[Federal Register Volume 74, Number 211 (Tuesday, November 3, 2009)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 56770-56791]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: E9-26131]


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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056]
[90100-1660-1FLA B6]
[RIN 1018-AW00]


Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the 
Salmon-Crested Cockatoo as Threatened Throughout Its Range with Special 
Rule

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Proposed rule.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to 
list the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis) as threatened, 
with a special rule, under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 
amended (Act). This proposal, if made final, would extend the Act's 
protections to this species and amend the regulations at 50 CFR part 17 
to create a special rule under authority of section 4(d) of the Act 
that provides measures that are necessary and advisable for the 
conservation of the salmon-crested cockatoo. The Service seeks data and 
comments from the public on this proposed listing and special rule.

DATES: We will accept comments received or postmarked on or before 
February 1, 2010. We must receive requests for public hearings, in 
writing, at the address shown in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT 
section by December 18, 2009.

ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
     Federal eRulemaking Portal: http://www.regulations.gov. Follow the instructions for submitting comments on 
Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056.
     U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public Comments Processing, 
Attn: FWS-R9-IA-2009-0056; Division of Policy and Directives 
Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, 
Suite 222; Arlington, VA 22203.
    We will not accept e-mails or faxes. We will post all comments on 
http://www.regulations.gov. This generally means that we will post any 
personal information you provide us (see the Public Comments section 
below for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Douglas Krofta, Chief, Branch of 
Listing, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 
4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703-
358-2171; facsimile 703-358-1735. If you use a telecommunications 
devise for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Relay Service 
(FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Public Comments

    We intend that any final action resulting from this proposal will 
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we are 
requesting comments from other government agencies, the scientific 
community, industry, or any other interested party concerning this 
proposed rule. We particularly seek comments concerning:
     Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data 
concerning any threats (or lack thereof) to this species and 
regulations that may be addressing those threats;
     Additional information concerning the range, distribution, 
and population size of this species;
     Any information on the biological or ecological 
requirements of this species;
     Current or planned activities in the areas occupied by 
this species and possible impacts of these activities on this species;
     Any information concerning the effects of climate change 
on this species or its habitats;
     Any information concerning numbers of this species held in 
captivity in the United States, breeding success, and types of 
activities that should be addressed in the special rule; and
     The appropriate conservation status for the salmon-crested 
cockatoo.
    If you submit a comment via http://www.regulations.gov, your entire 
comment--including any personal identifying information--will be posted 
on the Web site. If you submit a hardcopy comment that includes 
personal identifying information, you may request at the top of your 
document that we withhold this information from public review. However, 
we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We will post all 
hardcopy comments on http://www.regulations.gov.

[[Page 56771]]

    Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting 
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be 
available for public inspection on http://www.regulations.govor by 
appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; 
telephone 703-358-2171.

Background

    Section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires us to make a finding (known 
as a ``90-day finding'') on whether a petition to add a species to, 
remove a species from, or reclassify a species on the Federal Lists of 
Endangered or Threatened Wildlife and Plants has presented substantial 
information indicating that the requested action may be warranted. To 
the maximum extent practicable, we make the finding within 90 days 
following receipt of the petition and publish our finding promptly in 
the Federal Register. If we find that the petition has presented 
substantial information indicating that the requested action may be 
warranted (a positive finding), section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires 
us to commence a status review of the species if one has not already 
been initiated under our internal candidate assessment process. In 
addition, section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires us to make a finding 
within 12 months following receipt of the petition on whether the 
requested action is warranted, not warranted, or warranted but 
precluded by higher priority listing actions (this finding is referred 
to as the ``12-month finding''). Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act requires 
that a finding of warranted but precluded for petitioned species should 
be treated as having been resubmitted on the date of such finding, and 
is, therefore, subject to a new finding within 1 year and subsequently 
thereafter until we take action on a proposal to list or withdraw our 
original finding. The Service publishes an annual notice of review 
(ANOR) of findings on resubmitted petitions for all foreign species for 
which listings were previously found to be warranted but precluded.

Previous Federal Action

    On May 6, 1991, we received a petition (1991 petition) from the 
International Council for Bird Preservation to add 53 foreign birds to 
the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, including the salmon-
crested cockatoo. In response to the 1991 petition, we published a 
substantial 90-day finding on December 16, 1991 (56 FR 65207), for all 
53 species, and initiated a status review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR 
14496), we published a 12-month finding on the 1991 petition, along 
with a proposed rule to list 30 African birds under the Act, which 
included 15 species from the 1991 petition. In that document, we 
announced our finding that listing the remaining 38 species from the 
1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, was warranted but 
precluded by higher priority listing actions. We made a subsequent 
warranted-but-precluded finding for all outstanding foreign species 
from the 1991 petition, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, as 
published in our ANOR on May 21, 2004 (69 FR 29354).
    Per the Service's listing priority guidelines (September 21, 1983; 
48 FR 43098), our 2007 ANOR identified the listing priority numbers 
(LPNs) (ranging from 1 to 12) for all outstanding foreign species. The 
LPN for the salmon-crested cockatoo was LPN 2. With the exception of 
listing priority ranking of 1, which addresses monotypic genera that 
face imminent threats of high magnitude, category 2 represents the 
Service's highest priority.
    On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we published in the Federal 
Register a notice announcing our annual petition findings for foreign 
species. We announced that listing was warranted for 30 foreign bird 
species, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is the subject of 
this proposed rule, and stated that we would ``promptly publish 
proposals to list these 30 taxa.''
    On September 8, 2008, the Service received a 60-day notice of 
intent to sue from the Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) and Peter 
Galvin regarding alleged violations of section 4 of the Act for the 
failure to promptly publish listing proposals for the 30 ``warranted'' 
species identified in our 2008 ANOR. Under a settlement agreement 
approved by the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of 
California on June 15, 2009 (CBD, et al. v. Salazar, 09-cv-02578-CRB), 
the Service must submit to the Federal Register a proposed listing rule 
for the salmon-crested cockatoo by October 30, 2009. Below, we 
summarize our analysis of the best available scientific and commercial 
data on the status of this species.

Species Description

    Cockatoos are a distinct group of parrots (order Psittaciformes), 
distinguished by the presence of an erectile crest (Cameron 2007, p. 1; 
Collar 1989, p. 5) and the lack of dyck texture in their feathers, 
which produces blue and green coloration in the plumage of other 
parrots (Brown & Toft 1999, p. 141). The salmon-crested cockatoo (also 
known as the Seram, Moluccan, pink-crested, or rose-crested cockatoo) 
is the largest and the most striking of Indonesia's white cockatoos 
(Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). Its body length is 46-52 centimeters (cm) 
(15.6-20 inches (in)), and its plumage varies from pale salmon-pink to 
whitish-pink. It has a long backward-curving, deep salmon-pink crest; 
the bill is large and gray-black; and the underwing and undertail are 
yellow-orange (BirdLife International (BLI) 2000, p. 242; Forshaw 1989, 
p. 141; Juniper & Parr 1998, pp. 280-281; Sweeney 2000, p. 130). Sexual 
dimorphism is exhibited by iris color (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278; 
Forshaw1989, p. 141; Peratino 1979, p. 125).

Taxonomy

    In 1751, Edwards described and pictorially delineated the salmon-
crested cockatoo (Lint 1951, p. 223) and, in 1788, J.F. Gmelin named 
the species Psittacus moluccensis (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Lint 1951, p. 
223). In 1937, Peters (1937, p. 175) used the name Kakatoe moluccensis 
(Gmelin) in the Check-list of Birds of the World. In 1992, Andrew 
(1992, p. 21) used the name Cacatua moluccensis in the first published 
checklist of the birds of Indonesia. This name continues to be the 
recognized scientific name (Integrated Taxonomic Information System 
(ITIS) 2008, p. 1; Sibley & Monroe 1990, p. 112), and the alternative 
genus name Kakatoe is now obsolete (del Hoya et al. 1997, p. 278).
    Some references (ITIS 2008, p. 1; Sibley & Monroe 1990, p. 112) 
place cockatoos in the family Psittacidae with lories and true parrots, 
whereas others (Cameron 2007, p. 1; Convention on International Trade 
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 2008a, p. 1) 
place cockatoos in a separate family, Cacatuidae. Of the 21 cockatoo 
species, 11 are in the genus Cacatua (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3).
    The closest relatives of the salmon-crested cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the South Moluccas, Indonesia (in the east central 
Indonesian island chain), are the umbrella cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the North Moluccas, and the blue-eyed cockatoo, which is 
restricted to the island of New Britain off the northeast coast of New 
Guinea (Cameron 2007, pp. 38-39, 51). In a biogeographic analysis of 
the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) phylogeny, Brown and Toft (1999, pp. 150-
151) suggest that these three species may have had a common ancestor 
that occupied an ancient landmass comprising Halmahera (a North 
Moluccan island) and Bismarck. The breakup of this landmass created

[[Page 56772]]

two populations, and the subsequent dispersal of cockatoos from the 
North Moluccas to the South Moluccas created another population, which 
became the salmon-crested cockatoo (Cameron 2007, p. 56).

Range and Distribution

    Cockatoos are only found in Australasia--a few archipelagos in 
Southeast Asia (Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, Tanimbar, Bismarck, 
and Solomon), New Guinea, and Australia--suggesting that the modern 
species arose after the breakup of Gondwanaland, a southern 
supercontinent that existed 200-500 million years ago. The 19\th\ 
century naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace was among the first to note 
the break in Australasian and Asian fauna. Wallace's line runs between 
the islands of Bali and Lombok, Borneo and Sulawesi, and south of the 
Philippines. Cockatoos are present on Lombok and Sulawesi, but not on 
Bali and Borneo. The line represents the western edge of a zone of 
overlap between Australasian and Asian fauna (known as Wallacea), with 
the eastern edge defined by the Australian continental shelf 
(Lydekker's Line) (Cameron 2007, pp. 1-3; White & Bruce 1986, p. 32).
    The oceanic islands of Wallacea have a high level of endemism, 
which resulted in many islands being identified as Endemic Bird Areas 
(EBA) (Cameron 2007, p. 56). BLI designates EBAs by mapping bird 
species with restricted ranges of less than 50,000 square kilometers 
(km\2\) (19,300 square miles (mi\2\)) that overlap. The unique 
biodiversity concentrated in these small areas is particularly 
vulnerable; thus, EBAs represent priority areas for global biodiversity 
conservation (BLI 2008i, p. 1; Collar 2000, p. 27; Stattersfield et al. 
1998, pp. 39, 45). The salmon-crested cockatoo is included in the Seram 
EBA (BLI 2003, p. 1; Stattersfield et al. 1998, pp. 528-531).
    Seram. The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to the island of 
Seram (alternate spelling, Ceram), with records from adjacent islands 
of Haruku, Saparua, and Ambon (formerly called Ambonia) in the South 
Moluccas (BLI 2001, p. 1662; Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper & Parr 1998, 
p. 281; Peters 1937, p. 175). The species resides in lowland rain 
forests up to 1,000 meters (m) (3,608 feet (ft)), remains locally 
common in Manusela National Park, and appears to be mostly distributed 
in the eastern part of the island (BLI 2008a, p. 2; Isherwood et al. 
1998, p. 18). For a listing of specific distribution records of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo, see BLI (2001, p. 1662).
    Ambon. Whether this species is native or introduced to Ambon is 
uncertain. Stresemann (1934, p. 16) reported that the salmon-crested 
cockatoo did not occur on Ambon. Thus, some scientists follow the view 
that the species may have been introduced to this island (Forshaw 1989, 
p. 141; Lever 1987, p. 245; Long 1981, p. 247; Smiet 1985, p. 189; van 
Bemmel 1948, as cited in White & Bruce 1986, p. 212). The salmon-
crested cockatoo was formerly traded in significant numbers, and 
shipments of birds from Seram transited through Ambon (the capital of 
the Maluku Province), where undoubtedly some birds escaped. Other 
scientists suggest that the cockatoos may well be wild birds (Marsden 
1992, pp. 12-13; Poulsen & Jepson 1996, pp. 159-160), with the 
persistence of a small population in northeast Ambon (Poulsen & Jepson 
1996, p. 159).
    Haruku and Saparua. The status of the salmon-crested cockatoo on 
Haruku and Saparua is unknown (Metz 1998, p. 10), and the species may 
be extinct on these two islands (Metz 2002, p. 1; Snyder et al. 2000, 
p. 68). For Haruku, there is one unspecified locality and date of 
observation reported (Stresemann 1934, p. 16), but Poulsen and Jepson 
(1996, p. 160) did not find the species in 1994 or 1996. For Saparua, 
there is one specimen in the RMNH (Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Histoire 
(Leiden, Netherlands)) recorded in 1923 (BLI 2001, p. 1663).
    For purposes of this proposal, we consider the salmon-crested 
cockatoo's natural range to include Seram and the three islands of 
Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua. Although the status of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo is unknown on Haruku and Saparua, the species has been 
reported from these islands, and we are unaware of any survey that has 
conclusively found that the species no longer occurs there.

Habitat

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is believed to be a specialist of 
primary lowland forests (Kinnarid et al. 2003, p. 228). It occurs at 
altitudes between 100 and 1,000-1,200 m (328 and 3,608-3,926 ft) (BLI 
2008a, p. 2; Bowler & Taylor 1993, p. 149; Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 
281), but rarely occurs above 600-900 m (1,968-2,952 ft) (Cameron 2007, 
p. 77; Marsden 1992, p. 11; Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281; Smiet 1985, p. 
189). Marsden (1992, p. 11) found that cockatoos tended to be recorded 
in mature, open-canopied lowland forests with some very large, tall 
trees and some low vegetation. Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) found 
that cockatoo abundance was significantly associated with the presence 
of potential nest trees (Octomeles sumatranus) and strangling figs 
(Ficus spp.). Cameron (2007, pp. 77-78) noted that island cockatoos 
prefer lowland forests over montane forests because lowland forests 
contain greater plant diversity and, thus, have a more diverse and 
abundant food supply. They also support larger trees, which are more 
likely to have cavities needed for nesting--a critical resource because 
cockatoos are incapable of excavating their own nest cavities. The 
salmon-crested cockatoo prefers flat or gently sloping terrain.
    The highest densities of birds occur in little-disturbed, lowland 
forests below 300 m (984 ft), and the lowest densities occur in 
recently logged forests and in non-forested areas (Marsden 1992, p. 9; 
Marsden 1998, p. 608). However, Marsden and Fielding (1999, p. 444) 
were unable to find differences in the species' presence based on 
habitat associations, and Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 227) found 
densities did not correspond closely to habitat differences across 
study sites. Marsden (1992, p. 11) suggested that the apparent 
differences in cockatoo densities between young logged forests and 
secondary forests, which have similar vegetation parameters, may be 
caused by differential trapping pressures and patterns of disturbance, 
differences in tree species compositions and overall habitat 
heterogeneity, and differences in cockatoo densities in areas before 
logging.
    Lower densities of birds occur in transition and submontane forests 
and on the edges of cultivated areas. Birds also occur in open canopy 
forests with low vegetation and in riverine forests (Juniper & Parr 
1998, p. 281). Despite trapping pressure, birds still occur in mature 
lowland forests near settlements (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281; Marsden 
1992, p. 11), but they are rarely seen near human habitation (Smiet 
1985, p. 189). Marsden (1992, pp. 9, 11) found cockatoos to be rare or 
irregular in other habitats, including plantations, grassland, rank 
scrub, and agricultural lands. The species previously occurred in 
coastal areas (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281), before land was converted 
to human uses (FAO 1981, as cited in Marsden 1992, p. 7). Small numbers 
of salmon-crested cockatoo have been observed in forested hills on 
Ambon. No other information was available on the habitat of this 
species on Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua.
    Topography. Seram is a densely wooded island (Metz 1998, p. 10) of 
18,625 km\2\ (7,189 mi\2\) (Smiet 1985, p. 183)--about the size of New 
Jersey (Morrison 2001, p. 1). The topography is

[[Page 56773]]

extremely variable and the interior of the island is rugged and mostly 
mountainous (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies between 
latitudes 2\o\ 46' and 3\o\ 53' south of the Equator. It is 
approximately 340 kilometers (km) (211 miles (mi)) long and 55-70 km 
(34-43 mi) wide in the center. Its highest point is Gunung Binaiya at 
approximately 3,027 m (9,929 ft) above sea level. It is the second 
largest island in the Moluccas. This group of about 1,000 islands is 
also known as the Spice Islands, because they include the original home 
of both nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and cloves (Syzgium aromaticum) 
(Edwards 1993, p. 1).
    Forests. Seram's wet climate supports mainly evergreen forests 
(Marsden 1998, p. 606). The alluvial plains originally supported tall 
lowland forests characterized by the only endemic dipterocarp on the 
island, Shorea selanica (`meranti'), and also Canarium, Elaeocarpus 
sphaericus, Calophyllum, Intsia, and Myristica (Coates & Bishop 1997, 
pp. 16-17; Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 7). Shorea selanica has developed 
remarkable dominance in the lowland forests of north Seram, 
representing about 30 percent of individual trees and 76 percent of the 
basal area (Edwards et al. 1993, p. 66). The forest is relatively open-
crowned with a sparse understory, with the floor being swept clean by 
floods during the wet season. Along the major rivers, the lowland 
forest is characterized by Octomeles sumatrana, Eucalyptus deglupta, 
Pometia pinnata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ficus, Litsea, and Eugenia 
(Coates & Bishop 1997, pp. 16-17).
    Climate. Most of Seram receives between 2,500 and 3,000 millimeters 
(mm) (97.5 and 117 inches (in)) of rain per year, with more in the east 
and northeast. The long monsoonal seasons (Metz 1998, p. 11; White & 
Bruce 1986, p. 24) and mountainous terrain affect the amount of 
rainfall. Annual and monthly rainfall is not uniform and varies by 
region (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). The island lies outside the main 
zone of cyclonic storms (Coates & Bishop 1997, p. 22). The lowlands 
have a humid tropical climate with temperatures at sea level of 25-30 
\o\Celsius (C) (77-86 \o\Fahrenheit (F)). Temperature decreases with 
altitude, with a fall of approximately 6 \o\C (10.8 \o\F) for every 
rise of 1,000 m (3,280 ft), leading to a marked temperature gradient 
within the mountain areas (Edwards 1993, p. 6).
    Land use. The human population of Seram is concentrated in low-
lying areas along the coast and in the west. The mountainous interior 
supports very few villages (Edwards 1993, p. 7). The majority of Seram 
is lowland forest or montane forest (see Table 1). While only about 11 
percent of the island has been converted to agricultural lands, 
settlements, and plantations or is considered unproductive, logging 
concessions cover nearly 50 percent of the island. About 85 percent of 
Seram lies below 600 m (1,968 ft) and another 10 percent lies between 
600 and 1,000 m (1,968 and 3,280 ft). Within this elevation where 
cockatoos occur, ``...most of the forest has been classified as 
production or conversion forest, categories that permit land clearing 
and forest disturbance'' (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230).

