Troops to Teachers: Program Helped Address Teacher Shortages	 
(25-MAY-01, GAO-01-567).					 
								 
In response to a shortage of math and science teachers and	 
reductions in U.S. military personnel, Congress enacted 	 
legislation in 1992 establishing the Troops to Teachers (TTT)	 
program administered by the Department of Defense (DOD). Until	 
1995, TTT offered stipends to program participants and incentive 
grants to school districts to hire TTT teachers. In October of	 
1999, after the significant reductions in the military had	 
leveled off but teacher shortages had become more widespread,	 
Congress reauthorized the program and transferred it from DOD to 
the Department of Education. This report reviews the program from
its beginning in January 1994 until its transfer to Education.	 
GAO found that 13,756 former military personnel applied to the	 
program and were accepted. Of these, 3,821 were hired as teachers
from 1994 through 2000, and over 90 percent of those applicants  
hired as teachers remained in teaching after the first year.	 
However, these figures on program participation most likely	 
represent the minimum number of former military personnel who	 
used the program's services and became teachers because they	 
include only those persons who formally applied to the TTT	 
program and who completed follow-up surveys. Compared with all	 
teachers nationwide, a higher percentage of TTT teachers overall 
taught math, science, special education, and vocational education
and taught in inner city schools and high schools. Factors such  
as stipends, incentive grants, economic conditions, and certain  
state initiatives may have influenced the number of people who	 
applied to the program and became teachers.			 
-------------------------Indexing Terms------------------------- 
REPORTNUM:   GAO-01-567 					        
    ACCNO:   A01043						        
  TITLE:     Troops to Teachers: Program Helped Address Teacher       
             Shortages                                                        
     DATE:   05/25/2001 
  SUBJECT:   Human resources utilization			 
	     Military personnel 				 
	     Personnel recruiting				 
	     Teachers						 
	     Dept. of Education Dwight D. Eisenhower		 
	     Professional Development Program			 
								 
	     DOD Troops to Teachers Program			 

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GAO-01-567
     
Report to Congressional Requestors

United States General Accounting Office

GAO

May 2001 TROOPS TO TEACHERS

Program Helped Address Teacher Shortages

GAO- 01- 567

Page i GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers Letter 1

Tables

Table 1: TTT Program Data on Applications Received and Teachers Hired by
Year 7 Table 2: Number of Former Military Personnel Placed in Teaching

Positions From 1994 through September 30, 2000 8 Table 3: Comparison of
Retention of TTT Teachers to All Teachers

Nationwide as of Fiscal Year 2000 9 Table 4: Comparison of TTT Teachers to
All Teachers Nationwide 10

Figures

Figure 1: States With TTT Offices 5

Abbreviations

DANTES Defense Activity for Non- Traditional Educational Support DoD
Department of Defense NCEI National Center for Education Information TTT
Troops to Teachers Contents

Page 1 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

May 25, 2001 The Honorable John W. Warner Chairman The Honorable Carl Levin
Ranking Member Armed Services Committee United States Senate

The Honorable Bob Stump Chairman The Honorable Ike Skelton Ranking Minority
Member Armed Services Committee House of Representatives

Teacher shortages have become a topic of growing public concern. When the
shortage of math and science teachers was increasing and the U. S. military
forces were undergoing significant reductions in personnel, the Congress
enacted legislation in 1992 1 establishing the Troops to Teachers (TTT)
program. The program, administered by the Department of Defense (DoD), was
designed to help separated (discharged or retired) military personnel become
certified and employed as teachers in school districts with large low-
income populations that were experiencing teacher shortages. As part of this
effort, DoD worked with state education offices to help military personnel
transition into teaching, often by means of a state alternative
certification program. 2 In the first 2 years of the program, 1994 and 1995,
TTT offered stipends to program participants to help cover their
certification costs and incentive grants to school districts to hire TTT
teachers, but stopped awarding stipends and grants after 1995. In October

1 The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1993 (P. L. 102-
484, Oct. 23, 1992). 2 Alternative certification commonly refers to an
avenue to becoming licensed to teach that requires a baccalaureate degree
from a college or university but does not require the degree be in
education. Alternative certification addresses the professional preparation
needs of people with at least a baccalaureate degree and who often have
considerable life experience. Alternative certifications range from
emergency certifications that place a person in the classroom immediately to
longer programs that include course work and mentoring. While these programs
vary within and among states, nearly all states now have some type of
alternative to the traditional path of majoring in education in order to
become a teacher.

