[Federal Register Volume 59, Number 217 (Thursday, November 10, 1994)]
[Unknown Section]
[Page 0]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 94-27302]
[[Page Unknown]]
[Federal Register: November 10, 1994]
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
50 CFR Part 17
RIN 1018-AB94
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status
for 12 Plants From the Hawaiian Islands
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
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SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) determines
endangered status pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (Act), for 12 species of Hawaiian plants: Adenophorus periens
(pendant kihi fern), Bonamia menziesii (no common name (NCN)), Diellia
erecta (NCN), Flueggea neowawraea (mehamehame), Hibiscus brackenridgei
(ma`o hau hele), Mariscus pennatiformis (NCN), Neraudia sericea
(ma`aloa), Plantago princeps (ale), Sesbania tomentosa (`ohai), Solanum
incompletum (thorny popolo), Spermolepis hawaiiensis (NCN), and Vigna
o-wahuensis (Oahu vigna). These 12 species are found on 1 or more of
the following Hawaiian Islands: Laysan, Necker, Nihoa, Niihau, Kauai,
Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii. The 12 species and
their habitats have been variously affected or are currently threatened
by one or more of the following: habitat degradation and/or predation
by wild, feral, or domestic animals (pigs, goats, deer, cattle);
competition for space, light, water, and nutrients by naturalized,
introduced vegetation; habitat loss from fires; human impacts from
recreational activities; and insect infestations. Due to the small
number of existing individuals and/or their very narrow distributions,
these species and most of their populations are subject to an increased
likelihood of extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor from
stochastic events. This rule implements the protection provisions
provided by the Act for these plant taxa.
EFFECTIVE DATE: December 12, 1994.
ADDRESSES: The complete file for this rule is available for public
inspection, by appointment, during normal business hours at the Pacific
Islands Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana
Boulevard, Room 6307, P.O. Box 50167, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Robert P. Smith, Field Supervisor, at
the above address (808/541-2749).
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
Adenophorus periens, Bonamia menziesii, Diellia erecta, Flueggea
neowawraea, Hibiscus brackenridgei, Mariscus pennatiformis, Neraudia
sericea, Plantago princeps, Sesbania tomentosa, Solanum incompletum,
Spermolepis hawaiiensis, and Vigna o-wahuensis are currently known from
11 Hawaiian Islands: Laysan, Necker, Nihoa, Niihau, Kauai, Oahu,
Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii. The current and historical
distribution by island is presented in Table 1 for each of the 12
species.
Table 1.--Summary of Island Distribution of the Proposed Species
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hawaiian Island
Species -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
La Ne N Ni K O Mo L Ka M H
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Adenophorus periens....................... ........ ........ ........ ........ C H C H ........ H C
Bonamia menziesii......................... ........ ........ ........ ........ C C H C ........ C C
Diellia erecta............................ ........ ........ ........ ........ H H C H ........ C C
Flueggea neowawraea....................... ........ ........ ........ ........ C C H ........ ........ C C
Hibiscus brackensridgei................... ........ ........ ........ ........ C? C H C H C C
Mariscus pennatiformis.................... C ........ ........ ........ H H ........ ........ ........ C? H
Neraudia sericea.......................... ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ C H H C
Plantago princeps......................... ........ ........ ........ ........ C C C ........ ........ C H
Sesbania tomentosa........................ ........ C C C C C C C C C C
Solanum incompletum....................... ........ ........ ........ ........ C? ........ C? H ........ H C
Spermolepis hawaiiensis................... ........ ........ ........ ........ H C C C ........ C C?
Vigna o-wahuensis......................... ........ ........ ........ H H H C C C H C
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C = current; population last observed within the past 50 years.
H = historical; population not seen for over 50 years.u
? = questionable locality or inconsistent information in sources.
La--Laysan
Ne--Necker
N--Nihoa
Ni--Niihau
K--Kauai
O--Oahu
Mo--Molokai
L--Lanai
Ka--Kahoolawe
M--Maui
H--Hawaii
The Hawaiian archipelago includes eight large volcanic islands
(Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii), as
well as offshore islets, shoals, and atolls set on submerged volcanic
remnants at the northwest end of the chain (the Northwestern Hawaiian
Islands). The archipelago covers a land area of about 16,600 square
kilometers (sq km) (6,400 sq miles (mi)), extending roughly between
latitude 18 deg.50' to 28 deg.15' N and longitude 154 deg.40' to
178 deg.70' W, and ranging in elevation from sea level to 4,200 meters
(m) (13,800 feet (ft)) (Dept. of Geography 1983). The regional
geological setting is a mid-oceanic volcanic island archipelago set in
a roughly northwest to southeast line, with younger islands to the
southeast. The youngest island, Hawaii, is volcanically active. The
older islands are increasingly eroded, so that the basaltic portions of
many of the northwesternmost islands (such as Laysan, Necker, and
Nihoa) are entirely submerged, and coralline atolls and shoals are
often all that remain above sea level (Macdonald et al. 1986). The
topography of the Hawaiian Islands is extremely diverse. On the younger
islands, Hawaii and Maui, gently sloping unweathered shield volcanoes
with very poor soil development are juxtaposed with older, heavily
weathered valleys with steep walls, well-developed streams, and gently
sloped flood plains. The older islands to the northwest (i.e., Niihau,
Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai) are generally more weathered. On a typical
older island, sea cliffs and large amphitheater-headed valleys on the
windward (northeast) side contrast with erosionally younger, dissected
slopes on the leeward (southwest) side (Dept. of Geography 1983).
The climate of the Hawaiian Islands reflects the tropical setting
buffered by the surrounding ocean (Dept. of Geography 1983). The
prevailing winds are northeast trades with some seasonal fluctuation in
strength. There are also winter storm systems and occasional
hurricanes. Temperatures vary over the year on an average of 5 deg.
Celsius (C) (11 deg. Fahrenheit (F)) or less, with daily variation
usually exceeding seasonal variation in temperature. Temperature varies
with elevation and ranges from a maximum recorded temperature of
37.7 deg. C (99.9 deg. F), measured at 265 m (870 ft) elevation, to a
minimum of minus 12.7 deg. C (9.1 deg. F) recorded at 4,205 m (13,795
ft) elevation. Annual rainfall varies greatly by location, with marked
windward to leeward gradients over short distances. Minimum average
annual rainfall is less than 250 millimeters (mm) (10 inches (in)); the
maximum average precipitation is well in excess of 11,000 mm (450 in)
per year. Precipitation is greatest during the months of October
through April. A dry season is apparent in leeward settings, while
windward settings generally receive tradewind-driven rainfall
throughout the year (Dept. of Geography 1983).
The native-dominated vegetation of the Hawaiian Islands varies
greatly according to elevation, moisture regime, and substrate. The
most recent classification of Hawaiian natural communities recognizes
nearly 100 native vegetation types (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990). Within
these types are numerous island-specific or region-specific
associations, comprising an extremely rich array of vegetation types
within a very limited geographic area. Major vegetation formations
include forests, woodlands, shrublands, grasslands, herblands, and
pioneer associations on lava and cinder substrates.
There are lowland, montane, and subalpine forest types in Hawaii,
extending from sea level to above 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in elevation.
Coastal and lowland forests are generally dry or mesic and may be open-
or closed-canopied. The stature of lowland forests is generally under
10 m (30 ft). Eleven species included in this ruling (Adenophorus
periens, Bonamia menziesii, Diellia erecta, Flueggea neowawraea,
Hibiscus brackenridgei, Mariscus pennatiformis, Neraudia sericea,
Plantago princeps, Solanum incompletum, Spermolepis hawaiiensis, and
Vigna o-wahuensis) have been reported from lowland forest habitat.
Montane forests, occupying elevations between 1,000 and 2,000 m (3,000
and 6,000 ft), are dry to mesic on the leeward slopes of the islands of
Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii. On those islands, as well as on Oahu, Molokai,
and Lanai, mesic to wet montane forests occur on the windward slopes
and summits. The dry and mesic forests may be open- to closed-canopied,
and may exceed 20 m (65 ft) in stature. Of the species in this ruling,
four (Diellia erecta, Plantago princeps, Solanum incompletum, and Vigna
o-wahuensis) have been reported from montane mesic and dry forest
habitats. Montane wet forests are usually dominated by several species
of native trees and tree ferns. Three species (Adenophorus periens,
Mariscus pennatiformis, and Plantago princeps) have been reported from
montane wet forest habitat. At high montane and subalpine elevations,
at and above 2,000 m (6,500 ft) elevation, are subalpine forests,
usually open-canopied and forming a mosaic with surrounding grasslands
and shrublands. Subalpine forests are known only from Haleakala on East
Maui and from Hualalai, Mauna Kea, and Mauna Loa on Hawaii. Solanum
incompletum has been reported from subalpine forest habitat.
