creation of large private fortunes, enabling
many wealthy Saudis to sponsor charities and educational foundations whose
operations extend to many countries. U.S. government and other expert
reports have linked some Saudi donations to the global propagation of
religious intolerance, hatred of Western values, and support to terrorist
activities. For example, Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda have Saudi roots and
have accumulated millions of dollars using legitimate charities,
nongovernmental organizations, and mosques, as well as businesses such as
banks and other financial institutions, to help raise and move their
funds.9 However, experts agree that it is difficult to determine the
extent to which donors are aware of the ultimate disposition of the funds
provided. Although the government of Saudi Arabia has undertaken efforts
to better monitor Saudi donations, the problem of controlling such funds
is problematic because much of Saudi's private capital is held and
invested outside Saudi Arabia and is beyond the government's control. In
addition, the spread of Islamic extremism is a global problem and Saudi
Arabia is but one source of funding and support for Islamic extremism.
9According to the Institute for the Analysis of Global Security, Osama bin
Laden's wealth came from his family's construction company, which made its
fortune from government contracts financed by oil money. The government of
Saudi Arabia put strict controls on Osama bin Laden's sources of funding
after 1994.
According to a 2004 National Intelligence Council report, Mapping the
Global Future, radical Islamists have aided violent groups in countries
such as Afghanistan, Egypt, Iran, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia and are based
and received militant training or experience in other countries such as
China, India, Mali, Spain, Russia, and Turkey. Figure 1 shows key areas of
extremist Islamic activities since 1992.
North African countries face enormous human development deficits,
including limited political and personal freedoms and low economic growth.
According to USAID, its research and work in the field also find that
terrorism will continue to flourish as long as weak or predatory states
fail to guarantee security for their citizens, provide access to basic
services, and address the issue of political exclusion. Because of concern
that these issues could sharpen extremism, the U.S. government has shown a
growing interest in improving socioeconomic and political conditions in
the region. For example, in December 2002, the U.S. Department of State
announced the establishment of the Middle East Partnership Initiative
(MEPI) as a Presidential initiative to support the administration's policy
of promoting democracy in the Middle East and North Africa.
U.S. officials and other experts believe that some U.S. policies have
contributed to the increased threat of Islamic extremism against the
United States. The 9/11 Commission report of July 2004 stated that
perceptions of the United States' foreign policies as anti-Arab,
anti-Muslim, and pro-Israel have contributed to the rise in extremist
rhetoric against the United States. According to the Council on Foreign
Relations, extremists have targeted the United States because of a belief
that the United States supports authoritarian governments in the Middle
East while promoting democracy elsewhere. These negative perceptions of
the United States further stem from issues such as U.S. support for Israel
and the U.S. military presence in Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, and Iraq, as
well as from other U.S. foreign policy issues related to, for example, the
Afghan civil war, Gulf War of 1991, global war on terrorism, and Iraq War.
Both Pew and Zogby surveys have revealed that anti-American sentiment
among the Muslim population worldwide seems to be growing.
U.S. agency efforts to identify, monitor, and counter the global
propagation of Islamic extremism generally emanate from various
strategies, including the National Security Strategy, National Defense
Strategy, National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, and State Department
and USAID Joint Strategic Plan for Fiscal Years 2004-2009. For example,
one of the U.S. government's objectives stated in the National Strategy
for Combating Terrorism is to "win the war of ideas," including reversing
the spread of extremist ideology. In addition, these efforts are often
included within broader activities, such as intelligence collection,
traditional diplomacy, conflict prevention, public diplomacy, governance,
and the use of instruments of development to diminish the underlying
causes of extremism.
Agencies Are Implementing Efforts to Identify, Monitor, and Counter Islamic
Extremism
The U.S. agencies we reviewed are implementing a variety of efforts to
identify, monitor, and counter support and funding for the global
propagation of Islamic extremism. Agencies' efforts include Saudi Arabia
but also attempt to address the propagation of Islamic extremism
worldwide.10 Agencies' efforts to identify, monitor, and counter sources
and funding for the global propagation of Islamic extremism focus
primarily on counterintelligence, force protection, traditional diplomacy,
counterterrorism, public diplomacy, governance, and economic and
humanitarian assistance.
