[Federal Register Volume 79, Number 190 (Wednesday, October 1, 2014)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 59364-59413]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2014-22776]



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Vol. 79

Wednesday,

No. 190

October 1, 2014

Part II





Department of the Interior





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Fish and Wildlife Service





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50 CFR Part 17





 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Endangered 
Status for 21 Species and Proposed Threatened Status for 2 Species in 
Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands; Proposed 
Rule

  Federal Register / Vol. 79 , No. 190 / Wednesday, October 1, 2014 / 
Proposed Rules  

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R1-ES-2014-0038: 4500030113]

RIN 1018-BA13


Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed 
Endangered Status for 21 Species and Proposed Threatened Status for 2 
Species in Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Proposed rule.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, propose to list 21 
plant and animal species from the Mariana Islands (the U.S. Territory 
of Guam and the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands) as 
endangered species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 
amended. We also propose to list two plant species from the Mariana 
Islands in the U.S. Territory of Guam and the U.S. Commonwealth of the 
Northern Mariana Islands as threatened species under the Act. If we 
finalize this rule as proposed, it would extend the Act's protections 
to these 23 species. The effect of this regulation will be to add these 
23 species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife 
and Plants.

DATES: We will accept comments received or postmarked on or before 
December 1, 2014. Comments submitted electronically using the Federal 
eRulemaking Portal (see ADDRESSES below) must be received by 11:59 p.m. 
Eastern Time on the closing date. We must receive requests for public 
hearings, in writing, at the address shown in FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 
CONTACT by November 17, 2014.

ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
    (1) Electronically: Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal:
    http://www.regulations.gov. In the Search box, enter FWS-R1-ES-
2014-0038, which is the docket number for this rulemaking. Then, in the 
Search panel on the left side of the screen, under the Document Type 
heading, click on the Proposed Rules link to locate this document. You 
may submit a comment by clicking on ``Comment Now!''
    (2) By Hard Copy: Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public 
Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R1-ES-2014-0038; Division of Policy and 
Directives Management; U.S. Fish & Wildlife Headquarters, MS: BPHC, 
5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, VA 22041-3803.
    We request that you send comments only by the methods described 
above. We will post all comments on http://www.regulations.gov. This 
generally means that we will post any personal information you provide 
us (see Public Comments below for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Loyal Mehrhoff, Field Supervisor, 
Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, 
Honolulu, HI 96850; by telephone at 808-792-9400; or by facsimile at 
808-792-9581. Persons who use a telecommunications device for the deaf 
(TDD) may call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-
8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: 

Executive Summary

    Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Endangered Species Act of 
1973, as amended (Act), if a species is determined to be an endangered 
or threatened species throughout all or a significant portion of its 
range, we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), are required to 
promptly publish a proposal in the Federal Register and make a 
determination on our proposal within 1 year. Critical habitat shall be 
designated, to the maximum extent prudent and determinable, for any 
species determined to be an endangered or threatened species under the 
Act. Listing a species as an endangered or threatened species and 
designations and revisions of critical habitat can only be completed by 
issuing a rule. We will address designation of critical habitat for 
these 23 species in a separate rule.
    This rule will propose the listing of 23 species from the Mariana 
Islands as endangered or threatened species. Twenty-one of these 
species are proposed as endangered species (12 plants: Bulbophyllum 
guamense (cebello halumtano), Dendrobium guamense (no common name 
(NCN)), Eugenia bryanii (NCN), Hedyotis megalantha (paudedo), Heritiera 
longipetiolata (ufa-halumtano), Maesa walkeri (NCN), Phyllanthus 
saffordii (NCN), Psychotria malaspinae (aplokating-palaoan), Solanum 
guamense (berenghenas halomtano), Nervilia jacksoniae (NCN), Tinospora 
homosepala (NCN), and Tuberolabium guamense (NCN)); and 9 animals: the 
Pacific sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura semicaudata rotensis; liyang), 
Slevin's skink (Emoia slevini; guali'ek halomtano), the Mariana eight-
spot butterfly (Hypolimnas octocula mariannensis; NCN), the Mariana 
wandering butterfly (Vagrans egistina; NCN), the Rota blue damselfly 
(Ischnura luta; NCN), the fragile tree snail (Samoana fragilis; 
akaleha), the Guam tree snail (Partula radiolata; akaleha), the humped 
tree snail (Partula gibba; akaleha), and Langford's tree snail (Partula 
langfordi; akaleha)). Two plant species (Cycas micronesica (fadang) and 
Tabernaemontana rotensis (NCN)) are proposed for listing as threatened 
species. Seven of these 23 species (1 bat, 2 butterflies, and 4 tree 
snails) are candidate species for which we have on file sufficient 
information on biological vulnerability and threats to support 
preparation of a listing proposal, but for which development of a 
listing regulation had been previously precluded by other higher 
priority listing activities. This rule will reassess all available 
information regarding status of and threats to these seven species. 
Sixteen of the 23 species (14 plant species and 2 animal species 
(Slevin's skink and Rota damselfly)) are Mariana Islands species for 
which we have sufficient information on biological vulnerabilities and 
threats to propose for listing as endangered or threatened, but which 
have not been previously recognized as candidate species.
    The basis for our action. Under the Act, we can determine that a 
species is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five 
factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or 
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for 
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) 
Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of existing regulatory 
mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its 
continued existence. As described in this document, these 23 species 
are experiencing population-level impacts as the result of the 
following current and ongoing threats:
     Habitat loss and degradation due to development, military 
activities, and urbanization; nonnative feral ungulates (hoofed 
mammals, for example, deer, pigs, and water buffalo) and nonnative 
plants; rats; snakes; wildfire; typhoons; water extraction, and climate 
change.
     Predation or herbivory by nonnative feral ungulates, rats, 
snakes, monitor lizards, slugs, flatworms, ants, and wasps.
     Inadequate existing regulatory mechanisms to prevent the 
introduction and spread of nonnative plants and animals.
     Ordnance and live-fire from military training, 
recreational vehicles,

[[Page 59365]]

and vulnerability to extinction due to small numbers of individuals and 
populations.
    As a consequence of these threats, we propose to list 2 of these 
species as threatened species, and 21 of these species as endangered 
species. We, therefore, propose adding these 23 Mariana Islands species 
to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants.
    We will seek peer review. We will seek comments from independent 
specialists to ensure that our designation is based on scientifically 
sound data, assumptions, and analyses. We will invite these peer 
reviewers to comment on our listing proposal. Because we will consider 
all comments and information received during the comment period, our 
final determinations may differ from this proposal.

Information Requested

Public Comments

    We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule 
will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and 
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request 
comments or information from the public, including landowners, land 
managers, and residents of the U.S. Territory of Guam (Guam) and the 
U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the 
scientific community, industry, or any other interested parties 
concerning this proposed rule. We particularly seek comments 
concerning:
    (1) The biology, range, and population trends of these species, 
including:
    (a) Biological or ecological requirements, including habitat 
requirements for feeding, breeding, and sheltering;
    (b) Genetics and taxonomy;
    (c) Historical and current range including distribution patterns;
    (d) Historical and current population levels, and current and 
projected trends; and
    (e) Past and ongoing conservation measures for these species, their 
habitats, or both.
    (2) Factors that may affect the continued existence of these 
species, which may include habitat modification or destruction, 
overutilization, disease, predation, the inadequacy of existing 
regulatory mechanisms, or other natural or manmade factors.
    (3) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning 
any threats (or lack thereof) to these species and existing regulations 
that may be addressing those threats.
    (4) Additional information concerning the historical and current 
status, range, distribution, and population size of these species, 
including the locations of any additional populations of these species.
    (5) Any information regarding the taxonomy of Tinospora homosepala, 
with particular regard to the question of whether T. homosepala may be 
the same species as the more common T. glabra, or is a variety of that 
species.
    Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as 
scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to 
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
    Please note that submissions merely stating support for or 
opposition to the action under consideration without providing 
supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in 
making a determination, as section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that 
determinations as to whether any species is a threatened or endangered 
species must be made ``solely on the basis of the best scientific and 
commercial data available.''
    You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed 
rule by one of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. We request that you 
send comments only by the methods described in ADDRESSES.
    If you submit information via http://www.regulations.gov, your 
entire submission--including any personal identifying information--will 
be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy 
that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the 
top of your document that we withhold this information from public 
review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We 
will post all hardcopy submissions on http://www.regulations.gov. 
Please include sufficient information with your comments to allow us to 
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
    Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting 
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be 
available for public inspection on http://www.regulations.gov, or by 
appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR 
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).

Public Hearing

    Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for one or more public hearings 
on this proposal, if requested. Requests must be received within 45 
days after the date of publication of this proposed rule in the Federal 
Register. Such requests must be sent to the address shown in FOR 
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT. We will schedule public hearings on this 
proposal, if any are requested, and announce the dates, times, and 
places of those hearings, as well as how to obtain reasonable 
accommodations, in the Federal Register and local newspapers at least 
15 days before the hearing.

Peer Review

    In accordance with our joint policy on peer review published in the 
Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we have sought the 
expert opinions of 10 appropriate and independent specialists regarding 
this proposed rule. The purpose of peer review is to ensure that our 
listing determinations are based on scientifically sound data, 
assumptions, and analyses. The peer reviewers have expertise about one 
or more of the 23 species' biology, habitat, life-history needs, and 
vulnerability to threats, which will inform our determination. We 
invite comment from the peer reviewers during this public comment 
period. A copy of our peer review plan is available for public review 
at http://www.fws.gov/pacific/informationquality.

Previous Federal Actions

    Seven of the 23 species proposed for listing as endangered species 
are candidate species (77 FR 70103; November 22, 2013). Candidate 
species are those taxa for which the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
(Service) has sufficient information on their biological status and 
threats to propose them for listing under the Act, but for which the 
development of a listing regulation has been precluded to date by other 
higher priority listing activities. The current candidate species 
addressed in this proposed listing rule include the following seven 
animal species: the Pacific sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura semicaudata 
rotensis), the Mariana eight-spot butterfly (Hypolimnas octocula 
marianensis), the Mariana wandering butterfly (Vagrans egistina), the 
fragile tree snail (Samoana fragilis), the Guam tree snail (Partula 
radiolata), the humped tree snail (Partula gibba), and Langford's tree 
snail (Partula langfordi). The candidate status of these species was 
most recently reaffirmed in the November 22, 2013, Review of Native 
Species that are Candidates for Listing as Endangered or Threatened 
(CNOR) (77 FR 70103).
    On May 4, 2004, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the 
Secretary of the Interior to list 225 species of plants and animals, 
including the 7 candidate species listed above, as endangered or 
threatened under the provisions of the Act. Since then, we

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have published our annual findings on the May 4, 2004, petition 
(including our findings on the seven candidate species listed above) in 
the CNORs dated May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24870), September 12, 2006 (71 FR 
53756), December 6, 2007 (72 FR 69034), December 10, 2008 (73 FR 
75176), November 9, 2009 (74 FR 57804), November 10, 2010 (75 FR 
69222), October 26, 2011 (76 FR 66370), November 21, 2012 (77 FR 
69994), and November 22, 2013 (77 FR 70103). This proposed rule 
constitutes a further response to the 2004 petition.
    In addition to the 7 candidate species, we are proposing to list 16 
additional species that occur in the Mariana Islands as endangered or 
threatened species, including 14 plants (Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas 
micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, 
Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, 
Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, 
Tabernaemontana rotensis, Tinospora homosepala, and Tuberolabium 
guamense) and 2 animals (Slevin's skink (Emoia slevini) and the Rota 
blue damselfly (Ischnura luta)). Three of these plant species, 
Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, and Psychotria malaspinae, 
have been identified as the ``rarest of the rare'' Mariana plant 
species and in need of immediate conservation under the multiagency 
(Federal and Territorial) Guam Plant Extinction Prevention Program 
(GPEPP). The goal of GPEPP is to prevent the extinction of plant 
species that have fewer than 200 individuals remaining in the wild on 
the island of Guam (GPEPP 2014, in litt.). We believe these 14 plants 
and 2 animal species warrant listing under the Act for the reasons 
discussed in the ``Summary of Factors Affecting the Species'' section 
(below). Because these 16 species occur within 2 of the same ecosystems 
as the 7 candidate species, and share common threats with them, we have 
included them in this proposed rule to provide them with protection 
under the Act in an expeditious manner.
    We will be publishing a proposal to address critical habitat for 
the 23 Mariana Islands species under the Act in the near future.

Background

Mariana Islands Species Addressed in this Proposed Rule

    Table 1 below provides the scientific name, common name, listing 
status, and range (islands on which the species is found) for the 23 
Mariana Islands species that are addressed in this proposed rule.

                             Table 1--The 23 Species Addressed in This Proposed Rule
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           Scientific name                  Common name(s)           Listing status               Range
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                Plants
Bulbophyllum guamense................  cebello halumtano\Ch\..  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam, Rota, Saipan (H),
                                                                                          Pagan (H).
Cycas micronesica....................  fadang\Ch\.............  Proposed-Threatened....  Guam, Rota, Pagan,
                                                                                          Palau,* Yap.*
Dendrobium guamense..................  NCN....................  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam, Rota, Tinian (H),
                                                                                          Saipan (H).
Eugenia bryanii......................  NCN....................  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam.
Hedyotis megalantha..................  paudedo\Ch\............  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam.
Heritiera longipetiolata.............  ufa-halomtano\Ch\......  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam, Saipan, Tinian,
                                                                                          Rota (H).
Maesa walkeri........................  NCN....................  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam, Rota.
Nervilia jacksoniae..................  NCN....................  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam, Rota.
Phyllanthus saffordii................  NCN....................  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam.
Psychotria malaspinae................  aplokating-palaoan\Ch\.  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam.
Solanum guamense.....................  berenghenas              Proposed-Endangered....  Guam, Rota (H), Tinian
                                        halomtano\Ch\.                                    (H), Saipan (H),
                                                                                          Asuncion (H), Guguan
                                                                                          (H), Maug (H).
Tabernaemontana rotensis.............  NCN....................  Proposed-Threatened....  Guam, Rota.
Tinospora homosepala.................  NCN....................  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam.
Tuberolabium guamense................  NCN....................  Proposed-Endangered....  Guam, Rota, Aguiguan
                                                                                          (H), Tinian (H).
               Animals
Emballonura semicaudata rotensis.....  Pacific sheath-tailed    Proposed-Endangered (C)  Aguiguan, Guam (H),
                                        bat, liyang\Ch\,                                  Rota (H), Tinian (H),
                                        payesyes\Ca\, pai                                 Saipan (H), Anatahan
                                        scheei\CI\.                                       (H*), Maug (H*).
Emoia slevini........................  Slevin's skink,          Proposed-Endangered....  Guam (Cocos Island),
                                        Marianas Emoia,                                   Alamagan, Asuncion,
                                        guali'ek halom                                    Guguan, Pagan,
                                        tano\Ch\.                                         Sarigan.
Hypolimnas octocula mariannensis.....  Mariana eight-spot       Proposed-Endangered (C)  Guam, Saipan (H).
                                        butterfly.
Vagrans egistina.....................  Mariana wandering        Proposed-Endangered (C)  Rota, Guam (H).
                                        butterfly.
Ischnura luta........................  Rota blue damselfly....  Proposed-Endangered....  Rota.
Partula gibba........................  humped tree snail,       Proposed-Endangered (C)  Guam, Rota, Aguiguan,
                                        akaleha'\Ch\.                                     Alamagan, Pagan,
                                                                                          Sarigan, Saipan,
                                                                                          Tinian (H), Anatahan
                                                                                          (H).
Partula langfordi....................  Langford's tree snail,   Proposed-Endangered (C)  Aguiguan.
                                        akaleha'\Ch\.

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Partula radiolata....................  Guam tree snail,.......  Proposed-Endangered (C)  Guam.
                                       akaleha'\Ch\...........
Samoana fragilis.....................  fragile tree snail,      Proposed-Endangered (C)  Guam, Rota.
                                        akaleha'\Ch\.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NCN = no common name.
(C) = Candidate Species.
H) = historical occurrence.
(H*) = possible historical occurrence.
Ch = Chamorro name.
Ca = Carolinian name.
* = range outside of the Mariana Islands.

The Mariana Islands

Geography
    The Mariana Islands is a longitudinallyarranged archipelago 
consisting of 15 main islands and various smaller islets located in 
western Micronesia between latitudes 21[deg] and 13[deg] N and 
longitudes 144[deg] and 146[deg] E. The Mariana Islands vary in age, 
between 5 million years old in the north and 50 million years old in 
the south. The archipelago was formed by the collision of the Pacific 
and Philippine tectonic plates at the Mariana Trench, which resulted in 
volcanic activity that built up a chain of mountains protruding from 
the sea floor (see Figure 1) (Raulerson and Rinehart 1992, p. 3; 
Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO) 2014, in litt.). Scientists 
biogeographically separate the Mariana Islands into the ``northern'' 
and ``southern'' islands based on geological time of formation and 
associated substratum (Fosberg et al. 1975, pp. 1-5; Mueller-Dombois 
and Fosberg 1998, p. 241). The primarily volcanic northern islands 
include Farallon de Medinilla, Anatahan, Sarigan, Guguan, Alamagan, 
Pagan, Agrihan, Asuncion, Maug, and Uracas, while the limestone and 
volcanic southern islands include Guam, Rota, Aguiguan, Tinian, and 
Saipan. The northern islands of Anatahan, Guguan, Alamagan, Asuncion, 
Pagan, and Uracas are still volcanically active. Only the southern 
islands of Guam, Cocos Island, Rota, Tinian, and Saipan are regularly 
inhabited by humans; all of the other Mariana Islands are considered 
uninhabited, although some (e.g., Aguiguan, Pagan) may be visited on 
occasion.
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P

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TP01OC14.000

BILLING CODE 4310-55-C
Geology
    The substratum of the younger northern islands is of volcanic 
origin, while the substratum of the older southern islands is coral 
limestone (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 241). The limestone 
substratum of the southern islands is composed of ancient coral reef 
limestone that developed as the islands rose from the ocean floor and 
eventually above sea level (Berger et al. 2005, p. 9). The northern 
islands contain very little limestone substratum

[[Page 59369]]

due to their young age and because many of them (Uracas, Pagan, 
Asuncion, Guguan and Anatahan) remain volcanically active (Ohba 1994, 
p. 14; U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 2006, in litt.). The northern 
islands are composed of black basalts and are typically cone-shaped 
volcanoes with steep slopes, many of which have eroded into steep 
ravines often widened by erosion (Ohba 1994, p. 14). Areas of exposed 
weathered volcanic substratum can be found on the southern islands, 
particularly on the southern half of Guam, in strong contrast to the 
predominant karst limestone composition of the northern half of the 
island (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 241).
Vegetation
    Both the intentional and inadvertent introduction of alien plant 
and animal species has contributed to the reduction in range of native 
vegetation throughout the Mariana Islands (throughout this rule, the 
terms ``alien,'' ``feral,'' ``nonnative,'' and ``introduced'' all refer 
to species that are not naturally native to the Mariana Islands). 
Currently, most of the extant native vegetation on the islands persists 
on rugged karst or steep limestone slopes and precipitous cliffs, 
ridgelines, valleys, and other regions where unsuitable topography 
prevents urbanization and agricultural development, or where 
inaccessibility limits encroachment by nonnative plants and grazing by 
feral ungulates (Amidon 2000, p. 5; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 37, 44-45).
Hydrology
    There are no year-round surface water sources in the northern 
islands, with the exception of two small lakes on the island of Pagan. 
The southern islands, in contrast, exhibit multiple year-round surface 
water sources including wetlands and streams on Saipan, two perennial 
streams and two springs on Rota, a small wetland on Tinian, and several 
wetlands, rivers, and streams on the volcanic portions of southern 
Guam, particularly in the Tolofofo River region (CNMI Statewide 
Assessment and Resource Strategy Council (CNMI-SWARS) 2010, pp. 9-10, 
30, 32; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 248, 254, 260, 266, 269; 
SIO 2014, in litt.).
Climate
    Their relatively low elevation above sea level (the highest point 
in the chain is Mt. Agrihan on Agrihan at 3,166 ft (965 m)), juxtaposed 
with their close proximity to the equator, insulate the Mariana Islands 
from seasonal variation in weather and climate. The entire archipelago 
is defined as the ``tropical rainforest climate'' according to the 
Koeppen climate classification (Ohba 1994, p. 16); however, there are 
very few year-round meteorological weather stations in the Mariana 
Islands, resulting in limited available meteorological data. Additional 
data has been collected from Iwo-Jima from which patterns are 
collectively extrapolated across the Mariana archipelago (Ohba 1994, 
pp. 15-16).
    The Mariana archipelago exhibits two distinct seasons, a notably 
wetter season from July through October, and a drier season from 
November through June, with April characteristically being the driest 
month out of the year (Ohba 1994, p. 16; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 
1998, p. 241). Precipitation averages 96 in (218 cm) per year, 
dependent in part upon elevation. Some of the tallest peaks across the 
islands experience frequent cloud cover, particularly the northern 
island summits of Anatahan, Alamagan, Pagan, and Sarigan (Dahl 1980, 
pp. 22, 64; Ohba 1994, pp. 18, 41, 48). Stone (1970, p. 12) observed 
the southern Mariana Islands (from Anatahan southward) to be warmer 
than the northern islands.
    The Mariana Islands receive relatively constant trade winds with a 
weak westerly monsoon influence in summer months (Mueller-Dombois and 
Fosberg 1998, p. 241). Storms and typhoons originating from the 
southeast and east occur frequently with an average of one typhoon per 
year affecting the Mariana Islands (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, 
p. 241).
Biogeography
    In general, the younger, northern islands, particularly the five 
active volcanic islands (Uracas, Pagan, Asuncion, Guguan, and 
Anatahan), support fewer species and ecosystem types than the southern 
islands, due primarily to factors including age, time since last 
eruption, island size, and highest point of elevation (Ohba 1994, pp. 
15-18; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 241). Historically, 
volcanic eruptions have proved very disruptive to the ecology of the 
more northern Mariana Islands when they occur (USGS 2006, in litt.; 
Zoology Unlimited, LLC (Limited Liability Company) 2013, pp. 9-11). For 
example, in May 2003, the island of Anatahan experienced a powerful and 
explosive eruption that destroyed 80 to 90 percent of the island's 
forest cover and was believed to have caused the extirpation of the 
Mariana fruit bat (Pteropus mariannus mariannus) and Micronesian 
megapode (Megapodius laperouse laperouse) (Zoology Unlimited, LLC. 
2013, pp. 10-11). Fortunately, these two species have been observed on 
Anatahan in recent years, albeit in low numbers (Zoology Unlimited, 
LLC. 2013, pp. 10-11).
    The cumulative literature portrays Guam and Rota, in the southern 
part of the archipelago, as the most species-rich of the Mariana 
Islands. Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg (1998, p. 243) conducted one of 
the most comprehensive vegetation analyses of the Mariana Islands 
(building upon their previous works and those of Stone (1970, 659 pp.), 
Ohba (1994, p. 18), and many others) and observed that, although the 
primary substratum differs between the northern and southern islands 
(e.g., volcanic versus limestone, respectively), the physical nature of 
the substratum may be of equal or more importance than the chemical 
nature in determining vegetation patterns. For example, some areas 
covered by rough lava flows found on the northern islands exhibit 
convergent forest type compared to forests found on the karst limestone 
in the southern islands (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 243-
245). Additionally, grassland (i.e., savanna) species in the northern 
islands overlap with species found in the southern islands grasslands, 
although species richness is greater on the southern islands (Mueller-
Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 241). The northern islands are 
predominantly primary grasslands (colonized relatively recently after 
volcanic activity) with areas of secondary forest. Conversely, the 
southern islands are predominantly primary and secondary forests with 
secondary grasslands, a situation that likely arose from grassland 
expansion through agricultural burning and clearing (Mueller-Dombois 
and Fosberg 1998, p. 241).
    Micronesia, together with Polynesia, is described as the Polynesia-
Micronesia Hotspot, meaning that these island groups contain an 
exceptional concentration of endemic (found nowhere else in the world) 
species, and are currently experiencing exceptional habitat loss (Myers 
et al. 2000, pp. 853-855).
Pre-Historical Human Impact
    Archaeological evidence indicates that the Mariana Islands had been 
settled approximately 2,000 B.C. by the pre-contact Chamorro people, 
who migrated from Southeast Asia (SIO 2014, in litt.). The Chamorro 
people introduced to the islands a variety of food plants including 
rice, breadfruit, sugar cane, bananas, coconuts, and taro (Stone 1970, 
pp. 182, 200). The exact

[[Page 59370]]

extent to which these early settlers modified the landscape is unknown; 
however, it is believed to be not insignificant (Fosberg 1960, pp. 36, 
42-43). These environmental impacts may parallel those documented in 
the Hawaiian Islands by early Hawaiian settlers; however, early 
Chamorro impacts in the Mariana Islands are not as well documented.
    The Chamorro established their largest settlements in the southern 
islands including Guam, Rota, and Saipan (Russell 1998, p. 87). 
However, multiple smaller settlements existed in the northern islands 
and these were likely dependent in part on the larger communities in 
the relatively resource-rich southern islands (Russell 1998, p. 84). 
Researchers estimate that 100,000 to 150,000 Chamorro may have 
inhabited these islands, a number that declined to below 5,000 
individuals just a few hundred years after European contact due to 
introduced diseases and other factors (SIO 2014, in litt.).
Historical and Ongoing Human Impacts
    After the initial Chamorro modifications for agriculture and 
villages, the flora and fauna on the Mariana Islands continued to 
undergo alterations due not only to ongoing volcanic activity in the 
northern islands, but also to land use activities and nonnative species 
introduced by European colonialists. The arrival of the Spanish in 1591 
further imposed degradation of the ecosystems of the Mariana Islands 
with the introduction of numerous nonnative animals and plants. The 
Spanish occupied the Mariana Islands for nearly 300 years (SIO 2014, in 
litt.). In 1899, Spain sold the Mariana Islands to Germany, with the 
exception of Guam, which was ceded to the United States as a result of 
the Spanish-American war (SIO 2012, in litt.; Encyclopedia Britannica 
2014, in litt.).
    The German administration altered the forest ecosystem on Rota, 
Saipan, and Tinian, and on some of the northern islands, by means of 
Cocos nucifera (coconut) farming, which was encouraged for the 
production of copra (the dried fleshy part of a coconut used to make 
coconut oil) (Russell 1998, pp. 94-95). Upon the start of World War I, 
the Japanese quickly took over German occupied islands and accelerated 
the alteration of the landscape by clearing large areas of native 
forest on Rota, Saipan, and Tinian for growing Saccharum officinarum 
(sugarcane) and building associated refineries and for planting Acacia 
confusa (sosugi) to provide fuel wood (CNMI-SWARS 2010, pp. 6-7). The 
Japanese drastically altered the islands of Rota, Saipan, and Tinian, 
leaving little native forest. Military activities during World War II 
further altered the landscape on Saipan and Tinian. Rota was a notable 
exception, left relatively untouched (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 7). Japan 
also occupied Guam at the onset of World War II; however, by 1944 the 
U.S. neutralized the Mariana Islands with the recapture of Saipan, 
Tinian and Guam (Encyclopedia Britannica 2014, in litt.). Since World 
War II, the U.S. military has developed a strong presence in the 
Mariana Islands, particularly on the island of Guam, where both the 
U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force operate large military installations. The 
island of Farallon de Medinilla is used for military ordnance training 
(Berger et al. 2005, p. 130).
    Currently, the U.S. Department of Defense is implementing a project 
referred to as the ``Guam and Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana 
Islands Military Relocation'' (Joint Guam Program Office (JGPO)-Naval 
Facilities Engineering Command, Pacific (JGPO-NavFac, Pacific) 2010a, 
p. ES-1; JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2013, pp. 1-1--1-3). This military 
relocation proposes: (1) the relocation of a portion of the U.S. Marine 
Corps (Marine Corps) currently in Okinawa, Japan, which consists of up 
to 5,000 Marines and their 1,300 dependents, as revised in the Draft 
Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (SEIS) (NavFac Engineering 
Command Pacific 2014, p. ES-3), in addition to the development and 
construction of facilities and infrastructure to support training and 
operations on Guam and Tinian for the relocated Marines; (2) the 
construction of a deep-draft wharf with shoreside infrastructure at 
Apra Harbor, Guam, to support the U.S. Navy (Navy) transiting nuclear-
powered aircraft carrier; and (3) the development of facilities and 
infrastructure on Guam to support the relocation of military personnel 
and their dependents to establish and operate a U.S. Army (Army) and 
Missiles Defense Task Force (JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010a, p. ES-7).
    Both Guam and Tinian are located within the Mariana Islands Range 
Complex, an area used by the Department of Defense (DOD) for readiness 
training (JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010a, pp. ES-2--ES-3). The northern 
two-thirds of Tinian are leased to the DOD, and the development of 
these lands will negatively impact the habitat of 1 of the 23 species 
in the forest ecosystem (Heritiera longipetiolata). The draft 2014 SEIS 
focuses on the change to the preferred alternatives identified in the 
2010 Final EIS (NavFac Engineering Command Pacific 2014, p. ES-1). The 
preferred alternative sites on Guam for the implementation of the 
Marine relocation efforts and development of a live-fire training range 
complex now include Alternative A Finegayan and Alternative 5 Northwest 
Field on Andersen Air Force Base (AFB), where, in total, 18 of the 23 
species or their habitat are known to occur (13 of the 14 plants: 
Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia 
bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, 
Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, 
Solanum guamense, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense; 
and 5 of the 9 animals: the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, the Mariana 
wandering butterfly, the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, and 
the fragile tree snail) (NavFac Engineering Command Pacific 2014, pp. 
ES-18--ES-22). The draft SEIS describes: (1) a more moderate 
construction activity over 13 years instead of a 7-year intense 
construction boom; (2) a significant reduction in peak and steady state 
population increases, from more than 79,000 new Guam residents down to 
7,400 new residents; (3) a reduction in the project area at Finegayan 
from 2,580 ac (1,044 ha) to 1,452 ac (588 ha); (4) no new land 
acquisition; (5) a reduction in project area at Northwest Field 
(instead of Route 15); and (6) an overall decrease in power and water 
demands (NavFac Engineering Command Pacific 2014, p. ES-3).
    In conjunction with the relocation efforts discussed above, the 
U.S. military is planning to improve existing and develop new live-fire 
military training areas on the islands of Tinian and Pagan (JPGO-
NavFac, Pacific 2010a, pp. ES-5, ES-16-17, ES 19-20, ES-40; CJMT EIS-
OEIS (see below)). The Marine Corps (the Executive Agent designated by 
the U.S. Pacific Command) recently published their ``Commonwealth of 
the Northern Mariana Islands Joint Military Training Environmental 
Impact Statement--Overseas Environmental Impact Statement (CJMT EIS-
OEIS at http://www.cnmijointmilitarytrainingeis.com/about). The CJMT 
EIS-OEIS Final Scoping Summary Report informs the public that the 
military plans to maximize use of DOD-leased lands within CNMI, 
specifically Tinian and Pagan. The live-fire training range project 
area on Tinian overlaps with the relocation effort areas discussed 
above (the northern two-thirds of the island). Likewise, the live-fire 
training range

[[Page 59371]]

project will negatively impact the plant species Heritiera 
longipetiolata, as discussed above. On Pagan, both Alternative 1 and 
Alternative 2 claim the entire island as a live-fire training area 
(NavFac Engineering Command Pacific 2014, p. 13). In addition, the 
live-fire training range project proposes the designation of special 
use air and sea spaces around the entire islands of Pagan, Tinian, and 
Aguiguan (just south of Tinian), and most of Saipan (north of Tinian). 
If the entire island of Pagan is used as a live-fire training range 
area, it would negatively impact 4 of the 23 species (Cycas 
micronesica, Slevin's skink, humped tree snail, and habitat for 
Bulbophyllum guamense) and their habitat in the forest ecosystem.
    In addition to military spending, Guam's economy depends on 
tourism. More than 1 million tourists visit Guam annually, mostly 
arriving from Japan, Korea, and other Asian countries. In the early 
1960s, military contributions to Guam's economy approached 60 percent, 
with tourism adding almost another 30 percent. There was a downturn in 
military presence and tourism in the 70s and 80s; however, recently, 
with the projected increase in military employees and their dependents, 
and with Guam seeking a ``no visa required'' status for visitors from 
Russia and China, monitoring of sea ports and airports against 
inadvertent introduction of harmful and invasive species is especially 
important (http://www.guamvisitorsbureau.com/, accessed April 25, 2014; 
http://guampedia.com/evolution-of-the-tourism-industry-on-guam-2/#toc-consequences-and-conclusions, accessed April 25, 2014) (see Factor D. 
The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms).
Political Division
    Micronesia consists of several island groups: (1) Mariana Islands 
(collectively the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands 
(CNMI) and the U.S. Territory of Guam); (2) the Federated States of 
Micronesia, including the Caroline Islands, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei, and 
Kosrae and the Republic of Palau, the Republic of Kiribati, the 
Republic of the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Wake Island.