Hawaiian shrublands are also found from coastal to alpine
elevations. The majority of Hawaiian shrubland types are in dry and
mesic settings, or on cliffs and slopes too steep to support trees. Wet
montane shrublands are typically dominated by Metrosideros ('ohi'a).
Taxa reported from native shrublands include Bonamia menziesii,
Hibiscus brackenridgei, and Sesbania tomentosa. Hawaiian grassland
types are found from coastal to subalpine settings. Coastal and lowland
grasslands are known from the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Kauai,
Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii. Both Hibiscus brackenridgei and
Vigna o-wahuensis have been reported from native grasslands.
The land that supports these 12 plant species is owned by various
private parties, the City and County of Honolulu, the County of Maui,
the State of Hawaii (including State parks, forest reserves, natural
area reserves, and Hawaiian Home Lands), and the Federal government
(including national parks, national wildlife refuges, national historic
sites, and property under the jurisdiction of the Department of
Defense).
Discussion of the 12 Plant Taxa Included in This Final Rule
Adenophorus periens (pendant kihi fern) was first collected by
Captain Fredrick William Beechey in the 1820s or 1830s. It was not
formally described until 1974, when L. Earl Bishop published the name
Adenophorus periens. Prior to its description, the names Polypodium
adenophorus and Adenophorus pinnatifidus had been erroneously applied
to the species represented by Beechey's specimen (Bishop 1974).
Adenophorus periens, a member of the grammitis family
(Grammitidaceae), is a small, pendant, epiphytic (not rooted on the
ground) fern. The rhizome (prostrate stem) is covered with small dark,
stiff scales 2 to 4 centimeters (cm) (0.8 to 1.6 in) long. Its
yellowish green fronds are usually between 10 and 40 cm (4 and 16 in)
long and covered with hairs. The fronds have slightly hairy stalks less
than 1 cm (0.4 in) long. Each frond is comprised of oblong or narrowly
triangular pinnae (divisions or leaflets) 5 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 in)
long with margins that are smooth or toothed and lined with sparse
hairs. The pinnae are situated perpendicular to the axis of the midrib,
with each pinna twisted such that its upper surface faces upward. Round
sori (groups of spore-producing bodies) usually develop in the central
portion of the fertile frond, forming two regular rows on each pinna.
This species differs from other species in this endemic Hawaiian genus
by having hairs along the pinna margins, pinnae at right angles to the
midrib axis, by the placement of the sori, and the degree of dissection
of each pinna (Bishop 1970, 1974; Hillebrand 1888; Linney 1989).
Historically, Adenophorus periens was known from the following
general areas: Halemanu on Kauai, the Koolau Mountains of Oahu, the
summit of Lanai, Kula Pipeline on East Maui, and Hilo and Waimea on the
island of Hawaii (Hawaii Heritage Program (HHP) 1992a1 to 1992a6,
1992a10 to 1992a13). Currently, Adenophorus periens is known from
several locations on three islands. On Kauai, one population is known
from the boundary of Hono O Na Pali Natural Area Reserve (NAR) and Na
Pali Coast State Park on State land, one from Waioli on State land, and
four are clustered in the Wahiawa area over a distance of 2 sq km (0.8
sq mi) on private land (HHP 1992a15 to 1992a17; Hawaii Plant
Conservation Center (HPCC) 1991b, 1991c, 1992; Lorence and Flynn 1991).
On Molokai, there is a single population of three plants on private
land at Kamakou Preserve (HHP 1992a7). On the island of Hawaii, four
populations are found at Olaa Tract, Kane Nui o Hamo Crater, Kahaualea
NAR, and 2.4 km (1.5 mi) northwest of Puu Kauka on private, State, and
Federal land (L. Cuddihy, National Park Service, in litt., 1983, 1988;
HHP 1992a8, 1992a9, 1992a14). The population at Kane Nui o Hamo has
recently been affected by volcanic eruptions and drought and its status
is uncertain (Hugo Huntzinger, National Park Service, in litt., 1993).
The statewide total of 11 current populations comprises approximately
1,280 individuals of this species; on Kauai, there are about 63
individuals; on Molokai, there are 3; and on Hawaii, there are
approximately 1,215 (L. Cuddihy, in litt., 1983, 1988; HHP 1992a7 to
1992a9, 1992a14 to 1992a17; HPCC 1991a to 1991c; Lorence and Flynn
1991).
Adenophorus periens is found in Metrosideros polymorpha ('Ohi'a)/
Cibotium glaucum (Hapu'u) Lowland Wet Forest between 470 and 1,270 m
(1,540 and 4,140 ft) in elevation (HHP 1992a7, 1992a8, 1992a14 to
1992a16). Associated species include Broussaisia arguta (kanawao
ke'oke'o), Cheirodendron trigynum ('olapa), Dicranopteris linearis
(uluhe), Freycinetia arborea ('ie'ie), and Psychotria hawaiiensis
(kopiko) (HHP 1992a7, 1992a8, 1992a15, 1992a16). The primary threats to
Adenophorus periens are habitat degradation by pigs (Sus scrofa);
competition for light, space, nutrients, and water with alien plant
species; and habitat destruction by fires.
Asa Gray gave the name Bonamia menziesii (NCN) to a plant from the
Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) in honor of its collector, Archibald Menzies
(Gray 1862). Wilhelm Hillebrand (1888) placed the species into the
segregate genus Breweria. Otto Degener (1932a, 1932b) described a new
genus, Perispermum, and placed Bonamia menziesii in it. He also
described another species of Perispermum, P. albiflorum. T. Myint and
D.B. Ward (1968) recognized only one Hawaiian species and placed it in
the genus Bonamia. They recognized two varieties: variety menziesii and
a new variety, rockii. The current treatment (Austin 1990) recognizes
only one species with no subspecific taxa.
Bonamia menziesii, a member of the morning-glory family
(Convolvulaceae), is a vine with twining branches up to 10 m (33 ft)
long that are fuzzy when young. The leathery, oblong to oval leaves
measure 3 to 9 cm (1.2 to 3.5 in) in length and 1 to 4 cm (0.4 to 1.6
in) wide. The upper leaf surface is usually hairless or covered with
sparse hairs and the lower surface is covered with dense fuzzy hairs.
The white to greenish funnel-shaped flowers, each 2 to 2.5 mm (0.08 to
0.1 in) long, are produced singly or in clusters of three on stalks 1
to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) long with tiny bracts (modified leaves) at the
base of each stalk. Stamens usually have glandular hairs at their
bases. The flower has two styles that are separate or partly fused. The
fruits are tan or yellowish brown capsules 1 to 1.5 cm (0.4 to 0.6 in)
long that contain one or two oval seeds imbedded in black pulp. This
species is the only member of the genus that is endemic to the Hawaiian
Islands and differs from other genera in the family by its two styles,
longer stems and petioles, and rounder leaves (Austin 1990).
Historically, Bonamia menziesii was known from the following
general areas: scattered locations on Kauai, the Waianae Mountains of
Oahu, scattered locations on Molokai, and the eastern sides of Maui and
Hawaii (HHP 1992b3, 1992b4, 1992b10, 1992b11, 1992b13, 1992b15 to
1992b17, 1992b28, 1992b35). Currently, Bonamia menziesii is known from
28 populations on 5 islands. On Kauai, five populations are known from
Kalalau, Paaiki Valley, Mount Kahili (all on State land), and Wahiawa
drainage on private land (HHP 1992b25 to 1992b27, Lorence and Flynn
1991). On Oahu, Bonamia menziesii is known from both the Waianae and
the Koolau Mountains. In the Waianae Mountains between Kuaokala and
Nanakuli, 10 populations are spread over a distance of 24 km (15 mi) on
Federal, private, and State land; 8 of these populations are clustered
in the northernmost section over a distance of 8 km (5 mi) (HHP 1992b6,
1992b8, 1992b9, 1992b12, 1992b19, 1992b20, 1992b22, 1992b23, 1992b30,
1992b34). In the southeastern part of the Koolau Mountains, five
populations are found over an area of 6 sq km (2.5 sq mi) on private
and State land (HHP 1992b5, 1992b14, 1992b18, 1992b21, 1992b31). On
Lanai, Bonamia menziesii is known from four scattered locations from
Kanepuu to Puhielelu on private land (Garnett 1991; HHP 1992b1, 1992b2,
1992b32; HPCC 1991d). On Maui, one population is known from the western
slopes of West Maui on private land and two populations are located on
East Maui on private and State land (HHP 1992b24, 1992b29, 1992b33). On
the island of Hawaii, a single population is located at Kaupulehu on
private land (HHP 1992b7). The total current populations throughout the
State consist of approximately 200 individuals, with the largest
populations occurring on Oahu (HHP 1992b14, 1992b21, 1992b23, 1992b30).