Agencies Are Implementing Efforts to Identify and Monitor Extremism
DOD
State
Several of the U.S. agencies we reviewed are implementing a variety of
efforts to identify and monitor the global propagation of Islamic
extremism. Examples of these efforts include the following:
DOD has implemented several efforts to identify and monitor the threat of
Islamic extremism, including tracking facilitators and terrorist
financing, as part of its counterterrorism force protection efforts. For
example, the Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI)
Collections and All-Source Analysis effort was implemented to collect,
analyze, and disseminate threat information on Islamic extremism as part
of its counterintelligence effort.11 The purpose of this effort is to
increase the situational awareness of senior U.S. Air Force leaders and
field commanders. According to AFOSI, it gathers threat information at
assigned locations, synthesizes information from all available sources and
provides timely and reliable notifications of threats that could
negatively impact the protection of U.S. Air Force personnel and resources
worldwide.
State monitors and reports on incidents and patterns of governmental and
societal discrimination, harassment, and abuse that are primarily or
partly motivated by Islamic extremism. For example, State's annual
International Religious Freedom Report and Country Reports on Human Rights
Practices also cite incidents and patterns of governmental and societal
discrimination, harassment, and abuse when they are primarily or
10Most of the agencies' efforts are classified and are described in our
classified report.
11According to AFOSI, Iran's Islamic Revolution in 1979 was a key event
that marked the beginning of AFOSI's interest in Islamic extremism.
partly motivated by Islamic extremism. State also issues an annual report
on terrorist activities, including terrorist acts that may have been
motivated by Islamic extremism.
Agencies Are Implementing Efforts to Counter Islamic Extremism and, with
Other Experts, Have Identified Particular Areas of Focus
DOD
State and USAID
U.S. agencies are implementing a variety of efforts to counter the global
propagation of Islamic extremism. In addition, some agencies and outside
experts have conducted studies identifying particular areas of focus that
could address Islamic extremism. Many of these areas of focus have
recurring themes and are similar in nature, and some are being implemented
by U.S. agencies.
DOD's Pacific Command (PACOM) has provided logistical support for the U.S.
government's humanitarian assistance and civic action programs in
Southeast Asia. According to PACOM, apart from having a general objective
of relieving human suffering, the programs also aim to create a better
view of the United States, particularly in places where negative
perceptions of the United States are widespread. By doing so, these
programs also contribute to the overall public diplomacy campaign to "win
the hearts and minds" of the Muslim world.
State and USAID are implementing several efforts, including the Middle
East Partnership Initiative (MEPI), Muslim World Outreach (MWO), and the
South Asia Regional Program, to address the root causes of extremism. MEPI
seeks to expand political participation and increase the economic and
educational opportunities available to the people of the Middle East and
North Africa.12 MWO includes a Policy Coordination Committee (PCC),
comprising representatives from State and USAID; the Departments of
Commerce, Defense, Homeland Security, and Justice; the National Security
Council; the Broadcasting Board of Governors; and other agencies. MWO/PCC
was formed in July 2004 with the objective of encouraging informed
dialogue with Muslim populations and thereby diffusing some of the
tensions that might trigger terrorism. While some MWO/PCC efforts include
Saudi Arabia, they also target Muslims around the world. The South Asia
Regional Program is intended to address the
12For further information on MEPI, see GAO, Foreign Assistance: Middle
East Partnership Initiative Offers Tools for Supporting Reform, but
Project Monitoring Needs Improvement, GAO-05-711 (Washington, D.C.: Aug.
8, 2005).
underlying conditions that facilitate extremism through education,
democracy, economic cooperation and development, and conflict mitigation
projects.
In addition, USAID implements some programs that seek to provide an
alternative to political expression through extremism. Some of these
programs include, among other things, providing former combatants with job
skills to help reintegrate them into their communities, increasing small
business loan services, and expanding banking and other systems to help
businesses thrive. For example, USAID works with the Philippine government
to strengthen the foundation for peace in Mindanao, where Muslim
extremists have been engaged in conflict. In addition, in the West Bank
and Gaza, USAID supports political stability and democratic governance
through dynamic programs that bolster critical political processes such as
elections, lay the foundations for the rule of law and a viable justice
system, and promote a robust civil society.
