[Federal Register Volume 76, Number 102 (Thursday, May 26, 2011)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 30758-30780]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2011-12928]



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Vol. 76

Thursday,

No. 102

May 26, 2011

Part II





Department of the Interior





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Fish and Wildlife Service



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50 CFR Part 17



Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the Salmon-
Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout its Range with Special Rule; 
Final Rule

  Federal Register / Vol. 76, No. 102 / Thursday, May 26, 2011 / Rules 
and Regulations  

[[Page 30758]]


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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056; MO 92210-1111F105 B6]
RIN 1018-AW00


Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the 
Salmon-Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout its Range with Special 
Rule

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Final rule.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, determine threatened 
status for the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) under the 
Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). This final rule 
implements the Federal protections provided by the Act for this 
species. We are also publishing a special rule for the species.

DATES: This rule becomes effective June 27, 2011.

ADDRESSES: This final rule is available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov and comments and materials we received, as well as 
supporting documentation used in the preparation of this rule, will be 
available for public inspection, by appointment, during normal business 
hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Suite 
400, Arlington, VA 22203.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of 
Foreign Species, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
Service, 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; 
telephone 703-358-2171; facsimile 703-358-1735. If you use a 
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal 
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Background

    The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 
1531 et seq.), is a law that was passed to prevent extinction of 
species by providing measures to help alleviate the loss of species and 
their habitats. Before a plant or animal species can receive the 
protection provided by the Act, it must first be added to one of the 
Federal Lists of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife and Plants; section 
4 of the Act and its implementing regulations at 50 CFR part 424 set 
forth the procedures for adding species to these lists.

Previous Federal Action

    On May 6, 1991, we received a petition (1991 petition) from the 
International Council for Bird Preservation to add 53 foreign birds, 
including the salmon-crested cockatoo, to the List of Endangered and 
Threatened Wildlife. In response to the 1991 petition, we published a 
substantial 90-day finding on December 16, 1991 (56 FR 65207), for all 
53 species, initiated a status review to determine if listing each of 
these species was warranted, and sought information from the public and 
interested parties on the status of these species. On March 28, 1994 
(59 FR 14496), we published a 12-month finding on the 1991 petition, 
along with a proposed rule to list 30 African birds under the Act, 
which included 15 species from the 1991 petition. In that document, we 
announced our finding that listing the remaining 38 species from the 
1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, was warranted but 
precluded by higher priority listing actions. We made a subsequent 
warranted-but-precluded finding for all outstanding foreign species 
from the 1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, as 
published in our annual notice of review (ANOR) on May 21, 2004 (69 FR 
29354).
    Per the Service's listing priority guidelines (September 21, 1983; 
48 FR 43098), our 2007 ANOR (72 FR 20183) identified the listing 
priority numbers (LPNs) (ranging from 1 to 12) for all outstanding 
foreign species. The LPN for the salmon-crested cockatoo was LPN 2. 
With the exception of listing priority ranking of 1, which addresses 
monotypic genera that face imminent threats of high magnitude, category 
2 represents the Service's highest priority.
    On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we published in the Federal 
Register a notice announcing our annual petition findings for foreign 
species. We announced that listing was warranted for 30 foreign bird 
species, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is the subject of 
this proposed rule, and stated that we would ``promptly publish 
proposals to list these 30 taxa.''
    On September 8, 2008, the Service received a 60-day notice of 
intent to sue from the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) and Peter 
Galvin regarding alleged violations of section 4 of the Act for the 
failure to promptly publish listing proposals for the 30 ``warranted'' 
species identified in our 2008 ANOR (73 FR 44062). On June 15, 2009, 
the Service entered into a settlement agreement with CBD (CBD, et al. 
v. Salazar, 09-cv-02578-CRB), in which we agreed to submit to the 
Federal Register a proposed listing rule for the salmon-crested 
cockatoo by October 30, 2009.
    On November 3, 2009, we published in the Federal Register (74 FR 
56770) a proposed rule to list the salmon-crested cockatoo as 
threatened under the Act and a special rule for the species under 
section 4(d) of the Act. Following publication, we implemented the 
Service's peer review process and opened a 90-day comment period to 
solicit scientific and commercial information on the species from all 
interested parties.

Summary of Comments and Recommendations

    We base this rule on a review of the best scientific and commercial 
information available, including all information we received during the 
public comment period. In the November 3, 2009, proposed rule, we 
requested that all interested parties submit information that might 
contribute to development of a final rule. We also contacted 
appropriate scientific experts and organizations and invited them to 
comment on the proposed listing. We received 13 comments from members 
of the public.
    We reviewed all comments we received for substantive issues and new 
information regarding the proposed listing of this species, and we 
address those comments below. Overall, the commenters supported the 
proposed listing, although two commenters objected to the special rule. 
Three comments included additional information for consideration; all 
other comments simply supported the proposed listing without providing 
scientific or commercial data.

Peer Review

    In accordance with our policy published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 
34270), we solicited expert opinions from five individuals with 
scientific expertise that included familiarity with the species, the 
geographic region in which the species occurs, and conservation biology 
principles. We did not receive responses from any of the peer reviewers 
from whom we requested comments.

Public Comments

    Comment (1): Several commenters provided supporting data and 
information regarding the species biology, ecology, life history, 
population estimates, threat factors, and current conservation efforts.

[[Page 30759]]

    Our Response: We thank all the commenters for their interest in the 
conservation of this species and thank those commenters who provided 
information for our consideration in making this listing determination. 
Most information submitted was duplicative of the information contained 
in the proposed rule; however, some comments contained information that 
provided additional clarity or support to, but did not substantially 
change, the information already contained in the proposed rule. This 
information has been incorporated into this rule. Substantial comments 
are addressed below.
    Comment (2): One commenter had serious concerns with the proposed 
special rule and requested it be rewritten or withdrawn. Specific 
objections included:
    Comment (2a): The commenter stated that it is difficult to 
determine the exact origin and status (captive or wild) of salmon-
crested cockatoos. Most birds probably still come from the wild. The 
date of capture is not usually documented, and there appears to be 
little success in breeding this cockatoo in Indonesia. Wild and 
Indonesian captive-bred cockatoos would likely carry contagious 
diseases with them if admitted into the United States as pets. 
Furthermore, the commenter states that without protection against 
import and export of these birds, there is little incentive to cease 
illegal exports from Indonesia, which would foster continued collection 
from the wild.
    Our Response: Most of the salmon-crested cockatoos imported into or 
exported from the United States are personal pets that owners took with 
them when traveling from and returning to the United States. The 
concerns of the commenter are applicable to trade in the domestic and 
international markets of Indonesia and surrounding countries, which are 
not subject to the Act's regulations on import and export of listed 
species, and therefore, not subject to the special rule. The special 
rule allows for import and export of certain cockatoos into and from 
the United States without a permit under the Act. However, all imports 
and exports of salmon-crested cockatoos, including those exempt from a 
permit under the Act as provided in the special rule, are still subject 
to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 
Fauna and Flora (CITES, TIAS 8249) and the Wild Bird Conservation Act 
(WBCA, 16 U.S.C. 4901-4916) and their implementing regulations at 50 
CFR part 23 and 50 CFR part 15, respectively, including permit 
application requirements on the origin of birds in trade (e.g., wild or 
bred in captivity). Under the provisions of WBCA, any individual 
importing their pet bird into the United States for the first time must 
reside outside of the United States for at least 12 continuous months; 
thus, there is little incentive to import foreign specimens. 
Furthermore, to control diseases, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's 
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service requires veterinary health 
certificates and health inspections for birds imported into the United 
States that meet certain requirements, and quarantine for other birds, 
as well as research, commercial, and zoological birds imported into the 
United States.
    Comment (2b): This commenter stated that the special rule would not 
have favorable effects to ``enhance the propagation or survival of the 
species,'' nor is it ``necessary and advisable to provide for the 
conservation of the species'' as stated in the proposed rule.
    Our Response: We disagree with the commenter, and after careful 
consideration, we find that the special rule is necessary and advisable 
to provide for the conservation of the species. As the special rule 
indicates, importation of salmon-crested cockatoos, for purposes such 
as enhancement of propagation or survival of specimens, taken from the 
wild after January 18, 1990, would require certain conditions be met 
under 50 CFR Sec.  17.32 in order for permits to be issued for such 
activities.
    Under section 4(d) of the Act, the Secretary may issue, for 
threatened species, regulations necessary and advisable to provide for 
the conservation of the species. In this case, the special rule would 
allow the import and export of salmon-crested cockatoos held in 
captivity before January 18, 1990 (date the species was added to CITES 
Appendix I), whether taken from the wild or captive-bred, and of 
captive-bred salmon-crested cockatoos, without a permit issued under 
the Act, provided that the import or export complies with CITES and 
WBCA. CITES ensures that international trade in animal and plant 
species is not detrimental to the survival of wild populations by 
regulating the import, export, and reexport of CITES-listed animal and 
plant species. The purpose of the WBCA is to promote the conservation 
of exotic birds and to ensure that imports of exotic birds into the 
United States does not harm them. The best available commercial data 
indicates that the current threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo stems 
from illegal trade in the domestic and international markets of 
Indonesia and surrounding countries; the general prohibitions on import 
and export under the Act and 50 CFR 17.31 only extend within the 
jurisdiction of the United States and would not regulate such 
activities. Most salmon-crested cockatoo imports into and exports out 
of the United States are pets traveling with their owners. We did not 
find that import and export of salmon-crested cockatoos held in 
captivity before January 18, 1990 or bred in captivity contributes to 
either the species' habitat destruction or illegal trade. Thus, we find 
that the import and export requirements of the proposed special rule 
provide the necessary and advisable conservation measures that are 
needed for this species, while allowing U.S. citizens to continue 
traveling with their pet birds.
    We have no information to suggest that interstate commerce 
activities are associated with threats to the salmon-crested cockatoo 
or will negatively affect any efforts aimed at the recovery of wild 
populations of the species. At the same time, the prohibitions on take 
under 50 CFR 17.31 would apply under this special rule and any 
interstate commerce activities that could incidentally take cockatoos 
will require a permit under 50 CFR 17.32. Furthermore, allowing 
interstate commerce of birds captive-bred and reared in the United 
States will preclude U.S. demand for salmon-crested cockatoos obtained 
from international markets, which would otherwise contribute to the 
illegal capture and trade of wild birds. Therefore, we find the 
prohibitions and authorizations contained within this special rule are 
all that is necessary and advisable for the conservation of the salmon-
crested cockatoo.
    Comment (2c): The commenter also stated that interstate exchange is 
not hindered by listing and listing would not hinder the exchange of 
cockatoos between breeders within the United States, implying that the 
special rule is not needed to allow this type of activity.
    Our Response: Section 4(d) of the Act states that the Secretary may 
extend to threatened species prohibitions provided for endangered 
species under section 9. Our implementing regulations for threatened 
wildlife (50 CFR 17.31) incorporate the section 9 prohibitions for 
endangered wildlife, except when a special rule is promulgated. Under 
section 9(a)(1)(E) and (F) of the Act, it is unlawful for a person, 
subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, to deliver, receive, 
carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce or sell or 
offer for sale in interstate commerce or foreign commerce any such 
species. The special rule would allow for

[[Page 30760]]

interstate commerce to accommodate, for example, breeders and owners of 
pet cockatoos within the United States. In addition, as stated above, 
allowing interstate commerce of birds captive-bred and reared in the 
United States will preclude any U.S. demand for salmon-crested 
cockatoos obtained from international markets, which would otherwise 
contribute to illegal capture and trade of this species.
    Comment (3): Another commenter also objected to the special rule. 
Objections included:
    Comment (3a): By allowing the import and export of certain captive 
salmon-crested cockatoos and interstate commerce, the United States 
will encourage additional illegal capture in Indonesia and allow wild 
birds to be imported under false pretenses, which will contribute to 
the cockatoo's decline. Significant covert trade persists in Indonesia. 
Traders are able to obtain illegal permits; salmon-crested cockatoos 
have been classified as white cockatoos (Cacatua alba), a legally 
traded species in Indonesia. The incentive to conduct illegal capture 
and trade is high, and parrot trapping accounts for 25 to 30 percent of 
the impoverished forest people of Seram's cash income.
    Our Response: The best available commercial data indicates that the 
current threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo stems from illegal trade, 
including the actions described by the commenter, in the domestic and 
international markets of Indonesia and surrounding countries. The Act 
cannot regulate the illegal trade of this species within the domestic 
and international markets of Indonesia. Although the import and export 
of salmon-crested cockatoos taken from the wild and held in captivity 
before January 18, 1990 and captive-bred salmon-crested cockatoos would 
not require a permit under the Act (See Our Response to Comment (2b) 
above), the import or export of these birds in the United States must 
comply with CITES and WBCA regulations. Most imports of salmon-crested 
cockatoos into and exports from the United States are pets traveling 
with their owners. We have no evidence to suggest that this type of 
activity contributes to either the species' habitat destruction or 
illegal capture and trade. Furthermore, allowing interstate commerce of 
birds captive-bred and reared in the United States will preclude any 
U.S. demand for salmon-crested cockatoos obtained from international 
markets, which would otherwise contribute to the illegal capture and 
trade of this species.
    Comment (3b): The commenter stated that the Service's assessment of 
the conservation needs of the salmon-crested cockatoo, based on its 
perceived success of the 1990 Appendix-I CITES listing, is unsound. The 
Service states that international trade of the species has gone down 
considerably since the listing of the species in Appendix I under 
CITES; however, this assertion is based only on officially reported 
trade information. In actuality, and in spite of the CITES Appendix-I 
listing and an Indonesian export ban, the salmon-crested cockatoo 
continues to be illegally captured on Seram and exported for 
international pet trade.
    Our Response: The Service acknowledges that even with the salmon-
crested cockatoo listed as an Appendix-I species under CITES and 
Indonesian laws put in place to protect salmon-crested cockatoos, 
illegal capture and trade are still concerns for the continued 
existence of this species. However, the best available commercial data 
indicate that illegal capture and international trade are centered in 
Indonesia and the bird markets of surrounding countries, not in the 
United States where the prohibitions of the Act and the special rule 
will apply on the effective date of this rule (see DATES). As most of 
the salmon-crested cockatoos imported into and exported from the United 
States are pet birds traveling with owners, we believe that the special 
rule does not contribute to the threats facing the salmon-crested 
cockatoo.

Summary of Changes From Proposed Rule

    We fully considered the comments we received from the public on the 
proposed rule when developing this final listing of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo. This final rule incorporates changes to our proposed listing 
based on the comments that we received that are discussed above and 
newly available scientific and commercial information. Reviewers 
generally commented that the proposed rule was very thorough and 
comprehensive. We made some technical corrections based on new, 
although limited, information. None of the information, however, 
changed our determination that listing this species as threatened is 
warranted.

Species Information

Species Description

    Cockatoos are a distinct group of parrots (order Psittaciformes), 
distinguished by the presence of an erectile crest (Cameron 2007, p. 1; 
Collar 1989, p. 5) and the lack of dyck texture in their feathers, 
which produces blue and green coloration in the plumage of other 
parrots (Brown and Toft 1999, p. 141). The salmon-crested cockatoo 
(also known as the Seram, Moluccan, pink-crested, or rose-crested 
cockatoo) is the largest and the most striking of Indonesia's white 
cockatoos (Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). Its body length is 46-52 centimeters 
(cm) (15.6-20 inches (in)), and its plumage varies from pale salmon-
pink to whitish-pink. It has a long backward-curving, deep salmon-pink 
crest; the bill is large and gray-black; and the underwing and 
undertail are yellow-orange (BirdLife International (BLI) 2000, p. 242; 
Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper and Parr 1998, pp. 280-281; Sweeney 2000, 
p. 130). Sexual dimorphism is exhibited by iris color; dark brown to 
black in adult males, reddish brown to red in females, and brown in 
immature birds (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278; Forshaw 1989, p. 141; 
Peratino 1979, p. 125).

Taxonomy

    In 1751, Edwards described and pictorially delineated the salmon-
crested cockatoo (Lint 1951, p. 223) and, in 1788, J.F. Gmelin named 
the species Psittacus moluccensis (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Lint 1951, p. 
223). In 1937, Peters (1937, p. 175) used the name Kakatoe moluccensis 
(Gmelin) in the Check-list of Birds of the World. In 1992, Andrew 
(1992, p. 21) used the name Cacatua moluccensis in the first published 
checklist of the birds of Indonesia. This name continues to be the 
recognized scientific name (Integrated Taxonomic Information System 
(ITIS) 2008, p. 1; Sibley and Monroe 1990, p. 112), and the alternative 
genus name Kakatoe is now obsolete (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278).
    Some references (ITIS 2008, p. 1; Sibley and Monroe 1990, p. 112) 
place cockatoos in the family Psittacidae with lories and true parrots, 
whereas others (CITES 2008a, p. 1; Cameron 2007, p. 1) place cockatoos 
in a separate family, Cacatuidae. Of the 21 cockatoo species, 11 are in 
the genus Cacatua (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3).
    The closest relatives of the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the South Moluccas, Indonesia (in the east central 
Indonesian island chain), are the umbrella cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the North Moluccas, and the blue-eyed cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the island of New Britain off the northeast coast of New 
Guinea (Cameron 2007, pp. 38-39, 51). In a biogeographic analysis of 
the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny, Brown and Toft (1999, pp. 150-
151) suggest that these three species may have had a common

[[Page 30761]]

ancestor that occupied an ancient landmass comprising Halmahera (a 
North Moluccan island) and Bismarck. The breakup of this landmass 
created two populations, and the subsequent dispersal of cockatoos from 
the North Moluccas to the South Moluccas created another population, 
which became the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cameron 2007, p. 56).

