[Federal Register Volume 84, Number 51 (Friday, March 15, 2019)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 9648-9687]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2019-04420]
[[Page 9647]]
Vol. 84
Friday,
No. 51
March 15, 2019
Part III
Department of the Interior
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Fish and Wildlife Service
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50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Removing the Gray Wolf
(Canis lupus) From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife;
Proposed Rules
Federal Register / Vol. 84 , No. 51 / Friday, March 15, 2019 /
Proposed Rules
[[Page 9648]]
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-HQ-ES-2018-0097; FXES11130900000C2-189-FF09E32000]
RIN 1018-BD60
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Removing the Gray
Wolf (Canis lupus) From the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Proposed rule.
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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service or USFWS),
have evaluated the classification status of gray wolves (Canis lupus)
currently listed in the contiguous United States and Mexico under the
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). Based on our
evaluation, we propose to remove the gray wolf from the List of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. We propose this action because the
best available scientific and commercial information indicates that the
currently listed entities do not meet the definitions of a threatened
species or endangered species under the Act due to recovery. The effect
of this rulemaking action would be to remove the gray wolf from the
Act's protections. This proposed rule does not have any effect on the
separate listing of the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) as
endangered under the Act.
DATES: Comment submission: We will accept comments received or
postmarked on or before May 14, 2019.
Public hearings: We must receive requests for public hearings, in
writing, at the address shown in FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT by
April 29, 2019.
ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
(1) Electronically: Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal: http://www.regulations.gov. In the Search box, enter Docket No. FWS-HQ-ES-
2018-0097, which is the docket number for this rulemaking. Then, click
on the Search button. On the resulting page, in the Search panel on the
left side of the screen under the Document Type heading, click on the
Proposed Rules link to locate this document. You may submit a comment
by clicking on the blue ``Comment Now!'' box. If your comments will fit
in the provided comment box, please use this feature of http://www.regulations.gov, as it is most compatible with our comment review
procedures. If you attach your comments as a separate document, our
preferred file format is Microsoft Word. If you attach multiple
comments (such as form letters), our preferred format is a spreadsheet
in Microsoft Excel.
(2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public
Comments Processing, Attn: Docket No. FWS-HQ-ES-2018-0097; U.S. Fish &
Wildlife Service Headquarters, MS: BPHC, 5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls
Church, VA 22041-3803.
We request that you send comments only by the methods described
above. We will post all comments on http://www.regulations.gov. This
generally means that we will post any personal information you provide
us (see Public Comments below for more information).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Don Morgan, Chief, Branch of Delisting
and Foreign Species, Ecological Services, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Headquarters Office, MS: ES, 5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church,
VA 22041-3803; telephone (703) 358-2444. Persons who use a
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal Relay
Service at 800-877-8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Executive Summary
Purpose of the Regulatory Action
Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Act, if we determine that
a species is no longer threatened or endangered throughout all or a
significant portion of its range, we must publish in the Federal
Register a proposed rule to remove the species from the Lists of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants in title 50 of the Code
of Federal Regulations (50 CFR 17.11 and 17.12). We also must make a
final determination on our proposal within 1 year thereafter. Removing
a species from the List (``delisting'' it) can only be completed by
issuing a rule.
This document proposes delisting gray wolves in the lower 48 United
States and Mexico. This proposed rule assesses the best available
information regarding the status of and threats to the species, and
replaces our June 13, 2013, proposed rule to delist the gray wolf in
the lower 48 United States and Mexico (78 FR 35664). This proposed rule
does not have any effect on the separate listing of the Mexican wolf as
endangered under the Act (80 FR 2487, January 16, 2015).
The basis for our action. Under the Act, we determine whether a
species is an endangered or threatened species based on any one or more
of five factors or the cumulative effects thereof: (A) The present or
threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or
range; (B) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence. We have determined that the gray
wolf in the lower 48 United States and Mexico (except the Mexican wolf
subspecies) no longer meets the definition of an endangered or
threatened species under the Act.
Peer review. We will seek comments from independent specialists to
ensure that our designation is based on scientifically sound data,
assumptions, and analyses. We will invite these peer reviewers to
comment on our listing proposal. Because we will consider all comments
and information received during the comment period, our final
determination may differ from this proposal.
Information Requested
Public Comments
We intend that any final action resulting from this proposal will
be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and will
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request
comments or information from the public, concerned Tribal and
governmental agencies, the scientific community, industry, or any other
interested parties concerning this proposed rule. Comments should be as
specific as possible.
As this proposal replaces our June 13, 2013, proposal to delist
gray wolves in the lower 48 United States and Mexico (78 FR 35663), we
ask that any comments previously submitted that are relevant to the
status of wolves currently listed in the contiguous United States and
Mexico, as analyzed in this rule, be resubmitted at this time. Comments
must be submitted during the comment period for this proposed rule to
be considered.
Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as
scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Please note that submissions merely stating support for, or
opposition to, the action under consideration without providing
supporting information, although noted, will not meet the standard of
best available scientific and commercial data. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of
the Act directs that determinations as to whether any species is
threatened or endangered must be made ``solely on the basis of the best
scientific and commercial data available.''
[[Page 9649]]
You may submit your comments and materials by one of the methods
listed in ADDRESSES. We request that you send comments only by the
methods described in ADDRESSES.
If you submit information via http://www.regulations.gov, your
entire submission--including your personal identifying information--
will be posted on the website. If your submission is made via a
hardcopy that includes personal identifying information, you may
request at the top of your document that we withhold this information
from public review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able
to do so. We will post all hardcopy submissions on http://www.regulations.gov.
Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be
available for public inspection on http://www.regulations.gov at Docket
No. FWS-HQ-ES-2018-0097, or by appointment, during normal business
hours at U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).
Peer Review
In accordance with our joint policy on peer review published in the
Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we will seek the expert
opinions of at least three appropriate and independent specialists
regarding scientific data and interpretations contained in this
proposed rule. The purpose of peer review is to ensure that our
decisions are based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and
analyses. We will invite these peer reviewers to comment during the
public comment period on our proposed action; these comments will be
available along with other public comments in the docket for this
proposed rule.
We will consider all comments and information we receive during
this comment period during our preparation of the final determination.
Accordingly, the final decision may differ from this proposal.
Table of Contents
Previous Federal Actions
General Background
The 1978 Reclassification
National Wolf Strategy
Approach for this Proposed Rule
The Entities Addressed in this Rule
How We Address the C. lupus Entities in this Rule
How We Address Taxonomic Uncertainties in this Rule
Summary of Our Approach
Species Information
Biology and Ecology
Taxonomy of Gray Wolves in North America
Range and Population Trends Prior to 1978 Reclassification
Historical Range of the Gray Wolf Entity
Historical Abundance of the Gray Wolf Entity
Historical Trends in Range and Abundance for the Gray Wolf
Entity
Distribution, and Abundance of the Gray Wolf Entity at the Time
of the 1978 Reclassification
Current Distribution and Abundance of the Gray Wolf Entity
Gray Wolf Recovery Plans and Recovery Implementation
Recovery Criteria
Recovery Progress
Historical Context of Our Analysis
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
Human-caused Mortality
Effects on Wolf Social Structure
The Role of Public Attitudes
Human-caused Mortality Summary
Habitat and Prey Availability
Great Lakes Area: Suitable Habitat
Great Lakes Area: Prey Availability
West Coast States: Suitable Habitat
West Coast States: Prey Availability
Habitat and Prey Availability Summary
Disease and Parasites
Effects of Climate Change
Cumulative Effects
Post-delisting Management
State Management
Post-delisting Management in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan
The Minnesota Wolf Management Plan
Depredation Control in Minnesota
Post-delisting Depredation Control in Minnesota
Post-delisting Regulated Harvest in Minnesota
The Wisconsin Wolf Management Plan
Depredation Control in Wisconsin
Post-delisting Depredation Control in Wisconsin
Post-delisting Regulated Harvest in Wisconsin
The Michigan Wolf Management Plan
Depredation Control in Michigan
Post-delisting Depredation Control in Michigan
Post-delisting Regulated Harvest in Michigan
Post-delisting Management in the West Coast States
The Oregon Wolf Management Plan
The Washington Wolf Management Plan
The California Wolf Management Plan
Tribal Management and Conservation of Wolves
Management on Federal Lands
Great Lakes Area
West Coast States
Summary of Post-delisting Management
Determination of Species Status
Summary and Conclusion of Our Analysis
Determination of Status Throughout All of its Range
Determination of Status Throughout a Significant Portion of its
Range
Proposed Determination
Effects of This Rule
Post-delisting Monitoring
Required Determinations
Clarity of This Proposed Rule
National Environmental Policy Act
Government-to-Government Relationship With Tribes
Previous Federal Actions
Gray wolves were originally listed as subspecies or as regional
populations of subspecies in the contiguous United States and Mexico.
Early listings were under legislative predecessors of the Act--the
Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966 and the Endangered Species
Conservation Act of 1969. Later listings were under the Endangered
Species Act of 1973. The Federal Register citations for all the
rulemaking actions described in the following paragraphs are provided
in table 1, below.
In 1978, we published a rule reclassifying the gray wolf as an
endangered population at the taxonomic species level (C. lupus)
throughout the contiguous United States and Mexico, except for the
Minnesota gray wolf population, which was classified as threatened
(table 1). At that time, we considered the gray wolves in Minnesota to
be a listable entity under the Act, and we considered gray wolves in
Mexico and the 48 contiguous United States other than Minnesota to be
another listable entity (43 FR 9607 and 9610, respectively, March 9,
1978). The earlier subspecies listings thus were subsumed into the
listings for the gray wolf in Minnesota and the gray wolf in the rest
of the contiguous United States and Mexico.
The 1978 reclassification was undertaken to ``most conveniently''
address changes in our understanding of gray wolf taxonomy and protect
all gray wolves in the lower 48 United States. In addition, we sought
to clarify that the gray wolf was only listed south of the Canadian
border.
The 1978 reclassification rule stipulated that ``biological
subspecies would continue to be maintained and dealt with as separate
entities'' (43 FR 9609), and offered ``the firmest assurance that [the
Service] will continue to recognize valid biological subspecies for
purposes of its research and conservation programs'' (43 FR 9610).
Accordingly, we implemented three gray wolf recovery programs in three
regions of the country--the northern Rocky Mountains, the southwestern
United States, and the eastern United States--to establish and
prioritize recovery criteria and actions appropriate to the unique
local circumstances of the gray wolf (table 1). Recovery in two of
these regions (northern Rocky Mountains and southwestern United States)
required reintroduction of gray wolves in experimental populations
(table 1),
[[Page 9650]]
while recovery in the third (eastern United States) relied on natural
recolonization and population growth.
Between 2003 and 2015, we published several rules revising the 1978
contiguous United States and Mexico listings for C. lupus in an attempt
to acknowledge taxonomy, comport with current policy and practices, and
to recognize the biological recovery of gray wolves in the northern
Rocky Mountains (NRM) and western Great Lakes (WGL) populations.
Previous rules were challenged and subsequently invalidated or vacated
by various courts based, in part, on their determinations that our
distinct population segment (DPS) designations were legally flawed
(table 1).
Of particular relevance to this proposed rule is our 2011 final
rule, in which we recognized the expansion of the Minnesota wolf
population by revising the entity to include all or portions of six
surrounding States, identified the expanded population as the western
Great Lakes DPS (WGL DPS), and revised the listings to remove the WGL
DPS from the List due to recovery. Also in 2011, we published a final
rule that implemented Section 1713 of Public Law 112-10, reinstating
our 2009 delisting rule for the NRM DPS and, with the exception of
Wyoming, removed gray wolves in that DPS from the List. In 2012, we
finalized a rule removing gray wolves in Wyoming from the List.
Subsequently, in 2013, we published a proposed rule to delist C. lupus
in the remaining listed portions of the United States and Mexico
outside of the delisted NRM and WGL DPSs, and keep Mexican wolf listed
as an endangered subspecies, C. l. baileyi (table 1).
However, in 2014 the United States District Court for the District
of Columbia vacated the final rule at 76 FR 81666 (December 28, 2011)
that removed protections of the Act from the gray wolf in the western
Great Lakes (table 1). The court's action was based, in part, on its
conclusion that the Act does not allow the Service to use its authority
to identify DPSs as ``species'' to remove the protections for part of
an already listed species. The U.S. Court of Appeals disagreed, ruling
in 2017 that the Service had the authority to designate a DPS from a
larger listed entity and delist it in the same rule (table 1). That
court nonetheless upheld the District Court's vacatur, concluding that
the Service failed to reasonably analyze or consider two significant
aspects of the rule: The impacts of partial delisting and historical
range loss on the remainder of the listed entity.
Our 2012 decision to delist gray wolves in Wyoming was also vacated
by the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. Because the
2013 proposal to delist the remaining listed portions of the gray wolf
in the United States and Mexico relied in part on two subsequently
vacated final rules, the 2011 WGL DPS rule as well as our 2012 rule
delisting gray wolves in Wyoming, in 2015 we only finalized the portion
of the rule listing the Mexican wolf as an endangered subspecies (table
1). In 2017, the D.C. Circuit reversed the district court's decision
and reinstated the delisting of gray wolves in Wyoming. Thus, wolves
are currently delisted in the entire northern Rocky Mountains area
(figure 1).
As a result of the above actions, the C. lupus listings in 50 CFR
17.11 currently include: (1) C. lupus in Minnesota listed as
threatened, and (2) C. lupus in all or portions of 44 U.S. States and
Mexico, listed as endangered (figure 1). In the United States, this
includes: all of Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut,
Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Massachusetts, Maryland, Maine, Michigan, Missouri,
Mississippi, North Carolina, North Dakota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New
Jersey, Nevada, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island,
South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Vermont, West
Virginia, and Wisconsin; and portions of Arizona, New Mexico, Oregon,
Utah, and Washington (figure 1).
For additional information on these Federal actions and their
associated litigation history refer to the relevant associated rules or
the Previous Federal Actions sections of our recent gray wolf actions
(see table 1).
Table 1--Key Federal Regulatory Actions Under the Act and Predecessor Legislation 1 Pertaining to Gray Wolf and,
Where Applicable, Outcomes of Court Challenges to These Actions
[E = Endangered Species, T = Threatened Species, DPS = Distinct Population Segment, NRM = Northern Rocky
Mountains, WGL = Western Great Lakes]
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Federal
Entity Year of action Type of action Register Litigation
citation history
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C. l. lycaon................. 1967 \1\...................... List........... 32 FR 4001, ...............
March 11, 1967.
C. l. irremotus.............. 1973 \1\...................... List........... 38 FR 14678, ...............
June 4, 1973.
C. l. lycaon................. 1974.......................... List........... 39 FR 1171, ...............
January 4,
1974.
C. l. irremotus.............. 1974.......................... List........... 39 FR 1171, ...............
January 4,
1974.
C. l. baileyi................ 1976.......................... List (E)....... 41 FR 17736, ...............
April 28, 1976.
C. l. monstrabilis \2\....... 1976.......................... List (E)....... 41 FR 24064, ...............
June 14, 1976.
C. lupus in lower 48 U.S. 1978.......................... Reclassify (E). 43 FR 9607, ...............
(except Minnesota) & Mexico. March 9, 1978
\3\.
C. lupus in Minnesota........ 1978.......................... Reclassify (T). 43 FR 9607, ...............
March 9, 1978
\3\.
C. lupus..................... 1978 (revised 1992)........... Recovery Plan n.a............ ...............
for Eastern
Timber Wolf
(eastern gray
wolf).
C. lupus..................... 1980 (revised 1987)........... Recovery Plan n.a............ ...............
for NRM Gray
Wolf.
C. lupus..................... 1982 (revised 2017)........... Recovery Plan n.a............ ...............
for Mexican
Gray Wolf (C.
l. baileyi).
C. lupus..................... 1994.......................... Establish 59 FR 60266, ...............
experimental November 22,
population 1994.
(southeastern
Idaho,
southern
Montana, and
Wyoming).
C. lupus..................... 1994.......................... Establish 59 FR 60252, ...............
experimental November 22,
population 1994.
(central Idaho
& southwest
Montana).
C. lupus..................... 1998.......................... Establish 63 FR 1752, ...............
experimental January 12,
population 1998.
(Arizona & New
Mexico).
[[Page 9651]]
C. lupus DPSs:............... 2003.......................... Designate DPS & 68 FR 15804, Rule vacated
--Eastern DPS................ classify/ April 1, 2003. (Defenders of
--Western DPS................ reclassify as:. Wildlife v.
--Southwestern U.S. & Mexico --Eastern DPS Norton, 354 F.
DPS. (T). Supp. 2d 1156
--Western DPS (D. Or. 2005);
(T). National
--Southwestern Wildlife
U.S. & Mexico Federation v.
DPS (E) Delist Norton, 386 F.
in unoccupied Supp. 2d 553
non-historical (D. Vt. 2005))
range.
C. lupus WGL DPS............. 2007.......................... Designate DPS & 72 FR 6052, Rule vacated
delist. February 8, (Humane
2007. Society of the
United States
v. Kempthorne,
579 F. Supp.
2d 7 (D.D.C.
2008))
C. lupus NRM DPS............. 2008.......................... Designate DPS & 73 FR 10514, Rule vacated
delist. February 27, and remanded
2008. (Defenders of
Wildlife v.
Hall, 565 F.
Supp. 2d 1160
(D. Mont.
2008))
C. lupus DPSs:............... 2008.......................... Reinstatement 73 FR 75356, ...............
--WGL DPS.................... of December 11,
--NRM DPS.................... protections--N 2008.
RM & WGL DPSs.
C. lupus WGL DPS............. 2009.......................... Designate DPS & 74 FR 15070, Rule vacated
delist. April 2, 2009. (Humane
Society of the
United States
v. Salazar,
1:09-CV-1092-P
LF (D.D.C.
2009))
C. lupus NRM DPS (except 2009.......................... Designate DPS & 74 FR 15123, Rule vacated
Wyoming). delist (except April 2, 2009. (Defenders of
in Wyoming). Wildlife v.
Salazar, 729
F. Supp. 2d
1207 (D. Mont.
2010))
C. lupus WGL DPS............. 2009.......................... Reinstatement 74 FR 47483, ...............
of September 16,
protections--W 2009.
GL.
C. lupus NRM DPS............. 2010.......................... Reinstatement 75 FR 65574, ...............
of October 26,
protections--N 2010.
RM DPS.
C. lupus NRM DPS............. 2011.......................... Reissuance of 76 FR 25590, ...............
2009 NRM DPS May 5, 2011.
delisting rule
(as required
by Public Law
112-10-The
Department of
Defense and
Full-Year
Continuing
Appropriations
Act, 2011).
C. lupus WGL DPS............. 2011.......................... Revise 1978 76 FR 81666, Rule vacated
listing, December 28, (Humane
designate DPS 2011. Society of the
& delist. U.S. v.
Jewell, 76 F.
Supp. 3d 69,
110 (D.D.C.
2014)) Vacatur
upheld on
appeal (Humane
Society of the
U.S. v. Zinke,
865 F.3d 585
(D.C. Cir.
2017))
C. lupus in Wyoming.......... 2012.......................... Delist in 77 FR 55530, Rule vacated
Wyoming. September 10, (Defenders of
2012. Wildlife v.
Jewell, 68 F.
Supp. 3d 193
(D.D.C. 2014)
Vacatur
reversed on
appeal
(Defenders of
Wildlife v.
Zinke, 849
F.3d 1077
(D.C. Cir.
2017))
C. lupus in lower 48 U.S. 2013.......................... Propose delist 78 FR 35664, ...............
(except NRM & WGL DPSs) and in lower 48 June 13, 2013.
Mexico. U.S. & list C.
l. baileyi
(E); status
review of
wolves in
Pacific
Northwest.
C. l. baileyi................ 2015.......................... List E......... 80 FR 2488, ...............
January 16,
2015.
C. l. baileyi................ 2015.......................... Revised 1998 C. 80 FR 2512, ...............
lupus January 16,
experimental 2015.
population and
associated it
with C. l.
baileyi
listing.
C. lupus WGL DPS and C. lupus 2015.......................... Reinstatement 80 FR 9218, ...............
in Wyoming. of February 20,
protections--W 2015.
GL DPS &
Wyoming.
C. lupus in Wyoming.......... 2017.......................... Reinstatement 82 FR 20284, ...............
of 2012 May 1, 2017.
delisting--Wyo
ming.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Action taken under the Endangered Species Preservation predecessor legislation (Endangered Species Act of
1966, Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1969).
\2\ Later subsumed into C. l. baileyi due to taxonomic changes.
\3\ In this rule we also identified critical habitat in Michigan and Minnesota and promulgated special
regulations under section 4(d) of the Act for operating a wolf- management program in Minnesota. The special
regulation was later modified (50 FR 50793, December 12, 1985).
BILLING CODE 4333-15-P
[[Page 9652]]
[GRAPHIC] [TIFF OMITTED] TP15MR19.005
BILLING CODE 4333-15-C
General Background
The 1978 Reclassification
When the gray wolf (C. lupus) was reclassified in March 1978
(replacing multiple subspecies listings with two C. lupus population
listings as described further in Previous Federal Actions), it had been
extirpated from much of its historical range in the contiguous United
States. Although the 1978 reclassification listed two gray wolf
entities (a threatened population in Minnesota and an endangered
population throughout the rest of the contiguous United States and
Mexico), these listings were not predicated upon a formal DPS analysis,
because the reclassification predated the November 1978 amendments to
the Act, which revised the definition of ``species'' to include
distinct population segments of vertebrate fish or wildlife, and our
1996 DPS Policy.
As indicated in Previous Federal Actions, the 1978 reclassification
was employed as an approach of convenience to ensure the gray wolf was
protected wherever it was found (as described in 47 FR 9607, March 9,
1978) in the lower 48 States and Mexico, rather than an indication of
where gray wolves actually existed or where gray wolf recovery would
occur. Thus, the 1978 reclassification resulted in inclusion of large
areas of the contiguous United States where gray wolves were
extirpated, as well as the mid-Atlantic and southeastern United
States--west to central Texas and Oklahoma--an area that is generally
accepted not to be within the historical range of C. lupus (Young and
Goldman 1944, pp. 413-416, 478; Nowak 1995, p. 395, fig. 20). While
this generalized approach to the listing appropriately protected
dispersing wolves throughout the historical range of C. lupus in the
United States and Mexico and facilitated recovery of the northern Rocky
Mountains and western Great Lakes populations, it also erroneously
included areas outside the species' historical range and was misread by
some members of the public as an expression of a larger gray wolf
recovery effort not required by the Act and never intended by the
Service. In fact, as discussed below (see National Wolf Strategy), our
recovery efforts have consistently focused on reestablishing wolf
populations in specific areas of the country.
National Wolf Strategy
We first described our national wolf strategy in our May 5, 2011,
proposed rule to revise the List for the gray wolf in the eastern
United States (76 FR 26086). This strategy was intended to: (1) Lay out
a cohesive and coherent approach to addressing wolf conservation needs,
including protection and management, in accordance with the Act's
statutory framework; (2) ensure that actions taken for one wolf
population do not cause unintended consequences for other populations;
and (3) be explicit about the role of historical range in the
conservation of extant wolf populations. Included in this strategy is
the precept that, in order to qualify for any type of listing or
delisting action, wolf entities must conform to the Act's definition of
``species,'' whether as taxonomic species or subspecies or as distinct
population segments.
Our May 5, 2011, proposed rule states that our strategy focuses on
conservation of four extant gray wolf entities being considered for
[[Page 9653]]
classification actions: (1) The western Great Lakes population, (2) the
northern Rocky Mountains population, (3) the southwestern population of
Mexican wolves, and (4) gray wolves in the Pacific Northwest. All of
our actions to date are consistent with this focus. As stated above
(see Previous Federal Actions), we published final rules delisting the
NRM DPS (except for Wyoming), WGL DPS, and Wyoming portion of the NRM
DPS in 2011 and 2012, and published a final rule listing the Mexican
wolf (C. l. baileyi) separately as endangered in 2015. However, as
indicated in Previous Federal Actions, our 2011 final rule designating
and delisting the WGL DPS was subsequently vacated.
In addition to the rules described above, we completed a status
review for gray wolves in the Pacific Northwest (western Washington and
western Oregon) in 2013 (table 1). We determined that these wolves are
not discrete, under our DPS policy, from wolves in the NRM DPS (see 78
FR 35707-35713) and, therefore, are not a valid listable entity under
the Act. Wolves in the Pacific Northwest are a mix of individuals
derived from wolves in the northern Rocky Mountains and Canada (or
both) and represent the expanding fronts of these populations (78 FR
35707-35713, USFWS 2018, pp. 4, 14-15, 23). Since publication of our
2013 status review, wolves have also expanded into northern California.
Wolves in northern California are not discrete from those in the
Pacific Northwest based on documented movement of wolves between Oregon
and California (USFWS 2018, pp. 14-15). Therefore, wolves in western
Washington, western Oregon, and northern California are not a valid DPS
because they are not discrete from the NRM DPS.
Approach for This Proposed Rule
The Entities Addressed in This Rule
In this proposed rule, we consider the status of the gray wolf
within the geographic boundaries of the two currently listed C. lupus
entities to determine whether these wolves should remain on the List in
their current status, be reclassified, or be removed from the List.
These two currently listed entities are: (1) C. lupus in Minnesota, and
(2) C. lupus in the lower 48 United States and Mexico outside of
Minnesota, the NRM DPS (Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, eastern third of
Washington and Oregon, and north-central Utah), and the area covered by
the experimental population area for C. l. baileyi (the designated area
in which the subspecies is being re-introduced; see 63 FR 1752, January
12, 1998). These two entities are currently listed as threatened and
endangered, respectively.
While our past status reviews have focused on C. lupus DPSs and
taxonomic units that align with our national wolf strategy (see table
1), this status review considers the current C. lupus listed entities
described above. We do this:
(1) To address the Court of Appeals concerns with our 2011 final
rule delisting the WGL DPS, specifically, concern pertaining to the
impacts of partial delisting on the remainder of the already-listed
species (see Previous Federal Actions);
(2) To avoid a rulemaking that conflicts with multiple court
opinions regarding our prior attempts to designate and delist wolf DPSs
(see table 1); and
(3) Because, with the exception of C. l. baileyi, which is listed
separately as endangered wherever found (see Previous Federal Actions),
the taxonomy of C. lupus is complex, controversial, and unresolved
(USFWS 2018, pp. 1-4; also see How We Address Taxonomic Uncertainties
in this Rule, below).
How We Address the C. lupus Entities in This Rule
The two currently listed gray wolf entities are vestiges of a 40-
year-old action (the 1978 reclassification (see Background)). Our
knowledge of wolf biology and taxonomy has vastly changed since then.
Additionally, our previous efforts to revise the listed entities have
not withstood judicial scrutiny (see Previous Federal Actions). Our
policies and practices pertaining to listable entities have also
changed since the 1978 reclassification. As a result, these entities do
not conform with our current policies and standard practice.
Specifically: (1) These two entities are not discrete from one another
under our current policy on vertebrate distinct population segments
(DPSs) (61 FR 4722, February 7, 1996); (2) the listing for the larger
entity includes areas known to overlap with the range of the separately
listed gray wolf subspecies C. l. baileyi; and (3) wolves currently
listed in the western United States are not discrete from the recovered
Northern Rocky Mountains population, which we removed from the List in
2009 (table 1).
(1) Lack of Discreteness of the Two C. lupus Listed Entities
Under the Act we can list a species, subspecies, or vertebrate DPS.
Neither of the two entities currently on the List represents an entire
species or subspecies, thus to comply with the statute, these listings
must be DPSs. Our 1996 DPS policy specifies that a vertebrate
population must be both discrete and significant to qualify as a DPS
(61 FR 4722-4725; February 7, 1996). To qualify as ``discrete,'' a
population must be ``markedly separated from other populations of the
same taxon as a consequence of physical, physiological, ecological, or
behavioral factors'' (61 FR 4725). However, as indicated, the
populations in these two entities are no longer discrete (U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (USFWS) 2018, pp. 22-23). Therefore, because it is
clear that neither entity would qualify as a DPS under our 1996 DPS
policy (61 FR 4725), we consider the conservation status of the two
listed wolf entities as one combined entity in this proposed rule. We
refer to the combined entity simply as ``the gray wolf entity''
throughout this proposed rule.
(2) C. l. baileyi listing
As indicated above (see Previous Federal Actions), in 2015 we
revised the listing for gray wolf by reclassifying the subspecies C. l.
baileyi as a separately listed entity with the status of endangered,
wherever found. Although the rulemaking does not include language
expressly excluding C. l. baileyi from the previously listed C. lupus
entity, we indicated in our 2015 final rule listing the subspecies that
the effect of the regulation was to revise the List by making a
separate entry for the Mexican wolf (80 FR 2488, 2511, January 16,
2015). Therefore, because we already assessed the status of, and
listed, the Mexican wolf separately, we do not consider individuals or
populations of C. l. baileyi in this proposed rule. In geographical
terms, we do not consider wolves occurring in Mexico and within the
experimental population area in this proposed rule. Canis lupus baileyi
is the only subspecies known to occur in these areas, and we have no
information suggesting that other gray wolves occur in these areas.