As part of its effort to combat terrorism, State has designated the media
arm of Hezbollah, al Manar, on the terrorist exclusion list13 to help curb
the propagation of Islamic extremism. State has also worked with other
governments to try to ensure fairer and more accurate reporting on other
Arabic language news outlets and to minimize their use as a vehicle for
propagating extremist messages.
According to USAID, it has published three parts of a four-part series of
studies on the Muslim world to better understand the root causes of
extremism and the dynamics in different regions. Studies on education,
economic growth, and governance are finished. A fourth on philanthropy is
near completion. Each study contains recommendations for USAID action. The
first study was issued in June 2003 and contains recommendations for
better support of the educational needs of the Muslim world.14 This study
was conducted by the Center for Development Information and Evaluation in
USAID's Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination, which examined the
strengths and weaknesses of secular
13According to State, the Terrorist Exclusion List (TEL) authorizes the
Secretary of State, in consultation with or upon request of the Attorney
General, to designate terrorist organizations for immigration purposes. A
TEL designation bolsters homeland security efforts by facilitating the
U.S. government's ability to exclude aliens associated with entities on
the TEL from entering the United States.
14USAID Bureau for Policy and Program Coordination, "Strengthening
Education in the Muslim World," issue paper no. 2 (Washington, D.C.,
2003).
DOD, State, and USAID
Other Experts
and Islamic educational systems in 12 Muslim countries. According to USAID
staff, USAID missions in the Muslim world have used this report widely in
planning their programs-for example, to include Islamic education in the
Nigeria Mission's new Country Strategic Plan for 20042009. The study found
that the best educational strategies in Muslim countries encourage both
public (secular) and moderate-Islamic school systems to complement each
other to reach all learners with enriched content. The study also found
that, in some countries, public schools are the preferred educational
choice of most parents, as long as they are affordable. In these
countries, especially where there is concern about extremism being
fostered in some Islamic schools, concentrating on making public schools
more affordable for poor parents and increasing the number of schools in
rural areas are a reasonable strategy. In addition, for the public
schools, USAID recommends increasing the number of schoolreadiness
programs, establishing a system of incentives to attract and retain more
qualified teachers, and encouraging greater teacher commitment. USAID also
said that for Islamic schools, there is a need to strengthen the quality
of the secular education they provide and to encourage moderate religious
teachings.
One objective of the National Strategy for Combating Terrorism is
diminishing the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit by
enlisting the international community to focus its efforts and resources
on the areas most at risk. The Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Initiative is
one example of a U.S. government multiagency effort involving USAID and
the Departments of Defense and State that seeks, among other goals, to
strengthen regional counterterrorism capabilities and promote democratic
governance and human rights in the Sahel region of Africa.15 According to
State, the Sahel region, due to its vast, low density geography, nomadic
populations, and porous borders, is potentially vulnerable to Islamist
terrorist groups. The initiative includes development assistance and
expanded public diplomacy campaigns.
Several other nongovernment and government experts have also conducted
studies to identify areas of focus that could address the global
propagation of Islamic extremism.
15The Sahel includes parts of Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Mali, Mauritania,
Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sudan.
Djerejian Report
A 2003 report, Changing Minds, Winning Peace-also known as the Djerejian
Report (for diplomat Edward Djerejian)-addresses U.S. efforts to
communicate with audiences in the Arab and Muslim world.16 Compiled at the
request of U.S. lawmakers, in part to address the root causes of Islamic
extremism, the Djerejian Report criticizes the absence of a U.S. voice in
public discourse in the Muslim world. The report offers a number of
recommendations to confront the problem and calls for greater human and
financial resources to be channeled into engaging the Arab and Muslim
world. The report argues that the United States needs to improve its
ability to address the people of the region in their own languages,
particularly focusing on the Internet and other communication
technologies. In response to the report, State reinvigorated an
interagency Policy Coordinating Committee (PCC), concentrating initially
on Muslim outreach.
9/11 Commission
The 9/11 Commission's July 2004 report contained various recommendations
for reforming areas of U.S. public diplomacy. These recommendations
included increasing resources for satellite television and radio outreach
to Muslim populations (e.g., broadcasting efforts in Afghanistan and
Iran); rebuilding scholarship, exchange, and library programs to reach out
to youths; supporting a new International Youth Opportunity Fund; and
measuring results from these endeavors.
