[Federal Register Volume 80, Number 78 (Thursday, April 23, 2015)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 22828-22866]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2015-09417]



[[Page 22827]]

Vol. 80

Thursday,

No. 78

April 23, 2015

Part III





Department of the Interior





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Fish and Wildlife Service





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50 CFR Part 17





Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Withdrawal of the 
Proposed Rule To List the Bi-State Distinct Population Segment of 
Greater Sage-Grouse and Designate Critical Habitat; Proposed Rule

  Federal Register / Vol. 80 , No. 78 / Thursday, April 23, 2015 / 
Proposed Rules  

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072; Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0042; 
4500030113; 4500030114]
RIN 1018-AY10; RIN 1018-AZ70


Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Withdrawal of the 
Proposed Rule To List the Bi-State Distinct Population Segment of 
Greater Sage-Grouse and Designate Critical Habitat

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Proposed rule; withdrawal.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), withdraw the 
proposed rule to list the bi-State distinct population segment (DPS) of 
greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) in California and 
Nevada as threatened under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 
amended (Act), as well as the proposed rules under section 4(d) of the 
Act and to designate critical habitat for the bi-State DPS of greater 
sage-grouse. These withdrawals are based on our conclusion that the 
threats to the DPS as identified in the proposed listing rule no longer 
are as significant as believed at the time of publication of the 
proposed rule. We find the best scientific and commercial data 
available indicate that the threats to the DPS and its habitat, given 
current and future conservation efforts, are reduced below the 
statutory definition of threatened or endangered. Therefore, we are 
withdrawing our proposal to list the bi-State DPS of greater sage-
grouse as threatened with critical habitat.

DATES: The October 28, 2013, proposed rule (78 FR 64358) to list the 
bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse as a threatened species and the 
October 28, 2013, proposed rule (78 FR 64328) to designate critical 
habitat for the bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse are withdrawn as of 
April 23, 2015.

ADDRESSES: The withdrawal of our proposed rule, comments, and 
supplementary documents are available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov at Docket Nos. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072 and FWS-R8-ES-
2013-0042. Comments and materials received, as well as supporting 
documentation used in the preparation of this withdrawal, are also 
available for public inspection, by appointment, during normal business 
hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Reno Fish and Wildlife 
Office, 1340 Financial Boulevard, Suite 234, Reno, NV 89502; telephone 
775-861-6300; or facsimile 775-861-6301.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Edward D. Koch, Field Supervisor, Reno 
Fish and Wildlife Office (see ADDRESSES). If you use a 
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal 
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Executive Summary

    Why we need to publish this document. Under the Endangered Species 
Act, a species may warrant protection through listing if it is 
endangered or threatened throughout all or a significant portion of its 
range. Listing a species as an endangered or threatened species can 
only be completed by issuing a rule. We issued a proposed rule to list 
a distinct population segment (DPS) of greater sage-grouse in 
California and Nevada (known as the bi-State DPS) in 2013. However, 
this document withdraws that proposed rule because we now determine 
that threats identified in the proposed rule have been reduced such 
that listing is not necessary for this DPS. Accordingly, we also 
withdraw the proposed rule under section 4(d) of the Act and proposed 
critical habitat designation.
    The basis for our action. Under the Endangered Species Act, we can 
determine that a species is an endangered or threatened species based 
on any of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, 
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) 
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors 
affecting its continued existence. We now determine that threats have 
been reduced such that listing is not necessary for this DPS.
    Peer review and public comment. We sought comments from independent 
specialists to ensure that our consideration of the status of the 
species is based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and 
analyses. We invited these peer reviewers to comment on our listing 
proposal. We also considered all comments and information received 
during the comment periods. Public comments and peer reviewer comments 
are addressed at the end of this Federal Register document.

Acronyms and Abbreviations Used in This Document

    We use many acronyms and abbreviations throughout this document. To 
assist the reader, we provide a list of these here for easy reference:

Act = Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended
BLM = Bureau of Land Management
BSAP = Bi-State Action Plan
CDFG = California Department of Fish and Game (see below)
CDFW = California Department of Fish and Wildlife (formerly CDFG)
CFR = Code of Federal Regulations
COT = Conservation Objectives Team
CPT = Conservation Planning Tool
DPS = Bi-State Distinct Population Segment of the Greater Sage-
Grouse
EOC = Executive Oversight Committee
FR = Federal Register
GIS = Geographic Information System
GPS = Global Positioning System
LADWP = Los Angeles Department of Water and Power
LAWG = Local Area Working Group
LRMP = Land Resource Management Plan
MDL = Multi-District Litigation
NDOW = Nevada Department of Wildlife
NRCS = Natural Resources Conservation Service
OHV = Off-highway Vehicle
PECE = Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making 
Listing Decisions
PMU = Population Management Unit
RHA = Rangeland Health Assessment
RMP = Resource Management Plan
RSF = Resource Selection Function
Service = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
TAC = Technical Advisory Committee
USDA = U.S. Department of Agriculture
USDI = U.S. Department of the Interior
USFS = U.S. Forest Service
USGS = U.S. Geological Survey
WNv = West Nile Virus

Previous Federal Actions

    Please refer to the proposed listing rule for the bi-State DPS (78 
FR 64358; October 28, 2013) of greater sage-grouse for a detailed 
description of the Federal actions concerning this DPS that occurred 
prior to publication of the proposed listing rule. We concurrently 
published a proposed rule to designate critical habitat for the bi-
State DPS of greater sage-grouse (78 FR 64328; October 28, 2013). We 
received requests to extend the public comment periods on the rules 
beyond the December 27, 2013, due date. In order to ensure that the 
public had an adequate opportunity to review and comment on our 
proposed rules, we extended the comment periods for an additional 45 
days to February 10, 2014 (78 FR 77087; December 20, 2013).
    On April 8, 2014, we reopened the comment period on our October 28, 
2013, proposed rule to list the bi-State DPS and the proposed critical 
habitat rule (79 FR 19314). We also announced

[[Page 22829]]

two public hearings: (1) April 29, 2014, in Minden, Nevada; and (2) 
April 30, 2014, in Bishop, California. These meetings were subsequently 
cancelled for unrelated reasons. On May 9, 2014, we published a notice 
announcing the rescheduled hearings to take place on May 28, 2014, and 
May 29, 2014, respectively (79 FR 26684). The April 8, 2014, notice 
also announced a 6-month extension of the final determination of 
whether or not to list the bi-State DPS as a threatened species, which 
would automatically delay any decision regarding critical habitat for 
the bi-State DPS. The comment period was reopened (until June 9, 2014), 
and our determination on the final listing action was delayed based on 
substantial disagreement regarding the sufficiency or accuracy of the 
available data relevant to the proposed listing, making it necessary to 
solicit additional information. Thus, we announced that we would 
publish a listing determination on or before April 28, 2015.
    On June 3, 2014, we announced an extension of the comment period on 
the proposed critical habitat rule (79 FR 31901), the availability of a 
draft economic analysis of the proposed designation of critical habitat 
for the bi-State DPS, and an amended required determinations section of 
the proposed critical habitat rule (available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov at Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0042).
    On August 5, 2014, we provided an additional comment period on our 
October 28, 2013, proposed rule to list the bi-State DPS (79 FR 45420) 
based on new information received regarding population trends and 
recent State and Federal agency funding and staffing commitments for 
various conservation efforts associated with the Bi-State Action Plan 
(BSAP; Bi-State Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) 2012, entire). The 
comment period closed on September 4, 2014.

Background

    In our 12-month finding on petitions to list three entities of 
sage-grouse (75 FR 13910; March 23, 2010), we found that the bi-State 
population of greater sage-grouse in California and Nevada meets our 
criteria as a DPS of the greater sage-grouse under Service policy (61 
FR 4722; February 7, 1996). We reaffirmed this finding in the proposed 
listing rule and do so again here in this document. This determination 
was based principally on genetic information (Benedict et al. 2003, p. 
308; Oyler-McCance et al. 2005, p. 1,307), where the DPS was found to 
be both markedly separated and significant to the remainder of the 
greater sage-grouse taxon. The bi-State DPS defines the far 
southwestern limit of the species' range along the border of eastern 
California and western Nevada (Stiver et al. 2006, pp. 1-11; 71 FR 
76058).
    Although the bi-State DPS is a genetically unique and markedly 
separate population from the rest of the greater sage-grouse's range, 
the DPS has similar life-history and habitat requirements. In the 
proposed rule and this document, we use information specific to the bi-
State DPS where available but still apply scientific management 
principles for greater sage-grouse that are relevant to the bi-State 
DPS's management needs and strategies, which is a practice followed by 
the wildlife and land management agencies that have responsibility for 
management of both the DPS and its habitat.
    A detailed discussion of the bi-State DPS's description, taxonomy, 
habitat (sagebrush ecosystem), seasonal habitat selection, life-history 
characteristics, home range, life expectancy and survival rates, 
historical and current range distribution, population estimates and lek 
(sage-grouse breeding complex) counts, population trends, and land 
ownership information is available in the Species Report (Service 
2015a, entire). A team of Service biologists prepared this status 
review for the bi-State DPS. The team included biologists from the 
Service's Reno Fish and Wildlife Office, Pacific Southwest Regional 
Office, Mountain-Prairie Regional Office, and national Headquarters 
Office. The Species Report represents a compilation of the best 
scientific and commercial data available concerning the status of the 
bi-State DPS, including the past, present, and future threats to this 
DPS. The Species Report and other materials relating to this final 
agency action can be found at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket 
No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072.

Summary of Changes From the Proposed Rule

    Based upon our review of the public comments, Federal and State 
agency comments, peer review comments, issues addressed at the public 
hearings, and any new relevant information that became available since 
the publication of the proposal, we reevaluated our proposed listing 
rule and made changes as appropriate. Other than minor clarifications 
and incorporation of additional information on the species' biology and 
populations, this determination differs from the proposal in the 
following ways:
    (1) Based on our analyses of the potential threats to the species, 
and our consideration of partially completed, ongoing and future 
conservation efforts (as outlined in the Policy for Evaluation of 
Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section of 
this document), we have determined that the bi-State DPS should not be 
listed as a threatened species. Specifically, we have determined that 
conservation efforts (as outlined in the BSAP, Agency commitment 
letters, and our detailed PECE analysis (all of which are available at 
http://www.regulations.gov (Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072)), as well 
as the TAC comprehensive project database) will continue to be 
implemented because (to date) we have a documented track record of 
active participation and implementation by the signatory agencies, and 
commitments to continue implementation into the future. Conservation 
measures, such as (but not limited to) pinyon-juniper removal, 
establishment of conservation easements for critical brood-rearing 
habitat, cheatgrass removal, permanent and seasonal closure of roads 
near leks, removal and marking of fencing, and restoration of riparian/
meadow habitat have been occurring over the past decade, are currently 
occurring, and have been prioritized and placed on the agencies' 
implementation schedules for future implementation. Agencies have 
committed to remain participants in the BSAP and continue conservation 
of the DPS and its habitat. Additionally, the BSAP has sufficient 
methods for determining the type and location of the most beneficial 
conservation actions to be implemented, including continued development 
of new population and threats information in the future that will guide 
conservation efforts. As a result of these actions, this document 
withdraws the proposed rule as published on October 28, 2013 (78 FR 
64358).
    (2) The addition of the Ongoing and Future Conservation Efforts 
section, which includes some information presented in the Available 
Conservation Measures section of the proposed listing rule and the 
Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing 
Decisions (PECE) section following the Summary of Factors Affecting the 
Species section, below.
    (3) The addition of a discussion under the Small Population Size 
and Population Structure section that synthesizes information to 
evaluate resiliency, redundancy, and representation as they relate to 
the bi-State DPS.
    (4) New information was received following publication of the 
proposed listing rule. Some of the information was in response to our 
request for

[[Page 22830]]

scientific peer review of the proposed listing rule, while other 
information was a result of new literature now available, or updated 
regulations. We incorporated all new information into the Species 
Report (Service 2015a, entire), which is available on the Internet at 
www.regulations.gov (Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072), as well as within 
this Federal Register document where appropriate. New information 
includes (but is not limited to):
     A variety of biological or habitat clarifications, such as 
hen movement distances, nesting success, and invasive plant species 
influence on sagebrush-habitat dynamics.
     A recent trend analysis conducted by Coates et al. (2014, 
entire) examined six populations (i.e., Pine Nut, Desert Creek, Fales, 
Bodie Hills, Parker Meadows, and Long Valley) over a 10-year period 
between 2003 and 2012. The results suggest that four of the six 
populations (i.e., Pine Nut, Desert Creek, Bodie Hills, and Long 
Valley) are stable. Population growth was variable among the 
populations, and results for the Pine Nut population are not considered 
to be reliable due to the small sample size associated with a single 
active lek (see Species Information above).
     Two genetic evaluations, one of which concluded there are 
between three and four unique genetic clusters within the bi-State area 
(Oyler-McCance et al. (2014, p. 8), and a second that concluded there 
were five unique genetic clusters (Tebbenkamp 2014, p. 18). Tebbenkamp 
(2014) did not evaluate the Pine Nut population; thus, six populations 
may have been identified by Tebbenkamp (2014) had the Pine Nut 
population data been available.

Species Information

    As stated above, the bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse is 
genetically unique and markedly separate from the rest of the species' 
range. The species as a whole is long-lived, reliant on sagebrush, 
highly traditional in areas of seasonal habitat use, and particularly 
susceptible to habitat fragmentation and alterations in its environment 
(see the Seasonal Habitat Selection and Life History Characteristics 
section of the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 11-15)). Sage-grouse 
annually exploit numerous habitat types in the sagebrush ecosystem 
across broad landscapes to successfully complete their life cycle, thus 
spanning ecological and political boundaries. Populations are slow-
growing due to low reproductive rates (Schroeder et al. 1999 pp. 11, 
14; Connelly et al. 2000a, pp. 969-970), and they exhibit natural, 
cyclical variability in abundance (see Current Range/Distribution and 
Population Estimates/Annual Lek Counts section of the Species Report 
(Service 2015a, pp. 17-31)).
    For the purposes of this document, we discuss the bi-State DPS 
populations, threats to those populations, and associated management 
needs or conservation actions as they relate to population management 
units (PMUs). Six PMUs were established in 2001 as management tools for 
defining and monitoring sage-grouse distribution in the bi-State area 
(Sage-Grouse Conservation Planning Team 2001, p. 31). The PMU 
boundaries are based on aggregations of leks, known seasonal habitats, 
and telemetry data, which represent generalized subpopulations or local 
breeding complexes. The six PMUs include: Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, 
Bodie, Mount Grant, South Mono, and White Mountains PMUs. These six 
PMUs represent a total of three to six demographically independent 
populations with a combined total of approximately 43 active leks (see 
Table 1 below; Service 2015a, pp. 17-31). Leks are considered either 
active (e.g., two or more strutting males during at least 2 years in a 
5-year period), inactive (e.g., surveyed three or more times during one 
breeding season with no birds detected and no sign (e.g., droppings) 
observed), historical (e.g., no strutting activity for 20 years and 
have been checked according to State protocol at least intermittently), 
or unknown/pending (e.g., sign was observed, and one or no strutting 
males observed, or a lek that had activity the prior year but was not 
surveyed or surveyed under unsuitable conditions during the current 
year and reported one or no strutting males).

   Table 1--Bi-State DPS Population Management Units (PMUs), PMU Size, Estimated Suitable Sage-Grouse Habitat,
Estimated Range in Population Size, Number of Active Leks, and Reported Range in Total Males Counted on All Leks
                                                 Within Each PMU
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                                                Estimated
                                Total size       suitable         Estimated        Current    Lek count  (number
             PMU                 hectares        habitat       population size    number of    of males)  range
                                 (acres) *       hectares       range (2004-     active leks    (2004-2014) ***
                                                (acres) **        2014) ***      ***[dagger]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pine Nut.....................      232,440           77,848   <100-608........             1                0-38
                                  (574,373)        (192,367)
Desert Creek-Fales...........      229,858          105,281   638-2,061.......            10              78-220
                                  (567,992)        (260,155)
Mount Grant..................      282,907           45,786   171-3,058.......             6              12-215
                                  (699,079)        (113,139)
Bodie........................      141,490          105,698   640-2,466.......            12             136-524
                                  (349,630)        (261,187)
South Mono...................      234,508          138,123   965-2,005.......            11             205-426
                                  (579,483)        (341,311)
White Mountains..............      709,768           53,452   Data not                    3+                5-14
                                (1,753,875)        (132,083)   available.
                              ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Total....................    1,830,972          526,188   2,497-9,828.....            43           427-1,404
    (all PMUs combined)......   (4,524,432)      (1,300,238)
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* Bi-State Local Planning Group (2004, pp. 11, 32, 63, 102, 127, 153).
** Bi-State TAC (2012, unpublished data); Bureau of Land Management (BLM 2014a, unpublished data).
*** California Department of Wildlife (CDFW 2014a, unpublished data), Nevada Department of Wildlife (NDOW 2014a,
  unpublished data).
[dagger] Active--two or more strutting males during at least 2 years in a 5-year period.
NOTE--Area values for ``Total Size'' and ``Estimated Suitable Habitat'' may not sum due to rounding.
NOTE--Estimated population and lek count totals are not a sum of the PMU cells. Totals represent minimum and
  maximum estimates between 2004 and 2014. Minimum numbers were documented in 2008 and maximum in 2012.


[[Page 22831]]

    Each sage-grouse population in the bi-State area is relatively 
small, as is the entire DPS on average, which is estimated at 2,497 to 
9,828 individuals (CDFW 2014a, unpublished data; NDOW 2014a, 
unpublished data). Based on the maximum number of males counted on 
leks, the two largest populations exist in the Bodie (Bodie Hills 
population) and South Mono (Long Valley population) PMUs. The remaining 
PMUs contain smaller populations. Although population estimates derived 
from lek surveys (and presented in Table 1, above) suggest the Mount 
Grant and Desert Creek-Fales PMUs rival populations in the Bodie and 
South Mono PMUs, we consider population estimates for the two former 
PMUs to be inflated due to differences in survey method (helicopter 
versus on-the-ground) as well as differences in the specific estimator 
formula used by the NDOW versus the CDFW.
    In 2014, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) completed an analysis of 
population trends in the bi-State area between 2003 to 2012 (Coates et 
al. 2014, entire). This analysis, termed an Integrated Population 
Model, integrates a variety of data such as lek counts and vital rate 
information to inform an estimate of population growth within the DPS. 
This analysis evaluated several populations in the bi-State area 
including the Pine Nut (Pine Nut PMU), Fales (California portion of the 
Desert Creek-Fales PMU), Desert Creek (Nevada Portion of the Desert 
Creek-Fales PMU), Bodie Hills (Bodie PMU), Parker Meadows (South Mono 
PMU), and Long Valley (South Mono PMU) populations. It did not evaluate 
the Mount Grant (Mount Grant PMU) or White Mountains (White Mountains 
PMU) populations due to data limitations. Results suggest the evaluated 
populations, in their entirety, are stable (both growing and declining) 
between 2003 and 2012 (Coates et al. 2014, p. 19). However, the trend 
in population growth was variable among populations (Coates et al. 
2014, pp. 14-15). Details pertaining to specific population and PMUs 
are provided below.
    Two recent and independent genetic evaluations have been conducted 
in the bi-State area. Oyler-McCance et al. (2014, p. 8) concluded there 
are between three and four unique genetic clusters within the bi-State 
area, while Tebbenkamp (2014, p. 18) concluded there were five unique 
genetic clusters. In addition, Tebbenkamp (2014, p. 12) did not 
evaluate the Pine Nut population, which Oyler-McCance et al. (2014, p. 
8) found to be unique. Thus, presumably Tebbenkamp (2014, entire) would 
have differentiated six populations had these data been available. 
Based on this information, we presume that there are likely three to 
six populations or groups of birds in the bi-State area that largely 
operate demographically independent of one another.
    Overall, the remaining habitat is reduced in quality from what we 
currently consider high-quality habitat for the bi-State DPS (see 
various Impact Analysis discussions in the Species Report including, 
but not limited to, the Infrastructure, Nonnative, Invasive and Native 
Increasing Plants, and Wildfires and Altered Fire Regime sections 
(Service 2015a, pp. 45-91)) and, thereby, sage-grouse carrying capacity 
likely also is reduced. Additionally, the best available data indicate 
that reductions in sage-grouse abundance proportionally exceed habitat 
loss (in other words, because sage-grouse habitat abundance has been 
reduced on the order of 50 percent over the past 150 years, the 
expected sage-grouse population numbers (or abundance) are reduced by 
more than 50 percent over the same time period). The residual limited 
connectivity of populations and habitats within and among the PMUs also 
continues to slowly erode (Service 2015a, pp. 16-33, 45-52, 57, 58, 61, 
63-65, 67, 69, 82-84, 86, 121-122, 124, 143, 144-150). However, as 
discussed in the Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When 
Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section (below), conservation efforts 
are effectively reducing the risk of further habitat loss and helping 
maintain connectivity.
    At the time of the proposed listing rule, we stated that declining 
bi-State DPS population trends were continuing for the Pine Nut, Desert 
Creek-Fales, and Mount Grant PMUs, with an unknown trend for the White 
Mountains PMU (Service 2013a, pp. 21-29). However, a more recent trend 
analysis conducted by Coates et al. (2014, p. 19) examining six 
populations (i.e., Pine Nut, Desert Creek, Fales, Bodie Hills, Parker 
Meadows, and Long Valley) over a 10-year period between 2003 to 2012 
estimated these populations to be stable (not growing or declining) 
(see Current Range/Distribution and Population Estimates/Annual Lek 
Counts section of the Species Report). Specifically, this analysis 
characterized population growth rates as positive for four of the six 
populations analyzed (i.e., Pine Nut, Desert Creek, Bodie Hills, and 
Long Valley), and negative for the remaining two populations (i.e., 
Fales, Parker Meadows). We note, however, that although this model 
projected a positive growth rate for the Pine Nut population, the 
single active lek used to partially inform the Pine Nut PMU model for 
this trend analysis had zero males strutting in 2013 and a single male 
in 2014. Therefore, we interpret these model results, particularly for 
this population, with caution.
    The Bodie and South Mono PMUs form the central core of the bi-State 
DPS. The Bodie Hills and Long Valley populations within these two PMUs 
are the largest sage-grouse populations in the bi-State area. These 
PMUs encompass between approximately 45 and 64 percent of existing bi-
State DPS individuals (Service 2015a, p. 20). These PMUs are relatively 
stable at present (estimates range from approximately 640 to 2,466 
individuals in the Bodie PMU and 965 to 2,005 individuals in the South 
Mono PMU (CDFW 2014a, unpublished data; NDOW 2014a, unpublished data; 
Coates et al. 2014, p. 15)), and the scope and severity of known 
impacts are comparatively less than in other PMUs. These PMUs currently 
are relatively stable with overall fewer impacts as compared to the 
other four PMUs, despite having experienced prior habitat losses, 
population declines, and internal habitat fragmentation. Significant 
connectivity between these two PMUs is currently lacking (Service 
2015a, pp. 121-122, 143), and like many areas in the Great Basin both 
PMUs (as well as the other four PMUs) are vulnerable to the effects of 
Bromus tectorum cheatgrass invasion (Service 2015a, pp. 79-81) and 
wildfire impacts (Service 2015a, pp. 86-91).
    Together, the Bodie and South Mono PMUs represent less than 20 
percent of the historical range for the bi-State DPS. Historically, the 
DPS occurred throughout most of Mono, eastern Alpine, and northern Inyo 
Counties, California (Hall et al. 2008, p. 97), and portions of Carson 
City, Douglas, Esmeralda, Lyon, and Mineral Counties, Nevada (Gullion 
and Christensen 1957, pp. 131-132; Espinosa 2006, pers. comm.). While 
the Bodie PMU is expected to fall below 500 breeding adults within the 
next 30 years (Garton et al. 2011, p. 310), both the Bodie and South 
Mono PMUs (which harbor the two largest populations) are projected by 
sage-grouse experts to have moderate to high probabilities of 
persistence into the future (Aldridge et al. 2008, entire; Wisdom et 
al. 2011, entire). The Bodie PMU has fluctuated with positive and 
negative population growth over the past 40 years with no discernible 
long-term trend (Service 2013a, pp. 24-26). The long-term population 
trend for the South Mono PMU has been stable (Service 2015a, pp. 26-
27). As with the Bodie PMU, some sage-grouse experts

[[Page 22832]]

estimate an 80 percent chance of the population declining to fewer than 
500 breeding adults in 30 years (Garton et al. 2011, p. 310). Both the 
Bodie and South Mono PMU populations have fallen below 500 breeding 
individuals in the past and then have returned to higher numbers. Thus, 
while sage-grouse experts predict these populations could again fall 
below 500 breeding individuals in the future, we conclude it is likely 
that these populations will continue to fluctuate in size but persist, 
particularly given the conservation efforts occurring currently and 
into the future as a result of implementation and effectiveness of the 
BSAP (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Makin 
Listing Decisions (PECE), below).
    Fluctuations in population size in the relatively small Pine Nut, 
Fales, and Parker Meadows populations (within the Pine Nut, Desert 
Creek-Fales, and south Mono PMUs) could result in extirpation of one or 
more of these populations, and thereby reduce population redundancy 
within the DPS. Historical extirpations outside the existing boundaries 
of the six PMUs present a similar pattern of lost peripheral 
populations (see Historical Range/Distribution and Population Estimates 
section of the Species Report) (Service 2015a, pp. 16-17)). Two range-
wide assessments investigating patterns of sage-grouse population 
persistence confirm that PMUs on the northern and southern extents of 
the bi-State DPS (i.e., Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, and White 
Mountains PMUs) are similar to extirpated sites elsewhere within the 
range of greater sage-grouse, while the central PMUs (i.e., South Mono, 
Bodie, and Mount Grant PMUs) are similar to extant sites (Aldridge et 
al. 2008, entire; Wisdom et al. 2011, entire).
    In summary, we anticipate the greatest risk of PMU loss for three 
of the six PMUs in the bi-State DPS (i.e., Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and 
White Mountains PMUs) as compared to the PMUs that harbor more sage-
grouse individuals (i.e., Desert Creek-Fales PMU) and the central core 
(or largest) populations (i.e., Bodie and South Mono PMUs).
    Following are brief accounts of each PMU. Primary threats are 
introduced in these summaries and described in more detail in the 
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species section below, and fully 
evaluated and described in the Impact Analysis section of the Species 
Report (Service 2015a, pp. 45-129).
    (1) The Pine Nut PMU has the fewest sage-grouse of all bi-State DPS 
PMUs (i.e., one population ranging in size from less than 100 to 608 
birds based on data collected between 2004 and 2014 (Table 1, above)). 
Telemetry research in the Pine Nut Mountains suggests the potential for 
additional undocumented leks in the south-central portion of the PMU 
(USGS 2013a, p. 2). Most recently in 2014, eight males were documented 
strutting on Bald Mountain in close proximity to the inactive lek site 
in the southern extent of the Pine Nut Mountains (USGS 2014a, p. 1). A 
recent 10-year trend analysis between 2003 and 2012 suggests the 
population in the Pine Nut PMU has been stable (Coates et al. 2014, p. 
14). However, in 2013, no birds were documented at the Mill Canyon Dry 
Lake lek and in 2014 one male was seen strutting, even though the lek 
sites were surveyed intensely in both years (USGS 2013b, p. 25; USGS 
2014b, p. 1).
    Overall, this population represents approximately 6 percent of the 
DPS. The population in the Pine Nut PMU has some level of connectivity 
with the Desert Creek-Fales PMU and potentially also with the Bodie and 
Mount Grant PMUs. Urbanization, grazing management, wildfire, invasive 
species, infrastructure, and mineral development are affecting this 
population, and the scope and severity of most of these impacts are 
likely to increase into the future based on the proximity of the PMU to 
expanding urban areas, agricultural operations, road networks, and 
power lines; altered fire regimes; new mineral entry proposals; and 
increasing recreational off-highway vehicle (OHV) use on public lands. 
Because of the current small population size and the ongoing and 
potential future magnitude of habitat impacts if left unchecked, the 
sage-grouse population in the Pine Nut PMU (i.e., the northernmost 
population within the range of the bi-State DPS) is at a greater risk 
of extirpation than populations in other PMUs within the bi-State area.
    Threats to the Pine Nut PMU and risk of extirpation are reduced as 
a result of effective ongoing and future conservation efforts 
associated with the BSAP that are occurring within this PMU, such as 
(but not limited to): restoring habitat (e.g., reducing pinyon-juniper 
encroachment, reducing the spread of cheatgrass, improving brood-
rearing habitat) reducing wild horse grazing impacts, reducing 
infrastructure impacts (e.g., temporary or permanent road closures, 
fencing maintenance or marking), and potentially conducting future 
translocation of sage-grouse from stable populations. Discussion of the 
various conservation efforts that are partially completed and planned 
for the future can be found in our detailed PECE analysis (available at 
www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072) and the Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) 
section of this document.
    (2) The Desert Creek-Fales PMU straddles the Nevada-California 
border and contains two populations, one in each State. The two 
populations (including the Desert Creek breeding complex and the Fales 
breeding complex) have ranged in size from approximately 638 to 2,061 
birds between 2004 and 2014 (Table 1, above). A recent analysis 
suggests population growth was slightly positive in the Desert Creek 
breeding complex between 2003 and 2012 (Coates et. al. 2014a, p. 14). 
The Fales breeding complex has remained small since 1981, and a recent 
analysis suggests population growth was slightly negative between 2003 
and 2012 (Coates et. al. 2014a, p. 14).
    The populations in the Desert Creek-Fales PMU have some level of 
connectivity with the Pine Nut PMU and potentially also with the Bodie 
and Mount Grant PMUs. The most significant impacts in this PMU are 
wildfire, invasive species (specifically conifer encroachment), 
infrastructure, and urbanization. Private-land acquisitions in 
California and conifer removal in Nevada and California have mitigated 
some of the impacts within this PMU. However, urbanization and woodland 
succession remain a concern based on the lack of permanent protection 
for important brood-rearing (summer) habitat that occurs primarily on 
irrigated private pasture lands and continued Pinus monophylla (pinyon 
pine) and various Juniperus (juniper) species encroachment that is 
contracting distribution of the populations and connectivity between 
populations. While some of these impacts are more easily alleviated 
than others (e.g., conifer encroachment), the existing condition would 
likely worsen in the future (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 24-25) if 
conservation efforts were not conducted. However, impacts to 
populations within this PMU are reduced as a result of effective 
ongoing and future conservation efforts that are associated with the 
BSAP, such as (but not limited to): restoring habitat (e.g., reducing 
pinyon-juniper encroachment, reducing the spread of cheatgrass (which 
in turn is reducing the threat of wildfire), improving brood-rearing 
habitat, establishing conservation easements in critical brood-rearing 
habitat areas, improving grazing management conditions, and reducing 
infrastructure impacts (e.g., permanent road closures). Discussion of 
the various conservation efforts that are partially