              Table 1. Habitat and land use for Seram and established and proposed protected areas
(data are based on landsat images from late 1989 and early 1990) (NP=National Park; NR=Nature Reserve) (Kinnaird
                                              et al. 2003, p. 230).
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                                                                       Area
                                 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        Habitat/Land Use                                                                       Proposed Wai Bula
                                         Seram            Manusela NP      Gunung Sahuwai NR          NR
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Lowland Forest                    14,026.5            1,522.5             118.9 km\2\ (45.9   561.8 km\2\ (216.9
                                   km\2\(5,414.2       km\2\(587.7         mi\2\)              mi\2\)
                                   mi\2\)              mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mangrove Forest                   77.6 km\2\ (30      --                  --                  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\)                                                      mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Montane Forest                    1,065.3 km\2\       693.9 km\2\ (267.8  --                  --
                                   (411.2 mi\2\)       mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Swamp Forest                      203.5 km\2\ (78.6   --                  --                  14.6 km\2\ (5.6
                                   mi\2\)                                                      mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Water Body                        1.2 mi\2\(3.0       --                  --                  --
                                   km\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Agriculture                       789.1 km\2\ (304.6  50 km\2\ (19.3      --                  9.6 km\2\ (3.7
                                   mi\2\)              mi\2\)                                  mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Plantation                        22.0 km\2\ (8.5     --                  --                  --
                                   mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Settlement                        21.3 km\2\ (8.2     3.2 km\2\ (1.2      --                  0.5 km\2\ (0.2
                                   mi\2\)              mi\2\)                                  mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unproductive Lands                1,082.2 km\2\       53.6 km\2\ (20.7    3.9 km\2\ (1.5      --
                                   (417.7 mi\2\)       mi\2\)              mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              Total               17,288.7 km\2\      2,323.2 km\2\       122.8 km\2\ (47.4   596.1 km\2\ (230.1
                                   (6,676.0 mi\2\)     (896.8 mi\2\)       mi\2\)              mi\2\)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Important Bird Areas (IBAs)

    BLI (2008b, p. 2) has identified five IBAs that include the salmon-
crested cockatoo. A site is recognized as an IBA when it meets criteria 
``...based on the occurrence of key bird species that are vulnerable to 
global extinction or whose populations are otherwise irreplaceable.'' 
These key sites for conservation are small enough to be conserved in 
their entirety and large enough to support self-sustaining populations 
of the key bird species. IBAs are a way to identify conservation 
priorities (BLI 2008j, pp. 1-2). The following briefly describes the 
IBAs for the salmon-crested cockatoo:
    Gunung Sahuwai. Located on the western peninsula of Seram, Gunung 
Sahuwai contains 122.8 km\2\ (47.4 mi\2\) of land that was declared a 
Nature Reserve on November 30, 1993 (SK Menteri Kehutanan No. 805/Kpts-
II/1993) (BLI 2008c, p. 2). The Nature Reserve contains 96.8 percent 
lowland forest and 3.2 percent unproductive lands (see Table 1) 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230). The number of cockatoos here is 
unknown. The coastal area contains 14 settlements. Most people work as 
farmers and fishermen. The main commodities are cloves, nutmeg, and 
coconut for copra. The local people hunt and collect forest products. 
Conservation concerns relate to the clearance of natural habitat for 
plantation, shifting agriculture, and collection of birds (BLI 2008c, 
pp. 1-2).

[[Page 56774]]

    Gunung Salahutu. The habitat is forest, and the topography is hilly 
up to 1,038 m (3,405 ft). The cockatoo was found in this area at one 
time, but is probably extinct here now. The coastal area contains two 
villages. Most of the people work as dry land farmers and fishermen. 
The main commodities are clove, nutmeg, cacao, and marine products. 
Conservation concerns relate to forest clearance for plantation, 
firewood collection, and hunting of animals for consumption or pets 
(BLI 2008d, pp. 1-2).
    Manusela. This area consists of forests and wetlands (BLI 2008e, 
pp. 1-2). Manusela National Park is located in the central part of 
Seram and stretches from the north coast to within 5 km (3 mi) of the 
south coast (Edwards 1993, p. 6). It is 2,323.2 km\2\ (896.8 mi\2\) in 
size and covers approximately 10 to 11 percent of Seram (BLI 2008e, p. 
2; Bowler & Taylor 1993, p. 158; Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228; Marsden 
1992, p. 7; Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 3). It was declared a national 
park in 1982 (SK Menteri Pertanian No. 736/Mentan/X/1982 on October 14, 
1982) (BLI 2008e, p. 2). Based on landsat images from late 1989 and 
early 1990, habitat and land use for Manusela National Park can be 
summarized as: 65.5 percent lowland forest; 29.9 percent montane 
forest; and 4.6 percent agriculture, settlement, and unproductive lands 
(see Table 1) (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230). Approximately, 26 percent 
of the park is above 1,000 m (3,608 ft), an altitude where the salmon-
crested cockatoo generally does not occur, and only 27 percent is below 
500 m (1,640 ft), an altitude preferred by the salmon-crested cockatoo 
(Marsden 1992, p. 7). A road has been built through the park, which 
increases the risks of logging (Metz 1998, p. 10). Five villages of 
indigenous people exist as an enclave of the park. Most of the people 
work as dry land farmers; they also hunt and collect forest products, 
such as sago, rattan, resin, eaglewood, and parrots (BlI 2008e, p. 1). 
In 1980, 999 people lived within the park boundaries, and 19,102 lived 
within 10 km (6 mi) of its boundaries (Smiet & Siallagan 1981, App. 6). 
Clearing of the land for agriculture and gardens has resulted in a 
patchwork of cleared fields, secondary vegetation (including large 
bamboo thickets), old growth forests, and undisturbed primary forests. 
Conservation concerns relate to logging, road development, encroachment 
by plantation companies, mining (MacKinnon & Artha 1981; Monk et al. 
1997, as cited in BLI 2008e, p. 2), shifting agriculture, and parrot 
catching for trade (BLI 2008e, pp. 1-2).
    Pegunungan Taunusa. The habitat is forest and the area has a 
mountain with the highest peak in Seram. The southern coastal area 
contains five villages. Most of the people work as farmers and 
fishermen. Main products are coconut for copra, clove, and cacao (BLI 
2008f, p. 1). The Service was unable to find information on the number 
of salmon-crested cockatoos in this area or activities that may be 
affecting the conservation of the species in Pegunungan Taunusa.
    Wai Bula. The habitat is forest in northeastern Seram. BLI (2008f, 
p. 1) estimates that Wae Wufa, an area inside Wai Bula that is primary 
lowland and lower montane evergreen forests, has around 40-60 salmon-
crested cockatoos. Approximately 596.1 km\2\ (230.1 mi\2\) of Wai Bula 
was proposed as a Nature Reserve in 1981, but the area has never been 
officially designated as a reserve (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). Land 
use for the proposed Nature Reserve can be summarized as follows: 94.2 
percent lowland forest; 1.6 percent mangrove forest; 2.4 percent swamp 
forest; and 2.5 percent agriculture and settlement (see Table 1). Based 
on density estimates derived from surveys in western Seram, researchers 
estimated that the area provides habitat for a minimum of 2,500 
cockatoos (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 230, 233) (see Factor A for 
discussion). This estimate differs significantly from the number of 
cockatoos estimated by BLI to occur inside Wae Wufa. We were unable to 
reconcile these estimates because we could not find information on the 
area of Wae Wufa, how much of the cockatoo's suitable habitat within 
Wai Bula occurs in Wae Wufa, and the basis for the BLI estimate. The 
coast contains four villages. Most people work as farmers and 
fishermen. The main plantation products are coconut for copra, cacao, 
and coffee. The conservation concern relates to logging (BLI 2008g, pp. 
1-2).

Natural History

    Behavior. The salmon-crested cockatoo is most active in early 
morning and late afternoon (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281; Metz et al. 
2007, p. 36), calling loudly when leaving and returning to roost. The 
cockatoo's call is a wailing cry, which can be heard from a distance of 
1 km (0.6 mi), and roosts can easily be located due to the noise. The 
species is shy and flies off when disturbed. Birds move slowly through 
the canopy in the early morning and are usually not seen or heard 
during the heat of the day. They are found in groups of up to 16 birds, 
although the size of non-breeding flocks appear to have been 
dramatically reduced due to the recent population decline (Juniper & 
Parr 1998, p. 281). They fly using a few rapid wing beats, followed by 
gliding, and then a few more wing beats (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper 
& Parr 1998, p. 281).
    Food. This species feeds on fruit of the kenari tree (Canarium 
commune, C. vulgare, and C. indicum) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37), nuts, 
seeds, berries, and insects (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper & Parr 1998, 
p. 281). Their abundance is positively related to the density of 
strangling figs, a potentially important food resource (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 233). Research by O'Brien et al. (1998, p. 668) showed that 
figs may be a keystone plant resource for many fruit-eating birds. On 
the average, figs contain calcium levels 3.2 times higher than other 
fruits, promoting eggshell deposition and bone growth. Salmon-crested 
cockatoos are suspected of taking Pandanus spp. fruits (Bishop in 
prep., as cited in BLI 2001, p. 1665). They pick larvae from fallen, 
rotting tree trunks (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37). They also eat young 
coconuts (Cocos nucifera) by chewing through the tough outer covering 
to get at the pulp and water inside (Forshaw 1989, p. 141; Juniper & 
Parr 1998, p. 281; Wallace 1864, p. 279). In general, island cockatoos 
are thought to need to exploit all the available food in order to 
maintain a healthy population because islands typically contain fewer 
plant species and the quantity of food is restricted by an islands' 
relatively small size (Cameron 2007, p. 83).
    Breeding. Its favored nest tree is Octomeles sumatranus (Kinnaird 
et al. 2003, p. 230). During times of nest building, brooding, and 
fledging, birds stay close to the nest tree (Metz et al. 2007, p. 36). 
Courtship display can last up to 20 minutes, with the male and female 
perched in the top of an emergent or dead forest tree, raising and 
lowering their crests, fanning their large face and neck feathers 
forward to increase the size of the head (Cameron 2007, p. 57), calling 
loudly, breaking twigs, and making short, weak, fluttering flights. The 
nest is a high hole in a mature tree (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281). The 
salmon-crested cockatoo removes the bark immediately surrounding the 
entrance to help prevent predators, such as snakes or monitor lizards, 
from gaining access to the eggs or chicks, and may also clear the 
surrounding foliage perhaps to have a better view for the brooding hen. 
The nest site is fiercely guarded from competitors, such as the 
Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) (Metz et al. 2007, p. 37).

[[Page 56775]]

    Little is known about seasonality and breeding biology of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228), or 
other demographic information, such as reproductive effort and success 
and age-specific mortality rates--information that is important to 
determine where the primary weak points in the life equation lie 
(Snyder et al. 2000, p. 9). The cockatoo is thought to breed between 
July and August or September, and probably a second time at the 
beginning of the year (Metz & Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Stresemann (1914, 
p. 86) observed a pair in a nesting cavity about 25 m (82 ft) up the 
truck of a living tree in early May. The cockatoo lines the cavity with 
wood chips, and usually lays two white eggs, although only one is 
raised (Metz & Zimmermann n.d., p. 1). Both parents help to incubate 
the eggs during the 28-day incubation period. Young birds take 4-5 
years to reach maturity (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281).

Population Estimates

    Seram--historical population estimates. Historically, there are few 
quantitative observations of this species in the wild. In 1864, Wallace 
(1864, p. 279) described the salmon-crested cockatoo as ``abundant'' on 
Seram. In 1911, Stresemann (1914, p. 86) reported that the species was 
fairly common in coastal regions. The species was regarded as locally 
common in 1970 (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281). During 1980 and 1981 
(Forshaw 1989, p. 141), Smiet (1985, p. 189) observed that this species 
was locally common in primary forests up to 900 m (2,952 ft) in the 
interior and in undisturbed forests, where 10 to 16 birds were seen 
congregating in roosting trees. He did not see any birds on the western 
part of the island, although the cockatoo was said to be common there 
until about 1970. In 1980, small flocks were observed in the south of 
the island (White & Bruce 1986, p. 212), and cockatoos were frequently 
seen throughout Manusela National Park below 900 m, except in the 
southern part of the Mual Plains in the center of the park where they 
were not common (Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 9). In September 1983, 
Bishop (1992, p. 2) observed four cockatoos in secondary woodland in 
southwest Seram.
    Rangers at the Manusela National Park commented on a dramatic 
decline in the species in the mid-1980s (Collar & Andrew 1988, p. 69). 
By 1987, it was the rarest parrot in Manusela National Park (Bishop 
1992, p. 2). Due to the international pet trade, Bishop considered the 
species to be endangered and in need of critical management to avoid 
imminent extinction (Bishop 1992, p. 1). Between July 20 and September 
25, 1987, an Operation Raleigh team found the species to be ``very 
scarce and absent from large tracts of suitable habitat'' in Manusela 
National Park (Bowler 1988, p. 6). During 40 days of field work, they 
made 54 sightings, resulting in a maximum of 20 individual birds in 
prime habitat. In addition, birds were observed either singly or in 
pairs, never in flocks. Encounter rates were the lowest of any parrot 
species at 0.3 birds per hour in lowland rain forests around Solea at 
about 100 m (328 ft) and 0.1 per hour in the Kineka area at 600-900 m 
(1,968-2,952 ft) (Bowler 1988, p. 6; Bowler & Taylor 1989, p. 17). 
Marsden (1992, pp. 11-12) suggested that the densities of cockatoos, 
which Bowler and Taylor found in the Manusela National Park enclave, 
may be naturally low because the forest has been heavily disturbed and 
the area is at the upper end of the species' altitudinal range. He 
found it difficult to relate Bowler and Taylor's low figures for 
lowland forests around Solea to what he found in 1989 (see below). BLI 
also questioned the validity of the numbers, because Bowler and Taylor 
are now judged to have worked mainly at higher elevations in Manusela 
(BLI 2001, pp. 1664, 1668). Metz (1998, p. 10) suggested that the 
stronghold of this cockatoo is likely on Seram, almost exclusively 
outside of the borders of the national park.
    During 5 weeks from December 19, 1989, Marsden (1992, pp. 7-8; 
Marsden 1998, p. 606) collected field data in Manusela National Park 
and in lowland habitats in central and northeast Seram, using the 
variable circular plot method to estimate densities of the salmon-
crested cockatoo. Encounter rates were 1.0 bird per hour in primary 
forests, 2.5 birds in disturbed primary forests, and 0.4 birds in 
secondary and in recently logged forests. While cockatoo densities were 
similar in primary (9.1 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\)) and disturbed 
primary forests (9.8 birds), densities were lower in secondary forests 
(6.4 birds), and much lower in recently logged forests (1.9 birds), 
suggesting that large-scale logging might adversely affect the species' 
population.
    Between July and September 1996, the Wai Bula '96 (a conservation 
expedition from Cambridge University and Universitas Pattimura, Ambon) 
found the salmon-crested cockatoo to be widely dispersed in northeast 
Seram in the Wae Fufa Valley (primary lowland and lower montane 
evergreen forests) and in degraded coastal forests near Hoti (coastal 
secondary lowland forests), where pairs and small flocks were a common 
sight. They suggested that the bulk of the population probably occurs 
in eastern Seram (Isherwood et al. 1998, p. 18). Juniper & Parr (1998, 
p. 281) reported that the world population was ``thought still to be 
above 8,000.''
    Seram--recent population estimates. The most recent research 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 232) estimated the total salmon-crested 
cockatoo population to be 110,385 birds (with confidence limits of a 
minimum 62,416 and a maximum of 195,242). Based on the research 
assumptions (see below), we agree with BLI (2001, p. 1664) that 
``...the figure of 62,400 is chosen as the appropriate population 
figure.''
    These numbers were generated by joint population surveys conducted 
by the Wildlife Conservation Society Indonesia Program, BLI Indonesia 
Program, and Pelastarian Hutan Dan Konservasi Alam, Ministry of 
Forestry, Government of Indonesia in May-September 1998. Cockatoo 
censuses were conducted at seven sites in western and central Seram 
using line-transect methods (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 228, 230, 234). 
Five of the sites were considered primary lowland forest and two had 
been previously logged or were disturbed by humans (Kinnaird et al. 
2003, p. 228). Cockatoos were observed at all sites as single 
individuals or pairs. Estimates of density varied widely among 
locations, ranging from 0.93 birds per 1 km\2\ (0.386 mi\2\) at Kawa to 
17.25 birds per 1 km\2\ at Roho. The mean density was 7.87 birds per 1 
km\2\, which was considered indicative of all sites because it included 
estimates from primary and logged forests. The researchers were unable 
to complete the census before the outbreak of civil war; thus, data 
from the western part of Seram were used to estimate the number of 
cockatoos on all of Seram.
    The estimated population was generated by working with GIS-based 
estimates of lowland forest habitat on Seram (14,026 km\2\ (5,414.2 
mi\2\)) below 600 m (1,968 ft) and assuming that all lowland forests 
provide adequate habitat for cockatoos and that densities remain 
constant across the island (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 232). Because 
these assumptions are unlikely, Kinnaird (2000, p. 15) explained the 
scenarios considered by the researchers. Cockatoos are fairly tolerant 
of degraded habitat, but they still need nesting trees and have a 
preference for areas with lots of large strangling figs. So, the first 
scenario looked at involved the number and extent of logging 
concessions operating on Seram during the 10-year-period from 1989-
1999, which resulted in a reduction of 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\) of 
lowland forest habitat for cockatoos.