On Kauai, there are approximately 28 plants; on Oahu no more than 150;
on Lanai approximately 9; on Maui a total of 10; and on the island of
Hawaii at least 1 specimen has been collected (HHP 1992b1, 1992b2,
1992b5 to 1992b12, 1992b14, 1992b18 to 1992b27, 1992b29 to 1992b34;
Lorence and Flynn 1991).
Bonamia menziesii is found on steep slopes in dry to mesic forest
and sometimes in wet forest between the elevation of 150 and 625 m (492
and 2,051 ft) (Austin 1990). Associated species include 'ohi'a,
Canthium odoratum (alahe'e), Nestegis sandwicense (olopua), Pisonia sp.
(papala kepau), and Sapindus oahuensis (lonomea) (HHP 1992b1, 1992b2,
1992b4, 1992b7 to 1992b9, 1992b18 to 1992b20, 1992b22, 1992b23,
1992b25, 1992b27, 1992b30, 1992b31, 1992b33). The primary threats to
Bonamia menziesii are habitat degradation and possible predation by
wild and feral ungulates (pigs, goats (Capra hircus), axis deer (Axis
axis), black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus), and cattle (Bos
taurus), competition with a variety of alien plant species, and fire.
Diellia erecta (NCN) was described by William Dunlop Brackenridge
based on a specimen collected during the Wilkes Expedition in 1840
(Brackenridge 1854). He also described Diellia pumila, which
subsequently has been considered a depauperate form of D. erecta.
Davallia alexandri was published by Hillebrand in 1873. It has
subsequently been considered a form of Diellia erecta with finely
dissected fronds. Diellia erecta and Davallia alexandri had been placed
in the genus Lindsaya by certain early authors, and Diellia erecta into
the genus Schizoloma. Degener and Amy B. Greenwell (1950) published the
new combination Diellia erecta var. falcata for a taxon originally
described by Brackenridge as Diellia falcata. However, further study
has established that Diellia falcata is best considered a separate
species. Diellia erecta is now considered to be a species with no
subspecific taxa (Wagner 1952, Wagner and Wagner 1992).
Diellia erecta, a member of the spleenwort family (Aspleniaceae),
is a fern that grows in tufts of three to nine lance-shaped fronds,
each 20 to 70 cm (8 to 28 in) long. The fronds emerge from a 1 to 2.5
cm (0.4 to 1 in) long rhizome covered with brown to dark gray scales.
The frond stalks are reddish brown to black and smooth and glossy, 2 to
21 cm (0.8 to 8.3 in) long, and have a few stiff scales at their bases.
Each frond has 15 to 50 lance-shaped pinnae arranged oppositely along
the midrib. The pinnae are usually between 2 and 4 cm (0.8 and 1.6 in)
long and 4 to 8 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) wide. Ten to 20 sori, which may be
separate or fused, are borne on each margin of the pinna. Each sorus is
covered by an indusium (protective membrane) that falls short of the
edge of the frond and runs parallel to the edge of each pinna. This
species differs from other members of the genus in having brown or dark
gray scales usually more than 2 cm (0.8 in) in length, fused or
separate sori along both margins, shiny black midribs that have a
hardened surface, and veins that do not usually encircle the sori
(Degener and Greenwell 1950, Hillebrand 1888, Robinson 1912, Smith
1934, Wagner 1952).
Historically, Diellia erecta was known from the Kokee area on
Kauai; the Koolau Mountains on Oahu; Pukoo, Pelekunu Valley, and
Kaunakakai Gulch on Molokai; Mahana Valley and Hauola Gulch on Lanai;
scattered locations on West Maui; and various locations on the island
of Hawaii (HHP 1992c1 to 1992c3, 1992c6, 1992c8 to 1992c11, 1992c16,
1992c18 to 1992c26). Currently, Diellia erecta is only known from
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii. On Molokai, there are four locations with an
unknown number of individuals at Halawa Valley, Kahuaawi Gulch,
Makolelau, and Puu Kolekole on private land (HHP 1992c12, 1992c14,
1992c15; Robert Hobdy, Hawaii State Division of Forestry and Wildlife
(DOFAW), pers. comm., 1991). On Maui, there is a total of at least 38
individuals at 7 locations: 4 populations on West Maui at Iao Valley on
private land, and Kanaha Stream, Manawainui Plant Sanctuary, and
Papalaua Gulch on State land; and 3 populations on East Maui at Olinda,
Waiopai Gulch, and near Makawao on State and private land (HHP 1992c4,
1992c5, 1992c7, 1992c13, 1992c17; HPCC 1990a; Joel Lau, HHP, and R.
Hobdy, pers. comms., 1992). On the island of Hawaii, there are 2
populations on State land: 1 at Honomalino with over 20 plants, and 1
at Manuka NAR with at least 1 plant (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Statewide, this species has a total of 13 populations and approximately
63 known individuals.
Diellia erecta is found in Diospyros sandwicensis (Lama)/'Ohi'a
Lowland Mesic Forest between 210 and 1,590 m (700 and 5,200 ft) in
elevation (HHP 1992c21; HPCC 1990a; R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1992). Other
associated plant species include Dodonaea viscosa ('a'ali'i),
Dryopteris unidentata, Pleomele auwahiensis (halapepe), Syzygium
sandwicensis ('ohi'a ha), and Wikstroemia sp. ('akia) (HPCC 1990a). The
major threats to Diellia erecta are habitat degradation by pigs, goats,
and cattle; competition with alien plant species; and stochastic
extinction due to the small number of existing individuals.
In 1912, Joseph F. Rock collected the first specimens of Flueggea
neowawraea (mehamehame) from Kapua on the island of Hawaii (Rock 1913).
Based on his specimens, he established the monotypic genus Neowawraea,
named for Dr. Heinrich W. Wawra, a colleague of Rock's. He named the
species Neowawraea phyllanthoides because of its apparent resemblance
to Phyllanthus, a member of the same family (Euphorbiaceae). Earl
Edward Sherff (1939) later transferred the taxon to the genus Drypetes.
W. John Hayden (1987), upon further investigation, placed the species
in the genus Flueggea. Because retention of the specific epithet would
result in a later homonym, Hayden chose to maintain the tribute to
Wawra in the new epithet, neowawraea.
Flueggea neowawraea, a member of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae),
is a large tree up to 30 m (100 ft) tall and 2 m (7 ft) in diameter
with white oblong pores covering its scaly, pale brown bark. The thin,
papery, oval leaves, 4 to 14 cm (1.5 to 5.5 in) long and 2 to 9 cm (0.8
to 3.5 in) wide, are green on the upper surface and pale green on the
lower surface. Plants are usually dioecious (having separate male and
female plants) with unisexual flowers lacking petals. Male flowers, on
stalks less than 4 mm (0.2 in) long, have five green sepals with
brownish tips. The female flowers, on stalks 1 to 2.5 mm (0.04 to 0.1
in) long, have sepals of unequal length with irregular margins. The
two-lobed stigma is positioned atop a 2.5 to 3 mm (0.1 in) long, round
ovary with a nectary disk. The fleshy, round fruits, about 5 mm (0.2
in) in diameter, are reddish brown to black and contain two slightly
curved seeds about 3 mm (0.1 in) long that are somewhat triangular in
cross section. This species is the only member of the genus found in
Hawaii and can be distinguished from other species in the genus by its
large size; scaly bark; the shape, size, and color of the leaves;
flowers clustered along the branches; and the size and shape of the
fruits (Hayden 1990, Linney 1982, Neal 1965).
Historically, Flueggea neowawraea was known from Waihii near Kapuna
on Molokai, but is now presumed extinct on that island (HHP 1992d25,
Hayden 1990). This species was also known from Kealia Trail,
Kahanahaiki Valley, and Pohakea Gulch in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu
(HHP 1992d5, 1992d10, 1992d33). Currently, Flueggea neowawraea is known
on Kauai from Limahuli Valley, Kalalau, Pohakuao, and from the Koaie
and Poomau branches of Waimea Canyon (HHP 1992d17, 1992d18, 1992d30 to
1992d32; HPCC 1990b; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Also, three
individuals (some of which may be dead) are known from the two adjacent
valleys of Mahanaloa and Paaiki, near Makaha Point, on State-owned land
(HHP 1992d9, 1992d13). Only one unhealthy individual is known from
Limahuli Valley on privately owned land (HHP 1992d17). One tree is
known from Kalalau and 10 from Pohakuao on State-owned land (J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1992). Sixteen trees are known from the Poomau branch of
Waimea Canyon, and 40 to 80 individuals are known from 4 scattered
populations along the Koaie branch of Waimea Canyon on State-owned land
(HHP 1992d18, 1992d30, 1992d31; HPCC 1990b; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
On Oahu, Flueggea neowawraea is currently known from 15 locations with
approximately 33 individuals in the Waianae Mountains. The populations
are spread from East Kapuahikahi Gulch to Puumaialau Gulch over a
distance of about 15.5 km (9.6 mi) on Federal, State, County, and
private land (HHP 1992d1 to 1992d4, 1992d6 to 1992d8, 1992d11, 1992d12,
1992d14 to 1992d16, 1992d19, 1992d20, 1992d24, 1992d26, 1992d29; J.
Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On East Maui, one or two individuals are known
from Auwahi on the southwest slope of Haleakala at approximately 850 m
(2,800 ft) elevation on privately owned land (HHP 1992d23). Five
populations are known from the island of Hawaii in South Kona and Kau,
extending over an area of about 10 by 5 km (6 by 3 mi) from Papa to
Manuka, and numbering approximately 20 individuals, on State and
private land (HHP 1992d21, 1992d22, 1992d27, 1992d28, 1992d34, 1992d35;
J. Lau, pers. comm., 1990). A Hawaii Island population on private land
at Huehue Ranch in North Kona consists of an unknown number of
individuals (Hayden 1990). Statewide, the species totals 28 populations
containing approximately 127 to 167 known individuals.
Flueggea neowawraea occurs in dry to mesic forest at 250 to 1,000 m
(820 to 3,280 ft) elevation (Hayden 1990). Associated plant species
include alahe'e, lama, Aleurites moluccana (kukui), Antidesma
pulvinatum (hame), and Streblus pendulina (a'ia'i) (HHP 1992d3, 1992d7,
1992d9, 1992d12 to 1992d19, 1992d30, 1992d31, 1992d34). The primary
threat to the continued existence of Flueggea neowawraea is the black
twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus), that has affected all known
Flueggea neowawraea plants. Other major threats include habitat
degradation by feral and wild ungulates (pigs, goats, deer, and
cattle), competition with alien plant species, and fire. The small
number of individuals within any population and the scattered
distribution of populations, compounded by a requirement for cross-
pollination because the species is dioecious, must be considered a
serious threat.
In 1838, Asa Gray described Hibiscus brackenridgei (ma`o hau hele)
from a specimen collected on West Maui (Roe 1961). Then, in 1930,
Edward Leonard Caum published two varieties, molokaiana and kauaiana,
based upon type specimens from the islands of Molokai and Kauai (Caum
1930). An additional variety, var. mokuleiana, was named by Sister
Margaret James Roe in 1961. In 1990, David Bates recognized two
subspecific taxa: ssp. mokuleianus and ssp. brackenridgei (including
var. molokaiana). He placed Hibiscus brackenridgei var. kauaiana in
synonymy with a non-Hawaiian species of Hibiscus, H. calyphyllus.
Hibiscus brackenridgei, a member of the mallow family (Malvaceae),
is a sprawling to erect shrub or small tree up to 5 m (16 ft) tall.
Most plant parts (young branches, leaves, and some flower parts) vary
in the degree of hairiness. The leaves, about 5 to 15 cm (2 to 6 in)
long and equally wide, have three to seven lobes but are generally
heart-shaped in outline. Beneath each leaf stalk is a pair of very thin
stipules (leaf-like appendages), 5 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 in) long, that
fall off early in development, leaving an elliptic scar. Flowers are
borne singly or in small clusters. The petals, between 3.5 and 8 cm
(1.4 and 3.1 in) long, are yellow, usually with a maroon spot in the
center of the flower. Each triangular calyx lobe is reddish to yellow,
and usually has a raised, elongated gland on the midrib. Seven to 10
bracts are attached below the calyx. The staminal column, which has
anthers attached to the upper three-fourths or nearly to the base,
extends beyond the petals. The fruits are somewhat round or oval
capsules 1.1 to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) long that have a beak-like
appendage at one end. This species differs from other members of the
genus in having the following combination of characteristics: yellow
petals, a calyx comprised of triangular lobes with raised veins and a
single midrib often bearing a prominent elongated gland, 7 to 10 bracts
attached below the calyx, and thin stipules 5 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 in)
long that fall off, leaving an elliptic scar (Bates 1990).
Hibiscus brackenridgei is currently known from Oahu, Lanai, Maui,
and Hawaii; it may possibly occur on Kauai. Twelve populations are
known to exist, containing approximately 60 individuals. The two
recognized subspecies are discussed separately below. Hibiscus
brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei was known historically from Laau Point
on Molokai (HHP 1992e7), from scattered locations on Lanai, and from
Pohakea Gulch south to near McGregor Point on West Maui (HHP 1992e4,
1992e5, 1992e10 to 1992e13, 1992e15). Hibiscus brackenridgei was also
collected from an unspecified site on Kahoolawe (HHP 1992e17). However,
the specimen is unavailable, and the subspecies was not determined
(Bates 1990). Currently, Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei
consists of about 7 populations containing probably fewer than 60
individuals on State and private land on the islands of Lanai, Maui,
and Hawaii (HHP 1992e1 to 1992e3, 1992e6, 1992e9, 1992e14, 1992e16;
HPCC 1990c, 1991e; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On Lanai, only five or
six plants remain near Keomuku Road at 275 m (900 ft) elevation on
privately owned land (HHP 1992e14, HPCC 1991e). On West Maui, Hibiscus
brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei is known from two populations
occurring at Kaunohua Gulch and the West Maui NAR (HHP 1992e2, 1992e3;
J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). The Kaunohua Gulch population, numbering
approximately eight individuals, is found within a fenced area of 5 to
10 sq m (55 to 110 sq ft) on privately owned land (HHP 1992e3). The
West Maui NAR population, consisting of 14 individuals, is located in
the Lihau section at about 400 m (1,300 ft) elevation in lowland dry
forest on State-owned land (HHP 1992e2; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On
East Maui, the known populations, which extend over a 6.25 sq km (2.4
sq mi) area, number no more than 20 individuals (HHP 1992e1, 1992e8;
HPCC 1990c). These populations are near Puu o Kali between 249 and 440
m (800 and 1,450 ft) in elevation on State-owned land (HHP 1992e1,
1992e8). On the island of Hawaii, Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp.
brackenridgei is known from two populations on State and private land:
at Puu Anahulu Homesteads and Puu Huluhulu, approximately 3.5 km (2 mi)
apart. These two populations contain no more than five individuals (HHP
1992e6, 1992e16; P. Q. Tomich, in litt., 1991; K. Wallis, in litt.,
1993).
Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. mokuleianus is currently known from
five populations, possibly containing as few as six to eight
individuals. Undocumented observations of this taxon have been reported
from Lihue and Olokele Canyon on Kauai (Bates 1990). On Oahu, Hibiscus
brackenridgei ssp. mokuleianus was known historically from scattered
locations in the Waianae Mountains (HHP 1992e18, 1992e21, 1992e22,
1992e24). Within a 12 by 5 km (7.5 by 3 mi) area extending from Puu
Pane to Kealia-Kawaihapai are three current populations (1992e19,
1992e20, 1992e23, 1992e25; HPCC 1990d). The northernmost population,
consisting of three individuals and occupying an area of 10 to 100 sq m
(110 to 1,080 sq ft), is in the mountains south of the Dillingham
Military Reservation at an elevation of 170 m (560 ft) on privately
owned land (HHP 1992e25, HPCC 1990d). Another population is known from
two adjacent gulches between the Dupont Trail and Puu Iki at elevations
between 120 and 240 m (400 and 800 ft) (HHP 1992e19, 1992e23). This
population on privately owned land consists of three to five
individuals in an area measuring not more than 0.25 sq km (0.1 sq mi)
(HHP 1992e19, 1992e23). A population of Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp.
mokuleianus reported from the Puu Pane area has not been seen for more
than 40 years (HHP 1992e20).
Hibiscus brackenridgei occurs in lowland dry to mesic forest and
shrubland from 130 to 800 m (425 to 2,625 ft) in elevation (Geesink et
al. 1990; HHP 1992e1, 1992e4, 1992e5, 1992e8, 1992e14, 1992e19,
1992e25). Associated plant species include `a`ali`i, alahe`e, Erythrina
sandwicensis (wiliwili), Reynoldsia sandwicensis (`ohe), and Sida
fallax (`ilima) (HHP 1992e1 to 1992e3, 1992e6, 1992e8, 1992e20,
1992e23, 1992e25). The primary threats to this species are habitat
degradation and possible predation by pigs, goats, axis deer, and
cattle; competition with alien plant species; road construction; and
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing individuals.
In 1931, the name Cyperus pennatiformis was published by Georg
Kukenthal based on a specimen collected from Hana on Maui
(Christophersen and Caum 1931). He also described a variety of the
species, variety bryanii, for plants collected from the Northwestern
Hawaiian Island of Laysan. Tetsuo Koyama recombined the species under
the genus Mariscus and maintained the two subspecific taxa as
subspecies (Wagner et al. 1989).
