College Completion: Additional Efforts Could Help Education with
Its Completion Goals (23-MAY-03, GAO-03-568).
Because of concerns that not enough students who start college
are completing a bachelor's degree, we examined (1) the extent to
which students who enroll in a 4-year college complete a
bachelor's degree and identify the factors that affect
completion; (2) what states and 4-year colleges and universities
are doing to foster bachelor's degree completion; and (3) what
the Department of Education (Education) is doing to foster degree
completion.
-------------------------Indexing Terms-------------------------
REPORTNUM: GAO-03-568
ACCNO: A06980
TITLE: College Completion: Additional Efforts Could Help
Education with Its Completion Goals
DATE: 05/23/2003
SUBJECT: College students
Colleges and universities
Disadvantaged persons
Federal grants
Scholarship programs
Educational research
Comparative analysis
Strategic planning
******************************************************************
** This file contains an ASCII representation of the text of a **
** GAO Product. **
** **
** No attempt has been made to display graphic images, although **
** figure captions are reproduced. Tables are included, but **
** may not resemble those in the printed version. **
** **
** Please see the PDF (Portable Document Format) file, when **
** available, for a complete electronic file of the printed **
** document's contents. **
** **
******************************************************************
GAO-03-568
a
GAO United States General Accounting Office
Report to Congressional Requesters
May 2003 COLLEGE COMPLETION Additional Efforts Could Help Education with
Its Completion Goals
GAO- 03- 568
More than half of all students who enrolled in a 4- year college completed
a bachelor*s degree within 6 years. Students were less likely to complete
if neither parent had completed a degree, they were black, they worked 20
or more hours per week, or they transferred to another college. Students
had a greater likelihood of completing if they were continuously enrolled,
attended full- time, or had more rigorous high school curriculum. After
controlling for other factors, GAO found that disadvantaged students were
no less likely to complete a degree than other students. However, students
from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to attend college in the
first place.
Status of Students 6 Years after Beginning in 1995- 96 at a 4- Year
Institution
States are beginning to hold colleges accountable for retaining and
graduating their students, and Education has been discussing this with the
higher education community. Many states are publishing retention and
graduation rates for their colleges, and some have tied performance in
these areas to funding. According to Education, providing information on
colleges*
retention and graduation performance can help prospective students make
informed decisions. However, the measure used by Education may not fully
reflect an institution*s performance because institutional goals and
missions are not captured in the measure. In its strategic plan, Education
has identified goals to reduce gaps in college completion and increase
overall completion. It also has some evaluation and dissemination efforts
related to retention and completion, however, these efforts do not
systematically identify and disseminate promising retention and graduation
practices to
help states and institutions. Because of concerns that not
enough students who start college are completing a bachelor*s degree, we
examined (1) the extent to which students who enroll in a 4- year college
complete a bachelor*s degree and identify the factors that affect
completion; (2) what states and 4- year colleges and universities are
doing to foster bachelor*s degree completion; and (3) what the Department
of Education
(Education) is doing to foster degree completion. As Education moves
forward with its plan to hold colleges and universities accountable for
their performance in graduating their students, GAO recommends that the
Secretary of Education consider multiple measures that would help
account for the other goals of higher education and differences
among colleges and take steps to identify and disseminate information
about promising practices in the areas of retention and graduation.
Education agreed with GAO*s recommendations, but expressed concerns with
some aspects of the report. Among other things, Education was concerned
with the
scope of GAO*s review and said that, for example, GAO should have included
information on graduation rate trends; however, its suggested data would
not be comparable for these purposes.
COLLEGE COMPLETION
Additional Efforts Could Help Education With Its Completion Goals www.
gao. gov/ cgi- bin/ getrpt? GAO- 03- 568. To view the full report,
including the scope
and methodology, click on the link above. For more information, contact
Cornelia M. Ashby at (202) 512- 8403 or ashbyc@ gao. gov. Highlights of
GAO- 03- 568, a report to the
Ranking Minority Members, Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and
Pensions, United States Senate, and Committee on Education and the
Workforce, House of Representatives
May 2003
Page i GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Letter 1 Results in Brief 3
Background 5 Over Half of Students Enrolled in a 4- Year College or
University
Completed Their Degree within 6 Years, but Certain Factors Affect the
Likelihood of Doing So 10 States and 4- Year Institutions Had Various
Methods to Foster
Bachelor*s Degree Completion 14 Education Has Programs to Foster College
Completion, but No Systematic Efforts to Identify and Disseminate
Information on Promising Practices 26 Conclusions 31 Recommendations 32
Agency Comments 32 Appendix I Objectives, Scope, and Methodology 35
Appendix II Bachelor*s Degree Completion Status of 1995- 96 Beginning
Postsecondary Students 6 Years after Enrolling 39
Appendix III Results of Regression Models for Bachelor*s Degree Completion
within 6 Years of Beginning College 42
Appendix IV Comments from the Department of Education 45
Appendix V GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments 48 Contacts 48
Acknowledgments 48 Contents
Page ii GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Table
Table 1: Overview of Education Programs That Have College Completion as a
Primary Goal 28 Figures
Figure 1: Educational Attainment of Students Who Were in the Eighth Grade
in 1988, 12 Years Later, by Income, Race/ Ethnicity 5 Figure 2: Status of
Students 6 Years after Beginning in 1995- 96 at a
4- Year Institution 9 Figure 3: Bachelor*s Degree Completion Status for
Students Enrolled at 4- year Institutions, 6 Years after Beginning College
11 Figure 4: Bachelor*s Degree Completion by Number of Hours
Worked Per Week 13 Figure 5: Bachelor*s Degree Completion by Type of First
Institution Attended and Transfer Status 14
Abbreviations
BPS Beginning Postsecondary Students GEAR UP Gaining Early Awareness and
Readiness for Undergraduate
Programs GRS Graduation Rate Survey NPSAS: 96 National Postsecondary
Student Aid Study
This is a work of the U. S. Government and is not subject to copyright
protection in the United States. It may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without further permission from GAO. It may contain
copyrighted graphics, images or other materials. Permission from the
copyright holder may be necessary should you wish to reproduce copyrighted
materials separately from GAO*s product.
Page 1 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
May 23, 2003 The Honorable Edward M. Kennedy Ranking Minority Member
Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions United States Senate
The Honorable George Miller Ranking Minority Member Committee on Education
and the Workforce House of Representatives
A college degree is a key ingredient for success in the job market. Those
with postsecondary degrees on average earn more than those without such
degrees and bring important skills to the workplace. Completing college
can serve as a means for disadvantaged students 1 to improve their
economic and social circumstances. Beyond the societal benefits, the
federal government has additional interests in encouraging college
completion. Research indicates that those who stay in college and advance
toward a degree are less likely to default on a student loan* the federal
government provided student borrowers with $35 billion in new loans in
fiscal year 2001. 2 In addition to the investment the federal government
makes in higher education, states, parents, and students make substantial
investments. To help protect these investments, policymakers have begun to
focus on accountability of colleges and universities, especially regarding
college completion rates. The Department of Education (Education) has
begun to discuss this issue with the higher education community.
1 Disadvantaged students are identified by the socioeconomic diversity
index, which is based on three indicators: (1) family income as percentage
of 1994 federal poverty level, (2) highest education by either parent, and
(3) proportion of students in high school eligible for free/ reduced price
lunch.
2 These loans were provided through two major federal student loan
programs, the Federal Direct Loan Program and the Federal Family Education
Loan Program. Under the Direct Loan Program, students or their parents
borrow money directly from the federal
government through the schools the students attend. Under the Family
Education Loan Program, money is borrowed from private lenders such as
banks, and the federal government guarantees repayment if the borrowers
default.
United States General Accounting Office Washington, DC 20548
Page 2 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
Because of concerns that not enough students who start college are
completing a bachelor*s degree, you asked us to determine (1) the extent
to which students* including those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds*
who enroll in a 4- year college or university complete a
bachelor*s degree and the factors that affect bachelor*s degree
completion; (2) what states and 4- year colleges and universities are
doing to foster bachelor*s degree completion and what is known about the
effectiveness of these efforts; and (3) what Education is doing to foster
bachelor*s degree completion.
To determine the extent to which students complete bachelor*s degrees and
the factors that affect completion, we conducted a logistic regression
using data from Education*s 1995- 1996 Beginning Postsecondary Students
study, which tracked over a 6- year period the academic progress and
degree completion of individual students beginning with the time they
first enrolled in postsecondary study in 1995- 1996. We analyzed data for
those students who in 1995- 1996 were enrolled in a 4- year institution or
were enrolled at some other type of institution, but transferred to a 4-
year institution at some point during the 6- year period. As a result, our
analysis excludes other types of students, such as community college
students who did not transfer to a 4- year institution. To identify what
states and 4- year colleges and universities are doing to foster
bachelor*s degree completion, we conducted a survey of state higher
education executive officer agencies representing all 50 states, the
District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. 3 We received responses
representing 48 of the 52 jurisdictions (92 percent). We also interviewed
state officials and administrators at 11 public colleges and universities
in Florida, Maryland, Oregon, Texas, and Virginia. We selected these
states and institutions based on geographic dispersion and the variety of
efforts reported to us by experts and in the survey. To identify what
Education is doing to foster bachelor*s degree completion, we talked with
Education officials and reviewed program and planning documents. A more
detailed explanation of our methodology is included in appendix I. We
conducted our work between April 2002 and May 2003 in accordance with
generally accepted government auditing standards.
3 We used the membership list of the State Higher Education Executive
Officers, a nonprofit, national association that represents statewide
postsecondary education interests.
Page 3 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
More than half of all students who enroll in a 4- year college or
university complete a bachelor*s degree within 6 years of beginning
postsecondary education. On the basis of our analysis, select background
characteristics, work and college attendance patterns, as well as academic
preparation and performance are correlated with bachelor*s degree
completion. Specific factors associated with a lower likelihood of
completing a bachelor*s degree include coming from a family in which
neither parent had earned a bachelor*s degree, being black, working 20 or
more hours per week, or transferring to another institution. Students were
more likely to complete their degree work if they were continuously
enrolled during the 6- year period or attended full- time. The likelihood
of a student graduating within 6 years also increased as rigor of their
high school curriculum, high school grade point average, and first- year
college grade point average increased. After controlling for other
factors, we found that disadvantaged students were no less likely to
complete a bachelor*s degree than other
students. Notwithstanding this fact, students from disadvantaged
backgrounds are less likely to attend college in the first place.