[[Page 56776]]

The population estimate still hovered between 90,000 and 100,000 birds. 
The second scenario looked at continued logging and habitat loss during 
the next decade, projecting that the population size would decline by 
another 10 percent. These estimates may have underestimated cockatoo 
population size because many logging concessions are not working at 
full capacity. On the other hand, the estimates ignored additional 
losses due to the capturing of birds for the pet trade. The population 
estimate also ignored the variability in how logging companies harvest 
their concessions (i.e., greater or less than the legal maximum 
intensity). If logging concessions harvest timber in a conventional 
manner of up to 1,000 hectare (ha) (2,470 acre (ac)) per year, Kinnaird 
et al. (2008, p. 233) assumed that cockatoos will persist but at 
possibly lower densities.
    In 1985, Smiet (1985, pp. 193-194) suggested that the relative 
resilience of most Moluccan parrots under trade pressure and habitat 
destruction can be attributed to a combination of factors, including: 
(1) A great reproductive capacity (especially in the smaller species); 
(2) adaptability to habitat alteration (which tends to provide a 
relative abundance of flowering and fruiting plants); (3) persistence 
of some original, undisturbed habitat; and (4) island isolation and 
lack of predators, parasites, and competitive species. Metz (2005, p. 
34), however, cautioned that the current population estimate should not 
be a ``cause for complacency.'' He suggested that the number of birds 
capable of breeding, or the breeding success rate, might be low for 
this species since: they have a long life span, and many birds might be 
past breeding age; there is a very high poaching pressure and trappers 
mostly take adult birds, which depletes the number of breeding birds; 
and the salmon-crested cockatoo has a slow reproductive cycle and 
unknown, but possibly low, fledging success rate. These opinions point 
out the need for further research on this species to better understand 
its population size and its ability to adapt to the habitat destruction 
and trade that is occurring on Seram.
    Ambon. Very small numbers of salmon-crested cockatoos are thought 
to occur in remaining natural forests in the more remote regions of 
Ambon (Poulsen & Jepson 1996, p. 160). While Smiet (1985, p. 189) lived 
on the island from 1980 to 1981, he did not see the species there; 
however, he wrote that the species was said to be common on Ambon until 
about 10 years ago. In 1992, Marsden (1992, pp. 12-13) reported seeing 
eight salmon-crested cockatoos and three unidentified cockatoos during 
brief searches of remaining forest patches on Ambon. He suggested that 
most free flying salmon-crested cockatoos on Ambon may be wild birds, 
either resident and possibly breeding or visiting birds from Seram. 
Local people told him that cockatoos were still present in the area, 
but rare in other forested areas on the island. Poulsen and Jepson 
(1996, pp. 159-160) confirmed that wild populations of salmon-crested 
cockatoos occur on Ambon. On May 28 and June 11, 1995, they observed 
six to eight cockatoos, in forested hills behind Hila on the north 
coast of the Hitu Peninsula, overlooking a forested valley at about 300 
m (984 ft) and in forest edge around shifting cultivation at about 500 
m (1,640 ft).

Conservation Status

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is protected from capture and trade 
under Indonesian laws (Republic of Indonesia Law No. 5, 1990, and Law 
No. 7, 1999) (Kinnaird 2000, p. 14; Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 228). 
Intentional violations may lead to imprisonment of up to 5 years and 
fines up to 100 million IDR (Indonesian rupiah) (which amounts to 
approximately 10,000 USD (U.S. dollar)). Negligent violations may lead 
to imprisonment of up to 1 year and fines up to 50 million IDR (5,000 
USD). The government may seize and confiscate specimens of protected 
animals. The Department of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation is 
responsible for implementing the law, and the Natural Resources 
Conservation Agency, working with police, Customs, and other 
enforcement agencies, is responsible for enforcing the law (Shepherd et 
al. 2004, p. 4).
    The species is listed on the IUCN (International Union for 
Conservation of Nature) Red List as `Vulnerable' because it has 
suffered a rapid population decline as a result of trapping for the pet 
bird trade and because of deforestation in its small range. BLI (2004, 
p. 1) projects that the decline will continue and perhaps accelerate. 
Current populations are estimated at 62,400 individuals (Kinnaird et 
al. 2003, p. 232), with a decreasing population trend; the decline for 
the past and the future 10 years or 3 generations is estimated at 30 to 
49 percent (BLI 2008b, p. 1). The current trend is justified by the 
suspected rapid decline of the species due to ongoing and prolific 
capture for the domestic pet trade (BLI 2008b, p. 2). Ongoing threats 
are habitat loss and degradation due to selective logging and clear-
cutting, agriculture, infrastructure development (settlement and 
hydroelectric projects), and harvesting (hunting and gathering for the 
domestic and international pet trade) (BLI 2004, pp. 1-2).
    The cockatoo is also protected by CITES, one of the most important 
means of controlling international trade in wild animals and plants. 
CITES is an international agreement where countries work together to 
ensure that international trade in CITES-listed animals and plants is 
not detrimental to the survival of wild populations by regulating 
import, export, and re-export. Although almost all Psittaciformes 
species were included in CITES Appendix II in 1981 (CITES 2008a, p. 1), 
the salmon-crested cockatoo was transferred to CITES Appendix I 
effective January 18, 1990, because populations were declining rapidly 
due to uncontrolled trapping for the pet bird trade (CITES 1989a, pp. 
1-7). An Appendix-I listing includes species threatened with extinction 
whose trade is permitted only under exceptional circumstances, which 
generally precludes commercial trade. The import of an Appendix-I 
species requires the issuance of both an import and export permit. 
Import permits are issued only if findings are made that the import 
would be for purposes that are not detrimental to the survival of the 
species and that the specimen will not be used for primarily commercial 
purposes (CITES Article III(3)). Export permits are issued only if 
findings are made that the specimen was legally acquired and trade is 
not detrimental to the survival of the species (CITES Article III(2)). 
The United States and Indonesia, along with 173 other countries, are 
members to CITES (CITES 2009, p. 1).
    The import of salmon-crested cockatoos into the United States is 
also regulated by the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) (16 U.S.C. 4901 
et seq.), which was enacted on October 23, 1992. The purpose of the 
WBCA is to promote the conservation of exotic birds by ensuring that 
all trade involving the United States is sustainable and is not 
detrimental to the species. Permits may be issued to allow import of 
listed birds for scientific research, zoological breeding or display, 
or personal pet purposes when certain criteria are met. The Service may 
approve cooperative breeding programs and subsequent import permits 
under such programs. Wild-caught birds may be imported into the United 
States if they are subject to Service-approved management plans for 
sustainable use. At this time, the salmon-crested cockatoo is not part 
of a Service-approved cooperative breeding program and does not have an 
approved

[[Page 56777]]

management plan for wild-caught birds (FWS 2008, p. 1).
    The IUCN Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2000-2004 for 
Parrots (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 66) identified a need to clarify the 
status of the salmon-crested cockatoo in the wild, including: (1) 
determining the species' relative abundance in each habitat type and 
(2) collecting information on the size and distribution of habitat 
types, trapping, timber extraction, and breeding success of cockatoos 
in primary and secondary forests because it is unknown if the salmon-
crested cockatoo will survive in degraded secondary forests in the long 
term. At present, inadequate information on the species, its habitat, 
and the effects of human activities on the species makes it difficult 
to make recommendations on regional development, such as reserve 
boundaries, land-use zoning, and possible new provincial forestry and 
agriculture policies, to ensure the species' survival. The information 
would also provide a baseline for monitoring and determining the degree 
to which trade affects the status of this species (Snyder et al. 2000, 
pp. 66, 69).

Species Information and Factors Affecting the Salmon-crested Cockatoo

    Under section 4(a) of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533(a)(1)) and 
regulations promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the Act 
(50 CFR part 424), we may list a species as threatened and endangered 
on the basis of five factors. The five factors are: (A) Present or 
threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or 
range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) inadequacy of 
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors 
affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be warranted 
based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in combination. 
Below is the Service's five-factor analysis for the salmon-crested 
cockatoo.

Foreseeable Future

    Although section 3 of the Act uses the term ``foreseeable future'' 
in the definition of a threatened species, it does not define the term. 
For purpose of this proposed rule, we defined ``foreseeable future'' to 
be the extent to which, given the amount and quality of available data, 
we can anticipate events or effects, or extrapolate trends of a threat, 
such that reliable predictions can be made concerning the future of the 
species. In the analysis of the five factors below, we consider and 
describe how the foreseeable future relates to the status of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in view of population trends and threats to the 
species.

Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or 
Curtailment of the Species' Habitat or Range

    The lowland forest habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo is being 
impacted by logging (including the failure to use wise logging 
practices during selective logging), illegal logging, conversion of 
forests to agriculture and plantations, transmigration of people, oil 
exploration, and infrastructure development.
    Logging. Commercial timber extraction is listed by the IUCN Red 
List to be a continuing major threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo, 
with a medium impact and a slow decline of the species (BLI 2008b, p. 
3). Research that looked at species-area relationship suggested that 
deforestation affects endemic bird species restricted to single islands 
most severely (Brooks et al. 1997, p. 392).
    In Indonesia as a whole, between 2000 and 2005, forest cover 
declined by more than 90,000 km\2\ (34,740 mi\2\). Lowland areas, which 
offer important habitat for Indonesia's cockatoos, have been the most 
severely impacted (Cameron 2007, p. 177; Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 1 p. 
2). On the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan (Indonesian islands to the 
far west of Seram), the World Bank predicted that all lowland rain 
forests outside of protected areas would be degraded by 2005 and 2010, 
respectively (Rhee et al. 2004, p. xviii). In many areas of Indonesia, 
most commercially valuable forests have already been logged. Thus, 
major commercial logging enterprises are now focused on islands in 
Maluku Province, including Seram (BLI 2008k, p. 6; Smiet 1985, p. 181).
    The impact of logging has steadily increased on Seram, with logging 
becoming more intense during the 1990s (BLI 2008k, p. 6). Deforestation 
in some areas has been extensive through selective logging of Shorea 
spp. (Ellen 1993, p. 201), such that by 2001, about a fifth of the 
original forest cover had been cleared (Morrison 2001, p. 1), with most 
of the coastal areas converted to grassland, agriculture, plantations, 
or scrub (Marsden 1992, p. 7). Although large areas of contiguous, 
intact forests remain (Morrison 2001, p. 1), 50 percent of forest, 
which are spread over the island, are under logging concessions. The 
north dipterocarp forests are still dominated by the endemic Shorea 
selanica, a tree especially vulnerable to logging as it grows tall and 
straight and is much favored by Western and Japanese markets (Edwards 
1993, p. 9). Once the primary forest is logged, experience on nearby 
Indonesian islands shows that secondary forest is generally converted 
to other uses or logged again rather than being allowed to return to 
primary forest (Barr 2001, pp. 64, 67; Grimmett & Sumarauw 2000, p. 8; 
Jepson et al. 2001, p. 859).
    Selective logging is the primary technique for the extraction of 
timber in Indonesia (BLI 2008k, p. 6). In selective logging, the most 
valuable trees from a forest are commercially extracted (Johns 1988, p. 
31), and the forest is left to regenerate naturally or usually with 
some management until subsequently logged again. Johns (1988, p. 31), 
looking at a West Malaysian dipterocarp forest, found that mechanized 
selective logging in tropical rain forests, which usually removes a 
small percent of timber trees, causes severe incidental damage. The 
extraction of 3.3 percent of trees destroyed 50.9 percent of the 
forest. He concluded that this type of logging reduced the availability 
of food sources for frugivores (fruit-eaters). Edwards (1993, p. 9) 
observed a similar problem on Seram. Timber companies, operating under 
a selective logging system, caused considerable damage to the 
surrounding forest, both to trees and soil. Forests selectively logged 
15 years before had an open structure with skeletons of incidentally 
killed trees, serious gulley erosion, and vegetation on waterlogged 
sites that had been compacted by heavy vehicles. Also, commercial 
logging uses a network of roads, which can lead to secondary problems 
(BLI 2008k, p. 6), such as providing access to trappers of parrots.
    Since selective logging targets mature trees, it can have a 
disproportionate impact on hole-nesters, such as cockatoos, because 
fewer nest sites remain (BLI 2008k, p. 6). Also, unsustainable logging 
practices that destroy the forest canopy reduce habitat available to 
the salmon-crested cockatoo. Kinnaird et al. (2003, pp. 233-234) found 
that the abundance of cockatoos was positively related to the density 
of its favored nest tree, Octomeles sumatranus, and strangling figs, a 
potentially important food resource. These trees would be impacted by 
logging, emphasizing the need to implement wise logging practices, such 
as those based on reduced-impact logging techniques. However, these 
techniques, which are recommended under Indonesia's selective logging 
system, are seldom applied because of the lack of control over 
harvesting practices, limited