Mariscus pennatiformis (NCN), a member of the sedge family
(Cyperaceae), is a perennial plant with a woody root system covered
with brown scales. The stout, smooth, three-angled stems are between
0.4 and 1.2 m (1.3 and 4 ft) long, slightly concave and 3 to 7 mm (0.1
to 0.3 in) in diameter in the lower part. The three to five linear,
somewhat leathery leaves are 8 to 17 mm (0.3 to 0.7 in) wide and at
least as long as the stem. Each flower cluster, umbrella-shaped and
moderately dense, is 4 to 15 cm (1.5 to 6 in) long and 5 to 25 cm (2 to
10 in) wide. About 5 to 18 spikes, comprised of numerous spikelets,
form each cluster. Each spikelet, measuring about 8 to 14 mm (0.3 to
0.6 in) in length, is yellowish brown or grayish brown and is comprised
of 8 to 25 densely arranged flowers. The glumes (bracts beneath each
flower), which are less than twice as long as wide, are spreading and
overlap tightly. The lowest glume does not overlap the base of the
uppermost glume. This species differs from other members of the genus
by its three-sided, slightly concave, smooth stems; the length and
number of spikelets; the leaf width; and the length and diameter of
stems. The two subspecies are distinguished primarily by larger and
more numerous spikelets, larger achenes (dry, one-seeded fruits), and
more overlapping and yellower glumes in ssp. pennatiformis as compared
with ssp. bryanii (Koyama 1990).
Historically, Mariscus pennatiformis ssp. pennatiformis was known
from six populations, located on Kauai at Halemanu in Kokee State Park,
on Oahu in the Waianae Mountains on a ridge above Makaha Valley, on
East Maui at Keanae Valley and Hana, and on the island of Hawaii at an
unspecified location (HHP 1992f3 to 1992f6). Mariscus pennatiformis
ssp. pennatiformis also exists in cultivation at the Maui Zoological
and Botanical Gardens. The cultivated plants were originally from
Nahiku, East Maui (J. Davis and R. Silva, Maui Zoological and Botanical
Gardens, in litt., 1978). It is not known whether the Nahiku population
is still extant. The five current populations, with an unknown number
of individuals, are at open sites in mesic forests and low elevation
grasslands from sea level to 1,200 m (3,940 ft) in elevation. No
historical locations are known for Mariscus pennatiformis ssp. bryanii.
It is currently known only from federally managed Laysan Island. This
subspecies is found on the southeast end of the central lagoon, and the
west and northeast sides of the island (HHP 1992f1, 1992f2; Koyama
1990). These 3 locations are on sandy substrate at 5 m (16 ft) in
elevation and contain approximately 30 individuals (HHP 1992f1, 1992f2;
Koyama 1990). Associated species include Cyperus laevigatus (makaloa),
Eragrostis variabilis (kawelu), and Ipomoea sp. (HHP 1992f1, Koyama
1990). The small number of individuals and fewer than six known
populations of Mariscus pennatiformis make the species vulnerable to
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor.
Neraudia sericea (ma'aloa) was published by Gaudichaud in 1851
(Cowan 1949). In 1888, Hillebrand reduced it to a variety of N.
melastomaefolia (N. melastomaefolia var. sericea). He also described a
new species, N. kahoolawensis, named for a specimen collected by J.M.
Lydgate on the island of Kahoolawe. In the most current treatment
(Wagner et al. 1990), the reduction of N. sericea to a variety of N.
melastomaefolia is not accepted and N. kahoolawensis is considered a
Kahoolawe population of N. sericea.
Neraudia sericea, a member of the nettle family (Urticaceae), is a
3 to 5 m (10 to 16 ft) tall shrub with densely hairy branches. The
elliptic or oval leaves are between 4.3 and 13 cm (1.7 and 5.1 in) long
and have smooth margins or slightly toothed margins on young leaves.
The upper leaf surface is moderately hairy and the lower leaf surface
is densely covered with irregularly curved, silky gray to white hairs
up to 1 mm (0.04 in) long along the veins. The male flowers may be
stalkless or have short stalks. The female flowers are stalkless and
have a densely hairy calyx that is either toothed, collar-like, or
divided into narrow unequal segments. The fruits are 1 mm (0.04 in)
long achenes with the apical section separated from the basal portion
by a deep constriction. Seeds are oval with a constriction across the
upper half. Neraudia sericea differs from the other four closely
related species of this endemic Hawaiian genus by the density, length,
color, and posture of the hairs on the lower leaf surface and by its
mostly entire leaf margins (Wagner et al. 1990).
Neraudia sericea was known historically from Kamalo and near
Waianui on Molokai, from Kaiholena on central Lanai, Olowalu Valley on
West Maui, the southern slopes of Haleakala on East Maui, and from an
unspecified site on Kahoolawe (HHP 1992g1, 1992g3, 1992g4, 1992g6 to
1992g10). Currently, two populations of this species are known, from
the slopes below Puu Kolekole on Molokai, specifically along the bottom
and lower slopes of Makolelau Gulch, and from Pohakea Gulch on West
Maui (HHP 1992g2, 1992g5, 1992g11). Both populations are on privately
owned land. The Makolelau population contains an estimated 50 to 100
individuals growing in 'Ohi'a/'A'ali'i/Styphelia tameiameiae (Pukiawe)
Lowland Dry Shrubland in an area of over 100 sq m (1,080 sq ft) (HHP
1992g11). The population size of the Pohakea population is undetermined
(HHP 1992g2). Neraudia sericea generally occurs in lowland dry to mesic
shrubland or forest between 670 and 1,370 m (2,200 and 4,500 ft) in
elevation (HHP 1992g3, 1992g10, 1992g11; Wagner et al. 1990). Other
associated plant species include 'ilima, lama, Bobea ('ahakea),
Coprosma (pilo), and Hedyotis (HHP 1992g11). The primary threats to
Neraudia sericea are habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats;
competition with the alien plant, Melinus minutiflora (molasses grass);
and stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing populations and individuals.
In 1826, Louis Charles Adelbert von Chamisso and D.F.L.
Schlectendal described the species Plantago princeps (ale) (Rock
1920a). In 1829, P. queleniana was described by Gaudichaud. An
additional species, P. fauriei, was described by H. Leveille (1911)
from a specimen collected by Abbe Urbain Jean Faurie from Hanapepe
Falls on Kauai. Several varieties and forms of P. princeps have also
been described. The currently accepted classification places P.
queleniana and P. fauriei in synonymy with P. princeps and recognizes
only four varieties: anomala, laxifolia, longibracteata, and princeps
(Gaudichaud 1829, Gray 1862, Hillebrand 1888, Mann 1867, Rock 1920a,
Wagner et al. 1990, Wawra 1874).
Plantago princeps, a member of the plantain family
(Plantaginaceae), is a small shrub or robust perennial herb. Its erect
or ascending stems are hollow, about 2 to 250 cm (1 to 100 in) long,
and often branched with young internodes that are more or less woolly
with reddish brown hairs. The oblong to elliptic, thick, leathery
leaves are between 6 and 30 cm (2.4 and 12 in) long and up to 5 cm (2
in) wide and are tufted near the ends of stems. The leaves have smooth
or minutely toothed margins, a pointed tip, and primary veins that
converge at the base of the leaves. Numerous stalkless flowers are
densely arranged in a cluster 11 to 28 cm (4.3 to 11 in) long with each
cluster on a stalk 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in) long. Each flower spreads
at an angle of nearly 90 degrees to the axis of the stalk or grows
upright. The sepals are somewhat distinct and elliptic in shape. The
fruits are capsules that contain three or four tiny black seeds; the
surface of the seeds is apparently covered with a sticky membrane. This
species differs from other native members of the genus in Hawaii by its
large branched stems, flowers at nearly right angles to the axis of the
flower cluster, and fruits that break open at a point two-thirds from
the base. The four varieties (anomala, laxiflora, longibracteata, and
princeps) are distinguished by the branching and pubescence of the
stems; the size, pubescence, and venation of the leaves; the density of
the inflorescence; and the orientation of the flowers (Wagner et al.
1990).
The four varieties of Plantago princeps were historically found on
five islands, and now occur on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui. A total
of 18 populations containing approximately 300 to 1,200 individuals is
currently known. The four varieties are discussed separately below.
Historically, Plantago princeps var. anomala was known from Makaleha in
the Waianae Mountains on Oahu, and a ridge west of Hanapepe River on
Kauai (HHP 1992i1, 1992i4). Currently on Kauai, 4 populations with 45
individuals are known from the south rim and upper reaches of Kalalau
Valley on State land (HHP 1992i2; HPCC 1990e, 1990g, 1991g).