RAND Corporation
In 2004, the RAND Corporation published the results of a study17 that
built on previous RAND work on counterterrorism. RAND's study had several
purposes: (1) to develop a typology of ideological tendencies in the
different regions of the Muslim world to identify the sectors with which
the United States can find common ground in promoting democracy and
stability and countering the influence of extremist and violent groups;
(2) to identify the factors that produce religious extremism and violence;
(3)
16This report was prepared by the Advisory Group on Public Diplomacy for
the Arab and Muslim world and was submitted to the Committee on
Appropriations, House of Representatives.
17RAND, The Muslim World after 9/11 (Arlington, Virginia, 2004).
to identify key divisions and fault lines among sectarian, ethnic,
regional, and national groups and to assess how these divisions generate
challenges and opportunities for the United States; and (4) to identify
possible strategies and political and military options to help the United
States meet challenges and exploit opportunities presented by changed
conditions in the Muslim world. According to RAND, the outcome of the "war
of ideas" under way throughout the Muslim world is likely to have great
consequences for U.S. interests in the region, but it is also the most
difficult for the United States to influence. RAND suggested a number of
social, political, and military options that the United States could focus
on to respond to these challenges and opportunities:
o promote the creation of moderate networks to counter radical messages;
o disrupt radical networks and deny resources to extremists;
o foster an education system that is relevant to the modern world and
that produces graduates who can find productive jobs in the global
economy;
o foster madrassa (religious schools) and promote mosque reforms;
o expand economic opportunities;
o support Islam within civil society;
o balance the requirements of the war on terrorism and of stability and
democracy in moderate Muslim countries;
o seek to engage Muslim diasporas and Islamists in mainstream politics;
o rebuild close military-to-military relations with key countries; and
o build appropriate military capabilities.
Information on the extent of U.S. agencies' efforts to identify, monitor,
and counter the sources and funding of Islamic extremism was complicated
by the following factors:
o Interviews and documents revealed that U.S. government and
nongovernment sources use different terms to refer to a form of Islam that
promotes hatred, intolerance, and, in some cases, violence, fueling
terrorism and creating threats to U.S. interests and security. These terms
include "Islamic extremism," "militant Islam," "radicalism,"
"fundamentalism," "jihadism," "Wahhabism," and "Salafism." For example,
DIA defines an "Islamic extremist" as "any individual or group using Islam
to justify violence or terrorist acts," whereas the National Intelligence
Council's report, Mapping the Global Future, defines "Muslim extremists"
as Islamic activists who are committed to restructuring political society
in accordance with their vision of Islamic law and are willing to use
violence. U.S. agencies are continually refining their respective
definitions of Islamic extremism as they acquire more information on the
identifiers, motives, and sources of funding and support of Islamic
extremism.
o The agencies we reviewed do not disaggregate some of their activities
to address Islamic extremism from broader efforts or goals, such as force
protection, counterterrorism, and public diplomacy; therefore, it was
difficult to obtain data regarding funding and staff for specific efforts.
o The agencies do not distinguish between efforts or programs intended
to target Islamic extremism indigenous to a country and those intended to
target outside influences, such as Saudi Arabia. Thus, our reporting does
not differentiate between agency efforts addressing internal sources of
support and agency efforts addressing external sources of support; rather,
we report on efforts to address Islamic extremism globally.
Various Sources Have Reported That Saudi Sources and Sources from Other
Countries Support and Fund Propagation of Islamic Extremism
A number of sources have reported that Saudi private entities and
individuals,18 as well as sources from other countries, are allegedly
financing or supporting Islamic extremism. However, U.S. agencies are
still examining Saudi Arabia's relationship, and that of other sources in
other countries, to Islamic extremism. For example, in July 2005, a
Treasury official testified before Congress that Saudi Arabia-based and
funded organizations remain a key source for the promotion of ideologies
used by terrorists and violent extremists around the world to justify
their agenda. In addition, according to State's 2005 International
Narcotics Control Strategy Report, Saudi donors and unregulated charities
have been a major source of financing to extremist and terrorist groups
over the past 25 years. In July 2003, a former State Department official
testified before Congress that a Saudi-based charity, al Haramain Islamic
18U.S. government officials and outside experts cautioned that it is
important to distinguish among the Saudi government, Saudi private
entities (such as charities and nongovernmental agencies), and Saudi
individuals when discussing allegations of Islamic extremism. However, the
distinction between the government's support and funding versus that
provided by entities and individuals, especially in the case of Saudi
charities' alleged activities, is not always clear.