(3) Lack of Discreteness of Western Wolves Within and Outside the Gray
Wolf Entity
In the coastal States of the western United States, wolves within
the gray wolf entity occur in an area comprising western Oregon,
western Washington, and northern California. These wolves are part of
the expanding fronts (or edges) of the recovered and delisted wolf
population in the NRM DPS and wolves crossing into the United States
[[Page 9654]]
from British Columbia, Canada (USFWS 2018, p. 22). While wolves in the
west coast States may not be discrete from the NRM DPS and wolves in
British Columbia, Canada, we do not combine wolves in the west coast
States with those in the NRM DPS and British Columbia, Canada, for the
purpose of our analysis (as we combined the two currently listed
entities) because wolves in the NRM DPS and British Columbia, Canada,
are not currently listed under the Act. Therefore, we do not consider
wolves occurring in either of these locations in this proposed rule
except to provide context, where appropriate, in our discussions of
wolves comprising the gray wolf entity.
How We Address Taxonomic Uncertainties in This Rule
The taxonomy and evolutionary history of wolves in North America
are complex and controversial, particularly with respect to the
taxonomic assignment of wolves in the northeastern United States and
portions of the Great Lakes region (eastern wolves) (see Taxonomy of
Gray Wolves in North America). Available information indicates ongoing
scientific debate and a lack of resolution on the taxonomy of eastern
wolves. Some scientists consider eastern wolves to be a distinct
species, C. lycaon; some consider them gray wolves (C. lupus); and some
consider them the product of hybridization between gray wolves and
coyotes (USFWS 2018, p. 1). Further, none of these viewpoints is more
widely accepted by the scientific community.
For the purposes of this proposed rule, we consider eastern wolves
to be members of the species C. lupus because there is not clear
support for a recognizable and independent evolved eastern wolf
species. Therefore, in our assessment of the status of the gray wolf
entity, we include eastern wolves and eastern wolf range that occurs
within the geographical boundaries of the gray wolf entity.
We note that in our 2013 proposed rule to delist wolves in the
lower 48 United States and Mexico (table 1), we accepted the
conclusions of Chambers et al. (2012, entire) on the taxonomy of
eastern wolves and recognized eastern wolves as the distinct species C.
lycaon. However, peer reviewers of our 2013 proposed rule indicated
that Chambers et al. was not universally accepted and our rule did not
represent the best available science (National Center for Ecological
Analysis and Synthesis 2014, entire). Also, new information published
on the topic since publication of our 2013 rule indicates the taxonomy
of eastern wolves continues to be controversial and unresolved (USFWS
2018, pp. 1-2). Finally, the uncertainty of the existence of a separate
species is reflected in the fact that C. lycaon is not recognized by
authoritative taxonomic organizations such as the American Society of
Mammalogists or the International Commission on Zoological
Nomenclature.
Scientists also disagree on the taxonomic assignment of wolves in
the southeastern United States generally recognized as ``red wolves.''
However, we recognize the red wolf as the species C. rufus, and note
that it is listed as endangered where found (32 FR 4001, March 11,
1967). We do not consider red wolves further in this rule, and the red
wolf listing is not affected by this proposal.
Summary of Our Approach
In this proposed rule, we assess the status of gray wolves
occurring within the geographic area outlined by the two currently
listed gray wolf (C. lupus) entities combined (figure 1), but we do not
include in our assessment individuals or populations of the Mexican
gray wolf (C. l. baileyi) (wolves that occur in Mexico and the
nonessential experimental population area in the southwestern United
States) as these wolves are separately listed as an endangered
subspecies (80 FR 2488, January 16, 2015). Further, for the purposes of
this proposed rule, we consider any eastern wolves within the
geographic boundaries of the two currently listed gray wolf entities to
be members of the species C. lupus. As stated previously, this proposed
rule supersedes the June 13, 2013, proposed rule to delist C. lupus in
the remaining listed portions of the United States and Mexico outside
of the delisted NRM and WGL (78 FR 35663).
Species Information
We provide detailed background information on gray wolves in the
United States in a separate Gray Wolf Biological Report (see USFWS
2018, entire). This document can be found along with this proposed rule
at http://regulations.gov in Docket No. FWS-HW-ES-2018-0097 (see
Supplemental Documents). We summarize relevant information from this
report below. For additional information, including sources of the
information presented below, see USFWS (2018, entire) and references
therein.
Biology and Ecology
Gray wolves are the largest wild members of the dog family and have
a broad circumpolar range. They are highly territorial, social animals
that live and hunt in packs. They are well adapted to traveling fast
and far in search of food, and catching and eating large mammals. In
North America they are primarily predators of medium to large mammals,
including deer, elk, and other species.
Gray wolves are habitat generalists. They can successfully occupy a
wide range of habitats and are not dependent on wilderness for their
survival. An inadequate prey density and a high level of human
persecution appear to be the only factors that limit habitat
suitability and gray wolf distribution. Thus, virtually any area that
has sufficient prey and adequate protection from persecution can be
suitable habitat for gray wolves.
Wolf populations are remarkably resilient as long as food supply
and regulation of human-caused mortality are adequate. In the absence
of high levels of anthropogenic influences, wolf populations are
generally believed to be regulated by the distribution and abundance of
prey on the landscape, though density-dependent, intrinsic mechanisms
(e.g., social strife, territoriality, disease) may limit populations
when ungulate densities are high. Where harvest occurs, high levels of
reproduction and immigration can compensate for high mortality rates.
Pack social structure is very adaptable--breeding members can be
quickly replaced from within or outside the pack, and pups can be
reared by another pack member should their parents die. Consequently,
wolf populations can rapidly overcome severe disruptions, such as
pervasive human-caused mortality or disease. Wolf populations can
increase rapidly after severe declines if the source of mortality is
reduced. Also, the species' dispersal capabilities allow a wolf
population to quickly expand and colonize nearby areas, even areas
separated by broad expanses of unsuitable habitat.
Taxonomy of Gray Wolves in North America
The taxonomy of the genus Canis in North America has a complex and
contentious history, particularly with respect to two generally
recognized phenotypes (morphological forms) that occur in eastern North
America: The ``red wolf'' and ``eastern wolf.'' As indicated above (see
How We Address Taxonomic Uncertainties in this Rule), we continue to
recognize the red wolf as the species C. rufus and do not discuss the
taxonomy of the species further in this rule (for more information, see
our 2018 Red Wolf Species Status Assessment). We discuss the eastern
wolf further below.
[[Page 9655]]
The ``eastern wolf'' has been the source of perhaps the most
significant disagreement on North American canid taxonomy among
scientists. The ``eastern wolf'' has been variously described as a
species, a subspecies of gray wolf, an ecotype of gray wolf, or the
product of hybridization between gray wolves and coyotes. Hybridization
is widely recognized to have played, and to continue to play, an
important role among ``eastern wolves,'' with varying views on the role
of hybridization between ``eastern wolves'' and coyotes, ``eastern
wolves'' and gray wolves, and gray wolves and coyotes. Minnesota
appears to be the western edge of a hybrid zone between western gray
wolves and eastern wolves--wolves in western Minnesota appear to be
gray wolves both morphologically and genetically while wolves in
eastern Minnesota and much of the Great Lakes area appear to be
``eastern wolf,'' introgressed with western gray wolf to varying
degrees.
No controversy exists regarding the number of wolf species in
western North America--all are widely recognized as gray wolves (C.
lupus). However, the science pertaining to gray wolf subspecies
designations, unique evolutionary lineages, ecotypes, and admixture of
formerly isolated populations continues to develop and remains
unresolved. Even so, genetic studies indicate that wolves in Washington
include individuals from the northern Rocky Mountains, individuals from
British Columbia, and individuals of mixed ancestry. Wolves currently
occupying Oregon and California are derived from dispersers from the
northern Rocky Mountains.
Range and Population Trends Prior to 1978 Reclassification
Historical Range of the Gray Wolf Entity
We view the historical range to be the range of gray wolves within
the gray wolf entity at the time of European settlement. We determined
that this timeframe is appropriate because it precedes the major
changes in range in response to excessive human-caused mortality (USFWS
2018, pp. 7-11).
At the time of the 1978 reclassification, the historical range of
the gray wolf was generally believed to include most of North America
and, consequently, most of the gray wolf entity. In the lower 48 United
States, they were reportedly absent from parts of California, the arid
deserts and mountaintops of the western United States, and parts of the
eastern United States. However, some authorities question the species'
historical absence in parts of California. In addition, long-held
differences of opinion exist among scientists regarding the precise
boundary of the gray wolf's historical range in the eastern United
States. Some believe the range of gray wolves extended as far south as
southern Georgia while others believe it did not extend into the
southeast at all. The southeastern and mid-Atlantic States are
generally recognized as being within the historical range of the red
wolf, but it is not known how much range overlap historically occurred
between these two species. Because of the various scientific positions
on gray wolf species and range, the historical extent of gray wolf
range for much of the gray wolf entity in the eastern United States
remains uncertain.
Based on our review of the best available information, we view the
historical range of the gray wolf within the gray wolf entity to follow
that presented in Nowak (1995) and depicted in figure 2. This includes
all areas within the gray wolf entity except western California, a
small portion of southwestern Arizona, and the southeastern United
States (see figure 2 and USFWS 2018, pp. 7-11).
While some authorities question the absence of gray wolves in parts
of California, limited preserved physical evidence of wolves in
California exists. Therefore, we rely on early reports of wolves in the
State that describe the species as occurring in the northern and Sierra
Mountain regions of California. Further, while recognizing that the
extent of overlap of C. rufus and C. lupus ranges is unknown, because
the southeastern United States are generally recognized as within the
range of C. rufus, we consider it to be generally outside the range of
C. lupus. However, we acknowledge that the historical range of C. lupus
is uncertain and the topic of continued debate among scientists.
Historical Abundance of the Gray Wolf Entity
Historical abundance of gray wolves within the gray wolf entity is
largely unknown. Based on the reports of European settlers, gray wolves
were common in much of the West. While historical (at the time of
European settlement) estimates are notoriously difficult to verify, one
study estimates that hundreds of thousands of wolves occurred in the
western United States and Mexico. In the Great Lakes area, there were
an estimated 4,000 to 8,000 in Minnesota, 3,000 to 5,000 in Wisconsin,
and fewer than 6,000 in Michigan. No estimates are available for
historical abundance in the Northeast.
Historical Trends in Range and Abundance for the Gray Wolf Entity
Gray wolf range and numbers throughout the gray wolf entity
declined significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries as a result
of killing of wolves by humans through poisoning, unregulated trapping
and shooting, and government-funded wolf-extermination efforts. By the
time subspecies were first listed under the Act in 1974 (table 1), the
gray wolf had been eliminated from most of its historical range within
the lower 48 United States, including within most of the gray wolf
entity.
Distribution, and Abundance of the Gray Wolf Entity at the Time of the
1978 Reclassification
By the time gray wolf subspecies were listed under the Act in 1974
(table 1), the species occurred in only a small fraction of its
historical range. Aside from a few scattered individuals, wolves
occurred in only two places within the gray wolf entity (and the entire
lower 48 United States). A population persisted in northeastern
Minnesota, and a small, isolated group of about 40 wolves occurred on
Isle Royale, Michigan. The Minnesota wolf population was the only major
U.S. population in existence outside Alaska at this time and numbered
about 1,000 individuals. While the Minnesota population was small
compared to historical numbers and range within the lower 48 United
States, it had not undergone a significant decline since about 1900. By
1978, when several gray wolf subspecies were consolidated into a single
lower 48 United States/Mexico listing and a separate Minnesota listing
under the Act, the gray wolf population in Minnesota had increased to
an estimated 1,235 wolves in 138 packs (in the winter of 1978-79) and
had an estimated range of 14,038 square miles (mi\2\) (36,500 square
kilometers (km\2\)) (figure 2). Although it was suspected that wolves
inhabited Wisconsin at this time, it was not until 1979 that wolf
presence was confirmed in the State.
Current Distribution and Abundance of the Gray Wolf Entity
The vast majority of wolves within the gray wolf entity now exist
as a large, stable or growing metapopulation (partially isolated set of
subpopulations) of more than 4,400 individuals that is broadly
distributed across the northern portions of three States in the Great
Lakes area. This metapopulation is also connected, via documented
dispersals, to the large and expansive population of about 12,000-
14,000 wolves in eastern Canada. As a result, gray wolves in the
[[Page 9656]]
Great Lakes area do not function as an isolated metapopulation of 4,400
individuals across three States, but rather as part of a much larger
metapopulation that spans across three States of the United States and
two Provinces of Canada.
In addition to the metapopulation in the Great Lakes area, as of
2017, three breeding pairs and four packs with no documented
reproduction occur within the gray wolf entity in Oregon, Washington,
and California. These wolves originated from large populations of
approximately 15,000 wolves in western Canada and about 1,700 wolves in
the northern Rocky Mountains. Effective dispersal has been documented
among California, Oregon, and Washington as well as between these
States and other northern Rocky Mountains States and Canada. Thus,
wolves in the Pacific coast States are an extension of the
metapopulation of wolves in western Canada and the northern Rocky
Mountains.
Finally, a number of lone long-distance dispersing wolves have been
documented outside core populations of the Great Lakes area and western
United States since the early 2000s. Confirmed records of individual
wolves have been reported from North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
Colorado, Nevada, Missouri, Indiana, Illinois, Nebraska, and Kansas.
The total number of confirmed records in each of these States, since
the early 2000s, ranges from one in Nevada to at least 27 in North
Dakota, with the latter also having an additional 45 probable but
unverified reports.
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Gray Wolf Recovery Plans and Recovery Implementation
Section 4(f) of the Act directs us to develop and implement
recovery plans for the conservation and survival of endangered and
threatened species unless we determine that such a plan will not
promote the conservation of the species. Recovery plans are non-
regulatory documents that identify site-specific management actions
that may be necessary to achieve conservation and survival of the
species. They also identify objective, measurable criteria (recovery
criteria) which, when met, would result in a determination that the
species should be removed from the List. Methods for monitoring
recovery progress may also be included in recovery plans.
The Act does not describe recovery in terms of the proportion of
historical range that must be occupied by a species, nor does it ever
allude to restoration throughout the entire historical range as a
conservation purpose. In fact, the Act itself does not contain the
phrase ``historical range.'' Thus, the Act does not require us to
restore the gray wolf (or any other species) to all of its historical
range or any specific percentage of currently suitable habitat. For
some species, expansion of their distribution or abundance may be
necessary to achieve recovery, but the amount of expansion is driven by
a species' biological needs affecting viability (ability to sustain
[[Page 9657]]
populations in the wild over time) and sustainability, not by an
arbitrary percent of a species' historical range or currently suitable
habitat. Many other species may be recovered in portions of their
historical range or currently suitable habitat by removing or
addressing the threats to their continued existence. And some species
may be recovered by a combination of range expansion and threats
reduction. There is no uniform definition for recovery and how recovery
must be achieved.
As indicated in Previous Federal Actions, following our 1978
reclassification, we drafted recovery plans and implemented recovery
programs for gray wolves in three regions of the contiguous United
States (table 1). Wolves in one of these regions--C. l. baileyi, in the
southwestern United States and Mexico--were recently listed separately
as an endangered subspecies and are not considered in this rule (see
Approach for this Proposed Rule). Wolves in another of these regions--
the northern Rocky Mountains--have recovered and were delisted (table
1). We discuss recovery of wolves in the third region--the eastern
United States--as it relates to the status of the gray wolf entity,
below. We did not develop a recovery plan for wolves in the U.S. west
coast States because we did not identify this area as necessary to the
recovery of the species following our 1978 reclassification. We have
not since developed a recovery plan for these wolves because we
determined in our 2013 status review that they are biologically part of
(although outside the legal boundary of) an already recovered and
delisted population (see National Wolf Strategy).
Recovery Criteria
There are many paths to accomplish recovery of a species, and
recovery may be achieved without all recovery criteria being fully met.
We use recovery criteria in concert with evidence that threats have
been minimized sufficiently and populations have achieved long-term
viability to determine when a species can be reclassified from
endangered to threatened or delisted. Recovery of a species is a
dynamic process requiring adaptive management that may, or may not,
fully follow the guidance provided in a recovery plan. Recovery plans,
including recovery criteria, are subject to change based upon new
information and are revised accordingly and when practicable. In a
similar sense, implementation of planned actions is subject to changing
information and availability of resources. We have taken these
considerations into account in the following discussion.
The 1978 Recovery Plan (hereafter Recovery Plan) and the 1992
Revised Recovery Plan for the Eastern Timber Wolf (hereafter Revised
Recovery Plan) were developed to guide recovery of the eastern timber
wolf subspecies. Those recovery plans contain the same two recovery
criteria, which are meant to indicate when recovery of the eastern
timber wolf throughout its historical range in the eastern United
States has been achieved. The first recovery criterion states that the
survival of the wolf in Minnesota must be assured. We, and the Eastern
Timber Wolf Recovery Team (Peterson in litt. 1997, 1998, 1999a, 1999b),
have concluded that this recovery criterion remains valid. It addresses
a need for reasonable assurances that future State, tribal, and Federal
wolf management and protection will maintain a viable recovered
population of wolves within the borders of Minnesota for the
foreseeable future.
Although the recovery criteria identified in the Recovery Plan
predate identification of the conservation biology principles of
representation (conserving the adaptive genetic diversity of a taxon),
resiliency (ability to withstand demographic and environmental
variation), and redundancy (sufficient populations to provide a margin
of safety), those principles were incorporated into the recovery
criteria. The Recovery Team insisted that the remnant Minnesota wolf
population be maintained and protected to achieve wolf recovery in the
eastern United States. Maintenance of the Minnesota wolf population is
vital in terms of representation because these wolves include both
western gray wolves and wolves that are admixtures of western gray
wolves and eastern wolves. In other words, they contain the genetic
components of both western gray wolves and eastern wolves. The
successful growth of the remnant Minnesota population has maintained
and maximized the representation of that genetic diversity among wolves
in the Great Lakes area.
Maintenance of the Minnesota wolf population is also vital in terms
of resiliency. Although the Revised Recovery Plan did not establish a
specific numerical criterion for the Minnesota wolf population, it did
identify, for planning purposes only, a population goal of 1,251-1,400
animals for that Minnesota population (USFWS 1992, p. 28). A population
of this size not only increases the likelihood of maintaining its
genetic diversity over the long term, but also reduces the adverse
impacts of unpredictable demographic and environmental events.
Furthermore, the Revised Recovery Plan recommends a wolf population
that is spread across about 40 percent of Minnesota (Zones 1 through 4)
(USFWS 1992, p. 28), adding a geographic component to the resiliency of
the Minnesota wolf population.
The second recovery criterion in the Recovery Plan states that at
least one viable wolf population should be reestablished within the
historical range of the eastern timber wolf outside of Minnesota and
Isle Royale, Michigan (USFWS 1992, pp. 24-26). The reestablished
population enhances both the resiliency and redundancy of the Great
Lakes metapopulation.
The Recovery Plan provides two options for reestablishing this
second population. If it is an isolated population, that is, located
more than 100 miles (mi) (160 kilometers (km)) from the Minnesota wolf
population, the second population should consist of at least 200 wolves
for at least 5 years, based upon late-winter population estimates, to
be considered viable. Late-winter estimates are made at a time when
most winter mortality has already occurred and before the birth of
pups, thus, the count is made at the annual low point of the
population. Alternatively, if the second population is located within
100 mi (160 km) of a self-sustaining wolf population (for example, the
Minnesota wolf population), it should be maintained at a minimum of 100
wolves for at least 5 years, based on late-winter population estimates,
to be considered viable. A nearby second population would be considered
viable at a smaller size because it would be geographically close
enough to exchange wolves with the Minnesota population (that is, they
would function as a metapopulation), thereby bolstering the smaller
second population both genetically and numerically.
The original Recovery Plan did not specify where in the eastern
United States the second population should be reestablished. Therefore,
the second population could have been established anywhere within the
triangular Minnesota-Maine-Florida area covered by the Recovery Plan
and the Revised Recovery Plan, except on Isle Royale (Michigan) or
within Minnesota. The Revised Recovery Plan identified potential gray
wolf reestablishment areas in northern Wisconsin, the Upper Peninsula
of Michigan, the Adirondack Forest Preserve of New York, a small area
in eastern Maine, and a larger area of northwestern Maine and adjacent
northern New Hampshire (USFWS
[[Page 9658]]
1992, pp. 56-58). Neither the 1978 nor the 1992 recovery criteria
suggest that the establishment of gray wolves throughout all or most of
what was thought to be its historical range in the eastern United
States, or to all of the identified potential reestablishment areas, is
necessary to achieve recovery under the Act.
In 1998, the Eastern Timber Wolf Recovery Team clarified the
application of the recovery criterion for the second population to the
wolf population that had developed in northern Wisconsin and the
adjacent Upper Peninsula of Michigan. This second population is less
than 100 mi (160 km) from the Minnesota wolf population. The Recovery
Team recommended that the numerical recovery criterion for the
Wisconsin-Michigan population be considered met when consecutive late-
winter wolf surveys document that the population equals or exceeds 100
wolves (excluding Isle Royale wolves) for the 5 consecutive years
between the first and last surveys (Peterson in litt. 1998).
Recovery Progress
Wolves in the Great Lakes area greatly exceed the recovery criteria
(USFWS 1992, pp. 24-26) for (1) a secure wolf population in Minnesota,
and (2) a second population outside Minnesota and Isle Royale
consisting of 100 wolves for 5 successive years. Based on the eight
surveys conducted since 1998, the wolf population in Minnesota has
exceeded 2,000 individuals over the past 20 years, and populations in
Michigan and Wisconsin have exceeded 100 individuals every year since
1996 (USFWS 2018, appendix 1). Based on the criteria set by the Eastern
Wolf Recovery Team in 1992 and reaffirmed in 1997 and 1998 (Peterson in
litt. 1997, in litt. 1998), this region contains sufficient wolf
numbers and distribution to ensure the long-term survival of the gray
wolf entity.
The maintenance and expansion of the Minnesota wolf population has
allowed for the preservation of the genetic diversity that remained in
the Great Lakes area when its wolves were first protected in 1974.
Furthermore, the Wisconsin-Michigan wolf population far exceeds the
numerical recovery criterion even for a completely isolated second
population. Therefore, even in the unlikely event that this two-State
population were to become totally isolated and wolf immigration from
Minnesota and Ontario completely ceased, it would still remain a viable
wolf population for the foreseeable future, as defined by the Revised
Recovery Plan (USFWS 1992, pp. 25-26). Finally, each of the wolf
populations in Wisconsin and Michigan has exceeded 200 animals for
about 20 years, so if either were somehow to become isolated, they
would remain viable, and each State has committed to manage its wolf
population at or above viable population levels. The wolf's numeric and
distributional recovery criteria in the Great Lakes area have been met.
Historical Context of Our Analysis
When reviewing the current status of a species, it is important to
understand and evaluate the effects of lost historical range on the
viability of the species in its current range. In fact, when we
consider the status of a species in its current range, we are
considering whether, without the species' lost historical range, the
species is endangered or threatened. Range reduction may result in:
Reduced numbers of individuals and populations; changes in available
resources (such as food) and, consequently, range carrying capacity;
changes in demographic characteristics (survival, reproductive rate,
metapopulation structure, etc.); and changes in genetic diversity and
gene flow. These in turn can increase a species' vulnerability to a
wide variety of threats, such as habitat loss, restricted gene flow, or
having all or most of its populations affected by a catastrophic event
such as a hurricane, fire, or disease outbreak. In other words, past
range reduction can reduce the redundancy, resiliency, and
representation of a species in its remaining range, such that a species
may meet the definition of an ``endangered species'' or ``threatened
species'' under the Act. Thus, loss of historical range is not
necessarily determinative of a species' status, but must be considered
in the context of all factors affecting a species. In addition to
considering the effects that loss of historical range has had on the
current and future viability of the species, we must also consider the
causes of that loss of historical range. If the causes of the loss are
still continuing, then that loss is also relevant as evidence of the
effects of an ongoing threat.
As indicated above, gray wolves historically occupied most of the
range of the gray wolf entity (see Historical Range). The gray wolf
range of the gray wolf entity began receding after the arrival of
Europeans as a result of deliberate killing of wolves by humans and
government funded bounty programs aimed at eradication (USFWS 2018, pp.
7-11). Further, many historical habitats were converted into
agricultural land (Paquet and Carbyn 2003, p. 483), and natural food
sources such as deer and elk were reduced, eliminated, or replaced with
domestic livestock, which can become anthropogenic food sources for
gray wolves (Young 1944 in Fritts et al. 1997, p. 8). The resulting
reduction in range and population were dramatic--by the 1970s gray
wolves occupied only a small fraction of their historical range (figure
2). Although the range of the gray wolf in the gray wolf entity has
significantly expanded since 1978, its size and distribution remain
below historical levels. Today, gray wolves within the gray wolf entity
exist as a metapopulation spread across northern Minnesota, Michigan,
and Wisconsin, and a small number of colonizing wolves in the west
coast United States (USFWS 2018, pp. 22-23) (figure 2).
The alterations to gray wolf historical numbers and populations
within the gray wolf entity increased the vulnerability of the gray
wolf entity to a wide variety of threats that would not be at issue
without such massive range reduction. Some of these threats were
identified in the 1978 reclassification (43 FR 9607, March 9, 1978),
including reduction in available food (prey) resources, and direct
killing by humans. In addition to these considerations, in this
proposed rule we also consider availability of suitable habitat,
disease and parasites, and climate change. We analyze these potential
threats to the gray wolf entity below under Summary of Factors
Affecting the Species.
While range reduction may also result in changes in genetic
diversity and gene flow, or cause changes in population demographics,
we do not address genetic diversity or demographics of the gray wolf
entity below because we are not aware of any information indicating
that these are potential threats to wolves in the gray wolf entity.
Wolves in the entity appear to be genetically and demographically
healthy. Not only do they include wolves of differing and mixed genetic
origin, but they exist as part of larger metapopulations--adverse
effects resulting from genetic drift, demographic shifts, and local
environmental fluctuations can be countered by influxes of individuals
and their genetic diversity from other subpopulations of the
metapopulation.
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) and its implementing
regulations (50 CFR part 424) set forth the procedures for adding
species to, reclassifying species on, or removing species from the
Federal List of Endangered and
[[Page 9659]]
Threatened Wildlife (List). We may determine a species to be an
endangered species or threatened species due to one or more of the five
factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or
threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or
range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade
factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be
warranted based on any of these five factors, singly or in combination.
We must consider these same five factors in reclassifications of
species (changing the status from threatened to endangered or vice
versa), and removing a species from the List (delisting) because it is
no longer endangered or threatened (50 CFR 424.11(c), (d)). For species
that are already listed as endangered or threatened, this analysis of
threats is an evaluation of threats that existed at the time of
listing, threats currently facing the species, and the threats that are
reasonably likely to affect the species in the foreseeable future, and
the impact of the removal or reduction of the Act's protections
following a delisting or downlisting (i.e., reclassification from
endangered to threatened).
For the purposes of this proposed rule, we define the ``foreseeable
future'' to be the extent to which, given the amount and substance of
available data, we can anticipate events or effects, or reliably
extrapolate threat trends that relate to the status of the gray wolf
entity. It took a considerable length of time for public attitudes and
regulations to result in a social climate that promoted and allowed for
wolf recovery within the gray wolf entity. The length of time over
which this shift occurred, and the ensuing stability in those
attitudes, gives us confidence that this social climate will persist.
Also, the Great Lakes States, which contain the vast majority of wolves
within the gray wolf entity, have had a solid history of cooperating
with and assisting in wolf recovery and have made a commitment, through
legislative actions, to continue these activities. Washington, Oregon,
and California are also committed to conserving wolves as demonstrated
by development of management plans and laws and regulations that
protect wolves. We are not aware of any information indicating that the
commitment of the Great Lakes States and west coast States to gray wolf
conservation will change and conclude that this commitment will
continue. When evaluating the available information, with respect to
foreseeable future, we take into account reduced confidence as we
forecast further into the future. Finally, we note that there is a
proposed revision to 50 CFR part 424 that creates a regulatory
framework for the phrase ``foreseeable future.'' This proposal is not a
departure from how we have implemented the phrase, but rather is meant
to codify the framework we have been implementing. Thus, while we are
not bound to the proposed revised regulations because they are not
final, our interpretation of ``foreseeable future'' in this rule is
consistent with them.
In considering what factors might constitute threats, we must look
beyond the exposure of the species to a particular factor to evaluate
whether the species may respond to the factor in a way that causes
actual impacts to the species. If there is exposure to a factor and the
species responds negatively, the factor may be a threat, and during the
status review, we attempt to determine how significant a threat it is.
The threat is significant if it drives or contributes to the risk of
extinction of the species, such that the species warrants listing as
endangered or threatened as those terms are defined by the Act.
However, the mere identification of factors that could affect a species
negatively may not be sufficient to compel a finding that the species
warrants listing. The information must include evidence sufficient to
suggest that the potential threat is likely to materialize and that it
has the capacity (i.e., it should be of sufficient magnitude and
extent) to affect the species' status such that it meets the definition
of an endangered species or threatened species under the Act.