Range and Distribution

    Cockatoos are only found in Australasia--a few archipelagos in 
Southeast Asia (Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, Tanimbar, Bismarck, 
and Solomon), New Guinea, and Australia--suggesting that the modern 
species arose after the breakup of Gondwanaland, a southern 
supercontinent that existed 200-500 million years ago. The 19th century 
naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace was among the first to note the break 
in Australasian and Asian fauna. Wallace's line runs between the 
islands of Bali and Lombok, Borneo and Sulawesi, and south of the 
Philippines. Cockatoos are present on Lombok and Sulawesi, but not on 
Bali and Borneo. The line represents the western edge of a zone of 
overlap between Australasian and Asian fauna (known as Wallacea), with 
the eastern edge defined by the Australian continental shelf 
(Lydekker's Line) (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3; White and Bruce 1986, p. 32).
    The oceanic islands of Wallacea have a high level of endemism, 
which resulted in many islands being identified as Endemic Bird Areas 
(EBA) (Cameron 2007, p. 56). BLI designates EBAs by mapping bird 
species with restricted ranges of less than 50,000 square kilometers 
(km\2\) (19,300 square miles (mi\2\)) that overlap. The unique 
biodiversity concentrated in these small areas is particularly 
vulnerable; thus, EBAs represent priority areas for global biodiversity 
conservation (BLI 2008i, p. 1; Collar 2000, p. 27; Stattersfield et al. 
1998, pp. 39, 45). The salmon-crested cockatoo is included in the Seram 
EBA (BLI 2003, p. 1; Stattersfield et al. 1998, pp. 528-531).
Seram
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to the island of Seram 
(alternate spelling, Ceram), with records from adjacent islands of 
Haruku, Saparua, and Ambon (formerly called Ambonia) in the South 
Moluccas (BLI 2001, p. 1662; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; Forshaw 
1989, p. 141; Peters 1937, p. 175). The species resides in lowland rain 
forests up to 1,000 meters (m) (3,608 feet (ft)), remains locally 
common in Manusela National Park, and appears to be mostly distributed 
in the eastern part of the island (BLI 2008a, p. 2; Isherwood et al. 
1998, p. 18). For a listing of specific distribution records of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo, see BLI (2001, p. 1662).
Ambon
    Whether this species is native or introduced to Ambon is uncertain. 
Stresemann (1934, p. 16) reported that the salmon-crested cockatoo did 
not occur on Ambon. Thus, some scientists follow the view that the 
species may have been introduced to this island (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; 
Lever 1987, p. 245; van Bemmel 1948, as cited in White and Bruce 1986, 
p. 212; Smiet 1985, p. 189; Long 1981, p. 247). The salmon-crested 
cockatoo was formerly traded in significant numbers, and shipments of 
birds from Seram transited through Ambon (the capital of the Maluku 
Province), where undoubtedly some birds escaped. Other scientists 
suggest that the cockatoos may well be wild birds (Poulsen and Jepson 
1996, pp. 159-160; Marsden 1992, pp. 12-13), with the persistence of a 
small population in northeast Ambon (Poulsen and Jepson 1996, p. 159).
Haruku and Saparua
    The status of the salmon-crested cockatoo on Haruku and Saparua is 
unknown (Metz 1998, p. 10), but the species may be extinct on these two 
islands (Metz 2002, p. 1; Snyder et al. 2000, p. 68). For Haruku, there 
is one unspecified locality and date of observation reported 
(Stresemann 1934, p. 16), but Poulsen and Jepson (1996, p. 160) did not 
find the species in 1994 or 1996. For Saparua, there is one specimen in 
the RMNH (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire (Leiden, Netherlands)) 
recorded in 1923 (BLI 2001, p. 1663).
    For purposes of this proposal, we consider the salmon-crested 
cockatoo's natural range to include Seram and the three islands of 
Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua. Although the status of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo is unknown on Haruku and Saparua, the species has been 
reported from these islands, and we are unaware of any survey that has 
conclusively found that the species no longer occurs there.

Habitat

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is believed to be a specialist of 
primary lowland forests (Kinnarid et al. 2003, p. 228). It occurs at 
altitudes between 100 and 1,000-1,200 m (328 and 3,608-3,926 ft) (BLI 
2008a, p. 2; Bowler and Taylor 1993, p. 149; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 
281), but rarely occurs above 600-900 m (1,968-2,952 ft) (Cameron 2007, 
p. 77; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; Marsden 1992, p. 11; Smiet 1985, 
p. 189). Marsden (1992, p. 11) found that cockatoos tended to be 
recorded in mature, open-canopied lowland forests with some very large, 
tall trees and some low vegetation. Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) 
found that cockatoo abundance was significantly associated with the 
presence of potential nest trees (Octomeles sumatranus) and strangling 
figs (Ficus spp.), a potential food source. Cameron (2007, pp. 77-78) 
noted that island cockatoos prefer lowland forests over montane forests 
because lowland forests contain greater plant diversity and, thus, have 
a more diverse and abundant food supply. They also support larger 
trees, which are more likely to have cavities needed for nesting--a 
critical resource because cockatoos are incapable of excavating their 
own nest cavities. The salmon-crested cockatoo prefers flat or gently 
sloping terrain.
    The highest densities of birds occur in little-disturbed, lowland 
forests below 300 m (984 ft), and the lowest densities occur in 
recently logged forests and in non-forested areas (Marsden 1998, p. 
608; Marsden 1992, p. 9). However, Marsden and Fielding (1999, p. 444) 
were unable to find differences in the species' presence based on 
habitat associations, and Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) found 
densities did not correspond closely to habitat differences across 
study sites. Marsden (1992, p. 11) suggested that the apparent 
differences in cockatoo densities between young logged forests and 
secondary forests, which have similar vegetation parameters, may be 
caused by differential trapping pressures and patterns of disturbance, 
differences in tree species compositions and overall habitat 
heterogeneity, and differences in cockatoo densities in areas before 
logging.
    Lower densities of birds occur in transition and submontane forests 
and on the edges of cultivated areas. Birds also occur in open canopy 
forests with low vegetation and in riverine forests (Juniper and Parr 
1998, p. 281). Despite trapping pressure, birds still occur in mature 
lowland forests near settlements (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; 
Marsden 1992, p. 11), but they are rarely seen near human habitation 
(Smiet 1985, p. 189). Marsden (1992, pp. 9, 11) found cockatoos to be 
rare or irregular in other habitats, including plantations, grassland, 
rank scrub, and agricultural lands. The species previously occurred in 
coastal areas (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281), before land was 
converted to human uses (FAO 1981, as cited in Marsden 1992, p. 7). 
Small numbers of

[[Page 30762]]

salmon-crested cockatoo have been observed in forested hills on Ambon. 
No other information was available on the habitat of this species on 
Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua.
Topography
    Seram is a densely wooded island (Metz 1998, p. 10) of 18,625 km\2\ 
(7,189 mi\2\) (Smiet 1985, p. 183)--about the size of New Jersey 
(Morrison 2001, p. 1). The topography is extremely variable and the 
interior of the island is rugged and mostly mountainous (Kinnaird et 
al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies between latitudes 2[deg]46' and 
3[deg]53' south of the Equator. It is approximately 340 kilometers (km) 
(211 miles (mi)) long and 55-70 km (34-43 mi) wide in the center. Its 
highest point is Gunung Binaiya at approximately 3,027 m (9,929 ft) 
above sea level. It is the second largest island in the Moluccas. This 
group of about 1,000 islands is also known as the Spice Islands, 
because they include the original home of both nutmeg (Myristica 
fragrans) and cloves (Syzgium aromaticum) (Edwards 1993, p. 1).
Forests
    Seram's wet climate supports mainly evergreen forests (Marsden 
1998, p. 606). The alluvial plains originally supported tall lowland 
forests characterized by the only endemic dipterocarp on the island, 
Shorea selanica (`meranti'), and also Canarium, Elaeocarpus sphaericus, 
Calophyllum, Intsia, and Myristica (Coates and Bishop 1997, pp. 16-17; 
Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 7). Shorea selanica has developed 
remarkable dominance in the lowland forests of north Seram, 
representing about 30 percent of individual trees and 76 percent of the 
basal area (Edwards et al. 1993, p. 66). The forest is relatively open-
crowned with a sparse understory, with the floor being swept clean by 
floods during the wet season. Along the major rivers, the lowland 
forest is characterized by Octomeles sumatrana, Eucalyptus deglupta, 
Pometia pinnata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ficus, Litsea, and Eugenia 
(Coates and Bishop 1997, pp. 16-17).
Climate
    Most of Seram receives between 2,500 and 3,000 millimeters (mm) 
(97.5 and 117 inches (in)) of rain per year, with more in the east and 
northeast. The long monsoonal seasons (Metz 1998, p. 11; White and 
Bruce 1986, p. 24) and mountainous terrain affect the amount of 
rainfall. Annual and monthly rainfall is not uniform and varies by 
region (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies outside the main 
zone of cyclonic storms (Coates and Bishop 1997, p. 22). The lowlands 
have a humid tropical climate with temperatures at sea level of 25-30 
degrees Celsius ([deg]C) (77-86 degrees Fahrenheit ([deg]F)). 
Temperature decreases with altitude, with a fall of approximately 6 
[deg]C (10.8 [deg]F) for every rise of 1,000 m (3,280 ft), leading to a 
marked temperature gradient within the mountain areas (Edwards 1993, p. 
6).
Land use
    The human population of Seram is concentrated in low-lying areas 
along the coast and in the west. The mountainous interior supports very 
few villages (Edwards 1993, p. 7). The majority of Seram is lowland 
forest or montane forest (see Table 1). While only about 11 percent of 
the island has been converted to agricultural lands, settlements, and 
plantations or is considered unproductive, logging concessions cover 
nearly 50 percent of the island. About 85 percent of Seram lies below 
600 m (1,968 ft) and another 10 percent lies between 600 and 1,000 m 
(1,968 and 3,280 ft). Within this elevation where cockatoos occur, ``* 
* * most of the forest has been classified as production or conversion 
forest, categories that permit land clearing and forest disturbance'' 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230).

              Table 1--Habitat and Land Use for Seram and Established and Proposed Protected Areas
    [Data are based on landsat images from late 1989 and early 1990 (NP = National Park; NR = Nature Reserve)
                                         (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230)]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       Area
                                 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Habitat/land use                                                                       Proposed Wai Bula
                                         Seram            Manusela NP      Gunung Sahuwai NR          NR
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lowland Forest..................  14,026.5 km\2\      1,522.5 km\2\       118.9 km\2\ (45.9   561.8 km\2\ (216.9
                                   (5,414.2 mi\2\).    (587.7 mi\2\).      mi\2\).             mi\2\).
Mangrove Forest.................  77.6 km\2\ (30      ..................  ..................  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\).                                                     mi\2\).
Montane Forest..................  1,065.3 km\2\       693.9 km\2\ (267.8
                                   (411.2 mi\2\).      mi\2\).
Swamp Forest....................  203.5 km\2\ (78.6   ..................  ..................  14.6 km\2\ (5.6
                                   mi\2\).                                                     mi\2\).
Water Body......................  1.2 mi\2\ (3.0
                                   km\2\).
Agriculture.....................  789.1 km\2\ (304.6  50 km\2\ (19.3      ..................  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\).             mi\2\).                                 mi\2\).
Plantation......................  22.0 km\2\ (8.5
                                   mi\2\).
Settlement......................  21.3 km\2\ (8.2     3.2 km\2\ (1.2      ..................  0.5 km\2\ (0.2
                                   mi\2\).             mi\2\).                                 mi\2\).
Unproductive Lands..............  1,082.2 km\2\       53.6 km\2\ (20.7    3.9 km\2\ (1.5
                                   (417.7 mi\2\).      mi\2\).             mi\2\)
                                 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Total.......................  17,288.7 km\2\      2,323.2 km\2\       122.8 km\2\ (47.4   596.1 km\2\ (230.1
                                   (6,676.0 mi\2\).    (896.8 mi\2\).      mi\2\).             mi\2\).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Important Bird Areas (IBAs)

    BLI (2008b, p. 2) has identified five IBAs that include the salmon-
crested cockatoo. A site is recognized as an IBA when it meets criteria 
``* * * based on the occurrence of key bird species that are vulnerable 
to global extinction or whose populations are otherwise 
irreplaceable.'' These key sites for conservation are small enough to 
be conserved in their entirety and large enough to support self-
sustaining populations of the key bird species. IBAs are a way to 
identify conservation priorities (BLI 2008j, pp. 1-2). The following 
briefly describes the IBAs for the salmon-crested cockatoo.
Gunung Sahuwai
    Located on the western peninsula of Seram, Gunung Sahuwai contains 
122.8 km\2\ (47.4 mi\2\) of land that was declared a Nature Reserve on 
November 30, 1993 (SK Menteri Kehutanan No. 805/Kpts-II/1993) (BLI 
2008c, p. 2). The Nature Reserve contains 96.8 percent lowland forest 
and 3.2 percent unproductive lands (see Table 1) (Kinnaird et al. 2003, 
p. 230). The number of cockatoos here is unknown. The coastal area 
contains 14 settlements. Most people work as farmers and fishermen. The 
main commodities are cloves, nutmeg, and coconut for copra. The local 
people hunt and collect forest products. Conservation concerns for the 
salmon-

[[Page 30763]]

crested cockatoo relate to the clearance of natural habitat for 
plantation, shifting agriculture, and collection of birds (BLI 2008c, 
pp. 1-2).
Gunung Salahutu
    The habitat is forest, and the topography is hilly up to 1,038 m 
(3,405 ft). The cockatoo was found in this area at one time, but is 
probably extinct in this area now. The coastal area contains two 
villages. Most of the people work as dry land farmers and fishermen. 
The main commodities are clove, nutmeg, cacao, and marine products. 
Conservation concerns for the salmon-crested cockatoo relate to forest 
clearance for plantation, firewood collection, and hunting of animals 
for consumption or pets (BLI 2008d, pp. 1-2).
Manusela
    This area consists of forests and wetlands (BLI 2008e, pp. 1-2). 
Manusela National Park is located in the central part of Seram and 
stretches from the north coast to within 5 km (3 mi) of the south coast 
(Edwards 1993, p. 6). It is 2,323.2 km\2\ (896.8 mi\2\) in size and 
covers approximately 10 to 11 percent of Seram (BLI 2008e, p. 2; 
Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228; Bowler and Taylor 1993, p. 158; Marsden 
1992, p. 7; Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 3). It was declared a national 
park on October 14, 1982 (SK Menteri Pertanian No. 736/Mentan/X/1982) 
(BLI 2008e, p. 2). Based on landsat images from late 1989 and early 
1990, habitat and land use for Manusela National Park can be summarized 
as: 65.5 percent lowland forest; 29.9 percent montane forest; and 4.6 
percent agriculture, settlement, and unproductive lands (see Table 1) 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230). Approximately 26 percent of the park is 
above 1,000 m (3,608 ft), an altitude where the salmon-crested cockatoo 
generally does not occur, and only 27 percent is below 500 m (1,640 
ft), an altitude preferred by the salmon-crested cockatoo (Marsden 
1992, p. 7). A road has been built through the park, which increases 
the risks of logging (Metz 1998, p. 10). Five villages of indigenous 
people exist as an enclave of the park. Most of the people work as dry 
land farmers; they also hunt and collect forest products, such as sago, 
rattan, resin, eaglewood, and parrots (BLI 2008e, p. 1). In 1980, 999 
people lived within the park boundaries, and 19,102 lived within 10 km 
(6 mi) of its boundaries (Smiet and Siallagan 1981, App. 6). Clearing 
of the land for agriculture and gardens has resulted in a patchwork of 
cleared fields, secondary vegetation (including large bamboo thickets), 
old growth forests, and undisturbed primary forests. Conservation 
concerns for the salmon-crested cockatoo relate to logging, road 
development, encroachment by plantation companies, mining (Monk et al. 
1997, as cited in BLI 2008e, p. 2), shifting agriculture, and parrot 
catching for trade (BLI 2008e, pp. 1-2).
Pegunungan Taunusa
    The habitat is forest and the area has a mountain with the highest 
peak in Seram. The southern coastal area contains five villages. Most 
of the people work as farmers and fishermen. Main products are coconut 
for copra, clove, and cacao (BLI 2008f, p. 1). The Service was unable 
to find information on the number of salmon-crested cockatoos in this 
area or activities that may be affecting the conservation of the 
species in Pegunungan Taunusa.
Wai Bula
    The habitat is forest in northeastern Seram. BLI (2008f, p. 1) 
estimates that Wae Wufa, an area inside Wai Bula that is primary 
lowland and lower montane evergreen forests, has around 40-60 salmon-
crested cockatoos. Approximately 596.1 km\2\ (230.1 mi\2\) of Wai Bula 
was proposed as a Nature Reserve in 1981, but the area has never been 
officially designated as a reserve (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). Land 
use for the proposed Nature Reserve can be summarized as follows: 94.2 
percent lowland forest; 2.5 percent agriculture and settlement; 2.4 
percent swamp forest; and 1.6 percent mangrove forest (see Table 1). 
Based on density estimates derived from surveys in western Seram, 
researchers estimated that the area provides habitat for a minimum of 
2,500 cockatoos (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 230, 233) (see Factor A for 
discussion). This estimate differs significantly from the number of 
cockatoos estimated by BLI to occur inside Wae Wufa. We were unable to 
reconcile these estimates because we could not find information on the 
area of Wae Wufa, how much of the cockatoo's suitable habitat within 
Wai Bula occurs in Wae Wufa, and the basis for the BLI estimate. The 
coast contains four villages. Most people work as farmers and 
fishermen. The main plantation products are coconut for copra, cacao, 
and coffee. The conservation concern for the salmon-crested cockatoo 
relates to logging (BLI 2008g, pp. 1-2).