Foundation, had allegedly financed assistance to the Egyptian terrorist
group Gamma al Islamia. In May 2004, the same former State official also
testified that some half dozen of the most visible charities, including
two of Saudi Arabia's largest, the International Islamic Relief
Organization and the World Muslim League, have been linked to supporting
Islamic terrorist organizations globally. In addition, a former Treasury
official identified Wa'el Hamza Julaidan as a senior figure in the Saudi
charitable community who provided financial and other support to several
terrorist groups affiliated with al Qaeda operating primarily in the
Balkans. Moreover, the 9/11 Commission report states that al Qaeda raised
money in Saudi Arabia directly from individuals and through charities.
According to the 9/11 Commission report, despite numerous allegations
about the government of Saudi Arabia's involvement with al Qaeda, the
commission found no persuasive evidence that the government of Saudi
Arabia as an institution, or senior officials within the government of
Saudi Arabia, knowingly supported al Qaeda. The agencies we reviewed also
told us that the threat of the global propagation of Islamic extremism is
emerging not only from Saudi sources but also from sources in other
countries, such as Iran, Kuwait, and Syria, as well as from indigenous
groups within some countries.19 A current DOD official and a former
Treasury official told us that Iran currently poses a larger threat in
this regard than does Saudi Arabia. In addition, indigenous groups have
been a source of support for Islamic extremism. For example, the State
Department terrorist list includes the Filipino group Abu Sayyaf,
Algeria's Armed Islamic Group, the Palestinian group Hamas, the Kashmiri
militants of Harakat ul-Mujahedeen, Lebanon's Hezbollah, the Islamic
Movement of Uzbekistan, and Egyptian Islamic Jihad.
19Further details regarding Saudi Arabian sources' alleged link to Islamic
extremism can be found in our classified report.
The Government of Saudi Arabia and U.S. Agencies Have Reported Saudi Efforts
to Combat Domestic Extremism, but Extent of Saudi Arabia's International
Efforts Is Not Known
To address Islamic extremism, the government of Saudi Arabia has announced
and, in some cases, undertaken domestic educational and religious reforms;
legal, regulatory, and institutional reforms with the assistance of State
and Treasury; and political reforms. However, U.S. agencies do not know
the extent of the Saudi government's efforts to limit the activities of
Saudi individuals and entities that have allegedly propagated Islamic
extremism outside of Saudi Arabia.20
The Government of Saudi Arabia Is Implementing Domestic Educational and
Religious Reform Efforts
The government of Saudi Arabia is implementing domestic educational and
religious reform efforts, but as of July 2005, U.S. agency officials did
not know if the government of Saudi Arabia had taken steps to ensure that
Saudi-funded curricula or religious activities in other countries do not
propagate extremism. According to the 9/11 Commission report, although
Saudi Arabia has been a problematic ally in combating Islamic extremism,
since the May 12, 2003, bombing in Riyadh, the Saudi Arabian government
has taken steps to reduce official support for religious activities
overseas.
According to the government of Saudi Arabia, the Ministry of Islamic
Affairs is implementing a 3-year enlightenment program in Saudi Arabia to
educate imams, monitor mosques, and purge extremism and intolerance from
religious education. The U.S. Acting Assistant Secretary of State for Near
Eastern Affairs also said that the Saudi government's religious reform
initiative involves a multiyear program to educate imams and monitor
religious education. Treasury reported that the Ministry of Islamic
Affairs had begun vetting domestic clerics to eliminate the radical
extremists among them.
In February 2003, the Saudi government reported that it had recently
conducted an audit that determined that about 5 percent of school
textbooks and curriculum guides contained "possibly offensive language"
20The National Intelligence Reform Act (P.L. 108-458, Dec. 17, 2004)
contains a requirement (Section 7120 (b)) that the President submit to
designated congressional committees a strategy for collaboration with
Saudi Arabia, as part of a larger report on U.S. government activities to
implement the provisions of this act.
and that a program was in place to eliminate such material from schools.21
Speaking at the Counter-Terrorism International Conference, which Saudi
Arabia hosted in Riyadh in February 2005, the Saudi Minister of Foreign
Affairs said that "we tried to eliminate any flaws or what might hinder
progress and we tried to ensure that the new curriculum focuses more on
understanding, humanity, and tolerance." Further, the final communique of
the conference, known as the Riyadh Declaration, emphasized the importance
of enhancing the values of understanding, tolerance, and combating
ideology that calls for hatred, instigates violence, or justifies the
terrorist crimes that are denounced by all religions and laws. In March
2005, a representative for the government of Saudi Arabia reported that
the Saudi government is working to ensure that textbooks and teachers do
not espouse intolerance and extremism.