United States General Accounting Office Washington, DC 20548

Page 2 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

1999, after the significant reductions in the military had leveled off but
teacher shortages had become more widespread, the Congress reauthorized the
program and transferred it from DoD to the Department of Education
(Education) effective October 1, 2000. However, DoD still administers the
program under an agreement with Education. This report reviews the program
from its beginning in January 1994 until its transfer to Education.

In transferring the program to Education, the National Defense Authorization
Act for fiscal year 2000 required us to provide information on program
accomplishments as of September 30, 2000, and other matters as appropriate.
We agreed to provide information on

* the number of people who applied to the TTT program and were hired as
teachers from fiscal years 1994 through 2000 and the percentage of hired
teachers who remained in teaching past the first year;  the extent to which
TTT teachers, compared with all teachers nationwide,

taught  math, science, special education, and vocational education;  in
inner city and rural areas; and  certain grade levels.  factors that might
have increased or decreased the number of people who

applied for the program and became teachers. We obtained program data from
TTT?s data base and from a study entitled ?Profile of Troops to Teachers?
completed in 1998 by the National Center for Education Information (NCEI).
We interviewed TTT program officials from DoD and from 10 of the 24 state
offices that have joined the program and reviewed documents on program
operations. We also reviewed reports by research organizations documenting
factors that could have affected program participation. We did our work in
accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards between
October 2000 and March 2001.

According to TTT records, 13,756 former military personnel applied to the
program and were accepted. Of these, 3,821 were hired as teachers from 1994
through 2000, and over 90 percent of those applicants hired as teachers
remained in teaching after the first year. However, these figures on program
participation most likely represent the minimum number of former military
personnel who used the program?s services and became teachers because they
include only those persons who formally applied to the TTT program and who
completed follow- up surveys. These data omit Results in Brief

Page 3 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

people who used TTT program resources to become teachers but did not
actually apply to the program. Between 1994 and 1995, people interested in
receiving a stipend were required to formally apply to the program. However,
people were less inclined to formally apply when the program stopped
awarding stipends. In addition, in 1997 TTT created a web site that allowed
users to contact state education offices, gather information about teacher
certification programs, and access job openings without applying to the
program. Four TTT state offices tracked military personnel who were hired as
teachers after contacting their offices directly and who did not apply to
the program. Their data show that a greater number of people entered into
teaching as a result of the program than the official TTT program records
show.

Compared with all teachers nationwide, a higher percentage of TTT teachers
overall taugh math, science, special education, and vocational education and
taught in inner city schools and high schools. For example, 20 percent of
TTT teachers in 2000 were teaching special education compared with 5 percent
of teachers nationwide in 1996. A higher percentage of TTT teachers were
males (86 percent) and minorities (33 percent) than all teachers nationwide
(26 percent and 11 percent, respectively). The program?s ability to place
teachers in subjects and geographic areas that are difficult to staff and
the opportunity for states to improve the diversity of their teachers were
factors in most states? decisions to join the TTT program.

Factors, such as stipends, incentive grants, economic conditions, and
certain state initiatives may have influenced the number of people who
applied to the program and became teachers. In 1994 and 1995, stipends-
which lowered the cost of obtaining teacher certification- and incentive
grants- which helped school districts pay TTT teachers? salaries- likely
encouraged individuals to apply to the program and helped them get hired.
The high demand for teachers, which had become more widespread by 1998, also
probably increased the number of applications to the program. In addition,
by making it easier to obtain certification, some state initiatives that
eased the transition to teaching may have increased the number of applicants
and TTT teachers. For example, some states reduced the time and cost of
alternative certification requirements for applicants. However, some factors
may have decreased the number of people who applied to the program and
became teachers. For example, economic factors, including a low unemployment
rate, the high demand and high salaries for workers with technical skills,
and a reduction in the supply of potential military applicants could have
negatively affected the number of people applying to the program.