[[Page 22833]]

completed or proposed for the future can be found in our detailed PECE 
analysis (available at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-
0072) and the Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making 
Listing Decisions (PECE) section of this document.
    (3) The Mount Grant PMU contains one population, with population 
estimates between 2004 and 2014 ranging from approximately 171 to 3,058 
birds (Table 1, above). The population in the Mount Grant PMU has some 
level of connectivity with the Bodie PMU and potentially also with the 
Desert Creek-Fales and Pine Nut PMUs. Habitat impact sources in this 
PMU include woodland encroachment, renewable energy and mineral 
development, infrastructure, and the potential for wildfire. Woodland 
encroachment, mineral development, and infrastructure currently 
fragment habitat in this PMU and, in the future, these as well as 
wildfire (if it occurs) may reduce or eliminate connectivity to the 
sage-grouse population in the adjacent Bodie PMU. Long-term persistence 
of the sage-grouse population in the Mount Grant PMU is less likely 
than in the other PMUs that currently harbor larger populations of 
sage-grouse in the bi-State area without successful implementation of 
additional conservation measures.
    Population estimates for the Mount Grant PMU (Service 2015a, Table 
1) are highly uncertain due to survey methodology and inconsistencies. 
Thus, while the PMU appears to harbor a significant number of birds, we 
consider this estimate to be biased significantly high (albeit to an 
unknown degree), and further, it appears the PMU is experiencing 
negative growth (NDOW 2014a, unpublished data). Long-term persistence 
of the sage-grouse population in the Mount Grant PMU is uncertain, 
particularly if conservation efforts are not conducted. However, 
impacts to populations within this PMU are reduced as a result of 
effective ongoing and future conservation efforts that are associated 
with the BSAP, such as (but not limited to): restoring habitat (e.g., 
reducing pinyon-juniper encroachment, improving brood-rearing habitat), 
reducing direct and indirect potential energy development and mining 
impacts, establishing conservation easements in critical brood-rearing 
habitat areas, reducing grazing impacts through wild horse management, 
implementing wildfire prevention and suppression strategies, and 
reducing infrastructure impacts (e.g., permanent road closures). 
Discussion of the various conservation efforts that are partially 
completed or proposed for the future can be found in our detailed PECE 
analysis (available at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-
0072) and the Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making 
Listing Decisions (PECE) section of this document.
    (4) The Bodie PMU contains one population (Bodie Hills), which is 
one of the two core (largest) populations for the bi-State DPS. 
Population estimates for this PMU between 2004 and 2014 range from 640 
to 2,466 individuals (Table 1, above). This PMU typically has the 
highest number of active leks (i.e., 13) of all the PMUs. The 
population in the Bodie PMU has some level of connectivity with the 
Mount Grant PMU and potentially also with the Desert Creek-Fales and 
Pine Nut PMUs.
    Woodland succession is estimated to have caused a 40 percent 
reduction in sagebrush habitat throughout the Bodie PMU, and 
encroachment into sagebrush habitat is expected to continue to some 
degree both from woodland edge expansion and infilling. The potential 
of future wildfire and subsequent habitat loss by conversion to annual 
grasses is of greatest concern based on the increased understory 
presence of cheatgrass, specifically in Wyoming big sagebrush 
(Artemisia tridentata spp. wyomingensis) communities within the Bodie 
PMU (e.g., Bodie Hills). In addition, the potential for loss (largely 
restricted to date) of sage-grouse habitat to exurban development 
(small, usually prosperous community situated beyond the suburbs of a 
city) on unprotected private lands in the Bodie PMU is also a concern 
because these lands provide summer- and winter-use areas and 
connectivity for sage-grouse among the Bodie, Mount Grant, and Desert 
Creek-Fales PMUs. Current impacts posed by infrastructure, grazing, and 
mineral extraction are of minimal severity in the Bodie PMU. However, 
impacts to populations within this PMU are reduced as a result of 
effective ongoing and future conservation efforts that are associated 
with the BSAP, such as (but not limited to): restoring habitat (e.g., 
reducing pinyon-juniper encroachment, improving brood-rearing habitat, 
restoration of areas invaded by cheatgrass), reducing direct and 
indirect potential energy development and mining impacts; establishing 
conservation easements in critical brood-rearing habitat areas, 
reducing grazing impacts through wild horse management, implementing 
wildfire prevention and suppression strategies, and reducing 
infrastructure impacts (e.g., permanent road closures). Discussion of 
the various conservation efforts that are partially completed or 
proposed for the future can be found in our detailed PECE analysis 
(available at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072) and 
the Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing 
Decisions (PECE) section of this document.
    (5) The South Mono PMU contains three populations (Long Valley, 
Granite Mountain, and Parker Meadows). The Long Valley population is 
one of the two largest (core) populations for the bi-State DPS. 
Population estimates for this PMU between 2004 and 2014 range from 965 
to 2,005 individuals (Table 1). The South Mono PMU typically has had 
the highest estimated population size of all the PMUs. This PMU is 
considered to be largely isolated from the other PMUs.
    Currently, the most significant impacts in the South Mono PMU are 
infrastructure and recreation, with the potential for increased 
wildfire. An indirect impact of infrastructure to the sage-grouse 
population in Long Valley is predation, likely associated with the 
local landfill. Predation (primarily from ravens) appears to reduce 
sage-grouse nest success in Long Valley, but the population 
nevertheless appears stable. The Parker Meadows population currently 
has one active lek and is quite small; from 2002 to 2014, male sage-
grouse counts have ranged between 3 and 17 (CDFW 2014a, in litt.). This 
population has the lowest reported genetic diversity in the bi-State 
area, and it is experiencing high nest failure rates due to nonviable 
eggs (Gardner 2009, pers. comm.), potentially indicative of genetic 
challenges. The Granite Mountain population consists of two leks 
(``Adobe'' and ``Gaspipe'') and is also quite small. The Adobe lek 
averaged 11 males between 1984 and 1994 before numbers began to decline 
in 1995, and subsequently the site became inactive in 2001 (CDFW 2014a, 
in litt.). The Gaspipe lek averaged seven males between 1990 and 2008, 
and the site became inactive in 2009 (CDFW 2014a, in litt.). However, 
in 2013 and 2014 four and seven males were counted, respectively.
    Impacts to populations within this PMU are reduced as a result of 
effective ongoing and future conservation efforts that are associated 
with the BSAP, such as (but not limited to): restoring habitat (e.g., 
reducing pinyon-juniper encroachment, improving brood-rearing habitat), 
reducing direct and indirect human disturbance related to recreation or 
activities associated with potential development, reducing predation 
impacts (e.g., removing a landfill), establishing conservation 
easements in critical brood-rearing habitat areas, and

[[Page 22834]]

reducing infrastructure impacts (e.g., seasonal or permanent road 
closures, maintenance and/or removal of fencing). Discussion of the 
various conservation efforts that are partially completed or proposed 
for the future can be found in our detailed PECE analysis (available at 
www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072) and the Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) 
section of this document.
    (6) The White Mountains PMU contains one population. No recent 
population estimate for this southernmost PMU is available, and, 
overall, information on population status and impacts is limited. The 
area is remote and difficult to access, and most data are from periodic 
observations rather than comprehensive surveys. The population in the 
White Mountains PMU is considered to be largely isolated from the other 
PMUs. Current impacts such as exurban development (e.g., Chiatovich 
Creek area (Bi-State Lek Surveillance Program 2012, p. 38)), grazing, 
recreation, and invasive species may be influencing portions of the 
population and are likely to increase in the future, but current 
impacts are considered minimal due to the remote locations of most 
known sage-grouse use areas. Potential future impacts from 
infrastructure (power lines, roads) and mineral developments could lead 
to the loss of the remote, contiguous nature of the habitat if 
conservation efforts were not conducted.
    As stated above, while some of the impacts occurring in the six 
PMUs are more easily alleviated than others (e.g., conifer 
encroachment), the existing condition (without intervention) would 
likely worsen in the future (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 24-25) if 
conservation efforts were not conducted. As a result, significant 
conservation efforts that are associated with the BSAP are currently 
under way (partially completed) or are planned for the future that are 
reducing or eliminating impacts, including (but not limited to): 
reducing infrastructure impacts (e.g., permanent road closures), 
reducing human disturbance associated with urbanization, restoring 
habitat (e.g., reducing pinyon-juniper encroachment, improving brood-
rearing habitat), and reducing grazing impacts through wild horse 
management. Discussion of the various conservation efforts that are 
partially completed or proposed for the future can be found in our 
detailed PECE analysis (available at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. 
FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072) and the Policy for Evaluation of Conservation 
Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section of this document.

Summary of Factors Affecting the Species

    Section 4 of the Act and its implementing regulations (50 CFR part 
424) set forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal Lists 
of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. A species may be 
determined to be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more 
of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The 
present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its 
habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, 
scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the 
inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or 
manmade factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may 
be warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in 
combination. Each of these factors is discussed below.
    A threats analysis for the bi-State DPS is included in the Species 
Report (Service 2015a, entire) associated with this document (and 
available at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-
2013-0072). All potential threats of which we are aware that are acting 
upon the bi-State DPS currently or in the future (and consistent with 
the five listing factors identified above) were evaluated and addressed 
in the Species Report, and are summarized in the following paragraphs.
    Many of the impacts to sage-grouse populations and sagebrush 
habitats in the bi-State DPS are present throughout the DPS's range, 
although they (at the time of the proposed listing and currently) 
affect the DPS to varying degrees. Specifically, the populations and 
habitat in the northern extent of the bi-State area, including the Pine 
Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, and Mount Grant PMUs, are now and will likely 
continue to be most at risk from the various threats acting upon the 
bi-State DPS and its habitat. Without future conservation efforts 
(i.e., the partially completed and future actions summarized in the 
Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing 
Decisions (PECE) section below), we would anticipate loss of some 
populations and contraction of the ranges of others in these three PMUs 
(see Species Information section above and Bi-State DPS Population 
Trends section of the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 31-33)), which 
will leave them more susceptible to extirpation from stochastic events 
such as wildfire, drought, and disease. We would expect (again, 
assuming no interventions or increased protections) that two 
populations in the Bodie and South Mono PMUs (i.e., the Bodie Hills and 
Long Valley populations, respectively) will persist into the future 
(Aldridge et al. 2008, entire; Wisdom et al. 2011, entire). Significant 
ongoing and future conservation efforts are reducing or eliminating 
impacts; discussion of these conservation efforts can be found in our 
detailed PECE analysis (available at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. 
FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072) and the Policy for Evaluation of Conservation 
Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section of this document.
    If left unchecked, the impacts that are of high current or future 
scope and severity within the DPS (i.e., the most significant threats 
overall across the range of the bi-State DPS) include those that are 
resulting in the present or threatened destruction, modification, or 
curtailment of its habitat or range, and other natural or manmade 
threats affecting the DPS's continued existence. These more significant 
threats include infrastructure (i.e., fences, power lines, and roads) 
(Factors A and E); urbanization and human disturbance (Factors A, B, C, 
and E); the spread of nonnative, invasive and native plants (e.g., 
pinyon-juniper encroachment, cheatgrass) (Factors A and E); wildfires 
and altered fire regime (Factors A and E); and the small size of the 
DPS (both the number of individual populations and their size), which 
generally makes such species more susceptible to extirpation (Factor 
E). These impacts, along with those that are currently considered 
minor, have the potential to act together to negatively affect the bi-
State DPS. However, completed, ongoing and planned conservation actions 
have reduced the scope and severity of these impacts. Following a 
thorough analysis of the best available information, we determined that 
hunting, scientific and educational uses, pesticides and herbicides, 
and contaminants have negligible impacts to the bi-State DPS at this 
time.
    The bi-State DPS is experiencing multiple impacts to individual 
populations and sagebrush habitats that are ongoing (and expected to 
continue into the future) in many areas throughout the DPS's range. 
Individually, each of these impacts is unlikely to affect persistence 
across the entire bi-State DPS, but each may act independently to 
affect persistence of individual populations. However, we note that the 
level of impact these threats may have on the DPS's habitat are 
lessened overall today as compared to the time of the proposed listing 
rule due to the continued implementation of

[[Page 22835]]

the BSAP. We believe the future impacts of these threats are 
significantly reduced due to the expected implementation and 
effectiveness of the partially completed and future conservation 
efforts associated with the BSAP (see Policy for Evaluation of 
Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) below).
    Additional, less significant impacts to the bi-State DPS or its 
habitat may be occurring, but not everywhere across the DPS at this 
time (such as, but not limited to, grazing and rangeland management; 
mining; renewable energy development; or West Nile virus (WNv) 
infections). We do not consider these impacts to have serious 
consequences for the bi-State DPS or its habitat. Moreover, these less-
significant impacts to the bi-State DPS are reduced overall today and 
into the future as compared to the time of the proposed listing rule 
due the continued implementation of the BSAP, and the expected 
implementation and effectiveness of the partially completed and future 
conservation efforts associated with the BSAP (see Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) 
below).
    Following are summary evaluations of 16 potential threats to the 
bi-State DPS, including: Invasive nonnative and native plants (Factor A 
and E); wildfires and altered fire regime (Factors A and E); 
infrastructure, including roads, power lines, fences, communication 
towers, and landfills (Factors A and E); grazing and rangeland 
management (Factors A, C, and E); small population size and population 
structure (Factor E); urbanization and habitat conversion (Factor A); 
mining (Factors A and E); renewable energy development and associated 
infrastructure (Factors A and E); disease or predation (Factor C); 
climate change, including drought (Factors A and E); recreation 
(Factors A and E); overutilization (including commercial and 
recreational hunting) (Factor B); scientific and educational uses 
(Factor B); pesticides and herbicides (Factor E); and contaminants 
(Factor E). The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms was also 
evaluated (Factor D). Please see the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 
45-142) for a full evaluation, including but not limited to, an 
evaluation of the scope, severity, and timing of each potential threat 
(including many literature citations).

Invasive Nonnative and Native Plants

    Nonnative, invasive plants negatively impact sagebrush ecosystems 
by altering plant community structure and composition, productivity, 
nutrient cycling, and hydrology (Vitousek 1990, p. 7) (Factor A), and 
may cause declines in native plant populations through competitive 
exclusion and niche displacement, among other mechanisms (Mooney and 
Cleland 2001, p. 5446) (Factor E). They can create long-term changes in 
ecosystem processes (Factor A), such as fire cycles (see Wildfires and 
Altered Fire Regime section below, and in the Species Report (Service 
2015a, pp. 84-91)) and other disturbance regimes that persist even 
after an invasive plant is removed (Zouhar et al. 2008, p. 33). A 
variety of nonnative annuals and perennials are invasive to sagebrush 
ecosystems (Connelly et al. 2004, pp. 7-107 to 7-108; Zouhar et al. 
2008, p. 144). Cheatgrass is considered most invasive in Wyoming 
sagebrush communities (which is a subspecies of sagebrush that occurs 
in the bi-State area), while medusahead rye (Taeniatherum caput-medusae 
(L.) Nevski) fills a similar niche in more mesic communities with 
heavier clay soils (Connelly et al. 2004, p. 5-9).
    Some native tree species are also invading sagebrush habitat and 
affect the suitability of the habitat for the various life processes of 
the bi-State DPS. Pinyon-juniper woodlands are a native vegetation 
community dominated by pinyon pine and various juniper species that can 
encroach upon, infill, and eventually replace sagebrush habitat 
(Factors A and E). Some portions of the bi-State DPS's range are also 
being adversely affected by Pinus jeffreyi (Jeffrey pine) encroachment. 
Woodland encroachment has caused significant, measurable habitat loss 
throughout the range of the bi-State DPS. However, techniques to 
address this habitat impact are available and being implemented. 
Woodlands have expanded by an estimated 20,234 to 60,703 hectares (ha) 
(50,000 to 150,000 acres (ac)) over the past decade in the bi-State 
area, but woodland treatments have been implemented on 7,904 ha (19,533 
ac) (Service 2013b, unpublished data; Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.), 
and continued treatments are one of the keystone conservation measures 
of the BSAP and will continue to reduce the impact of woodland 
encroachment.
    In general, nonnative plants are not abundant in the bi-State area, 
with the exception of cheatgrass, which occurs in all PMUs throughout 
the range of the DPS (although it is currently most extensive in the 
Pine Nut PMU). Alteration of the fire ecology of the bi-State area is 
of concern. Land managers have had little success preventing cheatgrass 
invasion in the West, and elevational barriers to occurrence are 
becoming less restrictive (Miller et al. 2011, p. 161; Brown and Rowe 
2004, in litt., entire). The best available data suggest that future 
conditions, mostly influenced by precipitation and winter temperatures, 
will remain hospitable for cheatgrass (Bradley 2009, p. 201). 
Cheatgrass is a challenge to the sagebrush shrub community and its 
spread would be detrimental to sage-grouse in the bi-State area. 
However, these impacts can be offset through a reduction of other 
threats, such as reducing the likelihood of wildfires that can result 
in shortened fire frequency intervals (favorable to cheatgrass) by 
removing source material, such as pinyon-juniper woodlands (see 
Wildfires and Altered Fire Regime section below). Through ongoing and 
planned implementation of the BSAP removal of pinyon-juniper woodlands 
will remove source materials for fires and help reduce the threat of 
cheatgrass expansion.
    In addition, the encroachment of native woodlands (particularly 
pinyon-juniper) into sagebrush habitats is occurring throughout the bi-
State area. We predict that future woodland encroachment will continue 
across the entire bi-State area, but recognize this is a potentially 
manageable threat through treatment and management actions, such as 
those included in the BSAP.
    Overall, invasive nonnative and native plants occur throughout the 
entire bi-State DPS's range. We concluded in the proposed listing rule 
that their spread was a significant factor for proposing to list the 
DPS as a threatened species based on the extensive amount of pinyon-
juniper encroachment and cheatgrass invasion that is occurring 
throughout the DPS's range, and the interacting impact these invasions 
have on habitat quality (e.g., reduces foraging habitat, increases 
likelihood of wildfire) and habitat fragmentation. Conservation efforts 
that address the impacts from increasing nonnative, invasive and native 
plants have continued to be implemented since publication of the 
proposed listing rule, including (but not limited to): conducting 
conifer (pinyon-juniper) removal; restoring critical meadow/riparian 
habitat areas; and conducting weed treatments for invasive, nonnative 
plants such as cheatgrass. With continued implementation of 
conservation actions associated with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, 
entire), impacts from increasing nonnative, invasive and native plants 
are significantly reduced. See the Nonnative, Invasive and Native 
Increasing Plants section of the Species Report for further discussion 
(Service 2015a, pp. 78-84).

[[Page 22836]]

    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects such as (but not limited to) the spread of nonnative, invasive 
and native plants. Because we have determined that the partially 
completed and future conservation efforts will be implemented and 
effective (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When 
Making Listing Decisions (PECE) below), we find the spread of 
nonnative, invasive and native plants is no longer a significant impact 
into the future.

Wildfires and Altered Fire Regime

    Wildfire is the principle disturbance mechanism affecting sagebrush 
communities, although the nature of historical fire patterns, 
particularly in Wyoming big sagebrush vegetation communities, is not 
well-understood and historically infrequent (Miller and Eddleman 2000, 
p. 16; Zouhar et al. 2008, p. 154; Baker 2011, pp. 189, 196). The 
historical sagebrush systems likely consisted of extensive sagebrush 
habitat dotted by small areas of grassland that were maintained by 
numerous small fires with long interludes between fires, which 
accounted for little burned area, and that were punctuated by large 
fire events (Baker 2011, p. 197). In general, fire extensively reduces 
sagebrush within burned areas, and the most widespread species of 
sagebrush can take decades to reestablish and much longer to return to 
pre-burn conditions (Braun 1998, p. 147; Cooper et al. 2007, p. 13; 
Lesica et al. 2007, p. 264; Baker 2011, pp. 194-195).
    When intervals between wildfire events become unnaturally long in 
sagebrush communities, woodlands have the ability to expand (allowing 
seedlings to establish and trees to mature (Miller et al. 2011, p. 
167)) when they are adjacent to or are present (in small quantities) 
within sagebrush habitat. Conifer woodlands have expanded into 
sagebrush ecosystems throughout the sage-grouse's range over the last 
century (Miller et al. 2011, p. 162). Alternatively, a shortened fire 
frequency interval within sagebrush habitat can result in the invasion 
of nonnative, invasive, annual grasses, such as cheatgrass and 
medusahead rye; once these nonnatives are established, wildfire 
frequency within sagebrush ecosystems can increase (Zouhar et al. 2008, 
p. 41; Miller et al. 2011, p. 167; Balch et al. 2013, p. 178).
    While multiple factors can influence sagebrush persistence, 
wildfire can cause large-scale habitat losses that lead to 
fragmentation and isolation of sage-grouse populations (Factors A and 
E). In addition to loss of habitat, wildfire can fragment sage-grouse 
habitat and contribute to isolation of populations, making them more 
susceptible to extirpation from other threats (Knick and Hanser 2011, 
p. 395; Wisdom et al. 2011, p. 469). Thus, while direct loss of habitat 
due to wildfire is a significant factor associated with population 
persistence for sage-grouse (Beck et al. 2012, p. 452), the indirect 
effect from loss of connectivity among populations may expand the 
influence of this threat beyond the physical fire perimeter.
    Wildfire is considered a relatively high risk across all the PMUs 
in the bi-State area due to its ability to affect large landscapes in a 
short period of time (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 19, 26, 32, 37, 41, 49). 
Furthermore, the future risk of wildfire is exacerbated by the presence 
of people, invasive species, and climate change. While dozens of 
wildfires have occurred in the Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, Bodie, and 
South Mono PMUs (fewer in the Mount Grant and White Mountains PMUs) 
over the past 20 years, to date there have been relatively few large-
scale events. In general, although current data do not indicate an 
increase of wildfires in the bi-State DPS, based on likely future 
habitat conditions, we predict an increase in wildfires over time.
    Changes in fire ecology over time have resulted in an altered fire 
regime in the bi-State area, presenting future wildfire risk in all 
PMUs (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 19, 26, 32, 37, 41, 49). On one hand, a 
reduction in fire occurrence has facilitated the expansion of woodlands 
into montane sagebrush communities in all PMUs (see Nonnative, Invasive 
and Native Plants, above). Meanwhile, a pattern of increased wildfire 
occurrence in sagebrush communities is apparent in the Pine Nut PMU. 
Each of these alterations to wildfire regimes has contributed to 
fragmentation of habitat and the isolation of the sage-grouse 
populations (Bi-State Local Planning Group 2004, pp. 95-96, 133).
    Fire is one of the primary factors linked to population declines of 
sage-grouse across the West because of long-term loss of sagebrush and 
frequent conversion to monocultures of nonnative, invasive grasses 
(Connelly and Braun 1997, p. 7; Johnson et al. 2011, p. 424; Knick and 
Hanser 2011, p. 395). Within the bi-State area, the BLM and U.S. Forest 
Service (USFS) currently manage the area to limit the loss of sagebrush 
habitat (BLM 2012, entire; USFS 2012, entire). Based on the best 
available information, historical wildfire events have not removed a 
significant amount of sagebrush habitat across the bi-State area, and 
conversion of sagebrush habitat to a nonnative, invasive vegetation 
community has been restricted (except for the Pine Nut PMU).
    Restoration of altered sagebrush communities following fire can be 
difficult, requires many years, and may be ineffective in the presence 
of nonnative, invasive grass species. Additionally, sage-grouse are 
slow to recolonize burned areas even if structural features of the 
shrub community have recovered (Knick et al. 2011, p. 233). However, 
impacts from wildfire are addressed through restoration actions 
outlined in the BSAP, including fuels reduction and rehabilitation 
efforts, which require long-term monitoring to assure conservation 
objectives are met for restoring potential habitats post-wildfire 
(Arkle et al. 2014).
    While it is not currently possible to predict the extent or 
location of future fire events in the bi-State area, and historical 
wildfire events have not removed a significant amount of sagebrush 
habitat across the bi-State area to date, we anticipated in the 
proposed listing rule and reconfirm here that fire frequency may 
increase in the future due to the increasing presence of cheatgrass and 
people, and the projected effects of climate change. If offsetting 
conservation measures are not implemented, increasing wildfires in 
sagebrush habitats could adversely affect the DPS.
    Overall, the potential threat of wildfire and the existing altered 
fire regime occurs throughout the bi-State DPS's range. We concluded in 
the proposed listing rule that significant impacts would be expected to 
continue or increase in the future based on a continued fire frequency 
pattern that exacerbates pinyon-juniper encroachment into sagebrush 
habitat in some locations, but also an increased fire frequency in 
other locations that promotes the spread of cheatgrass and other 
invasive species that in turn can hamper recovery of sagebrush habitat.
    Conservation efforts that address the impacts from the threat of 
wildfire and the existing altered fire regime have continued to be 
implemented since publication of the proposed listing rule, including 
(but not limited to): conducting conifer (pinyon-juniper) removal; and 
conducting weed treatments for invasive, nonnative plants such as cheat 
grass. With continued implementation of conservation actions associated 
with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire), impacts from wildfire are 
significantly reduced. See the Wildfires and Altered Fire Regime 
section of the Species

[[Page 22837]]

Report for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 84-91).
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects such as (but not limited to) wildfire ignition risks and 
catastrophic fire. Therefore, fuels reduction projects and 
rehabilitation efforts post-wildfire have been and will continue to be 
implemented into the future to address the potential impacts from 
wildfire. Because we have determined that the partially completed and 
future conservation efforts will be implemented and effective (see 
Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing 
Decisions (PECE) below), we conclude that wildfires and altered fire 
regime are no longer a significant impact into the future.

Infrastructure

    Infrastructure is described in the Species Report (Service 2015a, 
pp. 51-65) to include features that assist or are required for the 
pursuit of human-initiated development or an associated action. Five 
infrastructure features are impacting the bi-State DPS: three linear 
features (roads, power lines, and fences) and two site-specific 
features (landfills and communication towers). While there may be other 
features that could be characterized as infrastructure (such as 
railroads or pipelines), these are not present in the bi-State area, 
and we are unaware of any information suggesting they would impact the 
bi-State DPS in the future.
    In the bi-State area, linear infrastructure impacts each PMU both 
directly and indirectly to varying degrees. Existing roads, power 
lines, and fences degrade and potentially fragment sage-grouse habitat 
(such as Braun 1998, pp. 145, 146) (Factor A), and contribute to direct 
mortality through collisions (such as Patterson 1952, p. 81) (Factor 
E). In addition, roads, power lines, and fences deter the sage-grouse's 
use of otherwise suitable habitats adjacent to current active areas, 
and increase predators (by providing additional perches) and invasive 
plants (through increased traffic volume to facilitate spread of 
invasive plants) (such as Forman and Alexander 1998, pp. 207-231 and 
Connelly et al. 2000a, p. 974).
    Given current and future development (based on known energy 
resources), the Mount Grant, Desert Creek-Fales, Pine Nut, and South 
Mono PMUs are most likely to be impacted by new power lines and 
associated infrastructure. Wisdom et al. (2011, p. 463) reported that 
across the entire range of the greater sage-grouse, the mean distance 
to highways and transmission lines for extirpated populations was 
approximately 5 kilometers (km) (3.1 miles (mi)) or less. In the bi-
State area, 64 percent of annually occupied leks are within 5 km (3.1 
mi) of paved secondary highways, and 38 percent are within this 
distance to existing transmission lines (Service 2013b, unpublished 
data). Therefore, the apparent similarity between existing bi-State 
conditions and extirpated populations elsewhere suggests that 
persistence of substantial numbers of leks within the bi-State DPS 
would likely be negatively influenced by these anthropogenic features 
if it were not for the ongoing and planned implementation of measures 
included in the BSAP to reduce impacts of these features.
    The geographic extent, density, type, and frequency of linear 
infrastructure disturbance in the bi-State area have changed over time. 
While substantial new development of some of these features (e.g., 
highways) is unlikely, other infrastructure features may increase 
(unimproved roads, power lines, fencing, and communication towers), at 
least until such time as the BLM and USFS updated Land Use Plans are 
fully implemented. With the increase of OHV usage within the range of 
the bi-State DPS, the potential impact to the sage-grouse and its 
habitat caused by continued use of secondary or unimproved roads may 
become of greater importance as traffic volume increases rates of 
disturbance and the spread of nonnative invasive plants in areas that 
traditionally have been traveled relatively sporadically.
    Other types of non-road infrastructure (e.g., cellular towers and 
landfills) also appear to be adversely impacting the bi-State DPS. At 
least eight cellular tower locations are currently known to exist in 
occupied habitat (all PMUs) in the bi-State area. Wisdom et al. (2011, 
p. 463) determined that cellular towers likely contribute to population 
extirpation, and additional tower installations may occur in the near 
future as development continues. The landfill facility in Long Valley 
(within the South Mono PMU) may be influencing sage-grouse population 
demography in the area, as nest success is comparatively low and 
subsidized avian nest predator numbers are high (Kolada et al. 2009a, 
p. 1,344). This large population of sage-grouse (i.e., one of two core 
populations in the bi-State area) currently appears stable. Recovery 
following any potential future perturbations affecting other vital 
rates (i.e., brood survival and adult survival) could be limited by 
nesting success if offsetting conservation measures (such as the 
planned removal of the landfill in Long Valley) are not implemented.
    Overall, infrastructure occurs in various forms throughout the bi-
State DPS's range and has adversely impacted the DPS. We concluded in 
the proposed listing rule that infrastructure impacts (particularly 
fencing, power lines, and roads) were a significant factor for 
proposing to list the DPS as a threatened species. If left unchecked, 
these impacts would be expected to continue or increase in the future 
and result in habitat fragmentation; limitations for sage-grouse 
recovery actions due to an extensive road network, power lines, and 
fencing; and a variety of direct and indirect impacts, such as loss of 
individuals from collisions or structures that promote increased 
potential for predation. Collectively, these threats may result in 
perturbations that influence both demographic vital rates of sage-
grouse (e.g., reproductive success and adult sage-grouse survival) and 
habitat suitability in the bi-State area.
    Importantly, conservation efforts that address infrastructure 
impacts have continued to be implemented since publication of the 
proposed listing rule, including (but not limited to): removing power 
lines; implementing both permanent and seasonal road closures; removing 
racetrack fencing; and conducting initial procedures to remove the 
landfill in Long Valley. With continued implementation of conservation 
actions associated with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire), 
infrastructure-related impacts are significantly reduced. See the 
Infrastructure section of the Species Report for further discussion 
(Service 2015a, pp. 51-65).
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects such as (but not limited to) infrastructure. Because we have 
determined that the partially completed and future conservation efforts 
will be implemented and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of 
Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) below), we 
believe impacts associated with infrastructure may no longer be 
considered a significant impact into the future.