In an effort to educate imams and monitor mosques, according to the Saudi
government, when imams preach intolerance or hate toward others, they are
dismissed, punished, and retrained. In addition, the Saudi Arabian
government Web site contains "Public Statements by Senior Saudi Officials
Condemning Extremism and Promoting Moderation."22 For example, in
September 2003, the Saudi government reported that former King Fahd bin
Abdulaziz, in a message to the 19th session of the World Supreme Council
for Mosques, emphasized the important mission of the mosque in Islam,
which is to promote peace, tolerance, moderation, and wisdom.
State and Treasury Have Assisted the Government of Saudi Arabia with
Domestic Legal, Regulatory, and Institutional Reforms
State and Treasury reported that they have assisted the government of
Saudi Arabia with implementing domestic legal, regulatory, and
institutional reforms to address vulnerabilities in Saudi financial and
charitable systems since about 2001. In May 2003, the Saudi government
asked the al Haramain Islamic Foundation and all Saudi charities to
suspend activities outside Saudi Arabia until mechanisms are in place to
adequately monitor and control funds to prevent their misdirection for
illegal purposes. According to the government of Saudi Arabia, State, and
Treasury, in February 2004, the Saudi government created the new National
Commission for Relief and Charity Work Abroad, requiring all private Saudi
donations marked for international distribution to flow
21The Saudi government statement we reviewed did not elaborate on what is
meant by the phrase "possibly offensive language."
22See
http://www.saudiembassy.net/ReportLink/Extremism-Report-January-2005.pdf.
through this commission. However, as of July 2005, according to Treasury,
this commission had not yet become fully operational. In 2004, Saudi
Arabia and the United States announced that they had jointly designated as
terrorist financiers nine branch offices of the al Haramain Islamic
Foundation under United Nations (UN) Security Resolution 1267.23 In
addition, according to State, the Saudi government ordered the closure of
the al Haramain Islamic Foundation. However, in May 2005, a Treasury
official told us that it was unclear whether al Haramain's offices had
been closed.
In addition, according to the Saudi government, State, and Treasury,
banking reforms have included restrictions against cash disbursements from
charitable accounts, transfers from charitable accounts outside Saudi
Arabia, and cash contributions in local mosques and cash collection boxes
in shopping malls. In December 2002, to ensure that no funds reach
terrorists, the Saudi government also established a special financial
intelligence unit to track charitable giving. In July 2005, a State
official testifying before Congress stated that the department continues
to stress, in its discussions with the Saudis, the need for full
implementation of charity regulations, including a fully functioning
commission. The State official further stated that appropriate regulatory
oversight of organizations headquartered in Saudi Arabia, such as the
World Muslim League, the International Islamic Relief Organization, and
the World Assembly of Muslim Youth, is absolutely necessary.
The Government of Saudi Arabia Reports That It Is Implementing Some
Political Reforms
Finally, as reported in public documents from the Saudi Embassy Web site
and confirmed by State officials, the government of Saudi Arabia has
implemented some political reforms, including reforms related to Islamic
extremism. For example, the government established the National Human
Rights Association in March 2004 with a mandate to implement international
human rights charters. The government also established the King Abdulaziz
Center for National Dialogue in August 2003 to bring together leaders to
discuss issues such as education, extremism, the role of women, and
problems facing young people. According to the Saudi
23The UN Security Council 1267 Committee oversees states' implementation
of the sanctions imposed by the council on individuals and entities
belonging or related to the Taliban, Osama bin Laden, and the al Qaeda
organization and maintains a list of individuals and entities for this
purpose. The council obliged all states to freeze the assets; prevent the
entry into or transit through their territories; and prevent the direct or
indirect supply, sale, and transfer of arms and military equipment with
regard to the individuals or entities included on the list (S/Res/1267,
Para. 6, (1999)).