Page 4 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

The Troops to Teachers program is a federal program that began operations in
1994 with two goals: (1) to help military personnel affected by downsizing
become teachers and (2) to ease the teacher shortage, especially in math and
science and in areas with concentrations of children from low- income
families. The program offers information on state teacher certification
requirements and job referral and job placement assistance to active and
former military personnel who are interested in pursuing teaching as a
second career after leaving the military. According to TTT program data,
military officers represent a major participant group. During 1994 and 1995,
the program also offered financial incentives to military personnel and
school districts to participate in the program. Participants who received
stipends of up to $5,000 and became certified were required to teach for 5
years. School districts could receive grants of up to $50,000 paid over 5
years for each TTT participant they hired. The program stopped awarding new
stipends and grants after 1995 when funds were no longer appropriated for
this purpose.

The program is administered by DoD?s Defense Activity for NonTraditional
Education Support (DANTES). DANTES and 24 state TTT offices carry out the
program?s efforts to ease former military personnel into teaching. (See fig.
1.) States voluntarily join the TTT program. States that wish to join submit
proposals to DANTES describing the services they plan to provide and the
activities in which they plan to engage to achieve the TTT program goals. If
the proposal is approved, DANTES signs a memorandum of agreement with the
state agency responsible for the TTT program, most often the state?s
department of education. DANTES provides funds for state program expenses,
although the state TTT representatives are not federal employees. 3 From
fiscal year 1994 through 2000, DANTES spent $5.5 million on program
administration and provided states with a total of $12.1 million to operate
their TTT offices, according to program officials.

3 Most states staff their TTT offices with state department of education
employees, but some staff their TTT offices with employees of other state
agencies or with contractor or university personnel. Through fiscal year
2000, 23 states had received funds from the TTT program. Maine had not
received any TTT funds. Background

Page 5 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

Figure 1: States With TTT Offices

Note: Colorado also provides program coverage for New Mexico and Nevada.
Source: DANTES.

States that joined the program have had a great deal of flexibility in how
they operate the TTT program in their state. State offices determine their
own organizational structure, the amount of resources they will devote to
the program, and the services they will provide. Sixteen states had joined
TTT by 1995 and 8 more joined between 1998 and 2000.

States with TTT Offices

Page 6 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

DANTES and state TTT offices operate as a network to provide services to
military personnel interested in becoming teachers. As part of this network,
DANTES serves the following functions:

 Acting as the central liaison for all the military services and the state
education offices and promoting the program at a national level.

 Approving and monitoring the memorandum of agreements.

 Working with the states to share recruitment practices.

 Maintaining the TTT program web site with links to state offices.

 Facilitating the transition from military life to teaching in the 26
states and the District of Columbia without TTT placement assistance
offices.

 Monitoring the teaching commitments of the people who received stipends
and any school districts that received grants on behalf of persons who
applied to the TTT program during 1994 and 1995.

For their part, most state offices provide a broad range of services,
including

 providing personalized counseling and advice to those who wish to become
teachers,

 promoting the TTT program to school districts and the military community,

 promoting military personnel as potential teachers,

 maintaining an 800 number and the state link on the TTT web site with
information and school district openings, and

 working to lessen costs and time required for military personnel to obtain
certification.

The environment in which TTT functions has changed in ways that have
implications for the program?s future operations.

 In 1998, the military downsizing leveled off, essentially removing the
first goal of the TTT program.

 DANTES? responsibility for monitoring the teaching commitments of those
who received stipends and grants between 1994 and 1995 will end in a few
years.

 Thirteen additional states currently have contacted DANTES and are waiting
to join the program, either independently or as a consortium.

 The Congress appropriated $3 million for TTT in fiscal year 2001 under the
Eisenhower Professional Development Program, placing TTT within Education?s
broader initiative to support teacher recruitment. The Eisenhower Program
also provides additional funds in grants to states

Page 7 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

and/ or organizations that wish to develop new avenues for attracting
teachers, especially second- career teachers.