[[Page 56778]]

understanding of how to implement the measures, and high financial 
costs (Sist et al. 1998, p. 1). Specifically, the pre- and post-logging 
inventories are not conducted properly or are not reported truthfully; 
over-cutting above the annual plan occurs; frequent cutting outside 
approved boundaries occurs; re-logging is more frequent than 
recommended; and supervision by the Ministry of Forestry has been 
ineffective (Thompson 1996, p. 9).
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is dependent on little-disturbed 
lowland forests. In a field study conducted from December 19, 1989, for 
5 weeks, Marsden (1992, pp. 7-13) looked at the distribution, 
abundance, and habitat preferences of the salmon-crested cockatoo on 
Seram. Results suggested that while cockatoo densities were similar in 
primary and disturbed primary forests, densities were lower in 
secondary forests, and much lower in recently logged forests (Marsden 
1992, p. 9). In total, 84 cockatoos were recorded at 132 stations, 
either singly or in pairs, on 34 occasions. Groups of more than 4 birds 
were recorded 3 times, with the maximum group size of 10. Although 
cockatoos were found at different densities in different land-use 
types, more cockatoos were present where habitat alterations occurred 
on a small scale. Cockatoos tended to be recorded in mature, open-
canopied lowland forests with some very large, tall trees and some low 
vegetation. Most significantly, Marsden found that there may have been 
a reduction of the cockatoo population by about 700 birds for each 100 
km\2\ (86 mi\2\) of Seram's primary forests that had been selectively 
logged in the last 6 years. Similarly, the conversion of 100 km\2\ of 
locally disturbed secondary forests to plantation could result in the 
loss of around 600 birds (Marsden 1992, p. 12).
    Marsden (1998, pp. 605-611) also looked at changes in bird 
abundance following selective logging on Seram. Field work was 
conducted in forested areas in the central and northeast parts of the 
island. Logged forests usually had sparser canopy and mid-level 
vegetation cover and denser ground cover than unlogged forests (Marsden 
1998, pp. 605, 607-608). Using a point count method to estimate 
population densities, Marsden (1998, p. 608; 1999, p. 380) found that 
salmon-crested cockatoo density estimates in unlogged forests below 300 
m (984 ft) were more than double those in logged forests. Because the 
cockatoo is caught for the pet trade, Marsden was unable to separate 
the effects of habitat change, such as loss of nest holes, from 
possible effects of logging on capture rates (for example, increased 
accessibility to trappers) (Marsden 1998, p. 610). Although Kinnaird et 
al. (2003, p. 233) found the highest cockatoo densities in primary 
forest habitat with good structure and lower densities in logged or 
disturbed sites, they did not find a statistically significant 
difference in cockatoo densities between logged and unlogged forests. 
They surmised this may have been because of the intensity of logging 
or, more likely, reflected the mosaic of habitat types found within 
their sampling sites. They speculated that there is a continuum of 
cockatoo densities in logged forests depending on the intensity of 
logging and access provided to trappers.
    Logging concessions are spread over the island, except there are no 
concessions in Gunung Sahuai Nature Reserve and only 15 percent of 
Manusela National Park is under concessions (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 
231). About half the island (8,271 km\2\ (3,193 mi\2\)) is held within 
logging concessions, with more than 75 percent within lowland habitat 
favored by the salmon-crested cockatoo (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 227, 
233). This means that less than 30 percent of the island's lowland 
forests (5,096 km\2\ (1,967 mi\2\)) is unoccupied by logging 
concessions. In 1998, Kinnaird et al. (2003, pp. 233-234) were unable 
to find out the area of land scheduled for logging. However, Kinnaird 
(2000, p. 15) was able to obtain information from the Ministry of 
Forestry that showed 12 logging concessions have been operating on 
Seram during the 10-year period from 1989-1999. If the concessions have 
been logged at a maximum intensity of 10 km\2\ (3.86 mi\2\)/year/
concession and that logging was conducted in a conventional manner that 
results in 70 percent damage to the canopy, lowland forest habitat for 
cockatoos would be reduced by 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\), or 8.5 percent, 
in 10 years. The researcher concluded in 2000 that overall the loss of 
habitat has not reached a level where it is perceived as a serious 
threat to cockatoos. However, the cockatoo remains under threat 
(Kinnaird 2000, p. 15). We have no reason to believe that the effects 
of logging on the species will be ameliorated in the foreseeable 
future, but may increase because commercial logging enterprises are now 
focused on the Moluku Province, including Seram.
    The researchers were forced to leave the island because of civil 
unrest. They suggested that the pressure for land conversion will 
accelerate dramatically once social and economic stability returns to 
Seram, especially in the lowlands, and this will be made worse by the 
1999 regional autonomy laws that allow for local authorities to 
determine licensing of forest concessions and exploitation of natural 
resources. They concluded that the proper management of Seram's logging 
concessions would determine the future of the salmon-crested cockatoo 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 234).
    Approximately 14 percent of Seram's forests (or 11.5 percent of 
lowland forests) are protected in Manusela National Park (2,216.4 km\2\ 
(855.5 mi\2\)) and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve (118.9 km\2\ (45.9 
mi\2\)). In Manusela National Park, 15 percent of the forest is within 
logging concessions. In 1981, Smiet and Siallagan (1981, pp. 11-12, 22) 
reported that large patches of forest in the coastal region of the Mual 
Plains had been disturbed by logging activities--forests along the 
southeastern boundary of the park had been cleared up to 400 m (1,312 
ft) and planted with clove and coconut plantations. They advocated the 
development of a buffer zone between the park and the densely populated 
coastal area because more and more forests at increasing altitudes were 
being cleared. Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 233) estimated that the 
protected areas in Seram provide habitat for a minimum of 7,300 salmon-
crested cockatoos based on density estimates derived from their 
surveys. However, logging has recently occurred inside Manusela 
National Park, and, once logging has concluded, there are pressures to 
change the land use to agriculture or plantations (BLI 2008k, p. 7). 
Kinnaird et al. (2003, p. 233) also estimated that the proposed Wai 
Bula nature reserve, 561.8 km\2\ (216.9 mi\2\) of lowland forests 
located in the northeastern part of Seram, provides habitat for a 
minimum of 2,500 cockatoos. We believe that this population estimate, 
which is based on the availability of suitable habitat, may be an 
overestimate because the Wai Bula area is currently not protected (it 
was proposed as a nature reserve in 1981 and the probability of it 
being officially designed is now low) and 93 percent of the area is 
under logging concessions.
    Illegal logging. Illegal logging is considered to be a leading 
cause of forest degradation in Indonesia (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 6 p. 
7). It is pervasive, and the Indonesian government has been unable to 
enforce its own forest boundaries (Barr 2001, p. 40). Illegal logging 
includes overharvesting beyond legal and sustainable quotas, harvesting 
of trees from steep slopes and riparian habitat, timber harvesting and 
land encroachment in conservation areas and protection forests, and 
falsification of documents. Overexploitation of the forests and illegal 
logging are driven by

[[Page 56779]]

the wood-processing industry, which consumes at least six times the 
officially allowed harvest (Rhee et al. 2004, pp. xvii, chap. 6 p. 8). 
Illegal logging in the national parks also is reported with regularity, 
and the persons involved are armed and ruthless (Whitten et al. 2001, 
p. 2).
    Although the Indonesian government issued Presidential Instruction 
No. 4/2005 to eradicate illegal logging in forest areas and 
distribution throughout Indonesia (see Factor C) (FAOLEX 2009, p. 1), 
illegal logging continues. The Center for International Forestry 
Research estimated that between 55 and 75 percent of logging in 
Indonesia is illegal (U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) 
2004, p. 1). Contributing factors include poor forest governance, rapid 
decentralization of government, abuse of local political powers, 
complicity of the military and police in some parts of the country, 
inconsistent enforcement of the law, and dwindling power of the central 
government (USAID 2004, pp. 3, 9). Jepson et al. (2001, pp. 859-861) 
found illegal logging crews operating freely in December 2000 in 
protected areas and forest concessions in Sumatra and Kalimantan, 
Indonesia. Local government officials were in collusion with illegal 
loggers by turning a blind eye to the practice or providing permits for 
timber transport. Some government officials, who wanted to stop illegal 
logging, faced serious intimidation. Jepson et al. concluded that 
illegal logging was becoming semi-legal and the de facto arrangement 
for governing Indonesia's forests.
    Conversion of forests to agriculture and plantations. Indonesia is 
a rapidly developing country with a projected population of 235 million 
by 2015 (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 59). A growing population on Seram has 
converted forest into cultivated land, with human settlements and 
plantations typically located in lowland coastal areas (Smiet 1985, pp. 
181, 183). Based on data from landsat images from late 1989 and early 
1990 (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 230), land use in Seram is as follows: 
4.6 percent in agriculture, 0.1 percent in plantations, and 0.1 percent 
in settlements (see Table 1 below). Although these percentages are low, 
forests continue to be converted for agriculture and plantations.
    Near the coast, forests have been replaced with plantations of 
coconut, oil palm, and spices. Inland, forests on rich alluvial soil, 
once timbered, are liable to be converted to agricultural fields. Part 
of the Indonesian government's long-term planning strategy is to 
develop more efficient agriculture through improved and appropriate 
techniques to help alleviate poverty. If the plan is carefully 
implemented, improved agricultural techniques could reduce pressure on 
areas of natural habitat (BLI 2008k, pp. 7-8). However, Snyder et al. 
(2000, p. 66) cautioned that, since most of Seram's forests are under 
timber concessions, the island's development priority could mean that 
forests over good soil may be converted to wet rice cultivation and 
other crops. The salmon-crested cockatoo is unable to exist in this 
type of habitat (Snyder et al. 2000, p. 66).
    Approximately 6,220 km\2\ (2,401 mi\2\) of Seram's lowland forest 
is slated for conversion to agriculture or plantations (45 percent 
within logging concessions). By 2028, most of this land will probably 
be converted to these uses that provide no habitat for cockatoos, 
resulting in habitat loss for at least 31,000 cockatoos and reducing 
the total island population to around 30,400 individuals (Kinnaird et 
al. 2003, p. 233).
    Transmigration. Indonesia has long had a policy to resettle people, 
mainly from Java, to develop the less populated regions of the country, 
with the Maluku Province being a major destination (BLI 2008k, p. 8). 
From 1969-1989, some 730,000 families were relocated in Indonesia 
(Library of Congress 1992, p. 1). While the scale of transmigration has 
been reduced over the past decade, the recent unrest in Maluku led to 
large-scale movement of people. In some areas, these movements of 
people have had serious negative effects on the environment, involving 
land disputes with indigenous inhabitants (Library of Congress 1992, p. 
1), forest clearance for agriculture, unsustainable slash-and-burn 
farming (BLI 2008k, p. 8), and introduction of wet rice cultivation 
(Ellen 1993, p. 200).
    Oil exploration. In 1993, a significant oil discovery was made in 
eastern Seram--the Non-Bula Block, which occupies an area of about 
4,572 km\2\ (1,765 mi\2\). Development was delayed until 2002 (Lion 
Energy Limited 2009, p. 2). The average output from the main oil field 
in the first half of 2006 was 4,300 barrels per day (Entrepreneur 2009, 
p. 1). The main field in the Seram Non-Bula Block is the Oseil Field. 
The gross oil reserves in that field have been estimated to be about 39 
million barrels--7 million barrels of proven reserves, 6 million 
barrels of probable reserves, and 26 million barrels of possible 
reserves (International Business Times 2009, p. 1). In 2008, oil was 
discovered in a new well, which lies 4 km (2.5 mi) from the Oseil 
Field. The investment firm is currently petitioning the Indonesian 
government to begin production and export operations from the new field 
(E&P Magazine 2008, p. 1). Generally, oil development areas cover large 
tracts of land, but the area occupied by permanent facilities including 
pipelines and refineries are relatively small. However, oil development 
can have significant negative impacts on nearby habitat through 
construction of roads and other buildings, discharge of refineries, and 
oil spills and leaks (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 6 p. 31).
    Infrastructure development. Seram is remote, with no airport and 
only rudimentary ground transportation (Morrison 2001, p. 5). An 
essential part of regional development is the improvement of roads. 
However, new roads can cause serious environmental problems (BLI 2008k, 
p. 8), as shown by the Trans-Seram Highway, which threatens forest 
habitat by illegal logging, land clearance, and soil erosion (Morrison 
2001, p. 5). The excavation of sand for local road construction has 
affected some habitat on Seram. Previous proposals for a large cement 
factory, with a quarry and hydroelectric dam, close to Manusela 
National Park appear to have been abandoned (BLI 2008k, p. 8).
Summary of Factor A
    The salmon-crested cockatoo resides in lowland forests 
predominately between 100-600 m (328-1,968 ft) throughout the island, 
with the highest densities of birds occurring in little-disturbed 
forests. Logging and illegal logging are primary threats to the habitat 
of this species, with the threats occurring throughout the island in 
lowland forests.
    Cockatoos are highly impacted by selective logging of primary 
forests. Selective logging, which targets mature trees, has a negative 
impact on hole-nesters, such as the salmon-crested cockatoo. Research 
found that the abundance of cockatoos was positively related to the 
density of its favored nest tree and strangling figs, trees that would 
be impacted by logging, especially since reduced-impact logging 
techniques are seldom applied.
    Research also found that for every 100 km\2\ (38.6 mi\2\) of 
Seram's primary forests that were selectively logged in the last 6 
years, 700 birds were likely lost from the cockatoo population. 
Similarly, for every 100 km\2\ of locally disturbed secondary forest 
that were converted to plantations, 600 birds were likely lost from the 
cockatoo population. The cockatoo's density estimates in logged forests 
below 300 m (984 ft) were more than half those in unlogged forests, 
although researchers were

[[Page 56780]]

unable to separate the effects of habitat change from the possible 
effects of logging on trapping rates (see Factor B).
    Once the primary forest is logged, experience on other nearby 
Indonesian islands shows that the secondary forest is generally 
converted to other uses or logged again rather than being allowed to 
return to primary forest. Therefore, although cockatoos may continue to 
inhabit secondary forests on Seram, the population will be at a 
substantially lower number. The trend of high loss of primary forests 
and degradation of secondary forests is of concern because little is 
known about the reproductive ecology of the salmon-crested cockatoo in 
the wild, including breeding success in mature forests versus secondary 
forests, and whether the cockatoo will survive in degraded forests in 
the long term. Also, the size of groups of cockatoos observed was 
drastically smaller in research conducted in 1998, where 75 percent of 
birds were observed as single individuals and 22 percent in pairs, 
compared to earlier reports, where groups of up to 16 birds were seen.
    By 2001, approximately 20 percent of the original forest cover on 
Seram had been cleared. About 50 percent of the island's forests were 
held under logging concessions, with more than 75 percent within the 
salmon-crested cockatoo's favored lowland habitat. Based on information 
from the Ministry of Forestry in Indonesia, researchers estimated that 
the cockatoo lost 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\), or 8.5 percent, of habitat 
between 1989 and 1999 due to logging. Although we have no information 
on the current status of logging concessions or actual logging (legal 
and illegal) activity on Seram since 1999, we anticipate that the rate 
of loss of cockatoo habitat due to logging will continue at the 1989-
1999 level or increase because commercial logging enterprises are now 
focused on Seram. We have no information that indicates that this trend 
will be reversed in the foreseeable future.
    In addition, approximately 44 percent of Seram's lowland forests 
(6,220 km\2\ (2,401 mi\2\)) is designated as conversion forest, of 
which 45 percent is within logging concessions. It is predicted that by 
2028 up to 50 percent of the current population (at least 31,000 
cockatoos) may be lost as a result of conversion of forests to 
agriculture and plantations, which provide no habitat to the cockatoo.
    Approximately 11.7 percent of Seram's lowland forests are protected 
in Manusela National Park and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve. 
Researchers estimated that these protected areas could provide habitat 
for up to 7,300 salmon-crested cockatoos. However, about 15 percent of 
the national park is under logging concessions and illegal logging has 
been occurring. Once the land is logged, the land use is often changed 
to agriculture.
    The resettlement of people on Seram has had negative effects on the 
environment and the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo. These 
negative effects include forest clearance for agriculture, 
unsustainable slash-and-burn farming, and introduction of wet rice 
cultivation. The relatively recent development of oil production on 
Seram most likely has adversely affected the cockatoo's habitat. 
Potential development of such a large part of Seram (the current Non-
Bula Block occupies one-quarter of the island) is a concern because at 
one time the salmon-crested cockatoo appeared to be mostly distributed 
in the eastern part of the island. Although we do not know what forest 
habitat has been destroyed, we do know that oil development on Seram 
will have a negative impact on nearby habitat through road building and 
other construction, discharge of refineries, and oil spills and leaks. 
Further, an essential part of regional development is infrastructure 
development, primarily the improvement of roads, which leads to illegal 
logging and land clearance, as well as facilitates bird trapping.
    In summary, extensive logging and conversion of lowland forests to 
agriculture and plantations, combined with transmigratory human 
resettlement, oil exploration, and infrastructure development, are 
likely to destroy much of the lowland rain forests of Seram, the 
salmon-crested cockatoo's habitat by 2025. Therefore, we find that 
habitat destruction is a threat to the continued existence of this 
species throughout all of its range in the foreseeable future.