Islands in the Mariana Archipelago

    A brief summary of each island in the Mariana archipelago, from 
south to north, follows below (for detailed information see Stone 1970, 
75 pp.; Falanruw et al. 1989, 11 pp.; Ohba 1994, 56 pp.; Mueller-
Dombois and Fosberg 1998, 32 pp.). Here we describe each of the islands 
in the Mariana archipelago, even if the species addressed in this 
proposed rule do not currently occur there, or were not found there 
historically, to provide the reader context for understanding various 
issues discussed in this document or in subsequent rulemakings that may 
make reference to the various islands.
Guam
    Guam is the largest and southernmost island of the Mariana Islands. 
It is nearly 31 miles (mi) (50 kilometers (km)) long and from 4 to 9 mi 
(7 to 15 km) wide, with a peak elevation of 1,332 feet (ft) (406 meters 
(m)) at Mt. Lamlam (Muller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 269). Guam is 
located in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, 1,200 mi (1,930 km) east of 
the Philippines, 3,500 mi (5,632 km) west of the Hawaiian Islands, and 
54 mi (87 km) south of Rota. The northern and southern regions of the 
island show marked contrast due to their geologic history. The northern 
region is an extensive, upraised, terraced, limestone plateau or 
``mesa'' between 300 and 600 ft (90 and 183 m) above sea level 
interrupted by a few low hills, of which two (Mataguac and Mt. Santa 
Rosa) are volcanic in nature; others are exclusively coralline 
limestone (e.g., Barrigada Hill and Ritidian Point (Stone 1970, p. 
12)). The southern region is primarily volcanic material (e.g., 
basalts) with several areas capped by a layer of limestone (Stone 1970, 
p. 12).
    Of all the Mariana Islands, Guam contains the most extensive stream 
and drainage systems, particularly in the Talofofo Region (Stone 1970, 
p. 13; Muller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 269). Fairly extensive 
wetland areas are located on both coasts of the southern region as well 
as the higher elevation Agana Swamp located in the middle of the 
island. Guam is also the most populated of all the Mariana Islands, 
with more than 180,000 residents. Guam has experienced impacts from at 
least 4,000 years of human contact, starting with the Chamorro, 
followed by the Spanish, Germans, Japanese, and Americans (see ``Pre-
Historical Human Impact'' and ``Historical and Ongoing Human Impacts,'' 
above). World War II and subsequent U.S. military activity have also 
negatively impacted natural habitats on Guam; however, the buffer zones 
around the U.S. Navy and Air Force bases on Guam and conservation areas 
designated on these bases support some of the rarest species. There are 
three conservation areas designated by the Guam Department of Aquatic 
and Wildlife Resources (GDAWR): (1) Anao Conservation Area; (2) Bolanos 
Conservation Area; and, (3) Cotal Conservation Area (GDAWR 2006, p. 39; 
Sablan Environmental, Inc. 2008, p. 3). Guam supports the forest, 
savanna, stream, and cave ecosystems (see ``Mariana Islands 
Ecosystems,'' below). Twenty of the 23 species addressed in this 
proposed rule occur on Guam (all 14 plants: Bulbophyllum guamense, 
Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia bryanii, Hedyotis 
megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia 
jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum 
guamense, Tabernaemontana rotensis, Tinospora homosepala, and 
Tuberolabium guamense; and 6 of the 9 animals: Slevin's skink (Cocos 
Island, off Guam), the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, the Mariana 
wandering butterfly, the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, and 
the fragile tree snail. The Pacific sheath-tailed bat occurred on Guam 
historically.
Rota
    Just northeast of Guam (36 mi; 58 km) and southwest of Aguiguan (47 
mi; 76 km), Rota is the fourth largest island in the Mariana Islands, 
measuring 33 square miles (mi\2\) (96 square kilometers (km\2\)) in 
land area (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 265; CNMI-SWARS 2010, 
p. 6). The highest point on the island is Mount Sabana or the ``Sabana 
plateau,'' at just over 1,600 ft (488 m) (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 
1998, p. 265). The Sabana plateau is characterized by a savanna ringed 
by forest that extends onto the surrounding karst limestone cliffs and 
down the rugged slopes that encircle all sides of the Sabana (Mueller-
Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 265-266). Rota consists primarily of 
terraced limestone surrounding a volcanic core that protrudes from the 
topmost plateau, or Sabana. The Sabana is noticeably wetter than the 
rest of the island and is the only location known to support all four 
orchids proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species in 
this rule (Bulbophyllum guamense, Dendrobium guamense, Nervilia 
jacksoniae, and Tuberolabium guamense) (Harrington et al. 2012, in 
litt.).
    Rota has experienced land alterations since the arrival of the 
first Chamorro more than 4,000 years ago. When the Mariana Islands were 
occupied by the Japanese (1914-1944) they cleared forest areas to plant 
large sugarcane plantations and conducted phosphate mining on the 
Sabana plateau (Amidon 2000, pp. 4-5; Engbring 1986, pp. 10, 27). 
Although Rota was never invaded during World War II, it was heavily 
bombed by U.S. military forces

[[Page 59372]]

(Engbring et al. 1986, pp. 8, 11). Rota has a population of 
approximately 3,000 people. In recent years, three terrestrial 
conservation areas have been designated on Rota by the CNMI Department 
of Land and Natural Resources: (1) The Sabana Heights Wildlife 
Conservation Area; (2) I-Chenchon Park Wildlife Conservation Area and 
Bird Sanctuary; and, (3) Wedding Cake Mountain Wildlife Conservation 
Area (Berger et al. 2005, p. 14).
    Rota supports the forest, savanna, stream, and cave ecosystems. 
Eleven of the 23 species addressed in this proposed rule currently 
occur on Rota (7 of the 14 plants: Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas 
micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, 
Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense; and 4 of the 9 
animals: the Mariana wandering butterfly, the Rota blue damselfly, the 
fragile tree snail, and the humped tree snail). The plants Heritiera 
longipetiolata and Solanum guamense and the Pacific sheath-tailed bat 
were known from Rota historically.
Aguiguan
    Aguiguan is known as ``Goat Island'' due to the presence of a large 
feral goat population (Engbring et al. 1986, p. 8). Located 
approximately 8 km (5 mi) southwest of Tinian, Aguiguan is a small 
uninhabited island measuring 7 mi\2\ (18 km\2\) in land area with a 
peak elevation of 515 ft (157 m) at Mt. Alutom (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 6). 
This island was historically inhabited by the Chamorro people (Russell 
1998, pp. 90-91). Aguiguan is entirely limestone, with very steep 
cliffs fringing nearly the entire island, making access difficult 
(Berger et al. 2005, p. 36). There are no streams on the island 
(Engbring et al. 1986, p. 8). During the Japanese occupation, large 
areas of native forest were cleared for sugarcane plantations, a large 
runway and other war-related structures (Engbring et al. 1986, p. 8; 
Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 264). Ecosystem types on Aguiguan 
include forest and cave. Three of the 23 species addressed in this 
proposed rule occur on Aguiguan: the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, the 
humped tree snail, and Langford's tree snail. The plant Tuberolabium 
guamense was known from Aguiguan historically.
Tinian
    Located approximately 3 mi (5 km) southeast of Saipan and 7 mi (9 
km) north of Aguiguan, Tinian is the third largest island in the 
Mariana Islands, measuring 40 mi\2\ (101 km\2\) in area, with a peak 
elevation of 584 ft (178 m) at Lasso Hill (Engbring et al. 1986, p. 5). 
The island of Tinian has a population of more than 3,000 residents. 
Tinian's climate is the same as that of Guam (see ``The Mariana 
Islands,'' above). The island is predominantly limestone with low-lying 
plateaus and ridges, and lacks surface streams (Stafford et al. 2005, 
p. 15; Engbring et al. 1986, p. 5). Two small wetland areas, heavily 
overgrown with no open water, Hagoi Marsh and Marpo Swamp, serve as a 
domestic water source (Engbring et al. 1986, p. 5). Tinian has lost 
most of its primary (native) forest, due initially to clearing for 
agriculture by the Chamorro, followed by agricultural endeavors of 
German colonialists in the early 1900s (e.g., coconut plantations) and 
then by Japanese settlers after 1914 (e.g., sugarcane plantations) 
(Berger et al. 2005, pp. 36-37). Impacts to Tinian's native vegetation 
were then compounded by impacts from military activities during World 
War II (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 262; Russell 1998, p. 98; 
CNMI-SWARS 2010, pp. 6-7, 28-29). Currently, approximately 5 percent of 
primary (native) forest remains on Tinian (Engbring et al. 1986, p. 
25). Tinian supports the forest and cave ecosystems. Tinian currently 
has no designated conservation areas. One of the 23 species addressed 
in this proposed rule occurs on Tinian, Heritiera longipetiolata. The 
plants Dendrobium guamense, Solanum guamense, and Tuberolabium 
guamense, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, and the humped tree snail were 
known from Tinian historically.
Saipan
    Located approximately 3 mi (4.5 km) northeast of Tinian, Saipan is 
the second largest and second most populous of the Mariana Islands, 
measuring 44 mi\2\ (115 km\2\) with a peak elevation of 1,555 ft (474 
m) at Mt. Tapochau (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 256). The 
island is composed primarily of terraced limestone peaks, with exposed 
volcanic ridges and slopes (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 256). 
Saipan supported a large population of Chamorro people for thousands of 
years, followed by the Spanish, Germans, Japanese, and the U.S. 
military forces, and was also heavily impacted by World War II. Saipan 
is the site of one of the largest battles in the Pacific between U.S. 
and Japanese forces. Much of Saipan's forests were destroyed during 
World War II, with only pockets of native forest surviving (Engbring et 
al. 1986, pp. 3-5, 10-12; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 38-39). Due to this 
widespread destruction of native forests and subsequent erosion, the 
nonnative tree Leucaena leucocephala (tangantangan) was seeded for 
erosion control (Berger et al. 2005, p. 32). Tangantangan is now a 
dominant tree species on the island, and forms a unique mixed-forest 
habitat not reported from the other islands (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 7). 
There are four conservation areas on Saipan: (1) Bird Island Wildlife 
Preserve; (2) Kagman Wildlife Conservation Area and Forbidden Island 
Sanctuary; (3) Marpi Forest; and (4) the Saipan Upland Mitigation Bank 
(Berger et al. 2005, p. 14). Ecosystem types on Saipan include forest, 
savanna, and cave. One of the 23 species addressed in this proposed 
rule occurs on Saipan, the humped tree snail. The plants Bulbophyllum 
guamense, Dendrobium guamense, and Solanum guamense, the Pacific 
sheath-tailed bat, and the Mariana eight-spot butterfly were known from 
Saipan historically.
Farallon de Medinilla
    Located approximately 52 mi (83 km) northeast of Saipan, and 33 mi 
(53 km) south of Anatahan, Farallon de Medinilla (FDM) is a small, 
uninhabited island measuring less than 1 mi\2\ (3 km\2\) in area with a 
peak elevation of 1,047 ft (319 m) (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 6). None of the 
23 species are currently or historically documented from this island.
Anatahan
    Located approximately 23 mi (37 km) south of Sarigan, and 33 mi (53 
km) northwest of FDM, Anatahan is an uninhabited volcanic island with 
recent activity, measuring 12 mi\2\ (31 km\2\) in land area, and a peak 
elevation of 2,582 ft (788 m) (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 
252; CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 6). This island is believed to have been 
inhabited by the Chamorro people, if not as a permanent residence, then 
as a collection site for natural resources (Russell 1998, p. 87). 
Climate on Anatahan is similar to Guam and the other southern Mariana 
Islands (see ``The Mariana Islands,'' above); however, being at a more 
northerly latitude, can be slightly cooler than the islands to the 
south (Ohba 1994, p. 14). Notable physical features of Anatahan include 
two volcanoes with an east to west trending summit depression formed by 
overlapping summit craters (Berger et al. 2005, p. 11). The largest 
caldera measures 1.5 by 2 mi (2 by 3 km) wide. Between 2003 and 2005, 
Anatahan erupted several times, with the largest eruption occurring in 
2005, covering the island with at least 6 ft (2 m) of volcanic ash and 
destroying an estimated 98 percent of the forest and

[[Page 59373]]

savanna habitat (Berger et al. 2005, p. 11; Kessler 2011, pp. 321, 
323). Coconut crabs (Birgus latro) and five species of resident land 
birds were eliminated along with most plants and other animals; 
however, cats (Felis catus), rats (Rattus spp.), and monitor lizards 
(Varanus indicus) survived (Kessler 2011, p. 323). Vegetation is slowly 
recovering, and if cats and rats were eliminated, Anatahan could be a 
good site for the reintroduction of native species--a ``clean slate'' 
(Kessler 2011, pp. 323-324). At this time, none of the 23 species are 
known to occur on Anatahan; however, the humped tree snail occurred 
there historically.
Sarigan
    Located approximately 40 mi (64 km) south of Guguan and 23 mi (37 
km) northeast of Anatahan, Sarigan is an uninhabited, roughly 
triangular, island measuring 2 mi\2\ (5 km\2\) in width with a peak 
elevation of 1,801 ft (549 m) (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 6). The island is 
believed to have been inhabited by the Chamorro people (Russell 1998, 
p. 86). Sarigan consists of a low truncated volcanic cone with a 2,460-
ft (750-m)-wide summit crater containing a small ash cone. Other 
notable physical features of Sarigan include irregular shorelines with 
steep cliffs created by old lava flows (Berger et al. 2005, p. 12). 
Sarigan has undergone complete eradication of feral ungulates, 
following the recommendation of the 1998 Fish and Wildlife Biological 
Opinion for U.S. Navy mitigation for their bombing activities on FDM. 
The ungulate removal project was a cooperative effort by FWS, U.S. 
Navy, CNMI Division of Fish and Wildlife (DFW), and the Northern 
Islands Mayor's Office. The islands' native vegetation and fauna is now 
increasing in species richness and population numbers (Kessler 2011, 
pp. 320-322). Ecosystem types on Sarigan include forest and savanna. 
Two of the 23 species are known to occur on Sarigan (Slevin's skink and 
the humped tree snail). We are unaware of historical occurrences of the 
other 21 species on Sarigan.
Guguan
    Located approximately 19 mi (30 km) south of Alamagan and 40 mi (64 
km) northeast of Sarigan, Guguan is an uninhabited island with volcanic 
activity, measuring 2 mi\2\ (4 km\2\) and a peak elevation of 988 ft 
(301 m) (Ohba 1994, p. 16). The island is not believed to have been 
inhabited by the Chamorro people (Russell 1998, pp. 83-89). Its north 
side is devoid of vegetation resulting from volcanic activity, and its 
south side is a vegetated, eroded, volcanic cone. Other notable 
physical features of Guguan include steep cliffs along the shoreline 
and moist to wet ravines (SIO 2014, in litt.). Also notable is the 
presence of dense seabird colonies (Ohba 1994, p. 16; Berger et al. 
2005, p. 12). Guguan supports the forest ecosystem. The entire island 
of Guguan is a designated conservation area (Berger et al. 2005, p. 
15). One of the 23 species occurs on Guguan (Slevin's skink). The plant 
Solanum guamense occurred on Guguan historically.
Alamagan
    Located approximately 18 mi (29 km) north of Guguan and 30 mi (48 
km) south of Pagan, Alamagan is an uninhabited island with volcanic 
activity, measuring 4 mi\2\ (11 km\2\), and a peak elevation of 2,441 
ft (744 m) at Mt. Alamagan (Ohba 1994, p. 16). Alamagan is an emergent 
summit of a large stratovolcano (steep, many-layered volcano 
characterized by periodic explosive eruptions) with a 1,148-ft (350-m) 
deep summit crater at the center of the island (Berger et al. 2005, p. 
12). Most of the historically recent eruptions have been violently 
explosive (Berger et al. 2005, p. 12). The island was inhabited by the 
Chamorro people (Russell 1998, p. 86). Alamagan supports the forest and 
savanna ecosystems. Two of the 23 species are known to occur on 
Alamagan (Slevin's skink and the humped tree snail). We are unaware of 
historical occurrences of the other 21 species on Alamagan.
Pagan
    Located 42 mi (68 km) from Agrihan and 30 mi (48 km) from Alamagan, 
Pagan is the fifth largest island in the Marianas archipelago, and the 
largest of the northern Mariana Islands, with an area of 19 mi\2\ (48 
km\2\) (Ohba 1994, p. 17). Four volcanoes comprise Pagan: Mt. Pagan in 
the north, and an unnamed complex of three older volcanoes to the south 
(Ohba 1994, p. 17; Smithsonian Institution 2014a, in litt.). These 
volcanoes are connected by a narrow isthmus. The highest point on this 
island is Mt. Pagan, which rises 1,870 ft (570 m) above sea level. Mt. 
Pagan is one of the most active volcanoes in the Mariana Islands, with 
its most recent eruption in 2012 (Smithsonian Institution 2014b, in 
litt.). The largest eruption during historical times took place in 
1981, when lava buried 10 percent of the island, and ash covered the 
entire island, forcing the 53 residents to flee to Saipan (Smithsonian 
Institution 2014b, in litt.). The island of Pagan supports the forest 
and savanna ecosystems. Three of the 23 species are known to occur on 
Pagan, the tree Cycas micronesica and the animals Slevin's skink and 
the humped tree snail. The plant Bulbophyllum guamense occurred 
historically on Pagan.
Agrihan
    Located approximately 64 mi (102 km) south of Asuncion, and 39 mi 
(63 km) north of Pagan, Agrihan is an almost perfectly round, active 
volcanic cone (Ohba 1994, p. 17). None of the 23 species addressed in 
this proposed rule are known to have historically occurred, or to 
currently occur, on Agrihan, but other listed species, the Mariana 
fruit bat and the Micronesian megapode, occur there.
Asuncion
    Asuncion is located approximately 23 mi (37 km) southeast of Maug 
and 62 mi (100 km) north of Agrihan. This island is an active, 
uninhabited volcano measuring 3 mi\2\ (7 km\2\), with a peak elevation 
of 2,923 ft (891 m) (Ohba 1994, p. 18; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 
1998, p. 245). Historically, Asuncion was inhabited by Chamorro peoples 
when Sanvitores arrived in the mid 1600s, and as evidenced by coconut 
groves (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 235). The long interval 
since Asuncion's last confirmed eruption in 1906 (Smithsonian 
Institution 2014c, in litt.), in conjunction with its high summit often 
enclosed by clouds (Ohba 1994, p. 18), affords this cone-shaped 
volcanic island densely forested slopes with diverse vegetation. 
Asuncion supports the forest and savanna ecosystems (Ohba 1994, p. 18). 
The entire island of Asuncion is a designated conservation area (Berger 
et al. 2005, p. 15). One of the 23 species addressed in this proposed 
rule is known to occur on Asuncion (Slevin's skink). The plant Solanum 
guamense occurred historically on Asuncion.
Maug
    Located approximately 43 mi (70 km) south of Uracas and 24 mi (39 
km) north of Asuncion, Maug consists of three small, uninhabited islets 
(East Island, West Island, and North Island). The three islets are the 
emergent portions of a largely submerged volcano, with a central lagoon 
within a sunken crater (Ohba 1994, p. 18; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 
1998, p. 244). The collective land mass of the three islets measures 
0.8 mi\2\ (2 km\2\) with the highest elevation at 745 ft (227 m) at 
North Island (Ohba 1994, p. 18; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 
244). Historically, Chamorro people inhabited Maug (Russell 1998, p. 
88), and the islets were briefly inhabited by the Japanese during World 
War II (Russell

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1998, pp. 96-97). Each of the three islets consists of narrow rocky 
ridges covered primarily by grasslands, sedges, and scrub; however, 
larger trees such as Hernandia sp., Pisonia grandis, and Terminalia 
catappa have been reported to occur in ravines on the leeward sides 
(Ohba 1994, p. 18; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 244-245). 
Ecosystems on Maug include forest and savanna, which currently provide 
habitat for large breeding colonies of a variety of seabirds (Ohba 
1994, p. 18). All three islets that comprise Maug are designated as a 
conservation area (Berger et al. 2005, p. 15). None of the 23 species 
addressed in this proposed rule are known to currently occur on the 
islands of Maug. The plant Solanum guamense occurred historically on 
Maug.
Uracas
    Uracas (Farallon de pajaros), is the northernmost island of the 
Mariana archipelago, roughly 43 mi (70 km) northwest of Maug. The 
island is an active, uninhabited volcano measuring 0.9 mi\2\ (2 km\2\) 
and with a peak elevation of 1,180 ft (334 m) (Ohba 1994, p. 18). None 
of the 23 species addressed in this proposed rule, or any previously 
listed species, are known to have historically occurred, or to 
currently occur, on Uracas.

An Ecosystem-Based Approach to Assessing the Conservation Status of 23 
Species in the Mariana Islands

    In this document, we have analyzed the threats to each of the 23 
Mariana Islands species individually to determine the appropriate 
status of each species on its own merits under the Act. However, 
because many of these species, and particularly those that share the 
same habitat types (henceforth referred to as ecosystems), share a very 
similar suite of threats, we have organized the 23 species addressed in 
this proposed rule by common ecosystem for efficiency, to reduce 
repetition for the reader, and to reduce publication costs. Therefore, 
we begin our analysis of the potential threats to each of the 23 
species by first describing the relevant ecosystems in which these 
species occur, to avoid repeating the habitat characteristics 
associated with each individual species found in the same ecosystem. 
Organizing the rule in this way also allows us to describe threats that 
affect multiple species occurring in shared ecosystems in a more 
efficient manner, again reducing repetition for the reader and saving 
publication costs.
    In addition, as an incidental benefit of assessing the threats to 
the 23 species using shared ecosystems as an organizational tool, we 
have laid the groundwork for better addressing threats to these 
species, should they be listed. On the Mariana Islands native species 
occurring in the same habitat types depend on many of the same physical 
and biological features and the successful functioning of their 
specific ecosystem to survive. Because these species that share 
ecosystems face a suite of shared threats, managing or eliminating 
these threats holistically at an ecosystem level is more cost effective 
and should lead to better resource protection for all native species. 
Cost-effective management of these threats requires implementation of 
conservation actions at the ecosystem level to enhance or restore 
critical ecological processes and provide for long-term viability of 
species and their habitat. Organizing the 23 Mariana Islands species by 
shared ecosystems sets the stage for a conservation management approach 
of protecting, restoring, and enhancing critical ecological processes 
at an ecosystem scale for the long-term viability of all associated 
native species in a given ecosystem type and locality, thus potentially 
preventing the future imperilment of any additional species that may 
require protection. This approach is in accord with the primary stated 
purpose of the Act (see section 2(b)): ``to provide a means whereby the 
ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend 
may be conserved.''
    Each of the 23 Mariana Islands species is found in one of the four 
ecosystem types described in this rule: forest, savanna, stream, and 
cave (Table 2). Of the 23 species, only the Pacific sheath-tailed bat 
is found in more than one ecosystem type (forest and cave).

  Table 2--The 23 Mariana Islands Species and the Ecosystems Upon Which
                               They Depend
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                  Species
            Ecosystem            ---------------------------------------
                                        Plants              Animals
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Forest..........................  Bulbophyllum        Pacific sheath-
                                   guamense.           tailed bat.
                                  Cycas micronesica.  Slevin's skink.
                                  Dendrobium          Mariana eight-spot
                                   guamense.           butterfly.
                                  Eugenia bryanii...  Mariana wandering
                                  Heritiera            butterfly.
                                   longipetiolata.    Humped tree snail.
                                  Maesa walkeri.....  Langford's tree
                                  Nervilia             snail.
                                   jacksoniae.        Guam tree snail.
                                  Psychotria          Fragile tree
                                   malaspinae.         snail.
                                  Solanum guamense..
                                  Tabernaemontana
                                   rotensis.
                                  Tinospora
                                   homosepala.
                                  Tuberolabium
                                   guamense.
Savanna.........................  Hedyotis
                                   megalantha.
                                  Phyllanthus
                                   saffordii.
Stream..........................  ..................  Rota blue
                                                       damselfly.
Cave............................  ..................  Pacific sheath-
                                                       tailed bat.
------------------------------------------------------------------------

    For all of the proposed species, we identified and evaluated those 
factors that are threats to each individual species specifically 
(species-specific threats), as well as those factors which are common 
threats to all of the species of a given ecosystem type (ecosystem-
level threats). For example, the degradation of habitat by nonnative 
ungulates is considered a direct or indirect threat to 17 of the 23 
species proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species. We 
have labeled such threats that are shared by all species within the 
same ecosystem as an ``ecosystem-level threat,'' because they impact 
all proposed species occurring in that ecosystem type in terms of the 
nature of the impact, its severity, timing, and scope. Beyond 
ecosystem-level threats, we further identified and evaluated species-
specific threats that may be unique to certain species. For example, 
the threat of predation by nonnative flatworms is unique and specific 
to the four tree snails addressed in this rule.

Mariana Islands Ecosystems

    For the purposes of organizing our threats discussion for the 23 
species by shared habitats, we describe four broad Mariana Islands 
ecosystems: Forest,

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savanna, stream, and cave, based on physical features, elevation, 
substratum, vegetation type, and hydrology (see ``The Mariana 
Islands,'' above). We acknowledge the presence of other ecosystems 
(e.g., coastal, wetland) in the Mariana Islands, however we limit our 
discussion to these four because they are the relevant ecosystems that 
support the 23 species proposed for listing as endangered or threatened 
species in this rule.
Forest Ecosystem
    There are two substrate types in the forest ecosystem, limestone 
and volcanic (Stone 1970, pp. 9, 14, 18-24; Falanruw et al. 1989, pp. 
6-9; Ohba 1994, pp. 19-29; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 243). 
The annual rainfall in the forest ecosystem lies within the archipelago 
average, ranging from 78 to 100 inches (in) (2,000 to 2,500 millimeters 
(mm)), with a rainy season from June or July through October or 
November. The temperature of the forest ecosystem mirrors the 
archipelago monthly averages, between 75 degrees Fahrenheit ([deg]F) 
and 82 [deg]F (24 degrees Celsius ([deg]C) and 28 [deg]C), with 
extremes of 64 [deg]F and 95 [deg]F (18 [deg]C and 35 [deg]C). Multiple 
plant species are present throughout the forest ecosystem, and on most 
of the islands; however, variations in species structure are observed 
(Fosberg 1960, pp. 37, 56-59, plates 1-40; Falanruw et al. 1989, pp. 6-
9; Ohba 1994, pp. 19-29; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 257, 
268, 270-271).
    Native canopy species in the forest ecosystem (as defined here) 
include but are not limited to: Artocarpus mariannensis, Barringtonia 
asiatica, Claoxylon spp., Cordia subcordata, Cyathea spp., Cyanometra 
ramiflora, Elaeocarpus joga, Ficus prolixa, Guamia mariannensis, 
Hernandia labyrinthica, H. sonora, Maytenus thompsonii, 
Merrilliodendron megacarpum, Ochrosia mariannensis, Pandanus dubius, P. 
tectorius, Pisonia grandis, Pouteria obovata, and Premna obtusifolia 
(Falanruw et al. 1989, pp. 6-9; Raulerson and Rinehart 1991, pp. 6-7, 
11, 14, 20, 24, 28, 33, 50, 52-53, 62-63, 72, 91, 96, 104; Ohba 1994, 
pp. 19-29; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 257, 268, 270-271; 
Wiewel et al. 2009, pp. 206-207). Native subcanopy species include but 
are not limited to: Aglaia mariannensis, Aidia cochinchinensis, 
Allophyllus timoriensis, Cyathea aramaganensis, Eugenia palumbis, E. 
reinwardtiana, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Neisosperma oppositifolia, 
Psychotria mariana, and Xylosma nelsonii (Stone 1970, pp. 9, 14, 18-24; 
Falanruw et al. 1989, pp. 6-9; Raulerson and Rinehart 1991, pp. 13, 47, 
56, 59, 68-69, 77, 84, 88; Ohba 1994, pp. 19-29; Mueller-Dombois and 
Fosberg 1998, pp. 252-253, 257, 268, 272); and native understory 
species include but are not limited to: Discocalyx megacarpa, Hedyotis 
spp., Nephrolepis bisserrata, N. hirsutula, Phyllanthus marianus, and 
Piper guamense (Falanruw et al. 1989, pp. 6-9; Ohba 1994, pp. 19-29; 
Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 247, 268). Further, in select 
areas of the forest ecosystem, usually where the forest is situated to 
receive and retain more moisture, the canopy trees are covered in 
various mosses and epiphytic ferns and orchids (Mueller-Dombois and 
Fosberg 1998, p. 268).
    Dominant canopy, subcanopy, and understory species can vary from 
one location to the next on the same island, and from island to island. 
These species can be endemic to one island, occur on one or more of the 
southern islands (e.g., the understory species Discocalyx megacarpa), 
or occur on one or more of the northern islands (e.g., Cyathea 
aramaganensis). In addition, biologists have observed overlap of forest 
species on limestone and volcanic substrata, suggesting that physical 
properties may be more important than chemical properties of these 
substrates in determining vegetation characteristics (Mueller-Dombois 
and Fosberg 1998, pp. 262-264). Elevation also contributes to 
variations in vegetation, as observed on Mt. Alutom, Mt. Almagosa, Mt. 
Lamlam, and Mt. Bolanus on Guam; the Rota Sabana; and on the slopes of 
the northern islands (Stone 1970, pp. 9, 14, 18-24; Falanruw 1989, pp. 
4-6; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 262-264); although in some 
cases there is no definite correlation with elevation (i.e., the 
moisture-retaining, moss-and-epiphyte-covered sections of the forest 
ecosystem are found near the coast in some areas and also at mid to 
high elevations) (Fosberg 1960, p. 30).
    Additionally, biologists have observed a change in distribution of 
Hernandia species with elevation. For example, H. sonora, dominant on 
the coastal side of the forest ecosystem, changes distinctly to H. 
labyrinthica as the elevation increases (Amidon 2000, p. 49). The 
significance of these interpretations of forest-associated species in 
the Mariana archipelago to the 14 plants in this rule is not adequately 
definitive to subclassify a forest type for each of the species in this 
rule; therefore, we describe a general forest ecosystem here, with the 
substrate, temperatures, rainfall, and associated native canopy, 
subcanopy, and understory species, listed above. The forest ecosystem 
supports 21 of the 23 species proposed for listing as endangered or 
threatened species in this rule (all except the plants Hedyotis 
megalantha and Phyllanthus saffordii, which occur only in the savanna 
ecosystem).
Savanna Ecosystem
    The savanna ecosystem of the Mariana Islands is characterized by 
volcanic substrate, primarily of basalts, with laterite soil (red clay 
rich in iron and aluminum) and a vegetation type in which grasses are 
the dominant plants. The savanna ecosystem on Guam is segmented by 
multiple narrow ravine forests, with some grassland (Mueller-Dombois 
and Fosberg 1998, pp. 241, 272). Savanna is considered a primary 
ecosystem type; however, human clearing and burning of forests and the 
presence of feral ungulates have contributed toward the expansion of 
secondary savanna into areas that previously supported the forest 
ecosystem (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 241-243; Stone 1970, 
p. 31). Some authorities have suggested that savanna should not be 
classified as a native ecosystem in the Mariana Islands (Athens and 
Ward 2004, p. 27); however, we concur with Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 
(1998, pp. 241-243), Stone (1970, pp. 14, 19, 21, 23, 30), and Hunter-
Anderson (2009, 16 pp.), that savanna can be classified as a primary 
ecosystem type. Hunter-Anderson published a detailed analysis of 
charcoal samples, historical climate change trends, patterns of soil 
deposition, known agricultural techniques used by the early settlers, 
and Holocene-age pollen and spore studies, all indicating that the 
first settlers did not use fire to create or enlarge new open areas 
(savanna) for agriculture (Hunter-Anderson 2009, 16 pp.). These 
findings support the theory that the savanna ecosystem type existed 
prior to human presence in the Mariana Islands.
    Annual rainfall in the savanna ecosystem ranges from 78 to 100 in 
(2,000 to 2,500 mm), with a rainy season from June or July through 
October or November. Likewise, the temperature of the savanna ecosystem 
averages between 75 [deg]F and 82 [deg]F (24 [deg]C and 28 [deg]C), 
with extremes of 64 [deg]F and 95 [deg]F (18 [deg]C and 35 [deg]C). 
Several endemic plant species are associated with the savanna 
ecosystem: the grass Dimeria chloridiformis; the small herbaceous 
perennial Dianella saffordiana, and the small tree Phyllanthus 
mariannensis (Stone 1970, pp. 19, 388, 549; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 
1998, pp. 241-243; Hunter-Anderson 2009, 16 pp). Other native savanna 
species include

[[Page 59376]]

the shrubs Decaspermum fruticosum, Dodonaea viscosa, Melastoma 
marianum, Myrtella bennigseniana, and Wikstroemia elliptica, the grass 
Digitaria mariannensis; and subspecies of the fern Dicranopteris. 
Another dominant but controversial component of the savanna ecosystem 
is the grass Miscanthus floridulus (giant miscanthus). Although M. 
floridulus occurred historically on Pagan as analyzed in fossil records 
studied in 1958 (Fosberg and Corwin 1958, pp. 8-9), and currently 
occurs on almost all of the 15 Mariana Islands, this species is 
considered invasive by most Mariana Islands ecologists. Recent field 
observations revealed that M. floridulus often grows in widespread, 
monotypic stands, whereas endemic plants such as Hedyotis megalantha 
and Phyllanthus saffordii grow compatibly within patches of the native 
fern Dicranopteris linearis (Gawel 2012, in litt.). The savanna 
ecosystem supports 2 of the 14 plant species proposed for listing as 
endangered or threatened species in this rule (Hedyotis megalantha and 
Phyllanthus saffordii).
Cave Ecosystem
    The cave ecosystem is largely located in limestone (karst) areas on 
the southern islands of Saipan, Aguiguan, Rota, and Guam (Taborosi 
2004, pp. 14-15). Limited areas of cave ecosystem also occur on the 
volcanic northern Mariana Islands where lava tubes and other crevices 
occur. The cave ecosystem includes stream caves, lava tubes, sea caves, 
and solution caves (Taborosi 2004, pp. 2, 11; Water and Environmental 
Research Institute and the Western Pacific-Island Research and 
Education Initiative (WERI-IREI) 2014, in litt.). Solution caves are 
the most common, except for on Tinian, which has mostly flank margin 
caves (Stafford et al. 2005, p. 20; WERI-IREI 2014, in litt.). Solution 
caves are cavities that have developed in the limestone substrate 
through the action of running water, erosion, and collapse (WERI-IREI 
2014, in litt). Flank margin caves form at the distal margin of the 
fresh water lens, where mixing of fresh and saline waters occurs 
(Stafford et al. 2005, p. 20).
    Ambient temperatures and rainfall in the cave ecosystem are the 
same as for surrounding areas in the Marianna Islands (average of 75 
[deg]F to 90 [deg]F (24 [deg]C to 32 [deg]C); rainfall 78 in (2,000 mm) 
per year) (Wiles et al. 2009, p. 10 in O'Shea and Valdez 2009). Thermal 
characteristics of the interiors of caves show little variability, and 
relative humidity is high. Humidity measured in four caves on Aguiguan 
ranged from 92 to 96 percent (O'Shea and Valdez 2009, p. 78 in O'Shea 
and Valedez 2009). Internal cave temperatures (between caves) vary less 
than a few degrees, between 79 [deg]F to 82 [deg]F (26 [deg]C to 28 
[deg]C), and temperatures within each cave are essentially constant 
(O'Shea and Valdez 2009, p. 77 in O'Shea and Valedez 2009). No major 
air movement was detected within caves to indicate any complex thermal 
patterns (O'Shea and Valdez 2009, p. 77 in O'Shea and Valedez 2009).
    Cave sizes range from small (less than 49 ft (15 m) long and 538 
ft\2\ (50 m\2\)) in floor area, with low rock overhangs, narrow 
vertical crevices, various cavities at the base of cliffs or under 
large boulders; to medium (538 ft\2\ to 1,076 ft\2\ (50 to 100 m\2\) in 
floor area, with wider rooms; to large (over 1,076 ft\2\ (100 m\2\)) in 
floor area, with ceiling heights reaching 16 to 98 ft (5 to 30 m)) 
(Wiles et al. 2009, p. 11 in O'Shea and Valdez 2009).
    Cave ecosystems suitable for the Pacific sheath-tailed bat should 
be within or near mature native forest, to provide an attainable food 
source (Wiles et al. 2009, p. 10 in O'Shea and Valdez 2009; Gorresen et 
al. 2009, p. 44 in O'Shea and Valdez 2009). Pacific sheath-tailed bats 
prefer the larger caves, if available (Wiles et al. 2009, p. 15 in 
O'Shea and Valdez 2009), but may also be found in smaller caves, 
especially where there may be less disturbance (e.g., use by goats or 
humans).
    One of the 23 species proposed for listing as endangered in this 
rule, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, depends on the cave ecosystem for 
its life-history needs.
Stream Ecosystem
    Streams can be a part of a wetland ecosystem; however, for this 
proposed rule, we discuss only the more narrowly defined stream 
ecosystem. Only one species addressed in this rule is found in the 
stream ecosystem, the Rota blue damselfly, which occurs only on Rota.
    Only two of the Mariana Islands have permanent streams, Guam and 
Rota. Guam has 14 named watersheds with more than 100 streams and 
rivers (WERI-IREI 2014, in litt.). Saipan has a brackish-water lake, 
Lake Susupe. Intermittent headwaters originating from Mount Tagpochau 
and the Fina Sisu ridge during heavy rains provide water to the lake, 
but there are no permanent streams on Saipan (Wong and Hill 2000, p. 
1). Currently on Tinian, there are no permanent streams, and only one 
functional wetland, Lake Hagoi (Stinson 1995, in litt.). The limestone 
substrate of these southern islands is very porous, and rain that falls 
is evaporated, consumed by plants, runs directly off the land surface 
into the ocean, or recharges ground water (Carruth 2003, p. 13). The 
northern islands are not known to have permanent streams; however, 
Pagan has a freshwater lake with hot sulfur springs, and a small 
brackish-water lake (Guam.net, http://www.guam.net/pub/sshs/depart/science/mancuso/marianas/pagan/pagan.htm, accessed April 30, 2014).
    The western end of Rota is dominated by the ``Sabana'' region, 
which is an irregular plateau 1,300 ft (400 m) high, 2.5 mi by 1.6 mi 
(4 km by 2.5 km), with two prominent peaks nearly 1,600 ft (500 m) 
high. The Sabana area is very porous, with internal caves, and any 
ponding water after a rainfall event filters quickly into the 
substrate, leaving ephemeral streams (Keel et al. 2007, pp. 12-16). The 
east, north and west of the plateau gradually drops off in a series of 
terraces. The south side of the plateau has steep cliffs in the 
Talakhaya area, with springs and the only surface streams on the island 
(Keel et al. 2007, p. 3). The stream ecosystem on Rota encompasses 
these streams and springs in the Talakhaya area, and is the only known 
location of the Rota blue damselfly (as described in ``Animals--Rota 
Blue Damselfly,'' below).
    On Rota, there is a distinct rainy season from July through 
December, with an average annual rainfall of 102 in (2600 mm). Ambient 
temperature averages 81 [deg]F (27 [deg]C) (see ``Islands in the 
Mariana Archipelago,'' above). The rainy season and rainfall amounts 
can dramatically change (become drier) due to the El Ni[ntilde]o-
Southern Oscillation (ENSO) which also affects stream levels (Keel et 
al. 2007, p. 6).
    The vegetation along the streams consists primarily of mature, 
tall-canopied, native limestone forest (Keel et al. 2007, p.10; U.S. 
Forest Service 2014, in litt.). The vegetation type and components are 
further described in Forest Ecosystem, above.
    The Talakhaya Springs within the Sabana Watershed are used as a 
primary domestic water source. The springs consist of Water Cave (also 
known as Matan Hanum Spring) and As Onon Spring. The municipal water is 
obtained by gravity flow from these two springs (up to 1.8 million 
gallons a day (2.8 cubic feet per second)) (Keel et al. 2007, pp. 1, 5; 
Stafford et al. 2002, p. 17). Under ordinary climatic conditions, this 
area supplies water in excess of demand but ENSO-induced drought 
conditions can lead to significantly reduced discharge, or may 
completely dewater the streams (Keel et al. 2007, pp. 3, 6, 19). In 
1998, water captured from the

[[Page 59377]]

springs was inadequate for municipal use, and water rationing was 
instituted (Keel et al. 2007, p. 6). As the annual temperature rises 
resulting from global climate change, other weather regime changes such 
as increases in droughts, floods, and typhoons will occur (Giambelluca 
et al. 1991, p. iii). Increasing night temperatures cause a change in 
mean precipitation, with increased occurrences of drought cycles (Loope 
and Giambelluca 1998, pp. 514-515; Emanuel et al. 2008, p. 365; U.S. 
Global Change Research Program (US-GCRP) 2009, pp. 145-149, 153; Keener 
et al. 2010, pp. 25-28; Finucane et al. 2012, pp. 23-26; Keener et al. 
2012, pp. 47-51).
    The limestone substrate of Rota is porous, with filtration through 
central Sabana being the sole water source for the few streams on the 
island and for human use. There are no other ground water supplies on 
the island, and limited storage capacity. The Rota blue damselfly is 
dependent upon any water that escapes the Talakhaya Springs naturally, 
what is not already removed for human use. The likelihood of dewatering 
of the Talakhaya Springs is high due to climate change causing 
increased ENSO conditions, and increased human demand. The ``Public and 
Agency Participation'' section of the Comprehensive Wildlife 
Conservation Strategy for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana 
Islands (2005, p. 347) cites ``individuals state the the Department of 
Public Works has been increasing their water extraction from Rota's 
spring/stream systems. Historically, this water source flowed year-
around, yet now they are essentially dry most of each year.'' See the 
species description in ``Rota blue damselfly,'' below, and the ``Water 
Extraction'' section under Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors 
Affecting Their Continued Existence, below, for further discussion.