States and 4- year colleges and universities are employing various methods
to foster bachelor*s degree completion, but information on the
effectiveness of these efforts is limited. Over two- thirds of the states
responding to our survey reported having at least one effort in place to
foster bachelor*s degree completion. Most of these efforts fell into three
categories: (1) increasing the number of students entering postsecondary
education; (2) helping colleges improve their performance in retaining and
graduating students; and (3) helping individual students remain in college
and encouraging timely completion for these students. For example, in an
attempt to increase the number of students entering college, Kentucky has
aligned high school graduation standards with college admissions standards
by creating a single high school curriculum for all students. Also, in an
effort to help students remain in college, seven states reported efforts
to facilitate transfer from one college to another. Officials in Florida
told us that establishing policies that help students transfer from
community colleges to 4- year institutions was important because the
community college system is considered the point of entry for most college
students in the state. States reported that almost half of these efforts
have been evaluated, but provided few specific evaluation results. As a
way to foster bachelor*s degree completion, 4- year colleges and
universities we visited were engaged in activities designed to improve the
learning experience for students by creating smaller learning communities
that foster greater connections to the institution, along with
strengthening support of students to promote academic success. For
example, some colleges have created residential learning opportunities for
students. Results in Brief
Page 4 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
These *living- learning* communities are operated through the residence
halls where students live together and take a class together. In some
cases, officials attributed increases in retention to their efforts.
Education fosters bachelor*s degree completion by making financial aid
available to students and providing support services for students who are
low- income, come from families in which neither parent has a bachelor*s
degree, or are disabled. Education administers the federal student aid
programs, primarily through grants and loans to help students finance
college. In September 2002, we reported that little information is
available on the relative effectiveness of federal grants and loans on
completion. Education also administers programs that provide support
services, such as tutoring, at the pre- college and college levels to help
ensure successful outcomes for students who are low- income, come from
families in which neither parent has earned a bachelor*s degree, or are
disabled. Information on the effectiveness of these programs in fostering
college completion is still being collected. Through its strategic plan,
Education has identified priorities for reducing gaps in college
completion among certain student populations and increasing completion
overall. Its strategic plan also identifies strengthening the
accountability of postsecondary institutions to ensure colleges are
graduating their students in a timely manner as a priority. According to
Education, providing prospective students with information on graduation
and retention rates to help them make informed choices about where to
attend college is one way to hold institutions accountable for their
performance. Education has some evaluation and dissemination efforts
related to retention and completion; however, it does not have a
systematic way to identify and share promising practices in these areas
with states and colleges that are looking for strategies to help them
better retain their students.
In this report, we make recommendations to the Secretary of Education to
(1) consider multiple measures in holding institutions accountable for
their performance in graduating their students and (2) identify and
disseminate promising practices in the areas of retention and graduation.
In written comments on a draft of this report, Education agreed with our
recommendations, but expressed concerns with some aspects of the report.
Among other things, Education had concerns with the scope of our review
and commented that, for example, we should have provided information on
trends in graduation rates; however, the studies it suggested we use are
not comparable and should not be used for these purposes. Education also
provided technical comments, which we incorporated where appropriate.
Page 5 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
Many factors affect why some students graduate from college and our review
would not be complete without first considering the extent to which
students with different characteristics advance to higher levels of
education. Many students will complete their education without ever having
enrolled in college. Figure 1 shows some of the differences in educational
participation and attainment for a group of students who were followed
over a 12- year period starting in the eighth grade.
Figure 1: Educational Attainment of Students Who Were in the Eighth Grade
in 1988, 12 Years Later, by Income, Race/ Ethnicity
Note: GAO analysis of Education*s National Educational Longitudinal Study
of 1988. Background
Page 6 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
We reported in February 2002 that low- income, black, and Hispanic
students complete high school at lower rates than other students. 4
Students from these groups who graduate from high school also enroll in
college at lower rates than their peers, even though the overall rate at
which students enter college directly from high school has been
increasing. According to research, factors such as family income and
parents* educational attainment influence students* expectations about
college. Low- income students and students from families in which neither
parent has earned a bachelor*s degree were less likely to expect to finish
college and ultimately enrolled at lower rates than other students.
Academic preparation was also cited as a factor affecting postsecondary
enrollment. Low- income, black, and Hispanic high school graduates were
less likely to be well prepared academically to attend a 4- year college.
Even among those who were qualified for college, however, low- income and
Hispanic students were less likely to take college entrance examinations
and apply for admission, two necessary steps for enrolling in a 4- year
institution.
There are a variety of postsecondary options for students after high
school. Over 15 million students were enrolled in some type of higher
education in the fall of 2000. Most students were enrolled in
degreegranting 2- year or 4- year institutions. 5 After considering their
academic qualifications, students can choose to apply to institutions with
varying levels of selectivity. Community colleges, for example, provide
postsecondary opportunities for students who might not have the
qualifications to start at most 4- year institutions. Additionally,
students may wish to choose an institution based on its mission. For
example, Minority Serving Institutions are recognized by statute, in part,
for their mission to educate minority students.
The institutions students attend have differing graduation rates.
Institutional graduation rates may vary based upon such factors as the
mission, selectivity, and type of institution. For example, institutions
that focus on providing postsecondary opportunities to disadvantaged
4 U. S. General Accounting Office, School Dropouts: Education Could Play a
Stronger Role in Identifying and Disseminating Promising Prevention
Strategies, GAO- 02- 240 (Washington, D. C.: Feb. 1, 2002). 5 About 2
percent of students were enrolled at nondegree- granting, Title IV-
eligible, postsecondary institutions. These included vocational and
technical programs designed to prepare students for specific careers.
Page 7 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
students* addressing Education*s goal of increasing participation in
higher education* may have lower graduation rates than institutions that
do not serve many disadvantaged students. To ensure that students and
their parents have some information about how colleges are performing with
respect to graduating their students, Congress passed the Campus Security
and Student Right- to- Know Act. 6 This act, as amended, requires that
institutions participating in any student financial assistance program
under Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965 disclose to current and
prospective students information about the graduation rates of first-
time, full- time undergraduate students. The law requires that
institutions report
the percentage of students who graduate or complete within 150 percent of
the normal program completion time. This would mean that 4- year
institutions would track groups of entering students over a 6- year
period, and 2- year institutions would track groups of entering students
over a 3- year period. While information collected as part of this act is
the principal federal measure available to hold institutions accountable
for their performance in graduating their students, there are currently no
federal sanctions or incentives associated with college graduation rates.
As part of discussions with the higher education community, Education has
held panel discussions with student- aid experts, state officials, and
business leaders, among other participants, about improving
accountability.
Four- year institutions calculate their graduation rate by determining the
proportion of first- time, full- time students who enroll in a given year
and have graduated from the same institution within a 6- year period. 7
Students who have not graduated from the institution where they first
enrolled by the end of the 6- year period are classified as not having
finished a degree, even if they transferred and completed a degree at
another institution. Data from Education*s 1995- 96 Beginning
Postsecondary Students (BPS) study* a longitudinal study 8 which followed
the retention and degree completion of students from the time they
enrolled in any postsecondary
6 Pub. L. No. 101- 542, Nov. 8, 1990. 7 For the purpose of calculating a
graduation rate, an institution may exclude from the original cohort
students who have left school to serve in the military; to serve on
official church missions; to serve with a foreign aid service of the
federal government, such as the Peace Corps; are totally and permanently
disabled; or are deceased.
8 The first BPS study tracked the educational attainment of a group of
students who first enrolled in postsecondary education in 1989- 90. The
next scheduled BPS study will follow students who first enroll in
postsecondary education in the 2003- 04 school year.
Page 8 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
institution over a 6- year period* illustrates how graduation rates are
understated due to this treatment of transfer students. Figure 2 shows the
completion status of the nearly 1.4 million students who started their
postsecondary education at a 4- year institution in 1995- 96 (no transfers
into 4- year institutions from 2- year institutions or certificate
programs were included). Over one- quarter of the students who started at
a 4- year
institution transferred from their first institution to another
institution. If only those who completed a bachelor*s degree at the first
institution of attendance are considered, the graduation rate is 51
percent. However, an additional 8 percent transferred to another
institution and completed a
bachelor*s degree within the 6- year period.
Page 9 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion
Figure 2: Status of Students 6 Years after Beginning in 1995- 96 at a 4-
Year Institution
Note: GAO analysis of BPS 1995- 96 data.
Page 10 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Over half of students who enrolled
in a 4- year college or university completed a bachelor*s degree within 6
years of beginning postsecondary
education, according to our analysis of BPS data. However, background
characteristics such as being black or a first- generation college student
9 were associated with lower rates of completion. Whereas students were
more likely to complete a bachelor*s degree within 6 years if, among other
things, they had a more rigorous curriculum in high school, attended
college full- time, were continuously enrolled, worked less than 20 hours
per week, or did not transfer. After controlling for other factors, we
found that disadvantaged students were no less likely to complete a
bachelor*s degree than other students. Notwithstanding this fact, as we
have noted, students from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to
attend college in the first place.
For various reasons, not all students who enroll in college will
ultimately attain a degree. Based on Education*s 1995- 96 BPS study, 52
percent of the estimated 1.8 million students who enrolled in a 4- year
institution at some
point during the subsequent 6- year period (including approximately
450,000 students who transferred from a less than 4- year institution 10 )
completed their bachelor*s degree. 11 Of the 48 percent of students who
had not attained a bachelor*s degree, nearly 14 percent were still
enrolled in a 4- year institution at the end of the 6- year period, as
shown in figure 3. See appendix II for completion rates by characteristics
and appendix III for descriptions of the variables used in our analysis
and a discussion of their levels of significance.