Historically, Plantago princeps var. laxiflora was known from Waikolu,
Olokui, Kamakou, and Pelekunu on the east side of Molokai; in back of
Lahaina on West Maui; and Hamakua and Kohala on the island of Hawaii
(HHP 1992i6, 1992i8 to 1992i11, 1992i16, 1992i17). Currently on
Molokai, Plantago princeps var. laxiflora is known from one population
with five individuals at Kawela Gulch on private land (HHP 1992i5). On
Maui, it is known from 2 locations in Iao Valley on West Maui, and 4
locations within Haleakala National Park and adjacent Waikamoi Preserve
on East Maui on Federal and private land, totalling about 100 plants on
that island (HHP 1992i7, 1992i12 to 1992i15, 1992i18; HPCC 1990h to
1990j, 1991h, 1991i).
Plantago princeps var. longibracteata was historically known from
Hanalei, the Wahiawa Mountains, and Hanapepe Falls on Kauai, and from
Kaala and the Koolauloa Mountains on Oahu (HHP 1992i19, 1992i21,
1992i23, 1992i24, 1992i26). Currently, 2 populations are known from
Kauai at Waioli Valley and Waialeale on State land; they are estimated
to contain between 130 and more than 1,000 individuals (HHP 1992i25,
1992i27). On Oahu, two populations approximately 3.5 km (2.2 mi) apart
are known from the Poamoho area on private and State land; the number
of individuals is not known (HHP 1992i20, 1992i22). Historically,
Plantago princeps var. princeps was known from Nuuanu Pali and Kalihi
in the Koolau Mountains of Oahu (HHP 1992i28 to 1992i30). Three current
populations of this taxon are known from Mount Tantalus in the Koolau
Mountains and from North Palawai and Ekahanui gulches in the Waianae
Mountains of Oahu. Between 16 and 20 individuals are known from the
Waianae Mountains. The number of individuals at the Koolau site is not
known, as it was last observed in 1948 (HHP 1992i3, 1992i28 to 1992i31;
HPCC 1990f; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Plantago princeps is typically found on steep slopes, rock walls,
or at bases of waterfalls from 480 to about 1,100 m (1,580 to 3,600 ft)
in elevation (Wagner et al. 1990). Associated plant species include
'a'ali'i, kopiko, 'ohi'a, uluhe, and Dubautia plantaginea (HHP 1992i28;
HPCC 1990e to 1990i, 1990k, 1991g to 1991i). The primary threats to
Plantago princeps are habitat degradation by ungulates (pigs and goats)
and competition with various alien plant species.
Sesbania tomentosa ('ohai) was first described by W.J. Hooker and
G.A.W. Arnott in 1836 from collections from Oahu (Degener 1937); it was
named for its silvery hairs. In 1920, Joseph F. Rock described an
arborescent form of the species (S. tomentosa f. arborea) based on a
Molokai specimen. Degener and Sherff (Sherff 1949) published a new
variety, var. molokaiensis, based on plants from West Molokai. Nearly
30 years later, Otto and Isa Degener elevated that variety to the
specific level (Degener and Degener 1978). At that time, the Degeners
also described two new species, S. hawaiiensis and S. hobdyi. In the
currently accepted classification by Geesink and others (1990), S.
arborea, S. hawaiiensis, S. hobdyi, and S. molokaiensis are synonymized
with S. tomentosa. However, they note that the arborescent form of the
species found on the island of Molokai probably merits formal taxonomic
recognition.
Sesbania tomentosa, a member of the pea family (Fabaceae), is
typically a sprawling shrub with branches up to 14 m (45 ft) long but
may also be a small tree up to 6 m (20 ft) in height. Each compound
leaf is comprised of 18 to 38 oblong to elliptic leaflets, each 15 to
38 mm (0.6 to 1.5 in) long and 5 to 18 mm (0.2 to 0.7 in) wide, and is
usually sparsely to densely covered with silky hairs. The flowers, in
clusters of two to nine, are salmon tinged with yellow, orange-red, or
scarlet, or rarely pure yellow. The petals are between 23 and 45 mm
(0.9 and 1.8 in) long, the upper pair sometimes of a lighter color than
the other petals. The calyx is about 7 to 12 mm (0.3 to 0.5 in) long.
Fruits are slightly flattened pods 7 to 23 cm (2.8 to 9 in) long and
about 5 mm (0.2 in) wide that contain about 6 to 27 olive to pale or
dark brown, oblong seeds. Sesbania tomentosa is the only endemic
Hawaiian species in the genus, differing from the naturalized S. sesban
by the color of the flowers, the longer petals and calyx, and the
number of seeds per pod (Geesink et al. 1990).
On Molokai, Sesbania tomentosa was known historically from Mahana
on Mauna Loa, in the vicinity of the coast near Waiahewahewa Gulch, and
on Molokai's west coast at Laau and Ilio Points (HHP 1992j16, 1992j18,
1992j23, 1992j26, 1992j37). On Oahu, Sesbania tomentosa was known
historically from eastern Oahu at Ulupau Crater, and on the islets of
Kaohikaipu and Mokulua (HHP 1992j3, 1992j6, 1992j34). This taxon was
also known historically from western Oahu at an unspecified location
along the Waianae coast (HHP 1992j10). On Lanai, Sesbania tomentosa was
known historically from scattered locations on the south half of the
island and on the east slope of the island at Kahinahina (HHP 1992j5,
1992j19 to 1992j22, 1992j42). Sesbania tomentosa was also known
historically from an unspecified location on Kahoolawe (HHP 1992j24).
Currently, there are two populations of Sesbania tomentosa in the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (HHP 1992j35, 1992j36). One population is
on the island of Nihoa, which comprises 0.8 sq km (0.3 sq mi) and is
under U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service management (Depart. of Geography
1983, HHP 1992j35). The Nihoa plants have been described as relatively
common in some areas, with several thousand individuals known (HHP
1992j35). Another population is known from Necker Island, which is only
0.2 sq km (0.1 sq mi) in area, and like Nihoa is managed by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service (HHP 1992j36). Although there are no
population estimates for Necker Island, Sesbania tomentosa is known to
occur from 45 m (150 ft) elevation to the summit, growing on the tops
of all hills of the main island with a few individuals found on the
Northwest Cape (HHP 1992j36). On the privately owned island of Niihau,
Sesbania tomentosa is known from the south tip of the island at the
headland west of Kaumuhonu Bay. The size of this population has not
been determined; in 1947 at least one collection was made at an
elevation of 50 m (160 ft) (HHP 1992j14).
On Kauai, Sesbania tomentosa is found between Mana town and Mana
Point and at Polihale State Park (HHP 1992j15, 1992j33; HPCC 1991L).
The population on State-owned land at Polihale State Park consists of
about 30 individuals growing in a lithified dune area at approximately
12 m (40 ft) elevation in an area of approximately 10 to 50 sq m (110
to 540 sq ft) (HHP 1992j33). The second population is approximately 6
km (4 mi) southwest of the Polihale State Park population, growing
alongside a pond owned by the State (HHP 1992j15). The size of the
population has not been determined. On Oahu, Sesbania tomentosa is
currently known from 1 population of 50 to 100 individuals on State-
owned land at Kaena Point (HHP 1992j1, 1992j2). This population is
primarily within the Kaena Point NAR, growing in sand dunes in a
Naupaka kahakai Mixed Coastal Dry Shrubland (HHP 1992j1, 1992j2; HPCC
1990o). However, scattered individuals are also located to the east for
about 3.5 km (2.25 mi) along the north coast (HHP 1992j1, 1992j2;
Woodward et al. 1991).
On Molokai, Sesbania tomentosa is known from the south slopes of
central Molokai from Kamiloloa to Makolelau and along Molokai's
northwest coast from Moomomi to east of Hinanaulua. The 4 populations
on private and State-owned land from Kamiloloa to Makolelau total fewer
than 2,000 individuals and grow in a 7 by 3 km (4.5 by 2 mi) area (HHP
1992j11, 1992j13, 1992j25, 1992j27; HPCC 1990m, 1990n). The 3
populations from Moomomi to east of Hinanaulua consist of about 100 to
150 plants growing on State and private land from sea level to 60 m
(200 ft) elevation in a 5 by 1 km (3 by 0.5 mi) area (HHP 1992j12,
1992j28, 1992j49; HPCC 1990L). On Lanai, Sesbania tomentosa is now
restricted to the northern slopes of the island. This cluster of 3
populations between Paomai and Maunalei is on privately owned land and
includes at least 12 individuals growing on arid slopes (HHP 1992j17,
1992j38, 1992j39).