Description of the 23 Mariana Islands Species

Plants

    In order to avoid confusion regarding the number of populations of 
each species (i.e., because we do not consider an individual plant to 
represent a viable population), we use the word ``occurrence'' instead 
of ``population.'' Additionally, we use the word occurrence to refer 
only to wild (i.e., not propagated and outplanted) individuals because 
of the uncertainty of the persistence to at least the second generation 
(F2) of the outplanted individuals. A population consists of mature, 
reproducing individuals forming populations that are self-sustaining. 
Also, there is a high potential that one or more of the outplanted 
populations may be eliminated by normal or random adverse events such 
as fire, nonnative plant invasion, or disease, before a seed bank can 
be established.
    Bulbophyllum guamense (cebello halumtano), an epiphyte in the 
orchid family (Orchidaceae), is known from widely distributed 
occurrences on the southern Mariana Islands of Guam and Rota, in the 
forest ecosystem (Ames 1914, p. 13; Raulerson and Rinehart 1992, p. 90; 
Costion and Lorence 2012, pp. 54, 66; Global Biodiversity Information 
Facility (GBIF) 2012a-Online Herbarium Database). Bulbophyllum guamense 
was recorded historically on Guam from clifflines encircling the 
island, and on the slopes of Mt. Lamlam and Mt. Almagosa. As recently 
as 1992, this species was reported to occur in large mat-like 
formations on trees ``all over the island,'' (Guam) (Raulerson and 
Rinehart 1992, p. 90). Currently, numbers have declined dramatically, 
and there are only 4 known occurrences (3 on Guam and 1 on Rota) 
totaling fewer than 250 individuals on Guam and fewer than 30 
individuals on Rota. Historically, this species also occurred on Pagan 
(last observed in 1984) and Saipan (last observed in 1970). 
Bulbophyllym guamense has thus been lost from two of the four islands 
where it formerly occurred, and only a few small populations of the 
species remain on Guam and Rota. The remaining individuals of B. 
guamense are vulnerable to the effects of continued habitat loss and 
destruction from agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and 
plants, fires, and typhoons, combined with predation by nonnative 
invertebrates such as slugs.
    Cycas micronesica (fadang), a cycad in the cycad family 
(Cycadaceae), is known from Guam, Rota, and Pagan, as well as Palau 
(politically the independent Republic of Palau) and Yap (geographically 
part of the Caroline Islands; politically part of the Federated States 
of Micronesia), in the forest ecosystem (Hill et al. 2004, p. 280; 
Keppel et al. 2008, p. 1,006; Cibrian-Jaramillo et al. 2010, pp. 2,372-
2,375; Marler 2013, in litt.).
    Just 10 years ago, Cycas micronesica was ubiquitous on the island 
of Guam, and similarly common on Rota. Cycas micronesica is currently 
under attack by a nonnative insect, the cycad aulacaspis scale 
(Aulacaspis yasumatsui) that is causing rapid mortality of plants at 
all locations (Marler 2014, in litt.). As of January 2013, C. 
micronesica mortality reached 92 percent on Guam, and cycads on Rota 
are experiencing a similar fate (Marler 2013, in litt.). All seedlings 
of C. micronesica in a study area were observed to die within 9 months 
of infestation by C. yasumatsui (see Factor C. Disease and Predation, 
below for further discussion) (Marler and Muniappan 2006, p. 3; Marler 
and Lawrence 2012, p. 233; Marler 2013, pers. comm.; Western Pacific 
Tropical Research Center 2012, p. 4).
    Currently, there are 15 to 20 occurrences of Cycas micronesica 
totaling 900,000 to 950,000 individuals on the Micronesian Islands of 
Guam, Rota, Pagan, Yap, and Palau. On Guam and Rota there are fewer 
than 630,000 (Marler 2013, pers. comm.). These totals do not 
distinguish between successfully reproducing adults and juveniles 
(Marler 2013, pers. comm.), which, because of the effects of the cycad 
aulacaspis scale, implies that the number of extant individuals that 
can successfully reproduce is much lower. On Guam, there are four 
fragmented occurrences, totaling fewer than 516,000 individuals: one 
occurrence along the shoreline to the base of the limestone cliffs on 
the north side; a second occurrence beginning at the forest edge along 
the cliffs and continuing into the forest on the north side; a third 
occurrence on the northern plateau; and a fourth occurrence along the 
ravines and rock outcrops on the southern side, with a few individuals 
occurring across the savanna.
    On Rota, there are four known occurrences within the forest 
ecosystem, totaling fewer than 111,500 individuals (Marler 2013, in 
litt.). On the northeast shore the first occurrence totals fewer than 
25,500 individuals; the second occurrence, on the northwest shore, 
totals fewer than 21,600 individuals; the third occurrence on the south 
shore totals fewer than 63,600 individuals; and the fourth occurrence 
on Wedding Cake peninsula totals fewer than 300 individuals.
    There are likely a relatively limited number of individuals of 
Cycas micronesica on Pagan. In recent surveys, Pratt (2011, pp. 33-42) 
reported finding representatives of the species in a ravine on the 
southwestern part of the island.
    Yap consists of a group of four islands, three of which are 
separated by water but share a common reef, with a total land area of 
39 mi\2\ (102 km\2\). On Yap, there are three occurrences of Cycas 
micronesica totaling 288,450 individuals (Marler 2013, in litt). Palau 
consists of three larger islands, Babeldaob, Koror, and Ngeruktabel, 
and between 250 and 300 smaller islands referred to as the ``Rock 
Islands.'' The

[[Page 59378]]

total land area is 177 mi\2\ (458 km\2\). On Palau, four occurrences of 
C. micronesica total fewer than 2,500 individuals: (1) two occurrences 
on Ngeruktabel Island total fewer than 900 individuals, (2) one 
occurrence on Ngesomel Island totals fewer than 600 individuals, and 
(3) possibly as many as 1,000 individuals scattered on the Rock Islands 
(Marler 2013, in litt.). The aulacaspis scale was observed on the main 
islands of Palau in 2008 (Marler 2014, in litt.), and is expected to 
reach Yap as well (Marler 2013, in litt.).
    Protecting and preserving Cycas micronesica on the islands of Guam 
and Rota is important, as it is an integral component of the forest 
ecosystem, and over 50 percent of the known individuals occur on these 
islands. The nonnative cycad aulacaspis scale quickly causes mortality 
of all life stages of C. micronesica, preventing reproduction of C. 
micronesica, and leading to its extirpation (see Factor C. Disease and 
Predation, below). The magnitude of the ongoing threats of predation by 
the scale and nonnative animals, secondary infestations by other 
insects, and loss of habitat due to development, typhoons, climate 
change, and direct damage and destruction by military live-fire 
training is large, and these threats are imminent. Although C. 
micronesica presently is found in relatively high numbers, the factors 
affecting this species can result in very rapid mortality of large 
numbers of individuals. A study by Marler and Lawrence (2012) shows 
that if the ongoing negative population density trajectory for C. 
micronesica established over 4 years is sustained, extirpation of C. 
micronesica from Guam and Rota will occur by 2019.
    Dendrobium guamense (no common name (NCN)), an ephiphyte in the 
orchid family (Orchidaceae), is known from Guam, Rota, and Tinian, in 
the forest ecosystem (Ames 1914, p. 14; Raulerson and Rinehart 1992, p. 
98; Costion and Lorence 2012, p. 66). As recently as the 1980s, this 
species was common in trees on Guam and Rota, with more than 12 
occurrences on Guam and 17 occurrences on Rota (Bishop Museum 2013--
Online Herbarium Database; Consortium Pacific Herbarium (CPH) 2012a--
Online Herbarium Database, 5 pp.). Currently, there are 9 occurrences 
totaling approximately 550 individuals distributed among these islands. 
On Guam, there are 4 occurrences totaling fewer than 250 individuals 
(Harrington et al. 2012, in litt). On Rota, there are 4 occurrences of 
D. guamense, totaling fewer than 300 individuals (Harrington et al. 
2012, in litt). There is one reported occurrence on the island of 
Tinian, with an unknown number of individuals (Quinata et al. 1994, p. 
8; CPH 2012a--Online Herbarium Database, 5 pp.). Historically, D. 
guamense was also known from Saipan, in the forest ecosystem (CPH 
2012a--Online Herbarium Database, 5 pp.). Formerly relatively common, 
the remaining populations of D. guamense and habitat for its 
reintroduction to Saipan are at risk; D. guamense populations are 
decreasing on Guam, Rota, and Tinian, and both the species and its 
habitat continues to be negatively affected by continued habitat loss 
and destruction from agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals 
and plants, fires, and typhoons, combined with predation by nonnative 
invertebrates such as slugs.
    Eugenia bryanii (NCN), a perennial shrub in the Myrtle family 
(Myrtaceae), is known only from Guam. Historically, E. bryanii occurred 
on windy, exposed clifflines along the west and east coasts of the 
island, and from along the Pigua River, in the forest ecosystem 
(Costion and Lorence 2012, p. 82; Gutierrez 2012, in litt.). Currently, 
E. bryanii is known from 5 occurrences totaling fewer than 420 
individuals (Gutierrez 2014, in litt.). Populations of E. bryanii, a 
single island endemic, are decreasing from initial numbers observed on 
Guam, and these remaining small populations are at risk, due to 
continued habitat loss and destruction from agriculture, urban 
development, nonnative animals and plants, and typhoons, combined with 
herbivory by deer.
    Hedyotis megalantha (paudedo), a perennial herb in the coffee 
family (Rubiaceae), is known only from the savanna ecosystem on Guam. 
Historically, H. megalantha was reported solely from Guam; however, 
because several herbarium records reported this species on Rota and 
Saipan, we investigated other reports and taxonomic and genetic 
analyses concerning the range of this species. We believe the Rota and 
Saipan reports are misidentifications of one or more of the other 
Hedyotis species also found in the Mariana Islands (Fosberg et al. 
1993, pp. 63-79; CPH 2012b--Online Herbarium Database; World Checklist 
of Select Plant Families (WCSP) 2012a--Online Herbarium Database). 
Between 1911 and 1966, this species ranged from the mid-central 
mountains and west coast of Guam, south to Mt. Lamlam (Bishop Museum 
2013-Online Herbarium Database). Currently, H. megalantha is known from 
one large scattered occurrence totaling fewer than 1,000 individuals on 
southern Guam (Costion and Lorence 2012, pp. 54, 86; Gutierrez 2012, in 
litt.; Bishop Museum 2013--herbarium database; Gutierrez 2013, in 
litt.). Hedyotis megalantha typically occurs as lone individuals rather 
than in patches or groups (Gutierrez 2013, in litt.). In sum, the 
single known occurrence of H. megalantha, a single island endemic, is 
decreasing from initial numbers observed on Guam, and the remaining 
individuals are at continued risk due to ongoing habitat loss and 
destruction from agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and 
plants, fires, and typhoons, combined with habitat destruction and 
direct damage by recreational vehicles.
    Heritiera longipetiolata (ufa-halomtano; looking glass tree), a 
tree in the hibiscus family (Malvaceae), is known only from the Mariana 
Islands. A few herbarium records have cited H. longipetiolata on Palau, 
Chuuk, Pohnpei, and the Eastern Caroline Islands; however, upon a 
thorough review of the literature and herbarium records, and conferring 
with local botanical experts, we conclude that these few outlying 
occurrences are actually H. littoralis, not H. longipetiolata (Stone 
1970, pp. 23, 420-421; Raulerson and Rinehart 1991, p. 94; Wiles 2012, 
in litt.; Center for Plant Conservation 2010, in litt.; CPH 2012c--
Online Herbarium Database; GBIF 2014--Online Herbarium Database; 
Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.; Lorence 2013, in litt.).
    Historically, Heritiera longipetiolata is reported from Guam, Rota, 
Saipan, and Tinian, in the forest ecosystem (Stone 1970, p. 420; 
Raulerson and Rinehart 1991, p. 94; CPH 2012c--Online Herbarium 
Database; GBIF 2014--Online Herbarium Database). By 1997, there were 
about 1,000 individuals on Guam, several hundred on Tinian, and fewer 
than 100 on Saipan, with none observed on Rota (Wiles in Internation 
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List 2014, in litt.). 
Currently, H. longipetiolata is known from 9 occurrences totaling fewer 
than 160 individuals, on Guam, Saipan, and Tinian, all within the 
forest ecosystem (M and E Pacific, Inc., pp. 6, 8, 31, 78; Harrington 
et al. 2012, in litt; Grimm 2013, in litt). On Tinian, H. 
longipetiolata is known from fewer than 10 individuals (Williams 2013, 
in litt.). On Saipan, H. longipetiolata is known from 3 occurrences, 
totaling fewer than 30 individuals. Wiles stated that there is strong 
evidence that H. longipetiolata is not regenerating, and that seedlings 
and seeds are eaten by ungulates and crabs (Wiles in IUCN Red List 
2014, in litt.). Heritiera longipetiolata is on Guam's endangered 
species list, listed as Vulnerable on IUCN's Red List of

[[Page 59379]]

Threatened Species, and is also a species of concern for Guam's Plant 
Extinction Prevention Program. The remaining populations of H. 
longipetiolata persist only in small numbers, and are decreasing from 
initial numbers observed on Guam, Saipan, and Tinian. With fewer than 
200 individuals remaining across three islands, the species Heritiera 
longipetiolata and habitat for the recovery of the species on Rota are 
at risk due to ongoing habitat loss and destruction from agriculture, 
urban development, nonnative animals and plants, and typhoons. 
Herbivory by pigs and deer, and habitat and direct destruction by 
military live-fire training also contribute to the decline of H. 
longipetiolata.
    Maesa walkeri (NCN), a shrub or small tree in the primrose family 
(Primulaceae), is found only in the Mariana Islands. Historically, M. 
walkeri is known from the islands of Guam and Rota, within the forest 
ecosystem (Fosberg and Sachet 1979, pp. 368-369; Raulerson and Rinehart 
1991, p. 67; M and E Pacific, Inc. 1998, pp. 31, 79; Costion and 
Lorence 2012, p. 84; CPH 2012d--Online Herbarium Database; GBIF 2012b--
Online Herbarium Database; Wagner et al. 2012--Flora of Micronesia). 
Several voucher specimens (preserved and labeled representative whole 
plants or plant parts, used to compare and correctly identify plant 
species, usually kept as part of an herbarium collection) report M. 
walkeri from the Carolinian Island of Pohnpei, but after careful review 
of the best available data (cited above) we conclude that M. walkeri is 
endemic to the Mariana Islands. Historically, M. walkeri was known from 
at least 13 occurrences on Guam and 9 occurrences on Rota (Bishop 
Museum 2014--Online Herbarium Database). Currently, M. walkeri is known 
from 4 occurrences in the forest ecosystem on Guam and Rota, totaling 
fewer than 60 individuals. On Guam, there are two individuals (M and E 
Pacific, Inc. 1998, pp. 31, 79; Grimm 2013, in litt.). On Rota, M. 
walkeri is known from 2 occurrences totaling approximately 50 
individuals (Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.; Gawel 2013, in litt.). 
Maesa walkeri is also a species of concern for Guam's Plant Extinction 
Prevention Program.
    In summary, the species Maesa walkeri is vulnerable to extinction 
due to its very limited numbers, totaling fewer than 60 individuals 
(with only 2 on Guam). The remaining populations of M. walkeri are 
decreasing from initial numbers observed on Guam and Rota, and continue 
to be affected by ongoing habitat loss and destruction from 
agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and plants, fires, 
and typhoons. The impacts on the species are exacerbated by the effects 
of low numbers of individuals resulting in loss of vigor and genetic 
representation, which limits its ability to compete with other species 
and adapt to changes in environmental conditions.
    Nervilia jacksoniae (NCN), a small herb in the orchid family 
(Orchidaceae), is found only in the Mariana Islands. Historically, N. 
jacksoniae occurred on the islands of Guam and Rota, in the forest 
ecosystem, and ranged from northern to central Guam and only the 
southwestern point of Rota (Rinehart and Fosberg 1991, pp. 81-85; 
Raulerson and Rinehart 1992, p. 118; Costion and Lorence 2012, p. 67). 
Currently, there are approximately 15 occurrences totaling at least 520 
individuals on the islands of Guam and Rota, in the forest ecosystem 
(Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.). On Guam, N. jacksoniae is known 
from 2 occurrences totaling fewer than 200 individuals (M and E 
Pacific, Inc. 1998, p. 58; Grimm 2012, in litt.; McConnell 2012, pers. 
comm.). On Rota, N. jacksoniae is known from 13 scattered occurrences 
totaling at least 320 individuals in the forest ecosystem (Rinehart and 
Fosberg 1991, pp. 81-85; Raulerson and Rinehart 1992, p. 118; Costion 
and Lorence 2012, p. 67; CPH 2012e--Online Herbarium Database; GBIF 
2012c--Online Herbarium Database; McConnell 2012, pers. comm.). 
Populations of N. jacksoniae are decreasing from initial numbers 
observed on Guam and Rota and are at risk of further losses due to 
continued habitat loss and destruction from agriculture, urban 
development, nonnative animals and plants, fires, and typhoons, 
combined with predation by nonnative invertebrates such as slugs.
    Phyllanthus saffordii (NCN), a woody shrub in the Phyllanthaceae 
family, is historically known only from the southern part of Guam 
within the savanna ecosystem. Several literature and database sources 
report this species from the northern Mariana Islands (Costion and 
Lorence 2012, pp. 82-83; Wagner 2012--Flora of Micronesia; U.S. 
Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service-Germplasm 
Resources Information Network (USDA-ARS-GRIN) 2013--Online Database; 
WCSP 2012b--Online Database); however, a thorough review of the 
literature, databases, and herbaria records revealed recorded 
occurrences only on Guam (Merrill 1914, pp. 104-105; Glassman 1948, p. 
181; Stone 1970, pp. 387-388; Pratt 2011, p. 59; Gutierrez 2012, in 
litt.; GBIF 2012d--Online Herbarium Database; Bishop Museum 2013--
Online Herbarium Database; Smithsonian Institution 2014-Flora of 
Micronesia Database). Until the early 1980s, P. saffordii ranged from 
central to southern Guam (Bishop Museum 2014--Herbarium Database). 
Currently, P. saffordii is known from 4 scattered occurrences on 
southern Guam, totaling fewer than 1,400 individuals (Gutierrez 2013, 
in litt.; Gawel et al. 2013, in litt.). In summary, populations of P. 
saffordii, a single island endemic, are decreasing from initial numbers 
observed on Guam and are at risk, due to continued habitat loss and 
destruction from agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and 
plants, fires, and typhoons, combined with habitat destruction and 
direct damage by recreational vehicles.
    Psychotria malaspinae (aplokhating-palaoan), a shrub or small tree 
in the coffee family (Rubiaceae), is known only from Guam. 
Historically, P. malaspinae was known from scattered occurrences on the 
northeastern and southwestern sides of Guam, in the forest ecosystem 
(Merrill 1914, pp. 148-149; Stone 1970, pp. 554-555; Raulerson and 
Rinehart 1991, p. 83; Fosberg et al. 1993, pp. 111-112; Costion and 
Lorence 2012, pp. 54, 85-86; Bishop Museum 2014--Online Database; 
Wagner 2012--Flora of Micronesia; WCSP 2012c--Online Database). 
Currently, P. malaspinae is known from only three occurrences, each of 
a single individual (M and E Pacific, Inc. 1998, pp. 67, 79). None of 
these individuals has been observed within the last 5 years. Biologists 
searched for this species during rare plant surveys conducted in July 
2012; however, none were located (Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.). A 
specimen collected from the Ritidian National Wildlife Refuge on Guam 
in August 2013 is currently pending identification (Gawel et al. 2013, 
in litt.). Psychotria malaspinae is also a species of concern for 
Guam's Plant Extinction Prevention Program.
    The species Psychotria malaspinae, a single island endemic, has 
been reduced to three known individuals in the wild, rendering this 
species vulnerable to extinction. These remaining individuals are at 
risk, due to continued habitat loss and destruction from agriculture, 
urban development, nonnative animals and plants, and typhoons. 
Herbivory by pigs and deer, combined with the effects of low numbers of 
individuals, which results in loss of vigor and genetic representation, 
and limits its ability to compete with other species and adapt to 
changes in environmental conditions, contribute to the decline of P. 
malaspinae.
    Solanum guamense (berenghenas halomtano), a small shrub in the

[[Page 59380]]

nightshade family (Solanaceae), is known only from the Mariana Islands 
(Merrill 1914, pp. 139-140; Stone 1970, p. 521; Costion and Lorence 
2012, p. 89). Historically, S. guamense was reported from Guam, Rota, 
Saipan, Tinian, Asuncion, Guguan, and Maug (Stone 1970, p. 521; GBIF 
2012e--Online Database; Bishop Museum 2014--Online Database). 
Currently, S. guamense is known from a single occurrence of one 
individual on Guam, in the forest ecosystem (Perlman and Wood 1994, pp. 
135-136).
    Once ranging across multiple islands, Solanum guamense is now 
vulnerable to extinction, the species having been reduced to a single 
remaining individual on Guam. This species, and habitat for its 
reintroduction to Rota, Saipan, Tinian, Asuncion, Guguan, and Maug, are 
at risk, due to continued habitat loss and destruction from 
agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and plants, and 
typhoons. Herbivory by pigs and deer, combined with the effects of low 
numbers of individuals, which results in loss of vigor and genetic 
representation and limits its ability to compete with other species and 
adapt to changes in environmental conditions, contribute to the decline 
of S. guamense.
    Tabernaemontana rotensis (NCN), a small to medium-sized tree in the 
dogbane family (Apocynaceae), is historically known from Guam and Rota, 
in the forest ecosystem (University of Guam (UOG) 2007, p. 6). The 
genus is widespread throughout tropical and subtropical regions. In 
2004 (69 FR 1560, January 9, 2004), we proposed to list T. rotensis; 
however, in April 2004 (69 FR 18499) we did not list T. rotensis 
because an authoritative monographic work on the genus submerged this 
species in an expansive interpretation of the widespread species T. 
pandacaqui. In 2011, a genetic study was conducted on specimens from 
Rota, Guam, Asia, and the Pacific, to determine if those individuals on 
the Mariana Islands are a monophyletic lineage. The study determined 
that T. rotensis is a valid species, distinct from the widespread T. 
pandacaqui (Reynaud 2012, 27 pp. + appendices). In 2004, T. rotensis 
was known from 8 individuals on Rota, and at least 250 individuals on 
Guam. In 2007, more than 21,000 individuals were found throughout 
Andersen AFB, with a population structure representing seedlings, 
juveniles, and reproductive, mature individuals (UOG 2007 p. 4). 
Currently, on Rota, T. rotensis is known from two occurrences, each 
composed of fewer than five individuals (Harrington et al. 2012, in 
litt.). On Guam, T. rotensis is known from 6 occurrences totaling 
approximately 21,000 individuals (M and E Pacific, Inc. 1998, p. 61; 
UOG 2007, pp. 32-42).
    In summary, populations of Tabernaemontana rotensis on Guam and 
Rota are at risk, due to continued habitat loss and destruction from 
agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and plants, fires, 
and typhoons, combined with vandalism. The greatest concern regarding 
this species is not of population structure, but the small proximity of 
occurrences in an area that may be developed according to the proposed 
AFB and Navy base expansions (UOG 2007, p. 5; JGPO-NavFac Pacific 
2010a, 2010b; JGPO-NavFac Pacific 2014).
    Tinospora homosepala (NCN), a vine in the moonseed family 
(Menispermaceae), is historically known only from Guam (Merrill 1914, 
p. 83; Stone 1970, pp. 27, 277; Costion and Lorence 2012, pp. 92-93). 
Currently, T. homosepala is known from 3 occurrences totaling 
approximately 30 individuals, in the forest ecosystem (Yoshioka 2008, 
p. 15; Gawel et al. 2013, in litt.). There is discussion among 
botanists as to whether or not T. homosepala is either the same as a 
commonly occurring species found throughout Malaysia and the 
Philippines or a variety of that species (T. glabra) (Costion and 
Lorence 2012, pp. 92-93; Gawel et al. 2013, in litt.). Tinospora 
homosepala differs from T. glabra in having equal-sized sepals (petal-
like structures of the calyx) as opposed to the outer sepals being much 
smaller than inner sepals as in T. glabra (Costion and Lorence 2012, p. 
93; Forman 1981, pp. 381, 417, and 419).
    While these discussions note that additional research on the 
taxonomy of Tinospora homosepala is appropriate to address questions, 
no changes to the currently accepted taxonomy have been proposed, 
although Forman (1981, p. 419) notes that, if fruits of T. homosepala 
are discovered and are indistinguishable from T. glabra, it may be 
preferable to reduce T. homosepala to subspecific rank under T. glabra. 
Regardless, any future reduction in rank from full species status to 
that of a subspecies or variety would not, in itself, disqualify this 
taxon from protection under the Act. All known individuals of T. 
homosepala on Guam are said to be males that reproduce clonally 
(Yoshioka 2008, p. 15; Gawel et al. 2013, in litt.). Clonal 
reproduction limits genetic diversity, reducing the ability of the 
species to form new genetic combinations to fit changing environmental 
conditions (Stebbins 1957, p. 352). In summary, the species T. 
homosepala, a single island endemic, has been reduced to roughly 30 
individuals on Guam, and it is possible that no female representatives 
of this species remain. These few remaining individuals of the species 
are at risk of extinction, due to continued habitat loss and 
destruction from nonnative animals and plants, and typhoons, and by 
genetic limitations as a result of the possible loss of potential 
sexual reproduction.
    Tuberolabium guamense (NCN) (Trachoma guamense is a synonym), an 
epiphyte in the orchid family (Orchidaceae), is known only from the 
Mariana Islands. Historically, T. guamense was reported from the 
islands of Guam, Rota, Tinian, and Aguiguan (Raulerson and Rinehart 
1992, p. 127; CPH 2012f--Online Herbarium Database; GBIF 2012f--Online 
Database). The Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew's online database (WCSP 
2012d--Online Database) describes the range for T. guamense as the 
Mariana Islands and the Cook Islands; however, we were unable to 
confirm this with herbarium specimens citing the Cook Islands as a site 
for collection (CPH 2012f--Online Herbarium Database; GBIF 2012f--
Online Herbarium Database; Smithsonian Institution 2014-Online 
Herbarium Database). In 1992, T. guamense was found in ``trees and 
shrubs all over the island'' (Raulerson and Rinehart 1992, p. 127), and 
the Consortium of Pacific Herbaria has records of 22 collections from 
Guam, 5 collections from Rota, 15 collections from Tinian, and 3 
collections from Aguiguan (CPH 2012f-Online Herbarium Database). 
Currently, T. guamense is known from three occurrences: one occurrence 
of one individual on Guam and two occurrences on Rota, in the forest 
ecosystem (Gawel et al. 2013, in litt.; Harrington et al. 2012, in 
litt.).
    In summary, populations of Tuberolabium guamense are decreasing 
from initial numbers observed on Guam and Rota, and habitat for its 
reintroduction to Tinian and Aguiguan is at risk. The remaining few 
representatives of this species and its habitat are vulnerable to 
ongoing threats posed by the continued habitat loss and destruction 
from agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and plants, 
fires, and typhoons. Herbivory by slugs, combined with the effects of 
low numbers of individuals which results in loss of vigor and genetic 
representation, and limits its ability to compete with other species 
and adapt to changes in environmental conditions, contribute to the 
decline of T. guamense.

[[Page 59381]]

Animals

Pacific Sheath-Tailed Bat
    The Pacific sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura semicaudata rotensis) is 
a small insectivorous bat (forearm length about 1.8 in (45 mm), weight 
0.2 ounces (oz) (5.5 grams (g)), in the family Emballonuridae, an Old 
World bat family that has an extensive distribution primarily in the 
tropics (Lemke 1986, pp. 743-745; Nowak 1994, pp. 90-91; Lemke 1986, 
pp. 743-744; Koopman 1997, pp. 358-359; Wiles and Worthington 2002, pp. 
1-3; O'Shea and Valdez 2009, pp. 9-10). The Pacific sheath-tailed bat 
is a rich brown to dark brown above and paler below (Walker and 
Paradiso 1983, p. 211). The common name ``sheath-tailed bat'' refers to 
the nature of the tail attachment: the tail pierces the tail membrane 
and its tip appears completely free on the upper surface of the 
membrane (Walker and Paradiso 1983, p. 209).
    The Pacific sheath-tailed bat was once common and widespread in 
Polynesia and Micronesia, and is the only insectivorous bat recorded 
from a large part of this area (Hutson et al. 2001, p. 138). The 
classification of the subspecies has received varied treatment, but the 
most thorough and recent taxonomic evaluation for this subspecies was 
conducted by Koopman (1997, pp. 358-360). Koopman recognizes four 
subspecies: E. s. rotensis, endemic to the Mariana Islands (Guam and 
the CNMI); E. s. sulcata, occurring in Chuuk and Pohnpei; E. s. 
palauensis, found in Palau; and E. s. semicaudata, occurring in 
American and Independent Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, and Vanuatu. Historically, 
in the Mariana Islands, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat was known from 
Guam, Rota, Aguiguan, Tinian, Saipan, and possibly Anatahan and Maug 
(Lemke 1986, pp. 743-745; Steadman 1999, p. 321; Wiles and Worthington 
2002, pp. 1-3). Currently, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat appears to be 
extirpated from all but one island in the Mariana Islands, Aguiguan, 
where a single remaining population of this subspecies is estimated to 
number between 359 to 466 individuals (Wiles and Worthington 2002, p. 
15; Wiles 2007, pers. comm.; O'Shea and Valdez 2009, pp. 2-3).
    The biology of this subspecies, including reproduction, habitat 
use, and diet, was, until recently, largely unknown (Wiles and 
Worthington 2002, p. 19; Esselstyn et al. 2004, p. 304). A study by 
O'Shea and Valdez (2009, pp. 95-97) reveals more life-history 
information. Fecal pellets of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat collected 
from two caves on Aguiguan show these bats consume a diverse array of 
prey, mostly consisting of small-sized insects including hymenopterans 
(ants, wasps, and bees), lepidopterans (moths), and coleopterans 
(beetles) as the three major food items (O'Shea and Valdez 2009, pp. 
63-65).
    The Pacific sheath-tailed bat appears to be cave-dependent, 
roosting during the day in a wide range of cave-types, including 
overhanging cliffs, karst limestone caves, crevices, and lava tubes 
(Grant et al. 1994, pp. 134-135; O'Shea and Valdez 2009, pp. 105-108). 
Bats and cave swiftlets (birds, Aerodramus spp.) may be found sharing 
caves (Lemke 1986, pp. 744-745; Tarburton 2002, pp. 106-107; Wiles and 
Worthington 2002, pp. 7, 13; Lemke 1986, pp. 744-745). Analysis of data 
collected from echolocation stations deployed across Aguiguan indicates 
that the bats' peak activity and occurrences are related to canopy 
cover, vegetation structure, and distance to known roosts; and that 
native limestone forest is preferred foraging habitat (O'Shea and 
Valdez 2009, pp. 105-108).
    A previous survey of habitat use on Aguiguan in 2003 revealed that 
bats foraged almost entirely in forests (native and nonnative) near 
their roosting caves and clearly did not utilize the non-forested 
habitats on the island (Esselstyn et al. 2004, p. 307). Bruner and 
Pratt (1979, p. 3) also observed sheath-tailed bats foraging in native 
forests on Pohnpei. Large roosting colonies appear to be common for the 
Palau subspecies, but smaller aggregations may be more typical of at 
least the Mariana Island subspecies and perhaps other Emballonura found 
elsewhere (Wiles et al. 1997, pp. 221-222; Wiles and Worthington 2002, 
pp. 15, 17). In 1995, roosting bats on Aguiguan were detected in only 5 
of 77 caves surveyed (Wiles 2007, pers. comm.), with colony sizes 
ranging from 2 to 64 individuals. Observations in 2007 indicated that 
the bats preferred large caves (over 1,076 ft\2\ (100 m\2\)) in floor 
area, with ceiling heights reaching 16 to 98 ft (5 to 30 m)) (see 
``Cave Ecosystem,'' above, for further cave description), as nearly all 
of the caves used for roosting were characterized as large by 
researchers (GDAWR 1995, pp. 95-96; O'Shea and Valdez 2009, pp. 9-17; 
Wiles and Worthington 2002, pp. 7, 13). The Pacific sheath-tailed bat 
is nocturnal and typically emerges around dusk to forage on insects 
(Craig et al. 1993, p. 51; Wiles and Worthington 2002, p. 13).
    The Pacific sheath-tailed bat populations have declined drastically 
in the Mariana Islands, and the subspecies is now known to occur on 
only Aguiguan. While populations of other Pacific sheath-tailed bat 
subspecies appear to be healthy in some locations, mainly in the 
Caroline Islands, they have also declined drastically in other areas, 
including Independent and American Samoa, and Fiji (Bruner and Pratt 
1979, p. 3; Grant et al. 1994, pp. 133-134; Wiles et al. 1997, pp. 222-
223; Wiles and Worthington 2002, pp. 17-19). For example, populations 
of sheath-tailed bats (E. s. semicaudata) were noted to precipitously 
decline from American Samoa in the 1970s (Grant et al. 1994, pp. 133-
134). It is speculated that disturbance of caves where the sheath-
tailed bats roosted by successive storms contributed to the decline of 
sheath-tailed bats; however, it was noted that some caves were still 
inhabited by swiftlets (Grant et al. 1994, p. 134). Other factors 
contributing to the decline of sheath-tailed bats in American Samoa may 
include starvation during extended storms, human disturbance of caves, 
bombing and shelling during World War II, pesticides, and guano mining; 
however, the exact causes of sheath-tailed bat population declines in 
the American Samoa and other South Pacific islands are still uncertain 
(Grant et al. 1994, pp. 135-136). In contrast, large numbers of 
individuals of the sheath-tailed bat subspecies E. s. palauensis were 
readily observed by Wiles et al. in the 1990s (1997, p. 224).
    In summary, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat (E. s. rotensis), once 
found on multiple islands on Guam and the Marianas, has been reduced to 
a single, small remaining population. The species has exhibited a 
significant decline from its initial numbers observed on Guam, Rota, 
Aguiguan, Tinian, Saipan, and its persistence in a single remaining 
population renders it vulnerable to extinction. The remaining 
population of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat continues to experience 
threats due to continued habitat loss and destruction from agriculture, 
urban development, nonnative animals, and typhoons. In addition, 
predation by monitor lizards, and possible predation by the brown tree 
snake, may contribute to the observed decline of the Pacific sheath-
tailed bat.
Slevin's Skink
    Slevin's skink (Emoia slevini, guali'ek halom tano) is a small 
lizard in the reptile family Scincidae, the largest lizard family in 
number of worldwide species. Slevin's skink was first described in 1972 
by Walter C. Brown and Marjorie V.C. Falanruw, which is the most recent 
and accepted taxonomy (Brown and Falanruw 1972, p. 107). It