Grazing and Rangeland Management

    Livestock grazing continues to be the most widespread land use 
across the sagebrush biome (Knick et al. 2003, p. 616; Connelly et al. 
2004, p. 7-29; Knick et al. 2011, p. 219), including within the bi-
State area. However, links between grazing practices and population 
levels of sage-grouse are not well-studied (Braun 1987, p. 137; 
Connelly and Braun 1997, p. 231). Improperly managed domestic livestock

[[Page 22838]]

management has the potential to result in sage-grouse habitat 
degradation (Factor A). Grazing can adversely impact nesting and brood-
rearing habitat by decreasing vegetation used for concealment from 
predators (Factors A and C). If improperly managed, grazing also 
compacts soils; decreases herbaceous vegetation abundance; alters soil 
characteristics and increases soil erosion; and increases the 
probability of invasion of nonnative, invasive plant species (Factor 
A). Livestock management and associated infrastructure (such as water 
developments and fencing) can degrade important nesting and brood-
rearing habitat, reduce nesting success, and facilitate the spread of 
WNv (Factors A, C, and E). However, despite numerous documented 
negative impacts, some research suggests that, under specific 
conditions, grazing domestic livestock can benefit sage-grouse 
(Klebenow 1981, p. 121). Other research conducted in Nevada found that 
cattle grazing can be used to stimulate forbs important as sage-grouse 
food (Neel 1980, entire; Klebenow 1981, entire; Evans 1986, entire).
    Similar to domestic livestock, grazing and management of feral 
horses have the potential to negatively affect sage-grouse habitats by 
decreasing grass cover, fragmenting shrub canopies, altering soil 
characteristics, decreasing plant diversity, and increasing the 
abundance of invasive cheatgrass (Factor A). Native ungulates (mule 
deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra 
americana)) co-exist with sage-grouse in the bi-State area, but we are 
not aware of significant impacts from these species on sage-grouse 
populations or sage-grouse habitat. However, the impacts from different 
ungulate taxa may have an additive negative influence on sage-grouse 
habitats (Beever and Aldridge 2011, p. 286) if offsetting conservation 
measures are not implemented. Cattle, horses, mule deer, and pronghorn 
antelope each use the sagebrush ecosystem somewhat differently, and the 
combination of multiple ungulate species may produce a different result 
than a single species.
    There are localized areas of habitat degradation in the bi-State 
area attributable to past grazing practices that indirectly and, 
combined with other impacts, cumulatively affect sage-grouse habitat. 
In general, upland sagebrush communities in the Pine Nut and Mount 
Grant PMUs deviate from desired conditions for sage-grouse due to lack 
of understory plant species, while across the remainder of the PMUs 
localized areas of meadow degradation are apparent, and these 
conditions may influence sage-grouse populations through altering 
nesting and brood-rearing success. Currently, there is little direct 
evidence linking grazing effects and sage-grouse population responses. 
Analyses for grazing impacts at the landscape scales important to sage-
grouse are confounded by the fact that almost all sage-grouse habitat 
has at one time been grazed, and thus, no ungrazed control areas exist 
for comparisons (Knick et al. 2011, p. 232). Across the bi-State area, 
we anticipate rangeland management will continue into the future, and 
some aspects (such as feral horses) will remain difficult to manage. 
Currently, livestock management in the bi-State area meets desired BLM 
Rangeland Health Standards or their equivalent (i.e., the standards 
used by Federal agencies to assess habitat condition; BLM 2014b, in 
litt.). Remaining impacts caused by historical practices will linger as 
vegetation communities and disturbance regimes recover.
    Overall, impacts from past grazing and rangeland management occur 
within localized areas throughout the bi-State DPS's range (i.e., all 
PMUs, although impacts are more pronounced in some PMUs than others). 
We concluded in the proposed listing rule that grazing and rangeland 
management was a factor (albeit not significant) for proposing to list 
the DPS as a threatened species as a result of ongoing habitat 
degradation impacts that may affect sage-grouse habitat indirectly and 
cumulatively in the bi-State area, resulting in an overall reduction in 
aspects of habitat quality (e.g., fragmentation, lack of understory 
plants, increased presence of nonnative plant species), especially in 
the Pine Nut and Mount Grant PMUs.
    Importantly, conservation efforts that address the impacts from 
grazing and rangeland management have continued to be implemented since 
publication of the proposed listing rule, including (but not limited 
to): (1) Completing drafts and beginning to implement the new BLM and 
Forest Service Land Use Plan amendments (USDI and USDA 2015, entire), 
which are a considerable improvement for conservation of the bi-State 
DPS and its habitat; repairing watering facilities, irrigation 
structures, and fencing around natural riparian areas to control 
grazing activity; increasing monitoring and management of horse and 
burrow herds; and restoring meadow/riparian habitat in critical brood-
rearing habitat areas. With continued implementation of conservation 
actions associated with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire), impacts 
from grazing and rangeland management are significantly reduced. See 
the Grazing and Rangeland Management section of the Species Report for 
further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 71-78).
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects such as (but not limited to) livestock and wild horse grazing. 
Because we have determined that the partially completed and future 
conservation efforts will be implemented and effective (see Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) 
below), we believe impacts associated with grazing and rangeland 
management are no longer be a concern into the future.

Small Population Size and Population Structure

    Sage-grouse have low reproductive rates and high annual survival 
(Schroeder et al. 1999, pp. 11, 14; Connelly et al. 2000a, pp. 969-
970), resulting in slower potential or intrinsic population growth 
rates than is typical of other game birds. Also, as a consequence of 
their site fidelity to seasonal habitats (Lyon and Anderson 2003, p. 
489), measurable population effects may lag behind negative habitat 
impacts (Wiens and Rotenberry 1985, p. 666). Sage-grouse populations 
have been described as exhibiting multi-annual fluctuations, meaning 
that some mechanism or combination of mechanisms is causing populations 
to fluctuate through time
    The bi-State DPS comprises approximately 43 active leks 
representing 3 to 6 relatively discrete populations (see Species 
Information, above, and the Current Range/Distribution and Population 
Estimates/Annual Lek Counts section of the Species Report (Service 
2015a, pp. 17-31)). Fitness and population size, across a variety of 
taxa, are strongly correlated, and smaller populations are more 
challenged by stochastic environmental and demographic events (Keller 
and Waller 2002, pp. 239-240; Reed 2005, p. 566). When coupled with 
mortality stressors related to human activity (e.g., infrastructure, 
recreation) and significant fluctuations in annual population size, 
long-term persistence of small populations is uncertain (Traill et al. 
2010, entire). The Pine Nut PMU has the smallest number of sage-grouse 
of all bi-State area PMUs (usually fewer than 100 individuals, and 
ranging from less than 100 to 608 individuals as observed from data 
collected between 2004 and 2014 (Table 1, above), representing 
approximately 5 percent of the DPS). However, each population in

[[Page 22839]]

the bi-State DPS is relatively small and may be below the theoretical 
minimum threshold (as interpreted by sage-grouse experts and not 
statistically proven (Aldridge and Brigham 2003, p. 30; Garton et al. 
2011, pp. 310, 374)) for long-term persistence, as is the entire DPS on 
average (estimated 2,497 to 9,828 individuals). Nonetheless, the 
populations comprising the bi-State DPS have continued to persist 
despite relatively small numbers of birds and annual fluctuations.
    Overall, small population size and a discontinuous population 
structure occur throughout the bi-State DPS's range, which could make 
the bi-State DPS more susceptible to threats described herein both 
currently and likely in the future if offsetting conservation measures 
are not implemented. Some literature (i.e., Franklin and Frankham 1998, 
entire; Traill et al. 2010, entire) suggest that greater than 5,000 
individuals are required for any species' populations to have an 
acceptable degree of resilience in the face of environmental 
fluctuations and catastrophic events, and for the continuation of 
evolutionary processes. This conservation biology rule-of-thumb (that 
more than 5,000 individuals are required to provide ample resiliency) 
may be useful as a general guideline when assessing a species' 
resiliency, but should not be applied without consideration of a 
particular species' life history and specific population-level 
stressors to determine its status. In this context, conservation 
efforts addressing the threats acting upon these small populations have 
been implemented since publication of the proposed listing rule, 
including (but not limited to) restoring critical brood-rearing habitat 
areas and addressing invasive nonnative and native plants. Because we 
expect conservation implementation to continue under the BSAP (Bi-State 
TAC 2012a, entire), impacts affecting small populations are 
significantly reduced.
Resiliency, Redundancy, and Representation
    In this section, we synthesize the information above to evaluate 
resiliency, redundancy, and representation as they relate to the bi-
State DPS. Resiliency refers to the capacity of an ecosystem, 
population, or organism to recover quickly from disturbance by 
tolerating or adapting to changes or effects caused by a disturbance or 
a combination of disturbances. Redundancy, in this context, refers to 
the ability of a species to compensate for fluctuations in or loss of 
populations across the species' range such that the loss of a single 
population has little or no lasting effect on the structure and 
functioning of the species as a whole. Representation refers to the 
conservation of the diversity of a species, including genetic makeup.
    The degree of resiliency of a species is influenced by both the 
degree of genetic diversity across the species, and the number of 
individuals. Resiliency increases with increasing genetic diversity 
and/or a higher number of individuals; it decreases when the species 
has less genetic diversity and/or fewer individuals. In the case of the 
bi-State DPS resiliency may be lower to some degree because the total 
population size is relatively small (e.g., compared to the population 
size of many upland game birds), with some populations having low 
numbers or negative population trends. From a genetics standpoint, 
sage-grouse in the bi-State area contain a large number of unique 
genetic haplotypes not found elsewhere within the range of the species 
(Benedict et al. 2003, p. 306; Oyler-McCance et al. 2005, p. 1,300; 
Oyler-McCance and Quinn 2011, p. 92; Oyler-McCance et al. 2014, p. 5), 
and genetic diversity of the bi-State DPS does not appear to be low. 
The genetic diversity present in the bi-State area population is 
comparable to other populations of sage-grouse, suggesting that the 
differences are not due to a genetic bottleneck or founder event 
(Oyler-McCance and Quinn 2011, p. 91). These studies provide evidence 
of geographic isolation from the remainder of the species, as the 
present genetic uniqueness exhibited by bi-State area sage-grouse 
developed over thousands and perhaps tens of thousands of years, hence, 
prior to the Euro-American settlement (Benedict et al. 2003, p. 308; 
Oyler-McCance et al. 2005, p. 1,307).
    This information suggests that while resiliency of the bi-State DPS 
may be reduced to some degree as a result of relatively small total 
population size, the genetic diversity in the bi-State area improves 
the capacity of the DPS to recover from disturbance, or adapt to 
changes or effects caused by a disturbance or a combination of 
disturbances. Moreover, conservation actions already completed, 
underway, and planned for the future pursuant to the BSAP have reduced 
threats to the DPS now and into the future, and thus have reduced the 
likelihood of future significant disturbances to the bi-State DPS.
    Multiple, interacting populations across a broad geographic area 
provide insurance against the risk of extinction caused by catastrophic 
events (redundancy). Population redundancy currently exists across the 
bi-State DPS, but could be a concern into the future. The most recent 
genetic data analyses (Oyler-McCance et al. 2014; Tebbenkamp 2014) 
support our determination that there are between three and six 
populations (or groups of birds) in the bi-State area that largely 
operate demographically independent of each other. Long-term 
projections (30 years) suggest that the two core populations (Bodie 
Hills (Bodie PMU) and Long Valley (South Mono PMU)) have a relative 
high probability of maintaining long-term genetic and demographic 
viability (Garton et al. 2011, p. 310). However, the viability of the 
smaller populations, such as Pine Nut or Parker Meadows, is less 
certain (Lande 1988, pp. 1456-1457; Stephens et al. 1999, p. 186; 
Frankham et al. 2002, pp. 312-317; Coates et al. 2014, p. 15). If a 
population is permanently lost, the DPS' population redundancy would be 
lowered, thereby decreasing the DPS' chances of survival in the face of 
potential environmental, demographic, and genetic stochastic factors 
and catastrophic events (extreme drought, wildfire, disease, etc.). 
However, conservation measures included in the BSAP which are ongoing 
and planned for the future have reduced the level of threats faced by 
the population that make up the bi-State DPS and have thus decreased 
the probability that any of the smaller populations will be extirpated.
    The aggregate number of individuals across multiple populations 
increases the probability of demographic persistence and preservation 
of overall genetic diversity by providing an important genetic 
reservoir (representation). Representation across the bi-State DPS is 
moderate to high, with three to six genetically different groups across 
the bi-State area (Oyler-McCance et al. 2014; Tebbenkamp 2014). In 
general, genetic diversity in the bi-State area is comparable to the 
levels of genetic diversity found elsewhere across the greater sage-
grouse range (Oyler-McCance and Quinn 2011, p. 91). Among populations 
in the bi-State area genetic diversity varies with the lowest diversity 
apparent in the White Mountains (White Mountain PMU) and Parker Meadows 
(South Mono PMU) populations. We expect the risks associated with 
reduced genetic diversity to be moderated by the ongoing and continued 
restoration of habitat, which will improve connectivity and minimize 
habitat fragmentation, thereby potentially increasing gene flow and 
improving genetic diversity. There is some risk that one or more of the 
smaller, less secure

[[Page 22840]]

populations (e.g., Pine Nut, Fales, and Parker Meadows) could become 
extirpated in the future, but the moderate to high level of 
representation across the bi-State DPS, and ongoing and planned 
conservation actions in the BSAP reduces the likelihood of future 
extirpations.
    Small population size is not a threat to a species by itself. A 
species with a relatively small number of small populations may be a 
concern when there are significant threats to the species such that one 
or more populations could be permanently lost. The bi-State sage-grouse 
is comprised of a relatively few number of populations of various sizes 
but with most being considered small in size. By addressing the most 
significant stressors on the bi-State DPS, ongoing and planned 
implementation of the BSAP has ameliorated threats to this species to 
the point where our previous concerns about the DPS' resiliency, 
redundancy and representation have been significantly reduced. 
Therefore, we conclude loss of representation is not a significant 
threat to the bi-State DPS now or into the future.
Summary of Small Population Size and Population Structure
    Overall, small population size and a discontinuous population 
structure occur throughout the bi-State DPS's range. We concluded in 
the proposed listing rule that impacts associated with small population 
size are a concern both currently and likely in the future based on our 
understanding of the overall DPS population size and the apparent 
isolation among subpopulations contained within the DPS. Conservation 
efforts that address various impacts acting upon these small 
populations have continued to be implemented since publication of the 
proposed listing rule, including (but not limited to) restoring 
critical brood-rearing habitat areas and addressing invasive nonnative 
and native plants. With continued implementation of conservation 
actions associated with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire), impacts 
affecting small populations are significantly reduced. See the Small 
Population Size and Population Structure section of the Species Report 
for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 120-126).
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects including (but not limited to) small and isolated populations. 
Because we have determined that the partially completed and future 
conservation efforts will be implemented and effective (see Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) 
below), we believe impacts associated with small population size within 
the bi-State area may no longer be considered a significant impact into 
the future.

Urbanization and Habitat Conversion

    Historical and recent conversion of sagebrush habitat on private 
lands for agriculture, housing, and associated infrastructure (Factor 
A) within the bi-State area has negatively affected sage-grouse 
distribution and population extent in the bi-State DPS. These 
alterations to habitat have been most pronounced in the Pine Nut and 
Desert Creek-Fales PMUs and to a lesser extent the Bodie, Mount Grant, 
South Mono, and White Mountains PMUs. Although only 11 percent of 
suitable sage-grouse habitat occurs on private lands in the bi-State 
area, and only a subset of that could potentially be developed, 
conservation actions on adjacent public lands could be compromised due 
to the significant percentage (up to approximately 40 percent (Casazza 
et al. 2009, pp. 19, 27, 35; NDOW 2011, in litt.)) of late brood-
rearing habitat that occurs on the private lands. Sage-grouse display 
strong site-fidelity to traditional seasonal habitats and loss of 
specific sites (such as mesic meadow or spring habitats that frequently 
occur on potentially developable private lands in the bi-State area) 
can have pronounced population impacts (Connelly et al. 2000a, p. 970; 
Atamian et al. 2010, p. 1533). The influence of land development and 
habitat conversion on the population dynamics of sage-grouse is greater 
than a simple measure of spatial extent because of the indirect effects 
from the associated increases in human activity, as well as the 
disproportionate importance of some seasonal habitat areas, such as 
mesic areas for brood-rearing.
    Although not considered a significant threat at the time of the 
proposed rule nor currently, urbanization and habitat conversion is not 
universal across the bi-State area, but localized areas of impacts have 
been realized throughout the DPS's range, and additional future impacts 
would be expected if left unchecked. It is important to note that 
conservation efforts that address the impacts associated with 
urbanization and human disturbance have continued to be implemented 
since publication of the proposed listing rule, including (but not 
limited to): acquisition and permanent protection of critical sage-
grouse brood-rearing habitat, and implementing new sage-grouse policies 
in applicable Mono County plans and programs. With continued 
implementation of conservation actions associated with the BSAP (Bi-
State TAC 2012a, entire), impacts from urbanization and habitat 
conversion are significantly reduced. See the Urbanization and Habitat 
Conversion section of the Species Report for further discussion 
(Service 2015a, pp. 45-51).
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects such as (but not limited to) urbanization and human 
disturbance. Because we have determined that the partially completed 
and future conservation efforts will be implemented and effective (see 
Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing 
Decisions (PECE) below), we believe that urbanization and human 
disturbance is not a significant impact into the future.

Mining

    Surface and subsurface mining for mineral resources (gold, silver, 
aggregate, and others) results in direct loss of habitat when it occurs 
in sagebrush habitats (Factor A). The direct impact from surface mining 
is usually greater than it is from subsurface mining, and habitat loss 
from both types of mining can be exacerbated by the storage of 
overburden (soil removed to reach subsurface resource) in otherwise 
undisturbed habitat. Sage-grouse and nests with eggs could be directly 
affected by crushing or vehicle collision (Factor E). Sage-grouse also 
could be impacted indirectly from an increase in human presence, land 
use practices, ground shock, noise, dust, reduced air quality, 
degradation of water quality and quantity, and changes in vegetation 
and topography (Moore and Mills 1977, entire; Brown and Clayton 2004, 
p. 2) (Factor E). Although potential effects are many, information 
relating actual sage-grouse response to mineral developments is not 
extensive, and information available to us does not lead us to conclude 
that mining is a significant threat in the bi-State population area.
    Currently, operational surface and subsurface mining activities are 
not impacting the two largest (core) populations within the bi-State 
DPS. Areas in multiple PMUs are open to mineral development, and mining 
operations are currently active in the Mount Grant, Bodie, South Mono, 
and Pine Nut PMUs, including some occupied habitat areas. There is 
potential for additional mineral developments to occur in the bi-State 
area in the future based on known existing mineral resources and recent 
permit request inquiries with local land managers. We are aware of four 
active Plans of Operations for mining that

[[Page 22841]]

overlap bi-State DPS habitat and on the order of 20,000 active mine 
claims (USFS and BLM 2014, pp. 112-113; USDI and USDA 2015, pp. 117-
129). We note, however, that a mining claim does not equate to an 
actual mining proposal. While all six PMUs have the potential for 
mineral development, based on current land designations and past 
activity, the Pine Nut and Mount Grant PMUs are most likely to see new 
and additional activity.
    Overall, mining currently occurs in limited locations within four 
PMUs, including small-scale activities such as gold and silver 
exploration (Pine Nut, Bodie, and South Mono PMUs), and two open pit 
mines (Mount Grant PMU). Additionally, new proposals being considered 
for mining activity in the Pine Nut PMU could, if approved, impact the 
single active lek remaining in the north end of the Pine Nut PMU. In 
general, potential exists for mining operations to expand both 
currently and into the future, but the scope of impacts from these 
proposals and existing mining is not considered extensive. We concluded 
in the proposed listing rule, and reaffirm here, that by itself, mining 
is not considered a significant impact to the bi-State population. If 
left unchecked, impacts to sage-grouse and its habitat outside of the 
two largest (core) populations would be expected to continue or 
increase in the future. See the Mining section of the Species Report 
for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 65-68).
    Conservation efforts that address the impacts from mining have 
continued to be implemented since publication of the proposed listing 
rule, such as reducing human-related disturbances (e.g., road noise/
traffic). The BSAP includes conservation actions targeting development 
and human distrubances that will reduce the the minor or potential 
impacts from mining (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire). Because we have 
determined that the partially completed and future conservation efforts 
will be implemented and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of 
Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) below), we 
believe impacts associated with mining in the bi-State population area 
are not a concern into the future.

Renewable Energy Development

    Renewable energy facilities (including geothermal facilities, wind 
power facilities, and solar arrays) require structures such as power 
lines and roads for construction and operation, and avoidance of such 
features by sage-grouse (Factor E) and other prairie grouse is 
documented (Holloran 2005, p. 1; Pruett et al. 2009, p. 6; see 
discussions regarding roads and power lines in the Infrastructure 
section of the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 52-60)). Assuming no 
intervention or increased protections, renewable energy development and 
expansion could result in direct loss of habitat and indirect impacts 
affecting sage-grouse and their habitat (e.g., habitat degradation and 
population isolation) (Factor A).
    Minimal direct habitat loss has occurred in the bi-State DPS due to 
renewable energy development, specifically from the only operational 
geothermal facility in the bi-State area, which is within the South 
Mono PMU. However, the likelihood of additional renewable energy 
facility development, especially geothermal, in the bi-State area is 
high based on current Federal leases. Inquiries by energy developers 
(geothermal, wind) have increased in the past several years (Dublino 
2011, pers. comm.). There is strong political and public support for 
energy diversification in Nevada and California, and the energy 
industry considers the available resources in the bi-State area to 
warrant investment (Renewable Energy Transmission Access Advisory 
Committee 2007, p. 8). Based on our current assessment of development 
probability, the Mount Grant PMU and to a lesser degree the Desert 
Creek-Fales PMU are most likely to be negatively affected by renewable 
energy development. However, interest by developers of renewable energy 
changes rapidly, making it difficult to predict potential outcomes.
    Overall, renewable energy development has minimally impacted one 
location in the South Mono PMU to date, and could potentially result in 
impacts in other parts of the bi-State DPS's range in the future based 
on current leases. The best available data indicate that several 
locations in the bi-State area (Pine Nut and South Mono PMUs) have 
suitable wind resources based on recent leasing and inquiries by 
facility developers (although no active leases currently occur), and it 
appears the Mount Grant PMU and to a lesser degree the Desert Creek-
Fales PMU are likely to be most negatively affected. We are uncertain 
of the probability of future inquires or development of wind energy in 
the bi-State area. We concluded in the proposed listing rule, and 
reaffirm here, that by itself, renewable energy development is not 
considered a significant impact at this time.
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects to the bi-State DPS; although renewable energy development is 
not specifically addressed in the BSAP, as minimal habitat loss due to 
renewable energy projects has occurred historically (Service 2015a, pp. 
68-71). The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire), contains conservation 
efforts that would address potential impacts from renewable energy if a 
project were to be proposed, such as reducing human-related 
disturbances (e.g., road noise/traffic). With continued implementation 
of conservation actions associated with the BSAP, the potential impacts 
from renewable enegery are minimized. See the Renewable Enegy section 
of the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 68-
71). Further, the Bi-State TAC and LAWG (which includes Service 
participation) are examining all potential impacts to the bi-State DPS 
and its habitat, as demonstrated through the agencies implementation of 
an Adaptive Management Strategy (Bi-State EOC 2014, in litt.) and the 
CPT. Because we have determined that the partially completed and future 
conservation efforts will be implemented and effective (see Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) 
below), we believe impacts associated with renewable energy development 
may no longer be a concern into the future.

Disease

    Sage-grouse are hosts for a variety of parasites and diseases 
(Factor C) including macroparasitic arthropods, helminths (worms), and 
microparasites (protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and fungi) (Thorne et al. 
1982, p. 338; Connelly et al. 2004, pp. 10-4 to 10-7; Christiansen and 
Tate 2011, p. 114), which can have varying effects on populations. 
Connelly et al. (2004, p. 10-6) note that, while parasitic 
relationships may be important to the long-term ecology of sage-grouse, 
they have not been shown to be significant to the immediate population 
status across the range of the DPS. However, Connelly et al. (2004, p. 
10-3) and Christiansen and Tate (2011, p. 126) suggest that diseases 
and parasites may limit isolated sage-grouse populations as they 
interact with other demographic parameters such as reproductive success 
and immigration, and thus, the effects of diseases require additional 
study.
    Viruses (such as coronavirus and WNv) are serious diseases that are 
known to cause death in grouse species, potentially influencing 
population dynamics (Petersen 2004, p. 46) (Factor C). Efficacy and 
transmission of WNv in sagebrush habitats is primarily regulated by 
environmental factors including temperature, precipitation, and 
anthropogenic water sources, such as

[[Page 22842]]

stock ponds and coal-bed methane ponds that support mosquito vectors 
(Reisen et al. 2006, p. 309; Walker and Naugle 2011, pp. 131-132). WNv 
can be a threat to some sage-grouse populations, and its occurrence and 
impacts are likely underestimated due to lack of monitoring. The impact 
of this disease in the bi-State DPS is likely currently limited by 
ambient temperatures that do not allow consistent vector and virus 
maturation. As noted in the proposed listing rule, predicted 
temperature increases associated with climate change may result in this 
threat becoming more consistently prevalent. We have no indication that 
other diseases or parasites are impacting the bi-State DPS.
    Overall, multiple diseases have the potential to occur in the bi-
State area, although WNv appears to be the only identified disease that 
warrants concern for sage-grouse in the bi-State area. We concluded in 
the proposed listing rule, and reaffirm here, that by itself, WNv is 
not considered a significant impact at this time because it is 
currently limited by ambient temperatures that do not allow consistent 
vector and virus maturation. However, WNv could be a concern for the 
future if predicted temperature increases associated with climate 
change result in this threat becoming more consistently prevalent. With 
continued implementation of conservation actions (WNv surveillance and 
mosquito abatement measures) associated with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 
2012a, entire), the minor or potential impacts from WNv are reduced to 
the point that we find disease is not a significant threat to the bi-
State DPS.

Predation

    Predation of sage-grouse is the most commonly identified cause of 
direct mortality during all life stages (Schroeder et al. 1999, p. 9; 
Connelly et al. 2000b, p. 228; Casazza et al. 2009, p. 45; Connelly et 
al. 2011, p. 65) (Factor C). However, sage-grouse have co-evolved with 
a variety of predators, and their cryptic plumage and behavioral 
adaptations have allowed them to persist (Schroeder et al. 1999, p. 10; 
Coates 2007, p. 69; Coates and Delehanty 2008, p. 635; Hagen 2011, p. 
96). Within the bi-State DPS, predation facilitated by habitat 
fragmentation (fences, power lines, and roads) and other human 
activities may be altering natural population dynamics in specific 
areas of the bi-State DPS. Data suggest certain populations are 
exhibiting deviations in vital rates below those anticipated (Koloda et 
al. 2009, p. 1344; Sedinger et al. 2011. p. 324). For example, within 
the Long Valley population of the South Mono PMU, known nest predators 
associated with a county landfill may be the cause of the reportedly 
low nesting success. In addition, low adult survival estimates for the 
Desert Creek-Fales PMU suggest predators may be influencing population 
growth there. However, we generally consider habitat alteration as the 
root cause of these results; teasing apart the interaction between 
predation rate and habitat condition is difficult.
    Overall, predation is currently known to occur throughout the bi-
State DPS's range. It is facilitated by habitat fragmentation (fences, 
power lines, and roads) and other human activities that may be altering 
natural population dynamics in specific areas throughout the bi-State 
DPS's range. We concluded in the proposed listing rule, and reaffirm 
here, that by itself, predation is not considered a significant impact 
at this time. Conservation efforts that address the impacts from 
predation have continued to be implemented since publication of the 
proposed listing rule, including (but not limited to): removing 
structures that attract predators (e.g., fencing, power lines), and 
conducting initial procedures to remove the landfill in Long Valley. 
With continued implementation of conservation actions associated with 
the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire), impacts from predation are 
significantly reduced. See the predation discussion under the Disease 
or Predation section of the Species Report for further discussion 
(Service 2015a, pp. 114-120).
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects such as (but not limited to) the extent of predation risks to 
the bi-State DPS. Because we have determined that the partially 
completed and future conservation efforts will be implemented and 
effective (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When 
Making Listing Decisions (PECE) below), we believe that the risk of 
predation is not a concern into the future.