Conclusions
government, some of the national discussions on extremism include topics
such as "Characteristics of the Extremist Personality" and "The
Relationship between Ruler and Ruled, Rights and Duties of Citizens and
Their Relationship with Extremism." In addition, in early 2005, the Saudi
government held its first nationwide municipal elections, which, according
to State officials, is an important step toward democracy.
Recognizing that the global propagation of Islamic extremism represents a
growing threat to U.S. interests, U.S. agencies are implementing a variety
of efforts to identify, monitor, and counter its support and funding.
Agencies' efforts focus on Saudi Arabia but also attempt to address the
propagation of Islamic extremism worldwide. Despite the lack of a common
definition for Islamic extremism, several agencies are working to counter
it by addressing the underlying conditions that facilitate extremism-for
example, through programs aimed at humanitarian assistance, educational
reform, economic assistance, public diplomacy, and governance, including
the promotion of democracy and respect for human rights.
Determining the resources that agencies have committed for these efforts
is complicated by the fact that the agencies do not disaggregate data for
some of their activities addressing Islamic extremism from their broader
efforts or goals, such as force protection, counterterrorism, and public
diplomacy. However, since the attacks on the United States in September
2001, some agencies' officials told us they have been devoting increasing
resources to addressing the global propagation of Islamic extremism.
Moreover, since the May 2003 bombing in Riyadh, the government of Saudi
Arabia, with some assistance from the United States, has announced and, in
some cases, reportedly undertaken a number of reform efforts to address
Islamic extremism, including educational, religious, legal, and political
reforms.
Agency Comments The intelligence agencies, the Departments of Defense,
State, and the Treasury and the U.S. Agency for International Development
did not formally comment on this report but provided technical comments,
which we discussed with relevant officials and included in the report,
where appropriate.
We are providing copies of this report to the Secretaries of Defense,
State, and the Treasury and the Administrator for USAID. We will also make
copies available to others on request. In addition, this report will be
available at no cost on GAO's Web site at http://www.gao.gov.
Please contact me at (202) 512-4268 or [email protected] if you or your staff
have any questions about this report. Contact points for our Offices of
Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page
of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this report are
listed in appendix II.
Jess T. Ford
Director, International Affairs and Trade
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
We were asked to determine: (1) What efforts are U.S. government agencies
implementing to identify, monitor, and counter support and funding for the
global propagation of Islamic extremism, particularly support and funding
originating in Saudi Arabia?1 (2) What have U.S. agencies and other
entities reported regarding support and funding for the global propagation
of Islamic extremism, particularly any provided by Saudi sources (private
entities, individuals, and the government of Saudi Arabia), as well as
sources in other countries? (3) What efforts has the government of Saudi
Arabia undertaken to address Islamic extremism?2
Our work focused on the efforts of the intelligence agencies; the
Departments of Defense, State, and the Treasury; and the U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID). We focused on these agencies primarily
as a result of the agencies' missions and goals relating to areas such as
public diplomacy, intelligence collection, counterterrorism, terrorist
financing, and democracy and human rights, as well as our initial review
of information indicating that these agencies may be involved in efforts
to address Islamic extremism.
To determine what efforts U.S. government agencies are implementing to
identify, monitor, and counter support and funding for the global
propagation of Islamic extremism, particularly support and funding
originating in Saudi Arabia, we analyzed relevant agency documents,
including the National Security Strategy, National Defense Strategy,
National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, State Department and USAID
Joint Strategic Plan for Fiscal Years 2004-2009; reports of the Defense
Intelligence Agency; project documents; and specific country plans. We
also reviewed more than 100 State cables identified through a
State-performed search using specific search terms provided by GAO. Search
parameters included cables dating from 1998 through 2004; various related
terms (including "extremist ideology," "intolerance," "hatred,"
"Wahhabism," and "Saudi charities"); and countries such as Afghanistan,
1In this report, "propagation of Islamic extremism" refers to the spread
of an Islamic ideology that denies the legitimacy of nonbelievers and
practitioners of other forms of Islam and that explicitly promotes hatred,
intolerance, and violence that could lead to future terrorist activities
that threaten U.S. national security interests. We derived this definition
from various sources, including meetings with U.S. agency officials and
outside experts, as well as a review of the literature on Islamic
extremism and related issues.