[[Page 59382]]

is the only lizard endemic to the Mariana Islands and is on the 
Government of Guam's Endangered Species List (Fritts and Rodda 1993, p. 
3; Rodda et al. 1997, p. 568; Rodda 2002, p. 2; CNMI DFW 2005, p. 174; 
GDAWR 2006, p. 107; Guam Department of Agriculture 2014, in litt.). 
Slevin's skink previously occurred on the southern Mariana Islands 
(Guam, Cocos Island, Rota, Tinian, and Aguiguan), where it is now 
extirpated, except from Cocos Island off of Guam, where it was recently 
rediscovered (Fritts and Rodda 1993, p. 2; Steadman 1999; Lardner 2013, 
in litt.).
    Surveys conducted in the 1980s and 1990s show that Slevin's skink 
was present on the northern islands of Sarigan, Guguan, Alamagan, 
Pagan, and Asuncion (Berger et al. 2005, pp. 174-175; GDAWR 2006, p. 
107; Vogt 1997, in litt.); however, none were captured on Anatahan or 
Agrihan or ever reported historically from these islands (Berger et al. 
2005, p. 175; Rodda et al. 1991, p. 202). The skink has not yet been 
reported from the southern island of Saipan, or the northern islands of 
Farallon de Medinilla, Maug, or Uracas. The densest population was on 
Alamagan (island area of 2,800 ac; 1,130 ha) in the early 1990s, but 
researchers believe that overgrazing by introduced ungulates may 
preclude the long-term viability of that population (Rodda 2002, p. 3; 
Fritts and Rodda 1993, p. 1). The catch rate (number of lizards 
captured per hour) quadrupled on Sarigan in a survey conducted in 2007, 
after eradication of feral ungulates from the island in 1998 (Vogt 
2007, p. 5-5; Kessler 2011, p. 322). Its current status on Aguiguan, 
Guguan, Pagan, and Asuncion is unknown.
    Slevin's skink measures 3 in (77 mm) from snout to cloaca vent (the 
opening for reproductive and excretory ducts), although length can vary 
slightly (Vogt and Williams 2004, p. 65). Fossil remains indicate its 
prehistoric size was much larger, up to 4.3 in (110 mm) in length 
(Rodda 2010, p. 3). Slevin's skink is darkly colored, from olive to 
brown, with darker flecks in a checkerboard pattern, and a light orange 
to bright yellow underside (Vogt and Williams 2004, p. 65). Their skin 
tends to be shiny, and is very durable and tough. Juveniles may appear 
cream-colored (Vogt and Williams 2004, p. 65; Rodda 2010, p. 3).
    Slevin's skink is a fast-moving, alert, insectivorous lizard, 
typically found on the ground or at ground level, and active during the 
day. Based on both older and more recent observations, the species 
occurs in the forest ecosystem, with most individuals observed on the 
forest floor using leaf litter as cover (Brown and Falanruw 1972, p. 
110; GDAWR 2006, p. 107; Cruz et al. 2000, p. 21; Lardner 2013, in 
litt.). Occasionally, individuals were observed in low hollows of tree 
trunks (Brown and Falanruw 1972, p. 110). It is a social species, seen 
often in the company of other individuals, including other nonnative 
skink species (Vogt and Williams 2004, pp. 59, 65). The females carry 
their eggs internally and give birth to live young (Brown 1991, pp. 14-
15). Other specific life-history or habitat requirements of Slevin's 
skink are not well documented (Rodda 2002, p. 3).
    Slevin's skink was most numerous in the Mariana Islands during 
prehistoric times, before the introduction of other competing lizards 
and predators, and loss of native forest (Vogt and Williams 2004, p. 
65; Berger et al. 2005, p. 175). After World War II, Slevin's skink had 
notably vanished from the larger southern Mariana Islands (Fritts and 
Rodda 1993, p. 4), which suggests the species may be sensitive to 
habitat destruction or changes in land use practices (Fritts and Rodda 
1993, p. 4; Berger et al. 2005, p. 174). Slevin's skink had not been 
recorded on Guam since 1945 or on Cocos Island since the early 1990s 
(Rodda and Fritts 1992, p. 171; Campbell 2011, in litt.), until a 
specimen was captured on Cocos Island in January of 2011 (Campbell 
2011, pers. comm.). Over half the island is developed for a hotel, and 
it is a tourist destination (Fritts and Rodda 1993, p. 2). Only about 
25 ac (10 ha) of suitable habitat is available on Cocos Island, and it 
is periodically overwashed during typhoons (Fritts and Rodda 1993, pp. 
2, 5). The northern islands of its known occurrence provide less than 
19,843 ac (8,030 ha) of land area, not all of which is suitable 
habitat. Slevin's skink is no longer found on the larger southern 
islands of Guam, Rota, and Tinian, which combined, provide the largest 
land area, 179,892 ac (72,800 ha). This species no longer occurs in 90 
percent of its historical range.
    In summary, once widespread, the remaining known populations of 
Slevin's skink are made up of a few individuals on Cocos Island, and 
occurrences of undetermined numbers of individuals on Alamagan and 
Sarigan. Populations of Slevin's skink are decreasing from initial 
numbers observed on Cocos Island, Alamagan, Pagan, and Asuncion, and it 
has not been reobserved on Guam, Rota, Tinian, and Aguiguan; the 
species has been lost from 90 percent of its former range. The 
remaining populations of Slevin's skink are at risk, due to continued 
habitat loss and destruction from agriculture, urban development, 
nonnative animals, and typhoons. Predation by rats, monitor lizards, 
and possible predation by the brown tree snake (if the snake is 
introduced to other islands), also contribute to the decline of 
Slevin's skink.
Mariana Eight-Spot Butterfly
    The Mariana eight-spot butterfly (Hypolimnas octocula marianensis), 
a butterfly in the Nymphalidae family, is known solely from the islands 
of Guam and Saipan, in the forest ecosystem (Schreiner and Nafus 1996, 
p. 2; Schreiner and Nafus 1997, p. 26). It may be extirpated from 
Saipan (Schreiner and Nafus 1997, p. 26). This subspecies was 
originally described by Butler and is recognized as a distinct taxon in 
Swezey (1942, p. 35), the most recent and accepted taxonomy for this 
species. Like most nymphalid butterflies, orange and black are the two 
primary colors exhibited by this subspecies. The males are smaller than 
the females by at least a third or more in size. Males are 
predominantly black with an orange stripe running vertically on each 
wing. The stripe on the hindwings exhibits small black dots in a 
vertical row. Overall, the females appear more orange in color than the 
males, and black bands across the apical (top) margins of both pair of 
wings are exhibited. Along the inner margin of these black bands, large 
white spots are exhibited across the entire length of the wings 
(Schreiner and Nafus 1997, pp. 15, 26-27). The caterpillar larva of 
this species is black in color with red spikes and a black head, 
differentiating it from similar-appearing caterpillars including 
Hypolimnas bolina, H. anomala, and Pipturus spp. (Schreiner and Nafus 
1996, p. 10; Schreiner and Nafus 1997, p. 26).
    The larvae of this butterfly feed on two native plants, Procris 
pedunculata (no common name), and Elatostema calcareum (tapun ayuyu) 
(Schreiner and Nafus, 1996, p. 1). Both of these forest herbs (family 
Urticaceae) are found only on karst substrate within the forest 
ecosystem, draped over boulders and small cliffs, presumably out of 
reach of browsing ungulates (Schreiner and Nafus 1996, p. 1; Rubinoff 
2013, in litt.). When adult butterflies were observed, they were always 
in proximity to the host plants (Rubinoff 2011, in litt.; Rubinoff 
2013, p. 1). Both of the host plant species are rare in their range, 
and both plants are believed to be susceptible to feral ungulate 
grazing based upon anecdotal observations indicating they occur only in 
the extremely rugged limestone karst terrain believed to be avoided by 
most

[[Page 59383]]

ungulates (Rubinoff 2013, in litt.). The two host plants have been 
recorded on the islands of Guam, Rota, Saipan, and Tinian (Schreiner 
and Nafus 1996, p. 2; Schreiner and Nafus 1997, p. 26; Harrington et 
al. 2012, in litt.; Rubinoff and Haines 2012, in litt.; Rubinoff, in 
litt. 2013). However, despite recent surveys (2011-2013) on Rota, 
Tinian, and Saipan, the Mariana eight-spot butterfly is currently known 
only from the island of Guam (Schreiner and Nafus 1996, p. 2; Schreiner 
and Nafus 1997, p. 26; Rubinoff and Haines 2012, in litt.; Rubinoff 
2013, in litt. 2013). There are 11 known populations of the Mariana 
eight-spot butterfly on Guam (Schreiner and Nafus 1996, p. 2; Schreiner 
and Nafus 1997, p. 26; Rubinoff and Haines 2012, in litt.; Rubinoff 
2011, in litt.; Rubinoff 2013, in litt.). Several areas were found that 
supported host plants on Saipan in 1995; however, no individuals of the 
Mariana eight-spot butterfly were seen, and it may be extirpated on 
Saipan (Schreiner and Nafus 1997, p. 26).
    In summary, the Mariana eight-spot butterfly has been lost from one 
of the two islands where it formerly occurred. This butterfly is 
dependent upon two relatively rare host species, both of which are 
susceptible to the effects of ungulate grazing. The Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly is vulnerable to the impacts of continued habitat loss and 
destruction from agriculture, urban development, nonnative animals and 
plants, and typhoons. Herbivory of its host plants by nonnative 
animals, combined with direct predation by ants and parasitic wasps, 
contribute to the decline of the Mariana eight-spot butterfly.
Mariana Wandering Butterfly
    The Mariana wandering butterfly (Vagrans egistina), is endemic to 
the islands of Guam and Rota in the Mariana archipelago, in the forest 
ecosystem. This butterfly was originally named Issoria egistina (Swezey 
1942, p. 35). In 1934, Hemming published the genus Vagrans as a 
replacement name for the genus Issoria. Schriener and Nafus (1997) 
recognize this species as Vagrans egistina, which is the most recent 
and accepted taxonomy.
    Like most nymphalid butterflies, the Mariana wandering butterfly is 
primarily orange and black in coloration. This species is largely black 
in appearance with a prominent orange irregular pattern extending from 
the forewings to the hindwings. Obvious stripes or rows of spots are 
lacking (Schreiner and Nafus 1997, plate 9). The caterpillar larva life 
stage of this species is brown in color with black-colored spikes 
(Schreiner and Nafus 1996, p. 10).
    The Mariana wandering butterflies are known to be good fliers, and 
in earlier times, probably existed as a series of meta-populations 
(Harrison et al. 1988, p. 360), with considerable movement and 
interbreeding between local and stable populations and continued 
colonization and extinction in disparate localities. The larvae of this 
butterfly feed on the plant species Maytenus thompsonii (luluhut) in 
the Celastraceae family, which is endemic to the Mariana Islands 
(Swezey 1942, p. 35; Schreiner and Nafus 1996, p. 1). The host plant M. 
thompsonii is known to occur within the forest ecosystem on Guam, Rota, 
Saipan, and Tinian (Vogt and Williams 2004, p. 121).
    Historically, the Mariana wandering butterfly was originally 
collected and described from the island of Guam where it was considered 
to be rare, but widespread (Swezey 1942, p. 35). The species has not 
been observed on Guam since 1979, where it was last collected in Agana. 
Currently, it is considered likely extirpated from Guam (Schreiner and 
Nafus 1996, pp. 1-2; Rubinoff 2013, in litt.). The Mariana wandering 
butterfly was first collected on Rota in the 1980s (Schreiner and Nafus 
1996, p. 10). During several 1995 surveys on Rota, it was recorded at 
only one location among six different sites surveyed (Schreiner and 
Nafus 1996, pp. 1-2). From June through October 2008, extensive surveys 
for the Mariana wandering butterfly were conducted on the island of 
Tinian under the direction of the Service. While several Maytenus 
thompsonii host plant population sites were identified in limestone 
forest habitat, no life stages of the Mariana wandering butterfly were 
observed (Hawley in litt., 2009, pp. 1-9).
    Although considered extirpated from Guam, whether the Mariana 
wandering butterfly continues to exist on Rota is unknown, as is its 
possible occurrence on other islands where its host plants are found. 
Several years of seasonal surveys are needed to determine the status of 
this species, but we do know that if it persists, it is likely in very 
low numbers as it has not been observed in many years. Any remaining 
populations of the Mariana wandering butterfly continue to be at risk 
from ongoing habitat loss and destruction by rats and typhoons. 
Herbivory of its host plant by nonnative animals, combined with direct 
predation by ants and parasitic wasps, contribute to the decline of the 
Mariana wandering butterfly.
Rota Blue Damselfly
    The Rota blue damselfly (Ischnura luta) is a small damselfly 
endemic to the island of Rota and found within the stream ecosystem. 
Grouped together with dragonflies in the order Odonata, damselflies 
fall within the suborder Zygoptera. The Rota blue damselfly belongs to 
the family Coenagrionidae, and it is the only known damselfly species 
endemic to the Mariana Islands. This species was first described in 
2000 (Polhemus et al. 2000, pp. 1-2) based upon specimens collected in 
1996. The species is relatively small in size, with males measuring 1.3 
in (34 mm) in body length, with forewings and hindwings 0.7 in (18 mm) 
and 0.67 in (17 mm) in length, respectively. Both sexes are 
predominantly blue in color, particularly the thorax and portions of 
the male's abdomen are brilliant, iridescent blue. Both sexes have a 
yellow and black head with some yellow coloration on the abdomen. 
Females of this species may be distinguished by their slightly smaller 
size and somewhat paler blue body color (Polhemus et al. 2000, pp. 1-
8).
    Resembling slender dragonflies, damselflies are readily 
distinguished by their trait of folding their wings parallel to the 
body while at rest rather than holding them out perpendicular to the 
body. The general biology of narrow-winged damselflies includes 
territorial males that guard areas of habitat where females will lay 
eggs (Moore 1983a, p. 89; Polhemus and Asquith 1996, pp. 2-7). During 
copulation, and often while the female lays eggs, the male grasps the 
female behind the head with terminal abdominal appendages to guard the 
female against rival males; thus males and females are frequently seen 
flying in tandem. Adult damselflies are predaceous and feed on small 
flying insects such as midges and other flies.
    The immature larval life stages (naiads) of the vast majority of 
damselfly species are aquatic, breathe through flattened abdominal 
gills, and are predaceous, feeding on small aquatic invertebrates or 
fish (Williams 1936, p. 303). Females lay eggs in submerged aquatic 
vegetation or in mats of moss or algae on submerged rocks, and hatching 
occurs in about 10 days (Williams 1936, pp. 303, 306, 318; Evenhuis et 
al. 1995, p. 18). Naiads may take up to 4 months to mature (Williams 
1936, p. 309), after which they crawl out of the water onto rocks or 
vegetation to molt into winged adults, typically remaining close to the 
aquatic habitat from which they emerged. Adults have only been observed 
in association with the single perennial stream on Rota; therefore, we

[[Page 59384]]

believe the larval stage of the Rota blue damselfly is aquatic.
    The Rota blue damselfly was only first discovered in April 1996, 
when a few individuals were observed and one male and one female 
specimen were collected outside the Talakhaya Water Cave (also known as 
Sonson Water Cave) located below the Sabana plateau (Polhemus et al. 
2000, pp. 1-8; Camacho et al. 1997, p. 4). The size of the population 
at the time of discovery was estimated to be small and limited to the 
stream area near the mouth of the cave. The primary source of the 
stream is springwater emerging at the limestone-basalt interface below 
the highly permeable limestone of the Sabana plateau (Polhemus et al. 
2000, pp. 1-8; Keel et al. 2011, p. 1). This spring water also serves 
as the main source of fresh water supply for the population of Rota 
(Polhemus et al. 2000, pp. 1-8; Keel et al. 2011, p. 1). A concrete 
collection structure with associated piping has been built into and 
surrounding the entrance of the water cave. This catchment system and a 
smaller, adjacent catchment deliver approximately 2.7 to 3.8 million 
liters-per-day (0.7 to 1 million gallons) of water to Rota's municipal 
system (Keel et al. 2011, pp. 29-30) (see ``Stream Ecosystem,'' above, 
and Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their 
Continued Existence, ``Water Extraction,'' below, for further 
discussion).
    Eighteen years elapsed between the original discovery of the 
species in 1996 and the next known survey for the Rota blue damselfly. 
In January 2014, two male specimens were observed flying above a 
portion of the stream located at approximately 770 ft (235 m) in 
elevation, and below the Talakhaya (Sonson) Water Cave (Richardson 
2014, in litt.). No specimens were observed immediately in the vicinity 
of the water cave entrance, and no fish were observed in the stream 
immediately below the cave entrance (Richardson 2014, in litt.), a 
notable observation because many damselfly species endemic to Pacific 
islands are known to be susceptible to predation by nonnative fish 
species that eat the naiad life stage of the damselfly. Predation by 
nonnative fish is a serious threat to the Hawaiian Megalagrion 
damselfly naiads (Englund 1999, pp. 235-236). Eggs laid in vegetation 
or on rocks in streams hatch in about 10 days and develop into naiads. 
Naiads take approximately 4 months to mature before emerging from the 
water (Williams 1936, pp. 303, 306, 309, 318).
    Fish predation has been an important factor in the evolution of 
behavior in damselfly naiads in continental systems (Johnson 1991, p. 
8), and damselflies in the wider-ranging Ishnura (as opposed to the 
Hawaiian Megalagrion) may have developed avoidance behaviors (Polhemus 
2014, pers. comm.). On a survey of the stream (Okgok River, also known 
as Babao) fed by the Talakhaya (Sonson) Water Cave, the presence of 
four native fish species was noted: The eel Anguilla marmorata, the 
mountain gobies Stiphodon elegans and Sicyopus leprurus, and the 
flagtail, or mountain bass, Kuhlia rupestris (Camacho et al. 1997, p. 
8). Densities of these native fish were low, especially in areas above 
the waterfall. Gobies can maneuver in areas of rapidly flowing water by 
using ventral fins that are modified to form a sucking disk (Ego 1956, 
in litt.). The flagtails were only abundant in the lower reach of the 
stream. Freshwater gobies in Hawaii are primarily browsers and bottom 
feeders, often eating algae off rocks and boulders, with midges and 
worms being their primary food items (Ego 1956, in litt.; Kido et al. 
1993, p. 47). It can only be speculated that the Rota blue damselfly 
may have adapted its behavior to avoid the benthic feeding habits of 
native fish species. The release of aquarium fish into streams and 
rivers of Guam is well documented, but currently, no nonnative fish 
have been found in the Rota stream (Tibbatts 2014, in litt.).
    The Rota blue damselfly appears to be extremely limited in range 
and researchers remain perplexed by its absence from other Mariana 
Islands (Polhemus et al. 2000, p. 8). Particularly striking is the fact 
that it has never been collected on Guam, despite the islands' larger 
size and presence of over 100 rivers and streams. The Rota blue 
damselfly's population site is afforded some protection from human 
impact by its remote and relatively inaccessible location; however, a 
reduction or removal of stream flow due to increased interception for 
municipal usage, and from lower water quantities resulting from the 
effects of climate change, could eliminate the only known population of 
the species (See ``Stream Ecosystem,'' above, and Factor E. Other 
Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their Continued Existence, below, 
for further discussion). Introduction of nonnative fish into the stream 
could also impact or eliminate the Rota blue damselfly naiads, leading 
to its extirpation. In addition, low numbers of individuals result in 
loss of vigor and genetic representation and contribute to the decline 
of the Rota blue damselfly.
Humped Tree Snail
    The humped tree snail (Partula gibba; akaleha), in the Partulidae 
family, is endemic to the forest ecosystem on the Mariana Islands of 
Guam, Rota, Aguiguan, Saipan, Tinian, Anatahan, Sarigan, Alamagan, and 
Pagan. The humped tree snail was first collected on Guam in 1819 by 
Quoy and Gaimard during the Freycinet Uranie expedition of 1817-1819 
and was once considered the most abundant tree snail on Guam (Crampton 
1925, pp. 8, 25, 60). Currently, the humped tree snail is known from 
the islands of Guam (Hopper and Smith 1992, p. 81; Smith et al. 2009, 
pp. 10, 12, 16), Rota (Smith 1995, p. 1; Bauman 1996, pp. 15, 18), 
Saipan (Hadfield 2010, pp. 20-21), Sarigan (Hadfield 2010, p. 21) 
Alamagan (Bourquin 2002, p. 30), and Pagan (Hadfield 2010, pp. 8-14), 
in the forest ecosystem. The humped tree snail may occur on Aguiguan, 
but was not located on a survey by Smith in 2006 (Smith 2013, p. 14). 
It is believed that this species is no longer extant on Tinian due to 
loss of habitat to agriculture and the introduction of nonnative snails 
(Smith 2013, p. 24), and that it is no longer extant on Anatahan due to 
volcanic activity in 2003 and 2005 (Kessler 2011, pp. 321, 323).
    The shell of the humped tree snail can be left- or right-coiling, 
conic-ovate, translucent, and engraved longitudinally with equal lines. 
The color ranges from white to brown, and has a pointed apex colored 
rose-red, with a milky white suture. Adult snails are from 0.6 to 0.7 
in (14 to 18 mm) long, and 0.4 to 0.6 in (10 to 14 mm) wide, with 4 \1/
2\ whorls, the last of which is the largest (Pilsbry 1909-1910 in 
Crampton 1925, p. 60; Smith et al. 2009, p. 2). In general, partulid 
snails reproduce in less than 1 year, at which time they can produce up 
to 18 young each year, and may live up to 5 years. The humped tree 
snail is oviviparous (gives birth to live young). They are generally 
nocturnal, live on bushes or trees, and feed primarily on dead or 
decaying plant material.
    The humped tree snail occurs in cool, shaded forest habitat as 
observed by Crampton and others (Crampton 1925, pp. 31, 61; Cowie 1992, 
pp. 175-176) with high humidity and reduced air movement that prevents 
excessive water loss. Crampton (1925, pp. 31, 61) described the habitat 
requirements of the partulid trees snails as having ``sufficiently high 
and dense growth to provide shade, to conserve moisture, and to effect 
the production of a rich humus. Hence the limits to the areas occupied 
by Partulae are set by the more

[[Page 59385]]

ultimate ecological conditions which determine the distribution of 
suitable vegetation.'' Crampton further notes that the Mariana Islands 
partulid tree snails live on subcanopy vegetation and are not found in 
high canopy. There are no known natural predators of these snails, 
although many of these partulid species are currently preyed on by 
alien invertebrates such as flatworms and slugs (Cowie 1992, p. 175).
    Following is a brief historical overview of the humped tree snail 
in the Mariana archipelago. Crampton (1925, pp. 8, 25, 60) first 
observed the humped tree snail on Guam, in at least 39 sites, totaling 
more than 3,000 individuals. In 1989, Hopper and Smith (1992, p. 81) 
resurveyed 34 of Crampton's 39 sites and did not locate any live 
individuals; however, they discovered individuals at a new site not 
noted by Crampton. Populations on Guam have since declined from 
hundreds to fewer than 50 individuals (Smith et al. 2009, p. 11). 
Bauman surveyed Rota and reported finding live humped tree snails at 5 
out of 25 former sites (Bauman 1996, pp. 15, 18). The largest of these 
populations may have totaled as many as 1,000 snails. However, this 
population was located along the main road of Rota and was subsequently 
cleared for development (Miller 2007, pers. comm.). Four other 
populations on Rota in 2007 were small and totaled fewer than 600 
individuals.
    The humped tree snail was discovered on Aguiguan in 1952, in six 
colonies (biologists often refer to snail populations as ``colonies'') 
(Kondo 1970, pp. 75, 81). In 1992, two separate surveys reported snails 
were observed at four locations on Aguiguan (Craig and Chandran 1992; 
Smith 1995), but by 2008, no live snails were found on this island 
(Smith 2013, p. 14). Crampton (1925) was unable to visit Tinian, 
although he states that Partulae were known from that island (1925, p. 
6). Smith reported finding only very old shells on two surveys (2006 
and 2008) of Tinian (Smith 2013, p. 6). On Saipan, Crampton collected 
almost 7,000 humped tree snails in 1925 (Crampton 1925, p. 62). By 
1991, Smith and Hopper (1994, p. 11) could not find any live snails at 
12 sites visited on the island; however, 2 small populations were later 
discovered, one in 2002, in the central forest area, and another in a 
mangrove wetland in 2010 (Bourquin 2002, in litt.; Hadfield 2010, pp. 
20-21).
    In 1994, Kurozumi reported approximately 20 individuals from 
Anatahan; however, these were possibly extirpated due to violently 
destructive volcanic eruptions between 2003 and 2005 (Kessler 2011). 
Kurozumi also reported the humped tree snails from Sarigan in 1994, and 
the population appears to be increasing as a result of the removal of 
ungulates. A survey of Sarigan in 2006 found the healthiest population 
in native forest at an elevation of approximately 1,300 ft (400 m) 
(Smith 2006 in Martin et al. 2008, p. 8-1). The species was first 
reported on Alamagan by Kondo in 1949, with over 50 individuals 
collected from wet forest (Easley 1970, p. 87). The populations seem to 
have declined on Alamagan by over 70 percent for individuals and 
approximately 27 percent for populations since that time (Kurozumi 
1994). The humped tree snail was first reported from Pagan by Kondo in 
1949 (Easley 1970, p. 87). Populations persist on Pagan although the 
same decline is seen here as for Alamagan (Kurozumi 1994).
    In summary, populations of the humped tree snail are rapidly 
decreasing from initial numbers observed, and with continued habitat 
loss and predation by nonnative species, are at risk, with the possible 
exception of those on Sarigan, as ungulates have been removed from that 
island (see ``Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat Destruction, 
Modification, or Curtailment of Its Range,'' below). However, predation 
by rats remains a threat to the humped tree snail on Sarigan (Kessler 
2011, p. 320).
    Recent data also suggest that the individuals identified as humped 
tree snails on Rota may be a different species (Hadfield 2010, pp. 20-
21). Because these recent findings have not been published, and data on 
population numbers and number of individuals has not been determined, 
we are still treating the humped tree snail as a single species.
Langford's Tree Snail
    Langford's tree snail (Partula langfordi; akaleha), in the 
Partulidae family, is endemic to the forest ecosystem of the island of 
Aguiguan. Langford's tree snail was first collected and described by 
Kondo while working on biological control agents in the early 1950s 
(Kondo 1970, 18 pp.). Kondo's taxonomic work is the most recent and 
accepted taxonomy for this species. This tree snail has not been 
observed in the wild since 1992, when one live individual was observed 
on the northwest terrace of the island (Berger et al. 2005, p. 154). 
Surveys conducted in 2006 and 2008 revealed only old shells of dead P. 
langfordi (Smith 2013, p. 14).
    Langford's tree snail has a dextral (to the right or clockwise from 
the opening of the shell at the lower right, as opposed to sinistral, 
to the left, or counterclockwise) shell, described by Kondo (1970, pp. 
75-77) as being ovate-conic and moderately thin. The holotype of this 
species has a length of 0.6 in (14 mm), a diameter of 0.4 in (9 mm), 
and an aperture length of 0.3 in (8 mm). It has a spire of five whorls 
that are slightly convex, with an obtuse apex. Its aperture is oblong-
ovate with the white mouth projections thickened and expanded. It is 
buff colored superimposed by maroon.
    Although much less studied than related partulid snails from the 
Mariana Islands, the biology of Langford's tree snail is believed to be 
the same. See ``Humped tree snail (Partula gibba),'' above, for 
details.
    Historically, Langford's tree snail is known only from the island 
of Aguiguan. In the 1970 survey of Aguiguan, it was noted that 
Langford's tree snail was collected from an area where it occurred 
sympatrically with the humped tree snail (Easely 1970, p. 89). The 
mixed populations were not uniformly distributed, but occurred in small 
colonies with large unoccupied areas between the colonies. In five of 
the sites, the Langford's tree snail outnumbered the humped tree snail 
and it appeared that humped tree snails were more numerous and dominant 
in the western portion of the site while Langford's tree snails were 
dominant in the eastern portion of the site (Kondo 1970, p. 81). Three 
other colonies of Langford's tree snail were collected, two on the 
north coast and one on the west end of Aguiguan (Kondo 1970, p. 81). A 
total of 464 adults were collected from 7 sites (Kondo 1970, p. 81). In 
1985, five adult Langford's tree snails were collected from the west 
end of the island (Smith 1995). The last survey in which the species 
was detected in the wild was conducted in 1992, and one live snail was 
observed on the northwest terrace of the island (Smith 1995). Surveys 
of Aguiguan in 2006 and 2008 failed to locate any live Langford's tree 
snails (Smith 2013, p. 14).
    In 1993, the University of Nottingham in England had six young and 
four adult Langford's tree snails in captivity. By 1994, two adult 
snails remained. Unfortunately, at the end of 1994, the last two 
Langford's tree snails died (Pearce-Kelly et al. 1995).
    The 2005 Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy for CNMI 
(Division of Fish and Wildlife) (Berger et al. 2005) states that ``all 
Partulid snails are selected as a species of special conservation 
need'' (p. 153), and that ``[Crampton] found as many as 31 snails on 
the underside of a single leaf of caladium'' (p. 155) (demonstrating 
that it would be easy to miss a large number

[[Page 59386]]

of snails if that one particular leaf were missed during a survey). 
This strategy outlines conservation actions for Langford's tree snail, 
including more numerous and intensive surveys, removal of goats from 
Aguiguan island, control of nonnative species, and reforestation with 
native plants (pp. 158-159). Given that so few surveys have been 
conducted on Aguiguan, and only previously surveyed sites were ever 
revisited, it is likely Langford's tree snail may be found.
Guam Tree Snail
    The Guam tree snail (Partula radiolata; akaleha), in the Partulidae 
family, is endemic to the forest ecosystem of Guam. The Guam tree snail 
was first collected by Quoy and Gaimard during the French Astrolabe 
expedition of 1828 and was initially named Bulimus (Partula) radiolatus 
by Pfeiffer in 1846, which he changed to Partula radiolata in 1849 
(Crampton 1925, p. 34). Crampton's 1925 taxonomic work is the most 
recent and accepted taxonomy for this species.
    The shell of the Guam tree snail is pale straw-colored with darker 
streaks and brown lines, and has impressed spiral lines. Adult length 
is 0.5 to 0.7 in (13 to 18.5 mm), and width is 0.3 to 0.5 in (8 to 12 
mm), with five slightly convex whorls (Pilsbry 1909-1910 in Crampton 
1925, p. 35; Smith et al. 2008 in Kerr 2013, p. 10). The biology of the 
Guam tree snail is very similar to that of the humped tree snail (see 
``Humped tree snail (Partula gibba),'' above, for further description). 
The Guam tree snail prefers the same cool, shaded forest habitat as the 
humped tree snail and Langford's tree snail, described above.
    Historically, suitable habitat for the Guam tree snail was widely 
available prior to World War II, and included strand vegetation, 
forested river borders, and lowland and highland forests (Crampton 
1925, pp. 36-37), and Crampton found ``it occurs almost everywhere on 
the island where suitable vegetation exists,'' although historical 
population numbers are unknown. Crampton (1925, pp. 38-40) found the 
Guam tree snail at 37 of 39 sites surveyed on Guam and collected a 
total of 2,278 individuals. The actual population sizes were probably 
considerably larger since the purpose of Crampton's collections was to 
evaluate geographic differences in shell patterns and not to assess 
population size. In 1989, Hopper and Smith (1992, p. 78) resurveyed 34 
of Crampton's 39 sites on Guam and an additional 13 new sites. They 
observed that 9 of the original 34 sites resurveyed supported these 
snails; however, the Crampton site identified as having the largest 
remaining population of the Guam tree snail (estimated at greater than 
500 snails) had been completely eliminated by the combined effects of 
land clearing for a residential development and a subsequent series of 
typhoons in 1990, 1991, and 1992 (Smith 1995).
    Of the 13 new sites surveyed by Hopper and Smith in 1989, 7 
supported populations of the Guam tree snail. One of these populations 
was eliminated by wildfires that burned into ravine forest occupied by 
the snails in 1991 and 1992 (Smith and Hopper 1994). Further surveys by 
Smith (1995) revealed five new populations of the Guam tree snail. 
According to Smith, by 1995, there were 20 sites that still supported 
small populations of the Guam tree snail. Snails were moved from 1 of 
these 20 sites to a new location due to the development of a golf 
course (Smith 1995). In 2003 an additional small colony (fewer than 100 
snails) was found on the U.S. Naval Base (Smith 2006, pers. comm.). A 
smaller colony (20 to 25 snails) was found in 2004 along the Lonfit 
River (Smith 2006, pers. comm.). Additionally, surveys on the Guam 
Naval Magazine located another new population, with shells of tree 
snails in abundance on the ground at all locations (Miller 2006, pers. 
comm.; JGPO-NavFac 2014 apps, pp. 27, 59). Further surveys of lands 
leased by the Navy in 2009 indicated a decline in densities of tree 
snails by about half, which was attributed to a loss of native 
understory (Smith et al. 2009, pp. 13-14). In 2011, a survey of 
Andersen AFB revealed a single colony of Guam tree snail (Joint Region 
Marianas (JRM) Integrated Natural Resources Management Plan (INRMP) 
Appendices 2012, p. 15).
    Populations of the Guam tree snail continue to decline, from first 
observations of thousands of individuals by Crampton, down to 20 
colonies or fewer today. Continued loss of habitat due to development 
and removal of native plants by ungulates contributes to this loss.
Fragile Tree Snail
    The fragile tree snail (Samoana fragilis; akaleha), in the 
Partulidae family, is known from the forest ecosystems of Guam and 
Rota. This species was first described as Partula fragilis by 
F[eacute]russac in 1821 (Crampton 1925, p. 30). It is the only species 
representing the genus of Samoana in the Mariana Islands. The fragile 
tree snail was first collected on Guam in 1819 by Quoy and Gaimard 
during the Freycinet Uranie expedition of 1817 to 1819 (Crampton 1925, 
p. 30). Crampton's 1925 taxonomic work for this species is the most 
recent and accepted taxonomy for this species.
    The conical shell of the fragile tree snail is 0.5 to 0.6 in (12 to 
16 mm) long, 0.4 to 0.5 in (10 to 12 mm) wide, and is formed by four 
whorls that spiral to the right. The common name is derived from the 
thin, semi-transparent nature of the shell. The shell has delicate 
spiral striations intersected by transverse growth striations. The 
background color is buff, tinted by narrow darker marks and whitish 
banding that are derived from the internal organs of the animal that 
are visible through the shell (Mollendorff 1894 in Crampton 1925, p. 
31). The biology and habitat for this partulid tree snail are the same 
as those described for the three partulid species described above (see 
the ``Humped tree snail (Partula gibba),'' above).
    Historically, the fragile tree snail was known from 13 populations 
on Guam and 1 population on Rota (Crampton 1925, p. 30; Kondo 1970, pp. 
86-87). Easely (1970, p. 86) documented the 1959 discovery of the 
fragile tree snail on Rota by R.P. Owen. The same area had been 
surveyed just 7 years earlier by Benavente and Kondo, in 1952, but the 
fragile tree snail was not observed (Easley 1970, p. 87). In 1989, 
Hopper and Smith (1992, p. 78) resurveyed Crampton's original sites 
plus 13 more, all on Guam. At that time, they found fragile tree snails 
at only six sites. The most recent surveys on Guam for the fragile tree 
snail were conducted in 2008 and 2011. Currently, two colonies are 
known on Guam (Smith et al., 2009, pp. 7, 13). The original site where 
this species was found on Rota was converted to agricultural fields and 
no living snails were found there in 1995; however, in 1996, a new 
colony was found on Rota in a different location (Bauman 1996, pp. 18, 
21).
    We lack quantitative estimates for the fragile tree snail (Bauman 
1996, p. 21), but Crampton (1925, p. 30) originally described this 
species as rare and low in numbers. Available data indicates the number 
of known colonies has declined between 1925 and present, from 
approximately 14 colonies to only 3 colonies.
    In summary, populations of the fragile tree snail are decreasing 
from initial numbers observed on Guam and Rota, and are at risk, due to 
continued habitat loss and destruction from agriculture, urban 
development, nonnative animals and plants, and typhoons. Trade of 
shells by collectors, combined with direct predation by rats and 
flatworms, also contribute to the decline of the fragile tree snail. 
Low numbers of

[[Page 59387]]

individuals contribute to population declines through loss of vigor and 
genetic representation.

Summary of Biological Status and Threats Affecting the 23 Species 
Proposed for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Species

    Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) and its implementing 
regulations (50 CFR part 424) set forth the procedures for adding 
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and 
Plants. A species may be determined to be an endangered or threatened 
species due to one or more of the five factors described in section 
4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or threatened destruction, 
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) 
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade 
factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be 
warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in 
combination. Each of these factors is discussed below.
    In considering what factors might constitute threats to a species, 
we must look beyond the exposure of the species to a particular factor 
to evaluate whether the species may respond to that factor in a way 
that causes actual impacts to the species. If there is exposure to a 
factor and the species responds negatively, the factor may be a threat 
and, during the status review, we attempt to determine how significant 
a threat it is. The threat is significant if it drives, or contributes 
to, the risk of extinction of the species such that the species 
warrants listing as an endangered or threatened species as these terms 
are defined in the Act. However, the identification of factors that 
could impact a species negatively may not be sufficient to warrant 
listing the species under the Act. The information must include 
evidence sufficient to show that these factors are operative threats 
that act on the species to the point that the species meets the 
definition of endangered or threatened under the Act.
    If we determine that the level of threat posed to a species by one 
or more of the five listing factors is such that the species meets the 
definition of either endangered or threatened under section 3 of the 
Act, that species may then be proposed for listing as an endangered or 
threatened species. The Act defines an endangered species as ``in 
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its 
range,'' and a threatened species as ``likely to become an endangered 
species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant 
portion of its range.'' The threats to each of the individual 23 
species proposed for listing in this document are summarized in Table 
3, and discussed in detail below. Since there are 15 islands in the 
Mariana Islands, Table 4 (below) is provided as a supplement to Table 
3, to allow the reader to better understand the presence of nonnative 
species addressed in this proposed rule that negatively impact the 23 
species on an island-by-island basis.

[[Page 59388]]



                                                    Table 3--Summary of Primary Threats Identified for Each of the 23 Mariana Islands Species
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          Factor A                                   Factor B                   Factor C                  Factor D     Factor E
                                          ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                               Predation    Predation
                                           Development,                                                                           Predation       and          and       Inadequate
            Species             Ecosystem    military     Non- native     Non-                           Climate       Over-         and       herbivory    herbivory     existing     Species-
                                             training,      animals      native      Fire     Typhoons    change    utilization   herbivory      by NN        by NN      regulatory    specific
                                           urbanization                  plants                                                       by         verte-      inverte-    mechanisms
                                                                                                                                  ungulates      brates       brates
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
            Plants
 
Bulbophyllum guamense.........        FR             X        R, BTS          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........           S             X   ..........
Cycas micronesica.............        FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X          X          X          X   ............        P, D   ...........            CAS          X         ORD
                                                                 BTS
Dendrobium guamense...........        FR             X        R, BTS          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........           S             X   ..........
Eugenia bryanii...............        FR             X     R, D, BTS          X   .........         X          X   ............           D   ...........  ...........            X   ..........
Hedyotis megalantha...........        SV             X     R, P, BTS          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........  ...........            X          REC
Heritiera longipetiolata......        FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X   .........         X          X   ............        P, D   ...........  ...........            X         ORD
                                                                    C, BTS
Maesa walkeri.................        FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........  ...........            X          LN
                                                                 BTS
Nervilia jacksoniae...........        FR             X   P, B, D, R,          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........           S             X   ..........
                                                                 BTS
Phyllanthus saffordii.........        SV             X     R, P, BTS          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........  ...........            X          REC
Psychotria malaspinae.........        FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X   .........         X          X   ............        P, D   ...........  ...........            X          LN
                                                                 BTS
Solanum guamense..............        FR             X   R, P, D, BTS         X   .........         X          X   ............        P, D   ...........  ...........            X          LN
Tabernae-montana rotensis.....        FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........  ...........            X           V
                                                                 BTS
Tinospora homosepala..........        FR   ............       R, BTS          X   .........         X          X   ............  ...........  ...........  ...........            X          LN
Tuberolabium guamense.........        FR             X        R, BTS          X          X          X          X   ............  ...........  ...........           S             X          LN
 
            Animals
 
Pacific sheath-tailed bat           FR, CA           X          R, G   .........  .........         X          X   ............  ...........  R, BTS, ML   ...........            X   ..........
 (Emballonura semicaudata
 rotensis)....................
Slevin's skink (Emoia slevini)        FR             X     R, G, P, C  .........  .........         X          X   ............  ...........  R, BTS, ML   ...........            X   ..........
Mariana eight spot butterfly          FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X   .........         X          X   ............  ...........  ...........        A, W             X   ..........
 (Hypolimnas octocula                                            BTS
 mariannensis)................
Mariana wandering butterfly           FR   ............            R   .........  .........         X          X   ............  ...........  ...........        A, W             X   ..........
 (Vagrans egistina)...........
Rota blue damselfly (Ischnura         ST             X   ............         X   .........         X          X   ............  ...........  ...........  ...........            X      LN, WE
 luta)........................
Humped tree snail (Partula            FR             X   R, G, P, B,          X          X          X          X             X   ...........           R            F             X   ..........
 gibba).......................                                      C, D, BTS
Langford's tree snail (Partula        FR             X          R, G          X   .........         X          X             X   ...........           R            F             X          LN
 langfordi)...................
Guam tree snail (Partula              FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X          X          X          X             X   ...........  ...........           F             X          LN
 radiolata)...................                                   BTS
Fragile tree snail (Samoana           FR             X   R, P, B, D,          X   .........         X          X             X   ...........           R            F             X          LN
 fragilis)....................                                   BTS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Factor A = Habitat modification; Factor B = Overutilization; Factor C = Disease or predation; Factor D = Inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms; Factor E = Other Species-specific threats; FR =
  Forest; SV = Savanna; ST = Stream; CA = Cave; R = Rats; P = Pigs; B = Water buffalo; D = Deer; C = Cattle; G = Goats; S = Slugs; CAS = Scale; ML = Monitor lizard; A = Ants; W = Parasitic
  wasps; F = Manokwar flatworm; BTS = Brown tree snake; REC = Recreational vehicles; ORD = Ordinance; LN = Limited numbers; WE = Water extraction; V = Vandalism.