 The President?s 2002 budget proposes to support and expand TTT activities
through the Transition to Teaching program. The $30 million budget proposed
for Transition to Teaching would assist nonmilitary as well as military
professionals with becoming teachers.

According to TTT records, 3,821 of the 13,756 people accepted into the
program were hired as teachers from fiscal years 1994 through 2000. However,
this number probably underrepresents the number of people who have used
program services and become teachers. Of those participants hired as
teachers, over 90 percent remained in teaching past the first year.

TTT program records show that 17,459 people applied to the program from
fiscal years 1994 through 2000 and, of these, 13,756 were accepted into the
program. Of these participants, 3,821, or 28 percent, became teachers. (See
table 1.) More than 85 percent of the TTT teachers were hired in states with
TTT offices.

Table 1: TTT Program Data on Applications Received and Teachers Hired by
Year Year Applications received Teachers hired

1994 4,654 411 1995 5,250 929 1996 2,197 1,083 1997 1,608 656 1998 1,300 359
1999 1,340 281 2000 1,110 102

Total 17,459 a 3,821 b

a Of the number, 13, 756 were qualified and accepted by DANTES. b An
additional 1,378 applicants are either working on certification or awaiting
job placement.

Source: DANTES? program records as of September 30, 2000.

While no formal documentation was maintained on reasons for the withdrawals
of 8,554 applicants accepted in the program who did not become teachers, the
TTT program director provided several reasons why some participants withdrew
from the program. For instance, some military personnel said they had found
a better paying job, some realized that they Program Placed

Military Personnel in Teaching, but Numbers May Be Understated

Page 8 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

would not like teaching, and others thought the cost and time of the
alternative certification process was onerous.

It is difficult to ascertain the full extent of TTT program participation,
because program data are incomplete. When the stipends and incentive grants
ended after 1995, it became difficult to track the number of people using
the program?s resources because they were less inclined to complete
application forms and respond to surveys that tracked program retention. In
addition, with the creation of the TTT web site, people could access
information they needed to find certification programs and teaching
positions and do so without applying to the program. Consequently, the
number of people who used the program to become teachers is probably
understated. DANTES officials told us that they believe their numbers
undercount the total number of teachers hired as a result of the TTT
program.

Similarly, some state TTT officials said that DANTES records may
substantially undercount the number of former military personnel they have
placed in teaching positions. Six of the 10 state TTT officials that we
contacted said this was the case, but only 4 states- Colorado, Mississippi,
South Carolina, and Texas- kept records with additional information on
military persons whom they placed in teaching positions whether or not they
completed a TTT program application. Table 2 shows the difference between
DANTES? records and state records for the number of teachers hired within
these states.

Table 2: Number of Former Military Personnel Placed in Teaching Positions
From 1994 through September 30, 2000

State DANTES State TTT office

Colorado 89 101 Mississippi 39 85 South Carolina 146 191 Texas 571 1,273

Source: Prepared by GAO from DANTES? and state TTT records.

Available TTT program data also show that over 90 percent of TTT teachers
remained in teaching after their first year. The percent of TTT teachers who
remain in teaching for at least 3 years is about the same as that for all
teachers nationwide, and the percent of TTT teachers that remain for 5 years
is markedly better. (See table 3.) However, these retention rates should be
considered in light of the fact that TTT teachers who received stipends had
to teach for 5 years to pay off their financial

Page 9 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

commitment. In addition, these data are based solely on teachers who
received funding (2,135) and do not include those who did not. 4 However, a
TTT program survey done in 1999 of school districts that hired TTT teachers-
including those who completed applications and follow- up surveys but did
not receive funding- showed similar results.