Gray wolves that occur in the gray wolf entity are currently listed
as endangered under the Act, except those wolves in Minnesota, which
are listed as threatened. In this analysis we evaluate threat factors
currently facing the gray wolf entity and those that are reasonably
likely to have a negative effect on the viability of wolf populations
in the gray wolf entity if the protections of the Act were not in
place. Our analysis of threat factors below does not consider the
potential for effects to C. lupus in areas where the species has been
extirpated--rather, effects are considered in the context of the
present population. As explained in our significant portion of the
range (SPR) final policy (79 FR 37578; July 1, 2014), we take into
account the effect lost historical range may have on the current and
future viability of a species in the range it currently occupies, and
also whether the causes of that loss are evidence of ongoing or future
threats to the species. We do this through our analysis of factors
affecting the species. A species' current condition reflects the
effects of historical range loss and, because threat factors are
evaluated in the context of the species' current condition, historical
range contraction may affect the outcome of our analysis.
Based on our review of the best available scientific and commercial
information, we have identified several factors that could potentially
be significant threats to the gray wolf entity. We summarize our
analysis of these factors, and factors identified at the time of
listing, below. We considered and evaluated the best available
scientific and commercial data for our analyses.
Human-Caused Mortality
Human-caused mortality was identified as the main factor causing
the decline of gray wolves at the time of listing (43 FR 9611, March 9,
1978), and an active eradication program is the sole reason that wolves
were extirpated from their historical range in the United States
(Weaver 1978, p. i). European settlers attempted to eliminate the wolf
entirely, primarily due to the threat or reality of attacks on
livestock, and the U.S. Congress passed a wolf bounty that covered the
Northwest Territories in 1817. Bounties on wolves subsequently became
the norm for States across the species' range. For example, in
Michigan, an 1838 wolf bounty became the ninth law passed by the First
Michigan Legislature; this bounty remained in place until 1960. A
Wisconsin bounty was instituted in 1865 and was repealed about the time
wolves were extirpated from the State in 1957. Minnesota maintained a
wolf bounty until 1965. As the first provisional governments in the
Pacific Northwest region were formed, they too enacted wolf bounties
(Hampton 1997, pp. 107-108).
Protection of the gray wolf under the Act and State endangered-
species statutes prohibited the intentional killing of wolves except
under very limited circumstances, such as in defense of human life, for
scientific or conservation purposes, or under special regulations
intended to reduce wolf depredations of livestock or other domestic
animals. Aside from the reintroduction of wolves into portions of the
northern Rocky Mountains, the regulation of human-caused wolf mortality
is the primary reason wolf numbers have significantly increased and
their range has expanded since the mid-to-late 1970s.
[[Page 9660]]
Two Minnesota studies provide some limited insight into the extent
of human-caused wolf mortality before and after the species' listing.
On the basis of bounty data from a period that predated wolf protection
under the Act by 20 years, Stenlund (1955, p. 33) found an annual
human-caused mortality rate of 41 percent. Fuller (1989, pp. 23-24)
provided 1980-86 data from a north-central Minnesota study area and
found an annual human-caused mortality rate of 29 percent, a figure
that includes 2-percent mortality from legal depredation-control
actions. Drawing conclusions from comparisons of these two studies,
however, is difficult due to the confounding effects of habitat
quality, exposure to humans, prey density, differing time periods, and
vast differences in study design. Nonetheless, these figures provide
clear support for the contention that human-caused mortality decreased
significantly once the wolf became protected under the Act.
Humans kill wolves for a number of reasons. In locations where
people, livestock, and wolves coexist, some wolves are killed to
resolve conflicts with livestock and pets (Fritts et al. 2003, p. 310;
Woodroffe et al. 2005, pp. 86-107, 345-347). Occasionally, wolves are
killed accidentally (e.g., wolves are hit by vehicles, mistaken for
coyotes and shot, caught in traps set for other animals, or subject to
accidental capture-related mortality during conservation or research
efforts) (Bangs et al. 2005, p. 346). A few wolves have been killed by
people who stated that they believed their physical safety was being
threatened. Many wolf killings, however, are intentional, illegal, and
never reported to authorities.
The number of illegal killings is difficult to estimate and
impossible to accurately determine because they generally occur with
few witnesses. Illegal killing was estimated to make up 70 percent of
the total mortality rate in a north-central Minnesota wolf population
and 24 percent in the northern Rocky Mountains population (Liberg et
al. 2011, pp. 3-5). Liberg et al. (2011, pp. 3-5) suggest more than
two-thirds of total poaching may go undetected, and that illegal
killing may pose a threat to wolves; however, poaching has not
prevented population resurgence in either the Great Lakes area or the
northern Rocky Mountains, as evidenced by population growth in those
areas.
Vehicle collisions contribute to wolf mortality rates throughout
their range in the lower 48 United States. This type of mortality is
expected to rise with increasing wolf populations and as wolves
colonize areas with more human development and a denser network of
roads and vehicle traffic; however, mortalities due to vehicle
collisions will likely constitute a small proportion of total
mortalities.
Each of the States in the current range of gray wolves in the
contiguous United States conduct scientific research and monitoring of
wolf populations. Even the most intensive and disruptive of these
activities (anesthetizing for the purpose of radio-collaring) involves
a very low rate of mortality for wolves (73 FR 10542, February 27,
2008). We expect that capture-related mortality during wolf monitoring,
nonlethal control, and research activities will remain below three
percent of the wolves captured, and will have an insignificant impact
on population dynamics.
We are unaware of any wolves that have been removed from the wild
solely for educational purposes in recent years. Wolves that are used
for such purposes are typically privately held captive-reared offspring
of wolves that were already in captivity for other reasons. However,
States may get requests to place wolves that would otherwise be
euthanized in captivity for research or educational purposes. Such
requests have been and will continue to be rare, would be closely
regulated by the State wildlife-management agencies through the
requirement for State permits for protected species, and would not
substantially increase human-caused wolf mortality rates.
Other sources of human-caused mortality include intentional and
legal actions, such as lethal depredation control and killing wolves in
defense of human life or property. Although most wolf-human conflicts
are solved using nonlethal methods, in a few instances lethal control
is warranted to control a wolf to protect human life and property. The
number of wolves killed for this purpose is small. For example, from
2004 to 2014, State or Federal agents killed 26 wolves for these
purposes in the State of Michigan (an average of around 0.5 percent of
the population each year) (Roell et al. 2010, p. 9; Beyer in litt.
2018). In the western States, since the first pack was confirmed in
Washington in 2008, one wolf has been killed by a private individual
who claimed self-defense. Although the number of wolves killed in
defense of human life and property may be slightly higher in areas with
greater human density and may increase after delisting as authority for
this action expands (see Post-delisting Management), overall this type
of mortality is rare and is not expected to have a significant impact
on wolf populations.
Lethal control of depredating wolves was authorized in Minnesota
while wolves have been listed (under the authority of a regulation (50
CFR 17.40(d)) under section 4(d) of the Act), but such control was not
authorized in Michigan or Wisconsin, except for the several years when
such control was authorized under a permit from the USFWS or while
wolves were delisted under previous actions. Lethal control of
depredating wolves is not authorized in the listed portion of Oregon,
Washington, or in California. The Minnesota wolf-depredation-control
program euthanized from 20 (in 1982) to 262 (in 2015) wolves annually,
and averaged between 2.2 to 7.6 percent of the wolf population
annually. During the times wolves were listed and depredation control
was the primary means of management in the State, the Minnesota wolf
population continued to grow or remain stable while experiencing these
levels of lethal control. During the times that lethal control of
depredating wolves was conducted in Wisconsin and Michigan, there was
no evidence of resulting adverse impacts to the maintenance of a viable
wolf population in those States. In Wisconsin, a total of 256 wolves
were killed for depredation control in the State, including 46 legally
shot by private landowners, during the 59 months that wolves were
delisted in the State. A total of 50 wolves were killed by the Michigan
Department of Natural Resources (MI DNR) and the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA-APHIS),
Wildlife Services in response to depredation events during that time
period. Following delisting, wolf depredation control in Wisconsin and
Michigan would again occur, and be carried out according to their State
management plans. We anticipate the level of mortality due to
depredation control that would take place would be similar to what was
observed during those times. See the Post-delisting Management section
for a more detailed discussion of legal control of problem wolves
(primarily for depredation control).
Regulated public harvest is another form of human-caused mortality
that has occurred in the Great Lakes area during periods when wolves
were delisted and will likely occur in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
Michigan if wolves are delisted again. Using an adaptive-management
approach that adjusts harvest based on population estimates and trends,
the initial objectives of States may be to lower wolf
[[Page 9661]]
populations then manage for sustainable populations, similar to how
States manage all other game species. See the Post-delisting Management
section for a more detailed discussion of legal harvest.
Regulation of human-caused mortality has significantly reduced the
number of wolf mortalities caused by humans, and although illegal and
accidental killing of wolves is likely to continue with or without the
protections of the Act, at current levels those mortalities have had
little impact on wolf populations. Legal human-caused mortality,
primarily in the form of lethal depredation control and regulated
harvest, will increase if wolves are delisted, as these are the primary
human-caused mortality factors that State agencies can manipulate to
achieve management objectives. However, the high reproductive potential
of wolves and the innate behavior of wolves to disperse and locate
social openings allows wolf populations to withstand relatively high
rates of human-caused mortality.
We note that the principle of compensatory mortality was previously
believed to occur in wolf populations. This means that human-caused
mortality is not simply added to ``natural'' mortality, but rather
replaces a portion of it. Creel and Rotella (2010) reexamined this
concept with regard to wolves and found that, contrary to the
previously held belief, wolf population growth declined as human-caused
mortality increased (Creel and Rotella 2010, p. 3). Their study
concludes that wolves can be harvested within limits, but that human-
caused mortality was strongly additive in total mortality (Creel and
Rotella 2010, p. 6).
The wolf population in the northern Rocky Mountains States of
Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming provides a good example of the effects of
increased human-caused mortality on population growth rates. From 1995
to 2008, wolf populations increased an average of 23 percent annually
(range: 9 percent to 50 percent; USFWS et al. 2016, table 6b), while
from 1999 to 2008, human-caused mortality removed an average of
approximately 12 percent of the minimum estimated population each year
(range: 7 percent to 16 percent; see USFWS et al. 2000-2009). Between
2009 and 2015, some or all of the northern Rocky Mountains States
(dependent upon the Federal status of wolves) instituted fair-chase
wolf hunting seasons with the objective of slowing or reversing
population growth while continuing to maintain wolf populations well
above federal recovery requirements in their respective States. During
those years when legal harvest occurred, human-caused mortality
increased to an average of 29 percent of the minimum estimated
population (range: 23 percent to 36 percent; see USFWS et al. 2010,
2012-2016), while the annual growth rate declined to an average of
approximately 1 percent annually (range: -7 percent to 4 percent; see
USFWS et al. 2010, 2012-2016). Where harvest occurs, the species' high
levels of reproduction and immigration can compensate for mortality
rates of 17 percent to 48 percent (USFWS 2018, p. 6). Thus, although
2009 to 2015 is a relatively short time period from which to draw
inferences, the population trends observed in the Northern Rocky
Mountains suggest that the northern Rocky Mountains wolf population may
be able to sustain an approximate 30 percent annual human-caused
mortality rate while continuing to maintain a stable to slightly
increasing population.
The States of Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin have committed to
continue to regulate human-caused mortality so that it does not reduce
the wolf population below recovery level and have adequate laws and
regulations to fulfill those commitments and ensure that the wolf
population in the Great Lakes area remains above recovery levels (See
Post-delisting Management). Washington, Oregon, and California are also
committed to conserving wolves as demonstrated by development of
management plans and laws and regulations that protect wolves.
Furthermore, each post-delisting management entity (State, Tribal, and
Federal) has experienced and professional wildlife staff to ensure
those commitments can be accomplished.
Effects on Wolf Social Structure
Human-caused mortality of reproductive gray wolves could negatively
affect gray wolf populations because wolves have a complex social
system in which usually only the dominant male and female in a pack
breed. Consequently, the death of one or both of the breeders may
negatively affect the pack (by leading to pack dissolution) and the
population as a whole (by slowing or reducing population growth).
However, studies indicate these effects are context-dependent and that
the availability of replacement breeders and timing of mortality can
moderate the consequences of breeder loss (Borg et al. 2014, entire;
Brainerd et al. 2008, entire). In populations that are at or near
carrying capacity, where breeder replacement and subsequent
reproduction occurs relatively quickly, population growth rate is
largely unaffected by breeder loss (Borg et al. 2014, pp. 6-7). Large
colonizing populations (> 75 wolves) have similar times to breeder
replacement and subsequent reproduction as populations at or near
carrying capacity, while small recolonizing populations (<=75 wolves)
take about twice as long to replace breeders and subsequently reproduce
(Brainerd et al. 2008, pp. 89, 93). Therefore, the effects of breeder
loss may be greatest on small recolonizing gray wolf populations.
Studies also indicate that mortality of breeding gray wolves is more
likely to lead to pack dissolution and reduced reproduction when
mortality occurs during the breeding season (Borg et al. 2014, p. 8)
and when pack sizes are small (Borg et al. 2014, pp. 5-6; Brainerd et
al. 2008, p. 94).
Gray wolf pack social structure is very adaptable and resilient.
Breeding members can be quickly replaced from either within or outside
the pack, and pups can be reared by another pack member should their
parents die (USFWS 2018, p. 6). Consequently, wolf populations can
rapidly overcome severe disruptions, such as pervasive human-caused
mortality or disease. Although we acknowledge that breeder loss can and
will occur in the future regardless of Federal status, we conclude that
the effects of breeder loss on wolf populations (or the gray wolf
entity) as a whole are likely to be minimal as long as adequate
regulatory mechanisms are in place to ensure sufficient population size
is maintained.
The Role of Public Attitudes
In our 1978 rule reclassifying wolves, we indicated that
regulations prohibiting the killing of wolves, even wolves that may be
attacking livestock and pets, such as the Federal regulations in place
at that time in Minnesota, may work against gray wolves by creating an
adverse public attitude toward the species. We acknowledge that public
attitudes towards wolves vary with demographics, change over time, and
can affect human behavior toward wolves, including poaching (illegal
killing) of wolves (see the following studies and reviews: Kellert
1985, 1990, 1999; Nelson and Franson 1988; Kellert et al. 1996; Wilson
1999; Browne-Nu[ntilde]ez and Taylor 2002; Williams et al. 2002;
Manfredo et al. 2003; Naughton-Treves et al. 2003; Schanning 2009;
Mertig 2004; Chavez et al. 2005; Schanning and Vazquez 2005; Beyer et
al. 2006; Hammill 2007; Treves et al. 2009; Wilson and Bruskotter 2009;
Treves and Martin 2011; Treves et al. 2013; Madden and McQuinn 2014).
However, the factors that affect people's attitudes and
[[Page 9662]]
behaviors toward wolves are not well understood (Treves and Bruskotter
2014, entire; Treves et al. 2013, p. 316 and references therein; also
see Olson et al. 2014, entire and Chapron and Treves 2016, entire).
Thus, it is unclear how delisting and the changes in wolf management
subsequent to delisting, such as implementation of wolf harvests, may
affect attitudes, human behavior and, ultimately, wolf mortality.
We expect that some segments of the public will be more tolerant of
wolf management at the State level because it may be perceived by some
as more flexible than Federal regulation, whereas other segments may
continue to prefer Federal management due to a perception that it is
more protective. State wildlife agencies have professional staff
dedicated to disseminating accurate, science-based information about
wolves and wolf management within their respective States. In addition,
several States have convened advisory committees to engage stakeholders
in discussing and addressing conflicts related to wolves (for example,
Washington (https://wdfw.wa.gov/about/advisory/wag/) and Wisconsin
(https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/WildlifeHabitat/wolf/committee.html)). As the
status and management of the gray wolf evolves, continued collaboration
between managers and researchers to monitor public attitudes toward
wolves and their management will be necessary.
Human-Caused Mortality Summary
Despite human-caused mortalities of wolves, wolf populations have
continued to increase in both numbers and range. Wolf population growth
will likely slow as densities increase in suitable habitat. Wolves are
less likely to persist in more unfavorable habitats due to depredation
management, illegal killing, incidental mortality (for example, vehicle
collision), natural mortality (disease, starvation, and intraspecific
aggression), and other means. Once wolf populations become established,
we should expect to see populations fluctuate around an equilibrium
resulting from fluctuations in birth and mortality rates.
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan will utilize adaptive management
to respond to wolf population increases or decreases to maintain
populations at sustainable levels well above management objectives.
State management plans in these three states that would be implemented
following delisting manage for a minimum wolf population of 1,600 in
Minnesota, 250 in Wisconsin (with a management goal of 350), and 200 in
Michigan. These minimum population numbers are well above Federal
recovery requirements defined in the Eastern Timber Wolf Recovery Plan.
As wolf population numbers are currently much higher in each of these
three States, we can expect to see some reduction in wolf populations
in the Great Lakes areas if they are delisted as States implement
lethal depredation control and begin to institute wolf hunting seasons
with the objective of slowing or reversing population growth. However,
the ultimate goal of these three States is to maintain wolf populations
well above Federal recovery requirements in their respective States.
The 2010 State management plan for Oregon and the 2016 plan for
California do not include population-management goals (Oregon
Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) 2010, p. 27; California
Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) 2016a, p. 12); however, this is
likely to be addressed in the forthcoming Oregon plan revision as the
draft plan revision currently suggests that 300 wolves are the
``minimum population management threshold'' for the State (ODFW 2017,
p. 17). While the 2011 Washington State management plan does not
include population-management goals, it includes recovery objectives
intended to ensure the reestablishment of a self-sustaining population
of wolves in Washington (Wiles et al. 2011, p. 9; also see Post-
delisting Management in the West). In these States, wolf populations
will likely be managed to ensure progress towards recovery objectives
while also minimizing livestock losses caused by wolves.
Habitat and Prey Availability
Gray wolves are habitat generalists (Mech and Boitani 2003, p. 163)
and once occupied or transited most of the United States, except the
southeast. However, much of the historical range of gray wolves
(Chambers et al. 2012, pp. 34-42) in the contiguous United States has
been modified due to human use. While lone wolves can travel through,
or temporarily live, almost anywhere (Jimenez et al. 2017, p. 1), large
portions of gray wolf historical range is no longer suitable habitat to
support wolf packs (Oakleaf et al. 2006, p. 559; Carroll et al. 2006,
p. 32, Mladenoff et al. 1995, p. 287). Much of the area that wolves
currently occupy corresponds to what is considered ``suitable'' wolf
habitat in the lower 48 States as modeled by Oakleaf et al. (2006,
entire), Carroll et al. (2006, entire), Mladenoff (1995, entire), and
Mladenoff et al. (1999, entire). It is also expected that wolves will
continue to recolonize areas of the Pacific Northwest where suitable
habitat has been identified (Maletzke et al. 2015, entire; ODFW 2015,
entire). We consider suitable habitat as forested terrain containing
adequate wild ungulate populations (elk, white-tailed deer, and mule
deer) to support a wolf population. Suitable habitat has minimal roads
and human development, as human access to areas inhabited by wolves can
result in wolf mortality.
Great Lakes Area: Suitable Habitat
Various researchers have investigated habitat suitability for
wolves in the central and eastern portions of the United States. Most
of these efforts have focused on using a combination of human density,
density of agricultural lands, deer density or deer biomass, and road
density, or have used road density alone to identify areas where wolf
populations are likely to persist or become established (Mladenoff et
al. 1995, pp. 284-285; 1997, pp. 23-27; 1998, pp. 1-8, 1999; pp. 39-43;
Harrison and Chapin 1997, p. 3; 1998, pp. 769-770; Wydeven et al. 2001,
pp. 110-113; Erb and Benson 2004, p. 2; Potvin et al. 2005, pp. 1661-
1668; Mladenoff et al. 2009, pp. 132-135).
To a large extent, road density has been adopted as the best
predictor of habitat suitability in the Midwest due to the connection
between roads and human-caused wolf mortality. Several studies
demonstrated that wolves generally did not maintain breeding packs in
areas with a road density greater than about 0.9 to 1.1 linear mi per
mi\2\ (0.6 to 0.7 km per km\2\) (Thiel 1985, pp. 404-406; Jensen et al.
1986, pp. 364-366; Mech et al. 1988, pp. 85-87; Fuller et al. 1992, pp.
48-51). Work by Mladenoff and associates indicated that colonizing
wolves in Wisconsin preferred areas where road densities were less than
0.7 mi per mi\2\ (0.45 km per km\2\) (Mladenoff et al. 1995, p. 289).
However, research in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan indicates that, in
some areas with low road densities, low deer density appears to limit
wolf occupancy (Potvin et al. 2005, pp. 1667-1668) and may prevent
recolonization of portions of the Upper Peninsula. In Minnesota, a
combination of road density and human density is used by Minnesota
Department of Resources (MN DNR) to model suitable habitat. Areas with
a human density up to 20 people per mi\2\ (8 people per km\2\) are
suitable if they also have a road density less than 0.8 mi per mi\2\
(0.5 km per km\2\). Areas with a human density of less than 10 people
per mi\2\ (4 people per km\2\) are suitable if they have road
[[Page 9663]]
densities up to 1.1 mi per mi\2\ (0.7 km per km\2\) (Erb and Benson
2004, table 1).
Road density is a useful parameter because it is easily measured
and mapped, and because it correlates directly and indirectly with
various forms of other human-caused wolf mortality factors. A rural
area with more roads generally has a greater human density, more
vehicular traffic, greater access by hunters and trappers, more farms
and residences, and more domestic animals. As a result, there is a
greater likelihood that wolves in such an area will encounter humans,
domestic animals, and various human activities. These encounters may
result in wolves being hit by motor vehicles, being controlled by
government agents after becoming involved in depredations on domestic
animals, being shot intentionally by unauthorized individuals, being
trapped or shot accidentally, or contracting diseases from domestic
dogs (Mech et al. 1988, pp. 86-87; Mech and Goyal 1993, p. 332;
Mladenoff et al. 1995, pp. 282, 291). Based on mortality data from
radio-collared Wisconsin wolves from 1979 to 1999, natural causes of
death predominate (57 percent of mortalities) in areas with road
densities below 1.35 mi per mi\2\ (0.84 km per km\2\), but human-
related factors produced 71 percent of the wolf deaths in areas with
higher road densities (Wydeven et al. 2001, pp. 112-113).
Some researchers have used a road density of 1 mi per mi\2\ (0.6 km
per km\2\) of land area as an upper threshold for suitable wolf
habitat. However, the common practice in more recent studies is to use
road density to predict probabilities of persistent wolf pack presence
in an area. Areas with road densities less than 0.7 mi per mi\2\ (0.45
km per km\2\) are estimated to have a greater than 50 percent
probability of wolf pack colonization and persistent presence, and
areas where road density exceeded 1 mi per mi\2\ (0.6 km per km\2\)
have less than a 10 percent probability of occupancy (Mladenoff et al.
1995. pp. 288-289; Mladenoff and Sickley 1998, p. 5; Mladenoff et al.
1999, pp. 40-41). Wisconsin researchers view areas with greater than 50
percent probability as ``primary wolf habitat,'' areas with 10 to 50
percent probability as ``secondary wolf habitat,'' and areas with less
than 10 percent probability as unsuitable habitat (Wisconsin Department
of Natural Resources (WI DNR) 1999, pp. 47-48).
The territories of packs that do occur in areas of high road
density, and hence with low expected probabilities of occupancy, are
generally near broad areas of more suitable habitat that are likely
serving as a source of wolves, thereby assisting in maintaining wolf
presence in the higher road density areas and, therefore, less-suitable
areas (Mech 1989, pp. 387-388; Wydeven et al. 2001, p. 112). The
predictive ability of this model was questioned (Mech 2006a, 2006b) and
responded to (Mladenoff et al. 2006), and an updated analysis of
Wisconsin pack locations and habitat was completed (Mladenoff et al.
2009). This model maintains that road density is still an important
indicator of suitable wolf habitat; however, lack of agricultural land
is also a strong predictor of habitat that wolves occupy.
It appears that essentially all suitable habitat in Minnesota is
now occupied, range expansion has slowed or possibly ceased, and the
wolf population within the State has stabilized (Erb and Benson 2004,
p. 7; Erb and Don Carlos 2009, pp. 57, 60). This suitable habitat
closely matches the areas designated as Wolf Management Zones 1 through
4 in the Revised Recovery Plan (USFWS 1992, p. 72), which are identical
in area to Minnesota Wolf Management Zone A (MN DNR 2001, appendix
III).
Recent surveys for Wisconsin wolves and wolf packs show that wolves
have now recolonized the areas predicted by habitat models to have low,
moderate, and high probability of occupancy (primary and secondary wolf
habitat). The late-winter 2017-18 Wisconsin wolf survey identified
packs occurring throughout the central Wisconsin forest area (Wolf
Management Zone 2) and across the northern forest zone (Zone 1), with
highest pack densities in the northwest and north-central forest (WI
DNR 2018, entire).
Michigan wolf surveys in winter 2017-18 continue to show wolf pairs
or packs (defined by Michigan DNR as two or more wolves traveling
together) in every Upper Peninsula county (Huntzinger et al. 2005, p.
6; MI DNR 2018, entire).
Habitat suitability studies in the Upper Midwest indicate that the
only large areas of suitable or potentially suitable habitat areas that
are currently unoccupied by wolves are located in the northern Lower
Peninsula of Michigan (Mladenoff et al. 1997, p. 23; Mladenoff et al.
1999, p. 39; Potvin 2003, pp. 44-45; Gehring and Potter 2005, p. 1239).
One published Michigan study (Gehring and Potter 2005, p. 1239)
estimates that these areas could host 46 to 89 wolves; a graduate
thesis estimates that 110-480 wolves could exist in the northern Lower
Peninsula (Potvin 2003, p. 39). The northern Lower Peninsula is
separated from the Upper Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, whose 4-
mile (6.4-km) width freezes during mid- and late-winter in some years.
In recent years there have been several documented occurrences of
wolves in the northern Lower Peninsula, but there has been no
indication of persistence beyond several months. Prior to those
occurrences, the last recorded wolf in the Lower Peninsula was in 1910.
These northern Lower Peninsula patches of potentially suitable
habitat contain a great deal of private land, are small in comparison
to the occupied habitat on the Upper Peninsula and in Minnesota and
Wisconsin, and are intermixed with agricultural and higher-road-density
areas (Gehring and Potter 2005, p. 1240). Therefore, continuing wolf
immigration from the Upper Peninsula may be necessary to maintain a
future northern Lower Peninsula population. The Gehring and Potter
study (2005, p. 1239) predicted 850 mi\2\ (2,198 km\2\) of suitable
habitat (areas with greater than a 50 percent probability of wolf
occupancy) in the northern Lower Peninsula. Potvin (2003, p. 21), using
deer density in addition to road density, believes there are about
3,090 mi\2\ (8,000 km\2\) of suitable habitat in the northern Lower
Peninsula. Gehring and Potter (2005, p. 1239) exclude from their
calculations those northern Lower Peninsula low-road-density patches
that are less than 19 mi\2\ (50 km\2\), while Potvin (2003, pp. 10-15)
does not limit habitat patch size in his calculations. Both of these
area estimates are well below the minimum area described in the Revised
Recovery Plan, which states that 10,000 mi\2\ (25,600 km\2\) of
contiguous suitable habitat is needed for a viable isolated gray wolf
population, and half that area (5,000 mi\2\ or 12,800 km\2\) is needed
to maintain a viable wolf population that is subject to wolf
immigration from a nearby population (USFWS 1992, pp. 25-26).
Based on the above-described studies and the guidance of the 1992
Revised Recovery Plan, the Service has concluded that suitable habitat
for wolves in the western Great Lakes area can be determined by
considering four factors: road density, human density, prey base, and
area. An adequate prey base is an absolute requirement, but in much of
the western Great Lakes area the white-tailed deer density is well
above adequate levels, causing the other factors to become the
determinants of suitable habitat. Prey base is primarily of concern in
the Upper Peninsula where severe winter conditions cause deer to move
away from some lakeshore areas, making otherwise suitable areas locally
and seasonally unsuitable. Road density and human density frequently
[[Page 9664]]
are highly correlated; therefore, road density is often used as a
predictor of habitat suitability. However, areas with higher road
density may still be suitable if the human density is very low, so a
consideration of both factors is sometimes useful (Erb and Benson 2004,
p. 2). Finally, although the territory of individual wolf packs can be
relatively small, packs are not likely to establish territories in
areas of small, isolated patches of suitable habitat.
Great Lakes Area: Prey Availability
Deer (prey) decline, due to succession of habitat and severe winter
weather, was identified as a threat at the time of listing. Wolf
density is heavily dependent on prey availability (for example,
expressed as ungulate biomass, Fuller et al. 2003, pp. 170-171), and
prey availability is high in the Great Lakes area. Conservation of
primary wolf prey in the Great Lakes area, white-tailed deer and moose,
is a high priority for State conservation agencies. As MN DNR points
out in its wolf-management plan (MN DNR 2001, p. 25), it manages
ungulates to ensure a harvestable surplus for hunters, nonconsumptive
users, and to minimize conflicts with humans. To ensure a harvestable
surplus for hunters, MN DNR must account for all sources of natural
mortality, including loss to wolves, and adjust hunter harvest levels
when necessary. For example, after severe winters in the 1990's, MN DNR
modified hunter harvest levels to allow for the recovery of the local
deer population (MN DNR 2001, p. 25). In addition to regulating the
human harvest of deer and moose, MN DNR also plans to continue to
monitor and improve habitat for these species.