Natural History

Behavior
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is most active in early morning and 
late afternoon (Metz et al. 2007, p. 36; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 
281), calling loudly when leaving and returning to roost. The 
cockatoo's call is a wailing cry, which can be heard from a distance of 
1 km (0.6 mi), and roosts can easily be located due to the noise. The 
species is shy and flies off when disturbed. Birds move slowly through 
the canopy in the early morning and are usually not seen or heard 
during the heat of the day. They are found in groups of up to 16 birds, 
although the size of non-breeding flocks appear to have been 
dramatically reduced due to the recent population decline (Juniper and 
Parr 1998, p. 281). They fly using a few rapid wing beats, followed by 
gliding, and then a few more wing beats (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; 
Forshaw 1989, p. 141).
Food
    This species feeds on fruit of the kenari tree (Canarium commune, 
C. vulgare, and C. indicum) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37), nuts, seeds, 
berries, and insects (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 
281). Their abundance is positively related to the density of 
strangling figs, a potentially important food resource (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 233). Research by O'Brien et al. (1998, p. 668) showed that 
figs may be a keystone plant resource for many fruit-eating birds. On 
the average, figs contain calcium levels 3.2 times higher than other 
fruits, promoting eggshell deposition and bone growth. Salmon-crested 
cockatoos are suspected of taking Pandanus spp. fruits (Bishop in 
prep., as cited in BLI 2001, p. 1665). They pick larvae from fallen, 
rotting tree trunks (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37). They also eat young 
coconuts (Cocos nucifera) by chewing through the tough outer covering 
to get at the pulp and water inside (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281; 
Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Wallace 1864, p. 279). In general, island 
cockatoos are thought to need to exploit all the available food in 
order to maintain a healthy population because islands typically 
contain fewer plant species and the quantity of food is restricted by 
an islands' relatively small size (Cameron 2007, p. 83).
Breeding
    Its favored nest tree is Octomeles sumatranus (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 230). During times of nest building, brooding, and fledging, 
birds stay close to the nest tree (Metz et al. 2007, p. 36). Courtship 
display can last up to 20

[[Page 30764]]

minutes, with the male and female perched in the top of an emergent or 
dead forest tree, raising and lowering their crests, fanning their 
large face and neck feathers forward to increase the size of the head 
(Cameron 2007, p. 57), calling loudly, breaking twigs, and making 
short, weak, fluttering flights. The nest is a high hole in a mature 
tree (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281). The salmon-crested cockatoo 
removes the bark immediately surrounding the entrance to help prevent 
predators, such as snakes or monitor lizards, from gaining access to 
the eggs or chicks, and may also clear the surrounding foliage perhaps 
to have a better view for the brooding hen. The nest site is fiercely 
guarded from competitors, such as the Eclectus parrot (Eclectus 
roratus) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37).
    Little is known about seasonality and breeding biology of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228), or 
other demographic information, such as reproductive effort and success 
and age-specific mortality rates--information that is important to 
determine where the primary weak points in the life equation lie 
(Snyder et al. 2000, p. 9). The cockatoo is thought to breed between 
July and August or September, and probably a second time at the 
beginning of the year (Metz and Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Stresemann 
(1914, p. 86) observed a pair in a nesting cavity about 25 m (82 ft) up 
the trunk of a living tree in early May. The cockatoo lines the cavity 
with wood chips, and usually lays two white eggs, although only one 
chick is raised (Metz and Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Both parents help to 
incubate the eggs during the 28-day incubation period. Young birds take 
4-5 years to reach maturity (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281).

Population Estimates

Seram--Historical Population Estimates
    Historically, there are few quantitative observations of this 
species in the wild. In 1864, Wallace (1864, p. 279) described the 
salmon-crested cockatoo as ``abundant'' on Seram. In 1911, Stresemann 
(1914, p. 86) reported that the species was fairly common in coastal 
regions. The species was regarded as locally common in 1970 (Juniper 
and Parr 1998, p. 281). During 1980 and 1981 (Forshaw 1989, p. 141), 
Smiet (1985, p. 189) observed that this species was locally common in 
primary forests up to 900 m (2,952 ft) in the interior and in 
undisturbed forests, where 10 to 16 birds were seen congregating in 
roosting trees. He did not see any birds on the western part of the 
island, although the cockatoo was said to be common there until about 
1970. In 1980, small flocks were observed in the south of the island 
(White and Bruce 1986, p. 212), and cockatoos were frequently seen 
throughout Manusela National Park below 900 m, except in the southern 
part of the Mual Plains in the center of the park where they were not 
common (Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 9). In September 1983, Bishop 
(1992, p. 2) observed four cockatoos in secondary woodland in southwest 
Seram.
    Rangers at the Manusela National Park commented on a dramatic 
decline in the species in the mid-1980s (Collar and Andrew 1988, p. 
69). By 1987, it was the rarest parrot in Manusela National Park 
(Bishop 1992, p. 2). Due to the international pet trade, Bishop 
considered the species to be endangered and in need of critical 
management to avoid imminent extinction (Bishop 1992, p. 1). Between 
July 20 and September 25, 1987, an Operation Raleigh team found the 
species to be ``very scarce and absent from large tracts of suitable 
habitat'' in Manusela National Park (Bowler 1988, p. 6). During 40 days 
of field work, they made 54 sightings, resulting in a maximum of 20 
individual birds in prime habitat. In addition, birds were observed 
either singly or in pairs, never in flocks. Encounter rates were the 
lowest of any parrot species at 0.3 birds per hour in lowland rain 
forests around Solea at about 100 m (328 ft) and 0.1 per hour in the 
Kineka area at 600-900 m (1,968-2,952 ft) (Bowler and Taylor 1989, p. 
17; Bowler 1988, p. 6). Marsden (1992, pp. 11-12) suggested that the 
densities of cockatoos, which Bowler and Taylor found in the Manusela 
National Park enclave, may be naturally low because the forest has been 
heavily disturbed and the area is at the upper end of the species' 
altitudinal range. He found it difficult to relate Bowler and Taylor's 
low figures for lowland forests around Solea to what he found in 1989 
(see below). BLI also questioned the validity of the numbers, because 
Bowler and Taylor are now judged to have worked mainly at higher 
elevations in Manusela (BLI 2001, pp. 1664, 1668). Metz (1998, p. 10) 
suggested that the stronghold of this cockatoo is likely on Seram, 
almost exclusively outside of the borders of the national park.
    During 5 weeks beginning December 19, 1989, Marsden (1992, pp. 7-8; 
Marsden 1998, p. 606) collected field data in Manusela National Park 
and in lowland habitats in central and northeast Seram, using the 
variable circular plot method to estimate densities of the salmon-
crested cockatoo. Encounter rates were 1.0 bird per hour in primary 
forests, 2.5 birds in disturbed primary forests, and 0.4 birds in 
secondary and in recently logged forests. While cockatoo densities were 
similar in primary (9.1 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\)) and disturbed 
primary forests (9.8 birds), densities were lower in secondary forests 
(6.4 birds), and much lower in recently logged forests (1.9 birds), 
suggesting that large-scale logging might adversely affect the species' 
population.
    Between July and September 1996, the Wai Bula '96 (a conservation 
expedition from Cambridge University and Universitas Pattimura, Ambon) 
found the salmon-crested cockatoo to be widely dispersed in northeast 
Seram in the Wae Fufa Valley (primary lowland and lower montane 
evergreen forests) and in degraded coastal forests near Hoti (coastal 
secondary lowland forests), where pairs and small flocks were a common 
sight. They suggested that the bulk of the population probably occurs 
in eastern Seram (Isherwood et al. 1998, p. 18). Juniper and Parr 
(1998, p. 281) reported that the world population was ``thought still 
to be above 8,000.''
Seram--Recent Population Estimates
    The most recent research (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 232) estimated 
the total salmon-crested cockatoo population to be 110,385 birds (with 
confidence limits of a minimum 62,416 and a maximum of 195,242). Based 
on the research assumptions (see below), we agree with BLI (2001, p. 
1664) that ``* * * the figure of 62,400 is chosen as the appropriate 
population figure.''
    These numbers were generated by joint population surveys conducted 
by the Wildlife Conservation Society Indonesia Program, BLI Indonesia 
Program, and Pelastarian Hutan Dan Konservasi Alam, Ministry of 
Forestry, Government of Indonesia in May-September 1998. Cockatoo 
censuses were conducted at seven sites in western and central Seram 
using line-transect methods (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 228, 230, 234). 
Five of the sites were considered primary lowland forest and two had 
been previously logged or were disturbed by humans (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 228). Cockatoos were observed at all sites as single 
individuals or pairs. Estimates of density varied widely among 
locations, ranging from 0.93 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\) at Kawa to 
17.25 birds per 1 km\2\ at Roho. The mean density was 7.87 birds per 1 
km\2\, which was considered indicative of all sites because it included 
estimates from primary and logged forests. The researchers were unable 
to complete the census before the outbreak of civil war; thus, data 
from the western part of

[[Page 30765]]

Seram were used to estimate the number of cockatoos on all of Seram.
    The population estimate was generated by working with GIS-based 
estimates of lowland forest habitat on Seram (14,026 km\2\ (5,414.2 
mi\2\)) below 600 m (1,968 ft). This is based on the assumption that 
all lowland forests provide adequate habitat for cockatoos and that 
densities remain constant across the island (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 
232). Because these assumptions are unlikely, Kinnaird (2000, p. 15) 
explained the scenarios considered by the researchers. Cockatoos are 
fairly tolerant of degraded habitat, but they still need nesting trees 
and have a preference for areas with lots of large strangling figs. The 
first scenario involved the number and extent of logging concessions 
operating on Seram during the 10-year-period from 1989-1999, which 
resulted in a reduction of 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\) of lowland forest 
habitat for cockatoos. The population estimate still hovered between 
90,000 and 100,000 birds. The second scenario looked at continued 
logging and habitat loss during the next decade, projecting that the 
population size would decline by another 10 percent. These two 
estimates may have underestimated cockatoo population size because many 
logging concessions are not working at full capacity. On the other 
hand, the estimates ignored additional losses due to the capturing of 
birds for the pet trade. The population estimate also ignored the 
variability in how logging companies harvest their concessions (i.e., 
greater or less than the legal maximum intensity). If logging 
concessions harvest timber in a conventional manner of up to 1,000 
hectare (ha) (2,470 acre (ac)) per year, Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 233) 
assumed that cockatoos will persist but at possibly lower densities.
    In 1985, Smiet (1985, pp. 193-194) suggested that the relative 
resilience of most Moluccan parrots under trade pressure and habitat 
destruction can be attributed to a combination of factors, including: 
(1) A great reproductive capacity (especially in the smaller species); 
(2) adaptability to habitat alteration (which tends to provide a 
relative abundance of flowering and fruiting plants); (3) persistence 
of some original, undisturbed habitat; and (4) island isolation and 
lack of predators, parasites, and competitive species. Metz (2005, p. 
34), however, cautioned that the current population estimate should not 
be a ``cause for complacency.'' He suggested that the number of birds 
capable of breeding, or the breeding success rate, might be low for 
this species because: They have a long life span, and many birds might 
be past breeding age; there is a very high poaching pressure and 
trappers mostly take adult birds, which depletes the number of breeding 
birds; and the salmon-crested cockatoo has a slow reproductive cycle 
and unknown, but possibly low, fledging success rate. These opinions 
point out the need for further research on this species to better 
understand its population size and its ability to adapt to the habitat 
destruction and trade that is occurring on Seram.
Ambon
    Very small numbers of salmon-crested cockatoos are thought to occur 
in remaining natural forests in the more remote regions of Ambon 
(Poulsen and Jepson 1996, p. 160). While Smiet (1985, p. 189) lived on 
the island from 1980 to 1981, he did not see the species there; 
however, he wrote that the species was said to be common on Ambon until 
about 10 years ago. In 1992, Marsden (1992, pp. 12-13) reported seeing 
eight salmon-crested cockatoos and three unidentified cockatoos during 
brief searches of remaining forest patches on Ambon. He suggested that 
most free flying salmon-crested cockatoos on Ambon may be wild birds, 
either resident and possibly breeding or visiting birds from Seram. 
Local people told him that cockatoos were still present in the area, 
but rare in other forested areas on the island. Poulsen and Jepson 
(1996, pp. 159-160) confirmed that wild populations of salmon-crested 
cockatoos occur on Ambon. On May 28 and June 11, 1995, they observed 
six to eight cockatoos, in forested hills behind Hila on the north 
coast of the Hitu Peninsula, overlooking a forested valley at about 300 
m (984 ft) and in forest edge around shifting cultivation at about 500 
m (1,640 ft).

Conservation Status

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is protected from capture and trade 
under Indonesian laws (Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5, 1990, and Law 
No. 7, 1999) (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228; Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). 
Intentional violations may lead to imprisonment of up to 5 years and 
fines up to 100 million IDR (Indonesian rupiah) (which amounts to 
approximately 10,000 USD (U.S. dollar)). Negligent violations may lead 
to imprisonment of up to 1 year and fines up to 50 million IDR (5,000 
USD). The government may seize and confiscate specimens of protected 
animals. The Department of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation is 
responsible for implementing the law, and the Natural Resources 
Conservation Agency, working with police, Customs, and other 
enforcement agencies, is responsible for enforcing the law (Shepherd et 
al. 2004, p. 4).
    The species is listed on the IUCN (International Union for 
Conservation of Nature) Red List as `Vulnerable' because it has 
suffered a rapid population decline as a result of trapping for the pet 
bird trade and because of deforestation in its small range. BLI (2004, 
p. 1) projects the decline will continue and perhaps accelerate. The 
current population is estimated at 62,400 individuals (BLI 2001, p. 
1664), with a decreasing population trend; the decline for the past and 
the future 10 years or 3 generations is estimated at 30 to 49 percent 
(BLI 2008b, p. 1). The current trend is justified by the suspected 
rapid decline of the species due to ongoing and prolific capture for 
the Indonesian domestic pet trade (BLI 2008b, p. 2). Ongoing threats 
are habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging and clear-
cutting, agriculture, infrastructure development (settlement and 
hydroelectric projects), and harvesting (hunting and gathering for the 
domestic and international pet trade) (BLI 2004, pp. 1-2).
    The cockatoo is also protected by CITES, one of the most important 
means of controlling international trade in animal and plant species 
threatened by trade. CITES is an international agreement through which 
member countries, or Parties, work together to ensure that 
international trade in CITES-listed animals and plants is not 
detrimental to the survival of wild populations by regulating import, 
export, and re-export. Although almost all Psittaciformes species, 
including the salmon-crested cockatoo, were included in CITES Appendix 
II in 1981 (CITES 2008a, p. 1), the species was transferred to CITES 
Appendix I effective January 18, 1990, because populations were 
declining rapidly due to uncontrolled trapping for the international 
pet bird trade (CITES 1989a, pp. 1-7). An Appendix-I listing includes 
species threatened with extinction whose trade is permitted only under 
exceptional circumstances, which generally precludes commercial trade. 
The import of an Appendix-I species requires the issuance of both an 
import and export permit. Import permits are issued only if findings 
are made that the import would be for purposes that are not detrimental 
to the survival of the species in the wild and that the specimen will 
not be used for primarily commercial purposes (CITES Article III(3)). 
Export permits are issued only if findings are made that the specimen 
was legally acquired and trade is not

[[Page 30766]]

detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild (CITES Article 
III(2)). The United States and Indonesia, along with 173 other 
countries, are members to CITES (CITES 2009, p. 1).
    The import of salmon-crested cockatoos into the United States is 
also regulated by the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) (16 U.S.C. 4901 
et seq.), which was enacted on October 23, 1992. The purpose of the 
WBCA is to promote the conservation of exotic birds by ensuring that 
all trade involving the United States is sustainable and is not 
detrimental to the species. Permits may be issued to allow import of 
listed birds for scientific research, zoological breeding or display, 
or personal pet purposes when certain criteria are met. The Service may 
approve cooperative breeding programs and subsequently issue import 
permits under such programs. Wild-caught birds may be imported into the 
United States if they are subject to Service-approved management plans 
for sustainable use. At this time, the salmon-crested cockatoo is not 
part of a Service-approved cooperative breeding program and does not 
have an approved management plan for wild-caught birds (FWS 2008, p. 
1).
    The IUCN Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000-2004 for 
Parrots (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 66) identified a need to clarify the 
status of the salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild, including: (1) 
Determining the species' relative abundance in each habitat type, and 
(2) collecting information on the size and distribution of habitat 
types, trapping, timber extraction, and breeding success of cockatoos 
in primary and secondary forests because it is unknown if the salmon-
crested cockatoo will survive in degraded secondary forests in the long 
term. At present, inadequate information on the species, its habitat, 
and the effects of human activities on the species makes it difficult 
to make recommendations on regional development, such as reserve 
boundaries, land-use zoning, and possible new provincial forestry and 
agriculture policies, to ensure the species' survival. The information 
would also provide a baseline for monitoring and determining the degree 
to which trade affects the status of this species (Snyder et al. 2000, 
pp. 66, 69).

Summary of Factors Affecting the Salmon-Crested Cockatoo

    Section 4 of the Act and its implementing regulations (50 CFR 424) 
set forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal Lists of 
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. A species may be 
determined to be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more 
of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The 
present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its 
habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, 
scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the 
inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or 
manmade factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may 
be warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in 
combination. Each of these factors for the salmon-crested cockatoo is 
discussed below.

Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or 
Curtailment of the Species' Habitat or Range

    The lowland forest habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo is being 
impacted by logging (including the failure to use wise logging 
practices during selective logging), illegal logging, conversion of 
forests to agriculture and plantations, transmigration of people, oil 
exploration, and infrastructure development.
Logging
    Commercial timber extraction is listed by the IUCN Red List to be a 
continuing major threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo, with a medium 
impact and a slow decline of the species (BLI 2008b, p. 3). Research 
that assessed a species-area relationship suggested that deforestation 
affects endemic bird species restricted to single islands most severely 
(Brooks et al. 1997, p. 392).
    Between 2000 and 2005, Indonesia's forest cover declined by more 
than 90,000 km\2\ (34,740 mi\2\). Lowland areas, which offer important 
habitat for Indonesia's cockatoos, have been the most severely impacted 
(Cameron 2007, p. 177; Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 1 p. 2). On the islands 
of Sumatra and Kalimantan (Indonesian islands to the far west of 
Seram), the World Bank predicted that all lowland rain forests outside 
of protected areas would be degraded by 2005 and 2010, respectively 
(Rhee et al. 2004, p. xviii). In many areas of Indonesia, most 
commercially valuable forests have already been logged. Thus, major 
commercial logging enterprises are now focused on islands in Maluku 
Province, including Seram (BLI 2008k, p. 6; Smiet 1985, p. 181).
    The impact of logging has steadily increased on Seram, with logging 
becoming more intense during the 1990s (BLI 2008k, p. 6). Deforestation 
in some areas has been extensive through selective logging of Shorea 
spp. (Ellen 1993, p. 201), such that by 2001, about a fifth of the 
original forest cover had been cleared (Morrison 2001, p. 1), with most 
of the coastal areas converted to grassland, agriculture, plantations, 
or scrub (Marsden 1992, p. 7). Although large areas of contiguous, 
intact forests remain (Morrison 2001, p. 1), 50 percent of forests, 
which are spread over the island, are under logging concessions. The 
north dipterocarp forests are still dominated by the endemic Shorea 
selanica, a tree especially vulnerable to logging as it grows tall and 
straight and is much favored by Western and Japanese markets (Edwards 
1993, p. 9). Once the primary forest is logged, experience on nearby 
Indonesian islands shows that secondary forest is generally converted 
to other uses or logged again rather than being allowed to return to 
primary forest (Barr 2001, pp. 64, 67; Jepson et al. 2001, p. 859; 
Grimmett and Sumarauw 2000, p. 8).
    Selective logging is the primary technique for the extraction of 
timber in Indonesia (BLI 2008k, p. 6). In selective logging, the most 
valuable trees from a forest are commercially extracted (Johns 1988, p. 
31), and the forest is left to regenerate naturally or usually with 
some management until being subsequently logged again. Johns (1988, p. 
31), looking at a West Malaysian dipterocarp forest, found that 
mechanized selective logging in tropical rain forests, which usually 
removes a small percentage of timber trees, causes severe incidental 
damage. The extraction of 3.3 percent of trees destroyed 50.9 percent 
of the forest. He concluded that this type of logging reduced the 
availability of food sources for frugivores (fruit-eaters). Edwards 
(1993, p. 9) observed a similar problem on Seram. Timber companies, 
operating under a selective logging system, caused considerable damage 
to the surrounding forest, both to trees and soil. Forests selectively 
logged 15 years before had an open structure with skeletons of 
incidentally killed trees, serious gulley erosion, and vegetation on 
waterlogged sites that had been compacted by heavy vehicles. 
Furthermore, commercial logging uses a network of roads, which can lead 
to secondary problems (BLI 2008k, p. 6), such as providing access to 
trappers of parrots.
    Since selective logging targets mature trees, it can have a 
disproportionate impact on hole-nesters, such as cockatoos, because 
fewer nest sites remain (BLI 2008k, p. 6). Unsustainable logging 
practices that destroy the forest canopy also reduce habitat available 
to the salmon-crested cockatoo. Kinnaird et al. (2003, pp. 233-234) 
found that the

[[Page 30767]]

abundance of cockatoos was positively related to the density of its 
favored nest tree, Octomeles sumatranus, and strangling figs, a 
potentially important food resource. These trees would be impacted by 
logging, emphasizing the need to implement wise logging practices, such 
as those based on reduced-impact logging techniques. However, these 
techniques, which are recommended under Indonesia's selective logging 
system, are seldom applied because of the lack of control over 
harvesting practices, limited understanding of how to implement the 
measures, and high financial costs (Sist et al. 1998, p. 1). 
Specifically, the pre- and post-logging inventories are not conducted 
properly or are not reported truthfully; over-cutting above the annual 
plan occurs; frequent cutting outside approved boundaries occurs; re-
logging is more frequent than recommended; and supervision by the 
Ministry of Forestry has been ineffective (Thompson 1996, p. 9).
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is dependent on little-disturbed 
lowland forests. In a field study conducted beginning December 19, 
1989, for 5 weeks, Marsden (1992, pp. 7-13) looked at the distribution, 
abundance, and habitat preferences of the salmon-crested cockatoo on 
Seram. Results suggested that while cockatoo densities were similar in 
primary and disturbed primary forests, densities were lower in 
secondary forests, and much lower in recently logged forests (Marsden 
1992, p. 9). In total, 84 cockatoos were recorded at 132 stations, 
either singly or in pairs, on 34 occasions. Groups of more than 4 birds 
were recorded 3 times, with a maximum group size of 10. Although 
cockatoos were found at different densities in different land-use 
types, more cockatoos were present where habitat alterations occurred 
on a small scale. Cockatoos tended to be recorded in mature, open-
canopied lowland forests with some very large, tall trees and some low 
vegetation. Most significantly, Marsden found that there may have been 
a reduction of the cockatoo population by about 700 birds for each 100 
km\2\ (86 mi\2\) of Seram's primary forests that had been selectively 
logged in the last 6 years. Similarly, the conversion of 100 km\2\ of 
locally disturbed secondary forests to plantation could result in the 
loss of around 600 birds (Marsden 1992, p. 12).
    Marsden (1998, pp. 605-611) also looked at changes in bird 
abundance following selective logging on Seram. Field work was 
conducted in forested areas in the central and northeast parts of the 
island. Logged forests usually had sparser canopy and mid-level 
vegetation cover and denser ground cover than unlogged forests (Marsden 
1998, pp. 605, 607-608). Using a point count method to estimate 
population densities, Marsden (1998, p. 608; 1999, p. 380) found that 
salmon-crested cockatoo density estimates in unlogged forests below 300 
m (984 ft) were more than double those in logged forests. Because the 
cockatoo is caught for the pet trade, Marsden was unable to separate 
the effects of habitat change, such as loss of nest holes, from 
possible effects of logging on capture rates (for example, increased 
accessibility for trappers to forests by access roads) (Marsden 1998, 
p. 610). Although Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 233) found the highest 
cockatoo densities in primary forest habitat with good structure and 
lower densities in logged or disturbed sites, they did not find a 
statistically significant difference in cockatoo densities between 
logged and unlogged forests. They surmised this may have been because 
of the intensity of logging or, more likely, reflected the mosaic of 
habitat types found within their sampling sites. They speculated that 
there is a continuum of cockatoo densities in logged forests depending 
on the intensity of logging and access provided to trappers.
    Logging concessions are spread over Seram, except there are no 
concessions in Gunung Sahuai Nature Reserve and only 15 percent of 
Manusela National Park is under concessions (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 
231). About half the island (8,271 km\2\ (3,193 mi\2\)) is held within 
logging concessions, with more than 75 percent within lowland habitat 
favored by the salmon-crested cockatoo (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 227, 
233). This means that less than 30 percent of the island's lowland 
forests (5,096 km\2\ (1,967 mi\2\)) is unoccupied by logging 
concessions. In 1998, Kinnaird et al. (2003, pp. 233-234) were unable 
to find out the area of land scheduled for logging. However, Kinnaird 
(2000, p. 15) was able to obtain information from the Ministry of 
Forestry that showed 12 logging concessions had been operating on Seram 
during the 10-year period from 1989-1999. If the concessions have been 
logged at a maximum intensity of 10 km\2\ (3.86 mi\2\)/year/concession 
and logging was conducted in a conventional manner that results in 70 
percent damage to the canopy, lowland forest habitat for cockatoos 
would be reduced by 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\), or 8.5 percent, in 10 
years. The researcher concluded in 2000 that overall the loss of 
habitat has not reached a level where it is perceived as a serious 
threat to cockatoos. However, the cockatoo remains under threat 
(Kinnaird 2000, p. 15). We have no reason to believe that the effects 
of logging on the species will be ameliorated in the foreseeable 
future, but may increase because commercial logging enterprises are now 
focused on the Maluku Province, including Seram.
    The researchers were forced to leave the island because of civil 
unrest. They suggested that the pressure for land conversion will 
accelerate dramatically once social and economic stability returns to 
Seram, especially in the lowlands, and this will be made worse by the 
1999 regional autonomy laws that allow for local authorities to 
determine licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural 
resources. They concluded that the proper management of Seram's logging 
concessions would determine the future of the salmon-crested cockatoo 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 234).
    Approximately 14 percent of Seram's forests (or 11.5 percent of 
lowland forests) are protected in Manusela National Park (2,216.4 km\2\ 
(855.5 mi\2\)) and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve (118.9 km\2\ (45.9 
mi\2\)). In Manusela National Park, 15 percent of the forest is within 
logging concessions. In 1981, Smiet and Siallagan (1981, pp. 11-12, 22) 
reported that large patches of forest in the coastal region of the Mual 
Plains had been disturbed by logging activities--forests along the 
southeastern boundary of the park had been cleared up to 400 m (1,312 
ft) and planted with clove and coconut plantations. They advocated the 
development of a buffer zone between the park and the densely populated 
coastal area because more and more forests at increasing altitudes were 
being cleared. Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 233) estimated that the 
protected areas in Seram provide habitat for a minimum of 7,300 salmon-
crested cockatoos based on density estimates derived from their 
surveys. However, logging has recently occurred inside Manusela 
National Park, and, once logging has concluded, there are pressures to 
change the land use to agriculture or plantations (BLI 2008k, p. 7). 
Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 233) also estimated that the proposed Wai 
Bula Nature Reserve, 561.8 km\2\ (216.9 mi\2\) of lowland forests 
located in the northeastern part of Seram, provides habitat for a 
minimum of 2,500 cockatoos. We believe that this population estimate, 
which is based on the availability of suitable habitat, may be an 
overestimate because the Wai Bula area is currently not protected (it 
was proposed as a nature reserve in 1981 and the probability of it 
being officially designated is now low) and 93 percent of the area is 
under logging concessions.

[[Page 30768]]

Illegal Logging
    Illegal logging is considered to be a leading cause of forest 
degradation in Indonesia (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 6 p. 7). It is 
pervasive, and the Indonesian government has been unable to enforce its 
own forest boundaries (Barr 2001, p. 40). Illegal logging includes 
overharvesting beyond legal and sustainable quotas, harvesting of trees 
from steep slopes and riparian habitat, timber harvesting and land 
encroachment in conservation areas and protection forests, and 
falsification of documents. Overexploitation of the forests and illegal 
logging are driven by the wood-processing industry, which consumes at 
least six times the officially allowed harvest (Rhee et al. 2004, pp. 
xvii, chap. 6 p. 8). Illegal logging in the national parks is also 
reported with regularity, and the persons involved are armed and 
ruthless (Whitten et al. 2001, p. 2).
    Although the Indonesian government issued Presidential Instruction 
No. 4/2005 to eradicate illegal logging in forest areas and 
distribution of illegally cut timber throughout Indonesia (see Factor 
C) (FAOLEX 2009, p. 1), illegal logging continues. The Center for 
International Forestry Research estimated that between 55 and 75 
percent of logging in Indonesia is illegal (U.S. Agency for 
International Development (USAID) 2004, p. 1). Contributing factors 
include poor forest governance, rapid decentralization of government, 
abuse of local political powers, complicity of the military and police 
in some parts of the country, inconsistent enforcement of the law, and 
dwindling power of the central government (USAID 2004, pp. 3, 9). In 
December 2000, Jepson et al. (2001, pp. 859-861) found illegal logging 
crews operating freely in protected areas and forest concessions in 
Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia. Jepson et al. (2001, pp. 859-861) 
also claimed that local government officials were in collusion with 
illegal loggers by turning a blind eye to the practice or providing 
permits for timber transport. Some government officials, who wanted to 
stop illegal logging, faced serious intimidation. Jepson et al. 
concluded that illegal logging was becoming semi-legal and the de facto 
arrangement for governing Indonesia's forests.
Conversion of Forests to Agriculture and Plantations
    Indonesia is a rapidly developing country with a projected 
population of 235 million by 2015 (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 59). A 
growing population on Seram has converted forest into cultivated land, 
with human settlements and plantations typically located in lowland 
coastal areas (Smiet 1985, pp. 181, 183). Based on data from landsat 
images from late 1989 and early 1990 (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230), 
land use in Seram is as follows: 4.6 percent in agriculture, 0.1 
percent in plantations, and 0.1 percent in settlements (see Table 1 
above). Although these percentages are low, forests continue to be 
converted for agriculture and plantations.
    Near the coast, forests have been replaced with plantations of 
coconut, oil palm, and spices. Inland, forests on rich alluvial soil, 
once timbered, are liable to be converted to agricultural fields. Part 
of the Indonesian government's long-term planning strategy is to 
develop more efficient agriculture through improved and appropriate 
techniques to help alleviate poverty. If the plan is carefully 
implemented, improved agricultural techniques could reduce pressure on 
areas of natural habitat (BLI 2008k, pp. 7-8). However, Snyder et al. 
(2000, p. 66) cautioned that, as most of Seram's forests are under 
timber concessions, the island's development priority could mean that 
forests over good soil may be converted to wet rice cultivation and 
other crops, a habitat in which the salmon-crested cockatoo is unable 
to exist (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 66).
    Approximately 6,220 km\2\ (2,401 mi\2\) of Seram's lowland forest 
is slated for conversion to agriculture or plantations (45 percent 
within logging concessions). By 2028, most of this land will probably 
be converted to these uses that provide no habitat for cockatoos, 
resulting in habitat loss for at least 31,000 cockatoos and reducing 
the total island population to around 30,400 individuals (Kinnaird et 
al. 2003, p. 233).
Transmigration
    Indonesia has long had a policy to resettle people, mainly from 
Java, to develop the less populated regions of the country, with the 
Maluku Province being a major destination (BLI 2008k, p. 8). From 1969-
1989, some 730,000 families were relocated in Indonesia (Library of 
Congress 1992, p. 1). While the scale of transmigration has been 
reduced over the past decade, the recent unrest in Maluku led to large-
scale movement of people. In some areas, these movements of people have 
had serious negative effects on the environment, involving land 
disputes with indigenous inhabitants (Library of Congress 1992, p. 1), 
forest clearance for agriculture, unsustainable slash-and-burn farming 
(BLI 2008k, p. 8), and introduction of wet rice cultivation (Ellen 
1993, p. 200).
Oil Exploration
    In 1993, a significant oil discovery was made in eastern Seram--the 
Non-Bula Block, which occupies an area of about 4,572 km\2\ (1,765 
mi\2\). Development was delayed until 2002 (Lion Energy Limited 2009, 
p. 2). The average output from the main oil field, the Oseil Field, in 
the first half of 2006 was 4,300 barrels per day (Entrepreneur 2009, p. 
1). The gross oil reserves in that field have been estimated to be 
about 39 million barrels--7 million barrels of proven reserves, 6 
million barrels of probable reserves, and 26 million barrels of 
possible reserves (International Business Times 2009, p. 1). In 2008, 
oil was discovered in a new well, which lies 4 km (2.5 mi) from the 
Oseil Field. The investment firm is currently petitioning the 
Indonesian government to begin production and export operations from 
the new field (E&P Magazine 2008, p. 1). Generally, oil development 
areas cover large tracts of land, but the area occupied by permanent 
facilities including pipelines and refineries is relatively small. 
However, oil development can have significant negative impacts on 
nearby habitat through construction of roads and other buildings, 
discharge of refineries, and oil spills and leaks (Rhee et al. 2004, 
chap. 6 p. 31).
Infrastructure Development
    Seram is remote, with no airport and only rudimentary ground 
transportation (Morrison 2001, p. 5). An essential part of regional 
development is the improvement of roads. However, new roads can cause 
serious environmental problems (BLI 2008k, p. 8), as shown by the 
Trans-Seram Highway, which threatens forest habitat by illegal logging, 
land clearance, and soil erosion (Morrison 2001, p. 5). The excavation 
of sand for local road construction has affected some habitat on Seram. 
Previous proposals for a large cement factory, with a quarry and 
hydroelectric dam, close to Manusela National Park appear to have been 
abandoned (BLI 2008k, p. 8).
Summary of Factor A
    The salmon-crested cockatoo resides in lowland forests 
predominately between 100-600 m (328-1,968 ft) throughout the island, 
with the highest densities of birds occurring in little-disturbed 
forests. Logging and illegal logging are primary threats to the habitat 
of this species, with the threats occurring throughout the island in 
lowland forests.
    Cockatoos are highly impacted by selective logging of primary 
forests.