Climate

    Climate change projections in the Great Basin suggest a hotter and 
stable-to-declining level of precipitation and a shift in precipitation 
events to the summer months; fire frequency is expected to accelerate; 
fires may become larger and more severe; and fire seasons will be 
longer (Brown et al. 2004, pp. 382-383; Neilson et al. 2005, p. 150; 
Chambers and Pellant 2008, p. 31; Global Climate Change Impacts in the 
United States 2009, p. 83). With these projections, drought (which is a 
natural part of the sagebrush ecosystem) is likely to be exacerbated. 
Drought reduces vegetation cover (Milton et al. 1994, p. 75; Connelly 
et al. 2004, p. 7-18), potentially resulting in increased soil erosion 
and subsequent reduced soil depths, decreased water infiltration, and 
reduced water storage capacity (Factor A). Drought can also exacerbate 
other natural events such as defoliation of sagebrush by insects 
(Factor A). These habitat component losses can result in declining 
sage-grouse populations due to increased nest predation and early brood 
mortality (Factor E) associated with decreased nest cover and food 
availability (Braun 1998, p. 149; Moynahan et al. 2007, p. 1781).
    In the bi-State area, drought is a natural part of the sagebrush 
ecosystem, and available information does not indicate that drought has 
influenced long-term population dynamics of sage-grouse under 
historical conditions. There are known occasions, however, where 
reduced brood-rearing habitat conditions due to drought have resulted 
in little to no recruitment within certain PMUs (Bodie and Pine Nut 
PMUs (Gardner 2009, pers. comm.)). If these conditions were to persist 
longer than the typical adult life-span, drought could have significant 
ramifications on population persistence. Further, drought impacts on 
the sage-grouse may be exacerbated when combined with other habitat 
impacts that reduce cover and food (Braun 1998, p. 148).
    Based on the best available scientific and commercial information, 
the threat of climate change is not known to currently impact the bi-
State DPS to such a degree that the viability of the DPS is at stake. A 
recent analysis conducted by NatureServe, which incorporates much of 
the information presented above, suggests a substantial contraction of 
both sagebrush and sage-grouse range in the bi-State area by 2060 
(Comer et al. 2012, pp. 142, 145). Specifically (for example), this 
analysis suggests the current extent of suitable shrub habitat will 
decrease because of a less suitable climate condition for sagebrush and 
may improve suitability for woodland and drier vegetation communities, 
which are not favorable to the bi-State DPS. The NatureServe 
predictions notwithstanding, while it is reasonable to assume the bi-
State area will experience vegetation changes into the future, we do 
not know with a reasonable degree of certainty the nature of these 
changes or ultimately the effect this will have on the bi-State DPS.
    It is possible that changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, 
temperature, precipitation, and timing of snowmelt could act 
synergistically

[[Page 22843]]

with other threats (such as wildfire and nonnative, invasive plant 
species) to produce yet unknown but likely negative effects to sage-
grouse populations in the bi-State area. The overall impact of climate 
change to the bi-State DPS in the future could be moderate if existing 
threats (such as wildfire, and nonnative, invasive plant species) 
continue unabated, and climate changes exacerbate those threats.
    By itself, climate change is not considered a significant impact at 
this time. We concluded in the proposed listing rule that climate 
change will potentially act in combination with other impacts to the 
bi-State DPS, further diminishing habitat (Factor A) and increasing 
isolation of populations (Factor E), making them more susceptible to 
demographic and genetic challenges or disease. Since the publication of 
the proposed rule, ongoing implementation of various conservation 
measures in the BSAP has reduced the significance of the threat of 
wildfire and invasive plants (e.g., through removal of pinyon-juniper 
woodland). Continued implementation of the BSAP further reduces the 
impacts of these threats to the bi-State sage-grouse. Therefore, even 
should climate change increase the threat of wildfire and invasive 
plants to some degree, we no longer conclude that climate change acting 
in concert with these other threats constitutes a significant threat to 
the bi-State DPS. See the Climate section of the Species Report for 
further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 91-99).

Recreation

    Non-consumptive recreational activities (such as fishing, hiking, 
horseback riding, and camping as well as more recently popularized 
activities, such as OHV use and mountain biking) occur throughout the 
range of the greater sage-grouse, including throughout the bi-State DPS 
area. These activities can degrade wildlife resources, water, and land 
by distributing refuse, disturbing and displacing wildlife, increasing 
animal mortality, and simplifying plant communities (Boyle and Samson 
1985, pp. 110-112) (Factor E). For example, disruption of sage-grouse 
during vulnerable periods at leks, or during nesting or early brood-
rearing, could affect reproduction and survival (Baydack and Hein 1987, 
pp. 537-538). In addition, indirect effects to sage-grouse from 
recreational activities include impacts to vegetation and soils, and 
the facilitation of the spread of invasive species (Factor A). Impacts 
caused by recreational activities may be affecting sage-grouse 
populations in the bi-State area, and there are known localized habitat 
impacts.
    Overall, recreation occurs throughout the bi-State DPS's range, 
although we do not have data that would indicate impacts to sage-grouse 
or their habitat are significant. We concluded in the proposed listing 
rule and reaffirm here that by itself, recreation is not considered a 
significant impact at this time. However, if left unchecked, some forms 
of recreation could become a concern based on anticipated increases of 
recreational use within the bi-State area in the future. Populations of 
sage-grouse in the South Mono PMU are exposed to the greatest degree of 
pedestrian recreational activity, although they appear relatively 
stable at present. Conservation efforts that address recreational 
impacts have continued to be implemented since publication of the 
proposed listing rule, including (but not limited to): reducing human-
related disturbances in high-use recreation areas (e.g., installing 
sage-grouse educational signs), conducting seasonal closures of lek 
viewing areas, and implementing both permanent and seasonal road 
closures. With continued implementation of conservation actions 
associated with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire), impacts from 
recreation are significantly reduced. See the Recreation section of the 
Species Report for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 102-106).
    The BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) was designed to counter 
effects such as (but not limited to) human disturbance to the bi-State 
DPS, including recreation-related impacts. Because we have determined 
that the partially completed and future conservation efforts will be 
implemented and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation 
Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) below), we believe impacts 
associated with recreation are no longer a concern into the future.

Overutilization Impacts

    Potential overutilization impacts include recreational hunting 
(Factor B). Sage-grouse have not been commercially harvested in the bi-
State area since the 1930s, and they are not expected to be 
commercially harvested in the future. Limited recreational hunting, 
based on the concept of compensatory mortality, was allowed across most 
of the DPS's range with the increase of sage-grouse populations by the 
1950s (Patterson 1952, p. 242; Autenrieth 1981, p. 11). In recent 
years, hunting as a form of compensatory mortality for upland game 
birds (which includes sage-grouse) has been questioned (Connelly et al. 
2005, pp. 660, 663; Reese and Connelly 2011, p. 111).
    Recreational hunting is currently limited in the bi-State DPS and 
within generally accepted harvest guidelines. In the Nevada portion of 
the bi-State area, NDOW regulates hunting of sage-grouse. Most hunting 
of sage-grouse in the Nevada portion of the bi-State area is closed. 
NDOW closed the shotgun and archery seasons for sage-grouse in 1997, 
and the falconry season in 2003 (NDOW 2012, in litt., p. 4). Hunting of 
sage-grouse may occur on tribal allotments located in the Pine Nut PMU 
where the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California has authority. There 
are anecdotal reports of harvest by tribal members, but currently the 
Washoe Tribe Hunting and Fishing Commission does not issue harvest 
permits for greater sage-grouse (Warpeha 2009, pers. comm.). In the 
California portion of the bi-State area, CDFW regulates hunting of 
sage-grouse. Hunting historically occurred and continues to occur in 
the Long Valley (South Mono PMU) and Bodie Hills (Bodie PMU) areas 
(known as the South Mono and North Mono Hunt Units, respectively). As a 
result of work by Gibson (1998, entire) and documented population 
declines in the bi-State DPS, CDFW has significantly reduced the number 
of permits issued (Gardner 2008, pers. comm.).
    As stated in the proposed listing rule and reaffirmed here, it is 
unlikely that the scope and severity of hunting impacts would act in an 
additive manner to natural mortality of the bi-State DPS across its 
range due to the conservative approach that the State agencies employ 
in the single location (Long Valley) where hunting is permitted 
(specifically, harvest levels are below 5 to 10 percent of the fall 
population). In the bi-State area, hunting is limited to such a degree 
that it is not apparently restrictive to overall population growth 
currently nor expected to become so in the future (CDFW 2012, in 
litt.). Furthermore, we are unaware of any information to indicate that 
poaching significantly impacts bi-State sage-grouse populations.
    Overall, sport hunting is currently limited and within generally 
accepted harvest guidelines. We concluded in the proposed listing rule 
and reaffirm here that it is unlikely that hunting will ever again 
reach levels that would act in an additive manner to mortality. In the 
bi-State area, hunting is limited to such a degree that it is not 
apparently restrictive to overall population growth. Furthermore, we 
are unaware of any information indicating that overutilization is 
significantly

[[Page 22844]]

impacting sage-grouse populations in the bi-State area. Given the 
current level and location of harvest, and expected continued 
management into the future, we find the impact this factor has on 
population persistence is negligible. See the Overutilization Impacts 
section of the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2015a, 
pp. 99-105).

Scientific and Educational Uses

    Mortality and behavioral impacts to sage-grouse may occur as a 
result of scientific research activities (Factor B). Sage-grouse in the 
bi-State area have been subject to several scientific research efforts 
over the past decade involving capture, handling, and subsequent 
banding or radio-marking. Much remains unknown about the impacts of 
research on sage-grouse population dynamics. However, the available 
information indicates that very few individuals are disturbed or die as 
a result of handling and marking. Therefore, we concluded in the 
proposed listing rule and reaffirm here that the potential impacts 
associated with scientific and educational uses are considered 
negligible to the bi-State DPS at this time and are expected to remain 
so into the future. See the Scientific and Educational Uses section of 
the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 105-108).

Pesticides and Herbicides

    Although few studies have examined the effects of pesticides to 
sage-grouse, direct mortality of sage-grouse as a result of pesticide 
applications (such as insecticides and pesticides applied via cropland 
spraying) has been documented (Blus et al. 1989, p. 1142; Blus and 
Connelly 1998, p. 23) (Factor E). In addition, herbicide applications 
can kill sagebrush and forbs important as food sources for sage-grouse 
(Carr 1968, as cited in Call and Maser 1985, p. 14) (Factor E). 
Although pesticides and herbicides can result in direct and indirect 
mortality of individual sage-grouse, we are unaware of information that 
would indicate that the current usage or residue from past applications 
in the bi-State area are having negative impacts on populations, nor do 
we have information that indicates levels of use will increase in the 
future. Therefore, we concluded in the proposed listing rule and 
reaffirm here that the potential impacts associated with pesticide and 
herbicide use are considered negligible to the bi-State DPS at this 
time, and are expected to remain so into the future. See the Pesticides 
and Herbicides section of the Species Report for further discussion 
(Service 2015a, pp. 126-128).

Contaminants

    Sage-grouse exposure to various types of environmental contaminants 
(concentrated salts, petroleum products, or other industrial chemicals) 
may occur as a result of agricultural and rangeland management 
practices, mining, energy development and pipeline operations, and 
transportation of hazardous materials along highways and railroads. In 
the bi-State area, exposure to contaminants associated with mining is 
the most likely to occur (see Mining, above). Exposure to contaminated 
water in wastewater pits or evaporation ponds could cause mortalities 
or an increased incidence of sage-grouse disease (morbidity) (Factor 
E). Within the bi-State DPS, sage-grouse exposure to potential 
contaminants is currently limited and most likely associated with a few 
existing mining operations in the Pine Nut and Mount Grant PMUs. Future 
impacts from contaminants (if present) would most likely occur in these 
same PMUs due to their potential for future mineral development; 
however, at this time we are unaware of information to indicate that 
contaminants are a problem currently or in the future. Therefore, we 
concluded in the proposed listing rule and reaffirm here that the 
potential impacts associated with contaminants are considered 
negligible to the bi-State DPS at this time, and are expected to remain 
so into the future. See the Contaminants section of the Species Report 
for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 128-129).

Synergistic Impacts

    Many of the impacts described here and in the accompanying Species 
Report may cumulatively or synergistically affect the bi-State DPS 
beyond the scope of each individual stressor. For example, the future 
loss of additional significant sagebrush habitat due to wildfire in the 
bi-State DPS is could occur because of the synergistic interactions 
among fire, people and infrastructure, invasive species, and climate 
change. Predation may also increase as a result of the increase in 
human disturbance and development. Conservation efforts that address 
the most significant threats to the bi-State DPS have continued to be 
implemented since publication of the proposed listing rule, including 
(but not limited to): removal of pinyon-juniper woodlands; reducing 
human-related disturbances in high-use recreation areas (e.g., 
installing sage-grouse educational signs); weed treatments for 
nonnative, invasive species; removing power lines; fencing around 
riparian areas to minimize grazing impacts; and implementing both 
permanent and seasonal road closures. With continued implementation of 
conservation actions associated with the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, 
entire), impacts from threats to bi-State sage-grouse and their 
habitats are significantly reduced. Therefore, possible cumulative and/
or synergistic effects of the various threats are also significantly 
reduced.
    In summary, we have determined that the threats potentially causing 
the most significant impacts on the bi-State DPS currently and in the 
future are urbanization and habitat conversion (Factor A); 
infrastructure (Factors A and E); grazing (Factors A, C, and E); the 
increase of nonnative, invasive and native plants (e.g., cheatgrass, 
pinyon-juniper encroachment) (Factors A and E); wildfires and altered 
fire regime (Factors A and E); and small population size and population 
structure (Factor E). Other threats impacting the DPS across its range 
currently and in the future, but to a lesser degree than those listed 
above, include renewable energy development and associated 
infrastructure (Factors A and E); climate change, including drought 
(Factors A and E); recreation (Factors A and E); and disease and 
predation (Factor B). Numerous threats may be acting synergistically 
and cumulatively to further contribute to the challenges faced by 
several bi-State DPS populations now and into the future. Since the 
publication of the proposed listing rule, implementation of many 
conservation measures included in the BSAP that target the most 
significant threats to the bi-State DPS have reduced significantly the 
severity of threats--individually, cumulatively, and synergistically.

Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

    Bi-State sage-grouse conservation has been addressed in some local, 
State, and Federal plans, laws, regulations, and policies. An 
examination of regulatory mechanisms (Factor D) for both the bi-State 
DPS and sagebrush habitats in general reveals that some mechanisms 
exist that either provide or have the potential to provide a 
conservation benefit to the bi-State DPS, such as (but not limited to): 
Various county or city regulations outlined in general plans; Nevada 
State Executive Order, dated September 26, 2008; Federal Land Policy 
and Management Act of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.), which requires 
development of resource management plans for BLM lands; the National 
Forest Management Act (16 U.S.C. 1600 et

[[Page 22845]]

seq.), which requires Land and Resource Management Plans (LRMPs) for 
USFS lands; and the Sikes Act Improvement Act of 1997 (16 U.S.C. 670a 
et seq.), which requires integrated natural resources management plans 
for military installations (see Existing Regulatory Mechanisms section 
of the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 129-142)). However, 
supporting documents for some of these regulations are many years old 
and have not been updated, calling into question their consistency with 
our current understanding of the DPS's life-history requirements, and 
the DPS's conservation needs. In addition, the conservation actions 
that have been implemented to date according to the existing regulatory 
mechanisms vary across the bi-State area, although managing agencies 
are beginning to work more collaboratively across jurisdictional 
boundaries. The degree to which these existing regulatory mechanisms 
conserve the DPS is largely dependent on current and future 
implementation, which can vary depending on factors such as the 
availability of staff and funding.
    Regulations in some counties identify the need for natural resource 
conservation and attempt to minimize impacts of development through 
zoning restrictions, but to our knowledge these regulations neither 
preclude development nor do they provide for monitoring of the loss of 
sage-grouse habitats. Similarly, State laws and regulations are general 
in nature and provide flexibility in implementation, and do not provide 
specific direction to State wildlife agencies, although they can 
occasionally afford regulatory authority over habitat preservation 
(e.g., creation of habitat easements and land acquisitions).
    The bi-State area is largely composed of federally managed lands. 
Historically, land use plans, as they pertain to sage-grouse, have been 
general in nature and afforded relatively broad latitude to land 
managers. The BLM (Carson City and Tonopah Field Offices) and USFS 
(Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest) issued a Final Environmental Impact 
Statement in February, 2015 to support their respective proposed RMP 
and LRMP amendments. These proposed amendments include improved 
management direction that provide a conservation benefit for the bi-
State DPS and its habitat (USDI and USDA 2015, entire). The proposed 
amendments identify goals for desired habitat condition at both the 
site and landscape scale. These goals and the specific direction needed 
to achieve them (e.g., grazing allotment management plans) direct 
management focus and funding to address specific habitat threats 
affecting the bi-State DPS (i.e., an increase in nonnative, invasive 
and native plants; wildfire and altered wildfire regime; and rangeland 
management) by improving habitat condition through increasing the 
resilience and resistance of the native sagebrush ecosystem. The 
proposed amendments also provide clear direction to managers faced with 
decisions on discretionary actions, such as infrastructure development 
projects, to consider the needs of sage-grouse in the decision making 
process. The proposed amendments restrict the development of 
anthropogenic features in bi-State DPS habitat and thereby the 
potential risk these features can exert on sage-grouse in the future. 
We would like to further note that land use plan revisions are called 
for in the BSAP to improve regulatory effectiveness and consistency for 
discretionary agency actions affecting the bi-State DPS. The proposed 
amendments will make the plan language consistent with the BSAP goals, 
further reinforcing the commitments by the agencies to implement the 
plans, however we do not rely on the draft plans when analyzing the 
BSAP. See the discussion about the proposed Land Use Plan amendments in 
the detailed PECE analysis available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov (Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072).
    In our proposed rule, we stated that the existing regulatory 
mechanisms (Factor D) were not considered adequate to remove the 
threats such that listing under the Act would not be necessary. 
However, since that proposal, we have fully evaluated the BSAP and 
determined that it ameolirates threats to the species, lessening the 
need for regulatory mechanisms to manage stressors. The currently 
proposed BLM and Forest Service Land Use Plan amendments will provide 
more specificity and certainty with regard to the conservation of the 
bi-State DPS and its habitat. We mention the draft plans in this 
document to recognize that the BLM and the USFS have taken steps to 
draft such plans, which will make their language consistent with the 
actions being undertaken in the BSAP. However, we are not relying on 
them as part of this review because they are not finalized and would 
require speculation on the Service's part as to the final outcomes of 
the plans. Since we have determined that the ongoing and future 
conservation efforts under the BSAP are removing the threats to the bi-
State DPS as discussed above, we find that the currently existing 
regulatory mechanisms are adequate.

Ongoing and Future Conservation Efforts

    Below we summarize the current plan that provides conservation 
benefit to the bi-State DPS, i.e., the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, 
entire). We describe the significant conservation efforts that are 
already occurring and those that are expected to occur in the future. 
For future conservation efforts (i.e., projects that have been 
initiated but are not yet complete or have not yet been shown to be 
effective or projects that are proposed for the future), we present an 
analysis pursuant to our Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts 
When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) (68 FR 15100; March 28, 2003).
    Prior to the bi-State DPS becoming a candidate species in 2010, a 
variety of conservation initiatives were put in place to conserve the 
DPS and its habitat. The most significant initiative was the creation 
of the Nevada Governor's Sage Grouse Conservation Team in June 2002 
who, in cooperation with local stakeholders (i.e., the Bi-State Local 
Area Working Group (LAWG)), developed the first edition of the Greater 
Sage Grouse Conservation Plan for the bi-State area in 2004 (Bi-State 
Local Planning Group 2004, entire) to begin a cooperative effort to 
address threats to the bi-State DPS and its habitat. The 2004 Action 
Plan served as the foundation for the conservation of the bi-State DPS 
and its habitat. These efforts were later enhanced by both local- and 
national-level conservation strategies for sage-grouse conservation 
(including in the Bi-State area) associated with organizations 
including the Sage Grouse Initiative, and the Bi-State LAWG, the latter 
of which is specifically focused on bi-State DPS conservation.
    In December 2011, the Bi-State Executive Oversight Committee (EOC) 
was formed (as recommended at that time by Ken Mayer (NDOW) and Raul 
Moralez (BLM)) to leverage collective resources and assemble the best 
technical support to achieve long-term conservation of the bi-State DPS 
and its habitat. The EOC comprises resource agency representatives from 
the Service, BLM, USFS, Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), 
USGS, NDOW, and CDFW. Recognizing that conservation efforts were 
already underway by this point in time, the EOC directed a bi-State 
TAC, comprising technical experts/members from each agency, to 
summarize the conservation actions completed since 2004, and to develop 
a comprehensive set of strategies, objectives, and actions that would 
be effective for the long-term

[[Page 22846]]

conservation of the bi-State DPS and its habitat. These strategies, 
objectives, and actions comprise the 2012 BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, 
entire), which is actively being implemented by the signatory agencies 
identified above, as well as Mono County, who is committed to 
implementing all relevant actions within the county (which harbors the 
two core populations of the bi-State DPS). Numerous conservation 
efforts outlined in the BSAP have already been implemented (see the 
proposed listing rule (78 FR 64358) and sections 2.2 and 2.3 of the 
Action Plan (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 4-13)). Additional conservation 
actions have been implemented since the plan was signed between 2012 
and the present. For a comprehensive discussion of past and ongoing 
management efforts implemented according to the BSAP, see the Past and 
Ongoing Management Efforts discussion in the Species Report (Service 
2015a, pp. 36-43), and available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov (Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072).
    Despite the positive accomplishments of various entities 
implementing the 2012 BSAP, the proposed rule (78 FR 64358; October 28, 
2013) described several threats that were identified as interacting 
synergistically on the bi-State DPS and its habitat and resulting in 
increasingly fragmented habitat for this long-lived habitat specialist, 
specifically: urbanization and habitat conversion (Factor A); 
infrastructure (Factors A and E); mining (Factors A and E); renewable 
energy development and associated infrastructure (Factors A and E); 
grazing (Factors A, C, and E); the increase of nonnative, invasive and 
native plants (e.g., cheatgrass, pinyon-juniper encroachment) (Factors 
A and E); wildfires and altered fire regime (Factors A and E); and 
small population size and population structure (Factor E). Other 
threats described in the proposed listing rule that impact the DPS 
across its range to a lesser degree than those listed above included: 
climate change, including drought (Factors A and E); recreation 
(Factors A and E); and disease and predation (Factor B) (78 FR 64358). 
Synergistic, cumulative impacts identified in the proposed rule 
primarily involved: (1) Woodland encroachment; (2) existing and 
potential near-term impacts of cheatgrass and wildfire that will likely 
escalate further with climate change; and (3) impacts from 
infrastructure, urbanization, and recreation on already fragmented 
habitat and small populations (78 FR 64358).
    Based on information provided in the proposed rule and discussions 
with the EOC, TAC, and LAWG, signatory agencies provided a package of 
information examining their commitments, including staffing and 
funding, to implement the actions needed for conservation of the bi-
State DPS and its habitat, as outlined in the BSAP. They also provided 
an updated prioritization of various conservation actions and site-
specific locations in which to implement such actions, as needed, based 
on utilization of the CPT (i.e., linked, data-driven predictive models 
and interactive maps that identify and rank areas for management 
actions and provide a basis to evaluate those actions) and the BSAP's 
Adaptive Management Strategy (Bi-State EOC 2014, in litt.). The agency 
commitment letters (which were one component of the information 
provided by the EOC, i.e. BLM 2014c, in litt.; CDFW 2014b, in litt.; 
Mono County 2014, in litt.; NDOW 2014b, in litt.; USDA 2014, in litt.; 
and USGS 2014c, in litt.) outlined many partially completed or new 
conservation actions that will be implemented and completed to address 
the threats that were identified in our October 28, 2013, proposed rule 
(78 FR 64538).
    The EOC evaluated the [then current] bi-State DPS survey and trend 
information and concluded that their unified and collaborative approach 
addresses the conservation needs of the bi-State DPS (Bi-State EOC 
2014, in litt.). Additionally, the EOC concluded that each partner 
agency is committed to implementing the BSAP and providing the 
necessary resources to do so regardless of the outcome of the Service's 
listing decision (Bi-State EOC 2014, in litt.).
    The information provided by the EOC indicates significant 
conservation efforts are currently being implemented and further 
actions are proposed for implementation in the future. These combined 
actions address the threats that (synergistically) are resulting in the 
most severe impacts on the DPS and its habitat now and into the future. 
These conservation actions are described in our detailed PECE analysis 
that is available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov (Docket 
No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072) and summarized below.

Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing 
Decisions (PECE)

    The purpose of PECE (68 FR 15100; March 28, 2003) is to ensure 
consistent and adequate evaluation of recently formalized conservation 
efforts when making listing decisions. The policy provides guidance on 
how to evaluate conservation efforts that have not yet been implemented 
or have not yet demonstrated effectiveness. The evaluation focuses on 
the certainty that the conservation efforts will be implemented and the 
effectiveness of the conservation efforts to contribute to make listing 
a species unnecessary. The policy presents nine criteria for evaluating 
the certainty of implementation and six criteria for evaluating the 
certainty of effectiveness for conservation efforts. These criteria are 
not considered comprehensive evaluation criteria. The certainty of 
implementation and the effectiveness of a formalized conservation 
effort may also depend on species-specific, habitat-specific, location-
specific, and effort-specific factors. We consider all appropriate 
factors in evaluating formalized conservation efforts. The specific 
circumstances will also determine the amount of information necessary 
to satisfy these criteria.
    To consider that a formalized conservation effort contributes to 
forming a basis for not listing a species, or listing a species as 
threatened rather than endangered, we must find that the conservation 
effort is sufficiently certain to be (1) implemented, and (2) 
effective, so as to have contributed to the elimination or adequate 
reduction of one or more threats to the species identified through 
section 4(a)(1) analysis under the Act. The elimination or adequate 
reduction of section 4(a)(1) threats may lead to a determination that 
the species does not meet the definition of threatened or endangered, 
or is threatened rather than endangered.
    An agreement or plan may contain numerous conservation efforts, not 
all of which are sufficiently certain to be implemented and effective. 
Those conservation efforts that are not sufficiently certain to be 
implemented and effective cannot contribute to a determination that 
listing is unnecessary, or a determination to list as threatened rather 
than endangered. Regardless of the adoption of a conservation agreement 
or plan, however, if the best available scientific and commercial data 
indicate that the species meets the definition of ``endangered 
species'' or ``threatened species'' on the day of the listing decision, 
then we must proceed with appropriate rulemaking activity under section 
4 of the Act. Further, it is important to note that a conservation plan 
is not required to have absolute certainty of implementation and 
effectiveness in order to contribute to a listing determination. 
Rather, we need to be reasonably certain that the conservation efforts 
will be implemented and effective such that the