Table 3: Comparison of Retention of TTT Teachers to All Teachers Nationwide
as of Fiscal Year 2000

Percent retained as teachers Number of years teaching

DANTES program data of teachers

who received funding a

DANTES survey of school districts in

1999 b National Center

for Education Statistics - 1997 c

1 year 93 94 91 3 years 79 84 80 5 years 71 71 50 a DANTES? program data.
The universe was 2, 135.

b This survey had a 79- percent response rate from a universe of 3, 359,
which represented 662 school districts in 34 states. c These data come from
a national sample.

According to TTT program records and NCEI survey data, a higher percentage
of TTT teachers overall taught math, science, special education, and
vocational education and taught in inner city schools and high schools than
all teachers nationwide. (See table 4.) For example, 20 percent of TTT
teachers compared with 5 percent of teachers nationwide taught general
special education. Also, a higher percentage of TTT teachers are male (86
percent) and minority (33 percent) than the national percentages (26 percent
and 11 percent, respectively). Many states that joined the TTT program said
that they did so because the program would enable them to fill positions in
subjects or geographic areas in which they had shortages, especially in
math, science, special education, and vocational education and in inner city
schools. They also cited the program?s potential for increasing the
diversity of its teacher workforce,

4 While funding was awarded only in 1994 and 1995, those people who received
stipends could use these funds after 1995 because the total amount of the
stipend was obligated when it was awarded. Some people needed 2 to 3 years
to complete certifications and get hired as teachers. Also, incentive
grants, awarded only in 1994 and 1995, were 5- year grants. TTT Teachers
Taught

in Areas Where Teacher Shortages Existed

Page 10 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

some specifically mentioned male and minority teachers as a factor in their
decisions to join the TTT program.

Table 4: Comparison of TTT Teachers to All Teachers Nationwide Percent of
TTT teachers based on DANTES program

data as of fiscal year 2000 a

NCEI survey of TTT teachers in fiscal year 1998 b

NCEI national survey of public school teachers in

school year 1996 c Subjects taught

Math 15 29 13 Science 11 27 11 Special education (general) 20 10 5
Vocational education 15 15 3

Total percentage of teachers of math, science, special and vocational
education 61 81 32

Schools where employed

Inner city 24 24 16 Rural 24 24 23 Small town, nonrural 24 24 30 Suburban 27
27 31

Grade level taught

Elementary 25 20 47 Middle/ junior high 29 35 26 High school 46 45 27

Teacher characteristics

Male 86 90 26 Minority 33 29 11 a These numbers, from a universe of 3, 821,
do not include TTT teachers who did not complete followup surveys. b The
data, from a universe of 1, 171, were from a survey of TTT teachers
completed by NCEI in 1996 and are reported in ?Profile of Troops to
Teachers,? National Center for Education Information, 1998. c The universe
was 1, 018.

Several factors may have affected- both positively and negatively- the
number of military personnel applying to the TTT program and the number
hired as teachers. The positive factors were (1) the TTT stipends, (2) the
TTT incentive grants, (3) the increased demand for teachers, and (4)
accomplishments of state TTT offices. The negative factors were (1)
increased demands for specialized workers, (2) economic growth, and (3) a
reduction in the number of officers leaving the military. Several Factors
Could

Have Affected Program Participation

Page 11 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

The following factors may have increased the number of TTT applicants and/
or teachers hired.

 Stipends. During the first 2 years of the program, stipends lowered the
cost of obtaining teacher certification for TTT participants. In a DANTES
survey of TTT teachers who had completed their 5- year teaching commitment
for receiving the stipend, 59 percent reported that the TTT program was very
important in making their decision to become a teacher, and 68 percent
reported that the stipend was the most important feature of the TTT program.

 Incentive grants. During the first 2 years of the program, TTT incentive
grants lowered the cost to school districts of hiring TTT teachers relative
to other job candidates, thereby increasing the demand for TTT teachers. The
increased probability of being hired would have made the program more
attractive to applicants.

 Demand for teachers. Education data show that teacher shortages became
more widespread in 1998, thus the demand for teachers expanded and
intensified. The increased likelihood of employment for TTT teachers after
certification could have increased the number of applicants to the program.