[[Page 30769]]

Selective logging, which targets mature trees, has a negative impact on 
hole-nesters, such as the salmon-crested cockatoo. Research found that 
the abundance of cockatoos was positively related to the density of its 
favored nest tree and strangling figs, trees that would be impacted by 
logging, especially since reduced-impact logging techniques are seldom 
applied.
    Research also found that for every 100 km\2\ (38.6 mi\2\) of 
Seram's primary forests that were selectively logged in the last 6 
years, 700 birds were likely lost from the cockatoo population. 
Similarly, for every 100 km\2\ of locally disturbed secondary forest 
that were converted to plantations, 600 birds were likely lost from the 
cockatoo population. While the estimated densities of cockatoos in 
logged forests below 300 m (984 ft) were more than half those in 
unlogged forests, researchers were unable to separate the effects of 
habitat change from the possible effects of logging on trapping rates 
(see Factor B).
    Once the primary forest is logged, experience on other nearby 
Indonesian islands shows that the secondary forest is generally 
converted to other uses or logged again rather than being allowed to 
return to primary forest. Therefore, although cockatoos may continue to 
inhabit secondary forests on Seram, the population will be at a 
substantially lower number. The trend of high loss of primary forests 
and degradation of secondary forests is of concern because little is 
known about the reproductive ecology of the salmon-crested cockatoo in 
the wild, including breeding success in mature forests versus secondary 
forests, and whether the cockatoo will survive in degraded forests in 
the long term. Also, the size of groups of cockatoos observed was 
drastically smaller in research conducted in 1998, where 75 percent of 
birds were observed as single individuals and 22 percent in pairs, 
compared to earlier reports, where groups of up to 16 birds were seen.
    By 2001, approximately 20 percent of the original forest cover on 
Seram had been cleared. About 50 percent of the island's forests were 
held under logging concessions, with more than 75 percent within the 
salmon-crested cockatoo's favored lowland habitat. Based on information 
from the Ministry of Forestry in Indonesia, researchers estimated that 
the cockatoo lost 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\), or 8.5 percent, of habitat 
between 1989 and 1999 due to logging. Although we have no information 
on the current status of logging concessions or actual logging (legal 
and illegal) activity on Seram since 1999, we anticipate that the rate 
of loss of cockatoo habitat due to logging will continue at the 1989-
1999 level or increase because commercial logging enterprises are now 
focused on Seram. We have no information that indicates that this trend 
will be reversed in the foreseeable future.
    In addition, approximately 44 percent of Seram's lowland forests 
(6,220 km\2\ (2,401 mi\2\)) is designated as conversion forest, of 
which 45 percent is within logging concessions. It is predicted that by 
2028 up to 50 percent of the current population (at least 31,000 
cockatoos) may be lost as a result of conversion of forests to 
agriculture and plantations, which provide no habitat for the cockatoo.
    Approximately 11.7 percent of Seram's lowland forests are protected 
in Manusela National Park and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve. 
Researchers estimated that these protected areas could provide habitat 
for up to 7,300 salmon-crested cockatoos. However, about 15 percent of 
the national park is under logging concessions and illegal logging has 
been occurring. Once the land is logged, the land use is often changed 
to agriculture.
    The resettlement of people on Seram has had negative effects on the 
environment and the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo. These 
negative effects include forest clearance for agriculture, 
unsustainable slash-and-burn farming, and introduction of wet rice 
cultivation. The relatively recent development of oil production on 
Seram most likely has adversely affected the cockatoo's habitat. 
Potential development of such a large part of Seram (the current Non-
Bula Block occupies one-quarter of the island) is a concern because at 
one time the salmon-crested cockatoo appeared to be mostly distributed 
in the eastern part of the island. Although we do not know what forest 
habitat has been destroyed, we do know that oil development on Seram 
will have a negative impact on nearby habitat through road building and 
other construction, discharge of refineries, and oil spills and leaks. 
Further, an essential part of regional development is infrastructure 
development, primarily the improvement of roads, which leads to illegal 
logging and land clearance, as well as facilitates bird trapping.
    In summary, extensive logging and conversion of lowland forests to 
agriculture and plantations, combined with transmigratory human 
resettlement, oil exploration, and infrastructure development, are 
likely to destroy much of the lowland rain forests of Seram, the 
salmon-crested cockatoo's habitat, by 2025. Therefore, we find that the 
present and threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its 
habitat is a threat to the continued existence of this species 
throughout all of its range in the foreseeable future.

Factor B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or 
Educational Purposes

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is a very popular pet bird. In the 
1980s, it suffered a rapid population decline due to trapping largely 
for international trade. Below we analyze the impact of international 
and domestic trade within and surrounding Indonesia and other uses for 
recreational, scientific, or educational purposes. We also consider and 
describe programs on Seram to support the conservation of the 
cockatoo--the release of confiscated cockatoos and local involvement.
International and Domestic Commercial Trade
    International wildlife trade is a profitable business and has been 
identified as contributing to the decline of a number of bird species, 
including the salmon-crested cockatoo (BLI 2008h, p. 1). The majority 
of wild-caught birds in international trade are sold as pets (Thomsen 
et al. 1992, p. 5). In addition, in Indonesia, pet birds, particularly 
parrots, are an important part of the culture, creating a massive 
demand for parrots internationally and domestically (BLI 2008k, p. 10). 
In a survey of bird-keeping among households in five major Indonesian 
cities, Jepson and Ladle (2005, pp. 442-448) found that as many as 2.5 
million birds are kept in the five cities. Of these, 60,230 wild-caught 
native parrots were kept by 51,000 households, and 50,590 wild-caught 
native parrots were acquired each year (this annual figure represents a 
change in ownership and not the number of individuals taken from the 
wild). The researchers concluded that the level of bird-keeping among 
urban Indonesians calls for a conservation intervention.
    Parrots have been traded for hundreds of years by people living in 
the Moluccas. Heinroth (1902, p. 120) reported that at the start of the 
20th century, trade significantly impacted the salmon-crested cockatoo. 
Bowler (1988, p. 6) wrote that the salmon-crested cockatoo was severely 
threatened by extensive trapping for the pet bird trade in the late 
1970s, with the government apparently having little control over the 
number of birds taken from the wild. In the 1980s, extensive trapping 
of the salmon-crested cockatoo was the most important factor in the 
species' decline (BLI 2008k, p. 10; Forshaw 1989, p. 141). Smiet 
reported that trade in live birds flourished on Seram. The salmon-
crested cockatoo was a popular pet

[[Page 30770]]

traded in large numbers, accounting for 15 percent of the export (Smiet 
1985, pp. 181, 189). Smiet (1982, pp. 324-325) also found live 
cockatoos readily available in the Ambon market.
    Based on the most recent CITES annual report data, 74,838 salmon-
crested cockatoos were reported as exported from Indonesia between 1981 
and 1990 (only 26 of these were reported as bodies, all others were 
reported as live birds), with international imports (from all exporting 
countries) averaging 8,393 annually (UNEP-WCMC 2009b, p. 3; 2009a, p. 
1). The species was listed in CITES Appendix II in 1981, but the high 
volume of trade led the CITES Significant Trade Working Group to 
identify this species as one of particular concern (CITES 1989b, p. 
121). A review of CITES annual report trade data available at the time 
showed that the level of international trade of live birds was having a 
detrimental effect on wild populations (Inskipp et al. 1988, pp. 185-
186, 188). The trade data showed imports of live salmon-crested 
cockatoos continued to be high in 1986 and 1987, with the 1987 
Indonesian harvest quota being exceeded by 3,661 birds (CITES 1989a, p. 
5) or 72 percent. The Indonesian government decreased the annual 
harvest quota from 10,250 in 1984 to 1,000 in 1989, but a CITES 
document suggested that these national measures to control trade had 
been ineffective (CITES 1989b, p. 121). Thus, the CITES Parties voted 
to transfer the salmon-crested cockatoo to CITES Appendix I, effective 
January 18, 1990. In 1990, field work on Seram revealed a ``sharp 
decline in visible trade'' in the salmon-crested cockatoo, although 
small numbers of birds were still leaving the island (Taylor 1990, p. 
14).
    Although CITES annual reports are of great value in assessing 
levels of legal trade and trends of trade, the number of cockatoos 
traded may be higher than the data reflect. The numbers do not include 
data from countries that are not CITES Parties or CITES Parties that 
did not submit annual reports (Inskipp et al. 1988, p. viii); although, 
in many cases the Parties that these countries traded with did submit 
records. Also, the numbers do not include deaths of birds before 
export, birds illegally traded, and birds domestically traded, factors 
that can potentially double the numbers, according to Cameron (2007, p. 
163). ProFauna Indonesia, an animal protection nongovernmental 
organization, estimated that parrot smuggling in North Maluku, 
Indonesia, results in approximately 40 percent mortality (5 percent 
during glue trapping, 10 percent during transportation, and 25 percent 
during holding to sell in bird markets (due to malnutrition, disease, 
and stress)) (ProFauna Indonesia 2008, p. 5). Undocumented illegal 
trade (international and domestic) is difficult to quantify (Pain et 
al. 2006, p. 322; Thomsen et al. 1992, p. 3), and a listing in Appendix 
I of CITES does not totally stop illegal trade (Pain et al. 2006, p. 
328). Seizures reported to the CITES Secretariat since 1990, however, 
are small--1 live bird seized in Austria in 1997; 25 live birds seized 
in the United Arab Emirates in 1998; and 4 live birds seized in 
Indonesia in 1999 (John Sellar 2009, pers. comm., p. 2). However, it 
should be noted that CITES Parties are not required to identify 
seizures in their annual reports, so actual seizure figures may be 
higher. Since 1999, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Law 
Enforcement, has seized only two salmon-crested cockatoos for lack of 
proper permits (FWS 2009, p. 1).
    While CITES reported a clear fall in trade after 1989, with an 
average annual worldwide import of 159 cockatoos (UNEP-WCMC 2009c, p. 
5), illegal hunting and trade of salmon-crested cockatoos continues 
today, with high domestic consumption in Indonesia, despite this 
species also being protected under Indonesian laws (Republic of 
Indonesia Law No. 5, 1990, and Law No. 7, 1999), which include 
imprisonment and fines for violations (see Conservation Measures 
above). Extrapolating from figures obtained during interviews with 
parrot trappers in 1998, an estimated 4,000 salmon-crested cockatoos 
are trapped each year on Seram (BLI 2008k, p. 10; Cameron 2007, p. 
164), which is approximately 6.4 percent of the population (Kinnaird et 
al., in litt., as cited in BLI 2001, p. 1666). Direct evidence of 
continuing illegal trade is the sighting of glue traps (Kinnaird 2000, 
p. 15). Poachers use glue traps by cutting a suitable perching branch 
out of a tree and replacing that branch with one that has been smeared 
with sticky glue. Then a tame decoy bird lures wild birds into the glue 
trap (ProFauna Indonesia 2008, p. 2). Birds are also captured using 
nylon fishing-line snares or by tracing adults to their nesting sites 
so that the young can be taken (ProFauna Indonesia 2004, p. 5; Juniper 
and Parr 1998, p. 218; Bowler 1988, p. 6). Metz (2005, p. 35) described 
local declines in the salmon-crested cockatoo, based on statements from 
trappers. When cockatoos became scarce on the western part of the 
island in 1991-92, poachers moved to the eastern and northern parts of 
the island.
    Even with government controls, the commercial hunting of cockatoos 
(i.e., hunting by people to gain at least a temporary living from the 
activity) is relatively common on Seram (Ellen 1993, p. 199). Field 
research conducted in 2003-2005 in a small village (320 people, 60 
households) located in the Manusela Valley led to the conclusion that 
collecting wild parrots, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, is a 
way for villagers to supplement their income during times of hardship 
(Sasaoka 2009, pers. comm., p. 1; Sasaoka 2008, p. 158). Most trapping 
was sporadic and the number of parrots caught was low. Traps are set in 
fruit trees such as durian (Durio spp.) and breadfruit (Artocarpus 
heterophyllus) from January to May, and traps are set in resting sites 
at any time of the year. In 2003, 21 salmon-crested cockatoos were 
trapped in the research site by 3 households; in 2004, 25 cockatoos by 
5 households; and in 2005, 26 cockatoos by 10 households. Villagers 
sometimes kept the cockatoos for several months while waiting for the 
best price, but normally did not keep them as pets. Trappers received 
70,000-100,000 IDR (7-10 USD) for an adult cockatoo and 200,000-250,000 
IDR (20-25 USD) for a baby cockatoo, selling the birds to middlemen in 
coastal areas (Sasaoka 2009, pers. comm., pp. 1-2). In studying the 
forest peoples of Seram, social anthropologists have reported that 
parrot catching accounts for 25 to 30 percent of forest people's cash 
income, and that young men among the Halafara people of the Manusela 
Valley catch and sell parrots to raise their bride price (Badcock in 
litt. 1997 as cited in Snyder et al. 2000, p. 60).
    The scope of the illegal trade in the salmon-crested cockatoo is 
unknown. After conducting an investigation from December 2003 to May 
2004, ProFauna Indonesia reported that smuggling and trade in protected 
birds continues despite legislation that prohibits such activities. 
According to the report, at least 9,600 parrots, including salmon-
crested cockatoos (numbers of birds by species not given in this 
article), are caught on Seram and sold to bird exporters in Jakarta via 
Ambon each year (ProFauna Indonesia 2006, p. 1; 2004, p. 6). The 
illegal practice involved Ambon's largest bird trader and Seram's most 
prominent bird collector and trader (Jakarta Post 2004, p. 2). A 
principal broker on Seram might have 20-50 salmon-crested cockatoos at 
any one time (Metz and Nursahid 2004, p. 8), even though legal trapping 
quotas are zero. A single trapper can capture up to 16 cockatoos each 
month within Manusela National Park (ProFauna Indonesia 2004, p. 4). 
However, finding

[[Page 30771]]

and trapping birds have become harder, and the price paid to trappers 
has increased (Metz 2008, pp. 2-3).
    Cockatoos are taken to the coast, sold, and transported to Ambon on 
boats in packed cages (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 281) in hidden 
compartments surrounded by legally shipped lories and lorikeets (Metz 
and Nursahid 2004, p. 9; Profauna Indonesia 2004, p. 7) or by hiding 
birds in thermos bottles (Metz 2005, pp. 35-36; Metz and Nursahid 2004, 
p. 9; ProFauna Indonesia 2004, p. 9) or sections of bamboo (Cameron 
2007, p. 164). Salmon-crested cockatoos may also be reported on 
shipping permits as white cockatoos (Cacatua alba), an unprotected 
species in Indonesia (ProFauna Indonesia 2004, p. 6). Some birds are 
flown to Jakarta and may receive a police escort to the market (Metz 
and Nursahid 2004, p. 9). Illegally exported cockatoos are reported 
from Indonesian markets in Medan and Sumatra or international markets 
in Singapore and Bangkok (Kinnaird 2000, p. 15), or they may pass 
through Singapore, China, Taiwan, and Malaysia, with Thailand a recent 
major importer (Metz n.d., p. 1). Cockatoos also may be smuggled 
directly out of Indonesia and sent by boat to the Philippines and 
Singapore, which act as distribution points for worldwide illegal trade 
(Cameron 2007, p. 164).
    Most Indonesian towns have either a bird market or a stall selling 
birds within the main market (Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 2). Birds in 
Indonesian markets are most likely sold for domestic use, although some 
birds will go into international trade (Cameron 2007, p. 163). Metz 
(2007b, p. 2) estimated that 80 percent of illegally traded salmon-
crested cockatoos remain in Indonesia. Some cockatoos remain as pets 
where they are trapped, but most are sold to homes in the cities in 
western Indonesia, where the salmon-crested cockatoo is a symbol of 
wealth and prestige (Metz n.d., p. 1). This cockatoo is still sold 
openly in the markets of Ambon and elsewhere in Indonesia. Cameron 
(2007, p. 163) noted that in 1998, Margaret Kinnaird and co-workers saw 
up to 40 salmon-crested cockatoos at any time in Ambon markets. In an 
analysis of the pet trade in Medan, Sumatra, between 1997 and 2001, 
Shepherd et al. (2004, p. 12) concluded that the salmon-crested 
cockatoo was common in trade in Medan, with 71 cockatoos being recorded 
in the markets. Most of the birds at the Medan market were sold as live 
pets (Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 24). In 2003, ProFauna Indonesia (2004, 
p. 8) found 50 salmon-crested cockatoos had been traded among three 
markets in Java known to sell hundreds of protected parrots: Bratang 
bird market in Surabaya, Pramuka bird market in Jakarta, and Pasar Turi 
in Surabaya. However, ProFauna Indonesia speculated that the real 
number must be higher than 50 because the number of parrots shipped 
from Seram to Jakarta within a month is at least 20 and estimated that 
a minimum of 240 salmon-crested cockatoos are illegally shipped to 
Jakarta in a year (ProFauna Indonesia 2004, pp. 10-11). In addition to 
being sold at markets in Jakarta, salmon-crested cockatoos are also 
sold to the people of Maluku, including soldiers of the National 
Indonesian Army returning to Java; shipments using military ships are 
difficult to control (ProFauna Indonesia 2004, p. 9).
    Stopping illegal trade is complicated by the vast size of 
Indonesia's coastline and government officials with limited resources 
and knowledge to deal with the illegal pet trade and corruption (Metz 
2007c, p. 2). ProFauna Indonesia claimed that illegal traders exploited 
the religious conflict between Muslims and Christians in the Maluku 
Islands in May of 2004, flooding the markets in Jakarta with salmon-
crested cockatoos. Animal activist and Chairman of the Balikpapan 
Orangutan Survival Foundation, Willie Smith, suggested that it would be 
difficult to stop the illegal trade in cockatoos because much of the 
smuggling was backed or carried out by the Indonesian military and 
because the departments responsible for protecting natural resources 
were hampered by conflicts of interest and a lack of willingness to 
take action (Jakarta Post 2004, pp. 3, 4). Until recently, the wildlife 
protection laws have not been vigorously enforced, but this may be 
changing. For example, in September 2004, National Park Officers 
arrested a long-term bird buyer and confiscated nine salmon-crested 
cockatoos. The buyer was sentenced to two months' jail time and given a 
fine (Metz n.d., p. 1).
    To combat the illegal wildlife trade, Southeast Asian countries, 
including Indonesia, formed the Association of South East Asian 
Nations-Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) in 2005 to protect the 
region's biodiversity (Gulf Times 2008, p. 1). ASEAN uses a cooperative 
approach to law enforcement (Cameron 2007, p. 164). It focuses on the 
gathering and sharing of intelligence, capacity building, and better 
cooperation in anti-smuggling and Customs controls across Southeast 
Asia (Lin 2005, p. 192). For example, in 2008, Indonesian police 
officers and forestry and Customs officers participated in an intensive 
Wildlife Crime Investigation Course to help the government tackle 
poaching and smuggling (Wildlife Alliance 2008, p. 2).
    Assessing the effects of trade on wild populations of parrots, such 
as the salmon-crested cockatoo, is difficult because the threats of 
habitat loss and trade operate in concert (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 2, 
68). For example, the loss of habitat due to logging, conversion of 
forests to agriculture and plantations, increased human settlement, oil 
exploration, and infrastructure development leads to more exposure to 
bird trapping. Thus, it is difficult to distinguish between the effects 
of habitat loss and trade on the cockatoo. In addition, little 
information is available on the number and age of birds being taken 
from the wild and when and where the birds are being trapped. For 
example, the trapping of large numbers of breeding-age adults from a 
population is apt to have a larger overall adverse impact than the 
removal of a similar number of juveniles (Thomsen et al. 1992, p. 10). 
Coates and Bishop (1997, pp. 39-41) reported that trapping the salmon-
crested cockatoo for international and domestic Indonesian markets, in 
combination with ongoing destruction of lowland forests, was having a 
major negative impact on wild populations. They concluded that, despite 
the protection given to the cockatoo by Manusela National Park, this 
cockatoo was being trapped to extinction.
Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Purposes
    While conducting research in one village in central Seram, Dr. 
Sasaoka (pers. comm. 2009, p. 2) wrote that hunting with air guns for 
food started in 2000. Although the use of air guns was not common in 
his research site, about 10 villagers were using air guns to hunt 
Columbidae species (pigeons and doves). If a hunter encountered a 
salmon-crested cockatoo in the forest or garden by chance, the hunter 
would shoot it for food. Based on Dr. Sasaoka's unpublished field data, 
about 40 salmon-crested cockatoos were shot and killed by air gun 
hunting in 2003. This information raises questions on the use of air 
guns on Seram. Without additional data, however, we are unable to 
assess the possible impact air gun hunting may be having or will have 
on the survival of salmon-crested cockatoos. We are not aware of any 
overutilization of the salmon-crested cockatoo for recreational, 
scientific, or educational purposes that is a threat to the species now 
or in the foreseeable future.