[[Page 22847]]

threats to the species are reduced or eliminated.
    Using the criteria in PECE (68 FR 15100, March 28, 2003), we 
evaluated the certainty of implementation (for those measures not 
already implemented) and effectiveness of conservation measures in the 
BSAP. Below is a summary of our full PECE analysis, which can be found 
at http://www.regulations.gov (Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072).
    We have determined that the conservation efforts in the BSAP meet 
the PECE criteria with regard to certainty of implementation because of 
(but not limited to): (1) The agency commitments of staffing and 
significant funding (i.e., over $45 million over the next 10 years); 
and (2) continued participation on the Bi-State EOC, TAC, and LAWG to 
ensure the most important conservation efforts are occurring at any 
given time considering ongoing research and monitoring that may 
influence changes in management strategies, as outlined in the BSAP's 
Science-based Adaptive Management Plan and through use of the CPT. 
Additionally, we have certainty of implementation by the various 
agencies for conservation efforts that address many different impacts. 
In particular, we have certainty of implementation for those 
conservation efforts expected to provide the most significant 
conservation value to the bi-State DPS and its habitat, including 
actions (as outlined in the agencies 2014 commitment letters and work 
plans, and the comprehensive project database (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in 
litt.) that:
    (1) Protect and restore critical brood-rearing habitat (reduces 
impacts from development/habitat conversion, grazing and rangeland 
management, and effects resulting from climate change). Lead agencies 
under the BSAP implementing conservation actions to reduce these 
impacts are NRCS (e.g., conservation easements, riparian/meadow 
restoration), USFS (e.g., private-public land exchanges, riparian/
meadow restoration or improvement, grazing management, wild horse 
management), BLM (e.g., riparian/meadow restoration, meadow irrigation 
and structure repair, racetrack fence removal, wild horse management), 
and Mono County (e.g., fencing modification).
    (2) Restore habitat impacted by the spread of invasive, nonnative 
plants and pinyon-juniper encroachment (reduces impacts from nonnative, 
invasive and certain native plants, wildfire, predation, and effects 
resulting from climate change). Lead agencies under the BSAP 
implementing conservation actions to reduce these impacts are NRCS 
(e.g., pinyon-juniper removal), USFS (e.g., pinyon-juniper removal, 
riparian/meadow restoration, invasive weed treatments), BLM (e.g., 
pinyon-juniper removal, riparian/meadow restoration, invasive weed 
treatments, wildfire fuel break treatments, fencing removal), and Mono 
County (e.g., closure and relocation of the Long Valley landfill, 
predator deterrents and reduction of attractants).
    (3) Ensure stable or increasing sage-grouse populations and 
structure, etc., to (a) Prioritize management actions related to 
synergistic impacts on already fragmented habitat, such that management 
efforts occur in locations that benefit the DPS the most (reducing 
impacts such as infrastructure, urbanization, and recreation), and (b) 
develop and implement sage-grouse translocation from stable 
subpopulations to other small subpopulations that may be experiencing a 
high risk of extirpation (reduces impacts from small population size 
and population structure). Lead agencies under the BSAP implementing 
conservation actions to reduce these impacts are USGS, NDOW, and CDFW 
(e.g., conducting telemetry, research, or monitoring surveys that 
inform the CPT of adjustments to the BSAP conservation strategy that 
provide the greatest benefit to the DPS or its habitat (see section 6.5 
in the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 75-76); implementing translocation 
programs from stable subpopulations to subpopulations that may be at 
high risk of extinction), BLM (e.g., permanent and seasonal road 
closures, nesting habitat seasonal closures, fencing removal or 
marking), USFS (e.g., permanent and seasonal road closures, power line 
removal), and Mono County (coordinate with private landowners to 
encourage reduced infrastructure).
    We also note that BLM, USFS, NRCS, and Mono County have provided 
specific plans and timetables laying out various conservation efforts 
for implementation over the next 10 years (BLM 2014c, in litt.; Mono 
County 2014, in litt.; USDA 2014, in litt.), while CDFW, NDOW, and USGS 
have provided textual descriptions of their intended actions and 
contributions over the next 10 years (CDFW 2014b, in litt.; NDOW 2014b, 
in litt.; USGS 2014c, in litt.). Additionally, the collaboration 
between the Service, BLM, USFS, NRCS, Mono County, USGS, NDOW, and CDFW 
requires regular meetings and involvement from the parties, whether at 
the level of the Bi-State EOC, TAC, or LAWG, in order to implement the 
BSAP fully.
    We are confident that the conservation efforts (as outlined in the 
BSAP, Agency commitment letters, and our detailed PECE analysis (all of 
which are available at http://www.regulations.gov (Docket No. FWS-R8-
ES-2013-0072)), as well as the TAC comprehensive project database) will 
continue to be implemented because (to date) we have a documented track 
record of active participation and implementation by the signatory 
agencies, and commitments to continue implementation into the future. 
Conservation measures, such as (but not limited to) pinyon-juniper 
removal, establishment of conservation easements for critical brood-
rearing habitat, cheatgrass removal, permanent and seasonal closure of 
roads near leks, removal and marking of fencing, and restoration of 
riparian/meadow habitat have been occurring over the past decade, are 
currently occurring, and have been prioritized and placed on the 
agency's implementation schedules for future implementation. Agencies 
have committed to remain participants and continue conservation of the 
DPS and its habitat. The BSAP has sufficient methods (i.e., science 
advisors, the CPT, and a Science-based Adaptive Management Strategy) 
for determining the type and location of the most beneficial 
conservation actions to be implemented, including continued receipt of 
new population and threats information in the future that will guide 
conservation efforts.
    We have determined that the conservation efforts in the BSAP meet 
the PECE criteria with regard to certainty of effectiveness to remove 
or reduce threats facing the bi-State DPS because of, but not limited 
to, past project effectiveness within the bi-State area or within 
sagebrush habitat areas across the range of the greater sage-grouse, 
and documented effective methodologies for addressing the threats 
identified as impacting the bi-State DPS. For example (Bi-State EOC 
2014, in litt.; Espinosa 2014, in litt.):
    (1) Development and Habitat Conversion--Conservation efforts to 
reduce development and habitat conversion are anticipated to occur in 
critical brood-rearing habitats across five PMUs, including through 
conservation easements and land exchanges (see detailed PECE analysis, 
Section 3.0). These areas include high-priority targets identified in 
the BSAP, and are consistent with the Conservation Objectives Team 
(COT) Report's ex-urban conservation objective to limit urban and 
exurban development in sage-grouse habitats (Service 2013c, p. 50). 
These actions are considered

[[Page 22848]]

effective at reducing impacts from development and habitat conversion 
because conserving and managing lands in perpetuity are the most 
successful tools for permanent protection of critical sage-grouse 
habitat (as demonstrated by Pocewicz et al. (2011) in Wyoming).
    (2) Invasive Nonnative and Native Plants--Because both invasive 
plants and particularly native plants (pinyon-juniper encroachment) 
displace the sagebrush ecosystem that the bi-State DPS relies on, 
significant conservation efforts are being and will continue to be 
implemented to address these problems. With regard to invasive, 
nonnative plants, the Bi-State EOC and TAC recognize that effective 
control programs can be labor intensive and costly; however, the Bi-
State EOC and TAC believes there is value for the bi-State DPS in being 
strategic in implementing the conservation efforts that potentially 
reduce the impact these plants have on the DPS's habitat (e.g., 
treating nonnative, invasive plants in strategic areas to potentially 
reduce the likelihood of an outbreak or improve a priority habitat 
area) (Espinosa 2014, in litt.). Six BLM and USFS projects are either 
partially completed or planned for the future that target invasive, 
nonnative plants on more than 257 ha (634 ac) in the Desert Creek-
Fales, Mount Grant, and Pine Nut PMUs, the latter two of which 
cheatgrass is considered a moderate and high threat, respectively, 
compared to other PMUs. The USFS will control at least 40.5 ha (100 ac) 
of cheatgrass each year over the next 10 years in the Pine Nut PMU 
(USDA 2014, in litt.). Finally, adjustments to grazing and upland 
habitats, when necessary, can reduce the risk of cheatgrass dominance 
on a site.
    With regard to pinyon-juniper encroachment, ecologists have 
developed clear and effective recommendations to target appropriate 
phases of encroachment (i.e., specific age and density structure) to 
ensure restoration occurs in sagebrush and sage-grouse habitat areas 
that are most meaningful (e.g., critical brood-rearing habitat, 
corridors in fragmented areas) (e.g., Bates et al. 2011, pp. 476-479; 
Davies et al. 2011, pp. 2577-2578). Accordingly, BLM, USFS, and NRCS 
are strategically targeting phase I and II pinyon-juniper encroachment 
in the bi-State area, which is supported by literature as effective 
with careful planning and execution (e.g., Bates et al. 2011, pp. 476-
479; Davies et al. 2011, pp. 2577-2578). At this time, approximately 
82,284 ha (203,329 ac) across all PMUs are identified by the Bi-State 
TAC to be examined and treated for pinyon-juniper encroachment (Bi-
State TAC 2014a, in litt.).
    (3) Infrastructure--Conservation efforts to reduce infrastructure 
are focused on roads, power lines, fencing, and a landfill. Permanent 
road closures over a minimum of 1,339 km (832 mi) in the Bodie, Desert 
Creek-Fales, Mount Grant, and Pine Nut PMUs and seasonal road closures 
over approximately 1,429 km (888 mi) in the South Mono PMU will reduce 
the likelihood of mortality and improve vital rates for sage-grouse 
near leks, including nesting and brood-rearing areas (Bi-State TAC 
2014a, in litt.). Power line and fencing removal projects will occur at 
three sites in the Bodie or South Mono PMUs, in addition to three 
projects that will mark and modify fencing in the Pine Nut or South 
Mono PMUs (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.). A landfill in the Long Valley 
area of the South Mono PMU is a significant source of predators for one 
of the two core populations of the bi-State DPS; Mono County is 
currently undergoing the initial stages of closing and relocating this 
landfill (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.; Mono County 2014, in litt.).
    Removing or modifying the types of infrastructure described above 
will be effective at reducing the amount of invasive plants present 
along or around developed areas (Manier et al. 2014, pp. 167-170), 
reducing existing habitat fragmentation and potential vectors for 
invasive plants (Gelbard and Belnap 2003, pp. 424-431); removing some 
edge effects that can lead to avoidance of nesting in suitable habitat 
areas (Aldridge and Boyce 2007, pp. 516-523); reducing or removing 
anthropogenic noise that disturbs normal behavior patterns of sage-
grouse (Blickley 2013, pp. 54-65); reducing collision-related 
mortalities (associated specifically with fencing) (Stevens et al. 
2012, pp. 299-302); and making currently undesirable habitat areas 
(that attract predators) favorable by sage-grouse as nest and brood 
sites by reducing predator attractants (e.g., power lines, landfill) 
(Dinkins et al. 2012, pp. 605-608).
    (4) Wildfire--Fires have consumed some important habitat areas 
within the range of the bi-State DPS, primarily within the Pine Nut 
PMU, but also recently as a result of the Spring Peak fire within the 
Bodie and Mount Grant PMUs (Espinosa 2014, in litt.). Site restoration 
activities are planned to be implemented following wildfires by 
utilizing the CPT to identify sites that are the best candidates for 
enhancing or returning sagebrush habitats to conditions that benefit 
sage-grouse (Espinosa 2014, in litt.). Restoration efforts will be 
tracked for success, noting that some actions (e.g., seeding) vary in 
success rate, given variables such as elevation, precipitation, and 
site-conditions prior to a fire (Espinosa 2014, in litt.). Recovery of 
functional sagebrush habitats following wildfire and restoration 
actions can take decades (potentially several sage-grouse generations) 
to be realized, and requires monitoring to assure conservation 
objectives are met (such as ensuring appropriate levels of sagebrush 
and native herbs are established, and reducing nonnative plant 
dominance) (Arkle et al. 2014, p. 17). Additionally, the Bi-State TAC 
currently utilizes the CPT and field reconnaissance to maximize the 
likelihood of enhancing the desired sagebrush community composition 
post-fuels reduction treatment activities (Espinosa 2014, in litt.). 
See the discussion above regarding ``Nonnative, Invasive and Native 
Plants'' for activities currently occurring or planned for the future 
to help reduce the existing fuel loads that promote wildfires.
    (5) Small Population Size and Population Structure--The BSAP 
specifically identifies a strategy (MER7) to address small population 
size issues in the bi-State area, by identifying potential sage-grouse 
population augmentation and reintroduction sites, developing 
translocation guidelines, and potentially implementing augmentation and 
reintroduction efforts (Bi-State TAC 2012a, p. 93). Specific actions 
include developing contingency plans for the Parker Meadows and Gaspipe 
Spring subpopulations in the South Mono PMU, and populations in the 
Pine Nut PMU; and evaluating the need for augmentation for the Fales 
population of the Desert Creek-Fales PMU, the Powel Mountain area of 
the Mount Grant PMU, the McBride Flat/Sagehen Spring area in the Truman 
Meadows portion of the White Mountains PMU, and Coyote Flat of the 
South Mono PMU.
    Prior to conducting translocation efforts, the Bi-State TAC and 
LAWG must concentrate significant efforts in conducting lek counts and 
surveys, and developing a standardized sage-grouse monitoring program 
throughout the bi-State area (CDFW 2014b, in litt.). These initial 
activities do not directly reduce any threats, although they are 
important to ensure effectiveness of many conservation efforts, 
particularly translocation efforts. Currently, CDFW is developing a 
plan to translocate sage-grouse from stable subpopulations in the bi-
State area to the Parker Meadows subpopulation (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in 
litt.; CDFW 2014b, in litt.). Efforts on

[[Page 22849]]

this current action are directly relevant to future conservation 
efforts for other unstable subpopulations. It is reasonable to assume 
future translocations in the bi-State area have a high likelihood of 
effectiveness given careful consideration to all the variables 
(including translocation that would occur concurrent with other threat 
reduction activities, such as predator control), and published 
literature that indicates success of translocated sage-grouse when 
successful translocation methodology is followed (Musil et al. 1993, 
pp. 89-90; Reese and Connelly 1997, pp. 239-240; Hennefer 2007, pp. 33-
37; Baxter et al. 2008, pp. 184-185).
    We will have an ongoing role in monitoring the implementation and 
effectiveness of the partially completed and future conservation 
efforts given our regular participation with the Bi-State EOC, TAC, and 
LAWG, participation in providing updated versions of the BSAP, and by 
reviewing any monitoring and research reports. We are satisfied that 
the conservation efforts evaluated will be effective in reducing 
threats to the bi-State DPS and its habitat; however, in order to do so 
they do not need to be applied on every acre of suitable and unsuitable 
sage-grouse habitat. For instance, not all of the native pinyon-juniper 
vegetation needs to be removed, such as in areas within the range of 
the bi-State DPS where pinyon-juniper historically occurred. Rather the 
effort needs, and is expected, to be implemented in areas that are most 
likely to support sage-grouse (post-removal) and critical areas that 
address habitat fragmentation or reduced-connectivity issues. These 
efforts need to occur at a rate that significantly reduces further 
habitat losses, which is consistent with the objective to address 
pinyon-juniper expansion provided in the March 22, 2013, COT Report for 
conservation of the greater sage-grouse (Service 2013c, pp. 47-48), 
including the bi-State DPS.
    We have determined that the agencies resource commitments (e.g., 
staffing and funding, including more than $45 million over the next 10 
years), and a demonstrated record of implementation will ensure 
continued conservation of habitat for the bi-State DPS. The BSAP has 
sufficient monitoring and reporting requirements to ensure that the 
proposed future conservation measures are implemented as planned, and 
are effective at removing threats to the DPS and its habitat. The 
collaboration between the Service, BLM, USFS, NRCS, Mono County, USGS, 
and the States of Nevada and California requires regular team meetings 
(Bi-State EOC, TAC, and EOC), and continued involvement of all parties 
will occur (Bi-State EOC 2014, in litt.) in order to implement the BSAP 
fully. We find that the future conservation efforts in the BSAP meet 
the PECE criteria for certainty of implementation and effectiveness, 
and can be considered as part of the basis for our final listing 
determination for the bi-State DPS.
    In conclusion, we find that the conservation efforts in the BSAP, 
and as outlined in the agencies' June 2014 commitment letters, meet the 
PECE criteria with regard to certainty of implementation (for those 
measures not already implemented) and effectiveness and can be 
considered as part of the basis for our final listing determination for 
the bi-State DPS. Our full analysis of the 2012 BSAP, and additional 
materials submitted to the Service as mentioned above, pursuant to PECE 
can be found at http://www.regulations.gov (Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-
0072).

Determination

    As required by the Act, we considered the five factors listed in 
section 4(a)(1)(b) of the Act in assessing whether the bi-State DPS of 
greater sage-grouse meets the definition of a threatened or endangered 
species. We examined the best scientific and commercial information 
available regarding the past, present, and foreseeable future threats 
faced by the DPS. For the purposes of this determination, we consider 
foreseeable future to be 30 years based on the probability of 
population persistence analyzed and described by Garton et al. (2011, 
entire), and based on the time horizons for which the various threats 
can be reliably projected into the future (as described under the 
various threats analysis discussions in the Species Report (Service 
2015a, pp. 45-142)).
    Based on our review of the best available scientific and commercial 
information, we find that the current threats are not of sufficient 
imminence, intensity, or magnitude to indicate that the bi-State DPS is 
in danger of extinction (endangered). In our proposed listing rule we 
determined that the bi-State DPS is likely to become endangered within 
the foreseeable future (threatened). However, after consideration of 
new information regarding partially completed and ongoing conservation 
measures and planned future conservation efforts that we conclude will 
be implemented and effective (as described in our detailed PECE 
analysis available at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-
0072), we now conclude that the bi-State DPS is not likely to become 
endangered within the foreseeable future (threatened), throughout all 
or a significant portion of its range (see Significant Portion of the 
Range, below). Therefore, the bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse does 
not meet the definition of a threatened or endangered species, and we 
are withdrawing the proposed rule to list the DPS as a threatened 
species. Our rationale for this finding is outlined below.
    The best available information indicates that the current overall 
sage-grouse population trend across the DPS is stable, and likely to 
improve based on the implementation and effectiveness of ongoing and 
future conservation actions associated with the BSAP. The likelihood of 
persistence of viable populations of both core PMUs (according to 
species experts) is considered high for the two largest (core) 
populations that comprise greater than 67 percent of all strutting 
males (Service 2015a, Table 1; CDFW 2014a, unpublished data; NDOW 
2014a, unpublished data). Additionally, all populations or 
subpopulations across the six PMUs have persisted as viable populations 
in their current distribution in spite of many stressors.
    Ongoing and future conservation efforts are likely to increase 
habitat quantity, quality, and connectivity. This will likely increase 
the number of sage-grouse and resilience of the bi-State DPS overall. 
These efforts to stop and reverse habitat loss and fragmentation will 
make small populations of bi-State sage-grouse less susceptible to the 
effects of habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. These efforts 
will expand the amount of protected habitat in critical brood-rearing 
habitat areas as well as restore currently unsuitable habitat in areas 
utilized for dispersal and colonization. These measures are expected to 
increase resilience to possible future random, stochastic events or 
impacts. Further, the DPS's current distribution encompasses and is 
representative of the genetic diversity known to exist across the range 
of the DPS. As such, the sage-grouse within this DPS: (1) Are widely 
distributed such that the DPS as a whole is well-protected from 
stochastic events, and (2) the DPS spans the known genetic diversity 
such that the populations are not in danger of a genetic bottleneck. We 
expect the DPS to continue to remain viable throughout its current 
overall distribution. We also expect that ongoing and planned 
conservation efforts will improve habitat quality and quantity and 
allow the populations to expand. Thus, we conclude that the bi-State 
DPS will have sufficient resiliency, redundancy, and

[[Page 22850]]

representation such that it does not meet the definition of a 
threatened or endangered species under the Act.
    Since publication of our proposed listing rule (78 FR 64358; 
October 28, 2014), new information (e.g., survey data, habitat 
conditions, trends analysis, and Bi-State EOC commitments) has become 
available and additional conservation efforts have been implemented to 
help further our understanding of the DPS's abundance, habitat trends, 
and overall status across its range. New information received has 
resulted in:
    (1) Corrections or clarifications of miscellaneous life-history 
information (see Species Information above and the Biological 
Information section of the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 7-33)).
    (2) A more accurate assessment of suitable habitat throughout the 
bi-State area (see Service 2015a, p. 18).
    (3) A more accurate assessment of population trends in the bi-State 
area (see Species Information above and Current Range/Distribution and 
Population Estimates/Annual Lek Counts section of the Species Report 
(Service 2015a, pp. 17-31)).
    Without the conservation measures being implemented now and planned 
for the future as described in the BSAP, the stressors that rise to a 
level of being a threat as identified in the proposed rule to the bi-
State DPS would remain at a level that would warrant listing of the DPS 
as a threatened species. However, based primarily on information 
received from the action agencies implementing the BSAP, including 
commitments of funding and other resources, we are able to utilize the 
PECE policy to evaluate conservation actions that are either 
implemented and not yet shown to be effective and those proposed for 
the future.
    As outlined in the Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts 
When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section above, we evaluated the 
certainty of implementation and effectiveness of the BSAP's ongoing and 
future conservation efforts pertaining to the bi-State DPS. We have 
determined that the agencies implementing this plan (i.e., the BLM, 
USFS, NRCS, USGS, Mono County, NDOW, and CDFW) are committed to and 
will continue conservation efforts into the future to benefit the bi-
State DPS and its habitat. The BSAP also has sufficient monitoring and 
reporting requirements to ensure that the proposed future conservation 
measures are implemented as planned, and are effective at reducing or 
ameliorating stressors such that they are no longer a threat to the DPS 
and its habitat. As a result, we find that the future conservation 
efforts in the BSAP meet the PECE criteria for certainty of 
implementation and effectiveness, and can be considered as part of the 
basis for our final listing determination for the bi-State DPS.
    Since the time of our proposed listing, the BSAP signatory 
agencies, in cooperation with the Bi-State EOC, TAC, and LAWG, have 
made significant efforts to develop and refine (through adaptive 
management and utilization of the CPT) work plans for the next 10 years 
to implement conservation efforts targeted at the most important 
current and future conservation needs within the DPS (BLM 2014c, in 
litt.; CDFW 2014b, in litt.; Espinosa 2014, in litt.; Mono County 2014, 
in litt.; NDOW 2014b, in litt.; USDA 2014, in litt.; USGS 2014c, in 
litt.). These conservation efforts are focused on:
    (1) Protecting and restoring critical brood-rearing habitat 
(reduces impacts from development/habitat conversion, grazing and 
rangeland management, and effects resulting from climate change).
    (2) Restoring habitat impacted by nonnative, invasive species 
(e.g., cheatgrass) and pinyon-juniper encroachment (reduces impacts 
from nonnative, invasive and certain native plants, wildfire, 
predation, and effects resulting from climate change).
    (3) Improving our understanding of sage-grouse populations, 
structure, etc., to: (a) Prioritize management actions related to 
synergistic impacts on already fragmented habitat (reduced impacts such 
as infrastructure, urbanization, and recreation), such that management 
efforts occur in locations that benefit the DPS the most; and (b) 
develop and implement sage-grouse translocations from stable 
subpopulations to other small subpopulations that may be experiencing a 
high risk of extirpation (reduces impacts from small population size 
and population structure).
    We find that by concentrating BSAP conservation efforts on the 
threats that are cumulatively and synergistically having the greatest 
impact on the bi-State DPS and its habitat, these efforts have reduced 
impacts, and will continue to reduce the magnitude of impacts in the 
foreseeable future such that the DPS no longer meets the definition of 
a threatened or endangered species. Some of the conservation efforts 
that will be implemented to address these most significant concerns 
include (but are not limited to):
    (1) Establishing conservation easements, private-public land 
exchanges, or land acquisitions within the Pine Nut, Bodie, Desert 
Creek-Fales, Mt. Grant, and South Mono PMUs, including a minimum of 
approximately 3,875 ha (9,576 ac) of conservation easements containing 
critical sage-grouse brood-rearing habitat, and a minimum of 
approximately 1,325 ha (3,274 ac) of private-public land exchanges (Bi-
State TAC 2014a, in litt.; CDFW 2014b, in litt.; Mono County 2014, in 
litt.; USDA 2014, in litt.).
    (2) Evaluating 82,284 (ha) (203,329 ac) of habitat throughout all 
six PMUs for potential treatment to reduce pinyon-juniper encroachment 
(Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.). This is being accomplished by using the 
CPT, thereby concentrating habitat restoration efforts in areas 
throughout the DPS's range that would be most beneficial to the DPS and 
most effective on-the-ground (e.g., avoiding areas that birds are not 
likely to utilize, focusing on areas that reduce habitat fragmentation 
in corridor areas). These conservation efforts not only address 
encroachment of pinyon-juniper (and loss of sagebrush habitat), but 
they also reduce predation impacts (i.e., removal of predator perches) 
and wildfire impacts associated with fuels accumulation (given that 
infrequent fires facilitate conifer encroachment and too frequent fires 
promote invasive, nonnative annual grasses).
    (3) Implementing new grazing standards on all allotments that 
address grazing and wild horse management issues (BLM 2014c, in litt.; 
USDA 2014, in litt.; Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.). Conservation 
efforts include (but are not limited to) improving water facilities, 
restoring meadow habitat, and improving fence conditions across 
multiple PMUs.
    (4) Identifying and implementing sage-grouse population 
augmentation and reintroduction sites, developing translocation 
guidelines, and potentially implementing augmentation and 
reintroduction efforts (Bi-State TAC 2012a, p. 93). Specific actions 
include developing contingency plans for the Parker Meadows and Gaspipe 
Spring subpopulations in the South Mono PMU, and populations in the 
Pine Nut PMU; and evaluating the need for augmentation for the Fales 
population of the Desert Creek-Fales PMU, the Powel Mountain area of 
the Mount Grant PMU, the McBride Flat/Sagehen Spring area in the Truman 
Meadows portion of the White Mountains PMU, and Coyote Flat of the 
South Mono PMU. At this time, efforts are specifically under way and 
focused on developing a translocation plan for the Parker Meadows 
subpopulation (CDFG 2014, in litt.; Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.).

[[Page 22851]]

    Additional details on partially completed projects and future 
conservation efforts are outlined in the Agency's June 2014 commitment 
letters and workplans (BLM 2014c, in litt.; CDFW 2014b, in litt.; Mono 
County 2014, in litt.; NDOW 2014b, in litt.; USDA 2014, in litt.; USGS 
2014c, in litt.), the Bi-State TAC comprehensive project database (Bi-
State TAC 2014a, in litt.), and our detailed PECE analysis, all of 
which are available at http://www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-
ES-2013-0072.
    Of greatest significance and note (since publication of the 
proposed listing rule), the BSAP recognized 79 projects and the need 
for $38 million over a 10-year period to address immediate conservation 
needs of the bi-State DPS and its habitat (Bi-State TAC 2014b, in 
litt.). At this time, all of those projects are either being 
implemented (currently underway) or will be implemented in the future. 
A total of $45 million has been pledged by the agencies with a high 
level of certainty of both implementation and effectiveness, which 
exceeds the $38 million estimated/called for by the BSAP.
    Overall, the partially completed and future conservation efforts 
(i.e., those identified in the 10-year work plans and utilized in the 
Bi-State TAC's comprehensive project database (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in 
litt.)) have been designed to address current and expected future 
synergistic impacts. Although the majority of the conservation efforts 
will address the most significant impacts synergistically impacting the 
DPS (i.e., woodland encroachment, infrastructure, urbanization, 
recreation, and existing and potential near-term impacts of cheatgrass 
and wildfire that may potentially escalate climate change in the 
future), some of the partially completed and future conservation 
efforts are addressing less significant (overall) impacts (e.g., WNv 
surveillance and mosquito abatement (disease), human disturbance to 
leks associated with existing renewable energy and geothermal sites). 
Examples of how the partially completed and future conservation actions 
will continue to reduce threats include:
    (1) Permanent protection (primarily through NRCS efforts) of sage-
grouse habitat within the Pine Nut, Bodie, Desert Creek-Fales, Mt. 
Grant, and South Mono PMUs, including at least approximately 3,875 ha 
(9,576 ac) of conservation easements containing critical sage-grouse 
brood-rearing habitat, and at least approximately 1,325 ha (3,274 ac) 
of private-public land exchanges (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.). These 
conservation measures reduce the threat of losing this important 
habitat to urbanization and development, and any associated 
infrastructure (Factor A).
    (2) Reduction of grazing impacts by BLM and USFS, such as repairing 
watering sites in the Bodie PMU, maintaining or restoring riparian/
meadow sites impacted by grazing animals across multiple PMUs, and 
removing racetrack fencing or marking/modifying fencing (Bi-State TAC 
2014a, in litt.). These conservation measures reduce the threats of 
grazing-related impacts, including (but not limited to) reduced sage-
brush habitat quality, reduced nesting and reproductive success, and 
reduced food availability (Factor A). Conservation efforts focused on 
water development can also reduce facilitating the spread of WNv 
(Factor C).
    (3) Reduction of pinyon-juniper encroachment by BLM, USFS, and 
NRCS, including current evaluation of approximately 82,284 ha (203,329 
ac) of Phase I or II areas (using the CPT) across all PMUs for 
prioritizing treatment areas (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.). These 
conservation measures reduce the threat of habitat loss and 
fragmentation (Factor A), facilitated woodland encroachment (Factor A), 
and predation risks (Factor C).
    (4) Implementation of six BLM and USFS projects that target 
invasive, nonnative plants on more than 257 ha (634 ac) in the Desert 
Creek-Fales, Mount Grant, and Pine Nut PMUs, the latter two of which 
cheatgrass is considered a moderate and high threat, respectively, 
compared to other PMUs. Additionally, the USFS will control at least 
40.5 ha (100 ac) of cheatgrass each year over the next 10 years in the 
Pine Nut PMU (USDA 2014, in litt.). Adjustments to grazing in upland 
habitats, when necessary, are also likely to reduce the risk of 
cheatgrass dominance on sites. These conservation measures reduce the 
threat of habitat loss and fragmentation, and potentially the increased 
frequency of wildfires associated with cheatgrass and other invasives 
that can hamper recovery of sagebrush habitat (Factor A).
    (5) Removal of a landfill in the Long Valley area of the South Mono 
PMU, which is a significant source of predators for one of the two core 
populations of the bi-State DPS. Mono County is currently undergoing 
the initial stages of relocating this landfill (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in 
litt.; Mono County 2014, in litt.). This conservation measure reduces 
the threat of predation (Factor C).
    (6) Permanent BLM and USFS road closures over a minimum of 1,339 km 
(832 mi) in the Bodie, Desert Creek-Fales, Mount Grant, and Pine Nut 
PMUs, and seasonal road closures over approximately 1,429 km (888 mi) 
in the South Mono PMU, which will reduce the likelihood of mortality 
and improve vital rates for sage-grouse near leks, including nesting 
and brood-rearing areas (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.). These 
conservation measures reduce the threats of predation (Factor C) and 
loss of individuals associated with collisions (Factor E).
    Please see our PECE analysis (section 3.0) for a detailed 
discussion of the nature and extent of threats addressed by the BSAP, 
which is available on the Internet at www.regulations.gov (Docket No. 
FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072).
    An important aspect of the BSAP for reducing threats to the bi-
State DPS and its habitat is the development and implementation of a 
Science-Based Adaptive Management Plan that includes the CPT, which: 
(1) Includes data-driven predictive models and interactive maps that 
identify and rank areas that necessitate management action; and (2) 
provides a basis to evaluate those actions, all of which are focused on 
areas that are most meaningful for the bi-State DPS populations. The 
CPT is currently being used to inform which actions are most beneficial 
and in the best targeted locations (thus linking the outcome of 
management actions to the response of sage-grouse populations).
    In summary, we conclude that the BSAP conservation efforts have 
sufficient certainty of implementation and effectiveness that they can 
be relied upon in this final listing determination. Further, we 
conclude that the BSAP reduces or eliminates current and future threats 
to the bi-State DPS and its habitat to the point that the species is no 
longer in danger of extinction now or in the foreseeable future. We 
conclude that the conservation efforts (including funding and staffing 
commitments) that are currently partially completed and those proposed 
for the future (as outlined in the agency's commitment letters (BLM 
2014c, in litt.; CDFW 2014b, in litt.; Mono County 2014, in litt.; NDOW 
2014b, in litt.; UDSA 2014, in litt.; USGS 2014c, in litt.) and the Bi-
State TAC's active project database (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.)) 
improve the status of the DPS and its habitat conditions to such a 
degree that the current level of impacts are significantly reduced (in 
other words, the DPS is not likely to be in danger of extinction in the 
foreseeable future). Therefore, we are withdrawing our proposed rule to

[[Page 22852]]

list the bi-State DPS as a threatened species, and consequently, we are 
also withdrawing the associated proposed 4(d) and critical habitat 
rules.
    We will continue to monitor the status of the bi-State DPS through 
monitoring requirements in the BSAP, and our evaluation of any other 
information we receive. These monitoring requirements will not only 
inform us of the amount of bi-State DPS habitat conserved and 
reclaimed, but will also help inform us of the status of the 
populations. Additional information will continue to be accepted on all 
aspects of the bi-State DPS and its habitat. If at any time new 
information indicates that the provisions of the Act may be necessary 
to conserve the bi-State sage-grouse, we can initiate listing 
procedures, including, if appropriate, emergency listing pursuant to 
section 4(b)(7) of the Act. For example, we could initiate listing 
procedures if we become aware of declining implementation or 
participation in the BSAP, or noncompliance with the conservation 
measures, or if there are new threats or increasing stressors that rise 
to the level of a threat.