On Maui, Sesbania tomentosa is only known from two areas on West
Maui and two areas on East Maui. On West Maui, one plant is on State-
owned land below Lihau Peak (HHP 1992j30). Sesbania tomentosa also
occurs on a 6 km (4 mi) stretch of the northeast coast of West Maui,
from the lighthouse near Nakalele Point to Puu Kahulianapa (HHP
1992j31, 1992j32, 1992j43, 1992j48; HPCC 1991m). This cluster of 4
populations contains an estimated 50 to 75 individuals on land owned by
the State, the County of Maui, and private individuals (HHP 1992j31,
1992j32, 1992j43, 1992j48; R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1992). On East Maui,
two trees exist on privately owned land in Kamaole, but they appear to
have been planted (Winona Char, Char & Associates, in litt., 1993).
Sesbania tomentosa also occurs on the southeastern slopes of Pimoe
cinder cone between 450 and 500 m (1480 to 1640 ft) elevation. This
population consists of 13 plants located on the Hawaii National Guard
Kanaio Training Area (Sam Gon, The Nature Conservancy, in litt., 1993).
Off the south central coast of Kahoolawe, approximately 25 to 30
individuals of Sesbania tomentosa are found on the sparsely vegetated
islet of Puu Koae, which is a State-owned seabird sanctuary (HHP
1992j29).
On the island of Hawaii, Sesbania tomentosa is known from two
regions of the southeast coast and two areas along the northwestern
coast. On the southeastern coast it occurs along 16 km (10 mi) of
coastline between Ka Lae and Kaalela. This cluster of populations on
State-owned land contains an estimated 260 individuals growing between
sea level and 25 m (80 ft) elevation, with some populations occurring
in `Ilima Coastal Dry Shrubland (HHP 1992j7, 1992j9, 1992j44, 1992j45,
1992j50; HPCC 1991j, 1991k; W. Char, in litt., 1993). The second
cluster is in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park and consists of scattered
populations within a 19 by 8 km (12 by 5 mi) area from above Kukalauula
Pali to Kahue, at elevations between 10 and 850 m (30 and 2,800 ft).
This cluster of populations on federally owned land contains at least
50 individuals (HHP 1992j4, 1992j8, 1992j40, 1992j41, 1992j46, 1992j47;
H. Huntzinger, in litt., 1993). On the northwestern coast, a single
plant occurs at 30 m (100 ft) elevation on private land at Kaupulehua
(W. Char, in litt., 1993). The other northwest coast population is also
on private land at Waiakailio, and consists of eight plants with
several seedlings at 300 m (1000 ft) elevation (W. Char, in litt.,
1993). The total currently known populations of Sesbania tomentosa on
the 8 main Hawaiian islands (Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai,
Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii) contain an estimated 2,000 to 3,000
individuals. In the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the largest
population occurs on Nihoa and consists of several thousand individuals
(HHP 1992j35).
Sesbania tomentosa is found on sandy beaches, dunes, soil pockets
on lava, and along pond margins (Geesink et al. 1990). It commonly
occurs in coastal dry shrublands and grasslands, but is also known from
open 'ohi'a forests and Mixed Coastal Dry Cliffs (HHP 1992j2, 1992j4,
1992j5, 1992j7, 1992j14, 1992j27, 1992j28, 1992j35, 1992j49).
Associated plant species include 'ilima, naupaka kahakai, Heteropogon
contortus (pili), Myoporum sandwicense (naio), and Sporobolus
virginicus ('aki'aki) (HHP 1992j1, 1992j2, 1992j7, 1992j8, 1992j12,
1992j13, 1992j25, 1992j28, 1992j31, 1992j33, 1992j40, 1992j45, 1992j49,
1992j50). The primary threats to Sesbania tomentosa are habitat
degradation caused by axis deer and cattle, competition with various
alien plant species, fire, and destruction by off-road vehicles.
A specimen collected by David Nelson in 1779 from the island of
Hawaii was described and named Solanum incompletum (thorny popolo) by
Dunal (1852). In 1888, Hillebrand described two varieties of the
species: var. glabratum and var. mauiense. In 1969, Harold St. John
described the species S. haleakalaense based on a specimen collected by
Hillebrand on the south slope of Haleakala on Maui (St. John 1969). In
the latest treatment, S. haleakalaense was synonymized with S.
incompletum and no subspecific taxa of S. incompletum were recognized
(Symon 1990).
Solanum incompletum, a member of the nightshade family
(Solanaceae), is a woody shrub up to 3 m (10 ft) tall. Its stems and
lower leaf surfaces are covered with prominent reddish prickles about 4
mm (0.2 in) long or sometimes with yellow fuzzy hairs on young plant
parts and lower leaf surfaces. The oval to elliptic leaves, 10 to 15 cm
(4 to 6 in) long and about 7 cm (2.8 in) wide, have prominent veins on
the lower surface, and are on stalks up to 7 cm (2.8 in) long. The leaf
margins are lobed with one to four lobes on each side. Numerous flowers
grow in loose branching clusters with each flower on a stalk about 9 mm
(0.4 in) long. The calyx and flowers generally lack prickles. The white
petals form a star-shaped corolla about 2 cm (0.8 in) in diameter. The
curved anthers, about 2 mm (0.08 in) long, top short filaments that do
not extend beyond the petals. Fruits are round berries about 1.5 cm
(0.6 in) in diameter that mature from yellow-orange to black. This
species differs from others in the genus by being generally prickly and
having loosely clustered white flowers, curved anthers about 2 mm (0.08
in) long, and berries 1 to 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) in diameter (Symon
1990).
Historically, Solanum incompletum was known from central and
northeastern Lanai and from scattered locations on Maui (HHP 1992k1,
1992k2, 1992k4, 1992k10 to 1992k13; Symon 1990). According to David
Symon (1990), the known distribution of Solanum incompletum also
extends to the islands of Kauai and Molokai. On the island of Hawaii,
Solanum incompletum was known historically from the Kohala Mountains,
Kona, Puu Waawaa, Puu Ikaaka Crater, and Omaokoili (HHP 1992k3, 1992k5,
1992k7 to 1992k9). The single remaining known population is from the
island of Hawaii; it has not been seen for more than 40 years. This
population is on State land at Puu Huluhulu and consists of perhaps two
individuals at an approximate elevation of 2,040 m (6,700 ft) (HHP
1992k6). Associated species include naio, Acacia koa (koa), and Sophora
chrysophylla (mamane) in dry mesic forest, diverse mesic forest, and
subalpine forest at elevations from 300 to 2,040 m (1,000 to 6,700 ft)
(HHP 1992k1, 1992k6; Symon 1990; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). The
primary threats to the last remaining individuals of Solanum
incompletum are stochastic extinction and reduced reproductive vigor
due to the extremely small number of existing plants, and competition
with the alien plant, Senecio mikanioides (German ivy).
Spermolepis hawaiiensis (NCN) was first described by H. Wolff in
1921. In the past, this Hawaiian species had been confused with the
European plants, Apium echinatum and Caucalis daucoides (Constance and
Affolter 1990, Wolff 1921).
Spermolepis hawaiiensis, a member of the parsley family (Apiaceae),
is a slender annual herb with few branches that grows to a height of 5
to 20 cm (2 to 8 in). Its leaves, dissected into narrow, lance-shaped
divisions, are oblong to somewhat oval in outline and grow on stalks
about 2.5 cm (1 in) long. Flowers are arranged in a loose, compound
umbrella-shaped inflorescence arising from the stem, opposite the
leaves. Each cluster consists of two to six flowers, with each flower
on a stalk between 2 and 6 mm (0.08 and 0.2 in) long. The calyx is
lacking in this species, but one to five bracts grow below the clusters
of flowers. The fruits are oval and laterally compressed and
constricted at the line where the two halves of the fruit meet. The
fruits are 4 mm (0.2 in) long and 3 mm (0.1 in) wide, covered with
curved bristles, and contain seeds that are marked with longitudinal
grooves beneath oil tubes that are characteristic of the parsley
family. Spermolepis hawaiiensis is the only member of the genus native
to Hawaii. It is distinguished from other native members of the family
by being a non-succulent annual with an umbrella-shaped inflorescence
(Constance and Affolter 1990).