9 First- generation college students come from families in which neither
parent has earned a bachelor*s degree. 10 These institutions include 2-
year schools and certificate programs at less than 2- year schools. 11
Students in our population are counted as bachelor*s degree completers if
they had
attained their degree by the end of the 6- year study. Our analysis
included students enrolled in public or private, not for profit, 4- year
institutions. Over Half of Students
Enrolled in a 4- Year College or University Completed Their Degree within
6 Years, but Certain Factors Affect the Likelihood of Doing So
Page 11 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Figure 3: Bachelor*s Degree
Completion Status for Students Enrolled at 4- year Institutions, 6 Years
after Beginning College
Note: GAO analysis of Education*s BPS 1995- 96 data.
Of the background characteristics we analyzed, being black or a
firstgeneration college student was associated with lower completion
rates. Students with either of these characteristics were about a third
less likely to complete college as students without these characteristics.
The completion rate for black students was 38 percent compared with 55
percent for both white and Asian students. As for students who had at
least one parent with a bachelor*s degree, their rate of completion was 59
percent compared with 43 percent for students who were firstgeneration
college students. Being a first- generation student affected completion
regardless of race. For example, first- generation white students were no
more likely to complete college than first- generation black students.
Students who had a more rigorous high school curriculum and achieved
better grades in high school and during the first year of college were
more likely to complete college. 12 About 80 percent of students who had
the
12 BPS includes five categories for curriculum rigor, which are based on
the number and level of courses completed. The *highly rigorous* category
includes 4 years each of English and math; 3 years each of foreign
language, science, and social science; 1 advanced placement or honors
class or 1 advance placement test score in any subject; and student had
taken pre- calculus, biology, chemistry, and physics.
14% Did not complete bachelor's degree; still enrolled in a 4- year
institution
34% Did not complete bachelor's degree; not enrolled in a 4- year
institution
52%
Completed bachelor's degree Source: Department of Education.
Page 12 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion most rigorous high school
curriculum completed college compared with 47 percent who had the least
rigorous curriculum. Additionally, the higher
the grades a student earned both in high school and in the first- year of
college, the higher the likelihood of completion. Regarding first- year
college grade point average, about 71 percent of students who earned
higher than a 3.0 had completed college compared with 51 percent who
earned between a 2.0 and 3.0. Students were more than twice as likely to
complete college for every one- point increase in first- year college
grade
point average. Decisions students make regarding attendance, participation
in collegiate clubs, and work had varying effects on completion. Students
who were continuously enrolled during their studies were more than 6 times
as likely to graduate than students who experienced one or more breaks
from enrollment 13 Additionally, students who attended college full- time
were more than twice as likely to graduate as students who attended part-
time or some combination of part- time and full- time, all other factors
equal. Students who reported participating in collegiate clubs were one
and onehalf times as likely to graduate as students who did not
participate. Less than half of students reported such participation.
Students who worked 20 or more hours per week were less likely to complete
a bachelor*s degree than students who did not work. However, working less
than 20 hours per week was not associated with lower completion rates.
Figure 4 illustrates bachelor*s degree completion rates by the number of
hours worked per week.
13 A *break* includes not being enrolled for more than 4 months at a time.
Page 13 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Figure 4: Bachelor*s Degree
Completion by Number of Hours Worked Per Week
Note: GAO analysis of Education*s BPS 1995- 96 data.
Transferring between institutions was also associated with a lower
likelihood of completion in that students who transferred were a little
less than half as likely to complete as students who did not. About 69
percent of students who started at a 4- year institution and did not
transfer attained a bachelor*s degree compared with 47 percent of students
who started at a
4- year institution and transferred to another 4- year institution. The
rate of completion for students who started at a 2- year institution and
transferred to a 4- year institution was roughly half of those who started
at a 4- year institution and did not transfer. 14 Figure 5 illustrates the
bachelor*s degree completion rate after 6 years according to type of
institution first attended and transfer status.
14 Since our population includes only 2- year students who transferred, we
tested to see if the effect of transferring was instead an effect of
starting at a 2- year institution. We found that it is transferring that
accounts for the variance in completion, not type of first institution.
Source: Department of Education.
Worked 10- 19 hours per week Worked 20- 31 hours per week
Worked 32 hours or more per week Did not work orworked less than10 hours
per week
Percent who completed bachelor's degree 0 20
40 60
80
Page 14 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Figure 5: Bachelor*s Degree
Completion by Type of First Institution Attended and Transfer Status Note:
GAO analysis of Education*s BPS 1995- 96 data.
After controlling for other factors, we found that disadvantaged students
were no less likely to complete a bachelor*s degree than other students.
However, as we have noted, students from disadvantaged backgrounds are
less likely to attend college in the first place.
While states and 4- year colleges and universities are employing various
methods to foster bachelor*s degree completion, information on the
effectiveness of these efforts is limited. Over two- thirds of the states
responding to our survey reported having at least one effort in place to
foster bachelor*s degree completion. Half the states indicated additional
actions they would like to take to foster bachelor*s degree completion,
but cited state budget constraints as a factor preventing them from moving
forward. As a way to foster bachelor*s degree completion, 4- year colleges
and universities we visited were engaged in activities designed to improve
the learning experience for students and strengthen support of students.
In States and 4- Year
Institutions Had Various Methods to Foster Bachelor*s Degree Completion
Source: Department of Education.
Started at a 4- yearand transferred to a 4- year Started at a 2- yearand
transferred to a 4- year Started at a 4- yearand did not transfer
Percent who completed bachelor's degree 0 20
40 60
80
Page 15 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion some cases, officials attributed
increases in retention to their efforts to foster completion.
Thirty- four of the 48 states responding to our survey, including the 5
states we visited* Florida, Maryland, Oregon, Texas, and Virginia*
reported having at least one effort in place to foster bachelor*s degree
completion. Most of these states reported efforts that fell into three
broad categories: (1) efforts to increase the overall number of college
graduates by increasing the number of students entering postsecondary
education; (2) efforts to help colleges improve their performance in
retaining and graduating students; and (3) efforts to help individual
students remain in college and to encourage timely completion for these
students. While states reported that almost half of their approaches have
been evaluated, the instances where states provided specific evaluation
results were limited. Half of the states indicated that there were
additional actions they would like to take to foster bachelor*s degree
completion, but cited state budget constraints as a factor preventing them
from moving forward.
Nineteen states have efforts to increase the number of bachelor*s degrees
awarded by increasing the number of students enrolling in postsecondary
education. This approach includes efforts such as increasing the number of
students ready for college, educating students and parents about college
requirements and costs, and providing financial assistance to help cover
college costs.
Increasing student readiness for college. Some states have efforts to
improve the academic readiness of students so that more students have the
opportunity to attend college. Kentucky has a P- 16 partnership that
focuses on aligning standards between high school and college to ensure
students are academically prepared for college. 15 Kentucky reported in
our survey that the state had aligned high school graduation standards
with college admissions standards by creating a single high school
curriculum for all students. The state has adopted an online diagnostic
test designed for sophomores and juniors to test their readiness for
college mathematics
in time to improve these skills and avoid remedial placement in college.
Oregon has implemented proficiency- based admissions standards that
15 The terms *K- 16* or *P- 16* describe a movement by educators,
political officials, and business leaders to work together in a more
systemic way to strengthen educational achievement from kindergarten or
pre- school through completion of the college degree. States Are Using a
Variety
of Efforts to Foster Bachelor*s Degree Completion, but Would Like to Do
More
States Seek to Increase the Number of Students Entering Postsecondary
Education
Page 16 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion specify certain knowledge and
skills students should demonstrate for admission to its public
universities. The standards are intended to provide
more accurate information about student readiness for college and
encourage students to choose challenging coursework that will prepare them
for college. Oklahoma uses assessments in the eighth and tenth grades to
provide students feedback on their progress in preparing for college. In
addition to student feedback, colleges use assessment results to improve
curricula and instruction. The state reported that since this effort began
10 years ago there have been increases in the number of high school
students taking college preparatory courses, particularly among black
students.
Educating students and parents about college. To increase the numbers of
students enrolling in postsecondary education and ultimately completing a
bachelor*s degree, some states are focusing on raising awareness among
students and parents about the benefits and costs of postsecondary
education. Texas, for example, has a plan that centers on counseling
students and their parents about what is necessary to enroll in
postsecondary education. The state provides information on the benefits
of postsecondary education, the academic preparation necessary for
enrolling, and the costs of attending, including information about
available financial aid and how to qualify. These efforts are designed to
support its goal of increasing its enrollment from just under 1 million
students in 2000 by adding 500,000 new college students by 2015.
Providing financial aid for college. Financial assistance is another way
states seek to increase the number of students enrolling in college.
Several states have programs that provide monetary assistance to
academically qualified students based on academic merit, financial need,
or some combination of the two. For example, Oklahoma provides free
tuition at
public institutions for students whose families have incomes below $50,000
and meet other requirements, including completing a prescribed high school
course of study with at least a 2.5 grade point average. Oklahoma reported
that the performance of students in this program has exceeded that of the
general student population. Another example is the West Virginia Higher
Education Grant Program, which provides assistance to academically
qualified, but needy students who attend college in West Virginia or
Pennsylvania. West Virginia*s evaluation of the program revealed that
grant recipients had higher graduation rates than students
receiving other types of financial aid and students who received no
financial aid.
Page 17 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Many states reported efforts to
improve the performance of colleges in the areas of retaining and
graduating their students. Such efforts include
promoting accountability for colleges by collecting and, in some
instances, publishing retention and graduation rates. States also promote
accountability by tying funding* mainly for public colleges* to
performance. States are also sharing information with colleges about
retention strategies to foster increased rates of bachelor*s degree
completion.