Significant Portion of the Range

    Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may 
warrant listing if it is an endangered or a threatened species 
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. The Act defines 
``endangered species'' as any species which is ``in danger of 
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range,'' and 
``threatened species'' as any species which is ``likely to become an 
endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range.'' The term ``species'' includes ``any 
subspecies of fish or wildlife or plants, and any distinct population 
segment [DPS] of any species of vertebrate fish or wildlife which 
interbreeds when mature.'' We published a final policy interpreting the 
phrase ``Significant Portion of its Range'' (SPR) (79 FR 37578). The 
final policy states that (1) if a species is found to be an endangered 
or a threatened species throughout a significant portion of its range, 
the entire species is listed as an endangered or a threatened species, 
respectively, and the Act's protections apply to all individuals of the 
species wherever found; (2) a portion of the range of a species is 
``significant'' if the species is not currently an endangered or a 
threatened species throughout all of its range, but the portion's 
contribution to the viability of the species is so important that, 
without the members in that portion, the species would be in danger of 
extinction, or likely to become so in the foreseeable future, 
throughout all of its range; (3) the range of a species is considered 
to be the general geographical area within which that species can be 
found at the time FWS or NMFS makes any particular status 
determination; and (4) if a vertebrate species is an endangered or a 
threatened species throughout an SPR, and the population in that 
significant portion is a valid DPS, we will list the DPS rather than 
the entire taxonomic species or subspecies.
    The SPR policy is applied to all status determinations, including 
analyses for the purposes of making listing, delisting, and 
reclassification determinations. The procedure for analyzing whether 
any portion is an SPR is similar, regardless of the type of status 
determination we are making. The first step in our analysis of the 
status of a species is to determine its status throughout all of its 
range. If we determine that the species is in danger of extinction, or 
likely to become so in the foreseeable future, throughout all of its 
range, we list the species as an endangered (or threatened) species and 
no SPR analysis will be required. If the species is neither an 
endangered nor a threatened species throughout all of its range, we 
determine whether the species is an endangered or a threatened species 
throughout a significant portion of its range. If it is, we list the 
species as an endangered or a threatened species, respectively; if it 
is not, we conclude that listing the species is not warranted.
    When we conduct an SPR analysis, we first identify any portions of 
the species' range that warrant further consideration. The range of a 
species can theoretically be divided into portions in an infinite 
number of ways. However, there is no purpose to analyzing portions of 
the range that are not reasonably likely to be significant and either 
an endangered or a threatened species. To identify only those portions 
that warrant further consideration, we determine whether there is 
substantial information indicating that (1) the portions may be 
significant and (2) the species may be in danger of extinction in those 
portions or likely to become so within the foreseeable future. We 
emphasize that answering these questions in the affirmative is not a 
determination that the species is an endangered or a threatened species 
throughout a significant portion of its range--rather, it is a step in 
determining whether a more detailed analysis of the issue is required. 
In practice, a key part of this analysis is whether the threats are 
geographically concentrated in some way. If the threats to the species 
are affecting it uniformly throughout its range, no portion is likely 
to warrant further consideration. Moreover, if any concentration of 
threats apply only to portions of the range that clearly do not meet 
the biologically based definition of ``significant'' (i.e., the loss of 
that portion clearly would not be expected to increase the 
vulnerability to extinction of the entire species), those portions will 
not warrant further consideration.
    If we identify any portions that may be both (1) significant and 
(2) endangered or threatened, we engage in a more detailed analysis to 
determine whether these standards are indeed met. The identification of 
an SPR does not create a presumption, prejudgment, or other 
determination as to whether the species in that identified SPR is an 
endangered or a threatened species. We must go through a separate 
analysis to determine whether the species is an endangered or a 
threatened species in the SPR. While some of these impacts are more 
easily alleviated than others (e.g., conifer encroachment), the 
existing condition, if left unchecked, is likely to worsen in the 
future (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 24-25).
    Depending on the biology of the species, its range, and the threats 
it faces, it may be more efficient to address the ``significant'' 
question first, or the status question first. Thus, if we determine 
that a portion of the range is not ``significant,'' we do not need to 
determine whether the species is an endangered or a threatened species 
there; if we determine that the species is not an endangered or a 
threatened species in a portion of its range, we do not need to 
determine if that portion is ``significant.''
    Because we determined that the bi-State DPS is neither endangered 
nor threatened throughout all of its range following application of the 
PECE policy and as described above in the Determination section, we 
must next determine whether the bi-State DPS may be endangered or 
threatened in a significant portion of its range. To do this, we must 
first identify any portion of the DPS's range that may warrant 
consideration by determining whether there is substantial information 
indicating that: (1) The portions may be significant, and (2) the DPS 
may be in danger of extinction in those portions or is likely to become 
so within the foreseeable future. We note that a positive answer to 
these questions is not a determination that the DPS is endangered or 
threatened within a significant portion of its range, but rather a 
positive answer to these

[[Page 22853]]

questions confirms whether a more detailed analysis is necessary.
    Given the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs are now 
and will continue to be most at risk from the various stressors acting 
upon the birds and their habitat (see the foreseeable future discussion 
above in the Determination section), we identify this portion of the 
range for further consideration. The Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and (to the 
extent known) White Mountains PMUs comprise the fewest numbers of birds 
and leks within the range of the bi-State DPS, with the Pine Nut PMU 
harboring the fewest number of birds and leks overall (the majority (67 
percent) of the sage-grouse in the bi-State area occur within the Bodie 
and South Mono PMUs).
    We analyzed whether stressors in these three PMUs (i.e., Pine Nut, 
Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs) rise to the level such that the 
sage-grouse is likely to become an endangered species in the 
foreseeable future (threatened) in these three PMUs combined. We 
determined that none of the stressors within these three PMUs either 
independently or collectively is believed to have reduced, destroyed, 
or fragmented sagebrush habitat such that the DPS is not in danger of 
extinction or likely to become so in the foreseeable future. We note 
that data do indicate that impacts from nonnative, invasive and certain 
native plants, and thus the threat of wildfire, in the Pine Nut PMU are 
more extensive than in the Mount Grant and White Mountains PMUs. While 
these stressors continue in the Pine Nut PMU and may increase, 
monitoring continues to document sage-grouse in some historically 
occupied areas within the PMU. Also, the Pine Nut PMU currently holds 
the fewest number of birds and leks of all populations, and the 
potential loss of this already small population is not expected to 
impact the bi-State DPS to the extent that the remaining two PMUs with 
the smallest populations (i.e., Mount Grant and White Mountains PMUs) 
or the DPS as a whole is in danger of extinction or likely to become so 
in the foreseeable future.
    In general, the combination of the bi-State DPS small population 
size, isolation due to fragmented habitat, peripheral locations, and 
the presence of several stresors to the sage-grouse in the Pine Nut, 
Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs makes these PMUs more vulnerable 
than the Bodie, Desert Creek-Fales, and South Mono PMUs, but not to the 
degree that sage-grouse are in danger of extinction or likely to become 
so in the foreseeable future in these PMUs. This is demonstrated by 
population data from each of these three smaller PMUs (i.e., the Pine 
Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs) indicating that: (1) 
Multiple sage-grouse are still observed through monitoring activities, 
(2) one to eight active leks are present within each PMU, (3) stresors 
acting upon these small populations are not geographically concentrated 
and exist in all six PMUs throughout the range of the bi-State DPS; and 
(4) a recent 10-year trend analysis by Coates et al. (2014a, entire) 
between 2003 and 2012 found that several of the populations in the bi-
State area (including but not limited to the core populations) are 
stable (as opposed to declining).
    Even though we have determined that this portion of the bi-State 
DPS's range (i.e., the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs) 
is not in danger of extinction or likely to become so in the 
foreseeable future, there is information available that may lead some 
to believe that the populations in these three PMUs are at risk of 
becoming endangered in the foreseeable future. However, the best 
available information currently indicates that a substantial amount of 
conservation effort is currently being applied (and will be carried out 
in the future) within the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains 
PMUs, as well as throughout the entire range of the DPS. These 
conservation efforts are targeted at the stressors that are resulting 
in the greatest synergistic impacts on the populations (see Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions 
(PECE), above) both currently and in the future. Significant efforts 
are being applied in these three PMUs including (but not limited to) 
reducing impacts from: (1) Infrastructure (permanent road closures, 
fence maintenance/marking), pinyon-juniper encroachment (pine burn and 
conifer removal), invasive plants (weed management, including livestock 
control; cheatgrass removal), urbanization and habitat conversion 
(riparian/meadow restoration of brood-rearing habitat, establishment of 
conservation easements), and grazing management (management of wild 
horse herds, establishing/repairing riparian exclosures). Application 
of these conservation efforts across the range of the DPS over the next 
10 years that we determine to have both certainty of implementation and 
effectiveness, as described in our detailed PECE analysis (available at 
www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072), changes the 
trajectory from a point where the DPS was previously considered to be a 
threatened species, to a point where the best available information 
related to current and future conservation efforts indicates the entire 
range of the DPS, including the specific portion of the DPS's range in 
the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs, does not meet the 
definition of a threatened species or an endangered species.
    In conclusion, we find that substantial information indicates that: 
(1) There are no portions of the bi-State DPS that may be significant, 
and (2) the DPS is not likely to become an endangered species in the 
foreseeable future in the portion of its range that harbors the least 
number of birds (i.e., the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains 
PMUs). Therefore, we find that listing the bi-State DPS is not 
warranted.

Summary of Comments and Recommendations

    In the proposed rule published on October 28, 2013 (78 FR 64358), 
we requested that all interested parties submit written comments on the 
proposal by December 27, 2013. This comment period was subsequently 
extended an additional 45 days, as announced on December 20, 2013 (78 
FR 77087), and closed on February 10, 2014. The comment period was 
reopened on April 8, 2014 (79 FR 19314), announcing two public hearings 
and a 6-month extension of the final determination of whether or not to 
list the bi-State DPS due to substantial disagreement regarding the 
sufficiency or accuracy of the available data relevant to the proposed 
listing, making it necessary to solicit additional information. This 
second comment period on the proposed listing rule closed on June 9, 
2013. Finally, a third and final comment period was opened on August 5, 
2014 (79 FR 45420), and closed on September 4, 2014, to give the public 
the opportunity to review and provide comments on new information 
received regarding population trends as well as State and Federal 
agency funding and staffing commitments for various conservation 
efforts associated with the BSAP.
    We contacted appropriate Federal and State agencies, scientific 
experts and organizations, and other interested parties and invited 
them to comment on the proposal. We also received requests for public 
hearings. We held one public hearing in Minden, Nevada on May 28, 2014, 
and one public hearing held in Bishop, California, on May 29, 2014. 
Newspaper notices inviting general public comment and advertisement of 
the information and public hearings was published in The Inyo Register, 
The

[[Page 22854]]

Record Courier, and the Reno-Gazette Journal.
    During the three comment periods, we received more than 6,400 
comment letters directly addressing the proposed listing of the bi-
State DPS. Submitted comments were both for and against listing the DPS 
with designated critical habitat. During the May 28 and 29, 2014, 
public hearings, 11 individuals or organizations commented on the 
proposed rules; 3 were opposed to the proposed listing, and the 
remaining individuals or organizations did not express an explicit 
opinion on the listing proposal, but articulated issues they considered 
to need more attention (e.g., economic impacts associated with the 
proposed critical habitat). All substantive information provided during 
the comment periods has either been incorporated directly into this 
withdrawal or addressed below. We also received a few comments related 
to the proposed 4(d) rule, and more than 200 comment letters both in 
support of and opposition to the proposed critical habitat designation; 
however, given the decision to withdraw the listing proposal (see 
Determination above), no further assessment of the proposed 4(d) rule 
and critical habitat designation is necessary at this time.

Peer Review

    In accordance with our peer review policy published on July 1, 1994 
(59 FR 34270), we solicited expert opinion from five appropriate and 
independent specialists with scientific expertise that included 
familiarity with sage-grouse, the bi-State DPS and their habitat, 
including biological needs and threats. We received responses from four 
of the peer reviewers.
    We reviewed all comments received from the peer reviewers for 
substantive issues and new information regarding the listing of the bi-
State DPS. Peer reviewer comments are addressed in the following 
summary and incorporated into this withdrawal document as appropriate.

Peer Review Comments Received

    (1) Comment: One peer reviewer requested clarification on our 
assumption that there are ``four to eight demographically independent 
populations'' in the bi-State area.
    Our Response: Our understanding of the population structure of 
sage-grouse in the bi-State area is evolving and primarily informed by 
telemetry and genetic research. However, even with these data 
available, there remains uncertainty in our understanding. There is 
likely a continuum across the bi-State area in the degree of isolation 
among populations and not a simple connected versus non-connected 
status that can be assigned to a group of birds. Over the past decade, 
traditional VHF telemetry approaches suggested little bird movement 
among populations in the bi-State area, leading to our assumption that 
there was on the order of eight generally discrete populations of 
birds. While these studies were not designed to address bird movement 
among populations and ultimately were likely biased because mostly 
adult birds were marked (as opposed to juvenile birds that are more 
likely to disperse) and limited searching for ``lost'' birds (VHF 
receivers have a restricted detection distance) occurred, they have 
demonstrated differing vital rates (e.g, adult and nest survival) among 
populations in the bi-State area suggesting some degree of demographic 
independence. More recently, limited GPS telemetry has demonstrated 
movements between the Pine Nut population and the Desert Creek-Fales 
population, which previously were assumed to be isolated from one 
another. Furthermore, two recent and independent genetic evaluations 
have concluded there are between three and four (Oyler-McCance et al. 
(2014, p. 8) or five (Tebbenkamp 2014, p. 18) unique genetic clusters 
in the bi-State area. In addition, Tebbenkamp (2014, p. 12) did not 
evaluate the Pine Nut population, which Oyler-McCance et al. (2014, p. 
8) found to be unique. Thus, presumably Tebbenkamp (2014, entire) would 
have differentiated six populations had these data been available. 
Based on this information, we presume that there are likely three to 
six populations or groups of birds in the bi-State area that largely 
operate demographically independent of one another. We have refined our 
Species Report to reflect these new data.
    (2) Comment: One peer reviewer requested clarification on how lek 
counts were used to derive the population size estimates we report in 
Table 1 of our proposed rule.
    Our Response: We relied on the lek count data and population 
estimators provided by NDOW and CDFW; both agencies use the estimator 
described in Connelly et al. (2003, p. 22), whereby they adjust the 
maximum number of males counted by dividing by 0.75 (to account for 
unseen males) and then multiply this number by 2.0 (assuming 2:1 sex 
ratio of females to males) to derive total birds. NDOW then adjusts 
this number to account for undetected leks by dividing the total bird 
estimate by varying ratios (from 0.75 to 0.90) depending on specific 
knowledge (or lack of knowledge) of the population of interest. 
Similarly, CDFW adjusts the total bird estimate to account for 
undetected leks but uses a ratio between 0.85 and 0.95.
    We recognize that there is uncertainty in translating counts of 
males displaying on breeding grounds (lek counts) into estimates of 
population size (Connelly et al. 2003, p. 22; Walsh et al. 2004, 
entire). Nevertheless, we believe these data can provide a general 
context to the bi-State DPS in the absence of more precise information.
    (3) Comment: One peer reviewer asked how we concluded that there 
was a reduction in available sage-grouse habitat in the bi-State area 
by 50 percent.
    Our Response: Based on a Geographic Information System (GIS) 
modelling approach that was informed by research on woodland succession 
in the Great Basin, an estimated 390,000 ha (963,000 ac) of sagebrush 
habitat has converted to woodland vegetation over the past 150 years, 
resulting in a reduction of sagebrush habitat from slightly over 
1,044,000 ha (2,580,000 ac) in 1850 to approximately 664,890 ha 
(1,643,000 ac) today across the range of the bi-State DPS (USGS 2012, 
unpublished data). Additionally, a resource selection function (RSF) 
model was developed to estimate currently suitable sage-grouse habitat 
across the bi-State area (Bi-State TAC 2012b, unpublished data). The 
RSF model included a combination of biotic, abiotic, and anthropogenic 
features that best explain sage-grouse selection or avoidance of a 
specific area. The RSF model predicated that suitable sage-grouse 
habitat in the bi-State area amounted to slightly less than 435,440 ha 
(1,076,000 ac). Taking the average of these two quotients (i.e., 
664,890 ha (1,643,000 ac) and 435,440 ha (1,044,000 ac)) led us to the 
conclusion that sage-grouse habitat availability in the bi-State area 
has been reduced by approximately 50 percent. We recognize that there 
are uncertainties associated with these data and that the amount of 
uncertainty is not known. However, we note that our assumption of a 50 
percent decline can be either an overestimate or an underestimate. 
Despite the uncertainty, we believe this is a reasonable estimate of 
habitat loss based on the best available scientific and commercial 
information.
    (4) Comment: One peer reviewer asked how we concluded that there 
has been a reduction in the overall sage-grouse population in the bi-
State area by more than 50 percent.
    Our Response: Based on our analysis of historical habitat loss (see 
our response to Comment 3), we assumed a 1:1 ratio of bird loss to 
habitat loss. We also considered the remaining sagebrush

[[Page 22855]]

habitat in the bi-State area to be variously compromised by a variety 
of stressors, thereby reducing the suitability of these habitats for 
sage-grouse and ultimately the habitats carrying capacity for sage-
grouse. Furthermore, there are documented accounts of population 
extirpation or population reductions in the bi-State area (USFS 1966, 
p. 4; Hall et al. 2008, p. 96; Bi-State TAC 2012a, p. 24). Therefore, 
we assumed that population loss exceeded habitat loss and concluded 
that population loss was likely greater than 50 percent.
    (5) Comment: One peer reviewer stated that higher-elevation 
mountain sagebrush communities are generally more resilient than lower-
elevation Wyoming big sagebrush communities and as such are more likely 
to persist. Further, they stated that each of these community types 
differ in their susceptibility to invasive and increasing species 
(i.e., cheatgrass and woodland succession). They requested an 
evaluation as to the proportion of the bi-State DPS existing within 
each of these general sagebrush systems.
    Our Response: We utilized a base vegetation layer developed by the 
Bi-State TAC, which also informed the RSF modeling effort, to inform 
this discussion (Bi-State TAC 2012b, unpublished data). Additional 
detail on this product is available in the Species Report (see Appendix 
B).
    Across the entire bi-State area (delineated by PMU boundaries), 
approximately 664,944 ha (1,643,114 ac) (36 percent of the bi-State 
area) are composed of sagebrush communities. Additionally, there are 
approximately 26,870 ha (66,399 acres) (1.5 percent) of higher-
elevation mountain shrub communities, which includes other shrub 
species besides sagebrush such as bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), 
snowberry (Symphoricarpos sp.), and desert peach (Prunus anersonii), 
among others. We included this additional shrub community as part of 
the mountain big sagebrush evaluation because these other species have 
been shown to be important to sage-grouse in the bi-State area (Kolada 
et al. 2009b, p. 1,336) and they often co-occur with mountain big 
sagebrush; therefore, we anticipate they will respond to invasive or 
increasing species in a similar manner. Partitioning these communities 
further, there are approximately 183,860 ha (454,330 ac) (27 percent of 
available sagebrush) of higher-elevation mountain big sagebrush 
(including mountain shrub community), 373,747 ha (923,550 ac) (54 
percent) of lower-elevation Wyoming big sagebrush, and 134,207 ha 
(331,633 ac) (19 percent) of low sagebrush, such as black sagebrush 
(Artemisia nova) and little sagebrush (Artemisia arbuscula). We 
recognize the importance of this information to the discussion and have 
added information to the Species Report (see Sagebrush Ecosystem 
section), specifically the proportion of these communities contained 
within individual PMUs.
    (6) Comment: One peer reviewer asked how the BLM RMPs, the BSAP, 
and the plans developed by the Los Angeles Department of Water and 
Power (LADWP) are used in evaluating existing regulatory mechanisms.
    Our Response: Section 4 of the Act stipulates that one of the 
factors the Secretary shall use to determine whether any species is an 
endangered or threatened species is the inadequacy of existing 
regulatory mechanisms. In addition to those identified above, existing 
regulatory mechanisms that could provide some protection for greater 
sage-grouse in the bi-State area include: (1) Local land use laws, 
processes, and ordinances; (2) State laws and regulations; and (3) 
Federal laws and regulations. Regulatory mechanisms, if they exist, may 
preclude the need for listing if such mechanisms are judged to 
adequately address the threats to the species such that listing is not 
warranted. Conversely, threats on the landscape continue to affect the 
species and may be exacerbated when not addressed by existing 
regulatory mechanisms, or when the existing mechanisms are not adequate 
(or not adequately implemented or enforced).
    We use an inherently qualitative approach to evaluate existing 
regulatory mechanisms. In general, this means that we assess language 
in an existing plan as well as any pertinent decisions based on such 
language (track record) and evaluate it against the best available 
science informing species conservation. Regulations in some counties 
identify the need for natural resource conservation and attempt to 
minimize impacts of development through zoning restrictions, but to our 
knowledge neither preclude development nor do they provide for 
monitoring of the loss of sage-grouse habitats. Similarly, State laws 
and regulations are general in nature and provide flexibility in 
implementation, and do not provide specific direction to State wildlife 
agencies relative to sage-grouse conservation, although they can 
occasionally afford regulatory authority over habitat preservation 
(e.g., creation of habitat easements and land acquisitions).
    In the proposed rule, we found that most existing Federal 
regulatory mechanisms (not including the BLM and USFS Land Use Plan 
amendments) were sufficiently vague as to offer limited certainty as to 
managerial direction pertaining to sage-grouse conservation, 
particularly as they relate to addressing the threats that are 
significantly impacting the bi-State DPS (e.g., nonnative, invasive and 
certain native plants; wildfire and altered wildfire regime; 
infrastructure). However, we have determined that the BSAP ameloriates 
the threats to the Bi-State DPS and its habitat (see additional Land 
Use Plan amendment discussion in the Policy for Evaluation of 
Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section 
above, and our detailed PECE analysis available on the Internet at 
http://www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0042). In 
addition, the proposed BLM and USFS Land Use Plan amendments (USDI and 
USDA 2015, entire) will reinforce the conservation commitments made in 
the BSAP; however, we note that we do not rely on them for our 
determination. We also note that the BLM Bishop Field Office's RMP has 
proven to be an effective regulatory mechanism for the bi-State DPS and 
its habitat. For additional detail, see the Existing Regulatory 
Mechanisms section in the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 153-154).

State Comments Received

    (7) Comment: The State of Nevada questioned how the Service could 
list the bi-State DPS given that more than a decade of conservation and 
restoration initiatives have been implemented or initiated, 
particularly given that over the past 12 years sage-grouse populations 
have been stable-to-increasing.
    Our Response: We recognize the significant efforts of all of our 
partners in the conservation of the bi-State DPS, and these 
conservation efforts and the manner in which they are helping to 
ameliorate threats to the DPS are considered in our final agency 
action. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act requires us to take into account 
those efforts being made by any State or foreign nation, or any 
political subdivision of a State or foreign nation, to protect such 
species, within any area under its jurisdiction. However, the Act 
requires us to make determinations based on the best scientific and 
commercial data available ``at the time of listing'' after conducting a 
review of the status of the species and after taking into account those 
efforts, if any, being made to protect such species. Furthermore, we 
are encouraged by the recent information provided by the U.S. 
Geological Survey (Coates et al. 2014, p. 19), which generally 
concludes that populations with the bi-State area have

[[Page 22856]]

been stable between 2003 and 2012. Additionally, these data predict 
that over the next 5 years the majority of populations are anticipated 
to grow. We do note, however, that the Parker Meadows and Fales 
populations are projected to decline and further that the White 
Mountains and Mount Grant populations were not analyzed due to lack of 
data. The Nevada Department of Wildlife reports the latter population 
has been in decline. Also, while we place a high degree of confidence 
in the USGS analysis, within the Pine Nuts PMU, a population projected 
to increase, the sole lek site used to partially inform the model has 
been largely inactive in the last 2 years, and these data were not 
incorporated into the USGS analysis.
    While the bi-State DPS's population trend information is highly 
informative and can assist us in informing our listing decision, the 
Act stipulates that the Secretary shall make a decision to list a 
species as an endangered or threatened species based on any one or more 
of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, 
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) 
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors 
affecting its continued existence. Assuming current conditions continue 
into the future in the bi-State area, we have identified the threats 
across the range of the bi-State DPS that are resulting in the present 
or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat 
or range, and other natural or manmade threats affecting the DPS's 
continued existence. Many of these impacts are cumulatively acting upon 
the bi-State DPS and, therefore, increase the risk of extinction. 
However, after consideration of partially completed projects and future 
conservation efforts that we conclude will be implemented and effective 
(see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing 
Decisions (PECE) section, above), we believe the bi-State DPS is not 
likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future (threatened), 
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Therefore, the 
bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse does not meet the definition of a 
threatened or endangered species, and we are withdrawing the proposed 
rule to list the DPS as a threatened species.
    (8) Comment: The listing of the bi-State DPS will not enhance or 
expedite conservation as it will call for the same conservation 
measures already identified by the BSAP. Further, the listing action 
would alienate groups working on bi-State sage-grouse conservation.
    Our Response: The Act mandates that the Secretary shall determine 
whether any species is an endangered or threatened species based on any 
of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, 
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) 
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors 
affecting its continued existence. Therefore, the Service does not have 
the ability to consider public perception when evaluating a listing 
decision. We remain committed to ensure conservation of the bi-State 
DPS through continued cooperation with our partners currently and into 
the future. We recognize the significant efforts of all of our partners 
in the conservation of the bi-State DPS. While we would be disappointed 
by a reduction in participation and commitment of resources for various 
conservation efforts, we also recognize that there is a potential for 
this result to be realized regardless of the outcome of our final 
agency action as outlined within this document.