[[Page 30772]]

Release of Confiscated Cockatoos
    In recent years, small numbers of confiscated salmon-crested 
cockatoos have been rehabilitated and released into the wild. In 2005, 
the Kembali Bebas Avian Center for the rescue and rehabilitation of 
Indonesian parrots was established on Northern Seram (IPP (Indonesian 
Parrot Project) 2008c, p. 1; Price 2008, p. 2). In March 2006, three 
illegally trapped salmon-crested cockatoos, which had been confiscated 
from local trappers by forestry officials in 2004, were released on 
Seram. The birds were tested for diseases, observed for wild behaviors, 
fitted with a leg band, and tagged with a microchip to allow for long-
term monitoring (IPP 2008a, p. 2). In January 2008, six more salmon-
crested cockatoos were released, and in February 2008, seven more were 
released. The project provides the government a means of dealing with 
confiscated parrots. It also gives local villagers pride in their 
native birds and teaches them the principles of conservation (ireport 
2008, pp. 2-3). Although the Center uses the IUCN and CITES guidelines 
when releasing birds due to the risk of introducing diseases into wild 
populations (Metz 2007c, p. 7), some parrot experts find the release of 
confiscated birds generally the least favorable conservation option and 
should be avoided because of the risk of introducing diseases into wild 
populations (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 22-24). However, we found no 
information indicating this action as a threat to the salmon-crested 
cockatoos.
Local Involvement
    Indonesia is a culturally diverse country and the values and 
perceptions of many Indonesians may differ from those of western 
conservationists. Many rural villagers are unaware that birds have 
restricted distributions and do not understand the concept of 
extinction. Thus, they may think that, when a population declines, the 
birds moved into the hills or are getting smarter and, therefore, 
harder to catch (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 60-61). In addition, using and 
trading natural resources is a basic part of Indonesian culture and 
economy (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 60-61). As a result, one of the most 
important components of successful conservation programs is local 
education that promotes optimism, cooperation, and collaboration and 
helps people discover and understand the underlying causes of 
environmental problems (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 14-15).
    Others also have recognized the need for a strong awareness 
campaign concerning the legal and conservation status of the salmon-
crested cockatoo (BLI 2001, p. 1668; Metz 1998, p. 11). The IPP is a 
nonprofit organization dedicated to the conservation of wild Indonesian 
parrots, with goals to teach the principles and value of conservation, 
replace trapping of parrots with sustainable economic alternatives, 
work with the Indonesian authorities to rehabilitate and release 
confiscated parrots back into the wild, conduct scientific research, 
and provide information (Metz 2007c, p. 6). IPP started a Conservation-
Awareness-Pride (CAP) program to reach adults and children in the 
villages where the birds are trapped and in the cities where the birds 
are most often shipped for sale (Metz 2007a, p. 1). The program is 
using the salmon-crested cockatoo as a flagship species for 
conservation to familiarize the people, especially the children, of 
Maluku Province with the image of its unique endemic parrots (IPP 
2008b, p. 1). In 2007, IPP reported that almost 4,500 students have 
participated in the CAP program, which was showing progress (Metz 
2007a, p. 1-2). A new nongovernmental organization was formed to help 
carry out this work (IPP 2008b, p. 2).
    Other anti-poaching programs of the IPP include providing 
sustainable income for local villagers to reduce trapping and smuggling 
(IPP 2008c, p. 2). Former parrot poachers earn a living by providing 
the day-to-day care of rescued parrots at the Kembali Bebas Avian 
Center for the rescue and rehabilitation of Indonesian parrots. 
Villagers also are employed to collect and process the nuts of the 
kenari tree (Canarium spp.), which are part of the diet of larger 
cockatoos. The nuts are sold to parrot owners outside of Indonesia and 
all proceeds are used to pay workers (Metz 2007c, p. 13).
    Ecotourism can provide economic benefits to local communities and 
lead them to value and protect species and ecosystems (Snyder et al. 
2000, p. 16). The development of tourism is one of the priorities of 
Maluku Province. In 1981, Smiet and Siallagan (1981, p. 18) wrote that 
the scenic beauty and colorful wildlife of Seram would be great tourist 
attractions. The Proposed Manusela National Park Management Plan 1982-
1987 suggested that tourist accommodations be developed in the Manusela 
Valley of the park (Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 32). However, Edwards 
(1993, p. 11) suggested that the irregular and difficult means of 
transportation and lack of infrastructure and facilities for tourists 
are unlikely to encourage large numbers of visitors. Despite these 
difficulties, in 2001, Project Bird Watch led its first eco-tour of 
Seram (St. Joan 2005, p. 24), followed by additional tours (IPP 2009, 
p. 1). These tours provide ex-trappers and other villagers income by 
acting as bird guides, porters, and cooks. The local people see that 
their birds can attract people from others parts of the world, 
providing money and hopefully instilling pride in Indonesian birds 
(Metz 2007c, p. 12). Other ecotourism has developed on a small scale. 
In 2008, a few Internet sites advertised or reported on bird watching 
tours to Seram (Bird Tour Asia 2008, pp. 1-3; Eco-Adventure in 
Indonesia 2008, p. 1; King Bird Tours 2007, pp. 1-6).
Summary of Factor B
    Keeping pet birds, especially parrots, plays an important role in 
Indonesian culture, creating a massive demand for parrots 
internationally and domestically. By the 1980s, uncontrolled trapping 
of salmon-crested cockatoos for the pet bird trade was adversely 
impacting the species. Based on CITES records, 74,838 specimens of 
salmon-crested cockatoos were exported from Indonesia between 1981 and 
1990, with international imports (from all exporting countries) 
averaging 8,393 annually. Because trade was having a detrimental effect 
on wild populations, the CITES countries voted to transfer the species 
from CITES Appendix II to CITES Appendix I, effective January 18, 1990.
    An Appendix-I listing generally precludes commercial trade in wild-
caught birds, but it is difficult to quantify undocumented illegal 
international and domestic trade. Illegal trapping and trade in wild-
caught salmon-crested cockatoos continues today, with high domestic 
consumption in Indonesia. Hunting of parrots by people to supplement 
their income is relatively common on Seram. Interviews in villages 
suggested that perhaps as many as 4,000 salmon-crested cockatoos 
(approximately 6.4 percent of the population) are captured annually, 
with an estimated 80 percent sold within Indonesia and 20 percent put 
in international trade. The salmon-crested cockatoo is still sold 
openly in the markets of Ambon and elsewhere in Indonesia. Generally, 
little is known about how the domestic trade in birds in Indonesia is 
affecting wild populations. Little information is available on the 
number and age of birds being taken from the wild and when and where 
the birds are being trapped. In addition, it is difficult to assess the 
effects of trade on wild populations because the impacts from trade 
operate in combinations with the loss of the species' habitat.

[[Page 30773]]

    Illegal trade is difficult to control because Indonesia has a vast 
coastline; government officials have limited resources and knowledge to 
deal with the illegal pet trade, have conflicts of interest, and lack a 
willingness to take action; and there is widespread corruption. 
Indonesia is a member of ASEAN-WEN and has made an effort to train some 
of their police, forestry, and Customs officers in methods to tackle 
poaching and smuggling. However, outside of a recent sting operation 
involving the salmon-crested cockatoo, the wildlife protection laws 
have not been vigorously enforced for this species.
    Recent information that hunters from one small village in central 
Seram used air guns to kill 40 salmon-crested cockatoos for food in one 
year is of concern. Without additional information, however, we are 
unable to assess the possible impact air gun hunting may be having or 
will have on the survival of the salmon-crested cockatoo.
    In recent years, several programs--rehabilitation and release of 
confiscated parrots, public awareness program, economic incentive 
program, and ecotourism--were established on Seram to support the 
conservation of the salmon-crested cockatoo. It is too soon to assess 
if these programs have been successful in gaining local support and 
reducing poaching. At this time, poaching of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo for the commercial pet trade and use of wild-caught salmon-
crested cockatoos as pets in Indonesia continues.
    In summary, although the recent use of air guns to hunt salmon-
crested cockatoos for food is of concern, based on the best available 
information, we find that overutilization of the cockatoo for 
recreational, scientific, or education purposes is not a threat to the 
continued existence of this species. However, we find that 
uncontrolled, illegal domestic and international trade of salmon-
crested cockatoos as pets is a threat to the continued existence of 
this species.

Factor C. Disease or Predation

Diseases--General
    One of the most serious diseases found in cockatoo species is beak 
and feather disease. All cockatoo species are likely susceptible to 
this disease. The disease affects wild and captive birds, with chronic 
infections resulting in feather loss and deformities of beak and 
feathers. Birds usually become infected in the nest by ingesting or 
inhaling virus particles. Birds either develop immunity, die within a 
couple of weeks, or become chronically infected. No vaccine exists to 
immunize populations (Cameron 2007, p. 82). In Indonesia's Kembali 
Bebas Rescue and Rehabilitation Center on Seram, 50 cockatoos have been 
screened for beak and feather disease. None of the birds was found to 
be positive for the virus, but a number had positive antibodies to the 
virus (Metz 2007b, p. 3).
    Another serious disease that has been reported to infect cockatoos 
is proventricular dilatation disease (PDD). It is a fatal disease that 
poses a serious threat to domesticated and wild parrots worldwide, 
particularly those with very small populations (Kistler et al. 2008, p. 
1; Waugh 1996, p. 112). This contagious disease causes damage to the 
nerves of the upper digestive tract, so that food digestion and 
absorption are negatively affected. The disease has a 100 percent 
mortality rate. In 2008, researchers discovered a genetically diverse 
set of novel avian bornaviruses that are thought to be the causative 
agents, and developed diagnostic tests, methods of treating or 
preventing bornavirus infection, and methods for screening for the 
anti-bornaviral compounds (University of California at San Francisco 
2008, p. 1). We are unaware of any reports that this disease occurs in 
salmon-crested cockatoos in the wild.
Disease--Avian Influenza
    Wild birds, especially waterfowl and shorebirds, are natural 
reservoirs of avian influenza. Most viral strains have low 
pathogenicity and cause few clinical signs in infected birds. However, 
strains can mutate into highly pathogenic forms, which is what happened 
in 1997 when highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 first appeared in 
Hong Kong (USDA et al. 2006, pp. 1-2). The H5N1 virus is mainly 
propagated by commercial poultry living in close quarters with humans. 
The role of migratory birds is less clear (Metz 2006a, p. 24). 
Scientists increasingly believe that at least some migratory waterfowl 
carry the H5N1 virus, sometimes over long distances, and introduce the 
virus to poultry flocks (WHO 2006, p. 2). The H5N1 virus has infected 
and caused death in domestic poultry, people, and some wild birds in 
Asia, Europe, and Africa. About half of the people infected die from 
the disease (FWS 2006, p. 1). As of September 10, 2008, Indonesia 
confirmed its 136th human case (WHO 2008, p. 26). As of December 2006, 
avian influenza was not present in fowl in the Maluku Province (Metz 
2006b, p. 42).
    There has been only one documented case of avian influenza H5N1 in 
parrots--a parrot held in quarantine in the United Kingdom was 
diagnosed with the disease. However, from 2004-2006 (Metz 2006a, pp. 
24-25), fears of the avian influenza H5N1's risk to human health 
resulted in the culling of wild and pet birds in Asia and Europe, 
including the salmon-crested cockatoo. In the Philippines, 339 smuggled 
parrots were euthanized following confiscation. In Taiwan, 28 palm and 
salmon-crested cockatoos were euthanized at the airport out of fear 
that they might harbor the disease. In Indonesia, agriculture officials 
announced that all birds, including pet birds, within a given radius of 
chickens infected with avian influenza would be culled. However, when 
avian influenza struck Ragunan Zoo in Jakarta, parrots and cockatoos 
were not euthanized unless testing showed they had the disease (IPP 
2006, p. 1).
Predation
    Man probably introduced rats, mice, pigs (Sus celebensis), deer 
(Cervus timorensis), civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus), and oriental 
civet (Viverra tangalunga) to Seram (Smiet and Siallagan 1981, p. 8). 
Goats, horses, cows, and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) also have been 
introduced. Although the deer as grazers have some adverse effect on 
low forest brush (Ellen 1993, pp. 193, 201), we are unaware of an 
adverse effect from these mammals to the salmon-crested cockatoo's 
habitat. The cockatoo has natural predators, such as snakes and monitor 
lizards that raid the nest for eggs and chicks (Metz et al. 2007, p. 
37).
Summary of Factor C
    Disease and predation associated with salmon-crested cockatoos in 
the wild are not well documented. Although some serious diseases--such 
as beak and feather disease and PDD--occur in cockatoos in the wild, we 
found no information that these diseases occur in salmon-crested 
cockatoos in the wild. Cases of avian influenza H5N1 are continuing to 
occur in Indonesia; however, parrots generally are not considered to be 
natural reservoirs of this disease. While there is the potential for 
captive-held salmon-crested cockatoos to be euthanized, especially 
smuggled ones that have been seized at ports, the number of birds 
euthanized is small and not a threat to the species.
    A number of introduced mammals occur on Seram, but we are unaware 
of any predation on the salmon-crested cockatoo from these introduced 
mammals. The salmon-crested cockatoo has natural predators, but we were 
unable to find information that these natural predators are having any 
significant negative impact on the

[[Page 30774]]

productivity of this species. Thus, we find that neither disease nor 
predation is a threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo in any portion of 
its range now or in the foreseeable future.

Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

    As described below, Indonesia has laws and regulations in place to 
conserve biodiversity, manage forest, regulate trade, provide species 
protection, and develop and manage protected areas.
Biodiversity
    The Indonesian Government has passed legislation to control 
activities that have an adverse impact on the environment and to 
conserve biodiversity. In 1991, it drafted the Biodiversity Action Plan 
(BAP), which became a comprehensive framework for biodiversity 
conservation, advocating a wide range of policy and institutional 
reforms to slow the rate of biodiversity loss. In 1997, the government 
produced Agenda 21-Indonesia, a National Strategy for Sustainable 
Development. These two documents recognize a complex mix of problems, 
including increasing population, poor implementation of regulations, 
conversion of forests to agricultural lands, transmigration projects, 
disregard of land tenure, breakdown of traditional community 
management, unsustainable logging, and poaching.
    The main objectives of the BAP are to slow the loss of primary 
forests and other habitats, expand data on Indonesia's biodiversity, 
and foster sustainable use of biological resources. Agenda 21-Indonesia 
broadly develops the BAP. For example, in situ conservation would 
include establishing an integrated protected area system, gaining local 
support for protected areas, developing sustainable means of funding 
for protected areas, and supporting donor activities to maximize 
conservation efforts (Murdoch University 2000, pp. 1-2).
    The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) assessed the 
status of biodiversity in Indonesia under the Foreign Assistance Act 
(22 U.S.C. 2151 et seq.) and concluded that threats to biodiversity had 
worsened since 1998 and decentralization had led to increased 
exploitation of biodiversity (Rhee et al. 2004, p. xvii). Most managers 
at the district level are generally unaware or uncaring of biodiversity 
issues (Jepson et al. 2001, pp. 859-860).
Forest Management
    The Indonesian government has laws and regulations in place to 
support sustainable forest management. The primary law is the Basic 
Forestry Law (Law No. 41). It provides for the management of forest 
conservation, protection, and production; defines main forest 
functions; and deals with forest management, planning, research, 
development, education, training, and enforcement (FAOLEX 2008b, p. 1; 
Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 2 p. 3; Law No. 41 1999, pp. 11-14). 
Presidential Instruction No. 4/2005 describes the duties of the 
different responsible government entities and addresses the eradication 
of illegal logging by taking action against anyone who harvests or 
collects timber forest without a license; receives, buys, or sells 
timber collected illegally; or carries, controls, or has timber without 
a certificate of legitimacy (FAOLEX 2009, p. 1; Indonesia 2005, pp. 1-
3).
    Agenda 21-Indonesia identifies the major shortcomings in the 
management of production forests to include current concession policies 
and logging practices (Murdoch University 2000, p. 1). A major threat 
to Indonesia's forest resources is conflict: (1) Among local 
communities and between local communities and concessions over 
management and extraction rights; and (2) between different levels of 
government over licensing and regulation of timber extraction and 
forest conversion (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 6 p. 9). Land tenure and 
access in forests are contentious issues. The Indonesian government has 
jurisdiction over all resources, but has often ignored the land use or 
ownership claims of local peoples (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 2 pp. 21-
22).
    In addition, the laws and regulations are frequently ignored, in 
part because of widespread corruption (BLI 2008k, p. 7). The Indonesian 
economic crisis that led to the downfall of the Suharto regime resulted 
in the government instituting a rapid and far-reaching decentralization 
that gave local government greater autonomy (Down to Earth 2000, p. 1). 
Decentralization resulted in confusion of roles and responsibilities, 
and implementation of decentralization has been slow and uncertain 
because of conflicting interpretation of policies and priorities and 
the lack of capacity or experience of local governments to manage (Rhee 
et al. 2004, chap. 2 p. 20).
    USAID also assessed the status of forests in Indonesia under the 
Foreign Assistance Act and concluded that threats to forests had 
worsened since 1998 and decentralization had led to worse forestry 
practices and increased conflict over land tenure (Rhee et al. 2004, p. 
xvii). The responsibility for the management of forests was placed at 
the district level within provinces, but criteria and standards were 
still set by the central government. Most districts do not have the 
capacity for planning for sustainable development and have limited 
capacity to govern. Today, Indonesia is torn apart by economic and 
political crises, and the gap between sustainable forest management and 
the reality of current mismanagement is wide (Jepson et al. 2001, pp. 
859-860).
    In 2008, the Indonesian Government reported to the Commission on 
Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice on its strategic plan on 
forestry, outlining its priorities of fighting illegal logging, 
controlling forest fires, restructuring the forestry sector, 
rehabilitating and conserving forest resources, and decentralizing 
forest management. The Government said it was committed to intensifying 
the fight against illegal logging by implementing a forest crime case 
tracking system, prosecuting forest crimes, and enhancing collaboration 
by sharing information on forest crime and illegal timber shipments 
(Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 2008, p. 4).
International Wildlife Trade
    Indonesia has been a member of CITES since December 28, 1978. It 
has designated Management, Scientific, and Enforcement authorities to 
implement the treaty (CITES 2008b, p. 1) and has played an active role 
in CITES meetings.
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is listed in Appendix I of CITES. 
CITES, an international treaty with 175 member nations, including 
Indonesia and the United States, entered into force in 1975. In the 
United States, CITES is implemented through the U.S. Endangered Species 
Act of 1973, as amended (Act). The Secretary of the Interior has 
delegated the Department's responsibility for CITES to the Director of 
the Service and established the CITES Scientific and Management 
Authorities to implement the treaty. Under this treaty, member 
countries work together to ensure that international trade in animal 
and plant species is not detrimental to the survival of wild 
populations by regulating the import, export, and reexport of CITES-
listed animal and plant species (USFWS 2010, unpaginated). Although 
CITES reports indicate a drastic fall in international trade of salmon-
crested cockatoos after the species was transferred to Appendix I in 
January 1999, illegal hunting and trade of this species continue today,