 Accomplishments of state TTT offices. State TTT offices have experienced
some success in decreasing the time and cost of teacher certification for
military personnel and in increasing the demand among school districts for
TTT hires. Both of these accomplishments probably made the program more
attractive to potential applicants.

 More alternative teacher certification programs are available to persons
pursuing second careers as teachers, including military personnel, sometimes
as a direct result of the TTT program. For example, the Florida, Wisconsin,
and Washington state TTT offices played roles in convincing their state
legislatures in 2000 to authorize new alternative teacher certification
programs.

 Some state TTT offices, working with DANTES, created opportunities for
military personnel to satisfy some teacher certification requirements while
still on active duty. For example, the Texas TTT office, working in
conjunction with three Texas universities, implemented a distance learning
program in the Fall 2000 offering teacher certification classes at military
bases worldwide. Texas also worked with DANTES to make its teacher
certification examination available at military bases worldwide.

 Some states lowered the cost of teacher certification for military
personnel in response to the efforts of their state TTT office. For example,
California and Washington reduced the fees they charged military personnel
to take courses at state universities. Factors That Could Have

Increased the Number of TTT Applicants and Teacher s

Page 12 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

 Outreach and promotional activities by state TTT offices increased school
districts? demand for TTT hires. For example, the Colorado, Illinois, North
Carolina, and Ohio TTT offices increased the number of school districts that
posted their teacher vacancies on the TTT data base.

The following factors may have decreased the number of TTT applicants and/
or teachers hired.

 Demand for specialized workers. A nationwide increase in demand for
workers with math/ science backgrounds, especially in information technology
and the sciences, which generally pay higher salaries than teaching, may
have attracted potential military personnel with these skills away from
pursuing a teaching career. Between 1994 and 1999, the number of workers
employed in the mathematical and computer sciences increased by almost 56
percent while total employment increased by about 8.5 percent.

 Economic growth. The general growth in the economy in the 1990s increased
the number of alternative job opportunities for those leaving the military.
An important indicator of economic growth and the demand for labor is the
unemployment rate. The greater the economic growth, the greater the demand
for labor and the lower the unemployment rate. Between 1994 and 1999, the
unemployment rate declined from 6.1 percent to 4.2 percent.

 Reduction in supply of applicants. The number of retired commissioned
officers, warrant officers, and high- graded noncommissioned officers
declined from 34,335 to 26,612 between 1994 and 1999. This group comprised
76 percent of all TTT applicants during this period.

The TTT program is currently functioning in an environment that differs
greatly from when it began 7 years ago. Its first purpose, to place military
persons affected by downsizing initiatives in the classroom, has essentially
been eliminated while its second purpose, to address teacher shortages, has
become a more critical national issue. Also, the transition to teacher from
a different profession has become easier in many states through new or
expanded alternative teacher certification programs. With the recent
transfer of TTT from DoD to Education, it is too early to determine how TTT
will fit into Education?s mission and its broader teacher recruitment and
retention initiatives. However, this new environment presents opportunities
for Education to explore how best to coordinate the TTT Factors That Could
Have

Decreased the Number of TTT Applicants and Teacher s

Conclusions

Page 13 GAO- 01- 567 Troops to Teachers

program with other education programs to address the nation?s growing
teacher shortage problem.

We provided Education and DoD with a draft of this report for review, and
both agencies provided comments via e- mail. Education noted that it has
other programs to increase the number of qualified teachers, including the
Transition to Teacher and Eisenhower Professional Development programs, and
that the information in the report will be valuable as the Department
continues to explore ways that these programs can collaborate and strengthen
services. DoD said that it has reviewed the report and accepted the report?s
conclusions.

We are sending copies of this report to the Honorable Roderick R. Paige,
Secretary of the Department of Education, and other interested parties. We
will also make copies available to others on request. If you or your staffs
have any questions about this report, please contact me on (202) 512- 7215
or Karen Whiten at (202) 512- 7291. Key contributors to this report were
Mary Roy, Ellen Habenicht, Richard Kelley, Barbara Smith, and Patrick
DiBattista.

Marnie S. Shaul, Director Education, Workforce, and

Income Security Issues Agency Comments

(102014)

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