Other Comments Received

    (9) Comment: A few commenters suggest that the bi-State DPS is not 
a genetically unique subspecies or that this population does not meet 
our standard for recognition as a DPS.
    Our Response: In our 12-month finding on petitions to list three 
entities of sage-grouse (75 FR 13910), we found that the bi-State 
population of sage-grouse meets our criteria as a DPS of the greater 
sage-grouse under Service policy (61 FR 4722). This determination was 
based principally on genetic information, where the DPS was found to be 
both discrete, and significant to the remainder of the sage-grouse 
taxon. The bi-State DPS defines the far southwestern limit of the 
species' range along the border of eastern California and western 
Nevada (Stiver et al. 2006, pp. 1-11). Sage-grouse in the bi-State area 
contain a large number of unique genetic haplotypes not found elsewhere 
within the range of the species (Benedict et al. 2003, p. 306; Oyler-
McCance et al. 2005, p. 1,300; Oyler-McCance and Quinn 2011, p. 92, 
Oyler-McCance et al. 2014, p. 7). The genetic diversity present in the 
bi-State area population is comparable to other populations, suggesting 
that the differences are not due to a genetic bottleneck or founder 
event (Oyler-McCance and Quinn 2011, p. 91; Oyler-McCance et al. 2014, 
p. 8). These studies provide evidence that the present genetic 
uniqueness exhibited by bi-State area sage-grouse developed over 
thousands and perhaps tens of thousands of years, hence, prior to the 
Euro-American settlement (Benedict et al. 2003, p. 308; Oyler-McCance 
et al. 2005, p. 1,307; Oyler-McCance et al. 2014, p. 9). The available 
genetic information demonstrates that the bi-State sage-grouse are both 
discrete from other greater sage-grouse populations, and are 
genetically unique. Therefore, we believe the best scientific and 
commercial data available clearly demonstrate that the bi-State sage-
grouse meet both the discreteness and significance criteria to be 
designated as a distinct population segment.
    (10) Comment: Several commenters expressed concern that habitat 
conservation efforts may be hampered due to potential additional 
regulatory requirements and uncertainty as to which activities would 
require consultation with the Service under the Act, as it pertains to 
take of the species and adverse modification or destruction of critical 
habitat. Specifically, commenters were concerned that funding for on-
the-ground activities could be reduced due to additional costs 
associated with consultation under the Act.
    Our Response: Section 7 of the Act states that each Federal agency 
shall consult with the Secretary of the Interior to insure that any 
action authorized, funded, or carried out by such agency is not likely 
to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered or threatened 
species or result in the destruction or adverse modification of 
delineated critical habitat. The duty to consult under Section 7 
includes all actions that may affect a listed species, even those that 
may improve habitat condition and ultimately positively influence 
species conservation. We recognize that the mandate of the Act, may at 
times, divert funding and effort away from on-the-ground activities. 
However, our responsibility is to ensure, through consultation, that 
activities which may affect listed species are not likely to jeopardize 
the continued existence of endangered and threatened species. With 
regard to the bi-State DPS, no additional regulatory requirements will 
occur because we have determined the DPS does not meet the definition 
of a threatened or endangered species.
    (11) Comment: Several commenters indicated that the proposed 
listing of the bi-State DPS was premature. These commenters submit that 
adequate time

[[Page 22857]]

should be provided to determine if conservation efforts, such as those 
identified in the 2012 BSAP, are sufficient to maintain a viable sage-
grouse population in the bi-State area.
    Our Response: We recognize the significant efforts of all of our 
partners in the conservation of the bi-State DPS, and these 
conservation efforts and the manner in which they are helping to 
ameliorate threats to the DPS are considered in our final agency 
action. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act requires us to take into account 
those efforts being made by any State or foreign nation, or any 
political subdivision of a State or foreign nation, to protect such 
species, within any area under its jurisdiction. However, the Act 
requires us to make determinations based on the best scientific and 
commercial data available ``at the time of listing'' after conducting a 
review of the status of the species and after taking into account those 
efforts, if any, being made to protect such species.
    Concern from a variety of private, Tribal, industry, State, 
Federal, and non-governmental entities over the conservation of the bi-
State DPS has been apparent since the late 1990's (Bi-State Local 
Planning Group 2004, p. 1). This is reflected by the NDOW decision to 
suspend hunting in the area in 1999 (Bi-State Local Planning Group 
2004, p. 59). Significant effort was expended in the early 2000's and 
culminated in 2004 with the first edition of a greater sage-grouse 
conservation plan for the bi-State area of Nevada and eastern 
California (Bi-State Local Planning Group 2004). Since this time, many 
conservation efforts have been completed, while many others are in 
progress. After consideration of partially completed projects and 
future conservation efforts that we have found to be sufficiently 
certain to be implemented and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of 
Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section, 
above), we believe the bi-State DPS is not in danger of becoming 
extinct throughout all or a significant portion of its range, and is 
not likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future 
(threatened), throughout all or a significant portion of its range. 
Therefore, we are withdrawing the proposed rule to list the DPS as a 
threatened species.
    (12) Comment: Several commenters stated that listing the bi-State 
DPS would be counterproductive to ongoing Bi-State LAWG conservation 
efforts by affecting participation and funding.
    Our Response: We recognize the significant efforts of all of our 
partners in the conservation of the bi-State DPS. While we would be 
disappointed by a reduction in participation and commitment of 
resources for various conservation efforts, we also recognize that 
there is a potential for this result to be realized regardless of the 
outcome of our final agency action as outlined within this document. 
The Act mandates that the Secretary shall determine whether any species 
is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five factors: 
(A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment 
of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, 
recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or 
predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) 
other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence. 
Therefore, the Service does not have the ability to consider public 
perception when evaluating a listing decision. However, after 
consideration of partially completed projects and future conservation 
efforts that we have found to be sufficiently certain to be implemented 
and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When 
Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section, above), including efforts that 
involve the LAWG, we find the DPS is not in danger of becoming extinct 
throughout all or a significant portion of its range, and is not likely 
to become endangered within the foreseeable future (threatened), 
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Therefore, we are 
withdrawing the proposed rule to list the DPS as a threatened species. 
We remain committed to ensure conservation of the bi-State DPS through 
continued cooperation with our partners currently and into the future.
    (13) Comment: Several commenters stated that the proposal for 
listing should better recognize current and ongoing voluntary 
conservation efforts in addition to conservation measures that are in 
place to minimize potential adverse effects resulting from activities 
including livestock grazing, mineral development, and recreation and 
fire management.
    Our Response: We analyzed the best scientific and commercial 
information available on both current and future conservation efforts, 
and conservation measures intended to minimize potential adverse 
effects to the bi-State DPS and its habitat (see Existing Regulatory 
Mechanisms, Ongoing and Future Conservation Efforts, and Policy for 
Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) 
sections). Any conservation-related actions, protection measures, and 
commitments provided by partners and commenters were taken into 
consideration for this final agency action.
    (14) Comment: Several commenters stated that the proposed rule 
dismisses past conservation measures without fairly addressing their 
breadth, effectiveness, and chance of success. Further they submit the 
Service must evaluate the conservation measures through (at minimum) an 
analysis consistent with PECE, and must fully consider how conservation 
measures will reduce or remove threats. The commenters believe that a 
fair evaluation of the past conservation efforts would demonstrate that 
they are sufficient to protect the bi-State DPS.
    Alternatively, several commenters argue that past conservation 
efforts, while well-intended, have been inadequate to provide 
sufficient conservation for the DPS. Further, the commenters contend 
that the 2012 BSAP is voluntary in nature and does not meet the PECE 
standard.
    Our Response: We acknowledge and commend the commitment of many 
partners in implementing numerous conservation actions within the range 
of the bi-State DPS. The PECE policy applies to formalized conservation 
efforts that have not yet been implemented or those that have been 
implemented, but have not yet demonstrated whether they are effective 
at the time of listing. Our analysis of all conservation efforts 
currently in place and under development for the future is described in 
detail in the Existing Regulatory Mechanisms, Ongoing and Future 
Conservation Efforts, and Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts 
When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) sections of this document. The 
effect of such conservation efforts on the status of a species is 
considered under the Summary of Factors Affecting the Species section 
of this document.
    In this document, we considered whether formalized conservation 
efforts are included as part of the baseline through the analysis of 
the five listing factors, or are appropriate for consideration. After 
consideration of partially completed projects and future conservation 
efforts that we have found to be sufficiently certain to be implemented 
and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation Efforts When 
Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section, above), we find the bi-State 
DPS is not in danger of becoming extinct throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range, and is not likely to become 
endangered within the foreseeable future (threatened), throughout all 
or a significant portion of its range. Therefore, we are withdrawing 
the

[[Page 22858]]

proposed rule to list the DPS as a threatened species.
    (15) Comment: Several commenters expressed concern that economic 
development will be negatively impacted by listing and suggested that 
it is necessary for the Service to conduct an analysis of the impacts 
that listing a species may have on local economies prior to issuance of 
a final rule. Alternatively, one commenter submitted that the local 
economy will be positively benefited.
    Our Response: Under the Act, the Secretary shall make 
determinations whether any species is an endangered species or a 
threatened species solely on the basis of the best scientific and 
commercial data available. Thus, the Service is not allowed to conduct 
an analysis regarding the economic impact of listing endangered or 
threatened species. However, the Act does require that the Service 
consider the economic impacts of a proposed designation of critical 
habitat. A draft of the economic analysis for the now withdrawn 
proposed critical habitat is available to the public for informational 
purposes on the Internet at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-
2013-0042. As for the Service's proposal to list the bi-State DPS, 
after consideration of partially completed projects and future 
conservation efforts that we have found to be sufficiently certain to 
be implemented and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation 
Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section, above), we find 
the bi-State DPS is not in danger of becoming extinct throughout all or 
a significant portion of its range, and is not likely to become 
endangered within the foreseeable future (threatened), throughout all 
or a significant portion of its range. Therefore, we are withdrawing 
the proposed rule to list the DPS as a threatened species, and critical 
habitat will not be designated.
    (16) Comment: Several commenters stated that potential impacts to 
the bi-State DPS and its habitat caused by roads will vary by road 
type. Specifically, the commenters asserted that small, unimproved dirt 
roads such as those typically associated with transmission line rights-
of-ways have no impact. Therefore, the commenters believe that 
extrapolating research findings such as Forman and Alexander (1998), 
Gelbard and Belnap (2003), and Connelly et al. (2000a) to all roads is 
not appropriate.
    Our Response: We agree that road type, the level and timing of 
traffic activity, and associated extent of road maintenance appear to 
influence the degree to which a road may affect sage-grouse and 
adjacent sagebrush habitat. Where appropriate (e.g., Roads sections of 
the Species Report and Infrastructure section of this document), we 
clarified our analysis of potential road impacts to more explicitly 
differentiate between road types. There is little direct evidence 
regarding impacts caused by small, unimproved roads such as dirt two 
tracks. Consequently, we cannot provide more definitive information 
with regards to these road types.
    We maintain that the literature identified above as well as 
additional referenced material including Bui (2009) and Forman (2000) 
are the best available information relative to potential impacts caused 
by roads. We believe these sources are informative because the types of 
roads investigated are present in the bi-State area. Our GIS analysis 
(Service 2014, unpublished data) revealed that out of 55 leks sites 
assessed in the bi-State area, 35 are currently within 5 km (3.1 mi) of 
paved, secondary roads and therefore could potentially be impacted. 
Analyses of road impacts to greater sage-grouse leks documented 
decreasing lek counts and population trends (Johnson et al. 2011, p. 
449). The actual mechanism for these declines remain elusive (Manier et 
al. 2014, p. 50) but declining habitat condition and use from the 
impacts described in Blickley et al. (2012, pp. 467-469; i.e., noise), 
Gelbard and Belnap (2003, p. 426; i.e., invasive species), and Connelly 
et al. (2000a, p. 974) have been implicated in declines from other 
activities, such as energy development. Therefore, we anticipate 
similar responses from the same impacts introduced by roads. For 
further information, a detailed analysis of the potential impacts of 
roads is provided in the Species Report (available at http://www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072) and summarized 
under in this document.
    (17) Comment: Two commenters question our conclusion that the 
number of roads in the bi-State area are likely to increase in the 
future. Alternatively, one commenter stated that roads are likely to 
increase.
    Our Response: As stated in our proposed rule, we consider 
substantial new development of improved (i.e., paved) roads unlikely in 
the bi-State area (see section Infrastructure in the proposed rule). 
With regards to the potential development of small, unimproved 
secondary roads within the bi-State area, we stated in our proposed 
rule (and reaffirm here; see Infrastructure, above) that development of 
small, unimproved roads is likely, although we do not attempt to 
quantify the extent of potential new road development.
    As stated in our proposed rule, both the Inyo and Humboldt-Toiyabe 
National Forests have recently completed Travel Management Plans (USFS 
2009, entire; USFS 2010, entire). During these planning processes, 
nearly 2,000 km (1,225 mi) of previously unauthorized routes were 
adopted into the National Forest System (USFS 2009, p. 3; USFS 2010, p. 
5). While some of these routes have been in place for many years, 
others were reported to be recent developments. We believe this 
suggests a history of unauthorized road development, apparently due to 
enforcement challenges, and to some extent is suggestive of future 
activity. In addition, the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 18, 31, 36, 
41) identifies the recent or potential future development of unimproved 
roads as a concern in four of the six PMUs. Further, we know of one 
recent project proposal to add a paved road segment to the Mammoth-
Yosemite Airport in Long Valley (Perloff 2014, pers. comm.) and 
additional projects to improve/realign Highway 395 near Bridgeport, 
California (Cornwell 2014, pers. comm.). Thus, we consider this 
information, collectively, is an indication that additional development 
of unimproved roads is foreseeable. While we remain challenged to 
accurately quantify the extent of future unimproved road development, 
or quantify potential road improvements, we maintain that the potential 
exists and that it is likely to continue to occur.
    Finally, there appears to be substantial and increasing interest 
among recreational users of unimproved roads in the bi-State area, as 
well as an increase in road traffic associated with a mine site in the 
Mount Grant PMU (Bi-State TAC 2012a, p. 36). As a result, we anticipate 
that recreational and mining vehicle traffic will continue to increase, 
especially in the Mount Grant and Pine Nut PMUs (see the roads 
discussion under the Infrastructure section of the Species Report). 
Based on the best available literature regarding potential impacts of 
road activity on sage-grouse and their habitat (such as declines in lek 
attendance, and alterations to predator or invasive species occurrence 
(Gelbard and Belnap 2003, p. 426; Holloran 2005, p. 40; Bui 2009, p. 
31; Blickley et al. 2012, p. 467)), traffic volume may be more 
influential on habitat use by sage-grouse than mere road presence 
(Gillan et al. 2013, p. 307), especially as it pertains to unimproved 
dirt roads. Therefore, we consider roads to be a potential ongoing 
impact and not merely a historic one, and as a result,

[[Page 22859]]

conservation efforts are being implemented currently and in the future 
(e.g., temporary and permanent road closures) to reduce potential road 
impacts (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.). The BSAP contains a number of 
provisions to eliminate or reduce impacts assocaited with 
infrasturcutre and human disturbance (Bi-State TAC 2012a), including 
roads, that we have found to be sufficiently certain to be implemented 
and effective in ameliorating this threat (see Policy for Evaluation of 
Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section, 
above).
    (18) Comment: Several commenters submit that feral horses pose an 
impact to sagebrush habitat and are a threat to sage-grouse 
conservation.
    Our Response: We agree with the commenters that feral horses can 
degrade sagebrush habitat and in turn can have negative impacts on 
sage-grouse populations in the bi-State area. As stated in our proposed 
rule, there are seven Wild Horse Territories or Herd Management Areas, 
as well as one Wild Horse Unit, which overlap sage-grouse habitat in 
the bi-State area (see Grazing and Rangeland Management, above). The 
most significant impacts are apparent in the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and 
White Mountains PMUs, where associated horse numbers are currently 
above the targeted management levels (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 19, 37, 
41). However, we have limited data to infer the degree of impact to 
sage-grouse populations caused by apparent habitat degradation, and no 
new information was received to further inform our understanding of 
this potential impact. Management of herd size by Federal agencies is 
an ongoing challenge as horses reproduce rapidly and management is 
expensive and politically sensitive. Therefore, based on the current 
known impacts from feral horses, we anticipate impacts from wild horse 
management could continue into the future and as a result, conservation 
efforts are being implemented currently and in the future (e.g., 
evaluate and manage wild horse herds throughout the bi-State DPS range) 
to reduce potential impacts (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.).
    (19) Comment: Several commenters suggest that impacts caused by 
hunting are more severe than we conclude in the proposed rule. 
Alternatively, several other commenters generally agreed with our 
conclusions on harvest but submit that we should consider the confusion 
in public perception that is created by not more fully recognizing an 
intentional and controllable form of mortality.
    Our Response: The allowance of recreational sage-grouse hunting in 
the bi-State area is based on the concepts of compensatory and additive 
mortality. The compensatory mortality hypothesis contends that 
populations compensate for harvest mortality by reducing rates of 
natural mortality (e.g., starvation, predation, or disease); thereby, 
overall mortality remains unchanged (Anderson and Burnham 1976, pp. 5-
10). Additive mortality results in an increase in total mortality with 
increasing harvest mortality.
    Results of studies to determine whether hunting mortality in sage-
grouse is compensatory or additive have been contradictory (Crawford 
1982, p. 376; Crawford and Lutz 1985, p. 72; Braun 1987, p. 139; 
Johnson and Braun 1999, p. 83; Connelly et al. 2003, p. 337; Sedinger 
et al. 2010, p. 329). Thus, an appropriate harvest level has not been 
determined for sage-grouse populations, including for the bi-State 
area. Currently, State wildlife agencies across the range of the 
greater sage-grouse attempt to keep harvest levels below 5 to 10 
percent of the fall population based on recommendations in Connelly et 
al. (2000a, p. 976). This harvest level of the fall populations appears 
to be the adopted standard among States and, in general, species 
experts agree this level is compatible with conservation (Reese and 
Connelly 2011, entire).
    In 1997, NDOW closed the hunting season for sage-grouse in the bi-
State area (NDOW 2012, in litt., p. 4); thus, sage-grouse in the bi-
State area can only be harvested in two select locations (i.e, the 
North and South Mono Hunt Units, or the Bodie Hills and Long Valley 
areas in Bodie and South Mono PMUs) in California. Since 1998, CDFW has 
annually issued between 20 and 35 single-bird hunting permits for each 
of these areas (Bi-State Local Planning Group 2004, p. 173; CDFW 2012, 
in litt.). The estimated harvest from these permits averages 
approximately 40 total birds annually: 20 birds for the North Mono and 
20 birds for the South Mono Hunt Units (CDFW 2012, in litt.).
    Comparing the recent (2011 and 2012) estimated harvest levels to 
the estimated fall population in the California portion of the DPS over 
the past decade, harvest has been on the order of 2 to 4 percent of the 
estimated fall population in each of the Bodie and South Mono PMUs 
(CDFW 2012, in litt.). As currently instituted, the permit system 
employed by CDFW is keeping the estimated harvest rate below the 
currently accepted harvest rate of 5 to 10 percent of the fall 
population. We believe this harvest rate is compatible with a 
compensatory mortality paradigm and, therefore, likely has a negligible 
impact on the population.
    We recognize that the public may be confused by our conclusion that 
limited hunting (as described above and in the Overutilization Impacts 
section) is not currently considered an impact to the DPS and that this 
activity has the potential to lead to an individual's perception that 
we are not fully recognizing an intentional and controllable form of 
mortality. However, we note that according to section 4(b) of the Act, 
we are required to make a listing determination based on the best 
scientific and commercial data available, which as stated above, 
indicates that the existing limited hunting is not an impact to the DPS 
at this time.
    (20) Comment: One commenter provided information that a 1,537-ha 
(3,800-ac) conservation easement was recently completed near the West 
Fork Walker River along the boundary delineating the Desert Creek-Fales 
and Pine Nut PMUs.
    Our Response: We are aware of this conservation easement, and 
(along with other known conservation easements) this information was 
taken into account during our evaluation of current conservation 
efforts and their value at reducing potential impacts posed by 
urbanization and habitat conversion (see Conservation Efforts section 
of the Species Report and the Ongoing and Future Conservation Efforts 
section of this document.
    (21) Comment: One commenter requested clarification as to why we 
identified urbanization as a threat in the White Mountains PMU.
    Our Response: Approximately 688,474 ha (1,701,258 ac) or 97 percent 
of the White Mountains PMU is publicly owned. However, there is 
potential for future urban development on the limited private lands 
present in this PMU, as demonstrated by the recently expanded housing 
developments near Chiatovich Creek in Nevada (Bi-State Lek Surveillance 
Program 2012, p. 38; Bi-State TAC 2012a, p. 41) that are approximately 
8 km (5 mi) south of two recently identified leks. The best available 
data for this area indicate direct loss of sagebrush habitat, as well 
as the potential that this activity may be influencing connectivity 
between the northern and southern portions of this PMU (Bi-State TAC 
2012a, p. 41). Without implementation of conservation actions, further, 
additional habitat loss or fragmentation of this corridor area could 
occur, potentially limiting connectivity between the White Mountains 
PMU and Adobe Valley in the South Mono PMU and leading to

[[Page 22860]]

further isolation of the White Mountains population. See Urbanization 
and Habitat Conversion above for further discussion of the potential 
impacts of urbanization and resulting sagebrush habitat fragmentation 
concerns and the conservation actions being implanted to address those 
impacts.
    (22) Comment: One commenter stated that additional discussion is 
needed to address how urbanization is often driven by generational tax 
issues influenced by increased regulation and uncertainty of business 
operation.
    Our Response: We recognize that many factors may influence a 
private land owner's decision to sell or retain his or her property, 
including the potential listing of federally endangered or threatened 
species. Further, we also have concern that the subdivision of 
currently intact parcels of private land may negatively affect sage-
grouse conservation in the bi-State area (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 18, 
24, 31, 41), thus potentially contributing to additional loss and 
fragmentation of existing sagebrush habitat and reducing connectivity 
among populations. However, we believe that quantifying the likelihood 
of a private parcel being subdivided as a result of our listing action 
is speculative. We are unaware of specific information nor was any 
information provided by the commenter regarding how generational taxes 
or the perception of potential increased regulation as a result of 
listing the bi-State DPS might affect a landowner's plans for the 
disposition of his or her property.
    (23) Comment: Numerous commenters suggested that predators are a 
significant threat and that we did not account for this impact 
accurately. Further, many commenters suggested predator removal 
programs should be implemented. Alternatively, several commenters 
suggested that predator control is not sustainable and may have 
negative and unintended consequences.
    Our Response: We recognize that predation of sage-grouse is the 
most commonly identified cause of direct mortality during all life 
stages (Schroeder et al. 1999, p. 9; Connelly et al. 2000b, p. 228; 
Casazza et al. 2009, p. 45; Connelly et al. 2011, p. 65). However, we 
note that sage-grouse have coevolved with a suite of predators 
(Schroeder et al. 1999, pp. 9-10), yet the species has persisted. Thus, 
this form of mortality is apparently offset by other aspects of the 
species life-history under ``normal'' conditions. However, when non-
endemic predators are introduced into a system (one with which the prey 
species did not evolve (e.g., domestic cats and dogs)), or when other 
factors influence the balance between endemic predator and prey 
interactions, such that a predator gains a competitive advantage, 
predation may overwhelm a prey species life-history strategy and 
ultimately influence population growth and persistence (Braun 1998, pp. 
145-146; Holloran 2005, p. 58; Coates 2007, p. 155; Bui 2009, p. 2; 
Coates and Delehanty 2010, p. 243; Howe et al. 2014, p. 41). Therefore, 
we agree that increases in sage-grouse predator abundance and predation 
rates are a concern by potentially negatively affecting population 
growth. However, we maintain that predation is a proximal cause of 
mortality and increases in predator abundance and predation rates are 
ultimately caused by changes in habitat conditions, which positively 
influence predator occurrence or efficiency. See sections Urbanization 
and Habitat Conversion, Infrastructure, and Predation sections in the 
associated Species Report for a detailed analysis on the impacts of 
predation.
    As a point of clarification, we agree that targeted, short-term 
predator removal programs may be warranted in instances where habitat 
restoration cannot be achieved in a timely manner. In these instances, 
predation rates and predator abundance may be artificially high and 
high sage-grouse mortality may be a concern. However, data do not 
appear to suggest that removal programs are sustainable or that they 
result in increased sage-grouse numbers (Hagen 2011, pp. 98-99). We 
intend to explore the potential benefits and negative ramifications 
caused by predator control through our continued coordination efforts 
with the Bi-State TAC and LAWG for continued conservation of the bi-
State DPS.
    (24) Comment: Several commenters questioned our conclusion that 
there has been a reduction in occupied sage-grouse habitat in the bi-
State area.
    Our Response: In the proposed rule, we described that range loss 
occurred due to woodland succession, urbanization and habitat 
conversion, infrastructure, and more recently to fire (see Nonnative, 
Invasive and Native Plants, Urbanization and Habitat Conversion, 
Infrastructure, and Wildfire and Altered Fire Regimes sections of the 
Species Report (Service 2015a)). Based solely on woodland succession 
(see our response to Comment 3 above), we conclude that the loss of 
sagebrush habitat in the bi-State area has been on the order of 50 
percent. Further, we note that this estimate does not include 
approximately 52,439 ha (129,582 ac) of habitat altered by fire over 
the past 20 years nor areas that were known or could be anticipated to 
have supported sage-grouse historically such as Minden/Gardnerville, 
Nevada, Smith Valley, Nevada, Adobe Valley, California, and northern 
Inyo County, California (USFS 1966, p. 4).
    We recognize there will remain uncertainty concerning historical 
occurrence of sage-grouse in the bi-State area; however, commenters did 
not provide any additional information to demonstrate that the habitat 
loss did not occur. Therefore, we reaffirm our conclusion, based on the 
best available scientific and commercial information, that the occupied 
habitat for the bi-State DPS was reduced as a result of habitat 
alterations and possibly other mechanisms (such as local extirpations 
of sage-grouse caused by harvest) that will remain unknown.
    (25) Comment: Numerous commenters suggested that the degree of 
impact we assign to specific threat factors is not accurate. Many of 
these commenters provided opinions as to appropriate revisions. 
Further, several commenters identified inconsistencies in our proposed 
rule associated with our assignment of significance level to specific 
threats.
    Our Response: The threats analysis and associated discussion of the 
degree of impact that is described in the Species Report (2013 and 2014 
versions), our proposed listing rule, and this document is based upon 
the best available scientific and commercial information. No additional 
information or assessments were provided by the commenters to support 
their claim that the analysis and conclusions in our proposed listing 
rule were inaccurate. However, where applicable in our revised Species 
Report (Service 2015a) and this document, we have updated these threats 
analysis discussions based on new information received since the 
proposed rule published on October 28, 2013 (78 FR 64358). With regard 
to potential inconsistencies in the threats analysis in the proposed 
rule, we made corrections to any inconsistencies identified and as 
applicable in both the revised Species Report (Service 2015a) and this 
document.
    (26) Comment: Numerous commenters stated that OHV recreation is not 
an impact on sage-grouse or sagebrush habitat, especially in light of 
specific modern management practices such as sound restrictions, timing 
restrictions, and weed awareness programs.
    Our Response: OHV recreation occurs on an extensive network of 
roads in the bi-State area. The activity is generally difficult to 
measure and we have little information to infer the amount of public 
participation in OHV recreation.

[[Page 22861]]

Further, specific work assessing effects of OHV use on sagebrush and 
sage-grouse have not been conducted. Therefore, in this document and 
associated Species Report, we do not draw firm conclusions with respect 
to the impact this recreational activity may have on the species. 
However, we contend that it is reasonable to extrapolate relevant 
research on roads and vehicle traffic to understand and anticipate 
potential impacts from OHV activity. Potential impacts may include 
noise disturbance, spread of invasive plants that degrades sage-grouse 
habitat, sage-grouse displacement or avoidance behavior, effects to 
predator and prey dynamics, collisions with vehicles, and habitat loss, 
among others (Bui 2009, p. 31; Knick et al. 2011, p. 219; Blickley et 
al. 2012, p. 467).
    Therefore, we disagree with the commenter's assertion that OHV use 
has no impact on sage-grouse or sagebrush habitats but recognize the 
level of impact is more likely influenced by the degree and timing of 
the activity. Thus, specific locations, due to proximity to roads or 
extent of use, are likely to be more negatively influenced as compared 
to sites that do not share these characteristics. In the bi-State area, 
impacts appear most apparent in the Pine Nut PMU, especially on the 
west side of the Pine Nut Range, where bird occurrence is now rare (Bi-
State TAC 2012a, pp. 18-19). Whether this localized reduction in sage-
grouse was the direct result of any single form of human activity is 
not known, but it is likely it was caused by a combination of factors 
related to human development. We note that on the edges of the 
residential developments in this area, an extensive network of user-
created roads has been established and this has extended the impact 
beyond the physical footprint of residential development.
    We appreciate and agree that minimizing noise associated with 
vehicles, establishing timing restrictions on OHV activity, and 
educating users about weeds and the need to minimize their spread is 
beneficial for sage-grouse conservation. The commenters did not provide 
specific evidence as to how these management practices ameliorate 
potential impacts to the DPS, nor the degree to which these 
recommendations are embraced by the broader OHV community. Thus, we 
could not evaluate these efforts more thoroughly. Therefore, while 
these management practices have helped address some of the effects of 
OHV activity on the bi-State DPS and its habitat, they have not 
eliminated the impacts to the DPS and its habitat.
    (27) Comment: One commenter suggested that the potential threat to 
sage-grouse posed by fencing can be mitigated. Alternatively, another 
commenter stated that fencing is a major threat and expressed concern 
that there are no programs in place to require fencing to be removed.
    Our Response: We agree that certain practices, such as making 
fences more visible to sage-grouse through the use of visual markers or 
employing the use of alternative fence designs (i.e., let-down 
fencing), can reduce certain impacts to the bi-State DPS caused by 
fencing, specifically collision. However, we do not anticipate that 
these efforts will completely ameliorate the threat of collision. For 
example, Stevens et al. (2012, p. 301) found that marking fences 
reduced the fence collision rate during the sage-grouse breeding season 
by 83 percent. Nevertheless, collisions still occurred at marked 
fences, especially those in close proximity to spring breeding sites, 
suggesting marking alone did not completely resolve the concern. 
Furthermore, while direct mortality through collision may be minimized 
by these approaches, indirect impacts caused by predation and other 
forms of habitat degradation may remain (see the Fencing discussion 
under the Infrastructure section of the Species Report (Service 2015a, 
pp. 60-62)). Therefore, a combination of approaches to managing fences 
and their impacts needs to be applied, which may include removal. These 
efforts are currently ongoing in the bi-State area (Bi-State TAC 2012a, 
p. 5) as part of the BSAP.
    With regards to the comment that fencing may be considered a major 
threat, we have described the impacts that may occur from fencing based 
on the best scientific and commercial information available. We found 
that fencing impacts are widespread but generally minor. In addition, 
management actions are being undertaken to further ameliorate this 
threat. For example, approximately 12 km (8 mi) of fencing has been 
removed or modified in the bi-State area affecting nearly 36 ha (90 ac) 
of habitat, and approximately 29 km (18 mi) of fencing has been marked 
with visual flight diverters. Furthermore, the BLM Resource Management 
Plan (RMP) and USFS LRMP draft amendments prepared by the Humboldt-
Toiyabe National Forest, and the Carson City District and Tonopah Field 
Office of the BLM, specifically identify restrictions on new fence 
installation and removal or marking of fences already in place within 
3.2 km (2 mi) of an active lek (USDI and USDA 2015, entire). Although 
these draft plans contain the mentioned provisions for fencing, we do 
not rely on them for our determination.
    We note that there is no requirement for Federal or non-Federal 
landowners to develop a program that would require fencing to be 
removed from the bi-State area. We also believe that the removal of 
fencing throughout the bi-State area is not a reasonable consideration 
for land managers. However, consideration of alternative approaches to 
traditional fencing would help reduce impacts of fencing to sage-grouse 
(for example, use of let-down fence designs), and we will continue to 
work with partners to encourage implementation of reduced or 
alternative approaches to fencing in areas that are most important to 
the bi-State DPS. Conservation efforts that either underway currently 
or planned forin the future can reduce fencing impacts in priority 
areas (e.g., BLM's removal of racetrack fencing in Bodie PMU, marking 
or modifying fencing in Pine Nut and South Mono PMUs) (Bi-State TAC 
2014a, in litt.).
    (28) Comment: One commenter disagreed with our characterization of 
pinyon-juniper woodlands as a ``native invasive species.'' Two 
additional commenters suggested woodlands and woodland expansion is 
natural and should be left alone. Specifically, commenters speculated 
that forest occurrence is a reestablishment of sites that were 
harvested during historic mining in the later part of the 1800's.
    Our Response: We agree that the term ``native invasive species'' is 
inappropriately applied to characterize the current expansion of native 
tree species into sagebrush habitats. Executive Order 13112 defined an 
invasive species as an exotic or native species that is nonnative to 
the specific ecosystem under consideration and whose introduction 
causes or is likely to cause economic environmental harm or harm to 
human health (64 FR 6183, February 8, 1999). This definition includes 
species native to other parts of North America; however, Miller et al. 
(2011, p. 157) defined ``increasers'' as species that occur within the 
region of interest. Therefore, we have modified our language where 
appropriate in this document and our revised Species Report (Service 
2015a, entire).
    Across the bi-State area, approximately 40 percent of the 
historically available sagebrush habitat has been usurped by woodland 
succession over the past 150 years (USGS 2012, unpublished data). As 
described in the Nonnative Invasive and Native Increasing Plants 
section of the Species Report, the cause of this increase is likely 
multifaceted but most certainly includes recovery from past