Promoting accountability for colleges. In order to hold colleges and
universities accountable for their performance in the areas of student
retention and graduation, states must first collect consistent information
from these institutions. Three- fourths of the states that responded to
our survey reported that they collect data that allow them to calculate
and track retention and graduation rates for individual institutions and
across
the state. Specifically, 24 of these states reported that they collect
enrollment and graduation data on individual students from public
institutions only, and 9 states reported collecting these data from both
public and private institutions in their states. 16 Having these data
allows the state to calculate retention and graduation rates for each
institution and the system as a whole. Additionally, because the
institutions provide the state with individual student records, the state
can track the educational progress of a student who attends more than one
institution. This enables the states to include transfer students in their
graduation rate. The data are limited to student transfers within the
state. Eighteen states reported that they promote accountability by
publishing
the performance of their colleges and universities on measures, including
retention and graduation rates because some officials believe that this
motivates colleges to improve their performance in those areas. In
Virginia, a state that uses multiple accountability measures, officials
told us that institutions are not compared with other institutions in the
state with respect to the various performance measures. Rather, each
institution works with the state to identify a national peer group of
institutions with similar characteristics with which to be compared. In
this way, institutions can see whether their performance is on par with
institutions that have
similar missions and serve similar types of students. In addition to 16
Additional states may collect summary data on graduation and retention
rates from individual institutions, rather than collecting enrollment and
graduation data for individual students that can be tracked across
institutions. State Efforts to Help Colleges
Improve Their Performance in Retaining and Graduating Students
Page 18 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion measuring retention and graduation
rates, Virginia requires its public institutions to measure and report on
certain student learning outcomes to
demonstrate the value of each institution to its students. Nine states
reported accountability efforts that have financial implications for
colleges and universities to encourage them to graduate their students in
a timely manner. These efforts include linking a portion of state funding
to an institution*s performance on multiple measures or making incentive
payments to institutions based on their performance in the areas of
retention and completion. Tennessee has a performance- funding program in
which institutions earn about 5 percent of their state funding for
performance on multiple indicators, such as retention and graduation. In
another variation, Pennsylvania provides a financial bonus to any 4- year
institution in the state, whether public or private, that graduates more
than 40 percent of in- state students within 4 years. 17 Sharing retention
strategies. Five states reported efforts to improve
institutional performance by sharing information among state and college
officials about strategies to help students remain in college. For
example, the Oregon University System formed a retention work group to
provide a forum for developing and sharing campus initiatives to enhance
retention. The group has used annual systemwide and institutional data on
retention
and graduation to identify areas that need to be addressed to increase
retention. The group looks at retention efforts that seem to be working on
specific campuses and shares information with other campuses. As a result
of its work with tribal governments to increase retention of Native
American students, the system developed a Native American resource guide
that includes information about topics such as outreach and retention
efforts of colleges, financial assistance, childcare programs, and
community college transfer procedures. Officials in Oregon attribute the
increases in graduation rates at most campuses in the system to the work
of this group.
Twenty- two states reported efforts directly aimed at helping students
remain in college and encouraging timely completion for these students.
Many such state- level programs provided funding to support efforts
carried out by individual colleges, such as programs that provide academic
and social support directly to students. Other efforts seek to ease
student 17 Students who graduate within 5 years also count toward the
bonus if they are in 5- year
baccalaureate programs. State Efforts to Help Individual Students Remain
in College and
to Encourage Timely Completion
Page 19 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion transfers among colleges, utilize
technology to help students complete their degree, or include financial
incentives to encourage students to
complete their bachelor*s degrees in a timely manner.
Funding college programs that provide support services for students.
Several states provide funding for college- run programs designed to
support students in need of assistance. For example, through
its Access and Success program, the Maryland Higher Education Commission
provides funds to colleges and universities 18 for the operation of
programs to increase retention and graduation rates of their
undergraduates. The colleges have used these funds to, among other things,
operate summer bridge programs that acclimate students to college the
summer before they enroll and provide advising, tutoring, and counseling
services to students who are already enrolled. New York*s Collegiate
Science and Technology Entry Program, aimed at increasing the number of
low- income students who pursue careers in math, science, technology, or
health- related fields, provides funding for services such as enriched
science and math instruction, graduate school test preparation, and career
awareness.
Facilitating transfer among institutions. Seven states reported efforts to
facilitate transfer from one college to another as an approach to foster
bachelor*s degree completion. Officials in Florida told us that
establishing policies that help students transfer from community colleges
to 4- year institutions was important because the community college system
is considered the point of entry for most college students in the state.
Florida has common course numbering for all public institutions in the
state and requires public institutions to accept transfer credits for any
course they
offer that a student completes at another institution. Officials told us
this policy prevents students from needlessly duplicating coursework,
saving both the state and students money, along with reducing the time it
takes to complete a degree. Florida also has a statewide policy that
guarantees admission to the state university system as a junior for any
student who completes an Associate of Arts degree. Officials in Florida
told us that without these policies it would be difficult for community
college students or other transfer students to complete their degrees.
They acknowledged, however, that these policies could be at odds with
encouraging timely
18 Historically Black Colleges and Universities are defined as, among
other things, any college or university that was established prior to 1964
and whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans.
Page 20 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion degree completion because they
make it easier for students to exit and reenter postsecondary education.
Using distance learning. A few states reported using technology to enhance
access and make it easier for students to complete a degree. Kentucky, for
instance, has a virtual university and library that offers credit courses
and academic advising for those who work or have family situations that
may not allow them to come to campus. This also aids oncampus
students who need greater course availability. Students taking advantage
of these electronic offerings have grown from fewer than 300 students in
1999 to nearly 10, 000 in 2002.
Using financial incentives to encourage students* timely completion. Some
states have financial aid programs to encourage timely degree completion.
These programs may have time limits and/ or may
require students to earn a minimum number of credits each year for
participation. For example, the University of Alaska Scholars Program,
targeted at the top 10 percent of high school graduates, offers financial
aid for eight semesters provided that the scholar remains in good
standing. Other states have programs that impose financial penalties if
students repeat coursework or take too long to graduate. Florida*s in-
state students must pay the full tuition rate* without state subsidies*
for any courses they repeat more than once. Utah requires that students
who enroll for credits in excess of 135 percent of what is usually needed
for a degree pay higher tuition for the excess credits. Texas passed a law
designed to encourage students to minimize the number of courses they take
to complete their degree. State residents who complete their coursework
and degrees in the state with no more than three attempted hours in excess
of the minimum required for graduation are eligible to apply for a $1,000
tuition rebate from their institution. Officials told us that about 1,500
students received tuition rebates in the 2001- 2002 academic year.
Twenty- four states listed at least one area in which they would like to
do more to increase bachelor*s degree completion rates. Many of these
desired actions dealt with increasing financial aid for students and
increased financial support to colleges to help their students succeed.
Some wanted to offer special funding for colleges that perform well in
certain areas related to retention and college completion. Others wanted
to improve preparation of high school graduates for college or improve
transitions from one level of education to another. Almost without
exception, the states cited state budget constraints as a significant
factor preventing them from moving forward with these actions. Half the
States Would Like to
Do More to Foster Bachelor*s Degree Completion
Page 21 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Our visits to 11 colleges and
universities in five states showed that initiatives in these institutions
cluster around two main approaches to
foster bachelor*s degree completion: (1) enhancing the learning experience
by creating smaller learning communities that foster greater connections
to the institution and (2) strengthening support of students to promote
academic success. In some cases, officials attributed increases in
retention rates or higher retention rates for certain groups of students
to
these approaches. Nearly all of the colleges and universities we visited
were engaged in efforts designed to enhance the learning experience for
students, primarily by creating smaller communities that foster greater
connections to the institution. These approaches aim to increase students*
engagement in academics and provide them with a network of faculty and
other students who can support them academically and socially. These
approaches are employed both in and out of the classroom, and most focus
on easing the transition from high school to college for first- year
college students.
Linking courses. Several of the colleges we visited are trying to enhance
the learning environment by giving students a small classroom experience
that will provide them greater opportunities to connect with faculty and
their peers, not unlike the experience they would have had in high school.
For example, Texas A & M University at Corpus Christi, a Hispanic Serving
Institution, 19 requires all full- time, first- year students to enroll in
learning
communities* clusters of three or four classes in which the course content
is linked. Students are typically enrolled in a large lecture course with
150 or more students and two other courses with 25 or fewer
students from the lecture course. In addition to covering course content,
instructors help students learn how to succeed in their first year of
college, helping with topics such as study skills on an as needed basis.
Portland State University provides its students smaller learning
communities in the freshman and sophomore years through its University
Studies program. According to officials there, the university developed
the program in 1994 to address disappointing retention rates from the
freshman to sophomore year. Officials told us that, because few students
live on campus, the university has to create opportunities for students to
19 Hispanic Serving Institutions are defined as having at least 25 percent
of their full- time equivalent students who are Hispanic, of which no less
than 50 percent are low- income individuals. Four- Year Institutions
Foster Completion by Improving Learning and Support of Students
Enhancing the Learning Experience
Page 22 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion connect to the campus via the
classroom. The required freshman and sophomore courses are comprised of
35- 40 students who meet as a whole
with faculty and in smaller mentor sessions, led by upper- level or
graduate students. Officials told us they think the upper- level students
who serve as peer mentors for the freshman classes are particularly
helpful for many first- generation college students who attend the
university and may find college more difficult to navigate.
Officials at both universities reported positive outcomes for these
learning programs. Specifically, at Texas A & M students withdrew from the
large lecture courses at lower rates and had higher grades in these
courses when taken as part of the learning community. They also attributed
retention rates for first- year minority students that are on par with
other first- year students to the learning communities. At Portland State,
officials attributed increases in retention from the freshman to sophomore
year, as well as from the sophomore to junior year, to its University
Studies program.
Using service learning. Connecting classroom learning to the community is
another approach colleges are taking to enhance the learning experience
and create a sense of belonging. The Regional Ecosystem Applied Learning
Corps was established in 1997 through partnership between Southern Oregon
University in Ashland, Oregon, and community and government organizations.
This AmeriCorps 20 program engages students in the classroom and through
community- based projects dealing with land management issues. One
student, who went to college directly from high school but left after 2
years, told us that the Regional Ecosystem Applied Learning Corps played a
large part in his decision to finish his bachelor*s degree because it
allowed him to connect his studies to the community while working. He
noted that it was difficult to return after a 4- year break because
college life felt unfamiliar to him.