Land management activities carried out by other public agencies and
by private land owners in Minnesota's wolf range, including timber
harvest and prescribed fire, incidentally and significantly improves
habitat for deer, the primary prey for wolves in the State.
Approximately one-half of the Minnesota deer harvest is in the Forest
Zone, which encompasses most of the occupied wolf range in the State
(Cornicelli 2008, pp. 208-209). There is no indication that harvest of
deer and moose or management of their habitat will significantly
depress abundance of these species in Minnesota's primary wolf range.
In Wisconsin, the statewide post-hunt white-tailed deer population
estimate for 2017 was approximately 1,377,100 deer (Stenglein 2017, p.
1). In the Northern Forest Zone of the State, the post-hunt population
estimate has ranged from approximately 250,000 deer to more than
400,000 deer since 2002. The 2017 post-hunt deer population estimate in
that zone was nearly as high as it was in 2002. Three consecutive mild
winters and limited antlerless harvest may explain the population
growth in the northern deer herd in 2017. The Central Forest Zone post-
hunt population estimates have been largely stable since 2009 at
60,000-80,000 deer on average. The Central Farmland Zone deer
population has increased since 2008, and the 2017 post-hunt deer
population estimate was similar to the estimate in 2016. For a third
year in a row, the 2017 post-hunt deer population estimate in the
Southern Farmland Zone exceeded 250,000 deer (Stenglein 2017, pp. 2,
7).
Because of severe winter conditions (persistent, deep snow) in the
Upper Peninsula, deer populations can fluctuate dramatically from year
to year. In 2016, the MI DNR finalized a new deer-management plan to
address ecological, social, and regulatory shifts. An objective of this
plan is to manage deer at the appropriate scale, considering impacts of
deer on the landscape and on other species, in addition to population
size (MI DNR 2016, p. 16). Additionally, the Michigan wolf-management
plan addresses maintaining a sustainable population of wolf prey (MI
DNR 2015, pp. 29-31). Short of a major, and unlikely, shift in deer-
management and harvest strategies, there will be no shortage of prey
for Wisconsin and Michigan wolves for the foreseeable future.
West Coast States: Suitable Habitat
In Washington, wolves are expected to persist in habitats with
similar characteristics to those identified by Oakleaf et al. (2006)
(Wiles et al. 2011, p. 50) and as described above. Several modeling
studies have estimated potentially suitable wolf habitat in Washington
with most predicting suitable habitat in northeastern Washington, the
Blue Mountains, the Cascade Mountains, and the Olympic Peninsula. Total
area estimates in these studies range from approximately 16,900 mi\2\
(43,770 km\2\) to 41,500 mi\2\ (107,485 km\2\) (Wiles et al. 2011, pp.
51, 53; Maletzke et al. 2015). The Cascade Mountains and Olympic
Peninsula are both located within the boundary of the gray wolf listed
entities. Current wolf-pack habitat use in Washington based on the mean
home ranges of 11 packs with known territories is approximately 359
mi\2\ (930 km\2\), ranging from an estimated 121 mi\2\ (314 km\2\) to
1,164 mi\2\ (3,015 km\2\) (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife
(WDFW) et al. 2017, p. WA-6). (While 22 packs are known to occur in
Washington, sufficient data is not available to estimate home ranges of
the other 11.)
The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) developed a map
of ``potential wolf range'' as part of its recent status review of
wolves in Oregon (ODFW 2015, entire). The model used predictors of wolf
habitat including land-cover type, elk range, human population density,
road density, and land types altered by humans; they chose to exclude
land ownership because wolves will use forested cover on both public
and private lands (ODFW 2015, p. 2). Approximately 41,256 mi\2\
(106,853 km\2\) were identified as potential wolf range in Oregon. The
resulting map coincides well with the current distribution of wolves in
Oregon. The ODFW estimates that wolves occupy 31.6 percent of the
potential wolf range in the east management zone (the majority of
wolves here are under State management) and 2.7 percent of potential
wolf range in the western management zone (all wolves here are under
Federal management) (ODFW 2015, p. 9).
Habitat models developed for the northern Rocky Mountains (e.g.,
Oakleaf et al. 2006; Larson and Ripple 2006; Carroll et al. 2006) may
have limited applicability to California due to differences in
geography, distribution of habitat types, distribution and abundance of
prey, potential restrictions for movement, and human habitation (CDFW
2016b, pp. 154, 156). Despite these challenges, CDFW used these models
to suggest that wolves are most likely to occupy three general areas:
(1) The Klamath Mountains and portions of the northern California Coast
Ranges; (2) the southern Cascades, the Modoc Plateau, and Warner
Mountains; and (3) the Sierra Nevada Mountain Range (CDFW 2016b, p.
20). These areas were identified as having a higher potential for wolf
occupancy based on prey abundance, amount of public land ownership, and
forest cover, whereas other areas were less suitable due to human
influences (CDFW 2016b, p. 156). As wolves continue to expand into
California, models may be refined to better estimate habitat
suitability and the potential for wolf occupancy.
West Coast States: Prey Availability
The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife recently conducted a
Wildlife Program 2015-2017 Ungulate Assessment to identify ungulate
populations that are below management objectives or may be negatively
affected by predators (WDFW 2016, entire). The
[[Page 9665]]
assessment covers white-tailed deer, mule deer, black-tailed deer,
Rocky Mountain elk, Roosevelt elk, bighorn sheep, and moose (WDFW 2016,
p. 12). Washington defines an at-risk ungulate population as one that
falls 25 percent below its population objective for two consecutive
years and/or one in which the harvest decreases by 25 percent below the
10-year-average harvest rate for two consecutive years (WDFW 2016, p.
13). Based on available information, the 2016 report concludes that no
ungulate populations in Washington were considered to be at-risk (WDFW
2016, p. 13).
In Oregon, 20 percent of Roosevelt elk populations are below
management objectives; however, the populations are generally stable
within the listed gray wolf entity in western Oregon (ODFW 2017, p.
60). Rocky Mountain elk are above management objectives in 63 percent
of populations and are considered to be stable or increasing across the
State (ODFW 2017, p. 60). Mule deer and black-tailed deer populations
peaked in the mid-1900s and have since declined, likely due to human
development, changes in land use, predation, and disease (ODFW 2017, p.
61). White-tailed deer populations, including Columbia white-tailed
deer, are small, but are increasing in distribution and abundance (ODFW
2017, p. 64). Deer are a secondary prey item when elk are present;
areas that lack elk are only likely to support a low density of wolves
(ODFW 2017, p. 56).
In California, declines of historical ungulate populations were the
result of overexploitation by humans dating back to the 19th century
(CDFW 2016b, p. 147). However, elk distribution and abundance have
increased due to implementation of harvest regulations, reintroduction
efforts, and natural expansion (CDFW 2016b, p. 147). Mule deer also
experienced overexploitation, but were also more likely subject to
fluctuations in habitat suitability as a result of logging, burning,
and grazing. Across the West, including California, mule deer
populations have been declining since the late 1960s due to multiple
factors including loss of habitat, drought, predation, and competition
with livestock, but, as noted above, deer are a secondary prey when elk
are present (CDFW 2016b, p. 147).
Habitat and Prey Availability Summary
Sufficient suitable habitat exists for the gray wolf entity to
continue to support wolves into the future. Wolf populations should
remain strong in these areas with management activities that focus on
wolf population reduction as needed to maintain populations of wild
ungulates and reduce conflicts with livestock. Traditional land-use
practices throughout the vast majority of the species' current range in
the United States do not appear to be affecting the viability of
wolves. We do not anticipate overall habitat changes in wolf range for
the gray wolf entity will occur at a magnitude that would affect wolves
in the entity rangewide because wolf populations are broadly
distributed across the current range in the Great Lakes area (where
most wolves occur in the entity) and are able to withstand high levels
of mortality due to their high reproductive rate and vagility (the
ability of an organism to move about freely and migrate) (Fuller et al.
2003, p. 163; Boitani 2003, pp. 328-330). Further, much of the areas
occupied by the gray wolf entity occurs on public land where wolf
conservation is a priority and conservation plans have been adopted to
ensure continued wolf persistence (see Federal Lands discussion under
Post-delisting Management) (73 FR 10514, p. 10538, February 27, 2008).
An important factor in maintaining wolf populations is the native
ungulate population. Primary wild ungulate prey within the range of
gray wolves in the gray wolf entity include deer and elk. Each State
within wolf-occupied range for the gray wolf entity manages its wild
ungulate populations to maintain sustainable populations for harvest by
hunters. States employ an adaptive-management approach that adjusts
hunter harvest in response to changes in big-game population numbers
and trends when necessary, and predation is one of many factors
considered when setting seasons. We know of no future condition that
would cause a decline in ungulate populations significant enough to
affect the status of gray wolves in the gray wolf entity.
Disease and Parasites
Although disease and parasites were not identified as a threat at
the time of listing, a wide range of diseases and parasites have been
reported for the gray wolf, and several of them have had temporary
impacts during the recovery of the species in the 48 contiguous United
States (Brand et al. 1995, p. 419; WI DNR 1999, p. 61, Kreeger 2003,
pp. 202-214). Although some diseases may be destructive to individuals,
most of them seldom have long-term, population-level effects (Fuller et
al. 2003, pp. 176-178; Kreeger 2003, pp. 202-214). All States that
presently have wolf populations also have some sort of disease-
monitoring program that may include direct observation of wolves to
assess potential disease indicators or biological sample collection
with subsequent analysis at a laboratory. Although Washington has not
submitted biological samples for analysis, samples have been collected
and laboratory analysis is planned for the future (Roussin 2018, pers.
comm.).
Canine parvovirus (CPV) infects wolves, domestic dogs (Canis
familiaris), foxes (Vulpes vulpes), coyotes, skunks (Mephitis
mephitis), and raccoons (Procyon lotor). Canine parvovirus has been
detected in nearly every wolf population in North America including
Alaska (Bailey et al. 1995, p. 441; Brand et al. 1995, p. 421; Kreeger
2003, pp. 210-211; Johnson et al. 1994; ODFW 2014, p. 7), and exposure
in wolves is thought to be almost universal. Nearly 100 percent of the
wolves handled in Montana (Atkinson 2006), Yellowstone National Park
(Smith and Almberg 2007, p. 18), Minnesota (Mech and Goyal 1993, p.
331), and Oregon (ODFW 2017, p. 8) had blood antibodies indicating
nonlethal exposure to CPV. Clinical CPV is characterized by severe
hemorrhagic diarrhea and vomiting, which leads to dehydration,
electrolyte imbalances, debility, and shock and may eventually lead to
death.
Mech et al. (2008, p. 824) concluded that CPV reduced pup survival,
subsequent dispersal, and the overall rate of population growth in
Minnesota (a population near carrying capacity in suitable habitat).
After the CPV became endemic in the population (around 1979), the
population developed immunity and was able to withstand severe effects
from the disease (Mech and Goyal 1993, pp. 331-332). These observed
effects are consistent with results from studies in smaller, isolated
populations in Wisconsin and on Isle Royale, Michigan (Wydeven et al.
1995, entire; Peterson et al. 1998, entire), but indicate that CPV also
had only a temporary effect in a larger population.
Canine distemper virus (CDV) is an acute disease of carnivores that
has been known in Europe since the sixteenth century and infects canids
worldwide (Kreeger 2003, p. 209). This disease generally infects pups
when they are only a few months old, so mortality in wild wolf
populations might be difficult to detect (Brand et al. 1995, pp. 420-
421). Mortality from CDV among wild wolves has been documented only in
two littermate pups in Manitoba (Carbyn 1982, pp. 111-112), in two
Alaskan yearling wolves (Peterson et al. 1984, p. 31), and in two
Wisconsin wolves (an adult in 1985 and a pup in 2002 (Thomas in litt.
2006; Wydeven and Wiedenhoeft 2003, p. 20)). Carbyn
[[Page 9666]]
(1982, pp. 113-116) concluded that CDV was partially responsible for a
50-percent decline in the wolf population in Riding Mountain National
Park (Manitoba, Canada) in the mid-1970s. Serological evidence
indicates that exposure to CDV is high among some wolf populations--29
percent in northern Wisconsin and 79 percent in central Wisconsin from
2002 to 2003 (Wydeven and Wiedenhoeft 2003, pp. 23-24, table 7) and
2004 (Wydeven and Wiedenhoeft 2004, pp. 23-24, table 7), and similar
levels in Yellowstone National Park (Smith and Almberg 2007, p. 18).
Exposure to CDV was first documented in Oregon in 2016 (n=3; ODFW 2017,
p. 8), but no mortalities or clinical signs of the disease were
observed. The continued strong recruitment in Wisconsin and elsewhere
in North American wolf populations, however, indicates that distemper
is not likely a significant cause of mortality (Brand et al. 1995, p.
421).
Lyme disease, caused by a spirochete bacterium, is spread primarily
by deer ticks (Ixodes dammini). Host species include humans, horses
(Equus caballus), dogs, white-tailed deer, mule deer, elk, white-footed
mice (Peromyscus leucopus), eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus),
coyotes, and wolves. Clinical symptoms have not been reported in
wolves, but infected dogs can experience debilitating conditions, and
abortion and fetal mortality have been reported in infected humans and
horses. It is possible that individual wolves may be debilitated by
Lyme disease, perhaps contributing to their mortality; however, Lyme
disease is not believed to be a significant factor affecting wolf
populations (Kreeger 2003, p. 212).
Mange has been detected in wolves throughout North America (Brand
et al. 1995, pp. 427-428; Kreeger 2003, pp. 207-208). Mange mites
(Sarcoptes scabeii) infest the skin of the host, causing irritation due
to feeding and burrowing activities. This causes intense itching that
results in scratching and hair loss. Mortality may occur due to
exposure, primarily in cold weather, emaciation, or secondary
infections (Kreeger 2003, pp. 207-208). Mange mites are spread from an
infected individual through direct contact with others or through the
use of common areas. In a long-term Alberta wolf study, higher wolf
densities were correlated with increased incidence of mange, and pup
survival decreased as the incidence of mange increased (Brand et al.
1995, pp. 427-428). Mange has been shown to temporarily affect wolf
population growth-rates in some areas (Kreeger 2003, p. 208), but not
others (Wydeven et al. 2009b, pp. 96-97). In Montana and Wyoming,
proportions of packs with mange fluctuated between 3 and 24 percent
annually from 2003 to 2008 (Jimenez et al. 2010; Atkinson 2006, p. 5;
Smith and Almberg 2007, p. 19). In packs with the most severe
infestations, pup survival appeared low, and some adults died (Jimenez
et al. 2010); however, evidence suggests infestations do not normally
become chronic because wolves often naturally overcome them.
Dog-biting lice (Trichodectes canis) commonly feed on domestic
dogs, but can infest coyotes and wolves (Schwartz et al. 1983, p. 372;
Mech et al. 1985, p. 404). The lice can attain severe infestation
levels, particularly in pups. The worst infestations can result in
severe scratching, irritated and raw skin, substantial hair loss
particularly in the groin, and poor condition. While no wolf mortality
has been confirmed, death from exposure and/or secondary infection
following self-inflicted trauma caused by inflammation and itching may
be possible. Dog-biting lice were confirmed on two wolves in Montana in
2005, on a wolf in southcentral Idaho in early 2006 (Service et al.
2006, p. 15; Atkinson 2006, p. 5; Jimenez et al. 2010), and in 4
percent of Minnesota wolves in 2003 through 2005 (Paul in litt. 2005),
but their infestations were not severe. Dog-biting lice infestations
are not expected to have a significant impact even at a local scale.
Other diseases and parasites, including rabies, canine heartworm,
blastomycosis, bacterial myocarditis, granulomatous pneumonia,
brucellosis, leptospirosis, bovine tuberculosis, hookworm, coccidiosis,
and canine hepatitis have been documented in wild wolves, but their
impacts on future wild wolf populations are not likely to be
significant (Brand et al. 1995, pp. 419-429; Hassett in litt. 2003;
Johnson 1995, pp. 431, 436-438; Mech and Kurtz 1999, pp. 305-306;
Thomas in litt. 1998, Thomas in litt. 2006, WI DNR 1999, p. 61; Kreeger
2003, pp. 202-214). Continuing wolf range expansion, however, likely
will provide new avenues for exposure to several of these diseases,
especially canine heartworm, raccoon rabies, and bovine tuberculosis
(Thomas in litt. 2000; Thomas in litt. 2006), further emphasizing the
importance of disease-monitoring programs.
Effects of Climate Change
Effects of climate change were not identified as threats at the
time of listing. While it is possible that climate change could affect
gray wolves to some extent, such as through impacts to prey species
(Hendricks et al. 2018, unpaginated), we are not aware of any
information indicating that climate change is causing negative effects
to the viability of gray wolf populations in the gray wolf entity, or
that it is likely to do so in the future. Throughout their circumpolar
distribution, gray wolves persist in a variety of ecosystems with
temperatures ranging from -70 [deg]F to 120 [deg]F (-57 [deg]C to 49
[deg]C) (Mech and Boitani 2003, p. xv). Gray wolves are highly
adaptable animals that inhabit a range of ecotypes and are efficient at
exploiting food resources available to them. Due to this plasticity, we
do not consider gray wolves to be vulnerable to climate change. For a
full discussion of potential impacts of climate change on wolves, see
the final delisting rule for the gray wolf in Wyoming (77 FR 55597-
55598, September 10, 2012).
Cumulative Effects
When threats occur together, one may exacerbate the effects of
another, causing effects not accounted for when threats are analyzed
individually. Many of the threats to the gray wolf entity and gray wolf
habitat discussed above are interrelated and could be synergistic, and
thus may cumulatively affect the gray wolf entity beyond the extent of
each individual threat. For example, a decline in available wild prey
could cause wolves to prey on more livestock resulting in a potential
increase in human-caused mortality. Although the types, magnitude, or
extent of cumulative impacts are difficult to predict, we are not aware
of any information demonstrating that cumulative effects are occurring
at a level sufficient to negatively affect gray wolf populations within
the gray wolf entity. We are not aware of any combination of factors
that have not already been, or would not be, addressed through ongoing
management measures that are expected to continue post-delisting and
into the future, as described above. The best scientific and commercial
data available indicate that the vast majority of these wolves occur as
a widespread, large, and resilient metapopulation and that threat
factors are not currently resulting, nor are they anticipated to
cumulatively result, in reductions in gray wolf numbers or habitat.
Post-Delisting Management
State Management
Post-Delisting Management in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan
During the 2000 legislative session, the Minnesota Legislature
passed wolf-management provisions addressing wolf
[[Page 9667]]
protection, taking of wolves, and directing Minnesota Department of
Natural Resources to prepare a wolf-management plan. The MN DNR revised
a 1999 draft wolf-management plan to reflect the legislative action of
2000, and completed the Minnesota Wolf Management Plan in early 2001
(MN DNR 2001, entire).
The Wisconsin Natural Resources Board approved the Wisconsin Wolf
Management Plan in October 1999. In 2004 and 2005 the Wisconsin Wolf
Science Advisory Committee and the Wisconsin Wolf Stakeholders group
reviewed the 1999 Plan, and the Science Advisory Committee subsequently
developed updates and recommended modifications to the 1999 Plan. The
updates were completed and received final Natural Resources Board
approval on November 28, 2006 (WI DNR 2006a, entire).
In late 1997, the Michigan Wolf Recovery and Management Plan was
completed and received the necessary State approvals. That plan focused
on recovery of a small wolf population, rather than long-term
management of a large wolf population and the conflicts that result as
a consequence of successful wolf restoration. To address changes
associated with the 2007 Federal delisting of wolves in Michigan, the
MI DNR revised its original wolf plan and created the 2008 Michigan
Wolf Management Plan. The 2008 plan addressed the biological, social,
and regulatory situation of wolf management in Michigan at that time.
Since then, the context of wolf management in Michigan has continued to
change, and the MI DNR again updated its wolf-management plan in 2015
(MI DNR 2015, entire). The 2015 updates reflect the biological and
social issues associated with the increased population size and
distribution of wolves in the State, although the four principle goals
of the 2008 plan remain the same. The complete text of the Wisconsin,
Michigan, and Minnesota wolf-management plans can be found on our
website (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
The Minnesota Wolf Management Plan--The Minnesota Plan is based, in
part, on the recommendations of a State wolf-management roundtable (MN
DNR 2001, appendix V) and on a State wolf-management law enacted in
2000 (MN DNR 2001, appendix I). This law and the Minnesota Game and
Fish Laws constitute the basis of the State's authority to manage
wolves. The Plan's stated goal is ``to ensure the long-term survival of
wolves in Minnesota while addressing wolf--human conflicts that
inevitably result when wolves and people live in the same vicinity''
(MN DNR 2001, p. 2). It establishes a minimum goal of 1,600 wolves in
the State. Key components of the plan are population monitoring and
management, management of wolf depredation of domestic animals,
management of wolf prey, enforcement of laws regulating take of wolves,
public education, and increased staffing to accomplish these actions.
Following Federal delisting, MN DNR's management of wolves would differ
from their current management while wolves were listed as threatened
under the Act. Most of these differences deal with two aspects of wolf
management: The control of wolves that attack or threaten domestic
animals and the implementation of a regulated wolf harvest season.
The Minnesota Plan divides the State into two wolf-management
zones--Zones A and B (see map in MN DNR 2001, appendix 3). Zone A
corresponds to Federal Wolf Management Zones 1 through 4 (approximately
30,000 mi\2\ (77,700 km\2\) in northeastern Minnesota) in the Service's
Recovery Plan for the Eastern Timber Wolf, whereas Zone B constitutes
Zone 5 in that recovery plan (the rest of the State (approximately
57,000 mi\2\ (147,600 km\2\) (MN DNR 2001, pp. 19-20 and appendix III;
USFWS 1992, p. 72). Within Zone A, wolves would receive strong
protection by the State, unless they were involved in attacks on
domestic animals. The rules governing the take of wolves to protect
domestic animals in Zone B would be less protective of wolves than in
Zone A (see Post-delisting Depredation Control in Minnesota below).
The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources plans to allow wolf
numbers and distribution to naturally expand, with no maximum
population goal, and if any winter population estimate is below 1,600
wolves, it would take actions to ``assure recovery'' to 1,600 wolves
(MN DNR 2001 p. 19). The MN DNR plans to continue to monitor wolves in
Minnesota to determine whether such intervention is necessary. After
the WGL DPS was delisted in 2011, the MN DNR increased the frequency of
population surveys from every 5 years to annually in 2013. Although the
agency is evaluating wolf-monitoring methods and optimal frequencies,
short-term plans are to continue annual population-size estimates. In
addition to these statewide population surveys, MN DNR annually reviews
data on depredation-incident frequency and locations provided by
Wildlife Services and winter track-survey indices (see Erb 2008) to
help ascertain annual trends in wolf population or range (MN DNR 2001,
pp. 18-19).
Minnesota (MN DNR 2001, pp. 21-24, 27-28) plans to reduce or
control illegal mortality of wolves through education, increased
enforcement of the State's wolf laws and regulations, discouraging new
road access in some areas, and maintaining a depredation-control
program that includes compensation for livestock losses. The MN DNR
plans to use a variety of methods to encourage and support education of
the public about the effects of wolves on livestock, wild ungulate
populations, and human activities and the history and ecology of wolves
in the State (MN DNR 2001, pp. 29-30). These are all measures that have
been in effect for years in Minnesota, although increased enforcement
of State laws against take of wolves would replace enforcement of the
Act's take prohibitions. Financial compensation for livestock losses
has increased to the full market value of the animal, replacing
previous caps of $400 and $750 per animal (MN DNR 2001, p. 24). We do
not expect the State's efforts to result in the reduction of illegal
take of wolves from existing levels, but these measures would be
crucial in ensuring that illegal mortality does not significantly
increase after Federal delisting.
Under Minnesota law, the illegal killing of a wolf is a gross
misdemeanor and is punishable by a maximum fine of $3,000 and
imprisonment for up to 1 year. The restitution value of an illegally
killed wolf is $2,000 (MN DNR 2001, p. 29). The MN DNR has designated
three conservation officers who are stationed in the State's wolf range
as the lead officers for implementing the wolf-management plan (MN DNR
2001, pp. 29, 32; Stark in litt. 2018).
Depredation Control in Minnesota--Although federally protected as a
threatened species in Minnesota, wolves that have attacked domestic
animals have been killed by designated government employees under the
authority of a regulation (50 CFR 17.40(d)) under section 4(d) of the
Act. However, no control of depredating wolves was allowed in Federal
Wolf Management Zone 1, comprising about 4,500 mi\2\ (7,200 km\2\) in
extreme northeastern Minnesota (USFWS 1992, p. 72). In Federal Wolf
Management Zones 2 through 5, employees or agents of the Service
(including USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services) have taken wolves in response
to depredations of domestic animals within one-half mile (0.8 km) of
the depredation site. Young-of-the-year (young produced in one
reproductive year) captured on or before
[[Page 9668]]
August 1 must be released. The regulations that allow for this take (50
CFR 17.40(d)(2)(i)(C)) do not specify a maximum duration for
depredation control, but Wildlife Services personnel have followed
internal guidelines under which they trap for no more than 10-15 days,
except at sites with repeated or chronic depredation, where they may
trap for up to 30 days (Paul 2004, pers. comm.).
During the period 1980-2017, the Federal Minnesota wolf-
depredation-control program euthanized from 20 (in 1982) to 262 (in
2015) wolves annually. The annual averages and the percentage of the
statewide wolf population for 5-year periods are presented in table 2.
Table 2--Average Annual Number of Wolves Euthanized Under Minnesota Wolf Depredation Control and the Percentage of the Statewide Wolf Population for 5-
Year Periods From 1980-2017
[Final time period represents 3, rather than 5 years) (Erb 2008; USDA-Wildlife Services 2010, p. 3; USDA-Wildlife Services 2011, p. 3; USDA-Wildlife
Services 2017, p. 3]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1980-1984 1985-1989 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2009 2010-2014 2015-2017
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Average annual # wolves euthanized.............. 30 49 115 152 128 157 194 195
Average annual % of wolf population............. 2.2 3.0 6.0 6.7 4.2 5.4 7.6 7.3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Since 1980, the lowest annual percentage of Minnesota wolves killed
under this program was 1.5 percent in 1982; the highest percentage was
9.4 in both 1997 and 2015 (Paul 2004, pp. 2-7; Paul 2006, p. 1; USDA-
Wildlife Services 2017, p. 3). The periods during which the
depredation-control program was taking its highest percentages of
wolves was during the 1990s and the 2010s. During the 1990s, when
wolves euthanized for depredation control averaged around 6 percent of
the wolf population, Minnesota wolf numbers continued to grow at an
average annual rate of nearly 4 percent (Paul 2004, pp. 2-7). Wolf
populations in the State fluctuated during the 2010s, when wolves
euthanized for depredation control averaged around 7 percent of the
wolf population. While wolf populations in the State did decline while
wolves were delisted from 2011-2014, other management techniques in
addition to depredation control were also implemented during that time
(e.g., regulated harvest), and that management was expected to reduce
wolf numbers while maintaining a minimum population level. The level of
wolf removal for depredation control that has occurred has not
interfered with wolf recovery in Minnesota.
Under a Minnesota statute, the Minnesota Department of Agriculture
(MDA) compensates livestock owners for full market value of livestock
that wolves have killed or severely injured. An authorized investigator
must confirm that wolves were responsible for the depredation. The
Minnesota statute also requires MDA to periodically update its Best
Management Practices to incorporate new practices that it finds would
reduce wolf depredation (Minnesota Statutes 2018, Section 3.737,
subdivision 5).
Post-delisting Depredation Control in Minnesota--If wolves in
Minnesota are delisted, depredation control would be authorized under
Minnesota State law and conducted in conformance with the Minnesota
Wolf Management Plan (MN DNR 2001). The Minnesota Plan divides the
State into Wolf Management Zones A and B, as discussed above. The
statewide survey conducted during the winter of 2003-04 estimated that
there were approximately 2,570 wolves in Zone A and 450 in Zone B (Erb
in litt. 2005). As discussed in Recovery Criteria above, the Federal
planning goal is 1,251-1,400 wolves for Zones 1-4 and there is no
minimum population goal for Zone 5 (USFWS 1992, p. 28).
In Zone A, wolf depredation control would be limited to situations
of (1) immediate threat and (2) following verified loss of domestic
animals. In this zone, if the DNR verifies that a wolf destroyed any
livestock, domestic animal, or pet, and if the owner requests wolf
control be implemented, trained and certified predator controllers may
take wolves (specific number to be determined on a case-by-case basis)
within a 1-mile (1.6-km) radius of the depredation site (depredation-
control area) for up to 60 days. In contrast, in Zone B, predator
controllers may take wolves (specific number to be determined on a
case-by-case basis) for up to 214 days after MN DNR opens a
depredation-control area, depending on the time of year. Under State
law, the DNR may open a control area in Zone B anytime within 5 years
of a verified depredation loss upon request of the landowner, thereby
providing more of a preventative approach than is allowed in Zone A, in
order to head off repeat depredation incidents (MN DNR 2001, p. 22).