[[Page 22862]]

disturbances such as mining. However, the support for this single 
mechanism is not apparent. For example, there are locations within the 
bi-State area where there are stumps from harvested trees that are 
attributable to the mining era; however most locations do not contain 
evidence of past tree cutting. Furthermore, genetic evidence suggests 
that sage-grouse populations contained within the bi-State area were 
historically more connected and not until relatively recently have 
these connections begun to erode (Oyler-McCance et al. 2014, pp. 10-
11). Thus, this suggests that barriers to movement, such as trees, were 
less restrictive historically as compared to today.
    Ultimately, the cause of woodland encroachment becomes less 
relevant in light of its implications as the response to tree presence 
by sage-grouse is uniformly negative (Commons et al. 1999, p. 238; 
Doherty et al. 2008, p. 187; Freese 2009, pp. 84-85, 89-90; Casazza et 
al. 2011, p. 159; Baruch-Mordo et al. 2013, p. 237). Therefore, 
management of pinyon-juniper encroachment in specific areas that would 
most benefit the bi-State DPS (e.g., lek sites, migration corridors, 
brood-rearing habitat), and is consistent with our understanding of a 
specific site's vegetation potential, is an important consideration by 
land managers (as described in the BSAP) to reduce this impact on the 
bi-State DPS and its habitat.
    (29) Comment: One commenter disagreed with our conclusion that 
cheatgrass is a significant threat to the bi-State DPS, which the 
commenter believes was a departure from the BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a).
    Our Response: We identified cheatgrass as an impact to the bi-State 
DPS and its habitat because it can replace vegetation essential to 
sage-grouse and negatively impact sagebrush ecosystems by altering 
plant community structure and composition, productivity, nutrient 
cycling, and hydrology (Vitousek 1990, p. 7; Miller et al. 2011, pp. 
160-164). We maintain that our assessment and that of the BSAP (Bi-
State TAC 2012a) are largely congruent. The BSAP recognizes cheatgrass 
as a threat in each of the six PMUs, considering it a low-severity 
threat in four PMUs, a moderate threat in one PMU, and a high-level 
threat in one PMU (Bi-State TAC 2012a, pp. 19, 26, 32, 37, 41, 49). We 
relied significantly on the assessment in the BSAP to inform our 
analysis and discussion in the Species Report (Service 2013a, 2015a), 
the proposed listing rule, and this document. However, we note that 
climate change and the interaction between this change agent and other 
stressors (such as cheatgrass) were not evaluated during the BSAP 
assessment. Thus, our evaluation in the Species Report (Service 2013a, 
2015a), the proposed listing rule, and in this document includes an 
assessment of the potential influence climate change may have on 
cheatgrass occurrence.
    Available climate data suggest that future cheatgrass conditions 
will be most influenced by precipitation and winter temperatures 
(Bradley 2009, p. 200). Predictions on the timing, type, and amount of 
precipitation contain the greatest uncertainty. In the bi-State area, 
model scenarios that result in the greatest expansion of cheatgrass 
suggest much of the area remains suitable to cheatgrass presence with 
some additional high-elevation sites in the Bodie Hills, White 
Mountains, and Long Valley becoming more suitable than they are today 
(Bradley 2009, p. 204). On the opposite end of the spectrum, model 
scenarios that result in the greatest contraction in cheatgrass range 
suggest low-elevation sites such as Desert Creek-Fales and Mount Grant 
PMUs become less suitable for this invasive species, but high-elevation 
sites (i.e., Bodie and White Mountains PMUs) where habitat conditions 
are generally marginal today become more suitable in the future. 
Therefore, similar to the BSAP, we recognize that cheatgrass impacts 
today vary across the bi-State region. However, in contrast to the 
BSAP, we consider future impacts will influence this threat and even 
the best-case scenario suggests challenges will persist, although the 
location of these challenges may shift. Conservation efforts that are 
either currenly under way or planned for in the future can reduce 
potential cheatgrass impacts in priority areas (e.g., multiple BLM and 
USFS invasive weed management treatments in multiple PMUs) (Bi-State 
TAC 2014a, in litt.).
    (30) Comment: One commenter suggested our estimate of woodland 
expansion in the bi-State area is an overestimate.
    Our Response: We stated in our proposed listing rule that across 
the bi-State area approximately 40 percent of the historically 
available sagebrush habitat has been usurped by woodland succession 
over the past 150 years (USGS 2012, unpublished data). No additional 
information was received by the commenter or others since the proposed 
rule published that would modify our understanding of this threat. 
Therefore, based on the best available information, we conclude that 
woodland expansion is a potential threat in the bi-State area as it has 
reduced habitat availability and negatively influenced population 
connectivity. As a result, conservation efforts that are currently 
underway or planned for in the future can reduce potential woodland 
succession impacts in priority areas (e.g., BLM, USFS, and NRCS 
treatments of Phase I and II pinyon-juniper encroachment in all six 
PMUs) (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.).
    (31) Comment: One commenter expressed concern that listing the bi-
State DPS would impact culturally significant resources, specifically 
referring to pinyon pine seed collection.
    Our Response: We recognize that many Native American Tribes 
consider pinyon pine seed collection to be a culturally significant 
resource. Under the Act, we are required to use the best available 
scientific and commercial information to assess the factors affecting a 
species in order to make a status determination. The Act requires us to 
consider all threats and impacts that may be responsible for declines 
as potential listing factors. The evidence presented in the proposed 
rule suggests that pinyon-juniper forest encroachment is impacting the 
bi-State DPS and its habitat to a certain degree (see our response to 
Comments 30 and 32 above, and the Native Increasing Plants section of 
the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 78-84)). Furthermore, we do not 
believe that it is reasonable (both ecologically and practicably) that 
all pinyon-juniper woodlands will be removed from the bi-State area. 
Ecologists have developed clear recommendations for targeting woodland 
sites amenable to restoration (based on age class, tree density, soil 
type, etc.) and in general these locations comprise younger age classes 
of trees, which do not produce significant seed crops. Although the Act 
does not allow us the discretion to consider culturally significant 
resources to inform a listing decision, there does not appear to be a 
remaining concern given our proposed listing action is being withdrawn.
    (32) Comment: Several commenters suggest that fire is the most 
significant threat to the bi-State DPS and post-fire restoration is 
difficult. Alternatively, several other commenters suggest that fire is 
a natural process and does not constitute a complete loss of habitat 
for the bi-State DPS because sage-grouse will use burned areas.
    Our Response: In this document, we address potential habitat 
changes that may be related to wildland fires and post-fire restoration 
activities. We agree that fire is a natural process on the landscape 
within the bi-State area; however, we also note that we found that the 
``too-little'' and ``too-much'' fire

[[Page 22863]]

scenarios present challenges for the bi-State DPS. In other words, in 
some locations, the lack of fire has facilitated the expansion of 
woodlands, especially into montane shrub communities. In other 
locations, recent fires have been followed by invasive-weed 
establishment facilitating a reoccurring fire cycle that restricts 
sagebrush restoration. These scenarios present challenges for the 
species, as habitat losses outpace habitat gains. Although fires have 
occurred across the range of the bi-State DPS historically and 
recently, we acknowledge that suitable habitat remains for sage-grouse 
use. However, in some cases, remaining suitable habitat is threatened 
by additional fire because of adjacent invasive annual plants and 
woodland establishment, which can influence the frequency and intensity 
of future fire events. Further, impacts to remaining sagebrush habitat 
may be exacerbated due to other additive threats that are acting in the 
bi-State area (see Synergistic ImpactsCumulative Effects section 
above). To reduce impacts associated with nonnative, invasive plants 
and woodland succession, conservation efforts are currently underway 
and planned for in the future (e.g., multiple BLM and USFS invasive 
weed management treatments in multiple PMUs), (e.g., BLM, USFS, and 
NRCS treatments of Phase I and II pinyon-juniper encroachment in all 
six PMUs) (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.).
    Additionally, while short-term (and potentially long-term) impacts 
from fire events to sage-grouse are known to occur, including but not 
limited to habitat loss and population declines (Beck et al. 2012, p. 
452; Knick et al. 2011, p. 233; Wisdom et al. 2011, p. 469), we agree 
that some information suggests sage-grouse use of burned habitat. Small 
fires may maintain a suitable habitat mosaic by reducing shrub 
encroachment and encouraging understory growth. However, without 
available nearby sagebrush cover, the broad utility of these sites is 
questionable (Woodward 2006, p. 65). For example, Slater (2003, p. 63) 
reported that sage-grouse using burned areas were rarely found more 
than 60 m (200 ft) from the edge of the burn and may preferentially use 
the burned and unburned edge habitat.
    In summary, we recognize that fire is natural and the primary 
disturbance mechanism in the sagebrush ecosystem. We also recognize 
that sage-grouse will selectively utilize portions of burned habitat. 
However, the challenge remains that the sustainability of this system 
is questionable where habitat loss outpaces habitat gain, especially 
given the currently limited and fragmented suitable sagebrush habitat 
in the bi-State area. Therefore, land managers within the range of the 
bi-State DPS are currently and will continue to implement conservation 
efforts into the future that are expected to reduce the potential 
impacts of wildfire as it relates to nonnative, invasive plants and 
pinyon-juniper encroachment (Bi-State TAC 2014a, in litt.).
    (33) Comment: One commenter stated that the Benton County landfill 
will close in 2023. Another commenter stated that there is no guarantee 
that the landfill will close.
    Our Response: We identified the Benton County landfill (located in 
Long Valley, California) as a potential threat factor to the bi-State 
DPS because the landfill helps support a significant population of 
common ravens and Larus californicus (California gulls). Common ravens 
(and possibly California gulls) can potentially affect population 
growth in sage-grouse by negatively impacting nesting and brood-rearing 
success (Coates et al. 2008, pp. 425-426). While predation has not been 
studied explicitly, data do demonstrate that nest success in Long 
Valley (South Mono PMU) is significantly lower as compared to other 
sage-grouse populations within the bi-State area (Kolada et al. 2009a, 
p. 1,344) and this result may be attributable to an increased number of 
sage-grouse predators (i.e., ravens and gulls) subsidized by landfill 
operations (Casazza 2008, pers. comm.).
    The Benton County landfill is located on private property owned by 
the LADWP and leased by Mono County, California. The lease is set to 
expire in 2023 and both the LADWP and Mono County state the lease will 
not be renewed (Weiche 2013, pers. comm.; Johnston 2014, in litt.).
    (34) Comment: One commenter stated that impacts to the bi-State DPS 
caused by cellular towers can be mitigated by installing anti-perching 
devices to prevent perching by avian predators.
    Our Response: We identified cellular towers as an impact to the bi-
State DPS and its habitat because the presence of this form of 
infrastructure has been shown to be correlated with extirpated range 
(Wisdom et al. 2011, p. 463). Furthermore, distance to cellular towers 
appeared to be a highly discriminatory variable explaining extirpation. 
The mechanism by which this feature may lead to sage-grouse extirpation 
has not been studied. Thus, whether cellular towers function in a cause 
and effect manner (such as facilitating predation) or simply are 
aligned with other detrimental factors (such as being an indicator of 
intense human development) is not known.
    The Service acknowledges that installation of anti-perching devices 
on tall structures (such as cellular towers) may influence predation 
rates. However, the efficacy of this practice to discourage raptor and 
corvid perching is debatable (Prather and Messmer 2010, p. 798), and 
increased predation may not be the mechanism leading to extirpation. 
Thus, while we generally agree that perch deterrents may ameliorate any 
increased predation impacts caused by cellular towers on sage-grouse, 
available data do not support the idea that these devices (currently) 
can eliminate the threat entirely. We will continue to work with 
landowners and partners to remove or reduce impacts from existing or 
potential future cellular towers, especially in proximity to breeding, 
nesting, and brood-rearing habitats.
    (35) Comment: Several commenters suggested that climate change 
poses a significant impact to the bi-State DPS and its habitat, 
including one commenter that stated we underestimated the impact that 
climate change may have on the DPS.
    Our Response: In this document under Factors A and E, we address 
potential impacts associated with climate change. We found that 
projected climate change and its associated consequences have the 
potential to affect sage-grouse, and sagebrush habitat in the bi-State 
area. The impacts of climate change interact with other stressors such 
as disease, invasive species, prey availability, moisture, vegetation 
community dynamics, disturbance regimes, and other habitat degradations 
and loss that are already affecting the species (Global Climate Change 
Impacts in the United States 2009, p. 81; Miller et al. 2011, pp. 174-
179; Walker and Naugle 2011, entire; Finch 2012, pp. 60, 80). We 
concluded that without consideration of conservation actions, the 
overall impact of climate change to the bi-State DPS at this time is 
moderate. Neither the commenters nor others provided new information 
related to climate change that would result in a change in our 
analysis. However, since the publication of the proposed rule, ongoing 
implementation of various conservation measures in the BSAP has reduced 
the significance of the threat of wildfire and invasive plants, which 
could work synergistically with climate to impact sage grouse. 
Continued implementation of the BSAP further reduces the impacts of 
these threats to the bi-State sage-grouse. Therefore, even should 
climate change increase the threat of wildfire

[[Page 22864]]

and invasive plants to some degree, we no longer conclude that climate 
change acting in concert with these other threats constitutes a 
significant threat to the bi-State DPS. See the Climate section of the 
Species Report for further discussion (Service 2015a, pp. 91-99).
    (36) Comment: One commenter stated that the proposed listing rule 
violates Executive Order 13563, as the Service fails to identify a 
recovery goal.
    Our Response: We disagree that Executive Order 13563 (76 FR 3821) 
should be interpreted to require the Service to identify a recovery 
goal when proposing a listing rule under the ESA. The ESA requires the 
Service to create recovery plans for all listed species that contain 
objective, measurable criteria that, when met, would lead to removal of 
the species from the list. These recovery plans are created following a 
final determination to list a species as threatened or endangered. In 
this case, we are withdrawing our proposal to list the bi-state DPS of 
greater sage-grouse.
    (37) Comment: Several commenters stated that the court-mandated 
timeline for making a final listing determination is too short and does 
not allow adequate time to determine if conservation efforts, such as 
those identified in the 2012 BSAP, are sufficient to maintain a viable 
sage-grouse population in the bi-State area.
    Our Response: In 2011, we reached, and the court accepted, a 
stipulated settlement agreement with several plaintiffs in Endangered 
Species Act Section 4 Deadline Litig., Misc. Action No. 10-377 (EGS), 
Multi-District Litigation (MDL) Docket No. 2165 (D. DC) (known as the 
``MDL case''). This settlement established a multiyear workplan, 
whereby we committed to publish proposed rules or not-warranted 
findings on 251 species designated as candidates as of 2010 no later 
than September 30, 2016. Our time line associated with the bi-State DPS 
reflects this workplan.
    (38) Comment: Several commenters stated that we should have 
proposed listing the bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse as an 
endangered species as opposed to a threatened species.
    Our Response: Section 3 of the Act defines an endangered species as 
any species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range, and a threatened species as any 
species that is likely to become an endangered species within the 
foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its 
range. Endangered species are at the brink of extinction today, while 
threatened species are likely to be at the brink in the foreseeable 
future if their status does not improve or at least stabilize.
    With regard to the bi-State DPS, we have identified potential 
threats across the range of the bi-State DPS that are synergistically 
resulting in the present or threatened destruction, modification, or 
curtailment of its habitat or range, and other natural or manmade 
threats affecting the DPS's continued existence. We have determined 
that, in the absence of any conservation efforts, these impacts are 
such that the DPS is likely to become an endangered species within the 
foreseeable future (i.e., the definition of a threatened species). Many 
of these impacts could act cumulatively upon the bi-State DPS and 
increase the risk of extinction, but not to such a degree that the DPS 
is in danger of extinction today (see Determination, above). However, 
after consideration of partially completed projects and future 
conservation efforts that we have found to be highly certain to be 
implemented and effective (see Policy for Evaluation of Conservation 
Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE) section, above), we 
believe the bi-State DPS is not in danger of becoming extinct 
throughout all or a significant portion of its range, and is not likely 
to become endangered within the foreseeable future (threatened), 
throughout all or a significant portion of its range. Therefore, the 
bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse does not meet the definition of a 
threatened or endangered species, and we are withdrawing the proposed 
rule to list the DPS as a threatened species.
    (39) Comment: Several commenters suggested that the decline of the 
bi-State DPS is a natural evolutionary process, and that the presence 
of environmental stressors is a normal driver of evolution and 
extinction.
    Our Response: Under the Act, we are required to use the best 
available scientific and commercial information to assess the factors 
affecting a species in order to make a status determination. The Act 
requires the Service to consider all threats and impacts that may be 
responsible for declines as potential listing factors. The evidence 
presented suggests that the threats to the species are both natural and 
manmade (see impacts associated with Factor E, including (but not 
limited to) infrastructure, wildfire, small population size, 
urbanization, and recreation).
    (40) Comment: A few commenters were concerned about the effects of 
listing on mining and associated activities conducted under the General 
Mining Law of 1872. One commenter suggested that listing did not take 
into consideration Federal mining law and recognition of valid existing 
rights. Another commenter was concerned that there would be no 
assurances that development of a mining claim will result in the 
ability to mine it.
    Our Response: In the proposed listing rule, we identified mining 
and associated activities to be a threat to the bi-State DPS; however, 
we consider it a less significant impact and one that does not occur 
across the entire bi-State area. On federally managed land outside of 
designated wilderness, new mining may occur pursuant to the Mining Law 
of 1872 (30 U.S.C. 21 et seq.), which was enacted to promote 
exploration and development of domestic mineral resources, as well as 
the settlement of the western United States. It permits U.S. citizens 
and businesses to prospect hardrock (locatable) minerals and, if a 
valuable deposit is found, file a claim giving them the right to use 
the land for mining activities and sell the minerals extracted. Gold 
and other minerals are frequently mined as locatable minerals, and, as 
such, mining is subject to the Mining Law of 1872. Authorization of 
mining under the Mining Law of 1872 is a discretionary agency action 
pursuant to section 7 of the Act. Therefore, Federal agencies with 
jurisdiction over land where mining occurs will review mining and other 
actions that they fund, authorize, or carry out to determine if listed 
species may be affected in accordance with section 7 of the Act. 
Because we have withdrawn our proposed rule to list the bi-State DPS 
and it will not be placed on the list of federally endangered or 
threatened species, consultations under section 7 of the Act will not 
be required specific to the bi-State DPS.
    (41) Comment: Several commenters stated that conservation efforts 
to date have not been adequate to address known threats.
    Our Response: While considerable effort has been expended over the 
past several years to address some of the known threats throughout 
portions or all of the bi-State DPS's estimated occupied range, without 
implementation of conservation actions, threats to the continued 
viability of the DPS into the future would remain. The development of 
the 2012 BSAP (Bi-State TAC 2012a, entire) has highlighted the 
importance of not only habitat restoration and enhancement but also the 
role of the States and other partners in reducing many of the known 
threats to the bi-State DPS. Cooperative, committed efforts by Federal 
and State agencies, as well as Mono County will result in full 
implementation of the BSAP, including funding and staffing

[[Page 22865]]

commitments over the next 10 years to address the most significant 
impacts to the DPS and its habitat (BLM 2014c, in litt.; CDFW 2014b, in 
litt.; Mono County 2014, in litt.; NDOW 2014b, in litt.; USDA 2014, in 
litt.; USGS 2014c, in litt.). Such plans provide the ongoing, targeted 
implementation of effective conservation actions that are essential for 
the conservation of the bi-State DPS and its habitat into the future. 
We discuss the various conservation efforts that are currently ongoing 
and planned for in the future within the estimated occupied range of 
the bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse in more detail in the Ongoing 
and Future Conservation Efforts section and the Policy for Evaluation 
of Conservation Efforts When Making Listing Decisions (PECE)) sections 
of this document.
    (42) Comment: Numerous commenters questioned our conclusion that 
sage-grouse populations in the bi-State area have declined. Further, 
several commenters stated that listing is not warranted because recent 
data suggest stable to increasing population trends.
    Our Response: Our analysis in the proposed rule and presented in 
this document was based upon the best available scientific and 
commercial information, and constitutes our final determination, in 
accordance with section 4(b)(6)(A) of the Act. Based on our analysis of 
the five factors identified in section 4(a)(1) of the Act, and as 
explained further in the published finding, we have concluded that 
population declines have been on par with reductions in sagebrush 
extent (see our response to Comment 3 above).
    Further, as discussed above (see our response to Comment 7), we 
determined in the Species Information section of the proposed rule and 
Bi-State DPS Population Trends section of the Species Report that 
declining population trends were apparent in the Pine Nut, Desert 
Creek-Fales, and Mount Grant PMUs. Further, we concluded that the South 
Mono and Bodie PMUs appeared stable and the population trend in the 
White Mountains PMU was unknown. In this final analysis and the Bi-
State DPS Population Trends section of the updated Species Report, we 
describe new information received related to populations and trends. In 
summary, these new data estimate that population growth has been stable 
across the bi-State area between 2003 and 2012 (Coates et al. 2014, 
entire). Specifically, estimated population growth was positive for 
four of the six populations analyzed (Pine Nut, Desert Creek, Bodie 
Hills, Long Valley) and negative for the remaining two populations 
analyzed (Fales, Parker Meadows) over this time period. A population 
trend assessment was not conducted for the Mount Grant and White 
Mountains PMUs due to lack of data.
    Based on our analysis of the five factors identified in section 
4(a)(1) of the Act, and after consideration of partially completed and 
future conservation efforts that we have found to be certain of 
implementation and effectiveness (as described in our detailed PECE 
analysis available at www.regulations.gov, Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-
0072), we believe the bi-State DPS is not likely to become endangered 
within the foreseeable future (threatened).
    (43) Comment: Numerous commenters suggested that our grazing and 
rangeland management assessment in the proposed rule is not accurate 
and requires additional clarification. Specifically, they suggested 
that: (1) Current livestock grazing is compatible with sage-grouse 
conservation in the bi-State area, (2) a more clearly defined 
delineation is needed between past and present grazing impacts, and (3) 
additional delineation is needed among grazing animals (i.e., cattle, 
horses, sheep, insects, etc.). Alternatively, several other commenters 
suggested that grazing and rangeland management are a significant 
threat to the bi-State DPS's conservation, and this threat is not 
adequately controlled by existing management programs.
    Our Response: In this document we present a summary of the Grazing 
and Rangeland Management section of the Species Report (Service 2015a, 
pp. 71-77), in which we found that the majority of allotments in the 
bi-State area are not significantly impacted by livestock grazing. 
Specifically, Rangeland Health Assessments (RHAs) or their equivalents 
(i.e., the standard used by Federal agencies to assess habitat 
condition) have been completed on allotments covering approximately 81 
percent of suitable sage-grouse habitat in the bi-State area. Of the 
allotments with RHAs completed, 81 percent (n=97) are meeting upland 
vegetation standards, suggesting that approximately 352,249 ha (870,427 
ac) out of approximately 563,941 ha (1,393,529 ac) of suitable sage-
grouse habitat are known to be in a condition compatible with sagebrush 
community maintenance. Furthermore, of the allotments with RHA 
completed, 45 percent are meeting riparian standards and 27 percent are 
not, with the remainder being unknown or the allotment does not contain 
riparian habitat. Of those not meeting riparian standards, 
approximately 15 percent, livestock were a significant or partially 
significant cause for the allotment failing to meet identified 
standards while the remainders were attributed to other causes such as 
past mining activity or road presence. In each instance (upland or 
riparian) of an allotment not meeting standards due to livestock, 
remedial actions have been taken by the representative land managing 
agency (such as changes in intensity, duration, or season of use by 
livestock). Therefore, we concluded that modern livestock grazing is 
not a significant impact on sage-grouse habitat.
    Furthermore, we note that historical impacts from livestock grazing 
and impacts caused by feral horses are apparent, but data to assess 
these impacts are largely limited. None of the commenters provided 
additional data to assist with this assessment. In total, we believe 
that historical impacts (past grazing and other land uses) and impacts 
from feral horse use is apparent in local areas, but we consider 
current management to be sufficient to address these issues.
    (44) Comment: Several commenters suggested that existing regulatory 
mechanisms are insufficient to affect conservation of the bi-State DPS. 
Alternatively, several other commenters suggested that existing 
regulatory mechanisms are adequate.
    Our Response: Under the Act, we determine that a species is 
endangered or threatened based on our analysis of the five listing 
factors, which includes the inadequacy of existing regulatory 
mechanisms. For the bi-State DPS, we must evaluate the adequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms from the baseline of the DPS not being 
federally listed under the Act.
    In the proposed listing rule, we concluded that most existing 
regulatory mechanisms are sufficiently vague as to offer limited 
certainty as to managerial direction pertaining to sage-grouse 
conservation, particularly as they relate to addressing the threats 
that are significantly impacting the bi-State DPS (i.e., nonnative, 
invasive and certain native plants; wildfire and altered wildfire 
regime; infrastructure; and rangeland management). However, we note one 
exception: Our support for the BLM Bishop Field Office's 1993 RMP, 
which precludes any discretionary action that may adversely affect 
sage-grouse or sage-grouse habitat (BLM 1993, p. 18). Furthermore, we 
recognize that some County policies and ordinances while not precluding 
development have, at times, limited development (Service 2015a, pp. 
129-

[[Page 22866]]

130); thus, these efforts also need to be recognized.
    Since that proposal, we have fully evaluated the BSAP and 
determined that it ameolirates threats to the species, lessening the 
need for regulatory mechanisms to manage stressors. The currently 
proposed BLM and Forest Service Land Use Plan amendments will provide 
additional specificity and certainty that compliment the BSAP 
conservation of the bi-State DPS and its habitat. We mention the draft 
plans in this document to recognize that the BLM and the USFS have 
taken steps to draft such plans, which will make their language 
consistent with the actions being undertaken in the BSAP. However, we 
are not relying on them as part of this review because they are not 
finalized and would require speculation on the Service's part as to the 
final outcomes of the plans. Since we have determined that the ongoing 
and future conservation efforts under the BSAP are removing the threats 
to the bi-State DPS as discussed above, we find that the currently 
existing regulatory mecanisms are adequate.
    (45) Comment: Two commenters suggested that our conclusion in the 
proposed rule about the potential impacts to the bi-State DPS caused by 
transmission lines is incorrect. Additionally, other commenters 
disagree with our conclusion that the number of transmission lines may 
increase.
    Our Response: In the Infrastructure section of this document and 
the Power Lines section of the Species Report (Service 2015a, pp. 56-
60), we address potential impacts associated with transmission lines. 
We found that a variety of power lines (transmission and distribution) 
currently occur throughout the range of the bi-State DPS. While we 
recognize that the potential impact caused by power line presence 
remains debatable in the scientific community (Johnson et al. 2011, p. 
440; Wisdom et al. 2011, p. 463; Messmer et al. 2013, entire), the best 
available information infers that power line presence negatively 
impacts sage-grouse. Since the proposed rule published, we received 
additional information on transmission lines that further supports our 
conclusion (Gibson et al. 2013, p. 23; Gillan et al. 2013, p. 307). 
Therefore, we maintain that power line presence negatively affects the 
DPS.
    Also, in our proposed rule, we stated that ``infrastructure 
features are likely to increase (secondary roads, power lines, fencing, 
and communication towers).'' While this forecast remains uncertain, it 
is logical that power line development will occur to some unknown 
degree in light of potential future energy, mineral, and housing 
development in the bi-State area. As a result, land managers implement 
conservation efforts that reduce potential infrastructure-related 
impacts, including (but not limited to) reducing human disturbance, 
development, and associated infrastructure (e.g., power lines) in Mono 
County (e.g., Mono County 2014, in litt.), or in some cases removing 
power lines in critical sage-grouse areas (e.g., the BLM's removal of 
the Bodie-sub to Fletcher-sub power line in the Bodie PMU) (Bi-State 
TAC 2014a, in litt.)
    (46) Comment: Several commenters stated that they believe mining is 
not a threat to the bi-State DPS. Alternatively, another commenter 
suggested impacts from mining are significant.
    Our Response: In the Mining section of this document, we address 
potential impacts associated with mining activities. We found that 
sage-grouse could be impacted directly or indirectly from an increase 
in human presence, land use practices, ground shock, noise, dust, 
reduced air quality, degradation of water quality and quantity, and 
changes in vegetation and topography (Moore and Mills 1977, entire; 
Brown and Clayton 2004, p. 2) (Factor E). However, we recognize that 
while theoretical effects are clear and logical, information relating 
sage-grouse response to mineral developments is not extensive. Neither 
the commenters nor others provided new information related to this 
threat. While we maintain that it is reasonable to assume a negative 
impact from mining on sage-grouse, based on the current extent and 
location of mineral developments in the bi-State area we conclude that 
by itself, mining is not considered a significant impact at this time. 
However, mining is a potential concern for the future based on the 
potential for mining activities to impact important lek complexes and 
population connectivity, and the likely synergistic effects occurring 
when this threat is combined with other threats acting on the bi-State 
DPS currently and in the future. See the Mining section of the Species 
Report for a complete discussion of the potential effects of mining 
activities on the bi-State DPS and its habitat (Service 2015a, pp. 65-
68).

References Cited

    A complete list of all references cited in this document is 
available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov at Docket No. 
FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072 or upon request from the Field Supervisor, Reno 
Fish and Wildlife Office (see ADDRESSES section).

Authors

    The primary authors of this document are the staff members of the 
Pacific Southwest Regional Office and Reno Fish and Wildlife Office 
(see ADDRESSES).

Authority

    The authority for this action is the Endangered Species Act of 
1973, as amended (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.).

    Dated: April 13, 2015.
Daniel M. Ashe,
Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2015-09417 Filed 4-21-15; 4:15 pm]
 BILLING CODE 4310-55-P