[[Page 59389]]


                                       Table 4--Nonnative Animal Species That Negatively Impact the 23 Mariana Islands Species Or Their Habitat, by Island
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                               Species Proposed for Listing that are Subject to
                                                                                                          Brown                                  Threats Posed by One or More Nonnative Animal
          Island              Pigs      Goats      Cattle     Water       Deer       Rats     Monitor      Tree        Insects and Worms         Species on These Islands (see Table 3, above)
                                                             Buffalo                           Lizard     Snake                              ---------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                                                       Plants                    Animals
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Guam.....................         X   .........  .........         X          X          X        * X          X   A, W, F, S, CAS..........  Bulbophyllum guamense,    Slevin's skink (on Cocos
                                                                                                                                               Cycas micronesica,        Island), Mariana eight-
                                                                                                                                               Dendrobium guamense,      spot butterfly, Mariana
                                                                                                                                               Eugenia bryanii,          wandering butterfly,
                                                                                                                                               Hedyotis megalantha,      Guam tree snail, Humped
                                                                                                                                               Heritiera                 tree snail.
                                                                                                                                               longipetiolata, Maesa
                                                                                                                                               walkeri, Nervilia
                                                                                                                                               jacksoniae, Phyllanthus
                                                                                                                                               saffordii, Psychotria
                                                                                                                                               malaspinae, Solanum
                                                                                                                                               guamense,
                                                                                                                                               Tabernaemontana
                                                                                                                                               rotensis, Tinospora
                                                                                                                                               homosepala,
                                                                                                                                               Tuberolabium guamense.
Rota.....................  .........  .........  .........  .........         X          X        * X   .........  A, W, F, S, CAS..........  Bulbophyllum guamense,    Mariana wandering
                                                                                                                                               Cycas micronesica,        butterfly, Rota blue
                                                                                                                                               Dendrobium guamense,      damselfly, Humped tree
                                                                                                                                               Maesa walkeri, Nervilia   snail, Fragile tree
                                                                                                                                               jacksoniae,               snail.
                                                                                                                                               Tabernaemontana
                                                                                                                                               rotensis, Tuberolabium
                                                                                                                                               guamense.
Aguiguan.................  .........         X   .........  .........  .........         X        * X   .........  F........................  ........................  Pacific sheath-tailed
                                                                                                                                                                         bat, Humped tree snail,
                                                                                                                                                                         Langford's tree snail.
Tinian...................  .........  .........         X   .........  .........         X        * X   .........  F........................  Heritiera longipetiolata  ........................
Saipan...................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X        * X       ** X   A, W, F, S...............  Dendrobium guamense,      Mariana eight-spot
                                                                                                                                               Heritiera                 butterfly, Humped tree
                                                                                                                                               longipetiolata.           snail.
Farallon de Medinilla....  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X   .........  .........  .........................  ........................  ........................
Anatahan.................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X        * X   .........  .........................  ........................  Humped tree snail.
Sarigan..................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X        * X   .........  F........................  ........................  Slevin's skink, Humped
                                                                                                                                                                         tree snail.
Guguan...................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X   .........  .........  F........................  ........................  Slevin's skink.
Alamagan.................         X          X          X   .........  .........         X        * X   .........  F........................  ........................  Slevin's skink, Humped
                                                                                                                                                                         tree snail.
Pagan....................         X          X          X   .........  .........         X        * X   .........  F........................  ........................  Slevin's skink, Humped
                                                                                                                                                                         tree snail.
Agrihan..................         X          X   .........  .........  .........         X        * X   .........  .........................  ........................  ........................
Asuncion.................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X   .........  .........  .........................  ........................  Slevin's skink.
Maug.....................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X   .........  .........  .........................  ........................  ........................
Uracas...................  .........  .........  .........  .........  .........         X   .........  .........  .........................  ........................  ........................
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A = Ants
W = Parasitic wasp
F = Manokwar flatworm
S = Slugs
CAS = Scale
* Animals only
** Confirmed sightings of BTS have occurred on Saipan; however no established populations have been documented.


[[Page 59390]]

Methodology

    Scientific research directed toward each of the species proposed 
for listing is limited because of their rarity and the challenging 
logistics associated with conducting field work in the Mariana Islands 
(i.e., areas are typically remote, difficult to access and work in, and 
expensive to survey in a comprehensive manner). However, there is 
information available on many of the threats that act on Mariana Island 
ecosystems, and, for some ecosystems, these threats are well studied 
and understood. Each of the native species that occur in the Mariana 
Islands ecosystems suffers from exposure to these threats to differing 
degrees, because each species that depends upon a shared ecosystem 
requires many of the same physical and biological features and the 
successful functioning of their specific ecosystem to survive. 
Therefore, for the purposes of this proposed rule, our assumption is 
that the threats that act at the ecosystem level also act on each of 
the species that depend upon those ecosystems. In addition, in some 
cases we have identified species-specific threats--threats that affect 
a particular species or subset of species within a shared ecosystem--
such as predation of tree snails by nonnative invertebrates. The 
species discussed in this proposed rule, which are dependent on the 
native ecosystems that are affected by these threats, have in turn 
shown declines in either number of individuals, number of occurrences, 
or changes in species abundance and species composition. These declines 
can reasonably be attributed directly or indirectly to the threats 
discussed below (by indirectly, we mean that where there are threats to 
the ecosystem that negatively affect the ecosystem, the species in that 
ecosystem that depend upon it for survival are negatively affected as 
well).
    The following constitutes a list of ecosystem-scale threats that 
affect the species proposed for listing in the four described 
ecosystems on the Mariana Islands:
    (1) Foraging and trampling of native plants by feral pigs (Sus 
scrofa), goats (Capra hircus), cattle (Bos taurus), water buffalo 
(Bubalus bubalis), and Philippine deer (Cervus mariannus), which can 
result in severe erosion of watersheds (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63; 
Berger et al. 2005, pp. 42, 44, 138, 156-157; CNMI-SWARS 2010, pp. 9-
10; Kessler 2011, pp. 320-324). Foraging and trampling events 
destabilize soils that support native plant communities, bury or damage 
native plants, and have adverse effects on water quality due to runoff 
over exposed soils (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63; Berger et al. 2005, 
pp. 42, 44, 138, 156-157; CNMI-SWARS 2010, pp. 9-10; Kessler 2011, p. 
323).
    (2) Ungulate destruction of seeds and seedlings of native plant 
species through foraging and trampling facilitates the conversion of 
disturbed areas from native to nonnative vegetative communities 
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 65).
    (3) Disturbance of soils by feral pigs from rooting can create 
fertile seedbeds for alien plants, some of them spread by ingestion and 
excretion by pigs (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 65; Kessler 2011, pp. 
320, 323).
    (4) Increased nutrient availability as a result of pigs rooting in 
nitrogen-poor soils, which facilitates establishment of alien weeds. 
Introduced vertebrates are known to enhance the germination of alien 
plants through seed scarification in digestive tracts or through 
rooting and fertilization with feces of potential seedbeds (Stone 1985, 
p. 253). In addition, alien weeds are more adapted to nutrient-rich 
soils than native plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 65), and rooting 
activity creates open areas in forests, allowing alien species to 
completely replace native stands.
    (5) Rodent damage to plant propagules, seedlings, or native trees, 
which changes forest composition and structure (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, 
p. 67).
    (6) Feeding or defoliation of native plants by nonnative insects, 
which can reduce geographic ranges of some species, because the damage 
caused by these insects weakens the plants, making them more 
susceptible to disease or other predators and herbivores (Cuddihy and 
Stone 1990, p. 71).
    (7) Nonnative insect predation on native insects, which affects 
native plant species by preventing pollination and seed set and 
dispersal, and can directly kill native insects (Cuddihy and Stone 
1990, p. 71).
    (8) Nonnative animal (rat, snakes, and monitor lizard) predation on 
native birds, tree snails, bats, and skinks, causes island extirpations 
or extinctions, in addition to altering seed dispersal of native plants 
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 72-73).
    Each of the above threats is discussed in more detail below, and 
summarized above in Table 3. The most-often cited effects of nonnative 
plants on native plant species are competition and displacement. 
Competition may be for water, light, or nutrients, or it may involve 
allelopathy (chemical inhibition of growth of other plants). Alien 
plants may displace native species of plants by preventing their 
reproduction, usually by shading and taking up available sites for 
seedling establishment. Alien plant invasions may also alter entire 
ecosystems by forming monotypic stands, changing fire characteristics 
of native communities, altering soil-water regimes, changing nutrient 
cycling, or encouraging other nonnative organisms (Smith 1989, p. 62; 
Vitousek et al. 1987, pp. 224-227).

Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or 
Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range

Habitat Destruction and Modification by Development, Military Training, 
and Urbanization
    The consequences of past land use practices, such as agricultural 
or urban development, have resulted in little or no native vegetation 
remaining throughout the inhabited islands of the Mariana archipelago, 
largely impacting the forest, savanna, stream, and cave ecosystems 
(Steadman 1990, pp. 207-215; Steadman 1995, pp. 1123-1131; Fritts and 
Rodda 1998, pp. 119-120; Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2007, pp. 
i-viii, 1-127). Areas once used for agriculture by the Chamorro are now 
being converted into residential areas, left fallow, or are being 
burned by hunters to attract deer (GDAWR 2006, p. 30; Boland 2014, in 
litt.). Guam's projected population increase by 2040 to 230,000 is an 
increase of almost 70 percent from that in 2010 (World Population 
Review 2014, in litt.). CNMI's current population of a little over 
51,000 is a decrease from that in 2010, due to collapse of the local 
garment industry (Eugenio 2009, in litt.). Although the final numbers 
are not yet known, the planned military relocation to Guam and Tinian 
will add a large number of Marines and their dependents to the local 
population, with a concurrent introduction of support staff and 
development of infrastructure, and increased use of resources such as 
water (Berger et al. 2005, p. 347; JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010a, p. ES-
1).
    The military buildup on Guam was originally valued in excess of $10 
billion (2.5 times the size of the current Guam economy), and was 
planned to take place over 4 years (Guam Economic Development Authority 
2011, p. 58). The scope of the relocation of personnel has decreased 
since this estimate in 2011, but will still greatly affect 
infrastructure and resource needs (JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2014, p. ES 
3.1). The currently preferred alternative sites on Guam for relocation 
of personnel and for live-fire training include Naval Computer and 
Telecommunications

[[Page 59391]]

Station Finegayan, Andersen South, Orote Point, Pati Point, Navy 
Barrigada, and Naval Magazine areas, where, in total, 18 of the 23 
species or their habitat are known to occur (13 of the 14 plants: 
Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia 
bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, 
Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordi, Psychotria malaspinae, 
Solanum guamense, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense; 
and 5 of the 9 animals: the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, the Mariana 
wandering butterfly, the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, and 
the fragile tree snail), and additionally includes the host plants 
Procris pendunculata and Elatostema calcareum for the Mariana eight-
spot butterfly and the host plant Maytenus thompsonii for the Mariana 
wandering butterfly.
    The inhabited island of Tinian and the uninhabited island of Pagan 
are planned to be used for military training with live-fire weapons and 
presence of military personnel. The northern two-thirds of Tinian are 
leased by DOD, and the development of these lands and effects from 
live-fire training will directly impact the trees Heritiera 
longipetiolata (on Tinian) and Cycas micronesica (on Pagan) and their 
habitat in the forest ecosystem. Pagan is currently occupied by 
Slevin's skink and the humped tree snail, and is historical habitat of 
Bulbophyllum guamense, all of which will be negatively impacted by 
direct destruction by live-fire weapons or possible wildfires caused by 
them and by trampling and destruction by military personnel.
    Rota's land is under transition from public to private ownership, 
and the flat or lower-sloped areas comprising 66 percent of the island 
is expected to be privately owned (National Park Service 2005 in 
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 2012, p. 273). 
Rota already has 7 hotels, and tourism is the island's principal 
economic industry. If Rota's large central forested areas are 
developed, only the remaining cliffs or steep slopes would contain 
undisturbed native forest (National Park Service 2005 in NOAA 2012, p. 
273). Continued development on Rota will cause an increase of water 
use, and will impact the Talakhaya Springs and the streams fed by the 
springs. Specifically, dewatering of the streams on Rota could lead to 
elimination of the only known population of the Rota blue damselfly 
(see ``Water Extraction,'' below). Additionally, development around and 
within forested areas on Rota will also directly impact the forest 
habitat and individuals of Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, 
Dendrobium guamense, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, 
Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense; and the habitat 
and host plants of the Mariana wandering butterfly, and the humped tree 
snail and fragile tree snail.
    Other urban development (primarily involving housing development) 
will further impact the ecosystems that support native species. On 
Guam, a housing development is proposed for the Sigua highlands, where 
two of the plant species proposed for listing as endangered (Hedyotis 
megalantha and Phyllanthus saffordii) are known to occur (Kelman 2013, 
in litt.). In addition, the island of Aguiguan is proposed to be 
developed as an ecotourism resort (Eugenio 2013, in litt.). If 
developed, this ecotourism resort will negatively impact the forest and 
cave ecosystems that support three of the animals proposed for listing 
as endangered (the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, the humped tree snail, 
and Langford's tree snail), by causing destruction of the forest 
ecosystem (and associated food sources for the Pacific sheath-tailed 
bat) for development of tourist facilities for transportation and 
accommodation, by associated introduction of nonnative predators and 
herbivores, and by causing direct disturbance by visitation of caves.
    The total land area for all of the northern islands (within these 
species' current and historical range) is only 62 mi\2\ (160 km\2\), 
and 44 mi\2\ (114 km\2\) of this land area is on islands with volcanic 
activity, which could impact the species and their habitat. The larger 
land area on the southern islands (332 mi\2\ (857 km\2\)), within these 
species' current and historical range, is undergoing increased human 
use, as described above.
    In summary, development, military training, urbanization (GDAWR 
2006, p. 69), and the associated destruction or degradation of habitat 
through loss of forest and savanna areas, disturbance of caves, and 
dewatering of streams, are serious threats to 13 of the 14 plants 
(Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia 
bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, 
Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, 
Solanum guamense, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense), 
and to 8 of the 9 animals (the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, Slevin's 
skink, the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, the Rota blue damselfly, the 
Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, Langford's tree snail, and the 
fragile tree snail) that are dependent on these ecosystems. We do not 
have sufficient information specific to 2 of the 23 species, Tinospora 
homosepala and the Mariana wandering butterfly, that would lead us to 
conclude that habitat loss as a result of development, military 
training, or urbanization is a threat to these species. For a more 
thorough discussion of previous occupations and current U.S. military 
activities, see ``Historical and Ongoing Human Impact,'' above.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Animals
    Animal species introduced by humans, either intentionally or 
accidentally, are responsible for some of the greatest negative impacts 
to the four Mariana Islands ecosystems described here (Stone 1970, pp. 
14, 32; Intoh 1986 in Conry 1988, p. 26; Fritts and Rodda 1998, p. 
130). Although there are numerous reports of myriad introduced animal 
species that have negatively impacted the four described Mariana 
Islands ecosystems, ranging from ungulates to insects (including such 
diverse animals as the musk shrew (Suncus murinus), dogs (Canis lupis 
familiaris), cats, and black drongoes (birds; Dicrurus macroercus)), we 
have focused our efforts here on the negative impacts of those species 
that impose the greatest harmful effects on the four ecosystems (see 
Table 3). In addition, we address the compounding effects on these 
ecosystems that arise when the pressure of two or more individual 
negative impacts is greater than the sum of their parts (i.e., 
synergistic effects). Below we discuss the negative impacts of various 
nonnative animals, including feral pigs, goats, cattle, and water 
buffalo, as well as Philippine deer, rats, and the brown tree snake 
(BTS) (Boiga irregularis), which impose the greatest adverse impacts on 
one or more of the 4 described Mariana Islands ecosystems (forest, 
savanna, stream, and cave) that support the 23 species proposed for 
listing here (Stone 1970, pp. 14, 32; Intoh 1986 in Conry 1988, p. 26; 
Fritts and Rodda 1998, pp. 130-133; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 42, 44, 
138, 156-157; CNMI-SWARS 2010, pp. 7, 24). Because most of the islands 
in the Mariana archipelago are small (Guam being the largest), the 
negative impacts associated with a destructive nonnative animal species 
affect the entire island. The mild climate of the islands, combined 
with the lack of competitors or predators, has led to the successful 
establishment of large populations of these introduced animals, to the 
detriment of the native Mariana Island species and ecosystems.

[[Page 59392]]

These effects are discussed in more detail, below.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Introduced Ungulates
    Like most oceanic islands, the Mariana Islands, and greater 
Micronesia, did not support indigenous populations of terrestrial 
mammalian herbivores prior to human colonization (Wiles et al. 1999, p. 
194). Although agriculture and land use by the Chamorro clearly altered 
the landscape and composition of native biota in the Mariana Islands, 
starting over 3,500 years ago (Perry and Morton 1999, p. 126; Steadman 
1995, pp. 1,126-1,127), impacts to the native species and ecosystems of 
the Marianas accelerated following the arrival of Magellan in the 1500s 
(Pregill 1998, p. 66; Perry and Morton 1999, pp. 126-127). The Spanish 
and subsequent explorers intentionally introduced pigs, cattle, goats, 
water buffalo, and Philippine deer to serve as food sources (Fosberg 
1960, p. 54; Conry 1988, pp. 26-28). The isolation of the Mariana 
Islands allowed plant species to evolve without defenses to browsing 
and grazing animals, such as secondary metabolites and spines, making 
them highly susceptible to herbivory (Bowen and Van Vuren 1997, p. 
1,249; Wiles et al. 1999, p. 194). Introduced mammals have profoundly 
influenced many insular ecosystems around the globe through alteration 
of the physical environment, culminating in the decline and loss of 
native biota (Stone 1970, pp. 14, 32; Scowcroft and Giffin 1983 in 
Wiles et al. 1999, p. 194; Stone 1985, pp. 251, 253-263; Campbell and 
Donlan 2004, pp. 1,363, 1,365), including the Mariana Islands 
ecosystems (Conry 1988, pp. 27-28; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, 
pp. 250-252, 264; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 42, 44, 138, 156-157; CNMI-
SWARS 2010, pp. 7, 24).
    The presence of alien mammals is considered one of the primary 
factors underlying the alteration and degradation of native plant 
communities and habitats on the Mariana Islands. The destruction or 
degradation of habitat due to nonnative ungulates, including pigs, 
goats, cattle, water buffalo, and deer, is currently a threat to 17 of 
the proposed species in 2 of the 4 ecosystems (forest and savanna) on 7 
of the 15 Mariana Islands (Guam, Rota, Aguiguan, Tinian, Alamagan, 
Pagan, and Agrihan). Habitat degradation or destruction by ungulates is 
a threat to 10 of the 14 plant species (Cycas micronesica, Eugenia 
bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, 
Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, 
Solanum guamense, and Tabernaemontana rotensis), and 7 of the 9 animal 
species (the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, Slevin's skink, the Mariana 
eight-spot butterfly, the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, 
Langford's tree snail, and the fragile tree snail) proposed for listing 
(Table 3) (Stone 1970, pp. 14, 32; Perlman and Wood 1994, pp. 135-136.; 
Fritts and Rodda 1998, pp. 130-133; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, 
p. 250; Perry and Morton 1999, pp. 126-127; Wiles and Johnson 2004, p. 
586; Vogt and Williams 2004, pp. 82-89; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 42, 44, 
138, 156-157; CNMI-SWARS 2010, pp. 7, 24; Pratt 2011, pp. 2, 36; Cook 
2012, in litt.; Rogers 2012, in litt.; Rubinoff and Haines 2012, in 
litt.; Gawel 2014, in litt.; Marler 2014, in litt.). The three 
epiphytic orchids (Bulbophyllum guamense, Dendrobium guamense, and 
Tuberolabium guamense), the vine Tinospora homosepala, the Mariana 
wandering butterfly and its host plant Maytenus thompsonii, and the 
Rota blue damselfly are not reported to be vulnerable to habitat 
modification and destruction caused by nonnative ungulates.
    Pigs--The destruction or degradation of habitat due to nonnative 
feral pigs is currently a threat in 2 (forest and savanna) of the 4 
Mariana Islands ecosystems and their associated species on 4 of the 15 
islands (Guam, Alamagan, Pagan, and Agrihan) (Berger et al. 2005, pp. 
37-38, 40-44, 51, 95, 114; CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 15; Kessler 2011, pp. 
320, 323; Pratt 2011, pp. 2, 36). Pigs are present on other islands in 
the archipelago not noted above (i.e., Rota, Saipan, and Tinian); 
however, they are present in very low numbers, primarily on farms and, 
therefore, not considered a threat on these islands at this time.
    Feral pigs are known to cause deleterious impacts to ecosystem 
processes and functions throughout their worldwide distribution (Aplet 
et al. 1991, p. 56; Anderson and Stone 1993, p. 201; Campbell and Long 
2009, p. 2,319). Feral pigs are extremely destructive and have both 
direct and indirect impacts on native plant communities. While rooting 
in the earth in search of invertebrates and plant material, pigs 
directly impact native plants by disturbing and destroying vegetative 
cover, and trampling plants and seedlings. It has been estimated that 
at a conservative rooting rate of 2 square yards (yd\2\) (1.7 m\2\) per 
minute, with only 4 hours of foraging a day, a single pig could disturb 
over 1,600 yd\2\ (1,340 m\2\) (or approximately 0.3 ac, or 0.1 ha) of 
groundcover per week (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.).
    Pigs may also reduce or eliminate plant regeneration by damaging or 
eating seeds and seedlings (further discussion of predation by 
nonnative ungulates is provided under Factor C. Disease and Predation, 
below). Pigs are a major vector for the establishment and spread of 
competing invasive, nonnative plant species by dispersing plant seeds 
on their hooves and fur, and in their feces (Diong 1982, pp. 169-170, 
196-197), which also serves to fertilize disturbed soil (Siemann et al. 
2009, p. 547). In addition, pig rooting and wallowing contributes to 
erosion by clearing vegetation and creating large areas of disturbed 
soil, especially on slopes (Smith 1985, pp. 190, 192, 196, 200, 204, 
230-231; Stone 1985, pp. 254-255, 262-264; Tomich 1986, pp. 120-126; 
Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 64-65; Aplet et al. 1991, p. 56; Loope et 
al. 1991, pp. 18-19; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 52; Nogueira-Filho et 
al. 2009, p. 3,681; CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 15; Dunkell et al. 2011, pp. 
175-177; Kessler 2011, pp. 320, 323). Erosion, resulting from rooting 
and trampling by pigs, impacts native plant communities by contributing 
to watershed degradation and alteration of plant nutrient status, as 
well as causing direct damage to individual plants from landslides 
(Berger et al. 2005, pp. 42-44; Vitousek et al. 2009, pp. 3074-3086; 
Chan-Halbrendt et al. 2010, p. 251; Kessler 2011, pp. 320-324).
    In the Hawaiian Islands, pigs have been described as the most 
pervasive and disruptive nonnative influence on the unique native 
forests, and are widely recognized as one of the greatest current 
threats to Hawaii's forest ecosystems (Aplet et al. 1991, p. 56; 
Anderson and Stone 1993, p. 195). The negative impacts from pig rooting 
and wallowing described above negatively affect 2 of the 4 described 
ecosystems (forest and savanna), and 14 of the 23 species proposed for 
listing as endangered or threatened (9 plants: Cycas micronesica, 
Hedyotis megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia 
jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum 
guamense, and Tabernaemontana rotensis; and 5 animals: Slevin's skink, 
the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, and the Guam tree snail, the humped 
tree snail, and the fragile tree snail) (Conry 1988, pp. 27-28; Vogt 
and Williams 2004, p. 88; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 37-38, 40-44, 51, 95, 
114; CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 15; SWCA 2010, p. 38; Kessler 2011, pp. 320, 
323; Pratt 2011, pp. 2, 36; Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.).
    Goats--Habitat destruction or degradation of habitat due to 
nonnative feral goats is currently a threat to three of the species 
proposed for listing in

[[Page 59393]]

two (forest and cave) of the four Mariana Islands ecosystems, on the 
islands of Aguiguan, Alamagan, Pagan, and Agrihan (Berger et al. 2005, 
pp. 36, 38, 40, 42-47; CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 15; Kessler 2011, pp. 320-
323; Pratt 2011, pp. 2, 36). Goats are presumably present on other 
islands (e.g., Guam and Saipan, and possibly Rota), but these 
individuals are primarily on farms and, therefore, are not considered a 
threat at this time (Kremer 2013, in litt.). Three of the 23 species 
proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species in this rule 
(the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, the humped tree snail, and Langford's 
tree snail), within the forest and cave ecosystems on the above-
mentioned islands, are negatively affected by feral goats.
    The feral goat population on Aguiguan increased from a handful of 
animals in 1992 to more than 1,000 in 2002, which led to the general 
destruction of the forest ecosystem due to lack of regeneration of 
native plants and almost complete loss of understory plants, leaving 
only two native plants that are unpalatable, Cynometra ramiflora and 
Guamia mariannae (Cruz et al. 2008, p. 243; Wiles and Worthington 2002, 
p. 7). In addition, feral goats on Aguiguan have been observed entering 
caves for shelter, which disrupts the endangered Mariana swiftlet 
colonies and is believed to disturb the Pacific sheath-tailed bat (Cruz 
et al. 2008, p. 243; Wiles and Worthington 2002, p. 17). Researchers 
found that if caves suitable for bats were occupied by goats, there 
were no bats present in the caves (GDAWR 1995, p. 95). Goats are widely 
recognized to have almost limitless ranges, and are able to access, and 
forage in, extremely rugged terrain (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980, pp. C-19, 
C-20; Culliney 1988, p. 336; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 64).
    Goats have completely eliminated some plant species from islands 
(Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 250; Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, 
p. 21). On Alamagan and Pagan, goat browsing negatively impacts the 
habitat that supports the humped tree snail in the forest ecosystem by 
altering the essential microclimate, leading to increased desiccation 
and disruption of plant decay processes (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 
1998, p. 250). On Agrihan, goats have destroyed much of the shrubs that 
make up the subcanopy, and the herbs in the understory (Ohba 1994, p. 
19). In addition, goats eat the seeds and seedlings of one of the 
dominant Micronesian (Mariana Islands and Palau) endemic canopy 
species, Elaeocarpus joga, preventing its regeneration (Ohba 1994, p. 
19; Ritter and Naugle 1999, pp. 275-281). None of the 23 species 
addressed in this proposed rule are known to currently occur on 
Agrihan; however, this island may be involved in future recovery 
efforts for 1 or more of the 23 species, and 2 other listed species, 
the Mariana fruit bat and the Micronesian megapode, occur there.
    Cattle--Habitat destruction or degradation of habitat by feral 
cattle is currently a threat to two species addressed in this proposed 
rule (the humped tree snail and the plant Heritiera longipetiolata) in 
the forest ecosystem on the islands of Tinian, Alamagan, and Pagan 
(Berger et al. 2005, pp. 114, 218; Kessler 2011, p. 320) Cattle grazing 
damages the native vegetation and contributes to loss of native plant 
species, and also alters the essential microclimate leading to 
increased desiccation and disruption of plant decay processes necessary 
to support the humped tree snail, which currently occurs on the islands 
of Alamagan and Pagan (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 261; Pratt 
2011, pp. 2, 36; Hadfield 2010, 23 pp.; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 114, 
218). Feral cattle eat native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, 
cause erosion, create disturbed areas into which alien plants invade, 
and spread seeds of alien plants in their feces and on their bodies. 
The forest in areas grazed by cattle degrades to grassland pasture, and 
plant cover is reduced for many years following removal of cattle from 
an area. Feral cattle also roam Tinian and are reported to negatively 
affect habitat across the island by grazing, trampling plants, and 
exposing soil, thereby changing the microclimate and composition of 
vegetation. This has led to deleterious effects on 1 (Heritiera 
longipetiolata) of the 23 species proposed for listing as an endangered 
species in this rule and its forest habitat. The Pacific sheath-tailed 
bat, and the plants Dendrobium guamense, Solanum guamense, and 
Tuberolabium guamense, occurred historically on Tinian.
    Water buffalo--Several herds of Asiatic water buffalo or carabao 
roam southern Guam and the Naval Magazine area, and cause damage to the 
forest and savanna ecosystems that support 10 of the 23 species 
proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species (6 plants: 
Cycas micronesica, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia 
jacksoniae, Psychotria malaspinae, and Tabernaemontana rotensis; 4 
animals: the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, the Guam tree snail, the 
humped tree snail, and the fragile tree snail) (Conry 1988, pp. 27-28; 
Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.). Water buffalo create mud wallows and 
trample vegetation (Conry 1988, p. 27). Wallowing pools can cover as 
much as 0.3 ac (0.1 ha) and reach a depth of 3 ft (1.0 m) (Conry 1988, 
p. 27), and trampling denudes land cover, leaving erosion scars and 
slumping (Conry 1988, pp. 27-28). Water buffalo negatively impact the 
Mariana eight-spot butterfly by damaging the habitat that supports its 
two host plants (Procris pendunculata and Elatostema calcareum). 
Although four additional species (the three epiphytic orchids 
(Bulbophyllum guamense, Dendrobium guamense, and Tuberolabium 
guamense), and the Mariana wandering butterfly and its host plant 
Maytenus thompsonii) may occur on the Naval Magazine, these four 
species are not as vulnerable to the negative impacts associated with 
water buffalo.
    Deer--Habitat destruction or degradation due to Philippine deer is 
currently a threat to 13 of the proposed species found in 2 of the 4 
described Mariana Island ecosystems (forest and savanna) on the islands 
of Guam and Rota (Wiles et al. 1999, pp. 198-200). Philippine deer have 
caused extensive damage resulting in changes in the forest structure, 
including erosion, grazing to the point of clearing the entire 
herbaceous understory, consumption of seeds and seedlings preventing 
regeneration of native plants and the spread of invasive plant species, 
and other physical damage (e.g., trunk rubbing) (Schreiner 1997, pp. 
179-180; Wiles et al. 1999, pp. 193-215; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 36, 
45-46, 100; CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 24; JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010b, pp. 3-
33; SWCA 2011, pp. 35, 42; Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.). At least 
34 native plant species in the forest ecosystem have been documented as 
known food of the deer on the islands of Guam and Rota, including: (1) 
genera of 5 plant species addressed in this proposed rule (Cycas spp. 
(e.g., C. micronesica), Eugenia spp. (e.g., E. bryanii), Heritiera spp. 
(e.g., H. longipetiolata), Psychotria spp. (e.g., P. malaspinae), and 
Solanum spp. (e.g, S. guamense); and genera of the 2 host plants 
Procris spp. and Elatostema spp. that support the Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly; (2) several keystone ecosystem species: Artocarpus 
mariannensis (dokdok, seeded bread fruit), Discocalyx megacarpa (otot), 
Merrilliodendron megacarpum (faniok), Piper spp., Pipturus argenteus, 
and Premna obtusifolia (false elder); and (3) the listed species 
Serianthes nelsonii (Wiles et al. 1999, pp. 198-200, 203; Rubinoff and 
Haines 2012, in litt.). Philippine deer degrade the habitats that 
support 12 of the 23 species proposed for listing

[[Page 59394]]

as endangered or threatened species here, in the forest and savanna 
ecosystems on the islands of Guam and Rota (8 plants: Cycas 
micronesica, Eugenia bryanii, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, 
Nervilia jacksoniae, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, and 
Tabernaemontana rotensis; and 4 animals: the Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly (including the two host plants Procris pendunculata and 
Elatostema calcareum), the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, the 
fragile tree snail).
    In summary, the habitats for 17 of the 23 species within all 4 
ecosystems (forest, savanna, stream, and cave) identified in this rule 
are exposed to ongoing destruction and modification by feral ungulates 
(pigs, goats, cattle, and water buffalo), and Philippine deer (10 
plants: Cycas micronesica, Eugenia bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, 
Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, 
Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, and 
Tabernaemontana rotensis; and 7 animals: the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, 
Slevin's skink, the Mariana eight-spot butterfly (and its 2 host plants 
Procris pendunculata and Elatostema calcareum), the Guam tree snail, 
the humped tree snail, Langford's tree snail, and the fragile tree 
snail). The effects of these nonnative animals include (1) the 
destruction of vegetative cover and the required microclimate of the 4 
tree snails; (2) trampling of plants and seedlings and direct 
consumption of native vegetation and the 10 plants and the host plants 
for the 2 butterflies; (3) altering the native ecosystems that provide 
habitat for the 10 plants and 7 animals by soil disturbance leading to 
erosion and sedimentation; (4) dispersal of alien plant seeds on hooves 
and coats and in feces, which contributes to invasion and alteration of 
ecosystems required by the 10 plants and 7 animals; (5) alteration of 
soil nitrogen availability, and creation of open areas conducive to 
further invasion of native ecosystems by nonnative pest plant species; 
and (6) alteration of food availability for the Pacific sheath-tailed 
bat by destruction of native forest and the associated insect prey. All 
of these impacts lead to the subsequent conversion of a plant community 
dominated by native species to one dominated by nonnative species (see 
``Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Plants,'' below). 
In addition, because these nonnative animals inhabit terrain that is 
often steep and rugged (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 64-65; Berger et 
al. 2005, pp. 36-38, 40-47, 51, 95, 100, 114, 218), foraging and 
trampling contribute to severe erosion of watersheds. Nonnative 
ungulates would thus pose a potential threat to the Rota blue 
damselfly's stream habitat, if these ungulates were allowed to roam 
freely on Rota (Dunkell et al. 2011, p. 192).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Introduced Small Vertebrates
    Rats--Three rat species are found in the Mariana Islands: (1) the 
Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), the only rat found in prehistoric 
fossil records; (2) the Norway rat (R. norvegicus); and (3) a putative 
new southeast Asian Rattus line, originally thought to be R. diardii 
(synonymous with R. tanezumi) (Pages et al. 2010, p. 200; Pages et al. 
2013, pp. 1019-1020; Kuroda 1938 in Wiewel et al. 2009, p. 208; Wiewel 
et al. 2009, pp. 210, 214-216). One or more of these rat species are 
present on all 15 Mariana Islands (Wiewel et al. 2009, pp. 205-222; 
Kessler 2011, p. 320). Rats are a threat to the forest and savanna 
ecosystems that support the 22 of the 23 species proposed for listing 
as endangered or threatened in this proposed rule (all 14 plant species 
and 8 of 9 animal species--all except the Rota blue damselfly in the 
stream ecosystem) by affecting regeneration of native vegetation, 
thereby destroying or eliminating the associated flora and fauna of 
these ecosystems.
    Rats are recognized as one of the most destructive invasive 
vertebrates, causing significant ecological, as well as economic, and 
health impacts (Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, pp. 23-24; Cuddihy and 
Stone 1990, pp. 68-69). Rats impact native plants by eating fleshy 
fruits, seeds, flowers, stems, leaves, roots, and other plant parts 
(Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. 23), and can seriously affect plant 
regeneration. A New Zealand study of rats in native forests has 
demonstrated that, over time, differential regeneration of plants, as a 
consequence of rat predation, may alter the species composition of 
forested areas (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 69). Rats have caused 
declines or even the complete elimination of island plant species 
(Campbell and Atkinson 1999, in Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. 24). 
Plants with fleshy fruits are particularly susceptible to rat predation 
(Stone 1985, p. 264; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 67-69).
    Rats also impact the faunal composition of ecosystems by predation 
or competition with native amphibian, avian, invertebrate, mammalian, 
and reptilian species, often resulting in population declines or even 
extirpations; disruption of island trophic systems including nutrient 
cycling; and by the creation of novel vectors and reservoirs for 
diseases and parasites (Pickering and Norris 1996 in Wiewel et al. 
2009, p. 205; Chanteau et al. 1998 in Wiewel et al. 2009, p. 205; 
Fukami et al. 2006, pp. 1,302-1,303; Towns et al. 2006, pp. 876-877; 
Wiewel et al. 2009, p. 205).
    Rats are less numerous on Guam compared to Rota, Saipan, and 
Tinian, due to the presence of the BTS (see ``Brown Tree Snake,'' 
below) (Wiewel et al. 2009, p. 210). An inverse relationship has been 
observed between rat density and the density of the BTS, as rats are a 
food source for the BTS and, therefore, contribute toward its 
persistence (Rodda and Savidge 2007, p. 315; Wiewel et al. 2009, p. 
218). Rodda et al. (1991, in CNMI DFW 2005, p. 175) suggests that rats 
negatively impact native reptile populations, such as Slevin's skink, 
by aggressively competing for habitat. Several restoration studies have 
shown rapid increases in skink populations after removal of rats (Towns 
et al. 2001, pp. 6, 9).
    Brown tree snake--The brown tree snake (BTS), native to coastal 
eastern Australia and north through Papua New Guinea and Melanesia, was 
accidentally introduced to Guam shortly after World War II (Rodda and 
Savidge 2007, p. 307). This arboreal, nocturnal snake was first 
observed near the Fena Reservoir in the Santa Rita area, and now 
occupies all ecosystems on Guam (Rodda and Savidge 2007, p. 314). There 
are reported sightings of the BTS on Saipan; however, there are no 
known established populations on Saipan at this time (Campbell 2014, 
pers. comm.; Phillips 2014, pers. comm.). The BTS is believed 
responsible for the extirpation of 13 of Guam's 22 native bird species 
(including all but 1 of its native forest bird species), and for 
contributing to the elimination of the Mariana fruit bat, the Pacific 
sheath-tailed bat, and Slevin's skink populations from the island 
(Rodda and Savidge 2007, p. 307).
    The loss or severe reduction of so many bird species and other 
small native animal species on Guam has ecosystem-wide impacts, since 
many of these bird and small animal species were responsible for seed 
dispersal and pollination of native plants (Perry and Morton 1999, p. 
137; Rodda and Savidge 2007, p. 311; Rogers 2008, in litt.). Some 
report that the BTS has eliminated virtually all native seed dispersers 
(Fritts and Rodda 1998, p. 129). Field studies have demonstrated that 
seed dispersal of selected native plant species (Aglaia mariannensis, 
Elaeocarpa joga, and Premna obtusifolia) has declined on Guam as