Providing residential learning opportunities. For those students who live
on campus, some colleges are aiming to improve the learning experience by
enhancing educational opportunities available to students in the residence
halls. Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida, instituted its
first *living- learning community* in a residence hall in the fall
20 AmeriCorps is a network of national service programs that engage about
50, 000 Americans each year in intensive service to meet critical needs in
education, public safety, health, and the environment.
Page 23 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion of 1997 as a way to provide
freshmen with a smaller community that would facilitate connections with
faculty and students. An official at the
institution told us that the size of the institution is an obstacle in
retaining students because it is easy for students at a large research
university with over 36,000 students to feel lost. Students live in a
residence hall together and have to take at least one class in the
building. Required weekly meetings help students navigate services
available to them on the campus. Florida State reported that 5 years after
the freshman class of 1997 entered
the institution, 77 percent of students who participated in the first
livinglearning community had graduated, while the graduation rates of
other oncampus students and those living off campus was around 60 percent.
21 Promoting Scholarship. The University of Maryland- Baltimore County
established the Meyerhoff Scholars Program to increase the numbers of
minorities pursuing doctoral study in math, science, engineering, and
computer science. 22 In addition to the academic requirements, the
scholars participate in activities designed to expose them to scientific
careers, such as field trips and research experiences. University
officials credit the program with much of the success the university has
had with minority students* the 6- year graduation rate is higher for
black students than for white. Officials attribute part of this success to
the role Meyerhoff scholars play in motivating other minority students at
the institution.
All of the colleges and universities we visited were engaged in efforts to
strengthen support of their students to ensure their academic success and
retention. Colleges support their students by providing services such as
academic advising, financial aid counseling, and academic support services
such as tutoring. Colleges also provide supports designed to ease the
transition from high school or community college to a 4- year institution.
In some cases, colleges are changing how they deliver support services to
ensure the needs of students are met. For example, colleges may colocate
many of their support services to make it easy for students to access
them.
21 Florida State reported that the comparison groups were randomly
selected and there was no difference among the three groups in terms of
SAT scores. However, because students decide whether to participate in a
living- learning community, the effects of self- selection cannot be ruled
out.
22 The scholarship program is open to students of any race. Strengthening
Support of
Students
Page 24 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Colocating support services.
During our site visits, we found that several of the institutions we
visited are colocating support services to
make it easier for students to access those services. In 2000, Prairie
View A & M University, a historically black institution in Prairie View,
Texas, implemented a comprehensive support system for freshmen. By groups
of 100- 125 students, freshmen are assigned to 1 of 12 academic teams.
These teams consist of a professional adviser, residence hall staff, and a
faculty fellow. The groups generally live together in residence halls
close to all the services they might need, such as advising, academic
support services such as tutoring, and financial aid counseling. Advisers
work closely with the learning community manager and two community
assistants, professional staff who reside in each hall. Officials think
having advisers and residence hall staff working together provides many
opportunities to intervene with students in time to get them connected
with the services they need.
Consolidating offices. Some of the institutions have also made
organizational changes to ensure that most of the offices providing
support to students are working together. The University of Central
Florida, for example, merged the student affairs office with the
enrollment management office and, according to officials, having this one
office responsible for recruitment and retention ensures that a wide range
of efforts can be coordinated across the cycle of student life.
Improving academic advising. Most of the colleges we visited had made
changes to improve academic advising services provided to students with
the idea that students need consistent and accurate advisement to stay on
the path to graduation. To respond to student complaints that advisers in
their majors did not know enough about general graduation requirements,
Florida State University centrally hired a total of 40 full- time advisers
to work in the individual departments. According to one official, when
individual departments hired advisers, the amount of time spent advising
students declined over time as other responsibilities were assigned to
those advisers. Retaining central control of the advisers ensures that
advising is consistently available to students and that students receive
advisement on both departmental and nondepartmental issues. Portland
State University developed a system that allows students to stay abreast
of where they are in terms of graduating. Advisers can use the system to
help students develop a course plan and identify any remaining coursework
they need for graduation.
Using proactive intervention strategies. Many of the institutions we
visited have approaches designed to proactively intervene with students in
Page 25 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion an effort to retain them to
graduation. Several of the institutions reported that they have a warning
system in place to identify students whose midterm
grades or cumulative grade point averages drop below a certain level.
These students are contacted and encouraged to meet with an adviser and to
make them aware of the different services available to help them.
Contacting students by telephone is an approach some of the smaller
institutions we visited employ to intervene with students. For example,
Southern Oregon University, in Ashland, Oregon, is proactive in calling
students who are not attending classes based on faculty reports. To
improve its 6- year graduation rate, Coppin State College, an historically
black institution, in Baltimore, Maryland, has been contacting those
students who have not pre- registered for the fall semester, but are
within reach of graduating within 6 years of when they started. Officials
believe calling students lets them know that someone at the college is
interested
in them as an individual and reinforces their commitment to return.
Providing academic support services. Most institutions cited academic
support services as an approach to retaining students. Examples of these
services include tutoring, walk- in centers that provide assistance with
areas like writing and math, and programs that support special populations
such as low- income and first- generation college students. Over half of
the institutions we visited provide these types of services to students
before they have enrolled in college to ease the transition from high
school to college. In these summer bridge programs, students typically
take a couple of courses, along with seminars that cover topics designed
to help them succeed in college, such as time management and
study skills. Generally, fewer than 100 students participate in these
programs, which allows the institution to provide more intensive and
personalized services. Institutions generally reported that the retention
rate from the freshman to sophomore year for these students is comparable
to or higher than the general population. A couple of institutions
reported higher graduation rates for these students, but some officials
noted that their 6- year graduation rates may lag because some of these
students take longer to graduate.
Easing the transition for transfer students. Some institutions are engaged
in efforts to encourage and ease the transition of students from a 2- year
institution to a 4- year institution. For example, the University of
Central Florida has forged relationships with area community colleges and
has established satellite campuses at community colleges in Orlando and
the surrounding area. The university*s satellite campuses are designed for
those students for whom transferring to a 4- year college may be difficult
because of work and family commitments. The university has dedicated
Page 26 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion faculty and staff at these
satellite campuses to ensure students receive the same education and
services they would at the main campus. Advisers
who travel among the satellite campuses ensure that students can obtain
academic advising without traveling to the main campus.
Education fosters bachelor*s degree completion through programs that
provide financial and academic support to students, but little is known
about the effects of these programs on college completion. Education has
also established goals for increasing college completion and strengthening
the accountability of colleges. While Education has some dissemination
efforts* mainly through its academic support programs and through its Fund
for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education program* it does not have
systematic efforts in place to identify and share promising practices in
the areas of retention and graduation with states and colleges that are
looking for strategies to help them better retain their students.
In order to help students pay for a college degree, the federal student
aid programs provide billions of dollars to help students finance college
with the objective that students will complete their programs. The Federal
Family Education Loan Program and the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan
Program, two major federal student loan programs authorized in Title IV of
the Higher Education Act, together provided student borrowers with about 9
million new loans totaling $35 billion in fiscal year 2001. The Pell Grant
Program, designed to help the neediest undergraduate students, expended $8
billion to provide grants to nearly 4 million students in
2000- 2001. To be eligible for these programs, students must be enrolled
in a degree- or certificate- granting program. While Education has made
these funds available, we reported in September 2002 that little
information is available on the relative effectiveness of Title IV grants
and loans in promoting postsecondary attendance, choice, and completion,
or their impact on college costs. 23 Among other things, we noted that
data and methodological challenges make it difficult to isolate the impact
of grants and loans.
23 U. S. General Accounting Office, Student Aid and Tax Benefits: Better
Research and Guidance Will Facilitate Comparison of Effectiveness and
Student Use, GAO- 02- 751 (Washington, D. C.: Sept. 13, 2002). Education
Has
Programs to Foster College Completion, but No Systematic Efforts to
Identify and Disseminate Information on Promising Practices
Programs Provide Financial Resources and Academic Support to Students, but
Little Is Known about Their Effectiveness
Page 27 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Education administers three
academic support programs aimed at students who are low- income, first-
generation, or disabled that have
college completion as a primary goal. Student Support Services provides
academic support to students at the college level, while the Upward Bound
program and Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate
Programs (GEAR UP) serve students before they enter college. 24 GEAR UP
differs from Student Support Services and Upward Bound, which identify and
invite individual students to participate. GEAR UP serves an entire grade
of students at participating schools beginning no later than the seventh
grade and follows them through high school. According to program
officials, the program begins no later than the seventh grade because high
school is too late to begin working with students on the preparation that
leads to college. Table 1 provides an overview of the three programs.
24 Student Support Services and Upward Bound are part of TRIO, a cluster
of six educational opportunity outreach programs designed to motivate and
support students from disadvantaged backgrounds through the educational
pipeline. The other TRIO programs have goals for, among other things,
increasing enrollment in postsecondary education, encouraging students to
pursue undergraduate degrees in mathematics and science, and increasing
the attainment of doctoral degrees among certain groups of students. While
increasing college completion is not an explicit goal of these programs,
increases in completion for participating students may be an indirect
result of the services the programs provide.
Page 28 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Table 1: Overview of Education
Programs That Have College Completion as a Primary Goal Program Purpose
Target
population Services provided FY 2002 funding
(in millions) Students served
TRIO Student Support Services
Increase graduation and retention rates.
Low- income, firstgeneration, or disabled college students.
Counseling, tutoring, supplemental grants for qualifying students. $263
198,551
TRIO Upward Bound Increase
postsecondary enrollment and success. a High school
students who are from low- income families or from families where
neither parent has a college degree.
Instruction required in subjects such as math, science, and composition.
Services such as counseling, tutoring, mentoring, assistance completing
financial aid and college
entrance applications; information on postsecondary opportunities, and
work study positions.
$264 56,324 GEAR UP Increase the
number of lowincome students who are prepared to enter and succeed in
postsecondary education.
Entire grades of students at participating lowincome schools starting no
later than the seventh grade.