Factor B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or 
Educational Purposes

    The salmon-crested cockatoo is a very popular pet bird. In the 
1980s, it suffered a rapid population decline due to trapping largely 
for international trade. Below we analyze the impact of international 
and domestic trade and other uses for recreational, scientific, or 
educational purposes. We also consider and describe programs on Seram 
to support the conservation of the cockatoo--the release of confiscated 
cockatoos and local involvement.
    International and domestic commercial trade. International wildlife 
trade is big business and has been identified as contributing to the 
decline of a number of bird species, including the salmon-crested 
cockatoo (BLI 2008h, p. 1). The majority of wild-caught birds in 
international trade are sold as pets (Thomsen et al. 1992, p. 5). In 
addition, in Indonesia, pet birds, particularly parrots, are an 
important part of the culture, creating a massive demand for parrots 
internationally and domestically (BLI 2008k, p. 10). In a survey of 
bird-keeping among households in five major Indonesian cities, Jepson 
and Ladle (2005, pp. 442-448) found that as many as 2.5 million birds 
are kept in the five cities. Of these, 60,230 wild-caught native 
parrots were kept by 51,000 households, and 50,590 wild-caught native 
parrots were acquired each year (changed hands, not an indication of 
birds taken from the wild each year). The researchers concluded that 
the level of bird-keeping among urban Indonesians calls for a 
conservation intervention.
    Parrots have been traded for hundreds of years by people living in 
the Moluccas. Heinroth (1902, p. 120) reported that at the start of the 
20\th\ century trade significantly impacted the salmon-crested 
cockatoo. Bowler (1988, p. 6) wrote that the salmon-crested cockatoo 
was severely threatened by extensive trapping for the pet bird trade in 
the late 1970s, with the government apparently having little control 
over the number of birds taken from the wild. In the 1980s, extensive 
trapping of the salmon-crested cockatoo was the most important factor 
in the species' decline (BLI 2008k, p. 10; Forshaw 1989, p. 141). Smiet 
reported that trade in live birds flourished on Seram. The salmon-
crested cockatoo was a popular pet traded in large numbers, accounting 
for 15 percent of the export (Smiet 1985, pp. 181, 189). Smiet (1982, 
pp. 324-325) also found live cockatoos readily available in the Ambon 
market.
    Based on the most recent CITES annual report data, 74,838 salmon-
crested cockatoos were reported as exported from Indonesia between 1981 
and 1990, with international imports averaging 10,482 annually (UNEP-
WCMC 2009a, p. 1; 2009b, p. 3). The species was listed in CITES 
Appendix II in 1981, but the high volume of trade led the CITES 
Significant Trade Working Group to identify this species as one of 
particular concern (CITES 1989b, p. 121). A review of CITES annual 
report trade data available at the time showed that the level of 
international trade of live birds was having a detrimental effect on 
wild populations (Inskipp et al. 1988, pp. 185-186, 188). The trade 
data showed imports of live salmon-crested cockatoos continued to be 
high in 1986 and 1987, with the 1987 Indonesian

[[Page 56781]]

harvest quota being exceeded by 3,661 birds (CITES 1989a, p. 5) or 72 
percent. The Indonesian government decreased the annual harvest quota 
from 10,250 in 1984 to 1,000 in 1989, but a CITES' document suggested 
that these national measures to control trade had been ineffective 
(CITES 1989b, p. 121). Thus, the CITES Parties voted to transfer the 
salmon-crested cockatoo to CITES Appendix I, effective January 18, 
1990. In 1990, field work on Seram revealed a ``sharp decline in 
visible trade'' in the salmon-crested cockatoo, although small numbers 
of birds were still leaving the island (Taylor 1992, p. 14).
    Although CITES annual reports are of great value in assessing 
levels of legal trade and trends of trade, the number of cockatoos 
traded is much higher than the data reflect. The numbers do not include 
data from countries that are not CITES Parties or CITES Parties that 
did not submit annual reports (Inskipp et al. 1988, p. viii). Also, the 
numbers do not include deaths of birds before export, birds illegally 
traded, and birds domestically traded--doubling the numbers according 
to Cameron (2007, p. 163). ProFauna Indonesia, an animal protection 
nongovernmental organization, estimated that parrot smuggling in North 
Maluku, Indonesia, results in approximately 40 percent mortality (5 
percent during glue trapping, 10 percent during transportation, and 25 
percent during holding to sell in bird markets (malnutrition, disease, 
and stress)) (ProFauna Indonesia 2008, p. 5). Undocumented illegal 
trade (international and domestic) is difficult to quantify (Pain et 
al. 2006, p. 322; Thomsen et al. 1992, p. 3), and a listing in Appendix 
I of CITES does not totally stop illegal trade (Pain et al. 2006, p. 
328). Seizures reported to the CITES Secretariat since 1990, however, 
are small--1 live bird seized in Austria in 1997; 25 live birds seized 
in the United Arab Emirates in 1998; and 4 live birds seized in 
Indonesia in 1999 (John Sellar 2009, pers. comm., p. 2). Since 1999, 
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Law Enforcement, has 
seized only two salmon-crested cockatoos for lack of proper permits 
(FWS 2009, p. 1).
    While CITES reported trade markedly fell after 1989 with an average 
annual worldwide import of 159 cockatoos (UNEP-WCMC 2009c, p. 5), 
illegal hunting and trade of the salmon-crested cockatoo continue 
today, with high domestic consumption. Extrapolating from figures 
obtained during interviews with parrot trappers in 1998, an estimated 
4,000 salmon-crested cockatoos are trapped each year on Seram (BLI 
2008k, p. 10; Cameron 2007, p. 164), which is approximately 6.4 percent 
of the population (Kinnaird et al., in litt., as cited in BLI 2001, p. 
1666). Direct evidence of continuing illegal trade is the sighting of 
glue traps (Kinnaird 2000, p. 15). Poachers use glue traps by cutting a 
suitable perching branch out of a tree and replacing that branch with 
one that has been smeared with sticky glue. Then a tame decoy bird 
lures wild birds into the glue trap (ProFauna Indonesia 2008, p. 2). 
Birds are also captured using nylon fishing-line snares or by tracing 
adults to their nesting sites so that the young can be taken (Bowler 
1988, p. 6; Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 218). Metz (2005, p. 35) described 
local declines in the salmon-crested cockatoo, based on statements from 
trappers. When cockatoos became scarce on the western part of the 
island in 1991-92, poachers moved to the eastern and northern parts of 
the island.
    Even with government controls, the commercial hunting of cockatoos 
(i.e., hunting by people to gain at least a temporary living from the 
activity) is relatively common on Seram (Ellen 1993, p. 199). Field 
research conducted in 2003-2005 in a small village (320 people, 60 
households) located in the Manusela Valley led to the conclusion that 
collecting wild parrots, including the salmon-crested cockatoo, is a 
way for villagers to supplement their income during times of hardship 
(Sasaoka 2008, p. 158; Sasaoka 2009, pers. comm., p. 1). Most trapping 
was sporadic and the number of parrots caught was low. Traps are set in 
fruit trees such as durian (Durio spp.) and breadfruit (Artocarpus 
heterophyllus) from January to May, and traps are set in resting sites 
at any time of the year. In 2003, 21 salmon-crested cockatoos were 
trapped in the research site by 3 households; in 2004, 25 cockatoos by 
5 households; and in 2005, 26 cockatoos by 10 households. Villagers 
sometimes kept the cockatoos for several months while waiting for the 
best price, but normally did not keep them as pets. Trappers received 
70,000-100,000 IDR (7-10 USD) for an adult cockatoo and 200,000-250,000 
IDR (20-25 USD) for a baby cockatoo, selling the birds to middlemen in 
coastal areas (Sasaoka 2009, pers. comm., pp. 1-2). In studying the 
forest peoples of Seram, social anthropologists have reported that 
parrot catching accounts for 25 to 30 percent of forest people's cash 
income, and that young men among the Halafara people of the Manusela 
Valley catch and sell parrots to raise their bride price (S. Badcock in 
litt. 1997 as cited in Snyder et al. 2000, p. 60).
    The scope of the illegal trade in the salmon-crested cockatoo is 
unknown. After conducting an investigation from December 2003 to May 
2004, ProFauna Indonesia reported that smuggling and trade in protected 
birds continues despite legislation that prohibits such activities. 
According to the report, at least 9,600 parrots, including salmon-
crested cockatoos (numbers of birds by species not given in this 
article), are caught on Seram and sold to bird exporters in Jakarta via 
Ambon each year (ProFauna 2006, p. 1). The illegal practice involved 
Ambon's largest bird trader and Seram's most prominent bird collector 
and trader (Jakarta Post 2004, p. 2). A principal broker on Seram might 
have 20-50 salmon-crested cockatoos at any one time (Metz & Nursahid 
2004, p. 8), even though legal trapping quotas are zero. A single 
trapper can capture up to 16 cockatoos each month within Manusela 
National Park. However, finding and trapping birds have become harder, 
and the price paid trappers has increased (Metz 2008, pp. 2-3).
    Cockatoos are taken to the coast, sold, and transported to Ambon on 
boats in packed cages (Juniper & Parr 1998, p. 281) in hidden 
compartments surrounded by legally shipped lories and lorikeets (Metz & 
Nursahid 2004, p. 9) or by hiding birds in thermos bottles (Metz 2005, 
pp. 35-36; Metz & Nursahid 2004, p. 9) or sections of bamboo (Cameron 
2007, p. 164). Some birds are flown to Jakarta and may receive a police 
escort to the market (Metz & Nursahid 2004, p. 9). Illegally exported 
cockatoos are reported from Indonesian markets in Medan and Sumatra or 
international markets in Singapore and Bangkok (Kinnaird 2000, p. 15), 
or they may pass through Singapore, China, Taiwan, and Malaysia, with 
Thailand now a major importer (Metz n.d., p. 1). Cockatoos also may be 
smuggled directly out of Indonesia and sent by boat to the Philippines 
and Singapore, which act as distribution points for worldwide illegal 
trade (Cameron 2007, p. 164).
    Most Indonesian towns have either a bird market or a stall selling 
birds within the main market (Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 2). Birds in 
Indonesian markets are most likely sold for domestic use, although some 
birds will go into international trade (Cameron 2007, p. 163). Metz 
(2007b, p. 2) estimated that 80 percent of salmon-crested cockatoos 
illegally traded remain in Indonesia. Some cockatoos remain as pets 
where they are trapped, but most are sold to homes in the cities in 
western Indonesia, where the salmon-crested cockatoo is a symbol of 
wealth and prestige (Metz n.d., p. 1). This cockatoo is still sold 
openly in the markets of Ambon and elsewhere in Indonesia.

[[Page 56782]]

Cameron (2007, p. 163) noted that in 1998, Margaret Kinnaird and co-
workers saw up to 40 salmon-crested cockatoos at any time in Ambon 
markets. In an analysis of the pet trade in Medan, Sumatra, between 
1997 and 2001, Shepherd et al. (2004, p. 12) concluded that the salmon-
crested cockatoo was common in trade in Medan, with 71 cockatoos being 
recorded in the markets. Most of the birds at the Medan market were 
sold as live pets (Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 24).
    Stopping illegal trade is complicated by the vast size of 
Indonesia's coastline, government officials with limited resources and 
knowledge to deal with the illegal pet trade and corruption (Metz 
2007c, p. 2). ProFauna claimed that illegal traders exploited the 
religious conflict between Muslims and Christians in the Maluku Islands 
in May of 2004, flooding the markets in Jakarta with salmon-crested 
cockatoos. Animal activist and Chairman of the Balikpapan Orangutan 
Survival Foundation, Willie Smith, suggested that it would be difficult 
to stop the illegal trade in cockatoos because much of the smuggling 
was backed or carried out by the Indonesian military and because the 
departments responsible for protecting natural resources were hampered 
by conflicts of interests and a lack of willingness to take action 
(Jakarta Post 2004, pp. 3, 4). Until recently, the wildlife protection 
laws have not been vigorously enforced, but this may be changing. For 
example, in September 2004, National Park Officers arrested a long-term 
bird buyer and confiscated nine salmon-crested cockatoos. The buyer was 
sentenced to 2 months' jail time and given a fine (Metz n.d., p. 1).
    To combat the illegal wildlife trade, Southeast Asian countries, 
including Indonesia, formed the Association of South East Asian 
Nations-Wildlife Enforcement Network (ASEAN-WEN) in 2005 to protect the 
region's biodiversity (Gulf Times 2008, p. 1). ASEAN uses a cooperative 
approach to law enforcement (Cameron 2007, p. 164). It focuses on the 
gathering and sharing of intelligence, capacity building, and better 
cooperation in anti-smuggling and Customs controls across Southeast 
Asia (Lin 2005, p. 192). For example in 2008, Indonesian police 
officers and forestry and Customs officers participated in an intensive 
Wildlife Crime Investigation Course to help the government tackle 
poaching and smuggling (Wildlife Alliance 2008, p. 2).
    Assessing the effects of trade on wild populations of parrots, such 
as the salmon-crested cockatoo, is difficult because the threats of 
habitat loss and trade occur at the same time (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 
2, 68). The loss of habitat due to logging, conversion of forests to 
agriculture and plantations, increased human settlement, and 
infrastructure development, leads to more exposure to bird trapping. 
Thus, it is difficult to distinguish between the effects of habitat 
loss and trade on the cockatoo. In addition, little information is 
available on the number and age of birds being taken from the wild and 
when and where the birds are being trapped. For example, the trapping 
of large numbers of breeding-age adults from a population is apt to 
have a larger overall adverse impact than the removal of a similar 
number of juveniles (Thomsen et al. 1992, p. 10). Coates and Bishop 
(1997, pp. 39-41) reported that trapping the salmon-crested cockatoo 
for international and domestic markets, in combination with ongoing 
destruction of lowland forests, was having a major negative impact on 
wild populations. They concluded that, despite the protection given to 
the cockatoo by Manusela National Park, this cockatoo was being trapped 
to extinction.
    Recreational, scientific, or educational purposes. While conducting 
research in one village in central Seram, Dr. Sasaoka (pers. comm. 
2009, p. 2) wrote that hunting with air guns for food started in 2000. 
Although the use of air guns was not common in his research site, about 
10 villagers were using air guns to hunt Columbidae species (pigeons 
and doves). If a hunter encountered a salmon-crested cockatoo in the 
forest or garden by chance, the hunter would shoot it for food. Based 
on Dr. Sasaoka's unpublished field data, about 40 salmon-crested 
cockatoos were shot and killed by air gun hunting in 2003. This 
information raises questions on the use of air guns on Seram. Without 
additional data, however, we are unable to assess the possible impact 
air gun hunting may be having or will have on the survival of salmon-
crested cockatoos. We are not aware of any overutilization of the 
salmon-crested cockatoo for recreational, scientific, or educational 
purposes that is a threat to the species now or in the foreseeable 
future.
    Release of confiscated cockatoos. In recent years, small numbers of 
confiscated salmon-crested cockatoos have been rehabilitated and 
released into the wild. In 2005, the Kembali Bebas Avian Center for the 
rescue and rehabilitation of Indonesian parrots was established on 
Northern Seram (IPP 2008c, p. 1; Price 2008, p. 2). In March 2006, 
three illegally trapped salmon-crested cockatoos, which had been 
confiscated from local trappers by forestry officials in 2004, were 
released on Seram. The birds were tested for diseases, observed for 
wild behaviors, fitted with a leg band, and tagged with a microchip to 
allow for long-term monitoring (IPP (Indonesian Parrot Project) 2008a, 
p. 2). In January 2008, six more salmon-crested cockatoos were 
released, and in February 2008, seven more were released. The project 
provides the government a means of disposing of confiscated parrots. It 
also gives local villagers pride in their native birds and teaches them 
the principles of conservation (ireport 2008, pp. 2-3). Because 
releasing birds has the risk of introducing diseases into wild 
populations, the Center uses the IUCN and CITES guidelines (Metz 2007c, 
p. 7). However, among some parrot experts, the release of confiscated 
birds is generally the least favorable conservation option and should 
be avoided because of the risk of introducing diseases into wild 
populations (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 22-24).
    Local involvement. Indonesia is a culturally diverse country and 
the values and perceptions of many Indonesians may differ from those of 
western conservationists. Many rural villagers are unaware that birds 
have restricted distributions and do not understand the concept of 
extinction. Thus, they may think that, when a population declines, the 
birds moved into the hills or are getting smarter and, therefore, 
harder to catch. In addition, using and trading natural resources is a 
basic part of Indonesian culture and economy (Snyder et al. 2000, pp. 
60-61). As a result, one of the most important components of successful 
conservation programs is local education that promotes optimism, 
cooperation, and collaboration and helps people discover and understand 
the underlying causes of environmental problems (Snyder et al. 2000, 
pp. 14-15).
    Others also have recognized the need for a strong awareness 
campaign concerning the legal and conservation status of the salmon-
crested cockatoo (BLI 2001, p. 1668; Metz 1998, p. 11). The IPP is a 
nonprofit organization dedicated to the conservation of wild Indonesian 
parrots, with goals to teach the principles and value of conservation, 
replace trapping of parrots with sustainable economic alternatives, 
work with the Indonesian authorities to rehabilitate and release 
confiscated parrots back into the wild, conduct scientific research, 
and provide information (Metz 2007c, p. 6). IPP started a Conservation-
Awareness-Pride (CAP) program to reach adults and