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compared to neighboring islands (Rota, Saipan, and Tinian), due to BTS 
predation on native birds and other small native vertebrate species 
(Ritter and Naugle 1999, pp. 275-281; Rogers 2008, in litt.; Rogers 
2009, in litt.). Almost three quarters of the native tree species on 
Guam were once dependent on birds to eat their fruits and disperse 
their seeds (Rogers 2009, in litt.). Detailed studies on the native 
tree P. obtusifolia show that seeds handled by birds are twice as 
likely to germinate than seeds that fall off the tree and land directly 
below on the forest floor (by either simply nicking the seed and 
dropping it, or fully digesting the outer seed coat and excreting it in 
feces) (Rogers 2009, in litt.). An impact at one trophic level 
(elimination of seed dispersers) has cascading effects on other trophic 
levels, and can affect ecosystem stability (Perry and Morton 1999, p. 
137).
    The brown tree snake's elimination of native plant seed dispersers 
is an indirect threat that adversely affects 2 of the 4 described 
ecosystems (forest and savanna), and the habitat of 18 of the 23 
species proposed for listing as endangered or threatened (all 14 plant 
species and 4 of the 9 animal species, including the Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly, the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, and the fragile 
tree snail).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Plants
    Native vegetation on the Mariana Islands has undergone extreme 
alteration because of past and present land management practices, 
including ranching, the deliberate introduction of nonnative plants and 
animals, agricultural development, military actions, and war (Ohba 
1994, pp. 17, 28, 54-69; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. 242; 
Berger et al. 2005, pp. 45, 105, 110, 218, 347, 350; CNMI-SWARS 2010, 
pp. 7, 9, 13, 16). Some nonnative plants were brought to the Mariana 
Islands by various groups of people, including the Chamorro, for food 
or cultural reasons.
    The native flora of the Mariana Islands (plant species that were 
present before humans arrived) consisted of no more than 500 taxa, 10 
percent of which were endemic (species that occur only in the Mariana 
Islands). Over 100 plant taxa have been introduced from elsewhere, and 
at least one third of these have become pests (i.e., injurious plants) 
(Stone 1970, pp. 18-21; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 242-243, 
249, 262-263; Costion and Lorence 2012, pp. 51-100). Of these 
approximately 30 nonnative pest plant species, at least 9 have altered 
the habitat of 20 of the 23 species proposed for listing as endangered 
or threatened species (only 3 of the animal species, the Pacific 
sheath-tailed bat, the Slevin's skink, and the Mariana wandering 
butterfly, are not directly impacted by nonnative plants (see Table 
3)).
    Nonnative plants degrade native habitat in the Mariana Islands by: 
(1) Modifying the availability of light through alterations of the 
canopy structure; (2) altering soil-water regimes; (3) modifying 
nutrient cycling; (4) altering the fire regime affecting native plant 
communities (e.g., successive fires that burn farther and farther into 
native habitat, destroying native plants and removing habitat for 
native species by altering microclimatic conditions to favor alien 
species); and (5) ultimately converting native-dominated plant 
communities to nonnative plant communities (Smith 1985, pp. 217-218; 
Cuddihy and Stone, 1990, p. 74; Matson 1990, p. 245; D'Antonio and 
Vitousek 1992, p. 73; Ohba 1994, pp. 17, 28, 54-69; Vitousek et al. 
1997, pp. 6-9; Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, pp. 242-243, 249, 262-
263; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 45, 105, 110, 218, 347, 350; CNMI-SWARS 
2010, pp. 7, 9, 13, 16).
    The following list provides a brief description of the nonnative 
plants that impose the greatest negative impacts to forest, savanna, 
and stream ecosystems and the proposed species that depend on these 
ecosystems (all 14 of the plant species and 6 of the animal species, 
including the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, Rota blue damselfly, humped 
tree snail, Langford's tree snail, Guam tree snail, and fragile tree 
snail).
     Antigonon leptopus (chain of hearts, Mexican creeper, 
coral vine), a perennial vine native to Mexico, has become widespread 
throughout the Mariana Islands. This species is a fast-growing, 
climbing vine that can reach up to 25 ft (8 m) in length, and smothers 
all native plants in its path (University of Florida Center for Aquatic 
and Invasive Plants (UF) 2014, in litt.). The fact that this species 
can tolerate poor soil and a wide range of light conditions makes this 
species a very successful invasive plant (UF 2013, in litt.).
     Coccinia grandis (ivy or scarlet gourd), native throughout 
Africa and Asia, is an aggressive noxious pantropical weedy vine that 
forms dense blankets that smother vegetation, and currently 
proliferates on Guam and Saipan (Space and Falanruw 1999, pp. 3, 9-10). 
This species is considered the most invasive and serious threat to 
forest health by the CNMI DFW (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 15). Currently, C. 
grandis covers nearly 80 percent of Saipan (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 15).
     Chromaeolena odorata (Siam weed, bitterbrush, masigsig), 
native to Central and South America, is an herbaceous perennial that 
forms dense tangled bushes up to 6 ft (2 m) in height, but can grow up 
to 20 ft (6 m) as a climber on other plants (Invasive Species 
Specialist Group--Global Invasive Species Database (ISSG-GISD) 2006, in 
litt.). This species can grow in a wide range of soils and vegetation 
types, giving it an advantage over native plants (ISSG-GISD 2006, in 
litt.). Dense stands of C. odorata prevent the establishment of native 
plant species due to competition and allelopathic (growth inhibition) 
effects (ISSG-GISD 2006, in litt.).
     Lantana camara (lantana), a malodorous, branched shrub up 
to 10 ft (3 m) tall, was brought to the Mariana Islands as an 
ornamental plant. Lantana is aggressive, thorny, and forms thickets, 
crowding out and preventing the establishment of native plants (Davis 
et al. 1992, p. 412; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1,320).
     Leucana leucocephala (tangentangen, koa haole), a shrub 
native to the neotropics, is a nitrogen-fixer and an aggressive 
competitor that often forms the dominant element of the vegetation 
(Geesink et al. 1999, pp. 679-680).
     Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass, sour grass) is a 
perennial grass that occurs in wet habitats and forms a dense ground 
cover. Its small, hairy seeds are easily transported on humans and 
animals, or are carried by the wind through native forests, where it 
establishes and displaces native vegetation (Pace et al. 2000, p. 23; 
Motooka et al. 2003; Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk 2008).
     Pennisetum species are aggressive colonizers that 
outcompete most native species by forming widespread, dense, thick 
mats. Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass) has been introduced to Guam 
(Space and Falanruw 1999, pp. 3, 5). Fountain grass occurs in dry, open 
places; barren lava flows; and cinder fields, is fire-adapted, and 
burns swiftly and hot, causing extensive damage to the surrounding 
habitat (O'Connor 1999, p. 1,581). On Hawaii Island, fountain grass is 
estimated to cover hundreds of thousands of acres and has the ability 
to become the dominant component in dry, open places in the Mariana 
Islands (O'Connor 1999, p. 1,578; Fox 2011, in litt.). Pennisetum 
purpureum and P. polystachyon have been introduced to Guam and Saipan 
(Space and Falanruw 1999, pp. 3, 5). Pennisetum purpureum (Napier 
grass, elephant grass) is a vigorous grass that produces razor-sharp

[[Page 59396]]

leaves and forms thick clumps up to 13 ft (4 m) that resemble bamboo 
(Plantwise 2014, in litt.). Tall, dense thickets of P. purpureum 
outcompete and smother native plants, and can dominate fire-adapted 
grassland communities (Holm et al. 1979, in Plantwise 2014, in litt.). 
Similarly, dense thickets of Pennisetum polystachyon (mission grass) 
alter the fire regime and outcompete and smother native plants 
(University of Queensland 2011, in litt.).
     Triphasia trifolia (limeberry, limoncito), a shade-
tolerant woody shrub native to southeast Asia, Malaysia, and the 
Christmas Islands, is an aggressive plant that forms dense, spiny 
thickets in the forest understory that smother native plant species and 
outcompete them for light and water (CABI 2014-Invasive Species 
Compendium Online Database).
     Vitex parviflora (small leaved vitex; molave tree, 
agalondi), a medium-sized tree up to 35 ft (10 m) native to Indonesia, 
Malaysia, and the Philippines, often forms monotypic stands, and can 
spread by seeds and pieces of roots and stems. Vitex parviflora forms 
thickets that outcompete, prevent recruitment of, and exclude native 
plants (Guaminsects 2005, in litt.). Vitex parviflora has greatly 
altered native habitats on Guam (SWCA 2010, pp. 36, 67), and is one of 
the most dominant trees on the island (WERI-IREI 2014b, in litt.).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Fire
    Fire is a human-exacerbated threat to native species and native 
ecosystems throughout the Mariana Islands, particularly on the island 
of Guam. Wildfires plague forest and savanna areas on Guam every dry 
season despite the island's humid climate, with at least 80 percent of 
wildfires resulting from arson (JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010b, p. 1-9). 
Deer hunters on Guam and Rota frequently create fires in order to lure 
deer to new growth for easier hunting (Kremer 2014, in litt.; Boland 
2014, in litt.). It is not uncommon for these fires to become wildfires 
that spread across large expanses of the savanna ecosystem as well as 
into the adjacent forest ecosystem. Between 1979 and 2001, more than 
750 fires were reported annually on Guam, burning over 155 mi\2\ (401 
km\2\) during this time period (JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010b, pp. 1-8). 
Six of these 750 fires burned over 1,000 ac (405 hectares (ha)) (JGPO-
NavFac, Pacific 2010b, pp. 1-8). On the island of Rota on the Sabana, 
hunters often set fires, which burn into adjacent native forest. Fire 
can destroy dormant seeds of native species as well as plants 
themselves, even in steep or inaccessible areas. Successive fires that 
burn farther and farther into native habitat destroy native plants and 
remove habitat for native species by altering microclimate conditions 
to those favorable to alien plants. Alien plant species most likely to 
be spread as a consequence of fire are those that produce a high fuel 
load, are adapted to survive and regenerate after fire, and establish 
rapidly in newly burned areas.
    Grasses (particularly those that produce mats of dry material or 
retain a mass of standing dead leaves) that invade native forests and 
shrublands provide fuels that allow fire to burn areas that would not 
otherwise easily burn (Fujioka and Fujii 1980 in Cuddihy and Stone 
1990, p. 93; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, pp. 70, 73-74; Tunison et al. 
2002, p. 122). Native woody plants may recover from fire to some 
degree, but fire shifts the competitive balance toward alien species 
(National Park Service 1989 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 93). Another 
factor that contributes to wildfires on Guam, and other Mariana Islands 
with nonnative ungulates, includes land clearing for pasturage and 
ranching, which results in fire-prone areas of nonnative grasses and 
shrubs (Stone 1970, p. 32; CNMI-SWARS 2010, pp. 7, 20). Further, the 
danger of fire increases following intense typhoons, due to large fuel 
accumulation (Donnelly 2010, p. 6). Wildfire is a threat to nine plant 
species (Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, 
Hedyotis megalantha, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus 
saffordii, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense) and two 
animal species (the Guam tree snail (Guam) and the humped tree snail 
(Guam and Rota)), because individuals of these species occur in the 
savanna ecosystem or the forest ecosystem adjacent to the savanna 
ecosystem, on southern Guam (i.e., Cetti Watershed area) and on the 
Rota Sabana, where fires are common (Grimm 2012, in litt.; Gutierrez 
2012, in litt.; Gutierrez 2013, in litt.).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Typhoons
    The Mariana Islands lie in the western North Pacific basin, which 
is the world's most prolific typhoon basin, with an annual average of 
26 named tropical cyclones between 1951 and 2010, depending on the 
database used (Keener et al. 2012, p. 50). Typhoons are seasonal, 
occurring more often in the summer, and tend to be more intense during 
El Ni[ntilde]o years (Gualdi et al. 2008, pp. 5,205, 5,208, 5,226). The 
North Pacific basin has been relatively calm the past decade; however, 
between 2002 and 2005, three typhoons (Typhoon Chataan (2002), Typhoon 
Tingting (2004), and Typhoon Nabi (2005)) and two super typhoons (Super 
Typhoon Pongsona (2002) and Super Typhoon Chaba (2004)) struck the 
Mariana Islands (Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 2014, in 
litt.). In the previous 20 years (between 1976 and 1997), only eight 
typhoons reached the island chain that caused damage warranting FEMA 
assistance (FEMA 2014, in litt.).
    Typhoons may cause destruction of native vegetation and open the 
native canopy, thus modifying the availability of light, and creating 
disturbed areas conducive to invasion by nonnative pest species and 
nonnative plant species that compete for space, water, and nutrients, 
and alter basic water and nutrient cycling processes. This process 
leads to decreased growth and reproduction for all 14 plant species 
proposed for listing as endangered or threatened (see Table 3, above), 
and for the host plants (Procris pendunculata, Elatostema calcareum, 
and Maytenus thompsonii) for the 2 butterfly species addressed in this 
proposed rule (Perlman 1992, 9 pp.; Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, 
p. 671). Additionally, typhoons initiate a large pulse in the 
accumulation of debris and often trigger landslides with large debris 
flows (Lugo 2008, pp. 368, 372), as well as induce defoliation and 
wind-thrown trees, which can create conditions favorable to wildfires 
or which can result in the direct damage or destruction of individuals 
of the 14 plant species addressed in this proposed rule. Further, 
typhoon frequency globally may decrease; however, there may be some 
regional increases (e.g., in the western north Pacific), with an 
increase in the frequency of higher intensity events due to climate 
change (Emanuel et al. 2008, p. 361).
    Typhoons constitute a threat to the nine animal species proposed 
for listing as endangered species in this rule, because the associated 
high winds may dislodge larvae, juveniles, or adult individuals from 
their host plants, caves, or streams, thereby increasing the likelihood 
of mortality caused by lack of essential nutrients for proper 
development; increase their exposure to predators (e.g., rats, BTS, 
monitor lizards, ants) (see Factor C. Disease and Predation, below); 
destroy host plants; open up the canopy and alter the microclimate; or 
cause direct physical damage. Damage by subsequent typhoons could 
further decrease the remaining native plant-dominated

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habitat areas, and the associated food resources, that support the nine 
animal species. For plant and animal species that persist only in low 
numbers and restricted ranges, such as the 23 Mariana Islands species 
addressed here, natural disasters, such as typhoons, can be 
particularly devastating (Mitchell et al. 2005, p. 4-3).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Climate Change
    Our analyses under the Act include consideration of ongoing and 
projected changes in climate. The terms ``climate'' and ``climate 
change'' are defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 
(IPCC). ``Climate'' refers to the mean and variability of different 
types of weather conditions over time, with 30 years being a typical 
period for such measurements, although shorter or longer periods also 
may be used (Le Treut et al. 2007, p. 96). The term ``climate change'' 
thus refers to a change in the mean or variability of one or more 
measures of climate (e.g., temperature or precipitation) that persists 
for an extended period, typically decades or longer, whether the change 
is due to natural variability, human activity, or both (Le Treut et al. 
2007, p. 104). Various types of changes in climate can have direct or 
indirect effects on species. These effects may be positive, neutral, or 
negative and they may change over time, depending on the species and 
other relevant considerations, such as the effects of interactions of 
climate with other variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation) (IPCC 2007, 
pp. 8-14, 18).
    Climate change will be a particular challenge for the conservation 
of biodiversity because the introduction and interaction of additional 
stressors may push species beyond their ability to survive (Lovejoy 
2005, pp. 325-326). The synergistic implications of climate change and 
habitat fragmentation are the most threatening facet of climate change 
for biodiversity (Hannah et al. 2005, p. 4). The magnitude and 
intensity of the impacts of global climate change and increasing 
temperatures on native Mariana Island ecosystems are unknown. 
Currently, there are no climate change studies that address impacts to 
the specific Mariana Island ecosystems discussed here or any of the 23 
individual species proposed for listing as endangered or threatened 
species that are associated with these ecosystems. There are, however, 
climate change studies that address potential changes in the tropical 
Pacific on a broader scale.
    Based on the best available information, climate change impacts 
could lead to the loss of native species that comprise the communities 
in which the 23 species occur (Pounds et al. 1999, pp. 611-612; Still 
et al. 1999, p. 610; Benning et al. 2002, pp. 14,246-14,248; Allen et 
al. 2010, pp. 668-669; Sturrock et al. 2011, p. 144; Towsend et al. 
2011, pp. 14-15; Warren 2011, pp. 165-166). In addition, weather regime 
changes (droughts, floods, typhoons) will likely result from increased 
annual average temperatures related to more frequent El Ni[ntilde]o 
episodes as hypothesized for other Pacific Island chains (Giambelluca 
et al. 1991, p. iii). Future changes in precipitation and the forecast 
of those changes are highly uncertain because they depend, in part, on 
how the El Ni[ntilde]o-La Ni[ntilde]a weather cycle (a disruption of 
the ocean atmospheric system in the tropical Pacific having important 
global consequences for weather and climate) might change (State of 
Hawaii 1998, pp. 2-10). The 23 species proposed for listing as 
endangered or threatened species may be especially vulnerable to 
extinction due to anticipated environmental changes that may result 
from global climate change, due to their small population size and 
highly restricted ranges. Environmental changes that may affect these 
species are expected to include habitat loss or alteration and changes 
in disturbance regimes (e.g., storms and typhoons).
    Climate Change and Ambient Temperature--The range of global surface 
warming since 1979 is 0.16 [deg]C to 0.18 [deg]C per decade (Trenberth 
et al. 2007, p. 237). Globally, the annual number of warm nights 
increased by about 25 days since 1951, with the greatest increase since 
the mid 1970s (Alexander et al. 2006, pp. 7-8). The bulk of the 
increase in mean temperature is related to a larger increase in minimum 
temperatures compared to the increase in maximum temperatures 
(Giambelluca et al. 2008, p. 1). Globally averaged, 2012 ranked as the 
eighth or ninth warmest year since records began in the mid- to late 
1800s (Lander and Guard 2013, p. S-11).
    To date, climate change indicators specific to the Mariana Islands 
have not been published; however, data collected on climate change 
indicators from the Pacific Region, (e.g., the Hawaiian Islands) show 
that, overall, the daily temperature range is decreasing, resulting in 
a warmer environment, especially at higher elevations and at night. 
Predicted changes associated with increases in temperature include, but 
are not limited to, a shift in vegetation zones upslope, shifts in 
animal species' ranges, changes in mean precipitation with 
unpredictable effects on local environments, increased occurrence of 
drought cycles, and increases in the intensity and number of hurricanes 
(i.e., typhoons) (Loope and Giambelluca 1998, pp. 514-515; Emanuel et 
al. 2008, p. 365; U.S. Global Change Research Program (US-GCRP) 2009, 
pp. 145-149, 153; Keener et al. 2010, pp. 25-28; Finucane et al. 2012, 
pp. 23-26; Keener et al. 2012, pp. 47-51). It is reasonable to 
extrapolate these predictions to the Mariana Islands as climate in this 
area is strongly influenced by the phase of ENSO (Lander and Guard 
2013, pp. S192-S194). In addition, weather regime changes (e.g., 
droughts, floods, and typhoons) will likely result from increased 
annual average temperatures related to more frequent El Ni[ntilde]o 
episodes in the Mariana Islands (Keener et al. 2012, pp. 35-37, 47-51), 
and elsewhere in the Pacific (Giambelluca et al. 1991, p. iii). 
However, despite considerable progress made by expert scientists toward 
understanding the impacts of climate change on many of the processes 
that contribute to El Ni[ntilde]o variability, it is not possible to 
say whether or not El Ni[ntilde]o activity will be affected by climate 
change (Collins et al. 2010, p. 391).
    Globally, the increasing ambient temperature is creating a plethora 
of anticipated and unanticipated environmental changes such as melting 
ice caps, decline in annual snow mass, sea-level rise, ocean 
acidification, increase in storm frequency and intensity (e.g., 
hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones, and tornadoes), and altered 
precipitation patterns that contribute to regional increases in floods, 
heat waves, drought, and wildfires that also displace species and alter 
or destroy natural ecosystems (Pounds et al. 1999, p. 611; IPCC AR4 
2007, p. 48; Marshall et al. 2008, p. 273; US-GCRP 2009, pp. 81-83; 
Allen et al. 2010, p. 669). These environmental changes are predicted 
to alter species migration patterns, lifecycles, and ecosystem 
processes such as nutrient cycles, water availability, and 
decomposition (IPCC AR4 2007, p. 48; Pounds et al. 1999, pp. 611-612; 
Sturrock et al. 2011, p. 144; Townsend et al. 2011, pp. 14-15; Warren 
2011, pp. 221-226). The species extinction rate is predicted to 
increase congruent with ambient temperature increase (US-GCRP 2009, pp. 
81-82). In the Mariana Islands, these environmental changes associated 
with a rise in ambient temperature can directly impact (by loss of 
individuals) and indirectly impact (by loss of habitat or food and 
sites for reproduction) the 23 species proposed for listing as 
endangered or threatened species in this

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rule, and the ecosystems that support them, as discussed above.
    Climate Change and Precipitation--As global surface temperature 
rises, the evaporation of water vapor increases, resulting in higher 
concentrations of water vapor in the atmosphere, further resulting in 
altered global precipitation patterns (U.S. National Science and 
Technology Council (US-NSTC) 2008, pp. 60-61; US-GCRP 2009, pp. 145-
146). While annual global precipitation has increased over the last 100 
years, the combined effect of increases in evaporation and 
evapotranspiration is causing land surface drying in some regions 
leading to a greater incidence and severity of drought (US-NSTC 2008, 
pp. 60-61; US-GCRP 2009, pp. 145-146). Over the past 100 years, most of 
the Pacific has experienced an annual decline in precipitation; 
however, the western North Pacific (e.g., western Micronesia, including 
the Mariana Islands) has experienced a slight increase (up to 14 
percent on some islands) (US-NSTC 2008, p. 63; Keener et al. 2010, pp. 
53-54). Increases in rain are associated with alterations in faunal 
breeding systems and increases in disease prevalence, flooding, and 
erosion (Easterling et al. 2000, p. 2073; Harvell et al. 2002, pp. 
2,159-2,161; Nearing et al. 2004, pp. 48-49). It should be noted that 
although the western North Pacific typically experiences large amounts 
of rainfall annually, drought is a serious concern throughout 
Micronesia due to limited storage capacity and small groundwater 
supplies (Keener et al. 2012, pp. 49, 58, 119). Future changes in 
precipitation in the Mariana Islands are uncertain because they depend, 
in part, on how the El Ni[ntilde]o-La Ni[ntilde]a weather cycle might 
change (State of Hawaii 1998, pp. 2-10). Long periods of decline in 
annual precipitation result in a reduction in moisture availability, 
loss of wet forest, an increase in drought frequency, and a self-
perpetuating cycle of invasion by nonnative plants, increasing fire-
cycles, and increasing erosion. These impacts may negatively affect the 
23 species proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species in 
this rule, and the ecosystems that support them.
    Climate Change and Typhoons--A typhoon (as a tropical cyclone is 
referred to in the Northwest Pacific ocean) is the generic term for a 
medium-to large-scale, low-pressure storm system over tropical or 
subtropical waters with organized convection (i.e., thunderstorm 
activity) and definite cyclonic surface wind circulation 
(counterclockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere) (Holland 1993, 
p. 7, NOAA 2011, in litt.). In the north Pacific Ocean, west of the 
International Date Line, once a typhoon reaches an intensity of winds 
of at least 150 mi per hour (65 m per second), it is classified as a 
super typhoon (Neumann 1993, pp. 1-2; NOAA 2011, in litt.). Climate 
modeling has projected changes in typhoon frequency and intensity due 
to global warming over the next 100 to 200 years (Emanuel et al. 2008, 
p. 360, Figure 8; Yu et al. 2010, pp. 1,355-1,356, 1,369-1,370); 
however, there are no certain climate model predictions for a change in 
the duration of the Pacific tropical cyclone storm season (which 
generally runs from May through November) (Collins et al. 2010, p. 
396). The high winds and strong storm surges associated with typhoons, 
particularly super typhoons, have periodically caused great damage to 
the vegetation of the Mariana Islands. The strong winds can injure or 
cause death to the 9 animal species and the 14 plant species addressed 
in this proposed rule, and negatively impact the ecosystems that 
support them (see ``Habitat Destruction and Modification by Typhoons,'' 
above).
    Climate Change and Sea-Level Rise--On a global scale, sea level is 
rising as a result of thermal expansion of warming ocean water; the 
melting of ice sheets, glaciers, and ice caps; and the addition of 
water from terrestrial systems (Climate Institute 2011, in litt.). Sea 
level rose at an average rate of 0.1 in (3.1 mm) per year between 1961 
and 2003 (IPCC AR4 2007, p. 30), with a predicted increase in 2100 of 
1.6 to 4.6 ft (0.5 to 1.4 m) above the 1990 level (Rahmstorf 2007, p. 
368). Seven of the 23 species (5 plants: Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas 
micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Heritiera longipetiolata, and 
Nervilia jacksoniae; and 2 animals: the humped tree snail and the 
Mariana eight-spot butterfly (indirectly through impacts to its 2 host 
plants (Procris pendunculata and Elatostema calcareum)) have 
individuals that occur close to the coast in the adjacent forest 
ecosystem at or near sea level and may be negatively impacted by sea-
level rise and coastal inundation due to climate change; however, there 
is no specific data available on how sea-level rise and coastal 
inundation will impact these species.
    In summary, increased variability of ambient temperature, 
precipitation, typhoons, and sea-level rise and inundation would 
provide additional stresses on the 4 ecosystems and each of the 23 
associated species because they are highly vulnerable to disturbance 
and related invasion of nonnative species. The risk of extinction as a 
result of such factors increases when a species' range is restricted, 
its habitat decreases, and its population numbers decline (IPCC 2007, 
pp. 8-11). In addition, these 23 species may be at a greater risk of 
extinction due to the loss of redundancy and resiliency created by 
their limited ranges, restricted habitat requirements, small population 
sizes, or low numbers of individuals. Therefore, we would expect these 
23 species to be particularly vulnerable to projected environmental 
impacts that may result from changes in climate and subsequent impacts 
to their habitats (Loope and Giambelluca 1998, pp. 504-505; Pounds et 
al. 1999, pp. 611-612; Still et al. 1999, p. 610; Benning et al. 2002, 
pp. 14,246-14,248; Giambelluca and Luke 2007, pp. 13-15). Based on the 
above information, changes in environmental conditions that result from 
climate change are likely to negatively impact the 23 species proposed 
for listing as endangered or threatened species in this rule, and we do 
not anticipate a reduction in this potential threat in the near future.
Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat Destruction, Modification, or 
Curtailment of Its Range
    There are no approved Habitat Conservation Plans, Candidate 
Conservation Agreements, or Strategic Habitat Areas that specifically 
address these 23 species and threats to their habitat.
    In 2012, the Guam Plant Extinction Prevention Program (GPEPP) was 
formed to address conservation concerns for a select group of native 
Mariana Islands plant species, including three of the plant species 
addressed in this proposed rule: Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa 
walkeri, and Psychotria malaspinae. GPEPP is a partnership between the 
University of Guam (UOG), multiple Federal agencies (FWS, DOD, and 
USDA), Hawaii State Department of Land and Natural Resources, and the 
Hawaii Plant Extinction Prevention Program (Hawaii PEPP). The goal of 
GPEPP is to prevent the extinction of native Mariana Islands plant 
species that have fewer than 200 individuals remaining in the wild on 
the island of Guam (GPEPP 2014, in litt.). The group currently has 
funding limitations, so is focusing their efforts on tree species. The 
program's main objectives are to monitor, collect, survey, manage, and 
reintroduce native plant species in the Mariana Islands. They plan to 
work with conservation partners to protect wild populations and 
preserve genetic material (GPEPP 2014, in litt.).
    A conservation project on Rota, administered through the Water and

[[Page 59399]]

Environmental Research Institute of the Western Pacific at the 
University of Guam, is aimed to analyze the island's hydrology, with 
the ultimate goal of protection of the Sabana Watershed and Talakhaya 
Springs (Keel et al. 2007, pp. 5, 22-23). Erosion control, 
revegetation, and water source preservation conducted as part of this 
project may provide protection to 9 of the 23 species in this proposed 
rule that currently or historically occurred on the southern side of 
the central plateau of Rota (6 plants: Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas 
micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, 
Tuberolabium guamense; 3 animals: the Mariana wandering butterfly, the 
Rota blue damselfly, and the humped tree snail).
    A FWS Biological Opinion (1998) recommended that the Navy fund 
conservation and recovery projects in the Mariana Islands to improve 
habitat and population sizes of the federally listed Micronesian 
megapode as mitigation for bombing activities on Farallon de Medinilla. 
This resulted in the removal of ungulates from Sarigan, which has 
improved native habitat that supports two species in this proposed 
rule, the humped tree snail and Slevin's skink, by decreasing the 
impacts of trampling and browsing on native plants. Sarigan may serve 
as a location for recovery of Slevin's skink and the humped tree snail.
    Since 1993, the USDA-Wildlife Services' Brown Tree Snake Program in 
Guam has been working to prevent the inadvertent spread of the snake to 
other locations, and to reduce negative impacts by the brown tree snake 
on economic and ecological resources. Experimentation with toxicant 
drops to control the brown tree snake is ongoing. The USDA-Wildlife 
Services is the lead agency for this work, in cooperation with the 
USDA-National Wildlife Research Center, the U.S. Geological Survey, 
FWS, and DOD. Results of the toxicant drops are currently under review 
(Phillips 2014, in litt.).
    Area 50, a 59-ac (24-ha) enclosure on Andersen AFB, containing a 
relictual patch of limestone forest, was created to exclude ungulates 
and the brown tree snake (Hess and Pratt 2006, p. 2). This enclosure 
was maintained for ecosystem and species experimental research. Several 
individuals of the tree Tabernaemontana rotensis occur within the 
enclosure and would benefit from protection from predators and habitat 
disturbance (Hess and Pratt 2006, p. 7); however, researchers found the 
enclosure in a state of neglect, and invaded by nonnative plant species 
and pigs, with only 20 ac (8 ha) of undisturbed primary forest 
remaining by 2006 (Hess and Pratt 2006, p. 24). We are unaware of any 
efforts to continue maintenance of this enclosure since that time.
    Rota's Department of Fish and Wildlife constructed exclosures for 
two occurrences of Tabernaemontana rotensis in the Sabana Conservation 
Area, but only one exclosure remains, as the other burned in a fire 
(Hess and Pratt 2006, p. 33; 65 FR 35029, June 1, 2000).
    The Micronesian Challenge is an organization with the goal of 
preserving at least 30 percent of near-shore marine resources and 20 
percent of the terrestrial resources across Micronesia by 2020 
(Micronesian Challenge 2011, in litt.). The CNMI government is already 
attempting to meet this goal by planning to designate conservation 
lands within native forest (CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 30). The Micronesian 
Challenge organization has partnered with many national and 
international environmental organizations (e.g., Federated States of 
Micronesia, The Republic of the Marshall Islands, The Nature 
Conservancy, and the New York Botanical Gardens), and focuses on 
conservation outreach to native Micronesians and visitors (Micronesian 
Challenge 2011, in litt.).
Summary of Habitat Destruction and Modification
    The threats to the habitats of each of the 23 Mariana Islands 
species are occurring throughout the entire range of each of the 
species, except where noted above, with consequent deleterious effects 
on individuals and populations of these species. These threats include 
land conversion by agriculture and urbanization, habitat destruction 
and modification by nonnative animals and plants, fire, natural 
disasters, environmental changes resulting from climate change, and 
compounded impacts due to the interaction of these threats. While the 
conservation measures described above address some threats to the 23 
species, due to the pervasive and expansive nature of the threats 
resulting in habitat degradation, these measures are insufficient to 
eliminate these threats to any of the 23 species addressed in this 
proposed rule.
    Development and urbanization represents a serious and ongoing 
threat to all 23 species because they cause permanent loss and 
degradation of habitat. The effects from ungulates are ongoing because 
ungulates currently occur in all 4 ecosystems that support the 23 
species in this proposed rule. The threat of habitat destruction and 
modification posed by introduced ungulates is serious, because they 
cause: (1) Trampling and grazing that directly impacts plants, 
including 10 of the 14 plant species addressed in this rule, and 
impacts the 2 host plants used by the Mariana eight-spot butterfly for 
shelter, foraging, and reproduction; (2) increased soil disturbance, 
leading to mechanical damage to individuals of 10 of the 14 plant 
species, and also the host plants for the Mariana eight-spot butterfly; 
(3) creation of open, disturbed areas conducive to weedy plant invasion 
and establishment of alien plants from dispersed fruits and seeds, 
which results over time in the conversion of a community dominated by 
native vegetation to one dominated by nonnative vegetation; and (4) 
increased erosion, leading to destabilization of soils that support 
native plant communities, elimination of herbaceous understory 
vegetation, and creation of disturbed areas into which nonnative plants 
invade. The BTS and rats both negatively impact the four ecosystems by 
eating native animals that native plants rely on to disperse seeds, 
limiting the regenerative capacity of the native forest. These threats 
are expected to continue or increase without ungulate control or 
eradication.
    Nonnative plants represent a serious and ongoing threat to 20 of 
the 23 species addressed in this proposed rule (all 14 plant species, 
the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, the Rota blue damselfly, and all 4 
tree snails) (see Table 3) through habitat destruction and 
modification, because they: (1) Adversely impact microhabitat by 
modifying the availability of light; (2) alter soil-water regimes; (3) 
modify nutrient-cycling processes; (4) alter fire characteristics of 
native plant habitat, leading to incursions of fire-tolerant nonnative 
plant species into native habitat; (5) outcompete, and possibly 
directly inhibit the growth of, native plant species; and (6) create 
opportunities for subsequent establishment of nonnative vertebrates and 
invertebrates. Each of these threats can convert native-dominated plant 
communities to nonnative plant communities (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 
74; Vitousek 1992, pp. 33-36). This conversion has negative impacts on 
all 14 plant species addressed here, as well as the native plant 
species upon which the Mariana eight-spot butterfly and the Rota blue 
damselfly depend for essential life-history needs. For example, 
nonnative plants that outcompete native plants can destabilize 
streambanks, exacerbating the potential for landslides and rockfalls, 
in turn dislodging Rota

[[Page 59400]]

blue damselfly eggs and naiads from streams, and also displace or 
destroy vegetation used for perching by adults, leaving them more 
susceptible to predation.
    The threat from fire to 11 of the 23 species in this proposed rule 
that depend on the savanna ecosystem and adjacent forest ecosystems (9 
plant species: Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium 
guamense, Hedyotis megalantha, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, 
Phyllanthus saffordii, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium 
guamense; and 2 animal species: the Guam tree snail and the humped tree 
snail) (see Table 3, above) is serious and ongoing because fire damages 
and destroys native vegetation, including dormant seeds, seedlings, and 
juvenile and adult plants. After a fire, nonnative, invasive plants, 
particularly fire-tolerant grasses, outcompete native plants and 
inhibit their regeneration (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, pp. 70, 73-74; 
Tunison et al. 2002, p. 122; Berger et al. 2005, p. 38; CNMI-SWARS 
2010, pp. 7, 20; JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010b, pp. 4-33). Successive 
fires that burn farther and farther into native habitat destroy native 
plants and animals, and remove habitat for native species by altering 
microclimatic conditions and creating conditions favorable to alien 
plants. The threat from fire is unpredictable but increasing in 
frequency in the savanna ecosystem that has been invaded by nonnative 
fire-prone grasses, and that is subject to abnormally dry to severe 
drought conditions.
    Natural disasters such as typhoons are a threat to native 
terrestrial habitats on the Mariana Islands in all 4 ecosystems 
addressed here, and to all 14 plant species identified in this proposed 
rule, because they result in direct impacts to ecosystems and 
individual plants by opening the forest canopy, modifying available 
light, and creating disturbed areas that are conducive to invasion by 
nonnative pest plants (Asner and Goldstein 1997, p. 148; Harrington et 
al. 1997, pp. 346-347; Berger et al. 2005, pp. 36, 45, 71, 100, 144; 
CNMI-SWARS 2010, p. 10; JGPO-NavFac, Pacific 2010b, pp. 1-8). In 
addition, typhoons are a threat to the nine animal species in this rule 
because strong winds and intense rainfall can kill individual animals, 
and can cause direct damage to streams (Polhemus 1993, pp. 86-87). High 
winds and torrential rains associated with typhoons can also destroy 
the host plants for the two butterfly species, and can dislodge 
individual butterflies and their larvae from their host plants and 
deposit them on the ground where they may be crushed by falling debris 
or eaten by nonnative wasps and ants. In addition, the high winds can 
dislodge bats from their caves and cause individual harm or death. The 
impacts of typhoons can be particularly devastating to the 23 species 
because, as a result of other threats, they now persist in low numbers 
or occur in restricted ranges and are therefore less resilient to such 
disturbances, rendering them highly vulnerable. Furthermore, a 
particularly destructive super typhoon could potentially drive 
localized endemic species to extinction in a single event. Typhoons 
pose an ongoing threat because they are unpredictable and can occur at 
any time.