Relies on participating schools and partners to provide services that
promote academic preparation and an understanding of college costs,
provide professional development, and continuously build capacity to
sustain projects beyond the grant term. Also provides scholarships for
participants who enroll in postsecondary education.
$285 1, 236,606 Source: Department of Education.
a Education interprets success as graduating from institutions of
postsecondary education.
In 2001, Student Support Services added a financial assistance component
as a tool to increase retention and graduation of student participants.
Specifically, Student Support Services permits the use of grant aid for
current Student Support Services participants who are already receiving
federal Pell Grants. These funds are intended to increase retention and
graduation by reducing the amount of financial need or money eligible
participants have to borrow in their first 2 years of study. 25 Student
Support Services is the only program for which information on the
effectiveness of the program on college completion is available.
Specifically, a preliminary evaluation of the program found that
participants had higher bachelor*s degree completion rates as compared to
a control group of similar students not receiving those services. However,
25 Institutions can award funds to students who have completed their first
2 years of study if they can demonstrate that the students are at high
risk for dropping out and the needs of students in the first 2 years of
study have been met.
Page 29 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion it is too early to determine the
impact of the grant aid component of the program, given that it was first
implemented in the 2001- 2002 academic
year. According to Education officials, it is also too early to determine
the impact of Upward Bound and GEAR UP on college completion because
students are not expected to have completed college yet. 26 In its 2002-
2007 strategic plan, Education has established goals of reducing
the gaps in college participation and completion among certain student
populations and increasing completion rates overall. Education has
identified some strategies for meeting these goals, such as focusing on
improving the K- 12 system, improving the readiness of low- income and
minority students for college, and improving the effectiveness of support
services for low- income and minority students. The performance measure*
institutional graduation rates* Education uses for assessing its progress
toward the goal of increasing completion rates understates the percentage
of students who actually complete bachelor*s degrees, because the measure
does not account for students who transfer and complete their degrees at
institutions different from where they started. However, this is the only
information available on an annual basis. Other longitudinal studies, such
as BPS, provide more information but are costly to administer. Education
has not established other performance measures
for assessing progress toward its college completion goal. Education has
also established a goal for strengthening accountability of postsecondary
institutions in its strategic plan. Specifically, Education is looking to
ensure that colleges are graduating their students in a timely manner.
Education thinks making information on student achievement and attainment
available to the public is one way to hold institutions accountable for
their performance because prospective students can use this information to
make informed choices about where to attend college. Education has begun
to discuss this issue with the higher education community and asked the
community for ideas on how to strengthen accountability of postsecondary
institutions. As part of its efforts,
26 A 1999 review of Upward Bound conducted for Education concluded that
while the program did not increase enrollments among participants, it did
have positive results for students who enrolled in college. Among other
things, Upward Bound participants at 4- year colleges earned more
nonremedial credits than a control group. The study authors stressed,
however, that these results should be interpreted with caution because
only about
one- fourth of the students in the study had entered college at the time
they were last contacted, and one- third were still in high school.
Results from a more recent followup were not available in time to be
included in this report. Education Has Identified Priorities for
Increasing
College Completion and Strengthening Accountability of Institutions
Page 30 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Education has held panel
discussions with student financial aid experts, state officials, and
business leaders, among other participants, about
improving accountability. Additionally, Education is considering
*performance- based grants* to provide incentives to colleges for timely
graduation. In one state, however, where this was tried, there were
concerns that the grant created perverse incentives to increase graduation
rates, such as reducing the number of credits required for graduation.
Education has some efforts to disseminate information on retention and
completion; however, it does not have a systematic effort in place to
identify and disseminate promising practices in these areas. Education has
commissioned studies on the factors that affect college completion, and it
has some evaluations on student retention* for example, one study dealing
with retention strategies for students with disabilities and one on
Hispanic students. It has not, however, systematically conducted research
to determine what strategies have been effective in helping colleges and
universities retain their students. Additionally, Education has some
retention and completion dissemination efforts in place. For example, GEAR
UP and TRIO grantees have the opportunity to share information with each
other at annual conferences organized by private groups. Education
facilitates information sharing through the TRIO Dissemination Partnership
Program, which provides funding for TRIO grantees with promising practices
to work with other institutions and community- based organizations that
serve low- income and first- generation college students but do not have
TRIO grants. The program is intended to increase the impact of TRIO
programs by reaching more low- income, first- generation college students.
Only a small number of grantees are disseminating information through this
program* in fiscal year 2002, Education provided $3.4 million to 17
grantees. In these instances, only institutions and organizations that
formally partner with grantees are likely to have the opportunity to learn
about promising practices. Furthermore, promising practices that are
employed by institutions outside these programs are not captured.
According to agency officials, another effort in which dissemination
occurs is within the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education*s
Comprehensive Program. This 30- year old program seeks to help improve
access and quality of postsecondary institutions by funding small
promising practices grants. According to an official of the Comprehensive
Program, the grants are for a 3- year period, with an average annual award
amount of between $50,000 and $200,000. Last year, the program awarded $31
million for grant activities* including new Education Has Some
Evaluation and Dissemination Efforts
Page 31 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion awards of about $10 million. The
grants cover all aspects of postsecondary improvement, and within the
areas of retention and completion there are
grants for, among other things, creating learning communities, reviewing
remedial and introductory courses to find more effective approaches, and
developing innovative methods of delivering support services.
Dissemination efforts include a searchable project database on its Web
site; four published volumes of promising practices (the most recent
publication was in 2000); specific dissemination grants expressly aimed at
replicating particularly promising practices for retention and completion;
dissemination plans built into the actual grants; and annual meetings
where project information is shared. Each grant has an evaluation
component and the Comprehensive Program is currently being reviewed for,
among other things, the efficacy of these evaluation efforts.
As policymakers and others consider what is necessary to ensure
accountability in higher education, the issue of how to measure
performance becomes more important. While some states have used graduation
rates to promote accountability, such measures may not fully reflect an
institution*s performance. Graduation rates do not capture differences in
mission, selectivity, programmatic offerings, or student learning
outcomes. Nor do they account for another goal of higher education,
increasing participation. In other words, a college or university could
have a low rate of completion, but still be providing access. As
policymakers consider ways to hold colleges and universities accountable
for their performance, it may be possible to use multiple measures that
capture an institution*s performance in regard to how well its students
are educated through the use of student learning outcomes, in addition to
its performance in graduating them.
States, institutions of higher education, and Education are engaged in a
variety of efforts to retain and graduate students. Education does have
some efforts to evaluate and disseminate information related to retention
and completion; however, it does not systematically identify and
disseminate information on those practices that hold promise for
increasing retention and graduation rates across all sectors of higher
education. Such information could benefit colleges and universities that
are looking for new approaches to better serve their students and seek to
avoid duplicating unsuccessful efforts. As policymakers consider new ways
to hold postsecondary institutions accountable for retaining and
graduating their students, it becomes more important to widely disseminate
promising practices in these areas. Having Education identify and
disseminate promising practices in the areas of retention and Conclusions
Page 32 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion graduation would help ensure that
all colleges and universities have access to the same level of information
and can readily draw on those
practices they think might help them better serve their students. As
Education moves forward with its plan to hold colleges and universities
accountable for their performance in graduating their students, we
recommend that the Secretary of Education consider multiple measures that
would help account for other goals of higher education, such as increasing
participation, as well as differences in mission, selectivity, and
programmatic offerings of postsecondary institutions. Education should
work with states and colleges to determine what would be most helpful for
strengthening the accountability of institutions and ensuring positive
outcomes for students.
We also recommend that the Secretary of Education take steps to identify
and disseminate information about promising practices in the areas of
retention and graduation across all sectors of postsecondary education.
In written comments on a draft of this report, the Department of Education
agreed with our recommendations but had some concerns about certain
aspects of the draft report. Education commented that we could have
included trend data on, for example, whether retention and completion are
increasing or decreasing. While such information might have been
interesting to include, we were specifically focusing on the current
status of college completion. Education suggested in its letter that we
could have used its two BPS studies for such an analysis. It would not be
appropriate to use these two studies for identifying trends because they
covered different time periods. For example, using the first BPS study*
which tracked students for 5 years* Education reported that 53 percent of
students who began at a 4- year institution in 1989- 90 earned a
bachelor*s degree. Using the second BPS study* which tracked students for
6 years* we reported that 59 percent of students who began at a 4- year
institution in 1995- 96 earned a bachelor*s degree. While the increase in
graduation rates might have resulted from any number of factors, the most
likely reason is because an additional year was included in the
calculation.
The Department correctly noted that we did not address student financial
aid in our analysis. We have addressed this issue in our discussion of the
report*s objectives, scope, and methodology section (see app. I).
Recommendations
Agency Comments
Page 33 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion With respect to Education*s
comment about how the effects of being disadvantaged are accounted for in
our analysis, we agree that performing
a more sophisticated analysis to account for the indirect effects of being
disadvantaged on completion may have yielded a more complete picture of
college completion. However, our analysis was designed to provide
overall descriptive information on completion rates while taking into
account certain differences among students.
Education had concerns that our report did not sufficiently recognize the
role of its Graduation Rate Survey (GRS). While we did not directly
discuss GRS, we did explain the legislative requirements regarding
institutional reporting of graduation rates. Education developed GRS to
help institutions comply with this requirement. Additionally, with respect
to GRS, we sought clarification of Education*s statement that GRS is the
basis for state efforts to track graduation rates; however, officials did
not provide us with information that would support this statement. In
looking
at this issue, it is clear that the type of data states collect is
different from the GRS data. Specifically, GRS collects only summary data
from institutions on graduation rates, whereas by using data on individual
students, the states we highlighted have the ability to not only calculate
graduation rates but to track student transfers across the state.
Furthermore, officials in two states we visited told us that they have had
the ability to track individual students for over 10 years, long before
information from the GRS would have been available* making it impossible
for GRS to be the basis of these systems as Education suggested. We also
believe that Education*s statement that we do not acknowledge the
limitations of the state systems with respect to tracking student
transfers is inaccurate. Our draft clearly stated that tracking is limited
to student transfers within the state.