[[Page 56783]]

children in the villages where the birds are trapped and in the cities 
where the birds are most often shipped for sale (Metz 2007a, p. 1). The 
program is using the salmon-crested cockatoo as a flagship species for 
conservation to familiarize the people, especially the children, of 
Maluku Province with the image of its unique endemic parrots (IPP 
2008b, p. 1). In 2007, IPP reported that almost 4,500 students have 
participated in the CAP program, which was showing progress (Metz 
2007a, p. 1-2). A new nongovernmental organization was formed to help 
carry out this work (IPP 2008b, p. 2).
    Other anti-poaching programs of the IPP include providing 
sustainable income for local villagers to reduce trapping and smuggling 
(IPP 2008c, p. 2). Former parrot poachers earn a living by providing 
the day-to-day care of rescued parrots at the Kembali Bebas Avian 
Center for the rescue and rehabilitation of Indonesian parrots. 
Villagers also are employed to collect and process the nuts of the 
kenari tree (Canarium spp.), which are part of the diet of larger 
cockatoos. The nuts are sold to parrot owners outside of Indonesia and 
all proceeds are used to pay workers (Metz 2007c, p. 13).
    Ecotourism can provide economic benefits to local communities and 
lead them to value and protect species and ecosystems (Snyder et al. 
2000, p. 16). The development of tourism is one of the priorities of 
Maluku Province. In 1981, Smiet & Siallagan (1981, p. 18) wrote that 
the scenic beauty and colorful wildlife of Seram would be great tourist 
attractions. The Proposed Manusela National Park Management Plan 1982-
1987suggested that tourist accommodations be developed in the Manusela 
Valley of the park (Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 32). However, Edwards 
(1993, p. 11) suggested that the irregular and difficult means of 
transportation and lack of infrastructure and facilities for tourists 
are unlikely to encourage large numbers of visitors. Despite these 
difficulties, in 2001, Project Bird Watch led its first eco-tour of 
Seram (St. Joan 2005, p. 24), followed by additional tours (IPP 2009, 
p. 1). These tours provide ex-trappers and other villagers income by 
acting as bird guides, porters, and cooks. The local people see that 
their birds can attract people from others parts of the world, 
providing money and hopefully instilling pride in Indonesian birds 
(Metz 2007c, p. 12). Other ecotourism has developed on a small scale. 
In 2008, a few Internet sites advertised or reported on bird watching 
tours to Seram (Bird Tour Asia 2008, pp. 1-3; Eco-Adventure in 
Indonesia 2008, p. 1; King Bird Tours 2007, pp. 1-6).
Summary of Factor B
    Keeping pet birds, especially parrots, plays an important role in 
Indonesian culture, creating a massive demand for parrots 
internationally and domestically. By the 1980s, uncontrolled trapping 
of salmon-crested cockatoos for the pet bird trade was adversely 
impacting the species. Based on CITES records, 74,838 birds were 
exported from Indonesia between 1981 and 1990, with international 
imports averaging 10,482 annually. Because trade was having a 
detrimental effect on wild populations, the CITES countries voted to 
transfer the species to CITES Appendix I, effective January 18, 1990.
    An Appendix-I listing generally precludes commercial trade in wild-
caught birds, but it is difficult to quantify undocumented illegal 
international and domestic trade.
    Illegal trapping and trade in wild-caught salmon-crested cockatoos 
continues today, with high domestic consumption. Hunting of parrots by 
people to supplement their income is relatively common on Seram. 
Interviews in villages suggested that perhaps as many as 4,000 salmon-
crested cockatoos (approximately 6.4 percent of the population) are 
captured annually, with an estimated 80 percent sold within Indonesia 
and 20 percent put in international trade. The salmon-crested cockatoo 
is still sold openly in the markets of Ambon and elsewhere in 
Indonesia. Generally, little is known about how the domestic trade in 
birds in Indonesia is affecting wild populations. Little information is 
available on the number and age of birds being taken from the wild and 
when and where the birds are being trapped. In addition, it is 
difficult to assess the effects of trade on wild populations because 
trade is occurring at the same time as the loss of the species' 
habitat.
    Illegal trade is difficult to control because Indonesia has a vast 
coastline; government officials have limited resources and knowledge to 
deal with the illegal pet trade, have conflicts of interest, and lack a 
willingness to take action; and there is widespread corruption. 
Indonesia is a member of ASEAN-WEN and has made an effort to train some 
of their police, forestry, and Customs officers in methods to tackle 
poaching and smuggling. However, outside of a recent sting operation 
involving the salmon-crested cockatoo, the wildlife protection laws 
have not been vigorously enforced for this species.
    Recent information that hunters from one small village in central 
Seram used air guns to kill 40 salmon-crested cockatoos for food in one 
year is of concern. Without additional information, however, we are 
unable to assess the possible impact air gun hunting may be having or 
will have on the survival of the salmon-crested cockatoo.
    In recent years, several programs--rehabilitation and release of 
confiscated parrots, public awareness program, economic incentive 
program, and ecotourism--were established on Seram to support the 
conservation of the salmon-crested cockatoo. It is too soon to assess 
if these programs have been successful in gaining local support and 
reducing poaching. At this time, poaching of the salmon-crested 
cockatoos for the commercial pet trade and use of wild-caught salmon-
crested cockatoos as pets in Indonesia continues.
    In summary, we find that uncontrolled, illegal domestic and 
international trade of salmon-crested cockatoos as pets is a threat to 
the continued existence of this species throughout all of its range in 
the foreseeable future. Although the recent use of air guns to hunt 
salmon-crested cockatoos for food is of concern, based on the best 
available information, we find that overutilization of the cockatoo for 
recreational, scientific, or education purposes is not a threat to the 
continued existence of this species in any portion of its range now or 
in the foreseeable future.

Factor C. Disease or Predation

    Diseases--general. One of the most serious diseases found in 
cockatoo species is beak and feather disease. All cockatoo species are 
likely susceptible to this disease. The disease affects wild and 
captive birds, with chronic infections resulting in feather loss and 
deformities of beak and feathers. Birds usually become infected in the 
nest by ingesting or inhaling virus particles. Birds develop immunity, 
die within a couple of weeks, or become chronically infected. No 
vaccine exists to immunize populations (Cameron 2007, p. 82). In 
Indonesia's Kembali Bebas Rescue and Rehabilitation Center on Seram, 50 
cockatoos have been screened for beak and feather disease. None of the 
birds was found to be positive for the virus, but a number had positive 
antibodies to the virus (Metz 2007b, p. 3).
    Another serious disease that has been reported to infect cockatoos 
is proventricular dilatation disease (PDD). It is a fatal disease that 
poses a serious threat to domesticated and wild parrots

[[Page 56784]]

worldwide, particularly those with very small populations (Kistler et 
al. 2008, p. 1; Waugh 1996, p. 112). This contagious disease causes 
damage to the nerves of the upper digestive tract, so that food 
digestion and absorption are negatively affected. The disease has a 100 
percent mortality rate. In 2008, researchers discovered a genetically 
diverse set of novel avian bornaviruses that are thought to be the 
causative agents, and developed diagnostic tests, methods of treating 
or preventing bornavirus infection, and methods for screening for the 
anti-bornaviral compounds (University of California at San Francisco 
2008, p. 1). We are unaware of any reports that this disease occurs in 
salmon-crested cockatoos in the wild.
    Disease--avian influenza. Wild birds, especially waterfowl and 
shorebirds, are natural reservoirs of avian influenza. Most viral 
strains have low pathogenicity and cause few clinical signs in infected 
birds. However, strains can mutate into highly pathogenic forms, which 
is what happened in 1997 when highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 
first appeared in Hong Kong (USDA et al. 2006, pp. 1-2). The H5N1 virus 
is mainly propagated by commercial poultry living in close quarters 
with humans. The role of migratory birds is less clear (Metz 2006a, p. 
24). Scientists increasingly believe that at least some migratory 
waterfowl carry the H5N1 virus, sometimes over long distances, and 
introduce the virus to poultry flocks (WHO 2006, p. 2). The H5N1 virus 
has infected and caused death in domestic poultry, people, and some 
wild birds in Asia, Europe, and Africa. About half of infected people 
die from the disease (FWS 2006, p. 1). As of September 10, 2008, 
Indonesia confirmed its 136\th\ human case (WHO 2008, p. 26). As of 
December 2006, avian influenza was not present in fowl in the Maluku 
Province (Metz 2006b, p. 42).
    There has been only one documented case of avian influenza H5N1 in 
parrots--a parrot held in quarantine in the United Kingdom was 
diagnosed with the disease. However, from 2004-2006 (Metz 2006a, pp. 
24-25), fears of the avian influenza H5N1's risk to human health 
resulted in the culling of wild and pet birds in Asia and Europe, 
including the salmon-crested cockatoo. In the Philippines, 339 smuggled 
parrots were euthanized following confiscation. In Taiwan, 28 palm and 
salmon-crested cockatoos were euthanized at the airport out of fear 
that they might harbor the disease. In Indonesia, Agriculture officials 
announced that all birds, including pet birds, within a given radius of 
chickens infected with avian influenza would be culled. Except, when 
avian influenza struck Ragunan Zoo in Jakarta, parrots and cockatoos 
were not euthanized unless testing showed they had the disease (IPP 
2006, p. 1).
    Predation. Man probably introduced rats, mice, pigs (Sus 
celebensis), deer (Cervus timorensis), civit (Paradoxurus 
hermaphroditus), and oriental civit (Viverra tangalunga) to Seram 
(Smiet & Siallagan 1981, p. 8). Goats, horses, cows, and water buffalo 
(Bubalus bubalis) also have been introduced. Although the deer as 
grazers have some adverse effect on low forest brush (Ellen 1993, pp. 
193, 201), we are unaware of an adverse effect to the salmon-crested 
cockatoo's habitat. The cockatoo has natural predators, such as snakes 
and monitor lizards, that raid the nest for eggs and chicks (Metz et 
al. 2007, p. 37).
Summary of Factor C
    Disease and predation associated with salmon-crested cockatoos in 
the wild are not well documented. Although some serious diseases--such 
as beak and feather disease and PDD--occur in cockatoos in the wild, we 
found no information that these diseases occur in salmon-crested 
cockatoos in the wild. Cases of avian influenza H5N1 are continuing to 
occur in Indonesia; however, parrots generally are not considered to be 
natural reservoirs of this disease. While there is the potential for 
captive-held salmon-crested cockatoos to be euthanized, especially 
smuggled ones that have been seized at ports, the number of birds 
euthanized is small and not a threat to the species.
    A number of introduced mammals occur on Seram, but we are unaware 
of any predation on the salmon-crested cockatoo from these introduced 
mammals. The salmon-crested cockatoo has natural predators, but we were 
unable to find information that these natural predators are having any 
significant negative impact on the productivity of this species. Thus, 
we find that neither disease nor predation is a threat to the salmon-
crested cockatoo in any portion of its range now or in the foreseeable 
future.

Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

    As described below, Indonesia has laws and regulations in place to 
conserve biodiversity, manage forest, regulate trade, provide species 
protection, and develop and manage protected areas.
    Biodiversity. The Indonesian Government has passed legislation to 
control activities that have an adverse impact on the environment and 
to conserve biodiversity. In 1991, it drafted the Biodiversity Action 
Plan (BAP), which became a comprehensive framework for biodiversity 
conservation, advocating a wide range of policy and institutional 
reforms to slow the rate of biodiversity loss. In 1997, the government 
produced Agenda 21-Indonesia, a National Strategy for Sustainable 
Development. These two documents recognize a complex mix of problems, 
including increasing population, poor implementation of regulations, 
conversion of forests to agricultural lands, transmigration projects, 
disregard of land tenure, breakdown of traditional community 
management, unsustainable logging, and poaching.
    The main objectives of the BAP are to slow the loss of primary 
forests and other habitats, expand data on Indonesia's biodiversity, 
and foster sustainable use of biological resources. Agenda 21-Indonesia 
broadly develops the BAP. For example, in situ conservation would 
include establishing an integrated protected area system, gaining local 
support for protected areas, developing sustainable means of funding 
for protected areas, and supporting donor activities to maximize 
conservation efforts (Murdoch University 2000, pp. 1-2).
    The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) assessed the 
status of biodiversity in Indonesia under the Foreign Assistance Act 
and concluded that threats to biodiversity had worsened since 1998 and 
decentralization had led to increased exploitation of biodiversity 
(Rhee et al. 2004, p. xvii). Most managers at the district level are 
generally unaware or uncaring of biodiversity issues (Jepson et al. 
2001, pp. 859-860).
    Forest management. The Indonesian government has laws and 
regulations in place to support sustainable forest management. The 
primary law is the Basic Forestry Law (Act No. 41). It provides for the 
management of forest conservation, protection, and production; defines 
main forest functions; and deals with forest management, planning, 
research, development, education, training, and enforcement (Act 1999, 
pp. 11-14; FAOLEX 2008b, p. 1; Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 2 p. 3). 
Presidential Instruction No. 4/2005 describes the duties of the 
different responsible government entities and addresses the eradication 
of illegal logging by taking action against anyone who harvests or 
collects timber forest without a license; receives, buys, or sells 
timber collected illegally; or carries, controls, or has timber without

[[Page 56785]]

a certificate of legitimacy (Indonesia 2005, pp. 1-3; FAOLEX 2009, p. 
1).
    Agenda 21-Indonesia identifies the major shortcomings in the 
management of production forests to include current concession policies 
and logging practices (Murdoch University 2000, p. 1). A major threat 
to Indonesia's forest resources is conflict: (1) Among local 
communities and between local communities and concessions over 
management and extraction rights; and (2) between different levels of 
government over licensing and regulation of timber extraction and 
forest conversion (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 6 p. 9). Land tenure and 
access in forests are contentious issues. The Indonesian government has 
jurisdiction over all resources, but has often ignored the land use or 
ownership claims of local peoples (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 2 pp. 21-
22).
    In addition, the laws and regulations are frequently ignored, in 
part because of widespread corruption (BLI 2008k, p. 7). The Indonesian 
economic crisis that led to the downfall of the Suharto regime resulted 
in the government instituting a rapid and far-reaching decentralization 
that gave local government greater autonomy (Down to Earth 2000, p. 1). 
Decentralization resulted in confusion of roles and responsibilities, 
and implementation of decentralization has been slow and uncertain 
because of conflicting interpretation of policies and priorities and 
the lack of capacity or experience of local governments to manage (Rhee 
et al. 2004, chap. 2 p. 20).
    USAID also assessed the status of forests in Indonesia under the 
Foreign Assistance Act and concluded that threats to forests had 
worsened since 1998 and decentralization had led to worse forestry 
practices and increased conflict over land tenure (Rhee et al. 2004, p. 
xvii). The responsibility for the management of forests was placed at 
the district level within provinces, but criteria and standards were 
still set by the central government. Most districts do not have the 
capacity for planning for sustainable development and have limited 
capacity to govern. Today, Indonesia is torn apart by economic and 
political crises, and the gap between sustainable forest management and 
the reality of current mismanagement is wide (Jepson et al. 2001, pp. 
859-860).
    In 2008, the Indonesian Government reported to the Commission on 
Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice on its strategic plan on 
forestry, outlining its priorities of fighting illegal logging, 
controlling forest fires, restructuring the forestry sector, 
rehabilitating and conserving forest resources, and decentralizing 
forest management. The Government said it was committed to intensifying 
the fight against illegal logging by implementing a forest crime case 
tracking system, prosecuting forest crimes, and enhancing collaboration 
by sharing information on forest crime and illegal timber shipments 
(Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 2008, p. 4).
    International wildlife trade. Indonesia has been a member of CITES 
since December 28, 1978. It has designated Management, Scientific, and 
Enforcement authorities to implement the treaty (CITES 2008b, p. 1) and 
has played an active role in CITES meetings.
    Species protection and management plans. Indonesian Law 5/1990, 
Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystems, establishes the basic 
principles and general rules for the management, conservation, and use 
of biological resources, natural habitats, and protected areas. 
Protected species may not be captured, collected, displaced, killed, 
destroyed, transported, or traded except for the purposes of research, 
science and safeguarding the plants or animals. People that violate the 
Act are subject to fines and punishment (Act 1990, pp. 1-44; FAOLEX 
2008a, p. 1).
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is on the Indonesian Government list of 
protected species (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 5 pp. 2, App. VIII). While 
laws to protect species are in place, enforcement often is severely 
lacking (Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 4) or difficult, given the thousands 
of islands that make up Indonesia (Nichols et al. 1991, p. 1) and 
considering that illegal activities remain socially acceptable at the 
local level. Thus, the law is generally disregarded and only 
sporadically enforced (Kinnaird 2000, p. 14). Few enforcement officers 
are trained in species identification, and the enforcement agency lacks 
capacity and incentive. To further complicate enforcement, some bird 
dealers claim that members of the Department of Forest Protection and 
Nature Conservation are involved in the trade (Shepherd et al. 2004, p. 
4) (see Factor B for a discussion of the problems relating to stopping 
illegal trade in salmon-crested cockatoos).
    In 1982, Indonesia used the best principles of conservation biology 
to plan a national protected area system, with the development of a 
national conservation plan (NCP) (Jepson et al. 2002, p. 40). Large 
areas were proposed as conservation areas. Subsequently, forests were 
also allocated for production, watershed protection, or conservation, 
and Indonesia endorsed the principles of sustainable forest management. 
However, these principles were never fully reconciled with national 
policy and practice (Jepson et al. 2001, p. 859). As a result, reserves 
generally have not been added to the proposed network of the NCP, and 
existing reserves have not been managed effectively (Whitten et al. 
2001, p. 1). Agenda 21-Indonesia identifies problems faced in managing 
protected areas, including the ``lack of public participation, lack of 
management framework, the need for regional income, insufficient 
funding and lack of law enforcement'' (Murdoch University 2000, pp. 1-
2).
    In reviewing the efficacy of the protected area system of East 
Kalimantan Province, Indonesia, Jepson et al. (2002, pp. 31, 39-40) 
found that key reserves either had not been established or were 
degraded (i.e., moderate and widespread habitat modification or 
populations of key fauna significantly reduced). They concluded that 
turning reserve planning into practice had failed because of local-
level sociopolitical realities. The ability of the Indonesian 
government to manage and protect reserves or to establish reserves that 
were proposed in the NCP in East Kalimantan, and in Indonesia as a 
whole, had been severely constrained by problems, including 
insufficient funding, workforce shortages, weak penalties, a general 
lack of support for conservation in society, corruption, and the 
aggressive use of resources by migrants.
    We are unaware of any review of the efficacy of protected areas in 
Seram, but find that the general conclusion of the East Kalimantan 
study applies. Wai Bula, an area in the northeastern part of Seram 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003. p. 230), illustrates the inability of the 
Indonesian government to implement the NCP. Wai Bula, proposed as a 
nature reserve in 1981, was never officially designated and has a low 
probability of future protection (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 231). It has 
been identified as an IBA (see above) with primary lowland and lower 
montane forests and a current population of cockatoos (BLI 2008f, p. 
1). It was proposed as a nature reserve, but 93 percent is also under 
logging concessions (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 231). Resolution of these 
conflicting land use designations would have a considerable impact on 
the amount of protected habitat available for the salmon-crested 
cockatoo (Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 231).
    Habitat protection. The unique wildlife and plants of Seram are 
somewhat protected by Manusela National Park, an area of 2,323.2 km\2\ 
(896.8 mi\2\) in the center of the country,