[[Page 30775]]

with high domestic consumption within Indonesia, as discussed above 
under Factor B.
Species Protection and Management Plans
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is on the Indonesian Government's list 
of protected species (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 5 pp. 2, App. VIII) and 
is protected by Indonesian Law 5/1990, Conservation of Biodiversity and 
Ecosystems (see Conservation Status above), which establishes the basic 
principles and general rules for the management, conservation, and use 
of biological resources, natural habitats, and protected areas. 
Protected species may not be captured, collected, displaced, killed, 
destroyed, transported, or traded except for the purposes of research, 
science, and safeguarding the plants or animals. People that violate 
the law are subject to fines and punishment (Law No. 5 1990, pp. 1-44; 
FAOLEX 2008a, p. 1).
    While laws to protect species are in place, enforcement often is 
severely lacking (Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 4) or difficult, given the 
thousands of islands that make up Indonesia (Nichols et al. 1991, p. 1) 
and considering that illegal activities remain socially acceptable at 
the local level. Thus, the law is generally disregarded and only 
sporadically enforced (Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). Few enforcement officers 
are trained in species identification, and the enforcement agency lacks 
capacity and incentive. Illegal trade has been reported to the Natural 
Resource Conservation Agency, which is responsible for enforcing the 
law, but that agency is ``powerless'' when confronted with the 
situation (ProFauna Indonesia 2004, p. 8). To further complicate 
enforcement, some bird dealers claim that members of the Department of 
Forest Protection and Nature Conservation are involved in the trade 
(Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 4) (see Factor B above for a discussion of 
the problems relating to stopping illegal trade in salmon-crested 
cockatoos).
    As discussed under Factor B, protection under Indonesian law has 
not stopped trapping and trade of salmon-crested cockatoos. There is 
some evidence that the actions of Indonesian government agencies and 
the military are changing; however, if penalties are not enforced for 
illegal trade, trapping from the wild will continue (ProFauna Indonesia 
2004, pp. 9-11).
    In 1982, Indonesia used the best principles of conservation biology 
to plan a national protected area system, with the development of a 
national conservation plan (NCP) (Jepson et al. 2002, p. 40). Large 
areas were proposed as conservation areas. Subsequently, forests were 
also allocated for production, watershed protection, or conservation, 
and Indonesia endorsed the principles of sustainable forest management. 
However, these principles were never fully reconciled with national 
policy and practice (Jepson et al. 2001, p. 859). As a result, reserves 
generally have not been added to the proposed network of the NCP, and 
existing reserves have not been managed effectively (Whitten et al. 
2001, p. 1). Agenda 21-Indonesia identifies problems faced in managing 
protected areas, including the ``lack of public participation, lack of 
management framework, the need for regional income, insufficient 
funding and lack of law enforcement'' (Murdoch University 2000, pp. 1-
2).
    In reviewing the efficacy of the protected area system of East 
Kalimantan Province, Indonesia, Jepson et al. (2002, pp. 31, 39-40) 
found that key reserves either had not been established or were 
degraded (i.e., moderate and widespread habitat modification or 
populations of key fauna significantly reduced). They concluded that 
turning reserve planning into practice had failed because of local-
level sociopolitical realities. The ability of the Indonesian 
government to manage and protect reserves or to establish reserves that 
were proposed in the NCP in East Kalimantan, and in Indonesia as a 
whole, had been severely constrained by problems, including 
insufficient funding, workforce shortages, weak penalties, a general 
lack of support for conservation in society, corruption, and the 
aggressive use of resources by migrants.
    We are unaware of any review of the efficacy of protected areas in 
Seram, but find that the general conclusion of the East Kalimantan 
study applies. Wai Bula, an area in the northeastern part of Seram 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003. p. 230), illustrates the inability of the 
Indonesian government to implement the NCP. Wai Bula, proposed as a 
nature reserve in 1981, was never officially designated and has a low 
probability of future protection (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 231). It has 
been identified as an IBA (see Important Bird Areas above) with primary 
lowland and lower montane forests and a current population of cockatoos 
(BLI 2008f, p. 1). It was proposed as a nature reserve, but 93 percent 
is also under logging concessions (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 231). 
Resolution of these conflicting land use designations would have a 
considerable impact on the amount of protected habitat available for 
the salmon-crested cockatoo (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 231).
Habitat Protection
    The unique wildlife and plants of Seram are somewhat protected by 
Manusela National Park, an area of 2,323.2 km\2\ (896.8 mi\2\) in the 
center of the country, and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve, an area of 
122.8 km\2\ (47.4 mi\2\) on the western peninsula. Under Act No. 5 of 
1990, the use of biological resources and their ecosystems in protected 
areas is to be sustainable, and plants and animals are to be managed 
with consideration of their long-term survival and maintenance of their 
diversity. Research, education, improvement of the species, and 
recreational activities are permitted, but other activities are 
prohibited (FAOLEX 2008a, pp. 1-2).
    Although 14 percent of the forests on Seram are in protected areas, 
15 percent of Manusela National Park is under logging concessions and 
4.6 percent has been converted to other land uses. A road has been 
built through the park, which increases the risk of logging and human 
encroachment. Five villages of indigenous people, who mainly work as 
dry land farmers and hunt and collect forest products (including 
parrots), exist in the park. In 1980, 999 people lived within the park 
boundaries, and 19,102 people lived within 10 km (6 mi) of its 
boundaries. We are unaware of logging concessions in Gunung Sahuai 
Nature Reserve, and it has experienced less (3.1 percent) land 
conversion and human encroachment (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 230-231).
    The regulations and management of the protected areas are 
ineffective at reducing the threats of habitat destruction (see Factor 
A above) and poaching for the pet trade (see Factor B above). Reserve 
management is at the national level--the responsibility of the 
Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation. 
Effective reserve management is hampered by a shortage of staff, 
expertise, and money, and the remoteness of protected areas. The recent 
civil unrest forced a reduction in conservation programs, with some 
protected areas virtually unsupervised (BLI 2008k, p. 9).
Summary of Factor D
    While Indonesia has a good legal framework to manage wildlife and 
their habitats, implementation of its laws and regulatory mechanisms 
has been inadequate to reduce the threats to the salmon-crested 
cockatoo. As discussed under Factor A above, we found that logging and 
conversion of forests to agriculture and plantations are primary

[[Page 30776]]

threats to the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo. Laws and 
regulations are frequently ignored, and illegal logging is considered a 
leading cause of forest degradation in Indonesia. The decentralization 
of government has led to unsustainable forestry practices, increased 
exploitation of resources, and increased conflict over land tenure. 
Current concession policies and logging practices hamper sustainable 
forestry. Because nearly 50 percent of Seram's forests are held under 
logging concessions, with more than 75 percent within the salmon-
crested cockatoo's favored lowland habitat, the proper management of 
these logging concessions could determine the survival of this species.
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is listed in Appendix I of CITES (see 
discussion under Conservation Status above), which requires CITES 
Parties to ensure controlled legal international trade. However, as 
discussed under Factor B above, uncontrolled illegal domestic and 
international trade continues to adversely impact the salmon-crested 
cockatoo. The species is on Indonesia's list of protected species, and 
the law provides prohibitions, including capture and trade, and lays 
out fines and punishment. However, the law is generally ignored and 
only sporadically enforced.
    Manusela National Park and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve provide 
some protection to the salmon-crested cockatoo. Management of these 
protected areas, however, is hampered by staff shortages, lack of 
expertise and money, and remoteness of the areas. Another Important 
Bird Area, Wai Bula, was proposed as a nature reserve in 1981, but was 
never officially designated. Resolution of its designation would 
increase the amount of protected habitat available for the salmon-
crested cockatoo, but the delay in making such a designation reflects 
the inability of the Indonesian government to implement the national 
conservation plan.
    In summary, we find that the existing regulatory mechanisms, as 
implemented, are inadequate to reduce or remove the current threats to 
the salmon-crested cockatoo. There is no information available to 
suggest these regulatory mechanisms will change in the foreseeable 
future.

Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting the Continued 
Existence of the Species

Forest Fires
    Fires in tropical forests are becoming increasingly common 
(Cochrane 2003, p. 913; Kinnaird and O'Brien 1998, p. 954; Uhl & 
Kauffman 1990, p. 437; Woods 1989, p. 290). For example, in 1983, 
disastrous, large-scale El Ni[ntilde]o wildfires occurred in the 
tropical forests of Borneo, although severe droughts had occurred 
previously without causing extensive fires. Woods (1989, p. 290) 
concluded that the extensive fires were the result of forests becoming 
more fire-prone due to logging, road building, and cultivation. He also 
found that potential recovery of forest structure is not good in logged 
forests, especially if further burning occurs. The 1997-98 El 
Ni[ntilde]o fires in Indonesia devastated vast tracts of forest, 
especially on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan (islands to the far 
west of Seram) and Irian Jaya (a neighboring island to the east of 
Seram) (Kinnaird and O'Brien 1998, p. 954). The forest fires were 
mainly caused by poor logging practices, burning of agriculture land, 
and land clearing for plantations (Grimmett and Sumarauw 2000, pp. 6, 
8; Kinnaird and O'Brien 1998, p. 954).
    Forest fires are often part of El Ni[ntilde]o events, which are 
expected to increase in number and severity due to global climate 
change. Using a global climate model that had successfully predicted 
the 1997-98 El Ni[ntilde]o, Timmermann et al. (1999, pp. 694-696) 
looked at the effect of future greenhouse warming on El Ni[ntilde]o 
frequency. They concluded that, if emissions of greenhouse gases 
continue to increase, events typical of El Ni[ntilde]o will become more 
frequent and variations may become more extreme. Because more tropical 
forests are becoming disturbed and because the number of El Ni[ntilde]o 
events is predicted to increase and be more severe, serious fires in 
Indonesia, including Seram and other areas of the tropics, are likely 
to remain a critical conservation concern (Adeney et al. 2006, p. 292).
    Fires can lead to the long-term decline of the rain forest, with 
destruction of leaf litter and the seedling-sapling layer, increased 
invasion of exotic plants, increased tree mortality, and changes in the 
soil. Although many animals have the ability to escape direct mortality 
from fire, they also may be negatively affected by loss of food, 
shelter, and territory. For example, the number of frugivorous and 
omnivorous birds declined after the 1997-98 El Nino fire in Indonesia, 
with helmeted and rhinoceros hornbills (Buceros rhinoceros and B. 
vigil) declining by 50 percent in one study area (Kinnaird and O'Brien 
1998, p. 955).
    At the current time, high impact fires are not adversely affecting 
the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo. In 1985, Ellen (1985, p. 
567) wrote that fires seldom get out of hand on Seram when land is 
cleared for agriculture. In addition, the 1997-98 El Ni[ntilde]o fires 
in Indonesia are said to have not affected Seram (Metz 1998, p. 11). 
However, because devastating El Ni[ntilde]o fires have been shown to 
occur more frequently in logged or disturbed forests and Seram has 
extensive logging planned and ongoing clearing of land for plantations 
and agriculture, El Ni[ntilde]o-related fires will likely have a severe 
impact on Seram in the future (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 234).
Civil Unrest
    Unlike the rest of Indonesia, which is 90 percent Muslim, the 
Moluccas have equal numbers of Christian and Islamic followers. Under 
the Suharto government, primarily Muslim transmigrants moved to Seram, 
and the government assigned officials, police, and military from 
outside the region. Rioting between Muslim and Christian citizens 
became an ongoing problem on Seram. In 1999 and 2001, as Indonesia 
plunged into a deep economic crisis, resentments erupted and thousands 
of people were killed (Javaman 2009, p. 1). It is unknown if the civil 
unrest affected the salmon-crested cockatoo, but the violence 
temporarily stopped development. On the other hand, many birds were 
sold to soldiers; thus a heavy military presence led to a rise in 
cockatoo trade (ProFauna Indonesia 2004, p. 9; Kinnaird 2000, p. 15).
Persecution
    In 1864, Wallace (1864, p. 279) reported that the salmon-crested 
cockatoo was considered a harmful pest in coconut palms around villages 
on Seram. The cockatoos gnawed through shells of young coconuts to 
reach the pulp and water inside.
    Historically, the cockatoo was persecuted (BLI 2004, p. 2; Metz 
1998, p. 10), but BLI (2008b, p. 2) reports this persecution is in the 
past and unlikely to be a threat in the future.
Summary of Factor E
    Forest fires negatively impact birds through direct mortality or 
the loss of food, shelter, and territory. Research has shown that 
frugivorous and omnivorous birds may decline by 50 percent as a result 
of fires in areas of disturbed tropical rain forests. Forest fires are 
becoming more common in tropical rain forests, and occurring more 
frequently in logged or disturbed areas. As discussed under Factor A 
above, logging and conversion of land to agriculture and plantations is 
ongoing and will likely increase in the future on Seram. Approximately 
75 percent (8,271 km\2\ (3,193 mi\2\)) of the lowland habitat

[[Page 30777]]

favored by the salmon-crested cockatoo is under logging concession. 
Approximately 44 percent (6,220 km\2\ (2,401 mi\2\)) of Seram's lowland 
forest is slated for conversion and, by 2028, most of this land will be 
converted to agriculture or plantations. Therefore, we find that, even 
though fires are not currently adversely affecting the salmon-crested 
cockatoo, fires will be a threat to this species throughout all of its 
range in the foreseeable future due to the extensive planned logging 
and clearing of land for agriculture and plantations and predicted 
increase in number and severity of El Ni[ntilde]o events due to global 
climate change.
    Civil unrest is an ongoing problem on Seram, but we are unaware 
that it has adversely impacted the salmon-crested cockatoo other than a 
possible increase in sporadic illegal trade, which is discussed under 
Factor B above. The persecution of salmon-crested cockatoo as pests in 
coconut palm groves does not appear to be a problem today. Thus, we 
find that neither civil unrest nor persecution is a threat to the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in any portion of its range now or in the 
foreseeable future.