Finally, with regard to Education*s concern that our report does not
recognize its efforts to identify and disseminate information on retention
and completion, we believe Education may have misunderstood our discussion
about their efforts. We clearly highlight Education*s efforts to identify
and disseminate information through studies on the factors that affect
retention and completion. However, we conclude that Education does not
systematically identify and disseminate information on those practices
that hold promise for increasing retention and graduation rates across all
sectors of higher education. Education also provided technical comments,
which we incorporated
where appropriate. Education*s comments appear in appendix IV.
Page 34 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion As arranged with your offices,
unless you publicly announce its contents earlier, we plan no further
distribution of this report until 30 days from its
issue date. At that time, we will send copies of this report to
appropriate congressional committees, the Secretary of Education, and
other interested parties. Copies will also be made available to others
upon request. In addition, this report will be available at no charge on
GAO*s Web site at http:// www. gao. gov.
If you have any questions about this report, please contact me on (202)
512- 8403. Other contacts and acknowledgments are listed in appendix V.
Cornelia M. Ashby
Director, Education, Workforce, and Income Security Issues
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Page 35 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion You asked us to determine (1) the
extent to which students* including those from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds* who enroll in a 4- year
college or university complete a bachelor*s degree and the factors that
affect bachelor*s degree completion; (2) what states and 4- year colleges
and universities are doing to foster bachelor*s degree completion and what
is known about the effectiveness of these efforts; and (3) what the U. S.
Department of Education is doing to foster bachelor*s degree completion.
To determine the extent to which students* including those from lower
socioeconomic backgrounds* who enroll in a 4- year college or university
complete a bachelor*s degree and to identify the factors that affect
bachelor*s degree completion, we analyzed Education*s 1995- 96 Beginning
Postsecondary Students (BPS) study. BPS is a longitudinal study 1 that
followed the retention and degree completion of students from the time
they enrolled in any postsecondary institution over a 6- year period. It
is based on a sample of students who were enrolled in postsecondary
education for the first time in 1995- 1996 and participated in Education*s
1995- 96 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS: 96). NPSAS: 96
consisted of a nationally representative sample of all students enrolled
in postsecondary education during the 1995- 96 academic year. Information
for NPSAS: 96 was obtained from more than 830 postsecondary institutions
for approximately 44,500 undergraduate and 11,200 graduate and
firstprofessional students. The sample of undergraduates represented about
16.7 million students, including about 3 million first- time beginning
students, who were enrolled at some time between July 1, 1995 and June 30,
1996. This BPS study began with a sample of approximately 12,000 students
who were identified in NPSAS: 96 as having entered postsecondary education
for the first time in 1995- 1996. Education followed up with these
students via computer- assisted telephone interviews in both 1998 and
2001. In addition to obtaining data from students through these
interviews, data were obtained from other sources, including institutions
and the Educational Testing Service, which administers standardized tests,
such as the SAT I and Advanced Placement tests. Education has published
reports that provide information about student enrollment and the rates of
persistence, transfer, and degree attainment for students.
1 The first BPS study tracked the educational attainment of a group of
students who first enrolled in postsecondary education in 1989- 90. The
next scheduled BPS study will follow students who first enroll in
postsecondary education in the 2003- 04 school year. Appendix I:
Objectives, Scope, and
Methodology
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Page 36 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion For our purposes, we analyzed a
subset of these data. We only included students who in 1995- 96 were
enrolled in a 4- year institution or were
enrolled at another type of institution, but transferred to a 4- year
institution at some point during the 6- year period. Our analysis excluded
other types of students, such as community college students who did not
transfer to a 4- year institution because the focus of our study was on
bachelor*s degree completion. We first grouped students into three
categories: those who, after 6 years (1) had completed a bachelor*s
degree; (2) had not completed a bachelor*s degree, but were still enrolled
in a 4- year institution; and (3) had not completed a bachelor*s degree
and were no longer enrolled in a 4- year institution. We then calculated
the percentage of our population in each group overall and by various
characteristics relating to personal background, academic preparation and
performance, college attendance and work patterns, and social integration
as shown in appendix II. We focused on factors that affect whether or not
students completed a
bachelor*s degree by the end of the 6- year period and looked at the
effect of the various characteristics mentioned above on college
completion. We did not include student aid variables in our analysis.
Resource constraints and the timing of the release of the BPS data made it
difficult to examine the effect of student aid variables given their
complexity and year- to- year variation. We first examined the independent
effect of each characteristic on completion without controlling for
differences among individuals. Each of these independent effects, with the
exception of delaying entry into college, was statistically significant.
However, because of the strong relationships among these characteristics,
it is more accurate to explain the variance in completion rates using
multivariate analysis, which tests the effect of each characteristic on
completion while controlling for the effects of all the other
characteristics.
Logistic regression is a standard procedure used to estimate the effect of
a characteristic on a particular outcome. The model uses odds ratios to
estimate the relative likelihood of completing a bachelor*s degree within
6 years of beginning postsecondary education. The odds ratios for various
characteristics are shown in appendix III. For a particular
characteristic, if there were no difference between students who completed
within 6 years and those who did not, the odds would be equal, and the
ratio of their odds would be 1.00. The more the odds ratio differs from
1.00 in either direction, the larger the effect on completion. For
example, an odds ratio below 1.00 indicates a lower likelihood of
completion for a student with that particular characteristic, all else
being equal. The odds ratios were generally computed in relation to a
reference group; for example, if the
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Page 37 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion odds ratio refers to being a
dependent student, then the reference group would be independent students.
Some characteristics, such as grade point
average and age, are continuous in nature. In these cases, the odds ratio
can be interpreted as representing the increase in the likelihood of
completing college given a 1- unit increase in the continuous variable. An
odds ratio that is statistically significant is denoted with the
superscript a. The characteristics we used in our model explain 38 percent
of the
variance in bachelor*s degree completion. Because the estimates we use in
this report are based on survey data, there is some sampling error
associated with them. This occurs because observations are made on a
sample of students rather than the entire student population. All
percentage estimates we present from the BPS data have sampling errors of
+-3 percentage points or less, unless otherwise noted. Furthermore, tests
of statistical significance were performed using software to take into
account the complex survey design and sampling errors. In addition to the
reported sampling errors, the
practical difficulties of conducting any survey may introduce other types
of errors, commonly referred to as nonsampling errors. For example,
differences in how a particular question is interpreted, in the
reliability of data self reported by students, or the types of students
who do not
respond can introduce unwanted variability into the survey results. To
identify what states and 4- year colleges and universities are doing to
foster bachelor*s degree completion, we conducted a survey of the 59 state
higher education executive officer agencies in all 50 states, the District
of Columbia, and Puerto Rico and visited 5 states and 11 public colleges
and universities within those states. 2 We received completed
questionnaires
from 48 of the 52 states and territories we surveyed, a response rate of
92 percent. We took steps in the development of the questionnaires, the
data collection, and the data editing and analysis to minimize nonsampling
errors. For example, we pretested the questionnaire with 3 states to
refine the survey instrument, and we called individual respondents, if
necessary, to clarify answers.
2 The population for our survey was the membership list of the State
Higher Education Executive Officers association, a nonprofit, national
association of the chief executive officers serving statewide coordinating
and governing boards of postsecondary education. Seven states have two
association agencies, and we received responses from both agencies in four
states. In none of these cases did the responses conflict with one
another. We combined multiple responses from one state into a single
unified response for that state. We checked with each respondent to obtain
approval for this procedure.
Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
Page 38 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion We conducted site visits in
Florida, Maryland, Oregon, Texas, and Virginia. We chose states and
colleges to visit based upon our discussions with
experts and preliminary information from our survey. Additionally, we
selected these states and institutions based on geographic dispersion and
the variety of efforts reported to us by experts and in the survey. In
each state, we met with state higher education officials to discuss
college completion in general and specific efforts taking place in their
states. In
each of these states, we also visited colleges that were viewed by state
officials as doing particularly well in working with their students to
help them complete a bachelor*s degree. We met with college officials to
discuss their efforts to improve retention and help students attain a
bachelor*s degree.
To identify what Education is doing to foster bachelor*s degree
completion, we talked with Education officials and reviewed program and
planning documents. We conducted our work between April 2002 and May 2003
in accordance with generally accepted government auditing practices.