2Throughout the report, distinctions are made when referring to the
government of Saudi Arabia, Saudi private entities, and Saudi individuals.
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Albania, Bangladesh, Bosnia, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mali, Nigeria,
Pakistan, the Philippines, and Saudi Arabia.
To determine what U.S. agencies and other entities have reported regarding
support and funding for the global propagation of Islamic extremism
provided by Saudi sources (private entities, individuals, and the
government of Saudi Arabia), as well as sources in other countries, we
interviewed agency officials and obtained and analyzed various documents.
Those documents include State's cables; State's Bureau for International
Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs' International Narcotics Control
Strategy Report; congressional testimonies from various departments such
as the Treasury and State; the National Intelligence Council's December
2004 report Mapping the Global Future; the RAND Corporation's report The
Muslim World after 9/11; and the U.S. Commission on International
Religious Freedom's 2003 Report on Saudi Arabia.
To determine what efforts the government of Saudi Arabia has undertaken to
address Islamic extremism, we reviewed public information on the Saudi
government's Web site and U.S. documents related to this issue.
We interviewed officials from the intelligence agencies; the Departments
of Defense, State, and the Treasury; and USAID. In addition, we
interviewed former U.S. agency officials and numerous outside experts,
including officials at the U.S. Commission on International Religious
Freedom, Georgetown University's Center for Muslim-Christian
Understanding, the RAND Corporation, the Middle East Media Research
Institute, the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, the Middle East
Institute, and the Muslim Chaplain at Georgetown University.
As part of our work, we traveled to Indonesia, the world's most populous
Muslim country. We interviewed numerous U.S. agency officials, as well as
officials of the government of Indonesia, including the Ministries of
Religion, Education, and Foreign Affairs. In addition, we met with
officials of Indonesia's two largest Islamic organizations-Nahdatul Ulama
and Muhammadiyah. In Indonesia, we also met with officials of the Asia
Foundation, Ford Foundation, International Crisis Group, Center for
Strategic and International Studies, International Center for Islam and
Pluralism, Liberal Islam Network, State Islamic University Syarif
Hidayatullah Jakarta, and Australian Embassy in Indonesia.
On the basis of our document reviews and interviews with agency officials,
we compiled information on U.S. government agency efforts to identify,
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
monitor, and counter the propagation of extremist Islam and then vetted
this information with the respective agencies to ensure accuracy.
Information on agencies' efforts is incomplete, because some of the
agencies stated that they wanted to ensure the protection of their sources
and methods and therefore did not share such information. In addition,
agencies other than those we reviewed, such as the National Security
Agency and the National Security Council, may also be undertaking efforts
to address Islamic extremism.
We performed our work from June 2004 through July 2005 in accordance with
generally accepted government auditing standards.
Appendix II: GAO Contact and Staff Acknowledgments
GAO Contact Jess T. Ford, (202) 512-4268
Staff In addition to the individual named above, Zina Merritt (Assistant
Director), Laurie Ekstrand, Barbara Shields, Simin Ho, Michelle
Cullen,Acknowledgments Bruce Kutnick, Mark Dowling, Philip Farah, Joel
Grossman, Joe Carney, and Reid Lowe made key contributions to this report.
Related GAO Products
Foreign Assistance: Middle East Partnership Initiative Offers Tools for
Supporting Reform, but Project Monitoring Needs Improvement.
GAO-05-711. Washington, D.C.: August 8, 2005.
U.S. Public Diplomacy: Interagency Coordination Efforts Hampered by the
Lack of a National Communication Strategy. GAO-05-323. Washington, D.C.:
April 4, 2005.
Homeland Security: Observations on the National Strategies Related to
Terrorism. GAO-04-1075T. Washington, D.C.: September 22, 2004.
U.S. Public Diplomacy: State Department and Broadcasting Board of
Governors Expand Post-9/11 Efforts but Challenges Remain. GAO-04-1061T.
Washington, D.C.: August 23, 2004.
Combating Terrorism: Federal Agencies Face Continuing Challenges in
Addressing Terrorist Financing and Money Laundering. GAO-04-501T.
Washington, D.C.: March 4, 2004.
U.S. Public Diplomacy: State Department and the Broadcasting Board of
Governors Expand Efforts in the Middle East but Face Significant
Challenges. GAO-04-435T. Washington, D.C.: February 10, 2004.
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