[[Page 56786]]

and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve, an area of 122.8 km\2\ (47.4 mi\2\) 
on the western peninsula. Under Act No. 5 of 1990 on the conservation 
of biological resources and their ecosystems, the use of biological 
resources and their ecosystems in protected areas is to be sustainable, 
and plants and animals are to be managed with consideration of their 
long-term survival and maintenance of their diversity. Research, 
education, improvement of the species, and recreational activities are 
permitted, but other activities are prohibited (FAOLEX 2008a, pp. 1-2).
    Although 14 percent of the forests on Seram are in protected areas, 
15 percent of Manusela National Park is under logging concessions and 
4.6 percent has been converted to other land uses. A road has been 
built through the park, which increases the risk of logging and human 
encroachment. Five villages of indigenous people, who mainly work as 
dry land farmers and hunt and collect forest products (including 
parrots), exist in the park. In 1980, 999 people lived within the park 
boundaries, and 19,102 people lived within 10 km (6 mi) of its 
boundaries. We are unaware of logging concessions in Gunung Sahuai 
Nature Reserve, and it has experienced less (3.1 percent) land 
conversion and human encroachment (Kinnaird et al. 2003, pp. 230-231).
    The regulations and management of the protected areas are 
ineffective at reducing the threats of habitat destruction (see Factor 
A) and poaching for the pet trade (see Factor B). Reserve management is 
at the national level--the responsibility of the Directorate General of 
Forest Protection and Nature Conservation. Effective reserve management 
is hampered by a shortage of staff, expertise, and money, and the 
remoteness of protected areas. The recent civil unrest forced a 
reduction in conservation programs, with some protected areas virtually 
unsupervised (BLI 2008k, p. 9).
Summary of Factor D
    While Indonesia has a good legal framework to manage wildlife and 
their habitats, implementation of its laws and regulatory mechanisms 
has been inadequate to reduce the threats to the salmon-crested 
cockatoo. As discussed in Factor A, we found that logging and 
conversion of forests to agriculture and plantations are primary 
threats to the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo. Laws and 
regulations are frequently ignored, and illegal logging is considered a 
leading cause of forest degradation in Indonesia. The decentralization 
of government has led to worse forestry practices, increased 
exploitation of resources, and increased conflict over land tenure. 
Current concession policies and logging practices hamper sustainable 
forestry. Because nearly 50 percent of Seram's forests are held under 
logging concessions, with more than 75 percent within the salmon-
crested cockatoo's favored lowland habitat, the proper management of 
these logging concessions could determine the survival of this species.
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is listed in Appendix I of CITES (see 
discussion in Conservation Status above), which appears generally to 
have controlled international trade. However, as discussed in Factor B, 
uncontrolled illegal domestic and international trade continues to 
adversely impact the salmon-crested cockatoo. The species is on 
Indonesia's list of protected species, and the law provides 
prohibitions, including capture and trade, and lays out fines and 
punishment. However, the law is generally ignored and only sporadically 
enforced.
    Manusela National Park and Gunung Sahuwai Nature Reserve provide 
some protection to the salmon-crested cockatoo. Management of these 
protected areas, however, is hampered by staff shortages, lack of 
expertise and money, and remoteness of the areas. Another Important 
Bird Area, Wai Bula, was proposed as a nature reserve in 1981, but was 
never officially designated. Resolution of its designation would 
increase the amount of protected habitat available for the salmon-
crested cockatoo, but the delay in making such a designation reflects 
the inability of the Indonesian government to implement the national 
conservation plan.
    In summary, we find that the existing regulatory mechanisms, as 
implemented, are inadequate to reduce or remove the current threats to 
the salmon-crested cockatoo. There is no information available to 
suggest these regulatory mechanisms will change in the foreseeable 
future.

Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting the Continued 
Existence of the Species

    Forest fires. Fires in tropical forests are becoming increasingly 
common (Cochrane 2003, p. 913; Kinnaird & O'Brien 1998, p. 954; Uhl & 
Kauffman 1990, p. 437; Woods 1989, p. 290). For example, in 1983, 
disastrous, large-scale El Ni[ntilde]o wildfires occurred in the 
tropical forests of Borneo, although severe droughts had occurred 
previously without causing extensive fires. Woods (1989, p. 290) 
concluded that the extensive fires were the result of forests becoming 
more fire-prone due to logging, road building, and cultivation. He also 
found that potential recovery of forest structure is not good in logged 
forests, especially if further burning occurs. The 1997-98 El 
Ni[ntilde]o fires in Indonesia devastated vast tracts of forest, 
especially in the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan (islands to the far 
west of Seram) and Irian Jaya (a neighboring island to the east of 
Seram) (Kinnaird & O'Brien 1998, p. 954). The forest fires were mainly 
caused by poor logging practices, burning of agriculture land, and land 
clearing for plantations (Grimmett & Sumarauw 2000, pp. 6, 8; Kinnaird 
& O'Brien 1998, p. 954).
    Forest fires are often part of El Ni[ntilde]o events, which are 
expected to increase in number and severity due to global climate 
change. Using a global climate model that had successfully predicted 
the 1997-98 El Ni[ntilde]o, Timmermann et al. (1999, pp. 694-696) 
looked at the effect of future greenhouse warming on El Ni[ntilde]o 
frequency. They concluded that, if emissions of greenhouse gases 
continue to increase, events typical of El Ni[ntilde]o will become more 
frequent and variations may become more extreme. Because more tropical 
forests are becoming disturbed and because the number of El Ni[ntilde]o 
events is predicted to increase and be more severe, serious fires in 
Indonesia, including Seram and other areas of the tropics, are likely 
to remain a critical conservation concern (Adeney et al. 2006, p. 292).
    Fires can lead to the long-term decline of the rain forest, with 
destruction of leaf litter and the seedling-sapling layer, increased 
invasion of exotic plants, increased tree mortality, and changes in the 
soil. Although many animals have the ability to escape direct mortality 
from fire, they also may be negatively affected by loss of food, 
shelter, and territory. For example, the number of frugivorous and 
omnivorous birds declined after the 1997-98 El Ni[ntilde]o fire in 
Indonesia, with helmeted and rhinoceros hornbills (Buceros rhinoceros 
and B. vigil) declining by 50 percent in one study area (Kinnaird & 
O'Brien 1998, p. 955).
    At the current time, high impact fires are not adversely affecting 
the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo. In 1985, Ellen (1985, p. 
567) wrote that fires seldom get out of hand in Seram when land is 
cleared for agriculture. In 1998, Metz (1998, p. 11) reported that the 
1997-98 EL Ni[ntilde]o fires in Indonesia are said to have not affected 
Seram. However, because devastating El Ni[ntilde]o fires have been 
shown to occur more frequently in logged or disturbed forests and Seram 
has extensive logging planned and ongoing clearing of land for 
plantations and agriculture, El Ni[ntilde]o-

[[Page 56787]]

related fires will likely have a severe impact on Seram in the future 
(Kinnaird et al. 2003, p. 234).
    Civil unrest. Unlike the rest of Indonesia, which is 90 percent 
Muslim, the Moluccas have equal numbers of Christian and Islamic 
followers. Under the Suharto government, primarily Muslim transmigrants 
moved to Seram, and the government assigned officials, police, and 
military from outside the region. Rioting between Muslim and Christain 
citizens became an ongoing problem in Seram. In 1999 and 2001, as 
Indonesia plunged into a deep economic crisis, resentments erupted and 
thousands of people were killed (Javaman 2009, p. 1). It is unknown if 
the civil unrest affected the salmon-crested cockatoo, but the violence 
temporarily stopped development. On the other hand, soldiers like 
parrots, and a heavy military presence led to a rise in cockatoo trade 
(Kinnaird 2000, p. 15).
    Persecution. In 1864, Wallace (p. 279) reported that the salmon-
crested cockatoo was considered a harmful pest in coconut palms around 
villages on Seram. The cockatoos gnawed through shells of young 
coconuts to reach the pulp and water inside. Historically, the cockatoo 
was persecuted (BLI 2004, p. 2; Metz 1998, p. 10), but BLI (2008b, p. 
2) reports this persecution is in the past and unlikely to return.
Summary of Factor E
    Forest fires negatively impact birds by direct mortality or the 
loss of food, shelter, and territory. Research has shown that 
frugivorous and omnivorous birds may decline by 50 percent as a result 
of fires in areas of disturbed tropical rain forests. Forest fires are 
becoming more common in tropical rain forests, occurring more 
frequently in logged or disturbed areas. As discussed in Factor A 
above, logging and conversion of land to agriculture and plantations is 
ongoing and will likely increase in the future on Seram. Approximately 
75 percent (8,271 km\2\ (3,193 mi\2\)) of the lowland habitat favored 
by the salmon-crested cockatoo is under logging concession. 
Approximately 44 percent (6,220 km\2\ (2,401 mi\2\)) of Seram's lowland 
forest is slated for conversion and, by 2028, most of this land will be 
converted to agriculture or plantations. Therefore, we find that, even 
though fires are not currently adversely affecting the salmon-crested 
cockatoo, fires will be a threat to this species throughout all of its 
range in the foreseeable future due to the extensive planned logging 
and clearing of land for agriculture and plantations and predicted 
increase in number and severity of El Ni[ntilde]o events due to global 
climate change.
    Civil unrest is an ongoing problem on Seram, but we are unaware 
that it has adversely impacted the salmon-crested cockatoo other than a 
possible increase in sporadic illegal trade, which is discussed under 
Factor B. The persecution of salmon-crested cockatoo as pests in 
coconut palm groves does not appear to be a problem today. Thus, we 
find that neither civil unrest nor persecution is a threat to the 
salmon-crested cockatoo in any portion of its range now or in the 
foreseeable future.

Status Determination for the Salmon-crested Cockatoo

    We have carefully assessed the best available scientific and 
commercial information regarding the past, present, and potential 
future threats faced by the salmon-crested cockatoo. The species is at 
risk of extinction in the foreseeable future throughout all of its 
range primarily due to extensive logging and conversion of lowland 
forests to agricultural lands and plantations (Factor A) and 
uncontrolled, illegal trapping for the domestic and international pet 
trade (Factor B). Also, existing regulatory mechanisms, as implemented, 
are inadequate to mitigate the current threats to the salmon-crested 
cockatoo (Factor D). Although El Ni[ntilde]o forest fires are not 
currently adversely affecting the salmon-crested cockatoo, fires will 
be a threat in the foreseeable future due to the extensive planned 
logging and clearing of land and predicted increase in number and 
severity of El Nio events due to global climate change (Factor E).
    The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to the island of Seram, with 
records from three small adjacent islands. Current populations are 
estimated at 62,400 individuals, with a decreasing population trend. 
The cockatoo is largely a resident of lowland rain forests, 
predominately between 100-600 m (328-1,968 ft), with the highest 
densities of birds occurring in little-disturbed forests. It requires 
large, mature trees for nesting.
    Logging and conversion of forests to agriculture and plantations 
are primary threats to the habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo in 
the foreseeable future. By 2001, about 20 percent of the original 
forest cover had been cleared. Nearly 50 percent of the island's 
forests are held under logging concessions, of which 75 percent are 
held within lowland forests, prime salmon-crested cockatoo habitat. 
Unsustainable logging practices destroy the forest canopy and 
dramatically reduce habitat available for cockatoos, especially if 
large nest trees and strangling figs are harvested. Between 1980 and 
1990, an estimated 1,200 km\2\ (463 mi\2\) of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo's habitat was lost. In addition, about 44 percent of lowland 
forest is designated as conversion forest. Researchers predict that by 
2028, up to 50 percent of the current salmon-crested cockatoo 
population (at least 31,000 cockatoos) may be lost as a result of 
conversion of forests to agriculture and plantations. Although about 14 
percent of the forests are within protected areas, logging concessions 
are held in 15 percent of these areas, and small-scale illegal logging 
and human encroachment also occur there. By 2028, extensive logging and 
conversion of lowland forests to agriculture and plantations, combined 
with transmigratory human resettlement, oil exploration, and 
infrastructure development, are likely to destroy much of the salmon-
crested cockatoo's habitat.
    Illegal trapping of the salmon-crested cockatoo for the pet trade 
is widespread. Pet birds are an important part of Indonesian culture, 
with large numbers of wild-caught parrots traded domestically and 
internationally. In the late 1970s, the salmon-crested cockatoo was 
extensively trapped for the pet bird trade. By the 1980s, the pet bird 
trade was adversely impacting the species. Between 1981 and 1990, 
74,838 birds were exported from Indonesia and international imports 
averaged 10,482 annually. Although the salmon-crested cockatoo was 
transferred to Appendix I of CITES, trappers reportedly remain active, 
and wild-caught birds are openly sold in domestic markets. Interviews 
in villages suggest that perhaps as many as 4,000 birds, or 6.4 percent 
of the current estimated population, are still being captured annually, 
with 80 percent traded domestically and 20 percent internationally. 
Ending illegal trade is hampered by Indonesia's large coastline, 
officials with limited resources and knowledge, and corruption. The 
continuing illegal trade of the salmon-crested cockatoo is a threat to 
the survival of the species in the foreseeable future.
    Indonesia has a good legal framework to manage wildlife and their 
habitats, but implementation of its laws and regulatory mechanisms has 
been inadequate to address the threats to the salmon-crested cockatoo. 
Logging laws and policies are frequently ignored and rarely enforced, 
and illegal logging is rampant, even occurring in national parks and 
nature reserves. Current concession policies and logging practices 
hamper sustainable forestry. The salmon-crested cockatoo is a protected 
species in Indonesia, and the

[[Page 56788]]

law provides prohibitions on capture and trade and also provides for 
fines and punishment. Again, the law is generally ignored and only 
sporadically enforced. Illegal bird trade is socially acceptable, 
making it difficult to enforce laws. Public awareness programs, 
economic incentive programs, and ecotourism are in their infancy, and 
it is too early to tell if they are helping to control poaching on the 
island. The illegal trade of the salmon-crested cockatoo for the 
domestic trade, and to a smaller extent international trade, continues 
to occur.
    Fires are becoming more common in tropical rain forests where 
logging, road building, and clearing of land for agriculture occur. 
Fires can lead to the long-term decline of the rain forest, and many 
animals may be negatively affected by loss of food, shelter, and 
territory. Currently, high impact fires are not adversely affecting the 
habitat of the salmon-crested cockatoo, but due to future planned 
extensive logging and clearing of land for agriculture and plantations 
and predicted increase in number and severity of El Ni[ntilde]o events, 
fires will be a threat to this species in the foreseeable future.
    Section 3 of the Act defines an ``endangered species'' as ``any 
species which is in danger of extinction throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range'' and a ``threatened species'' as 
``any species which is likely to become an endangered species within 
the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its 
range.'' The salmon-crested cockatoo population estimate is 
approximately 62,400 and the threats of habitat loss and trade are not 
at a level to consider the species to be in danger of extinction at 
this time. Densities are highest in primary and disturbed primary 
forest, but the cockatoo persists in secondary forest although at lower 
densities. However, logging and forest conversion continue to adversely 
affect the cockatoo's habitat. Based on the analysis of the five 
factors discussed above, we determine that the salmon-crested cockatoo 
is likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future 
throughout all of its range.