Depredation control would be allowed throughout Zone A, which
includes an area (Federal Wolf Management Zone 1) where such control
has not been permitted under the Act's protection. Depredation by
wolves in Zone 1, however, has been limited to 2 to 4 reported
incidents per year, mostly of wolves killing dogs. In 2009, there was
one probable and one verified depredation of a dog near Ely, Minnesota,
and in 2010 Wildlife Services confirmed three dogs killed by wolves in
Zone 1 (USDA-Wildlife Services 2009, p. 3; USDA-Wildlife Services 2010,
p. 3). There are few livestock in Zone 1; therefore, the number of
verified future depredation incidents in that Zone is expected to be
low, resulting in a correspondingly low number of depredating wolves
being killed there after delisting.
State law and the Minnesota Plan would also allow for private wolf
depredation control throughout the State. Persons could shoot or
destroy a wolf that poses ``an immediate threat'' to their livestock,
guard animals, or domestic animals on lands that they own, lease, or
occupy. Immediate threat is defined as ``in the act of stalking,
attacking, or killing.'' This does not include trapping because traps
cannot be placed in a manner such that they trap only wolves in the act
of stalking, attacking, or killing. Owners of domestic pets could also
kill wolves posing an immediate threat to pets under their supervision
on lands that they do not own or lease, although such actions are
subject to local ordinances, trespass law, and other applicable
restrictions. To protect their domestic animals in Zone B, individuals
do not have to wait for an immediate threat or a depredation incident
in order to take wolves. At any time in Zone B, persons who own, lease,
or manage lands may shoot wolves on those lands to protect livestock,
domestic animals, or pets. They may
[[Page 9669]]
also employ a predator controller to trap a wolf on their land or
within 1 mile (1.6 km) of their land (with permission of the landowner)
to protect their livestock, domestic animals, or pets (MN DNR 2001, pp.
23-24). The MN DNR will investigate any private taking of wolves in
Zone A (MN DNR 2001, p. 23). The Minnesota Plan would also allow
persons to harass wolves anywhere in the State within 500 yards of
``people, buildings, dogs, livestock, or other domestic pets or
animals.'' Harassment may not include physical injury to a wolf.
As discussed above, landowners or lessees would be allowed to
respond to situations of immediate threat by shooting wolves in the act
of stalking, attacking, or killing livestock or other domestic animals
in Zone A. We conclude that this action is not likely to result in the
killing of many additional wolves, as opportunities to shoot wolves
``in the act'' would likely be few and difficult to successfully
accomplish, a conclusion shared by a highly experienced wolf-
depredation agent (Paul in litt. 2006, p. 5). It is also possible that
illegal killing of wolves in Minnesota will decrease, because the
expanded options for legal control of problem wolves may lead to an
increase in public tolerance for wolves (Paul in litt. 2006, p. 5).
State law and the Minnesota Plan would provide broad authority to
landowners and land managers to shoot wolves at any time to protect
their livestock, pets, or other domestic animals on land owned, leased,
or managed by the individual in Zone B (as described above). Such
takings can occur in the absence of wolf attacks on the domestic
animals. Thus, the estimated 450 wolves in Zone B could be subject to
substantial reduction in numbers. At the extreme, wolves could be
eliminated from Zone B, but this is highly unlikely--the Minnesota Plan
states that ``Although depredation procedures will likely result in a
larger number of wolves killed, as compared to previous ESA management,
they will not result in the elimination of wolves from Zone B.'' (MN
DNR 2001, pp. 22-23). While wolves were under State management in 2007-
08 and in 2011-14, landowners in Zone B shot six and eight wolves under
this authority, respectively. Fourteen additional wolves were trapped
and euthanized in Zone B by State-certified predator controllers, 1 in
2009 and 13 in 2013 (Stark in litt. 2009; Stark in litt. 2018).
The limitation of this broad take authority to Zone B is fully
consistent with the advice in the Recovery Plan for the Eastern Timber
Wolf that wolves should be restored to the rest of Minnesota but not to
Zone B (Federal Zone 5) because that area ``is not suitable for
wolves'' (USFWS 1992, p. 20). The Recovery Plan for the Eastern Timber
Wolf envisioned that the Minnesota numerical planning goal would be
achieved solely in Zone A (Federal Zones 1-4) (USFWS 1992, p. 28), and
that has occurred. Wolves outside of Zone A are not necessary to the
establishment and long-term viability of a self-sustaining wolf
population in the State, and, therefore, there is no need to establish
or maintain a wolf population in Zone B. Accordingly, there is no need
to maintain significant protection for wolves in Zone B in order to
maintain a Minnesota wolf population that continues to satisfy the
Federal recovery criteria after Federal delisting.
This expansion of depredation-control activities would not threaten
the continued survival of wolves in the State or the long-term
viability of the wolf population in Zone A, the large part of wolf
range in Minnesota. Significant changes in wolf depredation control
under State management will primarily be restricted to Zone B, which is
outside of the area necessary for wolf recovery (USFWS 1992, pp. 20,
28). Furthermore, wolves may still persist in Zone B despite the likely
increased take there. The Eastern Timber Wolf Recovery Team concluded
that the changes in wolf management in the State's Zone A would be
``minor'' and would not likely result in ``significant change in
overall wolf numbers in Zone A.'' They found that, despite an expansion
of the individual depredation-control areas and an extension of the
control period to 60 days, depredation control would remain ``very
localized'' in Zone A. The requirement that such depredation-control
activities be conducted only in response to verified wolf depredation
in Zone A played a key role in the team's evaluation (Peterson in litt.
2001). While wolves were under State management in 2007 and 2008, the
number of wolves killed for depredation control (133 wolves in 2007 and
143 wolves in 2008) remained consistent with those killed under the
special regulation under section 4(d) of the Act while wolves were
federally listed (105, in 2004; 134, in 2005; and 122, in 2006). The
number of wolves killed for depredation control while wolves were under
State management for the second time (2011-2014) was slightly higher
(203 wolves in 2011, 262 in 2012, 114 in 2013, and 197 in 2014) than
during 2007 and 2008, but was still consistent with those killed under
section 4(d) in the surrounding years (192 wolves in 2010 and 213 in
2015).
Minnesota would continue to monitor wolf populations throughout the
State and would also monitor all depredation-control activities in Zone
A (MN DNR 2001, p. 18). These and other activities contained in their
plan would be essential in meeting their population goal of a minimum
statewide winter population of 1,600 wolves, well above the planning
goal of 1,251 to 1,400 wolves that the Revised Recovery Plan identifies
as sufficient to ensure the wolf's continued survival in Minnesota
(USFWS 1992, p. 28).
Post-delisting Regulated Harvest in Minnesota--Minnesota Department
of Natural Resources will consider wolf population-management measures,
including public hunting and trapping seasons and other methods, if
wolves are federally delisted. In 2011, the Minnesota Legislature
authorized the MN DNR to implement a wolf season following the Federal
delisting and classified wolves as small game in State statute
(Minnesota Statutes 2018 97B.645 Subd. 9). Following Federal delisting,
the 2012 Legislature established wolf hunting and trapping licenses,
clarified the authority for the MN DNR to implement a wolf season, and
required the start of the season to be no later than the start of
firearms deer season each year. Three regulated harvest seasons (in
2012, 2013, and 2014) were subsequently implemented in the State while
wolves were federally delisted. The harvest was divided into three
segments: An early hunting season that coincided with the firearms deer
season, a late hunting season, and a concurrent late trapping season.
In 2012, the MN DNR established a total target harvest of 400 wolves
(the close of the harvest season is to be initiated when that target is
met) (Stark and Erb 2013, pp. 1-2). During that first regulated season,
413 wolves were harvested. Based on the results of the 2012 harvest
season, the MN DNR revised the target to 220 wolves for 2013; that year
238 wolves were harvested. The 2014 target harvest was 250 wolves and
272 were harvested.
The Minnesota management plan requires that population-management
measures be implemented in such a way to maintain a statewide late-
winter wolf population of at least 1,600 animals (MN DNR 2001, pp. 19-
20), well above the planning goal of 1,251 to 1,400 wolves for the
State in the Revised Recovery Plan (USFWS 1992, p. 28); therefore,
implementing such management measures under that
[[Page 9670]]
requirement would ensure the wolf's continued survival in Minnesota.
The Wisconsin Wolf Management Plan--Both the Wisconsin and Michigan
Wolf Management Plans are designed to manage and ensure the existence
of wolf populations in the States as if they are isolated populations
and are not dependent upon immigration of wolves from an adjacent State
or Canada, while still maintaining connections to those other
populations. We support this approach as it provides strong assurances
that the wolf in both States will remain a viable component of the
wolves in the Great Lakes area and the larger gray wolf entity.
The Wisconsin Plan allows for differing levels of protection and
management within four separate management zones (see WI DNR 2006a,
figure 8). The Northern Forest Zone (Zone 1) and the Central Forest
Zone (Zone 2) now contain most of the State's wolf population, with
approximately 6 percent of the Wisconsin wolves in Zones 3 and 4
(Wydeven and Wiedenhoeft 2009, table 1). Zones 1 and 2 contain all the
larger unfragmented areas of suitable habitat, so we anticipate that
most of the State's wolf packs will continue to inhabit those parts of
Wisconsin. At the time the 1999 Wisconsin Plan was completed, it
recommended immediate reclassification from State-endangered to State-
threatened status, because Wisconsin's wolf population had already
exceeded its reclassification criterion of 80 wolves for 3 years; thus,
State reclassification occurred that same year.
The Wisconsin Plan contains a minimum population goal of 350 wolves
outside of Native American reservations, and specifies that the species
should be delisted by the State once the population reaches 250 animals
outside of reservations. The species was proposed for State delisting
in late 2003, and the State delisting process was completed in 2004.
Upon State delisting, the species was classified as a ``protected
nongame species,'' a designation that continues State prohibitions on
sport hunting and trapping of the species (Wydeven and Jurewicz 2005,
p. 1; WI DNR 2006b, p. 71). The Wisconsin Plan includes criteria for
when State re-listing to threatened (a decline to fewer than 250 wolves
for 3 years) or endangered status (a decline to fewer than 80 wolves
for 1 year) should be considered. The Wisconsin Plan will be reviewed
annually by the Wisconsin Wolf Advisory Committee and will be reviewed
by the public every 5 years. Recently the WI DNR began work on updating
the State's wolf-management plan, which may include increasing the
State management goal (Wydeven and Wiedenhoeft 2009, p. 3).
The Wisconsin Plan was updated during 2004-06 to reflect current
wolf numbers, additional knowledge, and issues that have arisen since
its 1999 completion. This update is in the form of text changes,
revisions to two appendices, and the addition of a new appendix to the
1999 plan, rather than a major revision to the plan. Several components
of the plan that are key to our delisting evaluation are unchanged. The
State wolf-management goal of 350 animals and the boundaries of the
four wolf-management zones remain the same as in the 1999 Plan. The
updated 2006 Plan continues access management on public lands and the
protection of active den sites. Protection of pack-rendezvous sites,
however, is no longer considered to be needed in areas where wolves
have become well established, due to the transient nature of these
sites and the larger wolf population. The updated Plan states that
rendezvous sites may need protection in areas where wolf colonization
is still under way or where pup survival is extremely poor, such as in
northeastern Wisconsin (WI DNR 2006a, p. 17). The guidelines for the
wolf depredation-control program (see Post-delisting Depredation
Control in Wisconsin) did not undergo significant alteration during the
update process. The only substantive change to depredation-control
practices is to expand the area of depredation-control trapping in
Zones 1 and 2 to 1 mi (1.6 km) outward from the depredation site,
replacing the previous 0.5-mi (0.8-km) radius trapping zone (WI DNR
2006a, pp. 3-4).
An important component of the Wisconsin Plan is the annual
monitoring of wolf populations by radio collars and winter track
surveys in order to provide comparable annual data to assess population
size and growth for at least 5 years after Federal delisting. This
monitoring would include health monitoring of captured wolves and
necropsies of dead wolves that are found. Wolf scat would be collected
and analyzed to monitor for canine viruses and parasites. Health
monitoring would be part of the capture protocol for all studies that
involve the live-capture of Wisconsin wolves (WI DNR 2006a, p. 14). The
2006 update to the Wisconsin Wolf Management Plan did not change the WI
DNR's commitment to annual wolf population monitoring, and ensures
accurate and comparable data (WI DNR 1999, pp. 19-20).
Cooperative habitat management would be promoted with public and
private landowners to maintain existing road densities in Zones 1 and
2, protect wolf dispersal corridors, and manage forests for deer and
beaver (WI DNR 1999, pp. 4, 22-23; 2006a, pp. 15-17). Furthermore, in
Zone 1, a year-round prohibition on tree harvest within 330 feet (100
m) of den sites and seasonal restrictions to reduce disturbance within
one-half mile (0.8 km) of dens would be WI DNR policy on public lands
and would be encouraged on private lands (WI DNR 1999, p. 23; 2006a, p.
17).
The 1999 Wisconsin Plan contains, and the 2006 update retains,
other components that would provide protection to assist in maintenance
of a viable wolf population in the State following delisting: (1)
Continue the protection of the species as a ``protected wild animal''
with penalties similar to those for unlawfully killing large game
species (fines of $1,000-$2,000, loss of hunting privileges for 3-5
years, and a possible 6-month jail sentence), (2) maintain closure
zones where coyotes cannot be shot during deer-hunting season in Zone
1, (3) legally protect wolf dens under the Wisconsin Administrative
Code, (4) require State permits to possess a wolf or wolf-dog hybrid,
and (5) establish a restitution value to be levied in addition to fines
and other penalties for wolves that are illegally killed (WI DNR 1999,
pp. 21, 27-28, 30-31; 2006a, pp. 3-4).
The 2006 update of the Wisconsin Plan continues to emphasize the
need for public education efforts that focus on living with a recovered
wolf population, ways to manage wolves and wolf-human conflicts, and
the ecosystem role of wolves. The Plan continues the State
reimbursement for depredation losses (including dogs and missing
calves), citizen stakeholder involvement in the wolf-management
program, and coordination with the Tribes in wolf management and
investigation of illegal killings (WI DNR 1999, pp. 24, 28-29; 2006a,
pp. 22-23).
Depredation Control in Wisconsin--Lethal depredation control has
not been authorized in Wisconsin (due to the listed status of wolves
there as endangered) except for several years when such control was
authorized under a permit from the USFWS or while wolves were delisted
under previous actions. The rapidly expanding Wisconsin wolf population
has resulted in an increased need for depredation control, however.
From 1979 through 1989, there were only five cases (an average of 0.4
per year) of verified wolf depredations in Wisconsin, but the number of
incidents has steadily increased over the subsequent decades.
[[Page 9671]]
During the 1990s there were an average of approximately 4 incidents per
year, increasing to an average of approximately 38 per year during the
2000s and to an average of approximately 69 per year since 2010 (WI DNR
data files and summary of wolf survey and depredation reports).
A significant portion of depredation incidents in Wisconsin involve
attacks on dogs. In most cases, these have been hunting dogs that were
being used for, or being trained for, hunting bears, bobcats, coyotes,
and snowshoe hare (Ruid et al. 2009, pp. 285-286). It is believed that
the dogs entered the territory of a wolf pack and may have been close
to a den, rendezvous site, or feeding location, thus triggering an
attack by wolves defending their territory or pups. The frequency of
attacks on hunting dogs has increased as the State's wolf population
has grown. Of the 206 dogs killed by wolves during the 25 years from
1986-2010, more than 80 percent occurred during the period from 2001-
10, with an average of 17 dogs killed annually during that 10-year
period (WI DNR files). Data on depredations from 2013 to 2017 show a
continued increase in wolf attacks on dogs, with an average of 23 dogs
killed annually (with a high of 41 dogs in 2016). While the WI DNR
compensates dog owners for mortalities and injuries to their dogs, the
DNR takes no action against the depredating pack unless the attack was
on a dog that was leashed, confined, or under the owner's control on
the owner's land. Instead, the DNR issues press releases to warn bear
hunters and bear-dog trainers of the areas where wolf packs have been
attacking bear dogs (WI DNR 2008, p. 5) and provides maps and advice to
hunters on the WI DNR website (see https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/WildlifeHabitat/wolf/dogdeps.html). In 2010, wolf attacks on dogs
occurred 14 times near homes, which was the highest level seen of this
type of depredation (Wydeven et al. 2011, p. 3).
During the first periods that wolves were federally delisted in
Wisconsin (from March 2007 through September 2008 and from April
through early July 2009), 92 wolves were killed for depredation control
in the State, including 8 legally shot by private landowners (Wydeven
and Wiedenhoeft 2008, p. 8; Wydeven et al. 2009b, p. 6; Wydeven et al.
2010, p. 13). When wolves were again delisted from January 2012 through
December 2014, depredation control resulted in 164 wolves being killed,
including 38 legally shot by private landowners (McFarland and
Wiedenhoeft 2013, p. 9; Wiedenhoeft et al, 2014, p. 10; Wiedenhoeft et
al. 2015, p. 10).
Post-delisting Depredation Control in Wisconsin--Following Federal
delisting, wolf depredation control in Wisconsin would be carried out
according to the 2006 Updated Wisconsin Wolf Management Plan (WI DNR
2006a, pp. 19-23), Guidelines for Conducting Depredation Control on
Wolves in Wisconsin Following Federal Delisting (WI DNR 2008), and any
Tribal wolf-management plans or guidelines that may be developed for
reservations in occupied wolf range. The 2006 updates did not
significantly change the 1999 State Plan, and the State wolf management
goal of 350 wolves outside of Indian reservations (WI DNR 2006a, p. 3)
is unchanged. Verification of wolf depredation incidents would continue
to be conducted by USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services, working under a
cooperative agreement with WI DNR, or at the request of a Tribe,
depending on the location of the suspected depredation incident. If
determined to be a confirmed or probable depredation by a wolf or
wolves, one or more of several options would be implemented to address
the depredation problem. These options include technical assistance,
loss compensation to landowners, translocating or euthanizing problem
wolves, and private landowner control of problem wolves in some
circumstances (WI DNR 2006a, pp. 3-4, 20-22).
Technical assistance, consisting of advice or recommendations to
prevent or reduce further wolf conflicts, would be provided. This may
also include providing the landowner with various forms of noninjurious
behavior-modification materials, such as flashing lights, noise makers,
temporary fencing, and fladry (a string of flags used to contain or
exclude wild animals). Monetary compensation is also provided for all
verified and probable losses of domestic animals and for a portion of
documented missing calves (WI DNR 2006a, pp. 22-23). The compensation
is made at full market value of the animal (up to a limit of $2,500 for
dogs) and can include veterinarian fees for the treatment of injured
animals (WI DNR 2006c 12.54). Current Wisconsin law requires the
continuation of the compensation payment for wolf depredation
regardless of Federal listing or delisting of the species (WI DNR 2006c
12.50). In recent years, annual depredation compensation payments have
ranged from $91,000 (2009) to $256,000 (2017). From 1985 through April,
2018, the WI DNR had spent over $2,378,000 on reimbursement for damage
caused by wolves in the State, with 60 percent of that total spent over
the last 10 years (since 2009) (https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/wildlifehabitat/wolf/documents/WolfDamagePayments.pdf).
For depredation incidents in Wisconsin Zones 1 through 3, where all
wolf packs currently reside, wolves may be trapped by USDA-Wildlife
Services or Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources personnel and, if
feasible, translocated and released at a point distant from the
depredation site. If wolves are captured adjacent to an Indian
reservation or a large block of public land, the animals may be
translocated locally to that area. Long-distance translocating of
depredating wolves has become increasingly difficult in Wisconsin and
is likely to be used infrequently in the future as long as the off-
reservation wolf population is above 350 animals. In most wolf-
depredation cases where technical assistance and nonlethal methods of
behavior modification are judged to be ineffective, wolves would be
shot or trapped and euthanized by Wildlife Services or DNR personnel.
Trapping and euthanizing would be conducted within a 1-mi (1.6-km)
radius of the depredation in Zones 1 and 2, and within a 5-mi (8-km)
radius in Zone 3. There is no distance limitation for depredation-
control trapping in Zone 4, and all wolves trapped in Zone 4 would be
euthanized, rather than translocated (WI DNR 2006a, pp. 22-23).
Full authority to conduct lethal depredation control has not been
allowed in Wisconsin (due to the listed status of the wolf as an
endangered species) except for short periods of time. So we have
evaluated post-delisting lethal depredation control based upon verified
depredation incidents over the last decade and the impacts of the
implementation of similar lethal control of depredating wolves under 50
CFR 17.40(d) for Minnesota, Sec. 17.40(o) for Wisconsin and Michigan,
and section 10(a)(1)(A) of the Act for Wisconsin and Michigan. Under
those authorities, WI DNR and Wildlife Services trapped and euthanized
17 wolves in 2003; 24 in 2004; 29 in 2005; 18 in 2006; 37 in 2007; 39
in 2008; 9 in 2009; and 16 in 2010 (WI DNR 2006a, p. 32; Wydeven et al.
2009a, pp. 6-7; Wydeven et al. 2010, p. 15; Wydeven et al. 2011, p. 3).
Although these lethal control authorities applied to Wisconsin and
Michigan DNRs for only a portion of 2003 (April through December) and
2005 (all of January for both States; April 1 and April 19, for
Wisconsin and Michigan respectively, through September 13), they
covered nearly all of the verified wolf depredations during
[[Page 9672]]
2003-05, and thus provide a reasonable measure of annual lethal
depredation control. For 2003, 2004, and 2005, this represents 5.1
percent, 6.4 percent, 7.4 percent (including the several possible wolf-
dog hybrids), respectively, of the late-winter population of Wisconsin
wolves during the previous winter. This level of lethal depredation
control was followed by a wolf population increase of 11 percent from
2003 to 2004, 17 percent from 2004 to 2005, and 7 percent from 2005 to
2006 (Wydeven and Jurewicz 2005, p. 5; Wydeven et al. 2006, p. 10).
Limited lethal-control authority was granted to WI DNR for 3.5 months
in 2006 by a section 10 permit, resulting in removal of 18 wolves (3.9
percent of the winter wolf population) (Wydeven et al. 2007, p. 7).
Lethal depredation control was again authorized in the State while
wolves were delisted in 2007 (9.5 months) and 2008 (9 months). During
those times, 40 and 43 wolves, respectively, were killed for
depredation control (by Wildlife Services or by legal landowner
action), representing 7 and 8 percent of the late-winter population of
Wisconsin wolves during the previous year. This level of lethal
depredation control was followed by a wolf population increase of 0.5
percent from 2007 to 2008, and 12 percent from 2008 to 2009 (Wydeven
and Wiedenhoeft 2008, pp. 19-22; Wydeven et al. 2009a, p. 6). Authority
for lethal control on depredating wolves occurred for only 2 months in
2009. During that time, eight wolves were euthanized for depredation
control by USDA-Wildlife Services, and one wolf was shot by a
landowner; additionally, later in 2009 after re-listing, a wolf was
captured and euthanized by USDA-Wildlife Services for human safety
concerns (Wydeven et al. 2010, p. 15). Thus in 2009, 10 wolves, or 2
percent of the winter wolf population, was removed in control
activities.
In 2010, authority for lethal control of wolves depredating
livestock was not available in Wisconsin, but 16 wolves or 2 percent of
the winter population were removed for human-safety concerns (Wydeven
et al. 2011, p. 3). The Wisconsin wolf population in winter 2010-11
grew to 687 wolves, an increase of 8 percent from the wolf population
in winter 2009-10 (Wydeven et al. 2010, pp. 12-13). When wolves were
again delisted from January 2012 through December 2014, a total of 164
wolves were killed under authorized lethal depredation control
(McFarland and Wiedenhoeft 2013, p. 9; Wiedenhoeft et al. 2014, p. 10;
Wiedenhoeft et al. 2015, p. 10). It is more difficult to evaluate the
effects attributed specifically to depredation control over that time,
as the State also implemented a regulated public harvest those years;
however, information from previous years where depredation control was
the primary change in management provides strong evidence that this
form and magnitude of depredation control would not adversely affect
the viability of the Wisconsin wolf population. The locations of
depredation incidents provide additional evidence that lethal control
would not have an adverse impact on the State's wolf population. Most
livestock depredations are caused by packs near the northern forest-
farm land interface. Few depredations occur in core wolf range and in
large blocks of public land. Thus, lethal depredation-control actions
would not affect most of the Wisconsin wolf population (WI DNR 2006a,
p. 30).
One substantive change to lethal control that would result from
Federal delisting is the ability of a small number of private
landowners, whose farms have a history of recurring wolf depredation,
to obtain limited-duration permits from Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources to kill a limited number of depredating wolves on land they
own or lease, based on the size of the pack causing the local
depredations (WI DNR 2008, p. 8). Such permits would be issued to: (1)
Landowners with verified wolf depredations on their property within the
last 2 years; (2) landowners within 1 mile (1.6 km) of properties with
verified wolf depredations during the calendar year; (3) landowners
with vulnerable livestock within WI DNR-designated proactive control
areas; (4) landowners with human safety concerns on their property, and
(5) landowners with verified harassment of livestock on their property
(WI DNR 2008, p. 8). Limits on the number of wolves to control would be
based on the estimated number of wolves in the pack causing depredation
problems.
During the 19 months in 2007 and 2008 when wolves were federally
delisted, the DNR issued 67 such permits, resulting in 2 wolves being
killed. Some landowners received permits more than once, and permits
were issued for up to 90 days at a time and restricted to specific
calendar years. In addition, landowners and lessees of land statewide
would be allowed without obtaining a permit to kill a wolf ``in the act
of killing, wounding, or biting a domestic animal.'' The incident must
be reported to a conservation warden within 24 hours, and the
landowners are required to turn any dead wolves over to the WI DNR (WI
DNR 2006a, pp. 22-23; WI DNR 2008, p. 6). During that same 19-month
time period, landowners killed a total of five wolves under that
authority. One wolf was shot in the act of attack on domestic animals
during the 2 months when wolves were delisted in 2009; then 38 wolves
were legally shot by landowners during the 35 months wolves were
delisted from 2012-2014. The death of these 46 additional wolves--which
accounted for less than 3 percent of the State's wolves in any year--
did not affect the viability of the population.
Another potential substantive change after delisting would be
proactive trapping or ``intensive control'' of wolves in sub-zones of
the larger wolf-management zones (WI DNR 2006a, pp. 22-23). Triggering
actions and type of controls planned for these ``proactive control
areas'' are listed in the WI DNR depredation-control guidelines (WI DNR
2008, pp. 7-9). Controls on these actions would be considered on a
case-by-case basis to address specific problems, and would be carried
out only in areas that lack suitable habitat, have extensive
agricultural lands with little forest interspersion, in urban or
suburban settings, and only when the State wolf population is well
above the management goal of 350 wolves outside Indian reservations in
late-winter surveys. The use of intensive population management in
small areas would be adapted as experience is gained with implementing
and evaluating localized control actions (Wydeven 2006, pers. comm.).
We are confident that the number of wolves killed by these actions
would not affect the long-term viability of the Wisconsin wolf
population, because generally less than 15 percent of packs cause
depredations that would initiate such controls, and ``proactive''
controls would be carried out only if the State's late-winter wolf
population exceeds 350 animals outside Indian reservations.
The State's current guidelines for conducting depredation-control
actions say that no control trapping would be conducted on wolves that
kill ``dogs that are free roaming, roaming at large, hunting, or
training on public lands, and all other lands except land owned or
leased by the dog owner'' (WI DNR 2008, p. 5). Controls would be
applied on wolves depredating pet dogs attacked near homes and wolves
attacking livestock. Because of these State-imposed limitations, we
conclude that lethal control of wolves depredating on hunting dogs
would be rare and, therefore, would not be a significant additional
source of mortality in Wisconsin. Lethal control of wolves that attack
captive deer is included in the WI DNR depredation-control program,
[[Page 9673]]
because farm-raised deer are considered to be livestock under Wisconsin
law (WI DNR 2008, pp. 5-6; 2006c, 12.52). However, Wisconsin
regulations for deer farm fencing have been strengthened, and it is
unlikely that more than an occasional wolf would need to be killed to
end wolf depredations inside deer farms in the foreseeable future.
Claims for wolf depredation compensation are rejected if the claimant
is not in compliance with regulations regarding farm-raised-deer
fencing or livestock-carcass disposal (Wisconsin Statutes 90.20 &
90.21, WI DNR 2006c 12.54).
Data from verified wolf depredations in recent years indicate that
depredation on livestock is likely to increase as long as the Wisconsin
wolf population increases in numbers and range. Wolf packs in more
marginal habitat with high acreage of pasture land are more likely to
become depredators (Treves et al. 2004, pp. 121-122). Most large areas
of forest land and public lands are included in Wisconsin Wolf
Management Zones 1 and 2, and they have already been colonized by
wolves. Therefore, new areas likely to be colonized by wolves in the
future would be in Zones 3 and 4, where they would be exposed to much
higher densities of farms, livestock, and residences. During 2008, of
farms experiencing wolf depredation, 25 percent (8 of 32) were in Zone
3, yet only 4 percent of the State wolf population occurs in this zone
(Wydeven et al. 2009a, p. 23). Further expansion of wolves into Zone 3
would likely lead to an increase in depredation incidents and an
increase in lethal control actions against Zone 3 wolves. However,
these Zone 3 mortalities would have no impact on wolf population
viability in Wisconsin because of the much larger wolf populations in
Zones 1 and 2.