Status Determination for the Salmon-Crested Cockatoo

    We have carefully assessed the best available scientific and 
commercial information regarding the past, present, and potential 
future threats faced by the salmon-crested cockatoo. The species is 
likely to become in danger of extinction within the foreseeable future 
throughout all of its range primarily due to extensive logging and 
conversion of lowland forests to agricultural lands and plantations 
(Factor A) and uncontrolled, illegal trapping for the domestic and 
international pet trade within Indonesia (Factor B). Also, existing 
regulatory mechanisms, as implemented, are inadequate to mitigate the 
current threats to the salmon-crested cockatoo (Factor D). Although El 
Ni[ntilde]o forest fires are not currently adversely affecting the 
salmon-crested cockatoo, fires will be a threat in the foreseeable 
future due to the extensive planned logging and clearing of land and 
predicted increase in number and severity of El Ni[ntilde]o events due 
to global climate change (Factor E).
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to the island of Seram, with 
records from three small adjacent islands. Current populations are 
estimated at 62,400 individuals, with a decreasing population trend. 
The cockatoo is largely a resident of lowland rain forests, 
predominately between 100-600 m (328-1,968 ft), with the highest 
densities of birds occurring in little-disturbed forests. It requires 
large, mature trees for nesting.
    Logging and conversion of forests to agriculture and plantations 
are primary threats to the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo in 
the foreseeable future. By 2001, about 20 percent of the original 
forest cover had been cleared. Nearly 50 percent of the island's 
forests are held under logging concessions, of which 75 percent are 
held within lowland forests, prime salmon-crested cockatoo habitat. 
Unsustainable logging practices destroy the forest canopy and 
dramatically reduce habitat available for cockatoos, especially if 
large nest trees and strangling figs are harvested. Between 1980 and 
1990, an estimated 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\) of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo's habitat was lost. In addition, about 44 percent of lowland 
forest is designated as conversion forest. Researchers predict that by 
2028, up to 50 percent of the current salmon-crested cockatoo 
population (at least 31,000 cockatoos) may be lost as a result of 
conversion of forests to agriculture and plantations. Although about 14 
percent of the forests are within protected areas, logging concessions 
are held in 15 percent of these areas, and small-scale illegal logging 
and human encroachment also occur there. By 2028, extensive logging and 
conversion of lowland forests to agriculture and plantations, combined 
with transmigratory human resettlement, oil exploration, and 
infrastructure development, are likely to destroy much of the salmon-
crested cockatoo's habitat.
    Illegal trapping of the salmon-crested cockatoo for the pet trade 
is widespread. Pet birds are an important part of Indonesian culture, 
with large numbers of wild-caught parrots traded domestically and 
internationally. In the late 1970s, the salmon-crested cockatoo was 
extensively trapped for the pet bird trade. By the 1980s, the pet bird 
trade was adversely impacting the species. Between 1981 and 1990, 
74,838 specimens of salmon-crested cockatoos were exported from 
Indonesia, and international imports (from all exporting countries) 
averaged 8,393 annually. Although the salmon-crested cockatoo was 
transferred to Appendix I of CITES, trappers reportedly remain active, 
and wild-caught birds are openly sold in domestic markets within 
Indonesia. Interviews in villages suggest that perhaps as many as 4,000 
birds, or 6.4 percent of the current estimated population, are still 
being captured annually, with 80 percent of these 4,000 birds illegally 
traded domestically and 20 percent illegally exported from Indonesia. 
Ending illegal trade is hampered by Indonesia's large coastline, 
officials with limited resources and knowledge, and corruption. The 
continuing illegal trade of the salmon-crested cockatoo is a threat to 
the survival of the species in the foreseeable future.
    Indonesia has a good legal framework to manage wildlife and their 
habitats, but implementation of its laws and regulatory mechanisms has 
been inadequate to address the threats to the salmon-crested cockatoo. 
Logging laws and policies are frequently ignored and rarely enforced, 
and illegal logging is rampant, even occurring in national parks and 
nature reserves. Current concession policies and logging practices 
hamper sustainable forestry. The salmon-crested cockatoo is a protected 
species in Indonesia, and the law prohibits capture and trade and also 
provides for fines and punishment. Again, the law is generally ignored 
and only sporadically enforced. Illegal bird trade is socially 
acceptable, making it difficult to enforce laws. Public awareness 
programs, economic incentive programs, and ecotourism are in their 
infancy, and it is too early to tell if they are helping to control 
poaching on the island. The illegal trade of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo for the domestic trade, and to a smaller extent international 
trade, continues to occur.
    Fires are becoming more common in tropical rain forests where 
logging, road building, and clearing of land for agriculture occur. 
Fires can lead to the long-term decline of the rain forest, and many 
animals may be negatively affected by loss of food, shelter, and 
territory. Currently, high impact fires are not adversely affecting the 
habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo, but due to future planned 
extensive logging and clearing of land for agriculture and plantations 
and a predicted increase in the number and severity of El Ni[ntilde]o 
events, fires will be a threat to this species in the foreseeable 
future.
    Section 3 of the Act defines an ``endangered species'' as ``any 
species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range'' and a ``threatened species'' as 
``any species which is likely to become an endangered species within 
the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its 
range.'' The salmon-crested cockatoo population estimate is 
approximately 62,400, and the threats of habitat loss and trade are not 
at a level to consider the species to be in danger of extinction at 
this time. However, based on the analysis of the five factors discussed 
above, we determine that the salmon-crested cockatoo is likely to 
become an endangered species within the

[[Page 30778]]

foreseeable future throughout all of its range.

Significant Portion of the Range Analysis

    Having determined that the salmon-crested cockatoo meets the 
definition of threatened under the Act, we considered whether there is 
a significant portion of the range of the species that meets the 
definition of endangered. The Act defines an endangered species as one 
``in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of 
its range,'' and a threatened species as one ``likely to become an 
endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range.'' For purposes of this finding, a 
significant portion of a species' range is an area that is important to 
the conservation of the species because it contributes meaningfully to 
the representation, resiliency, or redundancy of the species. The 
contribution must be at a level such that its loss would result in a 
decrease in the ability to conserve the species.
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to Seram and the three 
small, neighboring Indonesian islands of Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua. 
Very limited information is available on the status of the species on 
Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua. Whether this species is native or 
introduced to Ambon is uncertain, and a very small number of cockatoos 
(sightings of six to eight birds) are thought to occur in remaining 
natural forests in the more remote regions of the island. The status of 
the salmon-crested cockatoo is unknown on Haruku and Saparua. For 
Haruku, there is one unspecified locality and observation reported in 
1934; for Saparua, there is one specimen recorded for 1923. Even less 
information is available on the habitat and the threats to the species 
on these islands. The relatively larger population size in high-quality 
habitat on Seram suggests that this area may be a significant portion 
of the range. The salmon-crested cockatoo primarily occurs in lowland 
forests throughout the island of Seram; its current population is 
estimated to be approximately 62,400 birds; and the species persists in 
high densities in primary and disturbed primary forests on Seram. After 
a review of the best scientific and commercial data, we determined that 
there is no significant portion of the range in which the salmon-
crested cockatoo is currently in danger of extinction.

Determination

    We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial 
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats 
to this species. Under our five-factor analysis above, we determined 
that the species is threatened by logging and conversion of forests to 
agriculture and plantations, illegal trapping for the pet trade, 
inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms, and fires resulting from El 
Ni[ntilde]o events throughout its entire range. The species is 
threatened by each of these factors uniformly throughout Seram. There 
is no significant portion of the range in which the salmon-crested 
cockatoo is currently in danger of extinction. There is no information 
to suggest that the species is currently in danger of extinction 
because of the reasonably large population size of the species on the 
island and its occurrence throughout the lowland forests of Seram in 
primary and disturbed primary forest habitat, as well as secondary 
forest habitat. Although we do not believe that the species is 
currently endangered, we believe it is likely that the salmon-crested 
cockatoo will become endangered throughout its range in the foreseeable 
future. Thus, we list the salmon-crested cockatoo as a threatened 
species throughout all of its range under the Act.

Available Conservation Measures

    Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or 
threatened under the Act include recognition, requirements for Federal 
protection, and prohibitions against certain practices. Recognition 
through listing results in public awareness, and encourages and results 
in conservation actions by Federal and State governments, private 
agencies and groups, and individuals.
    Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, and as implemented by 
regulations at 50 CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies to evaluate 
their actions within the United States or on the high seas with respect 
to any species that is proposed or listed as endangered or threatened 
and with respect to its critical habitat, if any is being designated. 
However, given that the salmon-crested cockatoo is not native to the 
United States, we are not designating critical habitat for this species 
under section 4 of the Act.
    Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the provision of limited 
financial assistance for the development and management of programs 
that the Secretary of the Interior determines to be necessary or useful 
for the conservation of endangered and threatened species in foreign 
countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) of the Act authorize the Secretary to 
encourage conservation programs for foreign endangered species and to 
provide assistance for such programs in the form of personnel and the 
training of personnel.
    The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of 
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and 
threatened wildlife. These prohibitions, at 50 CFR 17.21 and 17.31, in 
part, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the 
United States to ``take'' (take includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt, 
shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, collect, or to attempt any of these) 
within the United States or upon the high seas; import or export; 
deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign 
commerce in the course of commercial activity; or sell or offer for 
sale in interstate or foreign commerce any endangered wildlife species. 
It also is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship 
any such wildlife that has been taken in violation of the Act. Certain 
exceptions apply to agents of the Service and State conservation 
agencies.
    Permits may be issued to carry out otherwise prohibited activities 
involving endangered and threatened wildlife species under certain 
circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 
17.22 for endangered species and 17.32 for threatened species. For 
endangered wildlife, a permit may be issued for scientific purposes, to 
enhance the propagation or survival of the species, and for incidental 
take in connection with otherwise lawful activities. For threatened 
species, a permit may be issued for the same activities, as well as 
zoological exhibition, education, and special purposes consistent with 
the Act.

Special Rule

    Section 4(d) of the Act states that the Secretary of the Interior 
(Secretary) may, by regulation, extend to threatened species 
prohibitions provided for endangered species under section 9. Our 
implementing regulations for threatened wildlife (50 CFR 17.31) 
incorporate the section 9 prohibitions for endangered wildlife, except 
when a special rule is promulgated. For threatened species, section 
4(d) of the Act gives the Secretary discretion to specify the 
prohibitions and any exceptions to those prohibitions that are 
appropriate for the species, provided that those prohibitions and 
exceptions are necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation 
of the species. A special rule allows us to include provisions that are 
tailored to the specific conservation needs of the threatened species 
and which may be more or less restrictive than the general provisions 
at 50 CFR 17.31.

[[Page 30779]]

    Under the special rule, all prohibitions and provisions of 50 CFR 
17.31 and 17.32 apply to the salmon-crested cockatoo, except that 
import and export of certain salmon-crested cockatoos into and from the 
United States and interstate commerce are allowed without a permit 
under the Act, as explained below.

Import and Export

    We assessed the conservation needs of the salmon-crested cockatoo 
in light of the broad protections provided to the species under CITES 
and the WBCA. The salmon-crested cockatoo is listed as Appendix I under 
CITES, a treaty which contributes to the conservation of this species 
by ensuring that trade in specimens of the species is not detrimental 
to its survival and is not for commercial purposes (see Conservation 
Status). The purpose of the WBCA is to promote the conservation of 
exotic birds and to ensure that imports of exotic birds into the United 
States does not harm them (see Conservation Status).
    International trade of the salmon-crested cockatoo has been 
drastically reduced since the listing of the species in Appendix I of 
CITES and the protection of the species under the WBCA. A review of the 
CITES data shows that in the 19 years between 1991 and 2009, 334 live 
salmon-crested cockatoos were imported into the United States. Many of 
these birds are personal pets that owners took with them when traveling 
from and returning to the United States. None of these birds were 
imported from Indonesia. The best available commercial data indicate 
that the current threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo stems from 
illegal trade in the domestic and international markets of Indonesia 
and surrounding countries. Thus, the general prohibitions on import and 
export contained in 50 CFR 17.31, which only extend within the 
jurisdiction of the United States, would not regulate such activities. 
Thus, we find that the prohibitions and authorizations contained within 
this special rule provide all the necessary and advisable conservation 
measures that are needed for this species.
    The special rule applies to all commercial and noncommercial 
international shipments of live salmon-crested cockatoos and parts and 
products, including the import and export of personal pets and research 
samples. In most instances, the special rule adopts the existing 
conservation regulatory requirements of CITES and the WBCA as the 
appropriate regulatory provisions for the import and export of certain 
captive salmon-crested cockatoos. The import and export of birds into 
and from the United States, taken from the wild on or after January 18, 
1990; conducting an activity that could take or incidentally take 
salmon-crested cockatoos; and foreign commerce will need to meet the 
requirements of 50 CFR 17.31 and 17.32, including obtaining a permit 
under the Act. However, the special rule allows a person to import or 
export either: (1) A specimen held in captivity prior to January 18, 
1990 (the date the species was transferred to CITES Appendix I), even 
if taken from the wild prior to that date; or (2) a captive-bred 
specimen, without a permit issued under the Act, provided the export is 
authorized under CITES and the import is authorized under CITES and the 
WBCA. If the specimen was taken from the wild and held in captivity 
prior to January 18, 1990, the importer or exporter will need to 
provide documentation to support that status, such as a copy of the 
original CITES permit indicating when the bird was removed from the 
wild or museum specimen reports. For captive-bred birds, the importer 
would need to provide either a valid CITES export/re-export document 
issued by a foreign Management Authority that indicates that the 
specimen was captive-bred by using a source code on the face of the 
permit of either ``C'', ``D'' or ``F''. For exporters of captive-bred 
birds, a signed and dated statement from the breeder of the bird, along 
with documentation on the source of their breeding stock, would 
document the captive-bred status of U.S. birds.
    The special rule applies to birds captive-bred in the United States 
and abroad. The terms ``captive-bred'' and ``captivity'' used in this 
special rule are defined in the regulations at 50 CFR 17.3 and refer to 
wildlife produced in a controlled environment that is intensively 
manipulated by man, from parents that mated or otherwise transferred 
gametes in captivity. Although the special rule requires a permit under 
the Act to ``take'' (harm and harass) a salmon-crested cockatoo, 
``take'' does not include generally accepted animal husbandry 
practices, breeding procedures, or provisions of veterinary care for 
confining, tranquilizing, or anesthetizing, when such practices, 
procedures, or provisions are not likely to result in injury to the 
wildlife when applied in captive wildlife.

Interstate Commerce

    Although we do not have current data, we believe there are a large 
number of salmon-crested cockatoos in the United States. Current ISIS 
(International Species Information System) information shows 123 
salmon-crested cockatoos are held in U.S. zoos (ISIS 2008, p. 4). This 
number is an underestimate as some zoos do not enter data into the ISIS 
database. In addition, CITES annual report data shows that 58,484 live 
salmon-crested cockatoos were imported into the United States between 
1981 and 1989, before the species was added to CITES Appendix I (UNEP-
WCMC 2009b, p. 2). We believe that a number of these birds are still 
held in captivity in the United States. In 1990 and 1991, surveys of 
captive breeding by U.S. aviculturists showed 820 and 625 salmon-
crested cockatoos were held by 239 and 194 survey respondents, 
respectively (Allen and Johnson 1991, p. 17; Johnson 1992, p. 46). We 
have no information to suggest that interstate commerce activities are 
associated with threats to the salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild or 
will negatively affect any efforts aimed at the recovery of wild 
populations of the species. Furthermore, allowing interstate commerce 
of birds captive-bred and reared in the United States will preclude the 
U.S. demand for salmon-crested cockatoos obtained from international 
markets, which would otherwise contribute to the illegal capture and 
trade of wild birds. Therefore, because interstate commerce within the 
United States has not been found to threaten the salmon-crested 
cockatoo, the species is otherwise protected in the course of 
interstate commercial activities under the incidental take provisions 
contained in 50 CFR 17.31, and international trade of this species for 
primarily commercial purposes is prohibited under CITES, we find this 
special rule contains all the prohibitions and authorizations necessary 
and advisable for the conservation of the salmon-crested cockatoo.
    Under the special rule, a person may deliver, receive, carry, 
transport, ship, sell, offer to sell, purchase, or offer to purchase a 
salmon-crested cockatoo in interstate commerce without a permit under 
the Act. At the same time, the prohibitions on take under 50 CFR 17.31 
would apply under this special rule and any interstate commerce 
activities that could incidentally take cockatoos would require a 
permit under 50 CFR 17.32.

Required Determinations

National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

    We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental 
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the National 
Environmental Policy Act of

[[Page 30780]]

1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be prepared in connection with 
regulations adopted under section 4(a) of the Act. We published a 
notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the Federal 
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).

References Cited

    A complete list of all references cited in this final rule is 
available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov or upon request 
from the Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
(see the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section).

Authors

    The primary authors of this final rule are the staff members of the 
Branch of Foreign Species, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Arlington, VA 22203.

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17

    Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and 
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.

Regulation Promulgation

    Accordingly, we amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 
of the Code of Federal Regulations, as follows:

PART 17--[AMENDED]

0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:

    Authority:  16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.


0
2. Amend Sec.  17.11(h) by adding new entry for ``Cockatoo, salmon-
crested'' in alphabetical order under BIRDS to the List of Endangered 
and Threatened Wildlife, as follows:


Sec.  17.11  Endangered and threatened wildlife.

* * * * *
    (h) * * *

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                        Species                                                    Vertebrate
--------------------------------------------------------                        population where                       When       Critical     Special
                                                           Historic  range       endangered or         Status         listed      habitat       rules
           Common name                Scientific name                              threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
              BIRDS
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
Cockatoo, salmon-crested.........  Cacatua moluccensis.  Seram, Haruku,       Entire.............  T                       779           NA     17.41(c)
                                                          Saparua, and
                                                          Ambon, Indonesia.
 
                                                                      * * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0
3. Amend Sec.  17.41 by adding paragraph (c) to read as follows:


Sec.  17.41  Special rules--birds.

* * * * *
    (c) Salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis). (1) Except as 
noted in paragraphs (c)(2) and (c)(3) of this section, all prohibitions 
and provisions of Sec. Sec.  17.31 and 17.32 of this part apply to the 
salmon-crested cockatoo.
    (2) Import and export. You may import or export a specimen without 
a permit issued under section 17.32 of this part only when the 
provisions of parts 13, 14, 15, and 23 of this chapter have been met 
and you meet the following requirements:
    (i) Captive-bred specimens: The source code on the Convention on 
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 
(CITES) document accompanying the specimen must be ``F'' (captive-
bred), ``C'' (bred in captivity), or ``D'' (bred in captivity for 
commercial purposes)(see 50 CFR 23.24); or
    (ii) Specimens held in captivity prior to January 18, 1990: You 
must provide documentation to demonstrate that the specimen was held in 
captivity prior to January 18, 1990. Such documentation may include 
copies of receipts, accession or veterinary records, CITES documents, 
or wildlife declaration forms, which must be dated prior to January 18, 
1990.
    (3) Interstate commerce. Except where use after import is 
restricted under Sec.  23.55 of this chapter, you may deliver, receive, 
carry, transport, ship, sell, offer to sell, purchase, or offer to 
purchase in interstate commerce a live salmon-crested cockatoo.

    Dated: May 9, 2011.
Gregory Siekaniec,
Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2011-12928 Filed 5-25-11; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P