Significant Portion of the Range Analysis

    Having determined that the salmon-crested cockatoo meets the 
definition of threatened under the Act, we considered whether there are 
any significant portions of the range where the species is in danger of 
extinction. The term ``significant portion of its range'' in the 
definition of an ``endangered species'' and ``threatened species'' is 
not defined by the Act. For purposes of this finding, a significant 
portion of a species' range is an area that is important to the 
conservation of the species because it contributes meaningfully to the 
representation, resiliency, or redundancy of the species. The 
contribution must be at a level such that its loss would result in a 
decrease in the ability to conserve the species.
    The first step in determining whether a species is endangered in a 
significant portion of its range is to identify any portions of the 
range of the species that warrant further consideration. The range of a 
species can theoretically be divided into portions in an infinite 
number of ways. However, there is no purpose to analyzing portions of 
the range that are not reasonably likely to be significant and where 
the species is not in danger of extinction. To identify those portions 
that warrant further consideration, we determine whether there is 
substantial information indicating that (i) the portions may be 
significant and (ii) the species may be in danger of extinction there. 
In practice, a key part of this analysis is whether the threats are 
geographically concentrated in some way. If the threats to the species 
are essentially uniform throughout its range, no portion is likely to 
warrant further consideration. Moreover, if any concentration of 
threats applies only to portions of the range that are unimportant to 
the conservation of the species, such portions will not warrant further 
consideration.
    If we identify any portions that warrant further consideration, we 
then determine whether in fact the species is threatened or endangered 
in any significant portion of its range. Depending on the biology of 
the species, its range, and the threats it faces, it may be more 
efficient for the Service to address the significance question first, 
or the status question first. Thus, if the Service determines that a 
portion of the range is not significant, the Service need not determine 
whether the species is threatened or endangered there. If the Service 
determines that the species is not threatened or endangered in a 
portion of its range, the Service need not determine if that portion is 
significant. If the Service determines that both a portion of the range 
of a species is significant and the species is threatened or endangered 
there, the Service will specify that portion of the range where the 
species is in danger of extinction pursuant to section 4(c)(1) of the 
Act.
    The terms ``resiliency,'' redundancy,'' and ``representation'' are 
intended to be indicators of the conservation value of portions of the 
range. Resiliency of a species allows the species to recover from 
periodic disturbance. A species will likely be more resilient if large 
populations exist in high-quality habitat that is distributed 
throughout the range of the species in such a way as to capture the 
environmental variability found within the range of the species. In 
addition, the portion may contribute to resiliency for other reasons--
for instance, it may contain an important concentration of certain 
types of habitat that are necessary for the species to carry out its 
life-history functions, such as breeding, feeding, migration, 
dispersal, or wintering. Redundancy of populations may be needed to 
provide a margin of safety for the species to withstand catastrophic 
events. This does not mean than any portion that provides redundancy is 
a significant portion of the range of a species. The idea is to 
conserve enough areas of the range such that random perturbations in 
the system act on only a few populations. Therefore, each area must be 
examined based on whether that area provides an increment of redundancy 
that is important to the conservation of the species. Adequate 
representation ensures that the species' adaptive capabilities are 
conserved. Specifically, the portion should be evaluated to see how it 
contributes to the genetic diversity of the species. The loss of 
genetically based diversity may substantially reduce the ability of the 
species to respond and adapt to future environmental changes. A 
peripheral population may contribute meaningfully to representation if 
there is evidence that it provides genetic diversity due to its 
location on the margin of the species' habitat requirements.
    To determine whether any portion of the range of the salmon-crested 
cockatoo warrants further consideration as possibly endangered, we 
reviewed the entire supporting record for this proposed listing 
determination with respect to the geographic concentration of threats 
and the significance of portions of the range to the conservation of 
the species. As previously mentioned, we evaluated whether substantial 
information indicated that (i) the portions may be significant and (ii) 
the species in that portion may be currently in danger of extinction. 
The salmon-crested cockatoo is endemic to Seram and the three small, 
neighboring Indonesian islands of Ambon, Haruku, and Saparua. Very 
limited information is available on the status of the species on Ambon, 
Haruku, and Saparua. Whether this species is native or introduced to 
Ambon is uncertain, and a very small number of cockatoos (sightings of 
six to eight birds) are

[[Page 56789]]

thought to occur in remaining natural forests in the more remote 
regions of the island. The status of the salmon-crested cockatoo is 
unknown on Haruku and Saparua. For Haruku, there is one unspecified 
locality and observation reported in 1934; for Saparua, there is one 
specimen recorded for 1923. Even less information is available on the 
habitat and the threats to the species on these islands. Thus, we find 
that these three islands are not significant portions of the range of 
the salmon-crested cockatoo and do not require further consideration as 
to whether the species is endanger of extinction there.
    The relatively larger population size in high-quality habitat on 
Seram suggests that this area may be a significant portion of the 
range. The salmon-crested cockatoo primarily occurs in lowland forests 
throughout the island of Seram; its current population is estimated to 
be approximately 62,400 birds; and the species persists in high 
densities in primary and disturbed primary forests on Seram. Therefore, 
having determined Seram may be a portion of the range that is 
significant, we proceeded to evaluate whether the species within this 
portion would qualify as endangered.
    Under our five-factor analysis above, we determined that the 
species is threatened by logging and conversion of forests to 
agriculture and plantations, illegal trapping for the pet trade, 
inadequacy or regulatory mechanisms, and fires resulting from El 
Ni[ntilde]o events throughout its entire range. The species is 
threatened by each of these factors uniformly throughout Seram. There 
is no information to suggest that the species is currently in danger of 
extinction because of the reasonably large population size of the 
species on the island and its occurrence throughout the lowland forests 
of Seram in primary and disturbed primary forest habitat, as well as 
secondary forest habitat.
    Therefore, the best scientific and commercial data allows us to 
make a determination that there are no significant portions of the 
range in which the salmon-crested cockatoo is currently in danger of 
extinction. Although we do not believe that the species is currently 
endangered, we believe it is likely that the salmon-crested cockatoo 
will become endangered throughout its range in the foreseeable future. 
Thus, we propose to list the salmon-crested cockatoo as a threatened 
species throughout all of its range under the Act.

Available Conservation Measures

    Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or 
threatened under the Act include recognition, requirements for Federal 
protection, and prohibitions against certain practices. Recognition 
through listing results in public awareness, and encourages and results 
in conservation actions by Federal and State governments, private 
agencies and groups, and individuals.
    Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, and as implemented by 
regulations at 50 CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies to evaluate 
their actions within the United States or on the high seas with respect 
to any species that is proposed or listed as endangered or threatened 
and with respect to its critical habitat, if any is being designated. 
However, given that the salmon-crested cockatoo is not native to the 
United States, we are not proposing critical habitat for this species 
under section 4 of the Act.
    Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the provision of limited 
financial assistance for the development and management of programs 
that the Secretary of the Interior determines to be necessary or useful 
for the conservation of endangered and threatened species in foreign 
countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) of the Act authorize the Secretary to 
encourage conservation programs for foreign endangered species and to 
provide assistance for such programs in the form of personnel and the 
training of personnel.
    The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of 
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and 
threatened wildlife. These prohibitions, at 50 CFR 17.21 and 17.31, in 
part, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the 
United States to ``take'' (take includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt, 
shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, collect, or to attempt any of these) 
within the United States or upon the high seas; import or export; 
deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign 
commerce in the course of commercial activity; or sell or offer for 
sale in interstate or foreign commerce any endangered wildlife species. 
It also is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship 
any such wildlife that has been taken in violation of the Act. Certain 
exceptions apply to agents of the Service and State conservation 
agencies.
    Permits may be issued to carry out otherwise prohibited activities 
involving endangered and threatened wildlife species under certain 
circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 
17.22 for endangered species and 17.32 for threatened species. For 
endangered wildlife, a permit may be issued for scientific purposes, to 
enhance the propagation or survival of the species, and for incidental 
take in connection with otherwise lawful activities. For threatened 
species, a permit may be issued for the same activities, as well as 
zoological exhibition, education, and special purposes consistent with 
the Act.

Special Rule

    Section 4(d) of the Act states that the Secretary of the Interior 
(Secretary) may, by regulation, extend to threatened species 
prohibitions provided for endangered species under section 9. Our 
implementing regulations for threatened wildlife (50 CFR 17.31) 
incorporate the section 9 prohibitions for endangered wildlife, except 
when a special rule is promulgated. For threatened species, section 
4(d) of the Act gives the Secretary discretion to specify the 
prohibitions and any exceptions to those prohibitions that are 
appropriate for the species, provided that those prohibitions and 
exceptions are necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation 
of the species. A special rule allows us to include provisions that are 
tailored to the specific conservation needs of the threatened species 
and which may be more or less restrictive than the general provisions 
at 50 CFR 17.31.
    The proposed special rule for the salmon-crested cockatoo, in most 
instances, adopts the existing conservation regulatory requirements of 
CITES and the WBCA as the appropriate regulatory provisions for the 
import and export of certain captive salmon-crested cockatoos. It would 
also allow interstate commerce. However, import and export of birds 
taken from the wild after January 18, 1990, take, and foreign commerce 
will need to meet the requirements of 50 CFR 17.31 and 17.32. ``Take'' 
under the Act includes both harm and harass. When applied to captive 
wildlife, take does not include generally accepted animal husbandry 
practices, breeding procedures, or provisions of veterinary care for 
confining, tranquilizing, or anesthetizing, when such practices, 
procedures, or provisions are not likely to result in injury to the 
wildlife. When conducting an activity that could take or incidentally 
take wildlife, a permit under the Act is required.
    The proposed special rule would, if adopted, allow import and 
export of certain salmon-crested cockatoos and interstate commerce of 
this species without a permit under the Act as explained below.
    Import and export. The proposed special rule would apply to all 
commercial and noncommercial

[[Page 56790]]

international shipments of live salmon-crested cockatoos and parts and 
products, including the import and export of personal pets and research 
samples. It proposes to allow a person to import or export a specimen 
that was held in captivity prior to January 18, 1990 (the date the 
species was transferred to CITES Appendix I) or that was captive-bred 
provided the import is authorized under CITES and the WBCA and export 
is authorized under CITES. The terms ``captive-bred'' and ``captivity'' 
used in the proposed special rule are defined in the regulations at 50 
CFR 17.3 and refer to wildlife produced in a controlled environment 
that is intensively manipulated by man from parents that mated or 
otherwise transferred gametes in captivity. The proposed special rule 
would apply to birds captive-bred in the United States and abroad. 
Import and export is allowed without a permit under the Act provided 
the provisions of CITES and WBCA are met. The CITES permit needs to 
indicate that the specimen was not taken from the wild by using a 
source code on the face of the permit other than U (unknown) or W 
(taken from the wild). If the specimen was taken from the wild prior to 
January 18, 1990, the importer or exporter needs to demonstrate that 
the cockatoo was taken from the wild prior to that date. Under the 
special rule, a person needs to provide records, receipts, or other 
documents when applying for permits under CITES and WBCA to show the 
specimen was held in captivity prior to January 18, 1990.
    We assessed the conservation needs of the salmon-crested cockatoo 
in light of the broad protections provided to the species under the 
WBCA and CITES. The purpose of the WBCA is to promote the conservation 
of exotic birds and to ensure that international trade involving the 
United States does not harm exotic birds (see Conservation Status). The 
salmon-crested cockatoo is also protected by CITES, a treaty which 
contributes to the conservation of the species by monitoring 
international trade and ensuring that trade in Appendix I species is 
not detrimental to the survival of the species and is not for 
commercial purposes (see Conservation Status). International trade of 
the salmon-crested cockatoo has been substantially reduced since the 
listing of the species in Appendix I under CITES and protection under 
the WBCA. A review of the CITES data, shows that in the 17 years 
between 1991 and 2007, 297 salmon-crested cockatoos were imported into 
the United States. Many of these birds are personal pets that owners 
took with them when travelling out of and returning to the United 
States. The best available commercial data indicates that the current 
threat to the salmon-crested cockatoo stems from illegal trade in the 
domestic and international markets of Indonesia and surrounding 
countries. Thus, the general prohibitions on import and export 
contained in 50 CFR 17.31, which only extend within the jurisdiction of 
the United States, would not regulate such activities. The Service also 
did not identify how import and export of salmon-crested cockatoos 
under the proposed special rule is associated with the threat of the 
species' habitat destruction. Thus, we find that the import and export 
requirements of the proposed special rule provide the necessary and 
advisable conservation measures that are needed for this species.
    Interstate commerce. Under the proposed special rule, a person may 
deliver, receive, carry, transport, ship, sell, offer to sell, 
purchase, or offer to purchase a salmon-crested cockatoo in interstate 
commerce. Although we do not have current data, we believe there are a 
large number of salmon-crested cockatoos in the United States. Current 
ISIS (International Species Information System) information shows 123 
salmon-crested cockatoos are held in U.S. zoos (ISIS 2008, p. 4). This 
number is an underestimate as some zoos do not enter data into the ISIS 
database. In addition, CITES annual report data shows that 58,484 
salmon-crested cockatoos were imported into the United States between 
1981 and 1989 (UNEP-WCMC 2009b, p. 2). We believe that a number of 
these birds are still held in captivity in the United States. In 1990 
and 1991, surveys of captive breeding by U.S. aviculturists showed 820 
and 625 salmon-crested cockatoos were held by 239 and 194 survey 
respondents, respectively (Allen & Johnson 1991, p. 17; Johnson 1992, 
p. 46). We have no information to suggest that interstate commerce 
activities are associated with threats to the salmon-crested cockatoo 
or will negatively affect any efforts aimed at the recovery of wild 
populations of the species. At the same time, the prohibitions on take 
under 50 CFR 17.31 would apply under this special rule, and any 
interstate commerce activities that could incidentally take cockatoos 
would require a permit under 50 CFR 17.32. Therefore, we find that it 
is not necessary or advisable for the conservation of the salmon-
crested cockatoo to regulate interstate commerce of this species.

Peer Review

    In accordance with our policy, ``Notice of Interagency Cooperative 
Policy for Peer Review in Endangered Species Act Activities,'' that was 
published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we will seek the expert 
opinion of at least three appropriate independent specialists regarding 
this proposed rule. The purpose of such review is to ensure listing 
decisions are based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and 
analysis. We will send copies of this proposed rule to the peer 
reviewers immediately following publication in the Federal Register.

Public Hearings

    The Act provides for one or more public hearings on this proposal, 
if we receive any requests for hearings. We must receive your request 
for a public hearing within 45 days after the date of this Federal 
Register publication (see DATES). Such requests must be made in writing 
and be addressed to the Chief of the Branch of Listing at the address 
shown in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section. We will schedule 
public hearings on this proposal, if any are requested, and announce 
the dates, times, and places of those hearings, as well as how to 
obtain reasonable accommodations, in the Federal Register at least 15 
days before the first hearing.

Required Determinations

Paperwork Reduction Act

    This proposed rule does not contain any new collections of 
information that require approval by the Office of Management and 
Budget (OMB) under 44 U.S.C. 3501 et seq. The regulation will not 
impose new recordkeeping or reporting requirements on State or local 
governments, individuals, businesses, or organizations. We may not 
conduct or sponsor and you are not required to respond to a collection 
of information unless it displays a currently valid OMB control number.

National Environmental Policy Act

    We have determined that Environmental Assessments and Environmental 
Impact Statements, as defined under the authority of the National 
Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be prepared in connection 
with regulations adopted under section 4(a) of the Act. A notice 
outlining our reasons for this determination was published in the 
Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).

[[Page 56791]]

Clarity of the Rule

    We are required by Executive Orders 12866 and 12988 and by 
Presidential Memorandum of June 1, 1998, to write all rules in plain 
language. This means that each rule we publish must:
    (a) Be logically organized;
    (b) Use the active voice to address readers directly;
    (c) Use clear language rather than jargon;
    (d) Be divided into short sections and sentences; and
    (e) Use lists and tables wherever possible.
    If you feel that we have not met these requirements, send us 
comments by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section. To 
better help us revise the rule, your comments should be as specific as 
possible. For example, you should tell us the numbers of the sections 
or paragraphs that are unclearly written, which sections or sentences 
are too long, the sections where you feel lists or tables would be 
useful, etc.

References Cited

    A list of the references used to develop this proposed rule is 
available upon request (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section).

Author

    The primary authors of this notice are staff members of the 
Division of Scientific Authority, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17

    Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and 
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.

Proposed Regulation Promulgation

    Accordingly, we propose to amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter 
I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as follows:

PART 17--[AMENDED]

    1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:

    Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.

    2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h) by adding new entry for ``Cockatoo, salmon-
crested'' in alphabetical order under Birds to the List of Endangered 
and Threatened Wildlife, as follows:


Sec. 17.11  Endangered and threatened wildlife.

* * * * *
    (h) * * *

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                    Species                                           Vertebrate
------------------------------------------------                   population where                                         Critical
                                                  Historic range     endangered or        Status         When listed        habitat       Special rules
         Common name            Scientific name                       threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                          BIRDS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                       * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cockatoo, salmon-crested       Cacatua           Seram, Haruku,    Entire            T                                  NA               17.41(c)
                                moluccensis       Saparua, and
                                                  Ambon,
                                                  Indonesia
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* * * * *
    3. Amend Sec. 17.41 by adding paragraph (c) to read as follows:


Sec. 17.41  Special rules--birds.

* * * * *
    (c) Salmon-crested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis).
    (1) Except as noted in paragraphs (c)(2) and (c)(3) of this 
section, all prohibitions and provisions of Sec. Sec. 17.31 and 17.32 
of this part apply to the salmon-crested cockatoo.
    (2) Import and export. The import or export of any salmon-crested 
cockatoo taken from the wild after January 18, 1990, requires a permit 
under Sec. 17.32. You may import and export a live salmon-crested 
cockatoo and its parts and products provided:
    (i) The import or export of the specimen is authorized under the 
Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA, 16 U.S.C. 4901-4916) and the 
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna 
and Flora (CITES, TIAS 8249);
    (ii) The specimen was captive-bred and the source code on the CITES 
document for the specimen is not U (unknown) or W (taken from the 
wild); or, for a specimen that was held in captivity prior to January 
18, 1990, and was not captive-bred, you provide records, receipts, or 
other documents when you apply for an import or export permit under 
CITES or an import permit under WBCA to demonstrate that the specimen 
was held in captivity prior to January 18, 1990; and
    (iii) The person carrying out the activity has complied with all 
terms and conditions that apply to that activity under the provisions 
of the WBCA and CITES and their implementing regulations. Violation of 
WBCA or CITES would constitute a violation of the Act.
    (3) Interstate commerce. You may deliver, receive, carry, 
transport, ship, sell, offer to sell, purchase, or offer to purchase in 
interstate commerce a live salmon-crested cockatoo and its parts and 
products.
    (4) All applicable provisions of 50 CFR parts 14, 15, 17, and 23 
must be met.

    Dated: October 21, 2009.
Rowan W. Gould,
Deputy Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. E9-26131 Filed 11-2- 09; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-S