We anticipate that under the management laid out in the Wisconsin
Wolf Management Plan the wolf population in Zones 1 and 2 would
continue to greatly exceed the recovery goal in the Recovery Plan for
the Eastern Timber Wolf of 200 late-winter wolves for an isolated
population and 100 wolves for a subpopulation connected to the larger
Minnesota population, regardless of the extent of wolf mortality from
all causes in Zones 3 and 4. Ongoing annual wolf population monitoring
by WI DNR would provide timely and accurate data to evaluate the
effects of wolf management under the Wisconsin Plan.
Post-delisting Regulated Harvest in Wisconsin--A regulated public
harvest of wolves is acknowledged in the Wisconsin Wolf Management Plan
and its updates as a potential management technique (WI DNR 1999,
appendix D; 2006c, p. 23). Wisconsin Act 169 was enacted in April 2012,
following Federal delisting of wolves earlier that year. The law
reclassified wolves in Wisconsin as a game species and directed the WI
DNR to establish a harvest season in 2012. The harvest season was set
from October 15-February 28 with zones closing as individual quotas are
met. The WI DNR holds the authority to determine harvest zones and set
harvest quotas.
Harvest quotas for the first season in 2012-13 were designed to
begin reducing the population toward the established objective, and the
harvest zones were designed to focus harvest in areas of highest human
conflict with lower harvest rates in areas of primary wolf habitat.
State-licensed hunters and trappers were not allowed permits within the
reservation boundaries of the Bad River, Red Cliff, Lac Courte
Oreilles, Lac Du Flambeau, Menominee, and Stockbridge-Munsee
reservations, and separate quotas were set for these ceded territories.
The Wisconsin Natural Resources Board established a total quota of 201
wolves (broken into a State-licensed quota of 116 wolves and a tribal
quota of 85 wolves). A total of 117 wolves were harvested during that
first season, all under the State licenses (Tribes did not authorize
tribal members to harvest wolves within reservation boundaries). In
2013-14, the total quota was 275 wolves; a State-licensed quota of 251,
and a tribal quota of 24. That year, 257 wolves were harvested. The
2014-15 wolf quota was reduced to 156 (a 57-percent reduction from the
2013-14 wolf quota), and 154 wolves were harvested that season (a 60-
percent decrease from the 2013-14 harvest.
Regardless of the methods used to manage wolves in the State, the
Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources is committed to maintaining a
wolf population at 350 wolves outside of Indian reservations, which
translates to a statewide population of 361 to 385 wolves in late
winter. No harvest would be allowed if the wolf population fell below
this goal (WI DNR 1999, pp. 15, 16). Also, the fact that the Wisconsin
Plan calls for State re-listing of the wolf as a threatened species if
the population falls to fewer than 250 for 3 years provides a strong
assurance that any public harvest is not likely to threaten the
persistence of the population (WI DNR 1999, pp. 15-17). Based on wolf
population data, the current Wisconsin Plan and the 2006 updates, we
conclude that any public harvest plan would continue to maintain the
State wolf population well above the recovery goal of 200 wolves in
late winter.
The Michigan Wolf Management Plan--The 2015 updated Michigan Plan
describes the wolf recovery goals and management actions needed to
maintain a viable wolf population in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan,
while facilitating wolf-related benefits and minimizing conflicts. The
updated Michigan Plan contains new scientific information related to
wolf management, updated information on the legal status of wolves,
clarifications related to management authorities and decisionmaking,
and updated strategic goals, objectives, and management actions
informed by internal evaluation and responses and comments received
from stakeholders. The updated plan retains the four principal goals of
the 2008 plan, which are to ``(1) maintain a viable Michigan wolf
population above a level that would warrant its classification as
threatened or endangered (more than 200 wolves); (2) facilitate wolf-
related benefits; (3) minimize wolf-related conflicts; and (4) conduct
science-based wolf management with socially acceptable methods'' (MI
DNR 2015, p. 16). The Michigan Plan details wolf-management actions,
including public education and outreach activities, annual wolf
population and health monitoring, research, depredation control,
ensuring adequate legal protection for wolves, and prey and habitat
management. It does not address the potential need for wolf recovery or
management in the Lower Peninsula, nor wolf management within Isle
Royale National Park (where the wolf population is fully protected by
the National Park Service).
As with the Wisconsin Plan, the Michigan Department of Natural
Resources has chosen to manage the State's wolves as though they are an
isolated population that receives no genetic or demographic benefits
from immigrating wolves, even though their population will continue to
be connected with populations in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Canada. The
Michigan wolf population must exceed 200 wolves in order to achieve the
Plan's first goal of maintaining a viable wolf population in the Upper
Peninsula. This number is consistent with the Federal Recovery Plan for
the Eastern Timber Wolf's definition of a viable, isolated wolf
population (USFWS 1992, p. 25). The Michigan Plan, however, clearly
states that 200 wolves is not the target population size, and that a
larger population may be necessary to meet the other goals of the Plan.
Therefore, the State would maintain a wolf population that would
``provide all of the ecological and social benefits valued
[[Page 9674]]
by the public'' while ``minimizing and resolving conflicts where they
occur'' (MI DNR 2015, p. 17). We strongly support this approach, as it
provides assurance that a viable wolf population would remain in the
Upper Peninsula regardless of the future fate of wolves in Wisconsin or
Ontario.
The Michigan Plan identifies wolf population monitoring as a
priority activity, and specifically states that the Michigan Department
of Natural Resources would monitor wolf abundance twice a year for at
least 5 years post-delisting (MI DNR 2015, p. 26). This includes
monitoring to assess wolf presence in the northern Lower Peninsula.
From 1989 through 2006, the MI DNR attempted to count wolves throughout
the entire Upper Peninsula. As the wolf population increased, this
method became more difficult. In the winter of 2006-07, the MI DNR
implemented a new sampling approach based on an analysis by Potvin et
al. (2005, p. 1668) to increase the efficiency of the State survey. The
new approach is based on a geographically based stratified random
sample and produces an unbiased, regional estimate of wolf abundance.
The Upper Peninsula was stratified into three sampling areas, and
within each stratum the DNR intensively surveys roughly 40 to 50
percent of the wolf habitat area annually. Computer simulations have
shown that such a geographically stratified monitoring program would
produce unbiased and precise estimates of the total wolf population,
which can be statistically compared to estimates derived from the
previous method to detect significant changes in the Upper Peninsula
wolf population (Beyer in litt. 2006, see attachment by Drummer;
Lederle in litt. 2006; Roell et al. 2009, p. 3).
Another component of wolf population monitoring is monitoring wolf
health. The MI DNR would continue to monitor the impact of parasites
and disease on the viability of wolf populations in the State through
necropsies of dead wolves and analyzing biological samples from
captured live wolves. Prior to 2004, MI DNR vaccinated all captured
wolves for canine distemper and parvovirus and treated them for mange.
These inoculations were discontinued to provide more natural biotic
conditions and to provide biologists with an unbiased estimate of
disease-caused mortality rates in the population (Roell in litt. 2005).
Since diseases and parasites are not currently a significant threat to
the Michigan wolf population, the MI DNR is continuing the practice of
not actively managing disease. If monitoring indicates that diseases or
parasites may pose a threat to the wolf population, the MI DNR would
again consider more active management similar to that conducted prior
to 2004 (MI DNR 2015, p. 35).
The Michigan Plan includes maintaining habitat and prey necessary
to sustain a viable wolf population in the State as a management
component. This includes maintaining prey populations required for a
viable wolf population while providing for sustainable human uses,
maintaining habitat linkages to allow for wolf dispersal, and
minimizing disturbance at known, active wolf dens (MI DNR 2015, pp. 32-
34).
To minimize illegal take, the Michigan Plan calls for enacting and
enforcing regulations to ensure adequate legal protection for wolves in
the State. Under State regulations, wolves could be classified as a
threatened, endangered, game, or protected animal, all of which
prohibit killing (or harming) the species except under a permit,
license, or specific conditions. Michigan removed gray wolves from the
State's threatened and endangered species list in 2009 and classified
the species as a game animal in 2015. Game-animal status allows but
does not require the establishment of a regulated harvest season. The
Michigan Plan states that regulations would be reviewed, modified, or
enacted as necessary to provide the wolf population with appropriate
levels of protection with the following possible actions: (1)
Reclassify wolves as endangered or threatened under State regulations
if population size declines to 200 or fewer wolves; (2) review, modify,
recommend, and/or enact regulations, as necessary, to ensure
appropriate levels of protection for the wolf population; and (3) if
necessary to avoid a lapse in legal protection, amend the Wildlife
Conservation Order to designate wolves as a protected animal (MI DNR
2015, p. 28).
The Michigan Plan emphasizes the need for public information and
education efforts that focus on living with a recovered wolf population
and ways to manage wolves and wolf-human interaction (both positive and
negative) (MI DNR 2015, pp. 22-25). The Plan also recommends continuing
important research efforts, continuing reimbursement for depredation
losses, minimizing the impacts of captive wolves and wolf-dog hybrids
on the wild wolf population, and citizen stakeholder involvement in the
wolf-management program (MI DNR 2015, pp. 27, 52-53, 55-56, 60).
The Michigan Plan calls for establishing a wolf-management
stakeholder group that would meet annually to monitor the progress made
toward implementing the Plan. Furthermore, the Plan will be reviewed
and updated at 5-year intervals to address ``ecological, social, and
regulatory'' changes (MI DNR 2015, pp. 60-61). The plan also addresses
currently available and potential new sources of funding to offset
costs associated with wolf management (MI DNR 2015, pp. 61-62). The MI
DNR has long been an innovative leader in wolf-recovery efforts,
exemplified by its initiation of the nation's first attempt to
reintroduce wild wolves to vacant historical wolf habitat in 1974
(Weise et al. 1975). The MI DNR's history of leadership in wolf
recovery and its repeated written commitments to ensure the continued
viability of a Michigan wolf population above a level that would
trigger State or Federal listing as threatened or endangered further
reinforces that the 2015 Michigan Wolf Management Plan would provide
adequate regulatory mechanisms for Michigan wolves. The DNR's primary
goal remains to conduct management to maintain the wolf population in
Michigan above the minimum size that is biologically required for a
viable, isolated population and to provide for ecological and social
benefits valued by the public while resolving conflicts where they
occur (MI DNR 2015, p. 16).
Depredation Control in Michigan--Data from Michigan show a general
increase in confirmed events of wolf depredations on livestock over the
past two decades, with an average of 3.4 animals killed annually from
1998 through 2002, an average of 10.6 annually in 2003-2007; an average
of 38.2 annually from 2008-2012; and an average of 19.2 annually in
2013-2017. Over 80 percent of the depredation events were on cattle,
with the rest on sheep, poultry, rabbits, goats, horses, swine, and
captive deer (Roell et al. 2009, pp. 9, 11; Beyer in litt. 2018).
Michigan has not experienced as high a level of attacks on dogs by
wolves as Wisconsin, although a slight increase in such attacks has
occurred over the last decade. Yearly losses vary, and actions of a
single pack of wolves can be an important influence. In Michigan, there
is not a strong relationship between wolf depredation on dogs and wolf
abundance (Roell et al. 2010, p. 7). The number of dogs killed in the
State during the 15 years from 1996 to 2010 totaled 34; that number
increased to 70 during the 7-year period from 2011 through 2017 (Beyer
in litt. 2018). The majority of the wolf-related dog deaths
[[Page 9675]]
involved hounds used to hunt bears. Similar to Wisconsin, MI DNR has
guidelines for its depredation-control program, stating that lethal
control would not be used when wolves kill dogs that are free roaming,
hunting, or training on public lands. Lethal control of wolves,
however, would be considered if wolves have killed confined pets and
remain in the area where more pets are being held (MI DNR 2005a, p. 6).
However, in 2008, the Michigan Legislature passed a law that would
allow dog owners or their designated agents to remove, capture, or, if
deemed necessary, use lethal means to destroy a gray wolf that is in
the act of preying upon the owner's dog, which includes dogs free
roaming or hunting on public lands.
During the several years that lethal control of depredating wolves
had been conducted in Michigan, there was no evidence of resulting
adverse impacts to the maintenance of a viable wolf population in the
Upper Peninsula. MI DNR and USDA-Wildlife Services killed 50 wolves in
response to depredation events during the time period when permits or
special rules were in effect or while wolves were not on the Federal
lists of endangered and threatened species (Roell et al. 2010, p. 8).
In 2008, Michigan passed two House bills that would become effective
after Federal delisting. Those bills authorized a livestock or dog
owner (or a designated agent) to ``remove, capture, or use lethal means
to destroy a wolf that is in the act of preying upon'' the owner's
livestock or dog. During the 2 months that wolves were federally and
State delisted in 2009, no wolves were killed under these
authorizations; 32 wolves were killed under these authorities from 2012
through 2014 (Beyer in litt. 2018). The numbers of wolves killed each
year for depredation control are as follows: 4 (2003), 5 (2004), 2
(2005), 7 (2006), 14 (2007), 8 (2008), 1 (during 2 months in 2009), 18
(2012), 10 (2013), and 13 (2014) (Beyer et al. 2006, p. 88; Roell in
litt. 2006, p. 1; Roell et al. 2010, p. 19; Beyer in litt. 2018). This
represents 0.2 percent (2009) to 2.7 percent (2007) of the Upper
Peninsula's late-winter population of wolves during the previous
winter. During the years where depredation control took place absent a
regulated public harvest, the wolf population increased from 2 percent
(2007-2008) to 17 percent (2006-2007) despite the level of depredation
control, demonstrating that the wolf population continues to increase
at a healthy rate (Huntzinger et al. 2005, p. 6; MI DNR 2006, Roell et
al. 2009, p. 4).
Post-delisting Depredation Control in Michigan--Following Federal
delisting, wolf depredation control in Michigan would be carried out
according to the 2015 Michigan Wolf Recovery and Management Plan (MI
DNR 2015) and any Tribal wolf-management plans that may be developed in
the future for reservations in occupied wolf range.
To provide depredation-control guidance when lethal control is an
option, Michigan Department of Natural Resources has developed detailed
instructions for incident investigation and response (MI DNR 2005a).
Verification of wolf depredation incidents will be conducted by MI DNR
or USDA-APHIS-Wildlife Services personnel (working under a cooperative
agreement with MI DNR or at the request of a Tribe, depending on the
location) who have been trained in depredation investigation
techniques. The MI DNR specifies that the verification process would
use the investigative techniques that have been developed and
successfully used in Minnesota by Wildlife Services (MI DNR 2005a,
append. B, pp. 9-10). Following verification, one or more of several
options would be implemented to address the depredation problem.
Technical assistance, consisting of advice or recommendations to reduce
wolf conflicts, would be provided. Technical assistance may also
include providing to the landowner various forms of noninjurious
behavior modification materials, such as flashing lights, noise makers,
temporary fencing, and fladry.
Trapping and translocating depredating wolves has been used in the
past, resulting in the translocation of 23 Upper Peninsula wolves
during 1998-2003 (Beyer et al. 2006, p. 88), but as with Wisconsin,
suitable relocation sites are becoming rarer, and there is local
opposition to the release of translocated depredators. Furthermore,
none of the past translocated depredators have remained near their
release sites, making this a questionable method to end the depredation
behaviors of these wolves (MI DNR 2005a, pp. 3-4). Therefore, reducing
depredation problems by relocation is no longer recommended as a
management tool in Michigan (MI DNR 2008, p. 57).
Lethal control of depredating wolves is likely to be the most
common future response in situations when improved livestock husbandry
and wolf-behavior-modification techniques (for example, flashing
lights, noise-making devices) are judged to be inadequate. As wolf
numbers continue to increase on the Upper Peninsula, the number of
verified depredations will also increase, and will probably do so at a
rate that exceeds the rate of wolf population increase. This will occur
as wolves increasingly disperse into and occupy areas of the Upper
Peninsula with more livestock and more human residences, leading to
additional exposure to domestic animals. In a previous application for
a lethal take permit under section 10(a)(1)(A) of the Act, MI DNR
received authority to euthanize up to 10 percent of the late-winter
wolf population annually (MI DNR 2005b, p. 1). However, based on 2003-
05 and 2007-09 depredation data, it is likely that significantly less
than 10 percent lethal control would be needed over the next several
years.
The Michigan Plan provides recommendations to guide management of
various conflicts caused by wolf recovery, including depredation on
livestock and pets, human safety, and public concerns regarding wolf
impacts on other wildlife. We view the Michigan Plan's depredation and
conflict control strategies to be conservative, in that they commit to
nonlethal depredation management whenever possible, oppose preventative
wolf removal where problems have not yet occurred, encourage incentives
for best management practices that decrease wolf-livestock conflicts
without affecting wolves, and support closely monitored and enforced
take by landowners of wolves ``in the act of livestock depredation'' or
under limited permits if depredation is confirmed and nonlethal methods
are determined to be ineffective. Based on these components of the
revised Michigan Plan and the stated goal for maintaining wolf
populations at or above recovery goals, the Service concludes that any
wolf-management changes implemented following delisting would not be
implemented in a manner that results in significant reductions in
Michigan wolf populations. The MI DNR remains committed to ensuring a
viable wolf population above a level that would trigger re-listing as
either threatened or endangered in the future (MI DNR 2015, p. 8).
Similar to Wisconsin, Michigan livestock owners are compensated
when they lose livestock as a result of a confirmed wolf depredation.
Currently there are two complementary compensation programs in
Michigan, one funded by the MI DNR and implemented by Michigan
Department of Agriculture (MI DA) and another set up through donations
(from Defenders of Wildlife and private citizens) and administered by
the International Wolf Center (IWC), a nonprofit organization. From the
inception of the program to
[[Page 9676]]
2000, MI DA has paid 90 percent of full market value of depredated
livestock at the time of loss. The IWC account was used to pay the
remaining 10 percent from 2000 to 2002 when MI DA began paying 100
percent of the full market value of depredated livestock. The IWC
account continues to be used to pay the difference between value at
time of loss and the full fall market value for depredated young-of-
the-year livestock, and together the two funds have provided nearly
$183,000 in livestock-loss compensation through 2017 (Roell et al.
2010, p. 15; Beyer in litt. 2018). Neither of these programs provides
compensation for pets or for veterinary costs to treat wolf-inflicted
livestock injuries. The MI DNR plans to continue cooperating with MI DA
and other organizations to maintain the wolf-depredation-compensation
program (MI DNR 2008, pp. 59-60).
Post-delisting Regulated Harvest in Michigan--Although the Michigan
Plan itself does not determine whether a public harvest would be used
as a management strategy, it does discuss developing ``socially and
biologically responsible management recommendations regarding public
harvest of wolves'' (MI DNR 2015, p. 56). The Michigan Plan discusses
developing recommendations regarding public harvest for two separate
purposes: To reduce wolf-related conflicts and for reasons other than
managing wolf-related conflicts (e.g., recreational and utilitarian
purposes). With regard to implementing a public harvest for
recreational or utilitarian purposes, the Michigan Plan identifies the
need to gather and evaluate biological and social information,
including the biological effects and the public acceptability of a
general wolf harvest (MI DNR 2015, p. 60). A public harvest during a
regulated season requires that wolves be classified as game animals in
Michigan (they were classified as such in 2015). With wolves classified
as game animals, the Michigan Natural Resource Commission (NRC) has the
exclusive authority to enact regulations pertaining to the methods and
manner of public harvest. Although the decisions regarding
establishment of a harvest season would be made by the NRC, the MI DNR
would be called upon to make recommendations regarding socially and
biologically responsible public harvest of wolves. Michigan held a
regulated public hunting season in 2014 that took into consideration
the recommendations of the MI DNR. Based on those recommendations, the
Michigan NRC established quotas for that season based on zones in the
Upper Peninsula, with a quota of 16 wolves in the far western part of
the peninsula, 19 in 4 central counties, and 8 in the eastern part of
the peninsula. Twenty-two wolves were taken during that 2014 season.
Post-Delisting Management in the West Coast States
Wolves are classified as endangered under the Washington State
Endangered Species Act (WAC 220-610-010). Unlawful taking (when a
person hunts, fishes, possesses, maliciously harasses or kills
endangered fish or wildlife, and the taking has not been authorized by
rule of the commission) of endangered fish or wildlife is prohibited in
Washington (RCW 77.15.120). Wolves in California are similarly
classified as endangered under the California Endangered Species Act
(CESA; California Fish and Game Commission 2014, entire). Under CESA,
take (defined as hunt, pursue, catch, capture, kill, or attempts to
hunt, pursue, catch, capture, or kill) of listed wildlife species is
prohibited (California Fish and Game Codes Sec. 86 and Sec. 2080).
Wolves in Oregon have achieved recovery objectives and were delisted
from the State Endangered Species Act in 2015. Wolves in Oregon remain
protected by the State Plan and its associated rules, and Oregon's
wildlife policy. The wildlife policy states ``that wildlife shall be
managed to prevent the serious depletion of any indigenous species''
and includes seven coequal management goals (ORS 496.012) (ODFW 2017,
p. 6). Although it remains a possibility for the future, there are no
current plans to initiate a hunting season, and regulatory mechanisms
remain in place through the State plan and Oregon statute to ensure a
sustainable wolf population.
Oregon, Washington, and California also have adopted wolf-
management plans intended to provide for the conservation and
reestablishment of wolves in these States (ODFW 2010, entire; Wiles et
al. 2011, entire; CDFW 2016a, entire; 2016b, entire). These plans
include population objectives, education and public outreach goals,
damage-management strategies, and monitoring and research plans. Wolves
will remain on State endangered species lists in Washington and
California until recovery objectives have been reached. Once recovery
objectives have been achieved, the process for delisting wolves at the
State level will be initiated. Once removed, the States have the
authority to consider using regulated harvest to manage wolf
populations. All three State plans also recognize that management of
livestock conflicts is a necessary component of wolf management (ODFW
2010, p. 40; Wiles et al. 2011, p. 72; CDFW 2016a, p. 4). Control
options are currently limited to preventative and nonlethal methods
within the federally listed portions of Oregon, Washington, and
California. If Federal delisting occurs, guidelines outlined in each
State's plan define conditions under which depredating wolves can be
lethally removed by agency officials (CDFW 2016b, pp. 278-285; ODFW
2010, pp. 43-54; Wiles et al. 2011, pp. 72-94).
The Oregon Wolf Management Plan--The Oregon Wolf Conservation and
Management Plan was developed prior to wolves becoming established in
Oregon. The plan, first finalized in 2005, contains provisions that
require it to be updated every 5 years. The first revision occurred in
2010, and a subsequent revision is presently under review. The Oregon
Fish and Wildlife Commission provided a set of guiding principles to a
newly formed Wolf Advisory Committee, which was directed to work on
plan development. The guiding principles included writing a plan based
on the conservation of wolves, incorporating public concerns and
comments, not allowing reintroduction of wolves into Oregon, providing
flexibility for management while conserving wolves, seeking assistance
for livestock producers for wolf depredation, and assessing of impacts
to prey populations. Key stakeholder groups are invited to participate
in reviews of revisions to the plan. Stakeholders include local
government, Tribes, non-governmental organizations, State agencies and
organizations, and Federal agencies.
The Oregon plan includes two management zones that roughly divide
the State into western and eastern halves. This division line is
further to the west of the line that delineates the listed and non-
listed portions of Oregon. Each zone has a separate population
objective of seven breeding pairs (ODFW 2017, p. 16). Within each zone,
management phases (Phase I, Phase II, and Phase III) are used to assess
population objectives, which in turn influence conservation and
management objectives.
Phase I includes a conservation population objective of obtaining
four breeding pairs for 3 consecutive years; upon reaching this
objective, delisting of wolves statewide may be initiated. The ODFW
defines a breeding pair as a pack of wolves with an adult male, an
adult female, and at least two pups surviving to the end of December
(ODFW 2010, p. 17). This population objective was met in 2014 in the
eastern
[[Page 9677]]
management zone, and wolves were State delisted in Oregon in 2015.
Wolves in the eastern management zone were then managed under Phase II
(ODFW 2016, p. 2). Wolves in the western management zone have yet to
reach this conservation objective. Despite State delisting, wolves in
the western management zone (currently in Phase I) are still managed
with a level of protection mimicking that of Oregon ESA protections for
wolves.
Phase II management actions work towards a management population
objective of seven breeding pairs in the eastern management zone for 3
consecutive years. During this phase populations are managed to prevent
declines that could result in re-listing under the Oregon ESA. This
Phase II management population objective was met in 2016, which
resulted in the transition of management to Phase III for the eastern
management zone (ODFW 2017, p. 2).
Phase III acts to set a balance such that populations do not
decline below Phase II objectives, but also do not reach unmanageable
levels resulting in conflicts with other land uses. Phase III is a
maintenance phase. While the 2010 plan does not include a minimum or
maximum population level for wolves in Oregon, the plan leaves room for
development of population thresholds in future planning efforts (ODFW
2010, p. 28). Similarly, legal harvest of wolves is not included in
Phase III of the 2010 plan; however, Phase III does provide more
management flexibility in the case of depredating wolves (ODFW 2010, p.
45). Currently, hunting of wolves is not permitted in Oregon.
The Washington Wolf Management Plan--The 2011 Wolf Conservation and
Management Plan for Washington was developed in response to the State
endangered status for the species, the expectation that the wolf
population in Washington would be increasing through natural dispersal
of wolves from adjacent populations, and the eventual return of wolf
management to the State after Federal delisting. The purpose of the
plan is to facilitate reestablishment of a self-sustaining population
of gray wolves in Washington and to encourage social tolerance for the
species by addressing and reducing conflicts. An advisory Wolf Working
Group was appointed at the outset to give recommendations on the plan.
In addition, the plan underwent extensive peer and public review prior
to finalization.
The Washington Plan provides recovery goals for downlisting and
delisting the species under Washington State law, and identifies
strategies to achieve recovery and manage conflicts with livestock and
ungulates. Recovery objectives are defined as numbers of successful
breeding pairs that are maintained on the landscape for 3 consecutive
years, with a set geographic distribution within 3 specified recovery
regions: The Eastern Washington, Northern Cascades, and Southern
Cascades and Northwest Coast (Wiles et al. 2011, p. 60 figure 9). A
successful breeding pair of wolves is defined in the Washington Plan as
an adult male and an adult female with at least two pups surviving to
December 31 in a given year (Wiles et al. 2011, p. 58). Specific target
numbers and distribution for downlisting and delisting within the three
recovery regions identified in the Washington Plan are as follows:
To reclassify from State endangered to State threatened
status: 6 successful breeding pairs present for 3 consecutive years,
with 2 successful breeding pairs in each of the three recovery regions.
To reclassify from State threatened to State sensitive
status: 12 successful breeding pairs present for 3 consecutive years,
with 4 successful breeding pairs in each of the three recovery regions.
To delist from State sensitive status: 15 successful
breeding pairs present for 3 consecutive years, with 4 successful
breeding pairs in each of the three recovery regions and 3 successful
breeding pairs anywhere in the State.
In addition to the delisting objective of 15 successful breeding
pairs distributed in the three geographic regions for 3 consecutive
years, an alternative delisting objective is also established whereby
the gray wolf will be considered for delisting when 18 successful
breeding pairs are present, with 4 successful breeding pairs in the
Eastern Washington region, 4 successful breeding pairs in the Northern
Cascades region, 4 successful breeding pairs distributed in the
Southern Cascades and Northwest Coast region, and 6 anywhere in the
State.
After State delisting, wolves could be reclassified as a game
animal through the Washington Fish and Wildlife Commission's public
process. WDFW intends to develop a new plan for managing wolves
following Federal and State delisting. Any proposals to hunt wolves
would go through a public process with the Fish and Wildlife Commission
(Wiles et al. 2011, pp. 70-71).
The California Wolf Management Plan--The 2016 Conservation Plan for
Gray Wolves in California was developed in anticipation of the return
of wolves to California. The CDFW worked with stakeholder groups in
2014 and 2015 during plan development. Stakeholders included local
government, non-governmental organizations, State agencies and
organizations, and Federal agencies. During the planning process, CDFW
and the stakeholders identified sideboards and plan goals to direct
development of the State plan. These sideboards and goals included
direction to develop alternatives for wolf management, no
reintroduction of wolves into California, historical distribution and
abundance are not achievable, conserve biologically sustainable
populations, manage native ungulates for wolf and human uses,
management to minimize livestock depredations, and public outreach.
The California Plan recognizes that wolf activity in the State will
increase with time, and that the plan needs to be flexible to account
for information that is gained during the expansion of wolves into the
State. Similar to plans for other States, the California Plan uses a
three-phase strategy for wolf conservation and management.