B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or 
Educational Purposes

Plants
    We are not aware of any threats to the 14 plant species that would 
be attributed to overutilization for commercial, recreational, 
scientific, or educational purposes.
Animals
    We are not aware of any threats to five of the nine animal species 
(the two Mariana butterflies, Pacific sheath-tailed bat, Slevin's 
skink, or Rota blue damselfly) addressed in this proposed rule that 
would be attributed to overutilization for commercial, recreational, 
scientific, or educational purposes. We do have evidence indicating 
that collection is a threat to the four tree snail species addressed in 
this proposed rule, as discussed below.
    Tree Snails--Tree snails can be found around the world in tropical 
and subtropical regions and have been valued as collectibles for 
centuries. Evidence of tree snail trading among prehistoric Polynesians 
was discovered by analysis of the multi-archipelagic distribution of 
the Tahitian endemic Partula hyalina and related taxa (Lee et al. 2007, 
pp. 2,907, 2,910). In their study, Lee et al. (2007, pp. 2,908-2,910) 
found evidence that P. hyalina had been traded as far away as Mangaia 
in the Southern Cook Islands, a distance of over 500 mi (805 km). The 
endemic Hawaiian tree snails within the family Achatinellidae were 
extensively collected for scientific as well as recreational purposes 
by Europeans in the 18th to early 20th centuries (Hadfield 1986, p. 
322). Historically, tree snails were abundant in the Pacific Islands. 
During the 1800s collectors observed 500 to 2,000 snails per tree, and 
sometimes collected more than 4,000 snails in several hours (Hadfield 
1986, p. 322). Likewise, in the Mariana Islands, Crampton (an early 
naturalist in the islands) alone took 2,666 adult Partula gibba snails 
from 8 sites on Sapian in just 6 days in 1925 (Crampton 1925, p. 100). 
Repeated collections of hundreds to thousands of individuals at a time 
by early collectors may have contributed to decreased population sizes 
and reduction of reproduction potential due to the removal of potential 
breeding adults (Hadfield 1986, p. 327).
    The collection of tree snails persists to this day, and the market 
for rare tree snails serves as an incentive to collect them. A search 
of the Internet (e.g., eBay and Etsy) reveals Web sites that offer 
snail shells from more than 100 land and sea snail species (along with 
corals and sand) from around the world, including rare and listed 
Achatinella and Partulina. These sites encourage collectors by making 
statements such as ``These assorted land snail shells from the tropical 
regions of the world are great for crafters and decorations for tanks'' 
and refer to shells with colorful names such as ``rainbow shells from 
Haiti'' (http://www.shells-of-aquarius.com/snail-shells.html; https://www.etsy.com/uk/search?q=tree+snail). Concerned citizens alert law 
enforcement of Internet sales and notify the public about illegal sales 
through personal web blogs (http://bioacoustics.blogspot.com/2012/04/endangered-species-on-ebay.html). Over the past 100 years, Mariana 
species of partulid tree snail shells have been made into jewelry and 
purses and sold to tourists (Kerr 2013, p. 3). Based on the history of 
collection of Pacific island tree snails, the market for Mariana tree 
snail shells, and the vulnerability of the small populations of the 
humped tree snail, Langford's tree snail, the Guam tree snail, and the 
fragile tree snail, we consider collection a threat to the four endemic 
Mariana tree snail species proposed for listing as endangered species 
in this rule.
Summary of Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or 
Educational Purposes
    We have no evidence to suggest that overutilization for commercial, 
recreational, scientific, or educational purposes poses a threat to any 
of the 14 plant species, 2 butterflies, Pacific sheath-tailed bat, 
Slevin's skink, or Rota blue damselfly proposed for listing as 
endangered or threatened species. We consider the four species of tree 
snails vulnerable to the impacts of overutilization due to collection 
for trade or market. Based on the history of collection of Pacific tree 
snails, the current market for Marianas tree snail

[[Page 59401]]

shells and tree snail shells world-wide, and the inherent vulnerability 
of the small populations of the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, 
Langford's tree snail, and the fragile tree snail to the removal of 
breeding adults, we consider collection to pose a serious and ongoing 
threat to these species.

Factor C. Disease and Predation

Disease
    We are not aware of any threats to the 23 species addressed in the 
proposed rule that would be attributable to disease.
Predation and Herbivory
    Multiple animal species, ranging from mammals and rodents to 
reptiles and insects, are reported to impact 17 of the 23 species 
proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species in this rule 
by means of predation or herbivory (Table 3). Those species that have 
the most direct negative impact on the 23 species include: feral pigs, 
Philippine deer, rats, the brown tree snake, monitor lizards, Cuban 
slugs (Veronicella cubensis); the manokwari flatworm (Platydemus 
manokwari), the cycad aulacaspis scale, ants (Tapinoma minutum, 
Technomyrmex albipes, Monomorium floricola, and Solenopsis geminata), 
and parasitoid wasps (Telenomus sp. and Ooencyrtus sp.). Data show 
these nonnative animals have caused a decline of 17 of the 23 species 
(Intoh 1986 in Conry 1988, p. 26; Fritts and Rodda 1998, pp. 130-133). 
Although feral goats, cattle, and water buffalo occur on one or more of 
the Mariana Islands and are recognized to negatively impact the 
ecosystems in which they occur (see Factor A. The Present or Threatened 
Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range, 
above), we have no direct evidence that goats, cattle, or water buffalo 
browse specifically on any of the 14 plant species addressed in this 
proposed rule.
Ungulates
    Pigs--Feral pigs are widely recognized to negatively alter 
ecosystems (see ``Habitat Destruction and Modification by Introduced 
Ungulates,'' above). In addition, feral pigs have been observed to eat 
the leaves, fruits, seeds, seedlings, or bark, from 4 of the 14 plant 
species proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species in 
this rule (Cycas micronesica, Heritiera longipetiolata, Psychotria 
malaspinae, and Solanum guamense) in the forest ecosystem (Perlman and 
Wood 1994, pp. 135-136; Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.; Rogers 2012, 
in litt.; Marler 2013, pers. comm.). Similarly, on other Pacific 
islands (e.g., the Hawaiian Islands), pigs are known to eat and fell 
plants and remove the bark from a variety of native plant species, 
including Clermontia spp., Cyanea spp., Cyrtandra spp., Hedyotis spp., 
Psychotria spp., and Scaevola spp. (Diong 1982, p. 144). In addition, 
evidence of pigs feeding on Cycas micronesica has been observed, 
hypothesized for the intent to get at grubs (Harrington et al. 2012, in 
litt.). Pigs also eat standing living stems of plants, thought to be 
for the same intent (Marler 2013, pers. comm.). Feral pigs have been 
documented to eat the host plants that support the Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly (Procris pendunculata and Elatostema calcareum).
    In addition to deer imposing negative impacts on habitat at an 
ecosystem scale in the Mariana Islands on which they occur (primarily 
Guam and Rota), deer consume leaves, seeds, fruits, and bark of 5 of 
the 14 plant species (Cycas micronesica, Eugenia bryanii (deer are 
known to consume all Mariana Islands Eugenia spp.), Heritiera 
longipetiolata, Psychotria malaspinae, and Solanum guamense), and the 2 
host plants for the Mariana eight-spot butterfly (Wiles et al. 1999, 
pp. 198-200, 203; Rubinoff and Haines 2012, in litt.).

Other Nonnative Vertebrates

Rats
    Rat Predation on Tree Snails--Rats (Rattus spp.) have been 
suggested as responsible for the greatest number of animal extinctions 
on islands throughout the world, including extinctions of various snail 
species (Towns et al. 2006, p. 88). Rats are known to prey upon Pacific 
island endemic arboreal snails (Hadfield et al. 1993, p. 621). In the 
Waianae mountains of Oahu, Meyer and Shiels (2009, p. 344) found shells 
of the endemic Oahu tree snail (Achatinella mustelina) with 
characteristic rat damage (e.g., damage to the shell opening and cone 
tip), but noted that, since a high proportion of crushed shells could 
not reliably be collected in the field, the impact of rat predation on 
snail populations may be underestimated. Rat predation on tree snails 
has also been observed on the Hawaiian Islands of Lanai (Hobdy 1993, p. 
208; Hadfield 2005, in litt, p. 4), Molokai (Hadfield and Saufler 2009, 
p. 1,595), and Maui (Hadfield 2006, in litt.). Rat populations on Guam 
may be limited by predation by the brown tree snake, thereby limiting 
rat predation on native tree snails. Because rats occur in larger 
numbers on the Mariana Islands to the north of Guam, rat predation is 
considered a threat to the three tree snail species addressed in this 
proposed rule that occur on the other Mariana Islands (the humped tree 
snail on Rota, Aguiguan, Saipan, Sarigan, Alamagan, and Pagan; the 
fragile tree snail on Rota; and Langford's tree snail on Aguiguan).
    Rat Predation on Bats--Rats may prey on the Pacific sheath-tailed 
bat, proposed for listing as endangered. Rats are omnivores and are 
opportunistic feeders. Rats have a widely varied diet consisting of 
nuts, seeds, grains, vegetables, fruits, insects, worms, snails, eggs, 
frogs, fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals (Fellers 2000, p. 525; GISD 
2014, in litt.). Rats occur on Aguiguan, the only island on which the 
Pacific sheath-tailed bat is known to roost (Berger et al. 2005, p. 
144). Rats are predators on young bats at roosts (that are nonvolant, 
i.e., have not yet developed the ability to fly) (Wiles et al. 2011, p. 
306). The black rat was determined to be the primary factor in 
reproductive failure for a maternal colony of Townsend's big-eared bat 
(Corynorhinus townsendii) in California (Fellers 2000, pp. 524-525). 
Many of the roosting sites used by the Pacific sheath-tailed bat on 
Aguiguan appear to be impassable to rats; however, this may be due to 
rats limiting the selection of roosting sites because of their foraging 
and surveillance for prey in caves (Wiles and Worthington 2002, p. 18; 
Berger et al. 2005, p. 144). Because rats occur on all of the Mariana 
Islands, the Service considers rats a threat to the Pacific sheath-
tailed bat.
    Rat Predation on Skinks--Rats are known to prey on a variety of 
skink species around the globe (Crook 1973 in Towns et al. 2001, p. 3; 
Whitaker 1973 in Towns et al. 2001, p. 3; McCallum 1986 in Towns et al. 
2001, p. 3; Towns et al. 2001, pp. 3-4, 6-8; Towns et al. 2006, pp. 
875-877, 883). A New Zealand study showed the cause of the decline of 
rare reptiles on island reserves became evident through associations 
with the spread of Pacific rats (Rattus exulans) to these island 
reserves (Crook, 1973; Whitaker, 1973, 1978; and McCallum, 1986 in 
Towns et al. 2001, p. 3). Other restoration projects in New Zealand 
have demonstrated the native reptile populations undergo a resurgence 
following aggressive conservation activities to control predatory 
mammals, especially rodents (Towns et al. 2001, p. 3). The reptile 
species showing the most rapid response to removal of rats was the 
shore skink (Oligosoma smithi), with an increase of the capture 
frequency of shore skinks by up to 3,600 percent over 9 years (Towns 
1994, unpub. in Towns et al. 2001, p. 10). Rats occur on all of

[[Page 59402]]

the Mariana Islands and are a threat to the Slevin's skink on the 
islands on which it currently occurs (Cocos Island, Alamagan, and 
Sarigan), and are a threat on islands where the skink was observed in 
the 1980s and 1990s (Guguan, Pagan, and Asuncion) but for which their 
current status is unkown. Once thought to be extirpated from Cocos 
Island (just offshore of Guam), Slevin's skink was observed on Cocos 
Island for the first time in more than 20 years following the 
eradication of rats and monitor lizards (Fisher 2012 pers. comm., in 
IUCN 2014, in litt.), indicating that predation by these nonnative 
species has a significant negative effect on skink populations.
Brown Tree Snake (BTS)
    The BTS (see ``Habitat Destruction and Modification by Introduced 
Small Vertebrates,'' above) preys upon a wide variety of animals, and 
although it is only known to occur on Guam at this time, it is an 
enormous concern that the BTS will be introduced to other Mariana 
Islands (The Brown Tree Snake Control Committee 1996, pp. 1, 5). This 
nocturnal arboreal snake occupies all ecosystems on Guam, and consumes 
small mammals and lizards, usually in their neonatal state (Rodda and 
Savidge 2007, pp. 307, 314). The BTS is attributed with the 
extirpation, or contribution thereof, of 13 of Guam's 22 native bird 
species. Roosting and nesting birds, eggs, and nestlings are all 
vulnerable. If the BTS establishes on any other of the Mariana Islands 
it will impose a wide range of negative impacts, both environmental and 
economic (Campbell 2014, pers. comm.).
    BTS Predation on Bats--The BTS has the potential to prey on fruit 
bats and the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, as BTS are known to climb in 
caves and prey on Mariana swiflets. Predation by tree snakes possibly 
caused losses of sheath-tailed bats in southern Guam in the 1950s and 
1960s, but invaded northern Guam too late to have played a role in the 
bat's extirpation there (Wiles et al. 2011, p. 306). If the BTS should 
be introduced to Aguiguan, the only island in the Mariana archipelago 
that currently supports a population of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, 
it would negatively affect this population, either by predation or by 
limiting available cave sites (Rodda and Savidge 2007, p. 307). 
Additionally, if the BTS is introduced to islands in the Mariana 
archipelago that historically supported the Pacific sheath-tailed bat 
(i.e., Guam, Rota, Saipan, Tinian, Anatahan, and Maug), recovery for 
this species will be difficult, and the Service considers the BTS a 
potential threat to the Pacific sheath-tailed bat on these islands.
    BTS Predation on Skinks--The BTS is known to prey on a wide variety 
of small vertebrates on Guam, including skinks. Juvenile BTS are known 
to feed exclusively on lizards (including skinks) (Savidge 1988, in 
Rodda and Savidge 2007, pp. 314-315). In one study, 250 food items were 
taken from the digestive systems of BTS, and of these, 194 were lizards 
or lizard eggs (Savidge 1988 cited in Rodda and Fritts 1992, p. 166). 
If the BTS is introduced to any of the islands that currently (Cocos 
Island, Alamagan, and Sarigan) or historically (Guam, Rota, Tinian, 
Aguiguan, Guguan, and Pagan) support the Slevin's skink, it will 
negatively impact by decreasing populations and the numbers of 
individuals, and when combined with habitat loss, and other threats, 
could lead to their extirpation. Additionally, if the BTS is introduced 
to islands where the Slevin's skink occurred historically (Guam, Rota, 
Tinian, Aguiguan, Guguan, and Pagan), recovery for this species will be 
difficult, and the Service considers the BTS a potential threat to the 
Slevin's skink on these islands.
Monitor Lizard
    Monitor Lizard Predation on Bats--The monitor lizard (hilitai, 
Varanus indicus), a carnivorous, terrestrial, arboreal lizard that can 
grow up to 3 ft (1 m) in length, is present on every island in the 
Mariana Islands except for Farallon de Medinilla, Guguan, Asuncion, 
Maug, and Uracas (Vogt and Williams 2004, pp. 76-77). It is unknown 
when the monitor lizard was introduced to Guam and the Northern Mariana 
Islands; however, it is known that the presence of this species in the 
islands predates European contact (Vogt and Williams, p. 77). Monitor 
lizards typically hunt over large areas and feed frequently on a wide 
variety of prey including, but not limited to, crabs, snails, snakes, 
lizards, skinks, fish, rats, squirrels, rabbits, sea turtle eggs, and 
birds (Losos and Greene 1988, pp. 379, 393; Bennet 1995 in ISSG-GISD 
2007, in litt.). In the Mariana Islands, monitor lizards prey on both 
invertebrates and vertebrates, including large animals like chickens 
and the endangered Micronesian megapode (Martin et al. 2008 in IUCN 
2007, in litt.). Considering their varied diet, which includes small 
vertebrates, and given the opportunity, predation by monitor lizards is 
a threat to the Pacific sheath-tailed bat proposed for listing as an 
endangered species in this rule, in the forest and cave ecosystems 
(USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service 2009, p. 8).
    Monitor Lizard Predation on Skinks--Monitor lizards are known to 
prey on all life stages of lizards (eggs, juveniles, and adults) and 
also other monitor lizards. Therefore, we expect monitor lizards 
negatively impact the Slevin's skink, also (Rodda and Fritts 1992, pp. 
166-174; Vogt 2010, in litt.). The specific reasons for the decline of 
Slevin's skink (currently known from only 3 of the 10 islands where 
occurrences have been noted) are not known. Rodda et al. (1991) suggest 
that the combination of introduced species such as rats and shrews and 
other reptiles negatively impact native reptile populations, including 
Slevin's skink, by aggressively competing for habitat and food 
resources, and through predation (see ``Rat Predation on Skinks,'' 
above) (Rodda et al. 1991 in Berger et al. 2005, pp. 174-175). The 
monitor lizard is known to have a varied diet (coconut crabs, snails, 
snakes, lizards, skinks, fish, rats, squirrels, rabbits, sea turtle 
eggs, and birds.) (Berger et al. 2005, pp. 69-70, 90, 347-348; Losos 
and Greene 1988, pp. 379, 393; Bennet 1995 in ISSG-GISD 2007, in 
litt.); therefore, predation of Slevin's skink by monitor lizards is a 
threat to the Slevin's skink throughout its range in the Mariana 
Islands.
Nonnative Fish Predation on Damselflies
    A survey of the Okgok River (or Okgok Stream, also known as Babao), 
conducted in 1996, showed that only four fish species (all native 
species) were present: the eel Anguila marmorata, the mountain gobies 
Stiphodon elegans and Sicyopus leprurus, and the flagtail or mountain 
bass, Kuhlia rupestris. Other freshwater species observed included a 
prawn, shrimps, and gastropods (Camacho et al. 1997, pp. 8-9). 
Densities of these native fish were low, especially in areas above the 
waterfall. Gobies can maneuver in areas of rapidly flowing water by 
using ventral fins that are modified to form a sucking disk (Ego 1956, 
in litt.). Freshwater gobies in Hawaii are primarily browsers and 
bottom feeders, often eating algae off rocks and boulders, with midges 
and worms being their primary food items (Ego 1956, in litt.; Kido et 
al. 1993, p. 47). The flagtails were only abundant in the lower reach 
of the stream. Researchers speculate that the Rota blue damselfly may 
have adapted its behavior to avoid the benthic feeding habits of native 
fish species.
    Nonnative fish (Gambusia spp.) were introduced to Guam streams for 
mosquito control. Other nonnative fish from the aquarium trade (e.g., 
guppies,

[[Page 59403]]

swordtails, mollies, betta, oscars, and koi) have been released and 
documented in Guam streams. Currently, none of these fish are known 
from the Okgok River (Okgok Stream, Babao) on Rota, but biologists 
believe that Gambusia and guppies would be the most likely species to 
be introduced (Tibbatts 2014, in litt.). The release of aquarium fish 
into streams and rivers of Guam is well documented, but currently, no 
nonnative fish have been found in the Rota stream (Tibbatts 2014, in 
litt.). Therefore, release of nonnative fish is only a potential threat 
at this time, as they could impact the Rota blue damselfly by eating 
the naiad life stage, interrupting its life-cycle, and leading to its 
extirpation.
Nonnnative Invertebrates
    Slug Herbivory on Native Plants--The nonnative Cuban slug 
(Veronicella cubensis) is considered one of the greatest threats to 
native plant species on Pacific Islands (Robinson and Hollingsworth 
2006, p. 2). The Cuban slug is a recent introduction to the Micronesian 
islands. These terrestrial mollusks are generalist feeders, can attack 
a wide variety of plants, and switch food preferences if potential food 
plants change (Robinson and Hollingsworth 2006, p. 2). Slugs feed on 
the two host plants (Elatostema calcareum and Procris pendunculata) 
that support the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, proposed for listing as 
endangered. The Cuban slug has been known on Rota since 1996, occurs in 
large numbers, and is currently a pest to agricultural and ornamental 
crops on the island (Badilles et al. 2010, pp. 2, 4, 8). Some 
agricultural losses are reported to be as high as 70 percent of the 
crop (Badilles et al. 2010, p. 7). In addition, these slugs are known 
to attack orchids, which place all four species of orchids addressed in 
this proposed rule (Bulbophyllum guamense, Dendrobium guamense, 
Nervilia jacksoniae, and Tuberolabium guamense) at risk from slug 
predation on the islands of Guam and Rota (Badilles et al. 2010, p. 7; 
Cook 2012, in litt.).
    Flatworm Predation on Tree Snails--The extinction of native land 
snails on several Pacific Islands has been attributed to the 
terrestrial Manokwari flatworm (Platydemus manokwari), native to 
western New Guinea (Sugiura 2010, p. 1,499). It is believed to occur on 
most of the southern Mariana Islands, and was first observed on Guam in 
1978 (Hopper and Smith 1992, pp. 78, 82-83; Berger et al. 2005, p. 
158). It was found to be effective in reducing the abundance of the 
nonnative African snail (Achatinella fulica) by as much as 95 percent 
(Hopper and Smith 1992, p. 82). This flatworm has also diminished two 
nonnative predatory snails, the rosy wolf snail (Euglandina rosea) and 
Gonaxis spp., both of which were previously considered a threat to the 
Mariana Islands tree snails (Kerr 2013, p. 5). The Manokwari flatworm, 
mostly ground-dwelling, has been observed to climb trees and feed on 
juvenile Partulid snails (Hopper and Smith 1992, p. 82). Due to its 
widespread occurrence on the southern Mariana Islands, and the risk of 
unintentional introduction on the southern Mariana Islands, predation 
by the Manokwari flatworm is considered a threat to all four tree snail 
species (the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, Langford's tree 
snail, and the fragile tree snail) proposed for listing as endangered 
species.
    Scale Herbivory on Cycas--Cycas micronesica is currently declining 
on two (Guam and Rota) of the five Micronesian islands on which it 
occurs due to the presence of a phytophagous (plant-eating) insect, the 
cycad aulacaspis scale (Aulacaspis yasumatsui) (Marler and Lawrence 
2012, pp. 238-240; Marler 2012, pers. comm.). The cycad aulacaspis 
scale, first described in Thailand (Takagi 1977 in Marler and Lawrence 
2012, p. 233), was unintentionally introduced into the United States 
(Florida) a little over 20 years ago (Howard et al. 1999 in Marler and 
Lawrence 2012, p. 233), from where it spread to other regions. It was 
introduced to Guam in 2003, possibly via importation of the landscape 
cycad, Cycas revoluta (Marler and Lawrence 2012, p. 233). By 2005, the 
cycad aulacaspis scale had spread throughout the forests of Guam. 
Although this scale has infested C. micronesica populations on Guam, 
Rota, and the larger islands of Palau, most of the data has been 
collected on Guam, where more than 50 percent of the total known Cycas 
individuals occur (Marler 2012, pers. comm.). In 2002, prior to the 
scale infestation, C. micronesica was the most abundant tree species on 
Guam (Donnegan et al. 2002, p. 16). At an international meeting of the 
Cycad Specialist Group in Mexico in 2005, the cycad aulacaspis scale 
was identified as a critical issue for cycad conservation worldwide and 
was given priority status (IUCN/Species Survival Commission Cycad 
Specialist Group 2014, in litt.).
    The cycad aulacaspis scale attacks every part of the leaf, which 
subsequently turns white. The leaf then collapses, and with progressive 
infestation, death of the entire plant can occur in less than 1 year 
(Marler and Muniappan 2006, pp. 3-4). Field studies conducted on the 
Ritidian National Wildlife Refuge on Guam by Marler and Lawrence (2012, 
p. 233) between 2004 and 2011 found that 6 years after the cycad 
aulacaspis scale was found on the refuge, mortality of C. micronesica 
there had reached 92 percent. The scale first killed all seedlings at 
their study site, followed by the juveniles, then most of the adult 
plants. The cycad aulacaspis scale is unusual in that it also infests 
the roots of its host plant at depths of up to 24 in (60 cm) in the 
soil (University of Florida 2014, in litt.). Marler and Lawrence (2012, 
pp. 238, 240) predict that if the predation by cycad aulacaspis scale 
is unabated, it will cause the extirpation of C. micronesica from 
western Guam by 2019.
    Nonnative specialist arthropods like the cycad aulacaspis scale are 
particularly harmful to native plants when introduced to small insular 
oceanic islands because the native plants lack the shared evolutionary 
history with arthropods and have not developed resistance mechanisms 
(Elton 1958 in Marler and Lawrence 2012, p. 233), and the nonnative 
arthropods are not constrained by the natural pressures or predators of 
their native range (Howard et al. 1999, p. 26; Keane and Crawely 2002 
in Marler and Lawrence 2012, p. 233). In addition, C. micronesica is 
the sole native host of the cycad aulacaspis scale on Guam, which 
raises concerns to biologists who predict that the extirpation of C. 
micronesica from Guam will bring about negative cascading ecosystem 
responses and manifold ecological changes (Marler and Lawrence 2012, p. 
233). Because this scale spread to Rota in 2006 (Moore et al. 2006, in 
litt.), and the larger islands of Palau in 2008 (Marler in Science 
Daily 2012, in litt.), the same degree of negative impact to C. 
micronesica in these areas is likely to occur. As shown in other case 
studies worldwide, the scale insects are known to spread rapidly, 
within a few months, from the site of introduction (University of 
Florida 2014, in litt.).
    Although the scale is present on the larger islands of Palau, it 
has not yet reached the numerous smaller Rock Islands, where more than 
1,000 individuals of C. micronesica are estimated to occur. As scales 
can be wind dispersed, it could be a short amount time for infestation 
in the Rock Islands, as shown by its rapid spread throughout Florida 
between 1996 and 1998 (Marler 2014, in litt.; University of Florida 
2014, in litt). The Rock Islands are a popular tourist destination, and 
the scale could also be inadvertently transported on plant material and 
soils (International Coral Reef Action Network 2014, in litt.). Yap is 
an

[[Page 59404]]

intermediate stop-over point for those traveling between Guam and 
Palau. Cycas micronesica on Yap are also considered at risk as scales 
can be spread by wind dispersal and on transportation of already 
infested plant material and soil; and because of the rapidity with 
which it spreads (ISSG-GISD 2014, in litt.; University of Florida 2014, 
in litt.). In addition, three other insects (a nonnative butterfly 
(Chilades pandava), a nonnative leaf miner (Erechthias sp.), and a 
native stem borer (Dihammus marianarum), opportunistically feed on C. 
micronesica weakened by the cycad aulacaspis scale, compounding its 
negative impacts (Marler 2013, pp. 1,334-1,336).
    Scales, once established, require persistent control efforts 
(University of Florida 2014, in litt.; Gill 2012, in litt). Within the 
native range of the scale in southeast Asia, cycads are not affected, 
as the scale is kept in check by native predators; however, there are 
no predators of the scale in areas where it is newly introduced (Howard 
et al. 1999, p. 15). Release of biocontrols has been attempted to abate 
the scale infestation; however, these were unsuccessful: Rhyzobius 
lophanthae in 2004, which established immediately; Coccobius fulvus in 
2005, which did not establish; and Aphytis lignanensis in 2012, which 
died in the laboratory prior to release (Moore et al. 2006, in litt.). 
Rhyzobius lophanthae prolonged the survival of many Cycas trees during 
the first 6 years of scale infestation; however, with time, the size 
difference between the scale and R. lophanthae proved to be a problem 
when it was observed that the scale could find locations on the Cycas 
plant body that the predator (R. lophanthae) could not access (Marler 
and Moore 2010, p. 838). Even with this biocontrol, Cycas micronesica 
populations are still declining and no reproduction has been observed 
on Guam since 2005 (Moore et al. 2006, in litt.).
    Ant Predation on Butterflies--Four species of nonnative ants have 
been observed to prey upon the Mariana eight-spot butterfly (Schreiner 
and Nafus 1996, p. 3) and are believed to also negatively impact the 
Mariana wandering butterfly, the two butterfly species proposed for 
listing as endangered species in this rule: (1) dwarf pedicel ants 
(Tapinoma minutum); (2) tropical fire ants (Solenopsis geminata); (3) 
white-footed ants (Technomyrmex albipes); and (4) bi-colored trailing 
ants (Monomorium floricola). These ants parasitize the butterfly eggs 
(Schreiner and Nafus 1996, p. 3). Many ant species are known to prey on 
all immature stages of Lepidoptera and can completely exterminate 
populations (Zimmerman 1958). In a 1-year study, Schreiner and Nafus 
(1996, pp. 3-4) found predation by nonnative ants to be one of the 
primary causes of mortality (over 90 percent) in the Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly. These four ant species occur on the islands of Guam, Rota, 
and Saipan, which support the two butterfly species. Biologists 
observed high mortality of the instar larval stages of the Mariana 
eight-spot butterfly (Schreiner and Nafus 1996, pp. 2-4), for unknown 
reasons, but this, compounded with predation of eggs by ants, 
negatively impacts both the Mariana eight-spot butterfly and the 
Mariana wandering butterfly.
    Parasitic Wasp Predation on Butterflies--Two native parasitoid 
wasps, Telenomus sp. (no common name) and Ooencyrtus sp. (no common 
name), are known to lay their eggs in eggs of native Mariana Islands 
Lepidoptera species (Mariana eight-spot butterfly (Guam and Saipan) and 
Mariana wandering butterfly (Guam and Rota) (Schreiner and Nafus 1996, 
pp. 2-5). These wasps are tiny and likely hitch-hiked with adult female 
butterflies in order to access freshly laid eggs, as has been observed 
in related species (Woelke 2008). These wasps negatively impact the 
Mariana eight-spot and Mariana wandering butterflies because they lay 
their own eggs within the butterfly eggs, thus preventing caterpillar 
development. Habitat destruction and loss of host plants, along with 
continued parasitism, act together to negatively affect populations and 
individuals of the Mariana eight-spot butterfly and the Mariana 
wandering butterfly. These parasitoid wasps occur on the three islands 
(Guam, Rota, and Saipan) that support the Mariana eight-spot butterfly 
and the Mariana wandering butterfly proposed for listing as endangered 
species.
Conservation Efforts To Reduce Disease or Predation
    Conservation efforts to reduce predation mirror those mentioned 
under Factor A. Habitat Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of 
Its Range (see ``Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat Destruction, 
Modification, or Curtailment of Its Range,'' above).
Summary of Disease and Predation
    We are unaware of any information that indicates that disease is a 
threat to any of the 23 species in this proposed rule.
    Although conservation measures are in place in some areas where one 
or more of the 23 Mariana Islands species occurs, information does not 
indicate that they are ameliorating the threat of predation described 
above. Therefore, we consider predation by nonnative animal species 
(pigs, deer, rats, brown tree snakes, monitor lizards, slugs, ants, and 
wasps) to pose an ongoing threat to 17 of 23 species addressed in this 
proposed rule (see Table 3, above) throughout their ranges for the 
following reasons:
    (1) Observations and reports have documented that pigs and deer 
browse and trample 5 of the 23 plant species (Cycas micronesica, 
Eugenia bryanii, Heritiera longipetiolata, Psychotria malaspinae, and 
Solanum guamense), and the host plants of the Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly, addressed in this rule (see Table 3), in addition to studies 
demonstrating the negative impacts of ungulate browsing and trampling 
on native plant species of the islands (Spatz and Mueller-Dombois 1973, 
p. 874; Diong 1982, pp. 160-161; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 67).
    (2) Nonnative rats, snakes, and monitor lizards prey upon one or 
more of the following 6 animal species addressed in this proposed rule: 
the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, Slevin's skink, and the four tree 
snails.
    (3) Ants and wasps prey upon the eggs and larvae of the two 
butterflies, the Mariana eight-spot butterfly and Mariana wandering 
butterfly.
    (4) Nonnative slugs cause mechanical damage to plants and 
destruction of plant parts (branches, fruits, and seeds), including 
orchids, and are considered a threat to 4 of the 14 plant species in 
this rule (Bulbophyllum guamense, Dendrobium guamense, Nervilia 
jacksoniae, and Tuberolabium guamense).
    (5) Cycas micronesica is currently preyed upon by the cycad 
aulacaspis scale on three of the five Micronesian islands (Guam, Rota, 
and Palau) on which it occurs (Hill et al. 2004, pp. 274-298; Marler 
and Lawrence 2012, p. 233; Marler 2012, pers. comm.). This scale has 
the ability to severely impact or even extirpate C. micronesica 
throughout its range if not abated.
    These threats are serious and ongoing, act in concert with other 
threats to the species and their habitats, and are expected to continue 
or increase in magnitude and intensity into the future without 
effective management actions to control or eradicate them.

Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

    The Mariana Islands encompass two different political entities, the 
U.S. Territory of Guam and the U.S.

[[Page 59405]]

Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and issues regarding 
existing regulatory measures for each entity are discussed in separate 
paragraphs below.
U.S. Territory of Guam
    We are aware of regulatory measures regarding conservation of 
natural resources established by the Government of Guam (GovGuam). 
Under Guam Annotated Rules (GAR) Title 9--Animal Regulations (9 GAR--
Animal Regulations), there are two divisions: (1) Division 1: Care and 
Conservation of Animals, and (2) Division 2: Conservation, Hunting and 
Fishing Regulations (www.guamcourts.com, accessed 9 Feb 2014). Division 
1 addresses the importation of animals, animal and zoonotic disease 
control, commercial quarantine regulations, and plant and non-domestic 
animal quarantine; however, there is no documentation as to what extent 
this regulation is enforced. Division 2 Chapter 63 covers fish, game, 
forestry, and conservation. Article 2 (sections 63201 through 63208) 
describe authorities under the Endangered Species Act of Guam (Act). 
This Article vests regulatory power in the Guam Department of 
Agriculture. The Act prohibits, with respect to any threatened or 
endangered species of plants or wildlife of Guam and the United States: 
(1) Import or export of any such species to or from Guam and its 
territory; (2) take of any such species within Guam and its territory; 
(3) possession, processing, selling or offering for sale, delivery, 
carrying, transport, or shipping, by any means whatsoever, any such 
species; provided that any person who has in his possession such plants 
or wildlife at the time this provision is enacted into law may retain, 
process, or otherwise dispose of those plants or wildlife already in 
his possession, and (4) violation of any regulation or rule pertaining 
to the conservation, protections, enhancement, or management of any 
designated threatened or endangered species.
    As of 2009 (the currently posted list), Guam DAWR recognizes 6 of 
the 23 species as endangered (the plant Heritiera longipetiolata; 3 of 
the 4 tree snails (the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, and the 
fragile tree snail), the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, and Slevin's 
skink). The other 17 species on Guam proposed here for listing are not 
currently recognized under the Endangered Species Act of Guam, but will 
be recognized as requiring protection by the Act upon their listing as 
endangered or threatened. However, this Act does not address the 
threats imposed upon the 21 species that occur currently or 
historically on Guam that are ongoing and are expected to increase in 
magnitude in the near future (Langford's tree snail and the Rota blue 
damselfly are the only species addressed in this rule with no record of 
occurrence on Guam). Only three species addressed in this proposed rule 
currently benefit from conservation actions on Guam, those conducted by 
the Guam PEPP for Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, and 
Psychotria malaspinae, as discussed in ``Conservation Efforts To Reduce 
Habitat Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Range,'' 
above. Under Guam's ESA, the Department of Agriculture is authorized to 
establish priorities for the conservation and protection of threatened 
and endangered species and their associated ecosystems, but we are 
unaware of any documentation of these priorities or actions conducted 
for protection of the 21 Guam species.
U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI)
    The CNMI has multiple regulatory measures in place intended to 
protect natural resources (www.cnmilaw.org, accessed 9 Feb 2014 (CNMI 
2014, in litt.)). Six Chapters under Title 85: Department of Land and 
Natural Resources, encompass the most relevant regulatory measures with 
respect to the 16 CNMI species addressed in this proposed rule 
(www.cnmilaw.org, accessed 9 Feb 2014). Chapter 85-20 addresses animal 
quarantine rules and regulations, including domestic animals of all 
types, and associated port of entry laws. Chapter 95-30 addresses 
noncommercial fish and wildlife regulations, including the List of 
Protected Wildlife and Plant Species in the CNMI, which includes 1 of 
the 23 species addressed in this proposed rule (the plant 
Tabernaemontana rotensis). Chapter 95-30 also covers CNMI conservation 
areas. Chapter 85-60 covers the Division of Plant Industry, including 
plant quarantine regulations. Chapter 85-80 covers the Division of 
Zoning. Chapter 85-90 addresses permits necessary for the clearing and 
burning of vegetation, and removal of plants or plant products, or 
soil, from areas designated as diverse forests on public lands. Chapter 
85-100 addresses BTS prevention regulations.
    All six Chapters under Title 85 mentioned above have a component 
that is designed to protect native species, including rare species at 
risk from competition and predation by nonnative, and in some cases 
native, species. However, these regulations are modestly enforced and 
are currently inadequate to protect the 16 CNMI species in this 
proposed rule. Nonnative animals and plants have spread throughout the 
island chain despite these laws being in place. Greater enforcement of 
local laws in place may provide additional benefit to the 16 species 
proposed for listing as endangered or threatened species in this rule 
that occur in the CNMI (the plants Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas 
micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa 
walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and 
Tuberolabium guamense; the humped tree snail, Langford's tree snail, 
and the fragile tree snail; the two butterflies, the Pacific sheath-
tailed bat, Slevin's skink, and the Rota blue damselfly).
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD)
    The Sikes Act (16 U.S.C. 670) authorizes the Secretary of Defense 
to develop cooperative plans with the Secretaries of Agriculture and 
the Interior for natural resources on public lands. The Sikes Act 
Improvement Act of 1997 requires DOD installations to prepare 
Integrated Natural Resource Management Plans (INRMPs) that provide for 
the conservation and rehabilitation of natural resources on military 
lands consistent with the use of military installations to ensure the 
readiness of the Armed Forces.
    In June 2013, the Department of the Navy, Joint Region Marianas 
(JRM), completed an INRMP to address the conservation, protection, and 
management of fish and wildlife resources on DOD-managed and -
controlled areas on Guam, specifically Naval Base Guam and Andersen Air 
Force Base, including leased lands in the CNMI on Tinian and Farallon 
de Medinilla. On July 2, 2013, the Navy requested the Service's 
endorsement of the JRM INRMP. To determine if an INRMP provides a 
conservation benefit to listed species, the Service must consider: (1) 
The extent of area and features present; (2) the type and frequency of 
use of the area by the species; (3) the relevant elements of the INRMP 
in terms of management objectives, activities covered, and best 
management practices, and the certainty that the relevant elements will 
be implemented; and (4) the degree to which the relevant elements of 
the INRMP will protect the habitat from the types of effects that would 
be addressed through a destruction-or-adverse-modification analysis. 
The JRM INRMP is under review by the Service, but at present the Navy 
is operating under an INRMP that has not yet been approved

[[Page 59406]]

by the Service as providing a conservation benefit to the species 
considered for listing here that are associated with DOD lands or 
activities.
Summary of the Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms
    Both the U.S. Territory of Guam and the U.S. Commonwealth of the 
Northern Mariana Islands have regulations in place designed to provide 
protection for their respective natural resources, including native 
forests, water resources, and the 23 species addressed in this rule; 
however, enforcement of these regulations is not documented. DOD is 
partnering with other agencies to prevent inadvertent transport of 
deleterious species (the brown tree snake) into Guam and the Mariana 
Islands, and from Guam to other areas; however, the current 
conservation actions proposed in the 2013 INRMP have not been 
determined to provide a benefit to the Mariana Islands species 
considered here, and threats imposed upon the 23 species persist and 
are expected to increase in magnitude (see Table 3). Examples include 
continued development and habitat modification, spread and introduction 
of nonnative plants and animals throughout the islands, fires started 
by hunters, sales of tree snail shells, and predation and herbivory by 
nonnative animals.
    The capacity of the U.S. Territory of Guam and the U.S. 
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and other Federal and 
State agencies in the Mariana Islands to mitigate the effects of 
introduced pests, such as ungulates and weeds, is limited due to the 
large number of taxa currently causing damage. Resources available to 
reduce the spread of these species and counter their negative 
ecological effects are limited. Despite the fact that both GovGuam and 
the CNMI receive assistance from the USDA, U.S. Department of Homeland 
Security, and other Federal agencies, the scope of threats remains 
challenging.

Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their Continued 
Existence

    Other factors that pose threats to some or all of the 23 species 
include ordnance and live-fire training, water extraction, recreational 
off-road vehicles, and small numbers of populations and small 
population sizes. Each threat is discussed in detail below, along with 
identification of which species are affected by these threats.
Ordnance and Live-Fire Training
    Several individuals of the plants Cycas micronesica and Heritiera 
longipetiolata, proposed for listing as threatened and endangered 
species (respectively) in this rule, are located on the Tarague 
ridgeline near a firing range on Andersen AFB. There is a buffer zone 
at the end of the range, but not to either side. Ricochet bullets and 
ordnance have broken branches and made holes through parts of these 
trees, causing added stress and a possible avenue for disease (Guam 
DAWR 2013, pers. comm.). Military training is expected to be conducted 
within 5 Live-Fire Training Ranges (incorporating a Multi-Purpose 
Machine Gun Range), for 39 weeks out of the year, with 2 night-
trainings per week (NavFac Engineering Command Pacific 2014, pp. ES-1, 
ES-5). Depending on the type of ammunition used, there could be 
substantial damage to vegetation, or a possible fire started from 
ordnance use, which could destroy individuals of Cycas micronesica and 
Heritiera longipetiolata and their habitat.
Water Extraction
    The Rota blue damselfly was only first discovered in April 1996, 
outside the Talakhaya Water Cave (also known as Sonson Water Cave) 
located below the Sabana plateau on the island of Rota (see the 
species' description, above) (Polhemus et al. 2000, pp. 1-8; Camacho et 
al. 1997, p. 4). The Talakhaya Water Cave, As Onon Spring, and the 
perennial stream formed from runoff from the springs at the Water Cave 
support the only known population of the Rota blue damselfly. Rota's 
municipal water is obtained by gravity flow from these two springs (up 
to 1.8 Mgal/day) (Keel et al. 2007, pp. 1, 5; Stafford et al. 2002, p. 
17). Under ordinary climatic conditions, this area supplies water in 
excess of demand but ENSO-induced drought conditions can lead to 
significantly reduced discharge, or may completely dewater the streams 
(Keel et al. 2007, pp. 3, 6, 19). In 1998, water captured from the 
springs was inadequate for municipal use, and water rationing was 
instituted (Keel et al. 2007, p. 6).
    As the annual temperature rises resulting from global climate 
change, other weather regime changes such as increases in droughts, 
floods, and typhoons will occur (Giambelluca et al. 1991, p. iii). 
Increasing night temperatures cause a change in mean precipitation, 
with increased occurrences of drought cycles (Loope and Giambelluca 
1998, pp. 514-515; Emanuel et al. 2008, p. 365; U.S. Global Change 
Research Program (US-GCRP) 2009, pp. 145-149, 153; Keener et al. 2010, 
pp. 25-28; Finucane et al. 2012, pp. 23-26; Keener et al. 2012, pp. 47-
51). The limestone substrate of Rota is porous, with filtration through 
central Sabana being the sole water source for the few streams on the 
island and for human use. There are no other ground water supplies on 
the island, and storage capacity is limited. The Rota blue damselfly is 
dependent upon any water that escapes the Talakhaya Springs naturally, 
what is not already removed for human use. The likelihood of dewatering 
of the Talakhaya Springs is high due to climate change causing 
increased ENSO conditions, and increased human demand. The ``Public and 
Agency Participation'' section of the Comprehensive Wildlife 
Conservation Strategy for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana 
Islands (2005, p. 347) cites ``individuals state that the Department of 
Public Works has been increasing their water extraction from Rota's 
spring/stream systems. Historically, this water source flowed year-
around, yet now they are essentially dry most of each year'' (see the 
species description ``Rota blue damselfly,'' and ``Stream Ecosystem,'' 
above, for further discussion). Water extraction is an ongoing threat 
to the Rota blue damselfly. The loss of this perennial stream would 
remove the only known breeding and foraging habitat of the sole known 
population of the Rota blue damselfly, likely leading to its 
extinction.
Recreational Vehicles
    The savanna areas of Guam are popular for use of recreational 
vehicles. Damage and destruction caused by these vehicles are a direct 
threat to the plants Hedyotis megalantha and Phyllanthus saffordii, 
proposed for listing as endangered species in this rule, as well as a 
threat to the savanna habitat that supports these plant species 
(Guiterrez 2013, in litt.; Guam DAWR 2013, pers. comm.). Hedyotis 
megalantha and P. saffordii are particularly at risk, as the only known 
individuals of these species are scattered on the savanna.
Small Numbers of Individuals and Populations
    Species that are endemic to single islands are inherently more 
vulnerable to extinction than are widespread species, because of the 
increased risk of genetic bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, 
climate change effects, and localized catastrophes, such as typhoons 
and disease outbreaks (Pimm et al. 1988, p. 757; Mangel and Tier 1994, 
p. 607). These problems are further magnified when populations are few 
and restricted to a very small geographic area, and when the number of 
individuals in each

[[Page 59407]]

population is very small. Species with these population characteristics 
face an increased likelihood of extinction due to changes in 
demography, the environment, genetic bottlenecks, or other factors 
(Gilpin and Soul[eacute] 1986, pp. 24-34). Small, isolated populations 
often exhibit reduced levels of genetic variability, which diminishes 
the species' capacity to adapt and respond to environmental changes, 
thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and 
Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Very small, isolated 
populations are also more susceptible to reduced reproductive vigor due 
to ineffective pollination (plants), inbreeding depression (plants and 
animals), and hybridization (plants and insects). The problems 
associated with small population size and vulnerability to random 
demographic fluctuations or natural catastrophes are further magnified 
by synergistic interactions with other threats, such as those discussed 
above (see Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, 
Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range and Factor C. 
Disease or Predation, above).
    Plants--In the 1990s, individuals of Tabernaemontana rotensis were 
vandalized and set on fire (Mehrhoff 2014, in litt.). Because this 
species is limited in its range, and is vulnerable to any vandalism, we 
consider vandalism to be a significant threat throughout its range.
    The following 5 plant species have a very limited number of 
individuals (fewer than 50) in the wild: Maesa walkeri, Psychotria 
malaspinae, Solanum guamense, Tinospora homosepala, and Tuberolabium 
guamense. We consider these species highly vulnerable to extinction due 
to threats associated with small population size or small number of 
populations because:
     The only known occurrences of Maesa walkeri, Psychotria 
malaspinae, Solanum guamense, Tinospora homosepala, and Tuberolabium 
guamense are threatened either by ungulates, nonnative plants, fire, or 
a combination of these.
     Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, and Tuberolabium 
guamense are all known from fewer than 10 scattered individuals 
(Yoshioka 2008, p. 15; Cook 2012, in litt.; CPH 2012f--Online Herbarium 
Database; Harrington et al. 2012, in litt.; Grimm 2013, in litt.; 
Rogers 2012, in litt.; WCSP 2012d--Online Herbarium Database).
    Animals--Like most native island biota, the single island endemics 
Guam tree snail, Langford's tree snail, and Rota blue damselfly are 
particularly sensitive to disturbances due to low number of 
individuals, low population numbers, and small geographic ranges. We 
consider these three species vulnerable to extinction due to the low 
number of individuals and low number of populations because these 
species occur on single islands, are declining in number of individuals 
and range, and are at risk of one or more of the following: predation 
by nonnative rats, monitor lizards, and flatworms; habitat degradation 
and destruction by nonnative ungulates; fire; drought; and water 
extraction (see Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, 
Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range and Factor C. 
Disease or Predation, above).
Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other Natural or Manmade Factors 
Affecting Its Continued Existence
    We are unaware of any conservation actions planned or implemented 
at this time to abate the threats to the species negatively impacted by 
water extraction (Rota blue damselfly), recreational vehicles (Hedyotis 
megalantha and Phyllanthus saffordii), or low numbers (the plants Maesa 
walkeri, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, Tinospora homosepala, 
and Tuberolabium guamense; the Guam tree snail and Langford's tree 
snail; and the Rota blue damselfly).
Summary of Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their Continued 
Existence
    We consider the threat from limited numbers of populations and low 
numbers of individuals (fewer than 50) to be serious and ongoing for 5 
plant species addressed in this proposed rule (Maesa walkeri, 
Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, Tinospora homosepala, and 
Tuberolabium guamense) because: (1) These species may experience 
reduced reproductive vigor due to ineffective pollination or inbreeding 
depression; (2) they may experience reduced levels of genetic 
variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt and respond to 
environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of long-term 
persistence; and (3) a single catastrophic event (e.g., fire) may 
result in extirpation of remaining populations and extinction of the 
species. This threat applies to the entire range of each species.
    The threat to the Guam tree snail, Langford's tree snail and Rota 
blue damselfly from limited numbers of individuals and populations is 
ongoing and is expected to continue into the future because population 
numbers of these species are so low that: (1) They may experience 
reduced reproductive vigor due to inbreeding depression; (2) they may 
experience reduced levels of genetic variability leading to diminished 
capacity to adapt and respond to environmental changes, thereby 
lessening the probability of long-term persistence; (3) a single 
catastrophic event (e.g., super typhoon) may result in extirpation of 
remaining populations and extinction of these species; and (4) species 
with few known locations are less resilient to threats that might 
otherwise have a relatively minor impact on widely distributed species. 
For example, an increase in predation of these species that might be 
absorbed in a widely distributed species could result in a significant 
decrease in survivorship or reproduction of a species with limited 
distribution. Additionally, the limited distribution of these species 
thus magnifies the severity of the impact of the other threats 
discussed in this proposed rule.
Summary of Factors
    The primary factors that pose serious and ongoing threats to 1 or 
more of the 23 species throughout their ranges in this proposed rule 
include: Habitat degradation and destruction by development, activities 
associated with military training and urbanization, nonnative ungulates 
and plants, rats, fire, typhoons, and climate change, and the 
interaction of these threats (Factor A); overutilization of tree snails 
due to collection for trade or market (Factor B); predation by 
nonnative animal species (ungulates, deer, rats, brown tree snakes, 
monitor lizards, slugs, flatworms, ants, and wasps) (Factor C); 
inadequate regulatory mechanisms to address the spread or control of 
nonnative species (Factor D); and ordnance and live-fire training, 
water extraction, recreational vehicles, and limited numbers of 
populations and individuals (Factor E). While we acknowledge the 
voluntary conservation measures described above may help to ameliorate 
1 or more of the threats to the 23 species addressed in this proposed 
rule, these conservation measures are insufficient to control or 
eradicate these threats to the point where listing is not warranted.

Proposed Determination

    Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), and its implementing 
regulations at 50 CFR part 424, set forth the procedures for adding 
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and 
Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Act, we may list a species based 
on (A) The present or threatened destruction,

[[Page 59408]]

modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) 
Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors 
affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be warranted 
based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in combination.
    We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial 
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats 
to the 23 species proposed for listing as endangered or threatened 
species in this rule. We find all 23 species face threats that are 
ongoing and expected to continue into the future throughout their 
ranges from the present destruction and modification of their habitats 
from nonnative feral ungulates, rats, and nonnative plants (Factor A). 
Destruction and modification of habitat by development, military 
training, and urbanization is a threat to 13 of the 14 plant species 
(Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia 
bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, 
Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, 
Solanum guamense, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense) 
and to 8 of the 9 animal species (the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, 
Slevin's skink, the Mariana eight-spot butterfly, the Rota blue 
damselfly, the Guam tree snail, the humped tree snail, Langford's tree 
snail, and the fragile tree snail). Habitat destruction and 
modification from fire is a threat to nine of the plant species 
(Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, 
Hedyotis megalantha, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus 
saffordii, Tabernaemontana rotensis, and Tuberolabium guamense) and two 
tree snails (the Guam tree snail and the humped tree snail). 
Destruction and modification of habitat from typhoons is a threat to 
all 23 species. Rising temperatures and other effects of projected 
climate change may impact all 23 species, but there is limited 
information on the exact nature of impacts that these species may 
experience (Factor A).
    Overcollection for commercial and recreational purposes poses a 
threat to all four tree snail species (the Guam tree snail, the humped 
tree snail, Langford's tree snail, and the fragile tree snail) (Factor 
B).
    Predation or herbivory on 9 of the 14 plant species (Bulbophyllum 
guamense, Cycas micronesica, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia bryanii, 
Heritiera longipetiolata, Nervilia jacksoniae, Psychotria malaspinae, 
Solanum guamense, and Tuberolabium guamense) and 8 of the 9 animals 
(all except the Rota blue damselfly) by feral pigs, deer, brown tree 
snakes, rats, monitor lizards, slugs, flatworms, ants, or wasps poses a 
serious and ongoing threat (Factor C).
    The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms (i.e., inadequate 
protection of habitat and inadequate protection from the introduction 
of nonnative species) poses a serious and ongoing threat to all 23 
species (Factor D).
    There are serious and ongoing threats to five plant species (Maesa 
walkeri, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, Tinospora homosepala, 
and Tuberolabium guamense), the Guam tree snail, Langford's tree snail, 
the fragile tree snail, and Rota blue damselfly due to small numbers of 
populations and individuals; to Tabernaemontana rotensis due to 
vandalism; to Cycas micronesica and Heritiera longipetiolata from 
ordnance and live-fire training; to the Rota blue damselfly from water 
extraction; and to Hedyotis megalantha and Phyllanthus saffordii from 
recreational vehicles (Factor E) (see Table 3). These threats are 
exacerbated by these species' inherent vulnerability to extinction from 
stochastic events at any time because of their endemism, small numbers 
of individuals and populations, and restricted habitats.
    The Act defines an endangered species as any species that is ``in 
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its 
range'' and a threatened species as any species ``that is likely to 
become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range 
within the foreseeable future.'' We find that 21 of the 23 Mariana 
Islands species are presently in danger of extinction throughout their 
entire range, based on the severity and scope of the ongoing and 
projected threats described above. These 21 species are: the 12 plants 
Bulbophyllum guamense, Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia bryanii, Hedyotis 
megalantha, Heritiera longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia 
jacksoniae, Phyllanthus saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum 
guamense, Tinospora homosepala, and Tuberolabium guamense; and all 9 
animals: the Pacific sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura semicaudata 
rotensis), Slevin's skink (Emoia slevini), the Mariana eight-spot 
butterfly (Hypolimnas octocula mariannensis), the Mariana wandering 
butterfly (Vagrans egistina), the Rota blue damselfly (Ischnura luta), 
the Guam tree snail (Partula radiolata), the humped tree snail (Partula 
gibba), Langford's tree snail (Partula langfordi), and the fragile tree 
snail (Samoana fragilis).
    We conclude these 21 species are endangered due to the small number 
of individuals representing the entire species and the limited or 
concentrated geographic distribution of those remaining individuals or 
populations, rendering the species in its entirety highly susceptible 
to extinction as a consequence of these imminent threats. These threats 
are exacerbated by the loss of redundancy and resiliency of these 
species, and the continued inadequacy of existing protective 
regulations. Therefore, on the basis of the best available scientific 
and commercial information, we have determined that each of these 21 
species meets the definition of an endangered species under the Act. We 
find that threatened species status is not appropriate for these 21 
species, as the threats are already occurring rangewide and are not 
localized, and because the threats are ongoing and expected to continue 
into the future. In addition, the remaining populations of these 
species are so small that we cannot conclude they are likely capable of 
persisting into the foreseeable future in the face of the current 
threats. We, therefore, propose to list these 21 species as endangered 
species in accordance with section 3(6) of the Act.
    As noted above, the Act defines a threatened species as any species 
``that is likely to become endangered throughout all or a significant 
portion of its range within the foreseeable future.'' We propose to 
list two plant species as threatened species in accordance with section 
3(6) of the Act, Cycas micronesica and Tabernaemontana rotensis. Cycas 
micronesica occurs on Guam, Rota, and Pagan in the CNMI, as well as on 
islands in the nations of Palau and Yap. More than 50 percent of the 
known individuals occur on Guam and Rota in the CNMI, and are currently 
impacted by the cycad aulacaspis scale, to the extent that botanists 
estimate the species could be largely extirpated from these two islands 
within 5 years, by 2019. The status of the species on Pagan is unknown, 
although only a small population is known from that island. While the 
scale has reached the larger islands of Palau, it has not yet reached 
the Rock Islands of Palau, or Yap, and these islands may afford some 
temporary protection for the remaining individuals while control 
methods and biocontrols for the cycad aulacaspis scale are undergoing 
research. Due to the rapid spread of the scale and associated high 
mortality, however, populations in Palau and Yap remain

[[Page 59409]]

highly vulnerable. Given its relatively greater population size and 
distribution on multiple islands, some of which have not yet been 
affected by the cycad aulacaspis scale, we conclude that Cycas 
micronesica is not currently in danger of extinction, thus endangered 
status is not appropriate. However, given the observed rapid spread of 
the cycad aulacaspis scale, the likelihood that the scale will soon be 
transported to areas that are currently unaffected, and the high 
mortality rate experienced by Cycas micronesica upon exposure to the 
scale, we conclude that Cycas micronesica is likely to become in danger 
of extinction within the foreseeable future. Therefore, on the basis of 
the best available scientific and commercial information, we propose 
that this species meets the definition of a threatened species under 
the Act.
    Tabernaemontana rotensis was, until recently, believed to be part 
of the wider ranging T. pandacaqui, until genetic studies showed it to 
be unique to Guam and Rota. There may be as many as 8,000 individuals 
on Guam, but only a few on Rota; however, the threats of habitat 
destruction and modification, fire, typhoons, climate change, and 
inadequate regulatory mechanisms have a combined impact on all 
occurrences, to the extent that we believe it is likely to become in 
danger of extinction within the foreseeable future throughout all of 
its range. Because Tabernaemontana rotensis species still has a 
relatively large number of individuals, even in the face of current 
threats, we conclude the species will likely persist into the 
foreseeable future. As we do not conclude that Tabernaemontana rotensis 
is currently in danger of extinction, endangered status is not 
appropriate. However, because the species has been reduced to only a 
few individuals on Rota, and the remaining population on Guam is 
subject to a suite of ongoing threats as described above, we conclude 
that Tabernaemontana rotensis will become in danger of extinction 
within the foreseeable future. Therefore, on the basis of the best 
available scientific and commercial information, we propose that this 
species meets the definition of a threatened species under the Act.
    Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may 
warrant listing if it is endangered or threatened throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range. Each of the 23 Mariana Islands 
species proposed for listing in this rule is highly restricted in its 
range, and the threats occur throughout its range. Therefore, we 
assessed the status of each species throughout its entire range. In 
each case, the threats to the survival of these species occur 
throughout the species' ranges and are not restricted to any particular 
portion of those ranges. Accordingly, our assessment and proposed 
determination applies to each species throughout its entire range, and 
we do not need to further consider the status of each species in a 
significant portion of their respective ranges.
Available Conservation Measures
    Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or 
threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions, 
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain 
practices. Recognition through listing results in public awareness, and 
conservation by Federal, State, and local agencies, private 
organizations, and individuals. The Act encourages cooperation with the 
States and territories and requires that recovery actions be carried 
out for all listed species. The protection required by Federal agencies 
and the prohibitions against certain activities are discussed, in part, 
below.
    The primary purpose of the Act is the conservation of endangered 
and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. The 
ultimate goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery of these 
listed species, so that they no longer need the protective measures of 
the Act. Subsection 4(f) of the Act requires the Service to develop and 
implement recovery plans for the conservation of endangered and 
threatened species. The recovery planning process involves the 
identification of actions that are necessary to halt or reverse the 
species' decline by addressing the threats to its survival and 
recovery. The goal of this process is to restore listed species to a 
point where they are secure, self-sustaining, and functioning 
components of their ecosystems.
    Recovery planning includes the development of a recovery outline 
shortly after a species is listed and preparation of a draft and final 
recovery plan. The recovery outline guides the immediate implementation 
of urgent recovery actions and describes the process to be used to 
develop a recovery plan. Revisions of the plan may be done to address 
continuing or new threats to the species, as new substantive 
information becomes available. The recovery plan identifies site-
specific management actions that set a trigger for review of the five 
factors that control whether a species remains endangered or may be 
downlisted or delisted, and methods for monitoring recovery progress. 
Recovery plans also establish a framework for agencies to coordinate 
their recovery efforts and provide estimates of the cost of 
implementing recovery tasks. Recovery teams (composed of species 
experts, Federal and State agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and 
stakeholders) are often established to develop recovery plans. When 
completed, the recovery outline, draft recovery plan, and the final 
recovery plan will be available on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/endangered), or from our Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see 
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
    Implementation of recovery actions generally requires the 
participation of a broad range of partners, including other Federal 
agencies, States, territories, nongovernmental organizations, 
businesses, and private landowners. Examples of recovery actions 
include habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of native vegetation), 
research, captive propagation and reintroduction, and outreach and 
education. The recovery of many listed species cannot be accomplished 
solely on Federal lands because their range may occur primarily or 
solely on non-Federal lands. To achieve recovery of these species 
requires cooperative conservation efforts on all lands.
    If these species are listed, funding for recovery actions will be 
available from a variety of sources, including Federal budgets, State 
programs, and cost share grants for non-Federal landowners, the 
academic community, and nongovernmental organizations. In addition, 
pursuant to section 6 of the Act, the State(s) of the U.S. Territory of 
Guam and the U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands would be 
eligible for Federal funds to implement management actions that promote 
the protection or recovery of the 23 species. Information on our grant 
programs that are available to aid species recovery can be found at: 
http://www.fws.gov/grants.
    Although these species are only proposed for listing under the Act 
at this time, please let us know if you are interested in participating 
in recovery efforts for any of these species. Additionally, we invite 
you to submit any new information on these species whenever it becomes 
available and any information you may have for recovery planning 
purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
    Section 7(a) of the Act requires Federal agencies to evaluate their 
actions with respect to any species that is proposed or listed as an 
endangered or threatened species and with respect to its critical 
habitat, if any is designated. Regulations implementing this 
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR 
part

[[Page 59410]]

402. Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires Federal agencies to confer 
with the Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the 
continued existence of a species proposed for listing or result in 
destruction or adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a 
species is listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires 
Federal agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or 
carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the 
species or destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a 
Federal action may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the 
responsible Federal agency must enter into consultation with the 
Service.
    For the 23 plants and animals proposed for listing as endangered or 
threatened species in this rule, Federal agency actions that may 
require consultation as described in the preceding paragraph include, 
but are not limited to, actions within the jurisdiction of the Natural 
Resources Conservation Service, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the 
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and branches of the DOD. Examples of 
these types of actions include activities funded or authorized under 
the Farm Bill Program, Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Ground 
and Surface Water Conservation Program, Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251 
et seq.), Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program, and DOD activities 
related to training, facilities construction and maintenance, or other 
military missions.
    The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of 
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and 
threatened wildlife and plants. The prohibitions, codified at 50 CFR 
17.21 for endangered wildlife, and at 17.61 and 17.71 for endangered 
and threatened plants, respectively, apply. For listed wildlife 
species, these prohibitions, in part, make it illegal for any person 
subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to take (includes 
harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or 
collect; or to attempt any of these), import, export, ship in 
interstate commerce in the course of commercial activity, or sell or 
offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce any listed species. 
Under the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. 42-43; 16 U.S.C. 3371-3378), it is also 
illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such 
wildlife that has been taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply to 
agents of the Service and State conservation agencies.
    With respect to endangered plants, prohibitions outlined at 50 CFR 
17.61 make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the 
United States to import or export, transport in interstate or foreign 
commerce in the course of a commercial activity, sell or offer for sale 
in interstate or foreign commerce, or to remove and reduce to 
possession any such plant species from areas under Federal 
jurisdiction. In addition, for endangered plants, the Act prohibits 
malicious damage or destruction of any such species on any area under 
Federal jurisdiction, and the removal, cutting, digging up, or damaging 
or destroying of any such species on any other area in knowing 
violation of any State law or regulation, or in the course of any 
violation of a State criminal trespass law. Exceptions to these 
prohibitions are outlined in 50 CFR 17.62.
    With respect to threatened plants, 50 CFR 17.71 provides that all 
of the provisions in 50 CFR 17.61 shall apply to threatened plants. 
These provisions make it illegal for any person subject to the 
jurisdiction of the United States to import or export, transport in 
interstate or foreign commerce in the course of a commercial activity, 
sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce, or to remove 
and reduce to possession any such plant species from areas under 
Federal jurisdiction. In addition, the Act prohibits malicious damage 
or destruction of any such species on any area under Federal 
jurisdiction, and the removal, cutting, digging up, or damaging or 
destroying of any such species on any other area in knowing violation 
of any State law or regulation, or in the course of any violation of a 
State criminal trespass law. However, there is the following exception 
for threatened plants. Seeds of cultivated specimens of species treated 
as threatened shall be exempt from all the provisions of 50 CFR 17.61, 
provided that a statement that the seeds are of ``cultivated origin'' 
accompanies the seeds or their container during the course of any 
activity otherwise subject to these regulations. Exceptions to these 
prohibitions are outlined in 50 CFR 17.72.
    We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities 
involving endangered and threatened wildlife and plant species under 
certain circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 
CFR 17.22 for endangered wildlife and at 17.62 and 17.72 for endangered 
and threatened plants, respectively. With regard to endangered 
wildlife, a permit must be issued for the following purposes: for 
scientific purposes, to enhance the propagation or survival of the 
species, and for incidental take in connection with otherwise lawful 
activities. With regard to endangered plants, the Service may issue a 
permit authorizing any activity otherwise prohibited by 50 CFR 17.61 
for scientific purposes or for enhancing the propagation or survival of 
endangered plants. With regard to threatened plants, a permit issued 
under this section must be for one of the following: scientific 
purposes, the enhancement of the propagation or survival of threatened 
species, economic hardship, botanical or horticultural exhibition, 
educational purposes, or other activities consistent with the purposes 
and policy of the Act. Requests for copies of the regulations regarding 
listed species and inquiries about prohibitions and permits may be 
addressed to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Ecological 
Services, Eastside Federal Complex, 911 NE. 11th Avenue, Portland, OR 
97232-4181 (telephone 503-231-6131; facsimile 503-231-6243).
    Our policy, as published in the Federal Register on July 1, 1994 
(59 FR 34272), is to identify to the maximum extent practicable at the 
time a species is listed, those activities that would or would not 
constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. The intent of this 
policy is to increase public awareness of the effect of a proposed 
listing on proposed and ongoing activities within the range of species 
proposed for listing. The following activities could potentially result 
in a violation of section 9 of the Act; this list is not comprehensive:
    (1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, possessing, selling, 
delivering, carrying, or transporting of the 23 species, including 
import or export across State, Territory or Commonwealth lines and 
international boundaries, except for properly documented antique 
specimens of these taxa at least 100 years old, as defined by section 
10(h)(1) of the Act;
    (2) Introduction of nonnative species that compete with or prey 
upon the nine animal species, such as the introduction of competing, 
nonnative plants or animals to the Mariana Islands (U.S. Territory of 
Guam and U.S. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands); and
    (3) The unauthorized release of biological control agents that 
attack any life stage of the nine animal species.
    (4) Impacts to the nine animal species from destruction of habitat, 
disturbance from noise (related to military training), and other 
impacts from military presence.
    Questions regarding whether specific activities would constitute a 
violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the Pacific 
Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

[[Page 59411]]

CONTACT). Requests for copies of the regulations concerning listed 
animals and general inquiries regarding prohibitions and permits may be 
addressed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, 
Ecological Services, Endangered Species Permits, Eastside Federal 
Complex, 911 NE. 11th Avenue, Portland, OR 97232-4181 (telephone 503-
231-6131; facsimile 503-231-6243).
    If made final, Federal listing of the 23 species included in this 
proposed rule may invoke Commonwealth and Territory listing under CNMI 
and Guam Endangered Species laws (Title 85: Sec.  85-30.1-101 and 5 GCA 
Sec.  63205, respectively) and supplement the protection available 
under other local law. These protections would prohibit take of these 
species and encourage conservation by both government agencies. 
Further, the governments would be able to enter into agreements with 
Federal agencies to administer and manage any area required for the 
conservation, management, enhancement, or protection of endangered 
species. Funds for these activities could be made available under 
section 6 of the Act (Cooperation with the States and Territories). 
Thus, the Federal protection afforded to these species by listing them 
as endangered species would be reinforced and supplemented by 
protection under Territorial and Commonwealth law.

Required Determinations

Clarity of the Rule

    We are required by Executive Orders 12866 and 12988 and by the 
Presidential Memorandum of June 1, 1998, to write all rules in plain 
language. This means that each rule we publish must:
    (1) Be logically organized;
    (2) Use the active voice to address readers directly;
    (3) Use clear language rather than jargon;
    (4) Be divided into short sections and sentences; and
    (5) Use lists and tables wherever possible.
    If you feel that we have not met these requirements, send us 
comments by one of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To better help us 
revise the rule, your comments should be as specific as possible. For 
example, you should tell us the numbers of the sections or paragraphs 
that are unclearly written, which sections or sentences are too long, 
the sections where you feel lists or tables would be useful, etc.

National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)

    We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental 
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the National 
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be 
prepared in connection with listing a species as an endangered or 
threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. We published a 
notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the Federal 
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).

References Cited

    A complete list of references cited in this rulemaking is available 
on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov and upon request from the 
Pacific Islands Ecological Services Field Office (see FOR FURTHER 
INFORMATION CONTACT).

Authors

    The primary authors of this proposed rule are the staff members of 
the Pacific Islands Ecological Services Field Office.

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17

    Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and 
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.

Proposed Regulation Promulgation

    Accordingly, we propose to amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter 
I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below:

PART 17--[AMENDED]

0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:

    Authority:  16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; and 4201-4245; 
unless otherwise noted.

0
2. Amend Sec.  17.11(h), the List of Endangered and Threatened 
Wildlife, as follows:
0
a. By adding an entry for ``Bat, Pacific sheath-tailed'' (Emballonura 
semicaudata rotensis), in alphabetical order under Mammals, to read as 
set forth below;
0
b. By adding an entry for ``Skink, Slevin's'' (Emoia slevini), in 
alphabetical order under Reptiles, to read as set forth below;
0
c. By adding an entry for ``Butterfly, Mariana eight-spot'' (Hypolimnas 
octocula mariannensis), ``Butterfly, Mariana wandering'' (Vagrans 
egistina), and ``Damselfly, Rota blue'' (Ischnura luta), in 
alphabetical order under Insects, to read as set forth below; and
0
d. By adding an entry for ``Snail, fragile tree'' (Samoana fragilis)'', 
``Snail, Guam tree'' (Partula radiolata), ``Snail, humped tree'' 
(Partula gibba), and ``Snail, Langford's tree'' (Partula langfordi), in 
alphabetical order under Snails, to read as set forth below.


Sec.  17.11  Endangered and threatened wildlife.

* * * * *
    (h) * * *

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                        Species                                                    Vertebrate
--------------------------------------------------------                        population where                       When       Critical     Special
                                                            Historic range       endangered or         Status         listed      habitat       rules
           Common name                Scientific name                              threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
             Mammals
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Bat, Pacific sheath-tailed         Emballonura           U.S.A. (Guam,        Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
 (Payesyes).                        semicaudata           Mariana Islands).
                                    rotensis.
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
             Reptiles
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Skink, Slevin's (Guali'ek Halom    Emoia slevini.......  U.S.A. (Guam,        Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
 Tano).                                                   Mariana Islands).

[[Page 59412]]

 
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
             Insects
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Butterfly, Mariana eight-spot....  Hypolimnas octocula   U.S.A. (Guam,        Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                    mariannensis.         Mariana Islands).
Butterfly, Mariana wandering.....  Vagrans egistina....  U.S.A. (Guam,        Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Damselfly, Rota blue.............  Ischnura luta.......  U.S.A. (Mariana      Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
              Snails
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Snail, fragile tree (Akaleha)....  Samoana fragilis....  U.S.A. (Guam,        Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Snail, Guam tree (Akaleha).......  Partula radiolata...  U.S.A. (Guam)......  Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
Snail, humped tree (Akaleha).....  Partula gibba.......  U.S.A. (Guam,        Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Snail, Langford's tree (Akaleha).  Partula langfordi...  U.S.A. (Mariana      Entire.............  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* * * * *
0
3. Amend Sec.  17.12(h), the List of Endangered and Threatened Plants, 
by adding entries for Bulbophyllum guamense, Cycas micronesica, 
Dendrobium guamense, Eugenia bryanii, Hedyotis megalantha, Heritiera 
longipetiolata, Maesa walkeri, Nervilia jacksoniae, Phyllanthus 
saffordii, Psychotria malaspinae, Solanum guamense, Tabernaemontana 
rotensis, Tinospora homosepala, and Tuberolabium guamense, in 
alphabetical order under Flowering Plants, to read as set forth below.


Sec.  17.12  Endangered and threatened plants.

* * * * *
    (h) * * *

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                        Species
--------------------------------------------------------    Historic range           Family            Status          When       Critical     Special
         Scientific name                Common name                                                                   listed      habitat       rules
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
         Flowering Plants
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Bulbophyllum guamense............  Cebello halumtano...  U.S.A. (Guam,        Orchidaceae........  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Cycas micronesica................  Fadang..............  U.S.A. (Guam,        Cycadaceae.........  T               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Dendrobium guamense..............  None................  U.S.A. (Guam,        Orchidaceae........  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Eugenia bryanii..................  None................  U.S.A. (Guam)......  Myrtaceae..........  E               ...........           NA           NA
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Hedyotis megalantha..............  Paudedo.............  U.S.A. (Guam)......  Rubiaceae..........  E               ...........           NA           NA
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Heritiera longipetiolata.........  Ufa-halomtano.......  U.S.A. (Guam,        Malvaceae..........  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 

[[Page 59413]]

 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Maesa walkeri....................  None................  U.S.A. (Guam,        Primulaceae........  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Nervilia jacksoniae..............  None................  U.S.A. (Guam,        Orchidaceae........  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Phyllanthus saffordii............  None................  U.S.A. (Guam)......  Phyllanthaceae.....  E               ...........           NA           NA
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Psychotria malaspinae............  Aplokating-palaoan..  U.S.A. (Guam)......  Rubiaceae..........  E               ...........           NA           NA
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Solanum guamense.................  Bereng-henas          U.S.A. (Guam,        Solanaceae.........  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                    halomtano.            Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Tabernaemontana rotensis.........  None................  U.S.A. (Guam,        Apocynaceae........  T               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Tinospora homosepala.............  None................  U.S.A. (Guam)......  Menispermaceae.....  E               ...........           NA           NA
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Tuberolabium guamense............  ....................  U.S.A. (Guam,        Orchidaceae........  E               ...........           NA           NA
                                                          Mariana Islands).
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------


    Dated: September 16, 2014.
Daniel M. Ashe,
Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2014-22776 Filed 9-30-14; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P