Appendix II: Bachelor*s Degree Completion Status of 1995- 96 Beginning
Postsecondary Students 6 Years after Enrolling
Page 39 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Numbers in percent Characteristic
Student
population by characteristic Completed bachelor*s Did not complete
bachelor*s No bachelor*s,
still enrolled at 4- year
No bachelor*s, not enrolled at 4- year a
Overall percentage 52 48 14 34
Background characteristics Sex Female 52 57 43 18 25
Male 48 47 53 25 29
Race White, non- Hispanic 73 55 45 20 25 Black, non- Hispanic 10 38 62 23
40 Hispanic 10 40 60 28 32 Asian/ Pacific Islander 6 55 45 25 20 Other 1
58 42 11 30
Age when first enrolled 18 and under 77 59 41 19 22 19 12 36 64 30 34 20-
23 6 21 79 33 46 24- 29 2 27 73 33 40 30 and over 3 15 85 33 52
Socioeconomic status disadvantaged index
Not disadvantaged 58 58 42 20 22 Disadvantaged 42 44 56 23 33
Dependent status b Dependent 90 56 44 20 25 Independent, no children 4 22
78 35 43 Independent, married with children 3 23 77 36 41 Independent, not
married, with children 3 21 79 36 43
First generation to attend college
No 57 59 41 21 19 Yes 43 43 57 22 35
Academic preparation & performance High school completion Diploma 97 53 47
21 25
GED/ Other 3 27 73 27 46 High school curriculum Did not meet new basics 27
47 53 23 30
Met new basics, not rigorous 7 48 52 19 33 Slightly rigorous 30 55 45 18
28 Moderately rigorous 19 65 35 18 17 Highly rigorous 16 81 19 8 11
Appendix II: Bachelor*s Degree Completion Status of 1995- 96 Beginning
Postsecondary Students 6 Years after Enrolling
Appendix II: Bachelor*s Degree Completion Status of 1995- 96 Beginning
Postsecondary Students 6 Years after Enrolling
Page 40 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Numbers in percent Characteristic
Student
population by characteristic Completed bachelor*s Did not complete
bachelor*s No bachelor*s,
still enrolled at 4- year
No bachelor*s, not enrolled at 4- year a
High school grades A to A 26 78 22 11 11 A- to B 21 60 40 18 23 B to B- 11
39 61 25 36 B- to C 7 33 67 26 41 C to D 36 37 63 29 35
SAT score c Lowest quartile ( 1100) 18 79 21 9 12
First- year college GPA > 3.0 34 71 29 16 13 2.0 to 3.0 39 51 49 22 27 <
2.0 27 29 71 27 44
Attendance & work patterns Delayed college after high school d No 82 59 41
18 23
Yes 18 24 76 35 41
College attendance Part- time or mix of part- and full- time 43 34 66 35
32 Full- time 57 66 34 11 23
Continuous enrollment No 27 15 85 45 40 Yes 73 66 34 12 22
Work during college Did not work 31 61 39 16 24 Less than 10 hours 15 61
39 14 25 Between 10 and 19 hours 17 63 37 16 22 Between 20 and 31 hours 24
41 59 30 29 Full- time (32 hours or more) 13 28 72 34 38
Appendix II: Bachelor*s Degree Completion Status of 1995- 96 Beginning
Postsecondary Students 6 Years after Enrolling
Page 41 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Numbers in percent Characteristic
Student
population by characteristic Completed bachelor*s Did not complete
bachelor*s No bachelor*s,
still enrolled at 4- year
No bachelor*s, not enrolled at 4- year a
Transferred to a 4- year institution No 55 69 31 9 22
Yes 45 32 68 36 32
Social integration Participated in study groups No 33 40 60 27 33
Yes 67 59 41 18 23
Participated in collegiate clubs
No 58 41 59 26 32 Yes 42 68 32 14 18 Source: Department of Education.
Note: GAO analysis of Education*s BPS 1995/ 96 data. a This includes
students who were not enrolled in postsecondary education and those who
were
enrolled at a 2- year institution or less at the end of the 6- year period
. These student may have earned an associate*s degree or certificate. b
Student dependency status for federal financial aid during 1995- 96.
Students age 23 or younger
were assumed to be dependent unless they met the independent student
criteria, including being married or having legal dependents, other than a
spouse. c Student*s SAT I combined score. This variable was derived as
either the sum of SAT I verbal and
mathematics test scores or the ACT Assessment (American College Testing
program) composite score converted to an estimated SAT combined score
using a concordance table. The primary source of data were from a match
with the SAT files from the Educational Testing Service and the ACT test
files of the American College Testing programs, supplemented by
postsecondary institution reported
and student- reported information. The quartiles were derived from the
distribution of the test scores among the BPS cohort sample students. d
Indicates whether student delayed enrollment in postsecondary education,
as determined by receipt of a high school diploma prior to 1995 or
reaching the age of 20 before December 31, 1995.
Appendix III: Results of Regression Models for Bachelor*s Degree
Completion within 6 Years of Beginning College
Page 42 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Characteristic Completed a
bachelor*s
degree within 6 years
Odds ratio- independent effect Odds ratio-
net effect Background characteristics Sex Female 57 a a
Male 47 0.66 b 0.83
Race White, non- Hispanic 55 a a Black, non- Hispanic 38 0.48 b 0.62 b
Hispanic 40 0.53 b 0.68 Asian/ Pacific Islander 55 0.99 0.76 Other 58 1.12
0.52
Age 18 and under 59 19 36 20- 23 21 24- 29 27 30 and over 15
0.86 b 0.93
Socioeconomic status disadvantaged index
Not disadvantaged 58 a a Disadvantaged 44 0.56 b 1.06
Dependent status c Dependent 56 a a Independent, no children 22 0.22 b
Independent, married with children 23 0.24 b Independent, not married,
with children 21 0.21 b
0.52
First generation to attend college No 59 a a Yes 43 0.51 b 0.66 b
Academic preparation & performance High School Completion Diploma 53 a a
GED/ Other 27 0.32 b 0.63
High school curriculum Did not meet New Basics 47 Met New Basics, not
rigorous 48 Slightly rigorous 55 Moderately rigorous 65 Highly rigorous 81
1.39 b 1.14 b
Appendix III: Results of Regression Models for Bachelor*s Degree
Completion within 6 Years of Beginning College
Appendix III: Results of Regression Models for Bachelor*s Degree
Completion within 6 Years of Beginning College
Page 43 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Characteristic Completed a
bachelor*s
degree within 6 years
Odds ratio- independent effect Odds ratio-
net effect High school grades A to A- 78
A- to B 60 B to B- 39 B- to C 33 C to D 37
2.08 b 1.17 b
SAT Score d Lowest quartile ( 1100) 79
1.41 b 1.03
First- year college GPA > 3.0 71 2.0 to 2.9 51 < 2.0 29
2.45 b 2.24 b
Work & attendance patterns Delayed college after high school e No 59 a a
Yes 24 0.99 1.01
College attendance Part- time or mix of part- and fulltime 34 a a Full-
time 66 3.89 b 2.31 b
Continuous enrollment No 15 a a Yes 66 10.81 b 6.22 b
Work during college Did not work 61 a a Worked Less than 10 hours 61 1.00
0.86 Between 10 and 19 hours 63 1.09 0.79 Between 20 and 31 hours 41 0.45
b 0.62 b Full- time (32 hours or more) 26 0.25 b 0.49 b
Appendix III: Results of Regression Models for Bachelor*s Degree
Completion within 6 Years of Beginning College
Page 44 GAO- 03- 568 College Completion Characteristic Completed a
bachelor*s
degree within 6 years
Odds ratio- independent effect Odds ratio-
net effect Transferred to a 4- year institution
No 69 a a Yes 32 0.21 b 0.41 b
Social integration Participated in study groups No 40 a a Yes 59 2.17 b
0.99
Participated in collegiate clubs
No 41 a a Yes 68 3.04 b 1.54 b Source: Department of Education. Note: GAO
analysis of Education*s BPS 1995/ 96 data. a denotes referent category.
b Odds ratio is statistically significant at p<= 0.05. c Student
dependency status for federal financial aid during 1995- 96. Students age
23 or younger were assumed to be dependent unless they met the independent
student criteria, including being married or having legal dependents,
other than a spouse. d Student*s SAT I combined score. This variable was
derived as either the sum of SAT I verbal and
mathematics test scores or the ACT Assessment (American College Testing
program) composite score converted to an estimated SAT combined score
using a concordance table. The primary source of data were from a match
with the SAT files from the Educational Testing Service and the ACT test
files of the American College Testing programs, supplemented by
postsecondary institution reported
and student- reported information. The quartiles were derived from the
distribution of the test scores among the BPS cohort sample students. e
Indicates whether student delayed enrollment in postsecondary education,
as determined by receipt of a high school diploma prior to 1995 or
reaching the age of 20 before December 31, 1995.
Appendix IV: Comments from the Department of Education Page 45 GAO- 03-
568 College Completion Appendix IV: Comments from the Department of
Education
Appendix IV: Comments from the Department of Education Page 46 GAO- 03-
568 College Completion
Appendix IV: Comments from the Department of Education Page 47 GAO- 03-
568 College Completion
Appendix V: GAO Contacts and Staff Acknowledgments Page 48 GAO- 03- 568
College Completion Kelsey Bright, Assistant Director (202) 512- 9037 Debra
Prescott, Analyst- in- Charge (202) 512- 2972 In addition to those named
above, Rebecca Ackley, Avrum Ashery, Patrick
diBattista, Kopp Michelotti, John Mingus, Luann Moy, Doug Sloane, and
Wendy Turenne made important contributions to this report. Appendix V: GAO
Contacts and Staff
Acknowledgments Contacts Acknowledgments
(130131)
The General Accounting Office, the audit, evaluation and investigative arm
of Congress, exists to support Congress in meeting its constitutional
responsibilities and to help improve the performance and accountability of
the federal government for the American people. GAO examines the use of
public funds; evaluates federal programs and policies; and provides
analyses, recommendations, and other assistance to help Congress make
informed oversight, policy, and funding decisions. GAO*s commitment to
good government is reflected in its core values of accountability,
integrity, and reliability.
The fastest and easiest way to obtain copies of GAO documents at no cost
is through the Internet. GAO*s Web site (www. gao. gov) contains abstracts
and fulltext files of current reports and testimony and an expanding
archive of older products. The Web site features a search engine to help
you locate documents using key words and phrases. You can print these
documents in their entirety, including charts and other graphics.
Each day, GAO issues a list of newly released reports, testimony, and
correspondence. GAO posts this list, known as *Today*s Reports,* on its
Web site daily. The list contains links to the full- text document files.
To have GAO e- mail
this list to you every afternoon, go to www. gao. gov and select
*Subscribe to daily E- mail alert for newly released products* under the
GAO Reports heading.
The first copy of each printed report is free. Additional copies are $2
each. A check or money order should be made out to the Superintendent of
Documents. GAO also accepts VISA and Mastercard. Orders for 100 or more
copies mailed to a single address are discounted 25 percent. Orders should
be sent to: U. S. General Accounting Office 441 G Street NW, Room LM
Washington, D. C. 20548 To order by Phone: Voice: (202) 512- 6000
TDD: (202) 512- 2537 Fax: (202) 512- 6061
Contact: Web site: www. gao. gov/ fraudnet/ fraudnet. htm E- mail:
fraudnet@ gao. gov Automated answering system: (800) 424- 5454 or (202)
512- 7470 Jeff Nelligan, Managing Director, NelliganJ@ gao. gov (202) 512-
4800
U. S. General Accounting Office, 441 G Street NW, Room 7149 Washington, D.
C. 20548 GAO*s Mission Obtaining Copies of
GAO Reports and Testimony
Order by Mail or Phone To Report Fraud, Waste, and Abuse in Federal
Programs Public Affairs
*** End of document. ***