Phase I is a conservation-based strategy to account for the
reestablishment of wolves under both State and Federal Endangered
Species Acts. Phase I will end when there are four breeding pairs for 2
consecutive years in California. The CDFW defines a breeding pair as at
least one adult male, one adult female, and at least two pups that
survive to the end of December (CDFW 2016a, p. 21). California is
currently in Phase I of the plan, with the Lassen Pack as the only
breeding pair present for 2 consecutive years.
Phase II is expected to represent a point at which California's
wolf population is growing more through reproduction of resident wolves
than by dispersal of wolves from other States. This phase will conclude
when there are eight breeding pairs for 2 consecutive years. During
Phase II, CDFW anticipates gaining additional information and
experience with wolves in the State, which will help inform future
revisions to the State plan. During Phase II, flexibility for managing
wolves for depredation response or predation on wild ungulates may be
initiated.
Phase III is less specific due to the information available to CDFW
at the time of plan development. This phase moves toward longer term
management of wolves in California. Specific aspects of Phase III are
more likely to be developed toward the middle of Phase II when more
information on wolf distribution and abundance in the State are
available. Towards the end of Phase II and the beginning of Phase III,
a status review of wolves in California may be
[[Page 9678]]
initiated to determine if continued State listing as endangered is
warranted. Currently, hunting of wolves is not permitted in California.
Tribal Management and Conservation of Wolves
Native American tribes and inter-tribal resource-management
organizations have indicated to the Service that they will continue to
conserve wolves on most, and probably all, Native American reservations
in the primary wolf areas of the Great Lakes area. The wolf retains
great cultural significance and traditional value to many Tribes and
their members, and to retain and strengthen cultural connections, many
tribes oppose unnecessary killing of wolves on reservations and on
ceded lands, even following any Federal delisting (Hunt in litt. 1998;
Schrage in litt. 1998a; Schlender in litt. 1998). Some Native Americans
view wolves as competitors for deer and moose, whereas others are
interested in harvesting wolves as furbearers (Schrage in litt. 1998a).
Many tribes intend to sustainably manage their natural resources,
wolves among them, to ensure that they are available to their
descendants. Traditional natural-resource harvest practices, however,
often include only a minimum amount of regulation by the Tribal
governments (Hunt in litt. 1998).
Although not all Tribes with wolves that visit or reside on their
reservations have completed management plans specific to the wolf,
several Tribes have informed us that they have no plans or intentions
to allow commercial or recreational hunting or trapping of the species
on their lands after Federal delisting. The Red Lake Band of Chippewa
Indians (Minnesota) and the Little Traverse Bay Band of Odawa Indians
(Michigan) have developed wolf monitoring and/or management plans. The
Service has also awarded a grant to the Ho-Chunk Nation to identify
wolf habitat on reservation lands.
As a result of many past contacts with, and previous written
comments from, the Midwestern Tribes and their inter-tribal natural-
resource-management agencies--the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife
Commission (GLIFWC), the 1854 Authority, and the Chippewa Ottawa Treaty
Authority--it is clear that their predominant sentiment is strong
support for the continued protection of wolves at a level that ensures
that viable wolf populations remain on reservations and throughout the
treaty-ceded lands surrounding the reservations. While several Tribes
stated that their members may be interested in killing small numbers of
wolves for spiritual or other purposes, this would be carried out in a
manner that would not affect reservation or ceded-territory wolf
populations.
The Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians (Minnesota) completed a wolf-
management plan in 2010 (Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians 2010). A
primary goal of the management plan is to maintain wolf numbers at a
level that will ensure the long-term survival of wolves on Red Lake
lands. Key components of the plan are habitat management, public
education, and law enforcement. To address human-wolf interactions, the
plan outlines how wolves may be taken on Red Lake lands. Wolves thought
to be a threat to public safety may be harassed at any time, and if
they must be killed, the incident must be reported to tribal law
enforcement. Agricultural livestock are not common on Red Lake lands,
and wolf-related depredation on livestock or pets is unlikely to be a
significant management issue. If such events do occur, tribal members
may protect their livestock or pets by lethal means, but ``all
reasonable efforts should be made to deter wolves using non-lethal
means'' (Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians 2010, p. 15). Hunting or
trapping of wolves on tribal lands will be prohibited. The Reservation
currently has 7 or 8 packs with an estimated 40-48 wolves within its
boundaries (Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians 2010, p. 12).
In 2009, the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians (LTBB)
finalized a management plan for the 1855 Reservation and portions of
the 1836 ceded territory in the northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan
(Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians Natural Resource Department
2009). The plan provides the framework for managing wolves on the LTBB
Reservation with the goal of maintaining a viable wolf presence on the
LTBB Reservation or within the northern Lower Peninsula should a
population become established by (1) prescribing scientifically sound
biological strategies for wolf management, research, and monitoring;
(2) addressing wolf-related conflicts; (3) facilitating wolf-related
benefits; and (4) developing and implementing wolf-related education
and public information.
The Tribal Council of the Leech Lake Band of Minnesota Ojibwe
(Council) approved a resolution that describes the sport and
recreational harvest of wolves as an inappropriate use of the animal.
That resolution supports limited harvest of wolves to be used for
traditional or spiritual uses by enrolled Tribal members if the harvest
is done in a respectful manner and would not negatively affect the wolf
population. Over the last several years, the Council has been working
to revise the Reservation Conservation Code to allow Tribal members to
harvest some wolves after Federal delisting (Googgleye, Jr. in litt.
2004; Johnson in litt. 2011). Until this revision occurs, it is unknown
whether harvest would be allowed and how a harvest might be
implemented. The Tribe is currently developing a wolf-management plan
(Mortensen 2011, pers. comm.). In 2005, the Leech Lake Reservation was
home to an estimated 75 wolves, the largest population of wolves on a
Native American reservation in the 48 conterminous States (Mortensen
2006, pers. comm.; White in litt. 2003). Although no recent surveys
have been conducted, the number of wolves on the reservation likely
remains about the same (Mortensen 2009, pers. comm.; Johnson in litt.
2011).
The Fond du Lac Band (Minnesota) believes that the ``well-being of
the wolf is intimately connected to the well-being of the Chippewa
People'' (Schrage in litt. 2003). In 1998, the Band passed a resolution
opposing Federal delisting and any other measure that would permit
trapping, hunting, or poisoning of the wolf (Schrage in litt. 1998b; in
litt. 2003; 2009, pers. comm.). If the prohibition of trapping,
hunting, or poisoning is rescinded, the Band's Resource Management
Division would coordinate with State and Federal agencies to ensure
that any wolf hunting or trapping would be ``conducted in a
biologically sustainable manner'' (Schrage in litt. 2003).
The Red Cliff Band (Wisconsin) has strongly opposed State and
Federal delisting of the gray wolf. Current Tribal law protects wolves
from harvest, although harvest for ceremonial purposes would likely be
permitted after Federal delisting (Symbal in litt. 2003).
The Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin is committed to
establishing a self-sustaining wolf population, continuing restoration
efforts, ensuring the long-term survival of the wolf in Menominee,
placing emphasis on the cultural significance of the wolf as a clan
member, and resolving conflicts between wolves and humans. The Tribe
has shown a great deal of interest in wolf recovery and protection. In
2002, the Tribe offered their Reservation lands as a site for
translocating seven depredating wolves that had been trapped by WI DNR
and Wildlife Services. Tribal natural resources staff participated in
the soft release of the wolves on the Reservation and helped
[[Page 9679]]
with the subsequent radio-tracking of the wolves. Although by early
2005 the last of these wolves died on the reservation, the tribal
conservation department continued to monitor another pair that had
moved onto the Reservation, as well as other wolves near the
reservation (Wydeven in litt. 2006). When the female of that pair was
killed in 2006, Reservation biologists and staff worked diligently to
raise the orphaned pups in captivity with the WI DNR and the Wildlife
Science Center (Forest Lake, Minnesota) in the hope that they could
later be released to the care of the adult male. However, the adult
male died prior to pup release, and they were moved back to the
Wildlife Science Center (Pioneer Press 2006). The Menominee Tribe
continues to support wolf conservation and monitoring activity in
Wisconsin.
The Keweenaw Bay Indian Community (Michigan) would continue to list
the wolf as a protected animal under the Tribal Code following any
Federal delisting, with hunting and trapping prohibited (Mike Donofrio
1998, pers. comm.). Furthermore, the Keweenaw Bay Community developed a
management plan in 2013 that ``provides a course of action that will
ensure the long-term survival of a self-sustaining, wild gray wolf
(Canis lupus) population in the 1842 ceded territory in the western
Upper Peninsula of Michigan'' (KBIC Tribal Council 2013, p. 1). At
least four other Tribes (Stock-bridge Munsee Community, Lac Courte
Oreilles Band of Ojibwe, the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe, and Grand
Portage Band of Lake Superior Chippewa) have indicated plans to develop
Tribal wolf-management plans.
Several Midwestern Tribes (for example, the Bad River Band of Lake
Superior Chippewa Indians and the LTBB) have expressed concern that
Federal delisting would result in increased mortality of wolves on
reservation lands, in the areas immediately surrounding the
reservations, and in lands ceded by treaty to the Federal Government by
the Tribes (Kiogama and Chingwa in litt. 2000). In 2006, a cooperative
effort among tribal natural resource departments of several tribes in
Wisconsin, WI DNR, the Service, and USDA Wildlife Services led to a
wolf-management agreement for lands adjacent to several reservations in
Wisconsin. The goal is to reduce the threats to reservation wolf packs
when they are temporarily off the reservation. Other Tribes have
expressed interest in such an agreement. This agreement, and additional
agreements if they are implemented, provides supplementary protection
to certain wolf packs in the western Great Lakes area.
The GLIFWC has stated its intent to work closely with the States to
cooperatively manage wolves in the ceded territories in the core areas,
and will not develop a separate wolf-management plan (Schlender in
litt. 1998). Furthermore, the Voigt Intertribal Task Force of GLIFWC
has expressed its support for strong protections for the wolf, stating
``[delisting] hinges on whether wolves are sufficiently restored and
will be sufficiently protected to ensure a healthy and abundant future
for our brother and ourselves'' (Schlender in litt. 2004).
According to the 1854 Authority, ``attitudes toward wolf management
in the 1854 Ceded Territory run the gamut from a desire to see total
protection to unlimited harvest opportunity.'' However, the 1854
Authority would not ``implement a harvest system that would have any
long-term negative impacts to wolf populations'' (Edwards in litt.
2003). In comments submitted for our 2004 delisting proposal for a
larger Eastern DPS of the gray wolf, the 1854 Authority stated that the
Authority is ``confident that under the control of State and tribal
management, wolves will continue to exist at a self-sustaining level in
the 1854 Ceded Territory. Sustainable populations of wolves, their prey
and other resources within the 1854 Ceded Territory are goals to which
the 1854 Authority remains committed. As such, we intend to work with
the State of Minnesota and other tribes to ensure successful state and
tribal management of healthy wolf populations in the 1854 Ceded
Territory'' (Myers in litt. 2004).
While there are few written Tribal protections currently in place
for wolves, the highly protective and reverential attitudes that have
been expressed by Tribal authorities and members have assured us that
any post-delisting harvest of reservation wolves would be very limited
and would not adversely affect the delisted wolf populations.
Furthermore, any off-reservation harvest of wolves by tribal members in
the ceded territories would be limited to a portion of the harvestable
surplus at some future time. Such a harvestable surplus would be
determined and monitored jointly by State and tribal biologists, and
would be conducted in coordination with the Service and the Bureau of
Indian Affairs (BIA), as is being successfully done for the ceded
territory harvest of inland and Great Lakes fish, deer, bear, moose,
and furbearers in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Therefore, we
conclude that any future Native American take of delisted wolves will
not significantly affect the viability of the wolf population, either
locally or across the Great Lakes area.
The Service and the Department of the Interior recognize the unique
status of the federally recognized tribes, their right to self-
governance, and their inherent sovereign powers over their members and
territory. Therefore, the Department, the Service, the BIA, and other
Federal agencies, as appropriate, will take the needed steps to ensure
that tribal authority and sovereignty within reservation boundaries are
respected as the States implement their wolf-management plans and
revise those plans in the future.
Furthermore, there may be tribal activities or interests associated
with wolves encompassed within the tribes' retained rights to hunt,
fish, and gather in treaty-ceded territories. The Department is
available to assist in the exercise of any such rights. If biological
assistance is needed, the Service may provide it via our field offices.
Upon delisting, the Service would remain involved in the post-delisting
monitoring of the wolves in the Great Lakes area, but all Service
management and protection authority under the Act would end. Legal
assistance would be provided to the tribes by the Department of the
Interior, and the BIA would be involved, when needed. We strongly
encourage the States and Tribes to work cooperatively toward post-
delisting wolf management if wolves are delisted.
Consistent with our responsibilities to tribes and our goal to have
the most comprehensive data available for our post-delisting
monitoring, we would annually contact tribes and their designated
intertribal natural resource agencies during the 5-year post-delisting
monitoring period to obtain any information they wish to share
regarding wolf populations, the health of those populations, or changes
in their management and protection. Reservations that may have
significant wolf data to provide during the post-delisting period
include Bois Forte, Bad River, Fond du Lac, Grand Portage, Keweenaw Bay
Indian Community, Lac Courte Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, Leech Lake,
Menominee, Oneida, Red Lake, Stockbridge-Munsee Community, and White
Earth. Throughout the 5-year post-delisting monitoring period, the
Service would annually contact the natural resource agencies of each of
these reservations and that of the 1854 Treaty Authority and Great
Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission.
[[Page 9680]]
Management on Federal Lands
Great Lakes Area
The five national forests with resident wolves (Superior, Chippewa,
Chequamegon-Nicolet, Hiawatha, and Ottawa National Forests) in
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan are all operating in conformance
with standards and guidelines in their management plans that follow the
1992 Recovery Plan for the Eastern Timber Wolf's recommendations for
the eastern timber wolf (USDA Forest Service (FS) 2004a, chapter 2, p.
31; USDA FS 2004b, chapter 2, p. 28; USDA FS 2004c, chapter 2, p. 19;
USDA FS 2006a, chapter 2, p. 17; USDA FS 2006b, chapter 2, pp. 28-29).
Delisting is not expected to lead to an immediate change in these
standards and guidelines; in fact, the Regional Forester for U.S.
Forest Service Region 9 expects to maintain the classification of the
wolf as a Regional Forester Sensitive Species for at least 5 years
after Federal delisting (Moore in litt. 2003; Eklund in litt. 2011).
The Regional Forester has the authority to recommend classification or
declassification of species as Sensitive Species. Under these standards
and guidelines, a relatively high prey base will be maintained, and
road densities will be limited to current levels or decreased. For
example, on the Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest in Wisconsin, the
standards and guidelines specifically include the protection of den
sites and key rendezvous sites, and management of road densities in
existing and potential wolf habitat (USDA 2004c, chap. 2, p. 19).
The trapping of depredating wolves would likely be allowed on
national forest lands under the guidelines and conditions specified in
the respective State wolf-management plans. However, there are
relatively few livestock raised within the boundaries of national
forests in the upper Midwest, so wolf depredation and lethal control of
wolves is neither likely to be a frequent occurrence, nor constitute a
significant mortality factor, for the wolves in the Great Lakes area.
Similarly, in keeping with the practice for other State-managed game
species, any public hunting or trapping season for wolves that might be
opened in the future by the States would likely include hunting and
trapping within the national forests (Lindquist in litt. 2005;
Williamson in litt. 2005; Piehler in litt. 2005; Evans in litt. 2005).
The continuation of current national forest management practices will
be important in ensuring the long-term viability of wolf populations in
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.
Wolves regularly use four units of the National Park System in the
Great Lakes area and may occasionally use three or four other units.
Although the National Park Service (NPS) has participated in the
development of some of the State wolf-management plans in this area,
NPS is not bound by States' plans. Instead, the NPS Organic Act and the
NPS Management Policy on Wildlife generally require the agency to
conserve natural and cultural resources and the wildlife present within
the parks. NPS management policies require that native species be
protected against harvest, removal, destruction, harassment, or harm
through human action, although certain parks may allow some harvest in
accordance with State management plans. Management emphasis in National
Parks after delisting would continue to minimize the human impacts on
wolf populations. Thus, because of their responsibility to preserve all
native wildlife, units of the National Park System are often the most
protective of wildlife. In the case of the wolf, the NPS Organic Act
and NPS policies would continue to provide protection following Federal
delisting.
Management and protection of wolves in Voyageurs National Park,
along Minnesota's northern border is not likely to change after
delisting. The park's management policies require that ``native animals
will be protected against harvest, removal, destruction, harassment, or
harm through human action.'' No population targets for wolves will be
established for the National Park (Holbeck in litt. 2005). To reduce
human disturbance, temporary closures around wolf denning and
rendezvous sites will be enacted whenever they are discovered in the
park. Sport hunting is already prohibited on park lands, regardless of
what may be allowed beyond park boundaries (West in litt. 2004). A
radio-telemetry study conducted between 1987 and 1991 of wolves living
in and adjacent to the park found that all mortality inside the park
was due to natural causes (for example, killing by other wolves or
starvation), whereas the majority (60-80 percent) of mortality outside
the park was human-induced (for example, shooting and trapping) (Gogan
et al. 2004, p. 22). If there is a need to control depredating wolves
outside the park, which seems unlikely due to the current absence of
agricultural activities adjacent to the park, the park would work with
the State to conduct control activities where necessary (West in litt.
2004).
The wolf population of Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, is
small and isolated and lacks genetic uniqueness (Wayne et al. 1991).
For genetic reasons and constraints on expansion due to the island's
small size, this wolf population does not contribute significantly
towards meeting numerical recovery criteria; however, long-term
research on this wolf population has added a great deal to our
knowledge of the species. The wolf population on Isle Royale has
typically varied from 18 to 27 wolves in 3 packs, but has been down to
just 2 wolves (a father-daughter pair) since the winter of 2015-2016
(Peterson et al. 2018). NPS recently announced plans to move additional
wolves to Isle Royale in an effort to restore a viable wolf population
(83 FR 11787; March 16, 2018).
Two other units of the National Park System, Pictured Rocks
National Lakeshore and St. Croix National Scenic Riverway, are
regularly used by wolves. Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore is a narrow
strip of land along Michigan's Lake Superior shoreline. Lone wolves
periodically use, but do not appear to be year-round residents of, the
Lakeshore. If denning occurs after delisting, the Lakeshore would
protect denning and rendezvous sites at least as strictly as the
Michigan Plan recommends (Gustin in litt. 2003). Harvesting wolves on
the Lakeshore may be allowed (if the Michigan DNR allows for harvest in
the State), but trapping is not allowed. The St. Croix National Scenic
Riverway, in Wisconsin and Minnesota, is also a mostly linear
ownership. Approximately 54-58 wolves from 11 packs used the Riverway
on the Wisconsin side in 2010 (Wydeven in litt. 2011). The Riverway is
likely to limit public access to denning and rendezvous sites and to
follow other management and protective practices outlined in the
respective State wolf-management plans, although trapping is not
allowed on NPS lands except possibly by Native Americans (Maercklein in
litt. 2003).
At least one pack of 4-5 wolves used the shoreline areas of the
Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, with a major deer yard area (a
place where deer congregate in the winter) occurring on portions of the
Park Service land. Wolf tracks have been detected on Sand Island, and a
wolf was photographed by a trail camera on the island in September
2009. It is not known if wolves periodically swim to this and other
islands, or if they only travel to islands on ice in winter.
Wolves occurring on National Wildlife Refuges in the Great Lakes
area would be monitored, and Refuge habitat management would maintain
the current prey base for them for a minimum of 5 years after
delisting.
[[Page 9681]]
Trapping or hunting by government trappers for depredation control
would not be authorized on National Wildlife Refuges. Because of the
relatively small size of these Refuges, however, most or all wolf packs
or individual wolves in these Refuges also spend significant amounts of
time off these Refuges.
Wolves also occupy the Fort McCoy military installation in
Wisconsin. Management and protection of wolves on the installation
would not change significantly after Federal or State delisting. Den
and rendezvous sites would continue to be protected, hunting seasons
for other species (coyote) would be closed during the gun-deer season,
and current surveys would continue, if resources are available. Fort
McCoy has no plans to allow a public harvest of wolves on the
installation (Nobles in litt. 2004; Wydeven et al. 2005, p. 25; 2006a,
p. 25).
Minnesota National Guard's Camp Ripley contains parts of two pack
territories, which typically include 10 to 20 wolves. Minnesota
National Guard wildlife managers try to have at least one wolf in each
pack radio-collared and to fit an additional one or two wolves in each
pack with satellite transmitters that record long-distance movements.
There have been no significant conflicts with military training or with
the permit-only public deer-hunting program at the camp, and no new
conflicts are expected following delisting. Long-term and intensive
monitoring has detected only two wolf mortalities within the camp
boundaries--both were of natural causes (Dirks 2009, pers. comm.).
The protection afforded to resident and transient wolves, their den
and rendezvous sites, and their prey by five national forests, four
National Parks, two military facilities, and numerous National Wildlife
Refuges in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan will further ensure the
conservation of wolves in the three States after delisting. In
addition, wolves that disperse to other units of the National Refuge
System or the National Park System within the Great Lakes area will
also receive the protection afforded by these Federal agencies.
West Coast States
The west coast States generally contain a greater proportion of
public land than the Great Lakes area. Public lands here include many
National Parks, National Forests, National Monuments, and National
Wildlife Refuges. These areas are largely unavailable and/or unsuitable
for intensive development, and contain abundant ungulate populations. A
lack of human occupancy and development combined with an adequate prey
base increase the likelihood of public lands in the west coast States
to provide suitable habitat for gray wolves.
In the listed portions of the west coast States of California,
Oregon, and Washington, wolves are resident on portions of the Lassen,
Plumas, Fremont-Winema, Rogue-Siskiyou, Mount Hood, Okanogan-Wenatchee,
and Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forests (Forests). Land and Resource
Management Plans (LRMPs) for these Forests pre-date the re-
establishment of wolf packs and, therefore, do not contain standards
and guidelines specific to wolf management. The LRMPs do, however,
recognize that the Forests have obligations under sections 7(a)(1) and
7(a)(2) of the Act to proactively conserve and avoid adverse effects to
Federally listed species. If federally delisted, the Regional Foresters
for U.S. Forest Service Regions 5 and 6 are expected to include the
gray wolf as a Regional Forester Sensitive Species. As a Sensitive
Species, conservation objectives for the gray wolf and its habitat will
continue to be addressed during planning and implementation of
projects.
Gray wolves disperse through but are not currently residents of
National Parks, National Monuments, and National Wildlife Refuges in
the listed portions of all three west coast States. Similar to these
types of lands in the Great Lakes areas, management plans provide for
the conservation of natural and cultural resources and wildlife. The
gray wolf and its habitat are expected to persist on these lands should
Federal delisting occur.
Overall, public lands on the west coast have the ability to support
the continued expansion of gray wolves as they disperse from resident
packs and surrounding States and provinces to establish new packs in
the west coast States. Because these areas are in public ownership and
we do not foresee habitat-related threats, we conclude that they will
continue to provide secure, optimal habitat for a resident wolf
population.
Summary of Post-Delisting Management
In summary, upon delisting, there will be varying State and Tribal
classifications and protections provided to wolves. The State wolf-
management plans currently in place for Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
Michigan will be more than sufficient to retain viable wolf populations
in each State. Each of those plans contains management goals that will
maintain healthy populations of wolves in their State by establishing a
minimum population of 1,600 in Minnesota, 350 in Wisconsin, and 200 in
Michigan. Similarly, State management plans developed for Washington,
Oregon, and California contain objectives to conserve and recover gray
wolves. To ensure healthy populations are maintained, each State will
monitor population abundance and trends, habitat and prey availability,
and impacts of disease and take actions as needed to maintain
populations. They are also committed to continuing necessary biological
and social research and outreach and education to maintain healthy wolf
populations. Each of the three Great Lakes States has a long-standing
history of leadership in wolf conservation. All of the State management
plans provide a high level of assurance of the persistence of healthy
wolf populations, demonstrating their commitment to wolf conservation.
Furthermore, when federally delisted, wolves in Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and Michigan will continue to receive protection from
general human persecution by State laws and regulations. Wolves are
protected as game species in each of those States, which prohibits
lethal take without a permit, license, or authorization, except under a
few limited situations (as described under the management plans above).
Each of the three States will consider population-management measures,
including public hunting and trapping, after Federal delisting, but
regardless of the methods used to manage wolves, each State will
maintain minimum wolf populations to ensure healthy wolf populations
remain.
Wolves in Washington, Oregon, and California will also be protected
by State laws and regulations when federally delisted. Currently wolves
in Washington and California are protected under State statutes or acts
as endangered species, as well as by their respective State management
plans. Wolves in Oregon are State delisted but still receive protection
under its State management plan. Each plan contains various phases
outlining objectives for conservation and recovery. As recolonization
of the west coast States continues, different phases of management will
be enacted. All phases within the various State management plans are
designed to achieve and maintain healthy wolf populations.
Finally, based on our review of the completed Tribal management
plans and communications with Tribes and Tribal organizations,
federally delisted wolves are very likely to be adequately protected on
Tribal lands. Furthermore, the minimum population goals of the
[[Page 9682]]
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan State management plans can be
achieved (based on the population and range of off-reservation wolves)
even without Tribal protection of wolves on reservation lands. In
addition, on the basis of information received from other Federal land-
management agencies, we expect National Forests, units of the National
Park System, military bases, and National Wildlife Refuges will provide
protections to wolves in the areas they manage that will match, and in
some cases will exceed, the protections provided by State wolf-
management plans and State protective regulations.
Determination of Species Status
Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may
warrant listing if it is in danger of extinction or likely to become so
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. The Act defines
``endangered species'' as any species that is ``in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of its range,'' and
``threatened species'' as any species that is ``likely to become an
endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a
significant portion of its range.'' The term ``species'' includes ``any
subspecies of fish or wildlife or plants, and any distinct population
segment [DPS] of any species of vertebrate fish or wildlife which
interbreeds when mature.'' A species is ``endangered'' if it is in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range (16 U.S.C. 1532(6)), and is ``threatened'' if it is likely to
become endangered in the foreseeable future throughout all or a
significant portion of its range (16 U.S.C. 1532 (20)). The word
``range'' refers to the range in which the species currently exists,
and the ``foreseeable future'' is the period of time over which events
or effects reasonably can or should be anticipated, or trends
extrapolated.
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) and its implementing
regulations (50 CFR part 424) set forth the procedures for determining
whether a species meets the definition of ``endangered species'' or
``threatened species.'' The Act requires that we determine whether a
species meets the definition of ``endangered species'' or ``threatened
species'' because of any of the following factors: (A) The present or
threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or
range; (B) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence.
We may delist a species according to 50 CFR 424.11(d) if the best
available scientific and commercial data indicate that the species is
neither endangered nor threatened.
Summary and Conclusion of Our Analysis
Prior to listing in the 1970s, wolves in the gray wolf entity had
been reduced to about 1,000 individuals and extirpated from all of
their range except northeastern Minnesota and Isle Royale, Michigan.
The primary cause of the decline of wolves in the gray wolf entity was
targeted elimination by humans. However, gray wolves are highly
adaptable; their populations are remarkably resilient as long as prey
availability, habitat, and regulation of human-caused mortality are
adequate. Wolf populations can rapidly overcome severe disruptions,
such as pervasive human-caused mortality or disease, once those
disruptions are removed or reduced.
Provided the protections of the Act, the size of the gray wolf
population increased to over four times that at the time of the initial
gray wolf listings in the early 1970s, and more than triple that at the
time of the 1978 reclassification (a figure which does not include the
wolves currently found in the northern Rocky Mountains, which was part
of those earlier listings, although not now part of the current gray
wolf entity). The population's range has expanded outside of
northeastern Minnesota to central and northwestern Minnesota, northern
and central Wisconsin, and the entire Upper Peninsula of Michigan, and
is in the early stages of expanding into western Washington, western
Oregon, and northern California from areas outside the gray wolf
entity. Wolves in the gray wolf entity now primarily exist as a large,
stable to growing, metapopulation of about 4,400 individuals in the
Great Lakes area and a small number of colonizing wolves in the west
coast States that represent the expanding edge of a large
metapopulation outside the gray wolf entity (in the northern Rocky
Mountains and western Canada). Despite the substantial increase in gray
wolf numbers and distribution within the gray wolf entity since 1978,
the species currently occupies only a small portion of its historical
range within the entity. This loss of historical range has resulted in
a reduction of gray wolf individuals, populations, and suitable habitat
(including adequate prey levels) within the gray wolf entity compared
to historical levels.
To sustain populations over time, a species must have a sufficient
number and distribution of healthy populations to withstand annual
variation in its environment (resiliency); catastrophes (redundancy);
and novel changes in its biological and physical environment
(representation) (Shaffer and Stein 2000, pp. 308-311). A species with
sufficient number and distribution of healthy populations is generally
better able to adapt to future changes and to tolerate stressors
(factors that cause a negative effect to a species or its habitat).
Metapopulations are widely recognized as being more secure over the
long-term than are several isolated populations that contain the same
total number of packs and individuals (Service 1994, appendix 9). This
is because adverse effects experienced by one of its subpopulations
resulting from genetic drift, demographic shifts, and local
environmental fluctuations can be countered by occasional influxes of
individuals and their genetic diversity from other subpopulations in
the metapopulation.
Changes resulting from loss of historical range for the gray wolf
entity have increased the species' vulnerability within the entity to
threats such as reduced genetic diversity and restricted gene flow
(reduced representation), and all or most of its populations being
affected by a catastrophic event (reduced redundancy). However, the
large size of the Great Lakes metapopulation and the high quality of
the habitat it occupies provide the gray wolf entity resiliency in the
face of annual environmental fluctuations (for example, prey
availability, pockets of disease outbreaks), periodic disturbances, and
anthropogenic stressors. Further, while the subpopulations within the
metapopulation are interconnected, they are broadly distributed across
the northern portions of three States. This broad distribution of
subpopulations within the Great Lakes area provides the gray wolf
entity the redundancy to survive a catastrophic event because such an
event is unlikely to simultaneously affect wolf subpopulations from
Minnesota to Michigan. Lastly, the gray wolf is a generalist species
that is highly adaptable to a variety of ecosystem types. A mixture of
western gray wolves and eastern wolves in the Great Lakes area, in
particular, may provide additional adaptive capacity. Thus, the gray
wolf entity is likely to contain the representation needed to be able
to adapt to future changes in the environment.
[[Page 9683]]
The metapopulation in the Great Lakes area contains sufficient
resiliency, redundancy, and representation to sustain populations
within the gray wolf entity over time. Therefore, we conclude that the
relatively few wolves that occur outside the Great Lakes area within
the gray wolf entity, including those in the west coast States and lone
dispersers in other States, are not necessary for the recovered status
of the gray wolf entity. However, the viability of the entity is
further increased by wolves that occur outside the Great Lakes area.
The large and expansive population of about 12,000-14,000 wolves in
eastern Canada increases the resiliency of the gray wolf entity through
its connectivity to the Great Lakes area metapopulation. Additionally,
a large metapopulation of about 16,000 wolves outside the gray wolf
entity in the northern Rocky Mountains and western Canada is expanding
into the gray wolf entity in Oregon, Washington, and California (figure
2). Such a large and widely distributed metapopulation of wolves not
only contributes to the resiliency, redundancy, and representation of
gray wolves in the lower 48 United States, but also is likely to
further increase the viability of the gray wolf entity because these
wolves are colonizing the western portion of the gray wolf entity. With
ongoing post-delisting management from States, further expansion of the
metapopulation into the gray wolf entity is likely to continue in the
west coast States, further increasing the viability of the gray wolf
entity.
Wolves in the Great Lakes area now greatly exceed the recovery
criteria for (1) a secure wolf population in Minnesota, and (2) a
second population outside Minnesota and Isle Royale consisting of 100
wolves for 5 successive years. Therefore, based on the criteria set by
the Eastern Wolf Recovery Team, the Great Lakes area now contains
sufficient wolf numbers and distribution, threats have been alleviated,
and the States and Tribes are committed to continued management such
that the long-term survival of the wolf is ensured. Consequently,
because we have identified no other regions of the gray wolf entity as
necessary for recovery of wolves in this entity, we conclude that the
Great Lakes area contains sufficient wolf numbers and distribution to
ensure the long-term survival of the gray wolf entity.
The recovery of the gray wolf entity is attributable primarily to
successful interagency cooperation in the management of human-caused
mortality. Such mortality is the most significant issue to the long-
term conservation status of wolves in the gray wolf entity. Therefore,
managing this source of mortality remains the primary challenge to
maintaining a recovered wolf population into the foreseeable future.
Legal harvest and agency control to mitigate depredations on livestock
will be the primary human-caused mortality factors that State agencies
can manipulate to achieve management objectives once delisting occurs.
Wolves in the Great Lakes area are well above Federal recovery
requirements defined in the Eastern Timber Wolf Recovery Plan. As a
result, we can expect to see some reduction in wolf populations in the
Great Lakes areas as States begin to institute wolf-hunting seasons
with the objective of slowing or reversing population growth while
continuing to maintain wolf populations well above Federal recovery
requirements in their respective States. Using an adaptive-management
approach that adjusts harvest based on population estimates and trends,
the initial objectives of States may be to lower wolf populations then
manage for sustainable populations, similar to how States manage all
other game species. For example, in 2013-2014, during a period when
gray wolves were federally delisted in the Great Lakes area, Wisconsin
reduced the State's wolf harvest quota by 43 percent in response to a
reduced (compared to the previous year) estimated size of the wolf
population. In the west coast States, wolf populations will likely be
managed to ensure progress towards recovery objectives while also
minimizing livestock losses caused by wolves.
Based on our analysis, we conclude that Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
Michigan will maintain abundance and distribution of the Great Lakes
wolf population above recovery levels for the foreseeable future, and
that the threat of human-caused mortality has been sufficiently
reduced. All three States have wolf-management laws, plans, and
regulations that adequately regulate human-caused mortality. Each of
the three States has committed to manage its wolf population at or
above viable population levels, and we do not expect this commitment to
change. Based on our review, we conclude that regulatory mechanisms in
all three States are adequate to facilitate the maintenance of, and in
no way threaten, the recovered status of wolves in the gray wolf entity
if they are federally delisted. Adequate wolf-monitoring programs, as
described in the State wolf-management plans, are likely to identify
high mortality rates or low birth rates that warrant corrective action
by the management agencies. Further, while relatively few wolves occur
in the west coast portion of the gray wolf entity at this time, and
State wolf-management plans for Washington, Oregon, and California do
not yet include population management goals, these plans include
recovery objectives intended to ensure the reestablishment of self-
sustaining populations in these States.
Based on the biology of wolves and our analysis of threats, we
conclude that, as long as wolf populations in the Great Lakes States
are maintained at or above identified recovery levels, wolf biology
(namely the species' reproductive capacity) and the availability of
large, secure blocks of suitable habitat within the occupied areas will
enable the maintenance of populations capable of withstanding all other
foreseeable threats. Although much of the historical range of the gray
wolf entity is no longer occupied, based on our analysis we find that
the amount and distribution of occupied wolf habitat currently
provides, and will continue to provide, large core areas that contain
high-quality habitat of sufficient size and with sufficient prey to
support a recovered wolf population. Our analysis of land management
shows these areas, specifically Minnesota Wolf Management Zone A
(Federal Wolf Management Zones 1-4), Wisconsin Wolf Zones 1, and the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan will maintain their suitability into the
foreseeable future. Therefore, we conclude that, despite the loss of
large areas of historical range for the gray wolf entity, Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan contain a sufficient
amount of high-quality wolf habitat to support wolf populations into
the future.
While disease and parasites can temporarily affect population
stability, as long as populations are managed above recovery levels,
these factors are not likely to threaten the viability of the wolf
population in the gray wolf entity at any point in the foreseeable
future. Climate change is also likely to remain an insignificant factor
in population dynamics into the foreseeable future, due to the
adaptability of the species. Finally, based on our analysis, we
conclude that cumulative effects of threats, do not now, nor are likely
to in the foreseeable future, threaten the viability of the gray wolf
entity throughout the range of wolves in the gray wolf entity.
Determination of Status Throughout All of Its Range
We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats
to the gray wolf entity
[[Page 9684]]
(the two C. lupus listed entities combined). We evaluated the status
of, and assessed the factors likely to negatively affect, the gray wolf
entity, including threats to the gray wolf entity identified at the
time of reclassification. While wolves in the gray wolf entity
currently occupy only a portion of wolf historical range, the best
available information indicates that the gray wolf entity is recovered
and is not now, nor likely in the foreseeable future, to be negatively
affected by past, current, and potential future threats such that the
entity is in danger of extinction.
Specifically, we have determined, based on the best available
information, that human-caused mortality (Factor C); habitat and prey
availability (Factor A); disease and parasites (Factor C); commercial,
recreational, scientific, or educational uses (Factor B); climate
change (Factor E); or other threats, singly or in combination, are not
of sufficient imminence, intensity, or magnitude to indicate that
wolves in the gray wolf entity are in danger of extinction or likely to
become so within the foreseeable future throughout all of its range. We
have also determined that ongoing effects of recovery efforts, which
resulted in a significant expansion of the occupied range of and number
of wolves in the gray wolf entity over the past decades, in conjunction
with State, Tribal, and Federal agency wolf management and regulatory
mechanisms that will be in place following delisting across the
occupied range in the entity, will be adequate to ensure the
conservation of wolves in the gray wolf entity. These activities will
maintain an adequate prey base, preserve denning and rendezvous sites,
monitor disease, restrict human take, and keep wolf populations well
above the recovery criteria established in the Revised Recovery Plan
(USFWS 1992, pp. 25-28).
The term ``foreseeable future'' describes the extent to which we
can reasonably rely on the predictions about the future in making
determinations about the future conservation status of the gray wolf
entity. We conclude that it is reasonable to rely on the scientific
studies and information assessing human-caused mortality; habitat and
prey availability; the impacts of disease and parasites; commercial,
recreational, scientific, or educational uses; gray wolf adaptability,
including with respect to changing climate; recovery activities and
regulatory mechanisms that will be in place following delisting; and
predictions about how these may affect the gray wolf entity in making
determinations about the gray wolf entity's future status. Therefore,
after assessing the best available information, we have determined that
the gray wolf entity is not in danger of extinction throughout all of
its range nor is it likely to become so in the foreseeable future.
Because we determined that the gray wolf entity is not in danger of
extinction or likely to become so in the foreseeable future throughout
all of its range, we will consider whether there are any significant
portions of its range that are in danger of extinction or likely to
become so in the foreseeable future.
Determination of Status Throughout a Significant Portion of Its Range
Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species warrants
listing if it is in danger of extinction or likely to become so in the
foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range
(SPR). Having determined that the gray wolf entity is not in danger of
extinction now or likely to become so in the foreseeable future
throughout all of its range, we now consider whether it may be in
danger of extinction or likely to become so in the foreseeable future
in an SPR. The range of a species can theoretically be divided into
portions in an infinite number of ways, so we first screen the
potential portions of the species' range to determine if there are any
portions that warrant further consideration. To do this we look for
portions of the species' range for which there is substantial
information indicating that: (1) The portion may be significant, and
(2) the species may be in danger of extinction or likely to become so
in the foreseeable future in that portion. A portion would not warrant
further consideration if, for that portion, either one of these initial
elements is not present. Therefore, if we determine that either of the
initial elements is not present for a particular portion of the
species' range, then further analysis is not necessary and the species
does not warrant listing because of its status in that portion of its
range.
We emphasize that the presence of both of the initial elements is
not equivalent to a determination that the species should be listed--
rather, it is a determination that a portion warrants further
consideration. If we identify any portions that meet both of the
initial elements, we conduct a more thorough analysis to determine
whether in fact (1) the portion is significant and (2) the species is
in danger of extinction or likely to become so in the foreseeable
future in that portion. Confirmation that a geographic area does indeed
meet one of these standards (either the portion is significant or the
species is endangered or threatened in that portion of its range) does
not create a presumption, prejudgment, or other determination as to
whether the species is endangered or threatened in a significant
portion of its range. Rather, we must then undertake a more detailed
analysis of the other standard to make that determination. If the
portion does indeed meet both standards, then the species is endangered
or threatened in that significant portion of its range and warrants
listing rangewide.
Thus, there can be two separate stages to the process of
determining whether a species is threatened or endangered in a
significant portion of its range: The stage of screening potential
portions to identify if any portions warrant further consideration, and
the stage of undertaking the more-detailed analysis of any portions
that do warrant further consideration. At either stage, it may be more
efficient for us to address the ``significance'' question first, or to
address the ``status'' question first. Our selection of which question
to address first for a particular portion depends on the biology of the
species, its range, and the threats it faces. Regardless of which
question we address first, if we reach a negative answer with respect
to the first question that we address, we do not need to evaluate the
second question for that portion of the species' range.
We note that a court has invalidated the USFWS and National Marine
Fisheries Service (NMFS) definition of ``significant'' in their policy
interpreting ``significant portion of its range,'' and issued a
nationwide injunction prohibiting us from applying that definition
(Desert Survivors v. Dep't of the Interior, No. 16-cv-01165-JCS (N.D.
Cal. Aug. 24, 2018)). Therefore, in our analysis for the gray wolf, we
apply ``significant'' in a way that is consistent with that court's
opinion, and with other relevant case law. As USFWS and NMFS have not
yet determined the best way to interpret ``significant'' in light of
the decision in Desert Survivors, for the purposes of the analysis
here, in determining whether any portions may warrant further
consideration because they may be significant, we screen by looking for
portions of the species' range that could be significant under any
reasonable definition of ``significant'' that relates to the
conservation of the gray wolf entity. To do this, we look for any
portions that may be biologically important in terms of the resiliency,
redundancy, or representation of the species. Our use of this standard
for ``significant'' is limited to this analysis, and is not precedent
for any future determinations.
To screen for the second prong, we consider whether there are any
portions where the gray wolf entity may be in
[[Page 9685]]
danger of extinction or likely to become so in the foreseeable future.
This may include consideration of whether the threats are
geographically concentrated in any portion of the species' range at a
biologically meaningful scale; if threats are not uniform throughout
its range, this may be an indication that the species may warrant
further evaluation to determine whether a different classification is
appropriate. However, geographically concentrated threats do not
necessarily indicate that a species may be in danger of extinction or
likely to become so in the foreseeable future in that portion. Even if
threats are concentrated in a portion, other factors could indicate
that there is little chance those threats rise to a level such that the
portion of the range may be in danger of extinction or likely to become
so in the foreseeable future.
After reviewing the biology of the gray wolf entity and potential
threats, we have not identified any portions of the gray wolf entity
for which both (1) gray wolves may be in danger of extinction or likely
to become so in the foreseeable future and (2) the portion may be
significant. While some portions may be at increased threat from human-
caused mortality or factors related to small numbers, we did not find
that any of these portions may be significant. We provide examples
below.
First, portions peripheral to the Great Lakes metapopulation that
may contain lone dispersing wolves (e.g., western Minnesota, Lower
Peninsula of Michigan, eastern South Dakota) or few wolves (e.g., Isle
Royale), may be at greater threat from human caused mortality or due to
factors related to small numbers of individuals. However, these
portions are not biologically important to the gray wolf entity in
terms of resiliency, redundancy, or representation. They are not
important to the redundancy or resiliency of the gray wolf entity
because they are not members of established breeding packs (lone
dispersers) or are few in number and likely to remain as such (Isle
Royale). They are also not important to the representation of the gray
wolf entity because they lack genetic uniqueness relative to other
wolves in the Great Lakes metapopulation--they are part of that
metapopulation and are dispersing out from it. In addition, the gray
wolf is a highly adaptable generalist species capable of long-distance
dispersal. In other words, it possess the genetic diversity necessary
to successfully colonize a broad range of habitat types and feed on a
variety of prey species, and possess dispersal capabilities that
facilitate colonization of those habitats in addition to gene flow
among and between populations. Therefore, we find that these portions
are not ``significant'' under any reasonable definition of that term
because they are not biologically important to the gray wolf entity in
terms of its resiliency, redundancy, or representation.
Second, State wolf-management zones in which post-delisting
depredation control would be allowed under a broader set of
circumstances than in core population zones, such as Minnesota Wolf
Management Zone B (Federal Wolf Management Zone 5) or Wisconsin Wolf
Management Zones 3 and 4, are not significant under any reasonable
definition of ``significant.'' While these portions would likely
experience higher levels of human-caused mortality if the gray wolf
entity were delisted, these portions are not ``significant'' under any
reasonable definition of that term. The wolves in these zones occur on
the periphery of a large metapopulation (the Great Lakes
metapopulation), in areas of limited habitat suitability, and do not
contribute appreciably to (and are thus not biologically important to)
the resiliency, redundancy, or representation of the gray wolf entity.
In fact, the Recovery Plan for the Eastern Timber Wolf advises against
restoration of wolves in State Zone B (Federal Zone 5) because the area
is ``not suitable for wolves''. Wolves in these higher-intensity
management zones are not important to the resiliency of the gray wolf
entity because, even though they contain multiple established packs in
addition to lone wolves, they comprise a small proportion of wolves in
the Great Lakes metapopulation and, consequently, the gray wolf entity
(Zone B contains approximately 15% of the Minnesota wolf population;
Zones 3 and 4 contain about 6% of the Wisconsin wolf population). If
wolves are delisted, a large metapopulation of wolves would still occur
in the Great Lakes area outside these higher-intensity management zones
in core zones of high-quality habitat and minimal human-caused
mortality, providing the gray wolf entity the ability to withstand
stochastic processes. These higher-intensity management zones are not
important to the redundancy of the gray wolf entity because wolves in
these zones represent a relatively small number and distribution of
populations or packs in the Great Lakes metapopulation. The Great Lakes
metapopulation is large and distributed across three states. Wolves in
these higher-intensity management zones comprise a small proportion of
wolves in, and occur on the periphery of, this metapopulation. If
wolves are delisted, wolves would still occur in multiple populations
distributed across tens of thousands of square miles in Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and Michigan, providing the gray wolf entity the ability to
withstand a catastrophic event. Thus, wolves in these higher-intensity
management zones do not contribute meaningfully to the ability of the
Great Lakes metapopulation, or gray wolf entity, to withstand
catastrophic events. Wolves in these higher-intensity management zones
are not important to the representation of the gray wolf entity because
they originate from the Great Lakes and eastern Canada metapopulation
(they are genetically similar to other wolves in the Great Lakes area
of the gray wolf entity) and because gray wolves are a highly adaptable
generalist species capable of long distance-dispersal. Therefore, we do
not find that these portions may be significant under any reasonable
definition of ``significant'' because they are not biologically
important to the gray wolf entity in terms of its resiliency,
redundancy, or representation.
Third, the west coast portion of the gray wolf entity, where wolves
exist in small numbers in California, western Oregon, and western
Washington, also is not biologically important to the gray wolf entity
in terms of resiliency, redundancy, or representation. This portion is
not important to the gray wolf entity in terms of resiliency or
redundancy because wolves occur in small numbers in this portion and
include only a few breeding pairs. Because these wolves represent the
expanding front of a recovered and stable source metapopulation, and
are therefore not an independent population within the gray wolf
entity, the small number of wolves there do not contribute meaningfully
to the ability of any population, in the NRM or Great Lakes area, to
withstand stochastic events, nor to the entire entity's ability to
withstand catastrophic events. This portion is also not important in
terms of representation, because (1) gray wolves are a highly adaptable
generalist carnivore capable of long-distance dispersal, and (2) the
gray wolves in this area are an extension of a large metapopulation of
wolves in the northern Rocky Mountains and western Canada (i.e., they
are not an isolated population with unique or markedly different
genetic or phenotypic traits that is evolving separate from other wolf
populations). Therefore, for the purpose of assessing the status of the
gray wolf
[[Page 9686]]
entity under the Act, we do not find that this portion may be
significant under any reasonable definition of ``significant'' because
it is not biologically important to the gray wolf entity in terms of
its resiliency, redundancy, or representation.
We conclude that there are no portions of the gray wolf entity for
which both (1) gray wolves may be in danger of extinction or likely to
become so in the foreseeable future and (2) the portion may be
significant. As discussed above, portions that may be in danger of
extinction or likely to become so in the foreseeable future are not
significant under any reasonable definition of that term. Conversely,
other portions that are or may be significant (i.e. the core areas of
the Great Lakes metapopulation) are not in danger of extinction or
likely to become so in the foreseeable future. Because we did not
identify any portions of the gray wolf entity where threats may be
concentrated and where the portion may be biologically important in
terms of the resiliency, redundancy, or representation of the gray wolf
entity, a more thorough analysis is not required. Therefore, we
conclude that the gray wolf entity is not in danger of extinction or
likely to become so in the foreseeable future within a significant
portion of its range.
Proposed Determination
After a thorough review of all available information and an
evaluation of the five factors specified in section 4(a)(1) of the Act,
as well as consideration of the definitions of ``threatened species''
and ``endangered species'' contained in the Act and the reasons for
delisting as specified in 50 CFR 424.11(d), we propose that removing
the two entities of gray wolf (Canis lupus) from the List of Endangered
and Threatened Wildlife (50 CFR 17.11) is appropriate. We have
collectively evaluated the current and potential threats to the
combined gray wolf entities, including those that result from past loss
of historical range. Wolves have recovered in the combined entities as
a result of the reduction of threats as described in the analysis of
threats and are neither currently in danger of extinction, nor likely
to become so in the foreseeable future, throughout all or a significant
portion of their range.
Although substantial contraction of gray wolf historical range
occurred within the combined entities since European settlement, the
range of the gray wolf has expanded significantly since its original
listing in 1978 and the impacts of lost historical range are no longer
manifesting in a way that threatens the viability of the species. The
causes of the previous contraction (for example, targeted extermination
efforts), and the effects of that contraction (for example, reduced
numbers of individuals and populations, and restricted gene flow), in
addition to the effects of all other threats, have been ameliorated or
reduced such that the combined entities no longer meet the Act's
definitions of ``threatened species'' or ``endangered species.''
Further, we note that, while we combined the two C. lupus listed
entities for our analysis, even if we had analyzed them separately,
neither would meet the Act's definitions of ``threatened species'' or
``endangered species.'' Both of these two listed entities are either
part of the same metapopulation or the expanding front of the recovered
NRM metapopulation. Therefore, because the status of each of these two
listed entities is influenced by its connectedness to the other, the
status of each would be the same as if analyzed in combination. We also
note that the Act allows us to list species, subspecies, or DPSs and
that, because the two listed entities are not discrete and are
therefore not DPSs, neither of the two listed entities constitute valid
listable entities under the Act and should, therefore, be removed from
the List.
Effects of This Rule
This proposal, if made final, would revise 50 CFR 17.11(h) by
removing the two existing C. lupus listed entities from the Federal
List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. This proposal, if made
final, would also remove the special regulations under section 4(d) of
the Act for wolves in Minnesota. These regulations currently are found
at 50 CFR 17.40(d).
Critical habitat was designated for the gray wolf in 1978 (43 FR
9607, March 9, 1978). That rule (codified at 50 CFR 17.95(a))
identifies Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, and Minnesota Wolf
Management Zones 1, 2, and 3, as delineated in 50 CFR 17.40(d)(1), as
critical habitat. Wolf Management Zones 1, 2, and 3 comprise
approximately 25,500 km\2\ (9,845 mi\2\) in northeastern and north-
central Minnesota. This proposal, if made final, would remove the
designation of critical habitat for gray wolves in Minnesota and on
Isle Royale, Michigan.
Post-Delisting Monitoring
Section 4(g)(1) of the Act, added in the 1988 reauthorization,
requires us to implement a system, in cooperation with the States, to
monitor for not less than 5 years the status of all species that have
recovered and been removed from the Lists of Endangered and Threatened
Wildlife and Plants (50 CFR 17.11 and 17.12). The purpose of this post-
delisting monitoring (PDM) is to verify that a species delisted due to
recovery remains secure from risk of extinction after it no longer has
the protections of the Act. To do this, PDM generally focuses on
evaluating (1) demographic characteristics of the species, (2) threats
to the species, and (3) implementation of legal and/or management
commitments that have been identified as important in reducing threats
to the species or maintaining threats at sufficiently low levels. We
are to make prompt use of the emergency-listing authority under section
4(b)(7) of the Act to prevent a significant risk to the well-being of
any recovered species. Section 4(g) of the Act explicitly requires
cooperation with the States in development and implementation of PDM
programs, but we remain responsible for compliance with section 4(g)
and, therefore, must remain actively engaged in all phases of PDM. We
also will seek active participation of other State and Federal agencies
or Tribal governments that are expected to assume management authority
for the species' conservation, should our proposed delisting be
finalized. In some cases, agencies have already devoted significant
resources toward wolf monitoring efforts. For example, the States of
Washington, Oregon, and California have wolf-management plans that
include monitoring strategies for wolves and wolf populations. Should
such monitoring document significant declines, the Service will
investigate the degree and importance of such declines.
We developed a PDM plan for wolves in the Great Lakes area with the
assistance of the Eastern Wolf Recovery Team in 2008. That document
remains applicable today as it focuses on monitoring wolves within the
borders of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan
and is available on our website (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
The PDM program will rely on a continuation of State monitoring
activities, similar to those that have been conducted by Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and Michigan DNR's in recent years, and Tribal monitoring.
These activities will include both population monitoring and health
monitoring of individual wolves. During the PDM period, the Service
will conduct a review of the monitoring data and program. We will
consider various relevant factors (including but not limited to
mortality rates, population changes and rates of change, disease
[[Page 9687]]
occurrence, range expansion or contraction) to determine if the
population of wolves within the borders of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
the Upper Peninsula of Michigan warrants expanded monitoring,
additional research, consideration for re-listing as threatened or
endangered, or emergency listing.
Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan DNRs have monitored wolves for
several decades with significant assistance from numerous partners,
including the U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, USDA-APHIS-
Wildlife Services, Tribal natural resource agencies, and the Service.
To maximize comparability of future PDM data with data obtained before
delisting, all three State DNRs have committed to continue their
previous wolf-population-monitoring methodology, or will make changes
to that methodology only if those changes will not reduce the
comparability of pre- and post-delisting data.
In addition to monitoring wolf population numbers and trends, the
PDM program will evaluate post-delisting threats, in particular human-
caused mortality, disease, and implementation of legal and management
commitments. If at any time during the monitoring period we detect a
substantial downward change in the populations or an increase in
threats to the degree that population viability may be threatened, we
will work with the States and Tribes to evaluate and change (intensify,
extend, and/or otherwise improve) the monitoring methods, if
appropriate, and/or consider re-listing the gray wolf, if warranted.
This PDM monitoring program will extend for 5 years beyond the
effective delisting date of the two currently listed gray wolf
entities. At the end of the 5-year period, we will conduct another
review and post the results on our website. In addition to the above
considerations, the review will determine whether the PDM program
should be terminated or extended.
Required Determinations
Clarity of This Proposed Rule
We are required by Executive Orders 12866 and 12988 and by the
Presidential Memorandum of June 1, 1998, to write all rules in plain
language. This means that each rule we publish must:
(a) Be logically organized;
(b) Use the active voice to address readers directly;
(c) Use clear language rather than jargon;
(d) Be divided into short sections and sentences; and
(e) Use lists and tables wherever possible.
If you feel that we have not met these requirements, send us
comments by one of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To better help us
revise the rule, your comments should be as specific as possible. For
example, you should tell us the numbers of the sections or paragraphs
that are unclearly written, which sections or sentences are too long,
the sections where you feel lists or tables would be useful, etc.
National Environmental Policy Act
We determined that we do not need to prepare an environmental
assessment or an environmental impact statement, as defined under the
authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C.
4321 et seq.), in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to
section 4(a) of the Act. We published a notice outlining our reasons
for this determination in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48
FR 49244).
Government-to-Government Relationship With Tribes
In accordance with the President's memorandum of April 29, 1994,
Government-to-Government Relations with Native American Tribal
Governments (59 FR 22951), E.O. 13175, and the Department of the
Interior's manual at 512 DM 2, we readily acknowledge our
responsibility to communicate meaningfully with recognized Federal
Tribes on a government-to-government basis. In accordance with
Secretarial Order 3206 of June 5, 1997 (American Indian Tribal Rights,
Federal-Tribal Trust Responsibilities, and the Endangered Species Act),
we readily acknowledge our responsibilities to work directly with
Tribes in developing programs for healthy ecosystems, to acknowledge
that Tribal lands are not subject to the same controls as Federal
public lands, to remain sensitive to Indian culture, and to make
information available to Tribes. We have coordinated the proposed rule
with the affected Tribes and, furthermore, throughout several years of
development of earlier related rules and this proposed rule, we have
endeavored to consult with Native American Tribes and Native American
organizations in order to both (1) provide them with a complete
understanding of the proposed changes, and (2) to understand their
concerns with those changes. If requested, we will conduct additional
consultations with Native American Tribes and multi-tribal
organizations subsequent to any final rule in order to facilitate the
transition to State and Tribal management of wolves within the Lower 48
United States outside of the NRM DPS where wolves are already under
State and Tribal management. We will fully consider all of the comments
on the proposed rule that are submitted by Tribes and Tribal members
during the public comment period and will attempt to address those
concerns, new data, and new information where appropriate.
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited in this proposed rule is
available at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket No. FWS-HQ-ES-
2018-0097 or upon request from the USFWS Headquarters Office (see FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Authors
The primary authors of this proposed rule are staff members of the
USFWS.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Proposed Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, we hereby propose to amend part 17, subchapter B of
chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth
below:
PART 17--ENDANGERED AND THREATENED WILDLIFE AND PLANTS
0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; 4201-4245; unless
otherwise noted.
Sec. 17.11 [Amended]
0
2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h) by removing both entries for ``Wolf, gray
(Canis lupus)'' under MAMMALS in the List of Endangered and Threatened
Wildlife.
Sec. 17.40 [Amended]
0
3. Amend Sec. 17.40 by removing and reserving paragraph (d).
Sec. 17.95 [Amended]
0
4. Amend Sec. 17.95(a) by removing the critical habitat entry for
``Gray Wolf (Canis lupus).''
Dated: March 6, 2019.
Margaret E. Everson
Principal Deputy Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Exercising
the Authority of the Director for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2019-04420 Filed 3-14-19; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4333-15-P