Historically, Spermolepis hawaiiensis was known from Waimea on
Kauai, Koko Head on Oahu, Paomai and Kahinahina on Lanai, and Kipuka
Kahali' on Hawaii (HHP 1992L3 to 1992L5, 1992L8, 1992L9; H. Huntzinger,
in litt., 1993). Currently, six populations are known on Oahu, Molokai,
Lanai, and West Maui; one additional population may exist on Hawaii. On
Oahu, on State land at Diamond Head (land leased to the Department of
Defense at the Diamond Head Reservation), 10 plants were observed in
1992 during the dry season. In 1988, when the site was first visited,
thousands of plants were seen over an area less than 50 sq m (several
hundred sq ft) (Wayne Takeuchi, DOFAW, pers. comm., 1992). The
population fluctuations probably reflect seasonal changes in
precipitation. On Molokai, about 600 plants were reported from Kamalo
on private land within an area of less than 400 sq m (0.1 ac) (HHP
1992L6). On Lanai, 2 populations of S. hawaiiensis are known on private
land: 1 at Kapoho with 100 individuals and 1 west of Puu Manu with 50
to 100 individuals covering an area of about 0.1 ha (0.25 ac) (HHP
1992L7; R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1992). On West Maui, 3 populations are
known on State land: 1 in the Lihau section of the West Maui NAR, with
60 to 100 individuals within an area of about 0.4 ha (1 ac); 1 further
east in the Lihau section of the West Maui NAR, with several hundred
plants scattered over a distance of 0.7 km (0.4 mi); and 1 above
Lahainaluna School, with several hundred individuals spread over an
area of about 0.4 ha (1 ac) (HHP 1992L1, 1992L2; HPCC 1991n). On the
island of Hawaii, a collection of Spermolepis hawaiiensis was made at
an unspecified location in 1943; it is not known whether this
population still exists (HHP 1992L9).
Spermolepis hawaiiensis is known from various vegetation types,
including 'ohi'a forests, 'A'ali'i Lowland Dry Shrubland, cultivated
fields, and pastures between about 300 and 600 m (1,000 and 2,000 ft)
in elevation (HHP 1992L2, 1992L8, 1992L9; HPCC 1991n). Associated plant
species include 'ilima, Doryopteris sp., Gouania hillebrandii, and the
alien plant, Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole) (HHP 1992L1). The
primary threats to Spermolepis hawaiiensis are habitat degradation by
axis deer and competition with the alien plant, koa haole.
Vigna o-wahuensis (Oahu vigna) was described by T. Vogel in 1836
from a specimen from the Waianae Mountains of Oahu (Gray 1854). In
1854, Gray described another species, Vigna sandwicensis, for which
Rock later designated two varieties: var. heterophylla and var.
sandwicensis (Rock 1920b). The currently accepted treatment places V.
sandwicensis in synonymy under V. o-wahuensis (Geesink et al. 1990).
Vigna o-wahuensis, a member of the pea family, is a slender twining
annual or perennial herb with fuzzy stems that grows to 0.4 m (1.3 ft)
in length. Each leaf is made up of three leaflets that vary in shape
from round to linear, are 1.2 to 8 cm (0.5 to 3 in) long and 0.1 to 2.5
cm (0.04 to 1 in) wide, and are sparsely or moderately covered with
coarse hairs. Flowers, in clusters of one to four, have thin,
translucent, pale yellow or greenish yellow petals about 2 to 2.5 cm
(0.8 to 1 in) long. The two lowermost petals are fused and appear
distinctly beaked. The sparsely hairy calyx is 4 to 8 mm (0.2 to 0.3
in) long with asymmetrical lobes that measure about 3 mm (0.1 in) long.
The fruits are long slender pods 4 to 9 cm (1.6 to 3.5 in) long and
about 5 mm (0.2 in) wide, that may or may not be slightly inflated and
contain 7 to 15 gray to black seeds less than 6 mm (0.2 in) long. This
species differs from others in the genus by its thin yellowish petals,
sparsely hairy calyx, and thin pods which may or may not be slightly
inflated (Geesink et al. 1990).
Historically, Vigna o-wahuensis was known from Niihau and from an
unspecified location on Kauai (HHP 1992m10, 1992m16). On Oahu, this
taxon was known from between Waimanalo and Makapuu Point, the Mokulua
Islets, and the Waianae Mountains (HHP 1992m13 to 1992m15, 1992m20). On
Maui, Vigna o-wahuensis was known from an unspecified site on West Maui
and from Makawao, Waiakoa, and Haleakala on East Maui (HHP 1992m2 to
1992m4, 1992m25). There are no currently known populations on Niihau,
Kauai, Oahu, or Maui. On Molokai, Vigna o-wahuensis was known
historically from the western end of the island in the vicinity of Ilio
Point (HHP 1992m18). On Lanai, this species occurred historically at
scattered locations across the island's southern half (HHP 1992m5,
1992m6, 1992m8, 1992m9, 1992m17). On the island of Hawaii, this taxon
was known from Mauna Loa and Kau at unspecified sites (HHP 1992m1,
1992m19, 1992m24).
Currently, a total of fewer than 100 individuals of Vigna o-
wahuensis is known from 7 populations on the islands of Molokai, Lanai,
Kahoolawe, and Hawaii (HHP 1992m11, 1992m12, 1992m21 to 1992m23; HPCC
1991o; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On Molokai, there are two
populations separated by a distance of 4 km (2.5 mi). One population,
south of Onini Gulch at about 850 m (2,800 ft) elevation on privately
owned land, covers an area of 18 sq m (200 sq ft) in a forestry
planting of Fraxinus uhdei (tropical ash) and Pinus (pine) (HHP
1992m11). The other Molokai population of about 10 individuals is on
privately owned land at Makolelau (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On
Lanai, at least one individual of Vigna o-wahuensis is known from the
arid windward slopes northeast of Kanepuu above Lapaiki at about 370 m
(1,200 ft) elevation on privately owned land (HHP 1992m7, 1992m23). On
the State-owned island of Kahoolawe, Vigna o-wahuensis grows between
Makaalae and Lua Kealialalo at 140 m (460 ft) elevation, near the
summit at about 400 m (1,300 ft) elevation, and about 0.8 km (0.5 mi)
south of Hanakanaea near ``Sailor's Hat'' (HHP 1992m21, 1992m23; J.
Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Only one individual is known from the
population between Makaalae and Lua Kealialalo in pili grassland (J.
Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Near the summit, about 20 plants grow in a 9
sq m (100 sq ft) area with a few more plants scattered nearby (HHP
1992m22). The size of the population south of Hanakanaea has not been
determined, but at least one collection has been made recently (HHP
1992m21). On the island of Hawaii, Vigna o-wahuensis is known only from
Nohonaohae Cinder Cone on privately owned land. Ten plants are known
from 'A'ali'i Lowland Dry Shrubland within an exclosure containing
pasture grass (HHP 1992m12, HPCC 1991o).
Vigna o-wahuensis occurs in dry to mesic grassland and shrubland
from 10 to 1,370 m (30 to 4,500 ft) in elevation (Geesink et al. 1990;
HHP 1992m1 to 1992m3, 1992m5, 1992m11, 1992m12, 1992m15, 1992m22,
1992m24). Other associated plant species include 'ilima, Chenopodium
('aheahea), Dubautia menziesii, and Osteomeles anthyllidifolia (ulei)
(HHP 1992m11, 1992m12, 1992m23; HPCC 1991o). The primary threats to
Vigna o-wahuensis are habitat degradation by ungulates (pigs and axis
deer), competition with various alien plant species, fire, and
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the
small number of existing populations and individuals.
Previous Federal Action
Federal action on these plants began as a result of section 12 of
the Act, which directed the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to
prepare a report on plants considered to be endangered, threatened, or
extinct in the United States. This report, designated as House Document
No. 94-51, was presented to Congress on January 9, 1975. In that
document, Adenophorus periens, Bonamia menziesii, Flueggea neowawraea
(as Drypetes phyllanthoides), Hibiscus brackenridgei (as H. b. var.
brackenridgei, var. mokuleianus, and var. ``from Hawaii''), Neraudia
sericea, Plantago princeps (as P. p. var. elata, var. laxifolia, and
var. princeps), Sesbania tomentosa (as S. t. var. tomentosa), Solanum
incompletum (as S. i. var. glabratum, var. incompletum, and var.
mauiensis), Vigna o-wahuensis (also as V. sandwicensis var.
heterophylla and V. s. var. sandwicensis) were considered to be
endangered. Diellia erecta and Plantago princeps (as P. p. var.
acaulis, var. denticulata, and var. queleniana) were considered to be
threatened, and Neraudia sericea (as N. kahoolawensis) and Solanum
incompletum (as S. haleakalense) were considered to be extinct.
On July 1, 1975, the Service published a notice in the Federal
Register (40 FR 27823) of its acceptance of the Smithsonian report as a
petition within the context of section 4(c)(2) (now section 4(b)(3)) of
the Act, and giving notice of its intention to review the status of the
plant taxa named therein. As a result of that review, on June 16, 1976,
the Service published a proposed rule in the Federal Register (41 FR
24523) to determine endangered status pursuant to section 4 of the Act
for approximately 1,700 vascular plant species, including all of the
above taxa considered to be endangered or thought to be extinct, plus
Diellia erecta (considered threatened). The list of 1,700 plant taxa
was assembled on the basis of comments and data received by the
Smithsonian Institution and the Service in response to House Document
No. 94-51 and the July 1, 1975, Federal Register publication.
General comments received in response to the 1976 proposal are
summarized in an April 26, 1978, Federal Register publication (43 FR
17909). In 1978, amendments to the Act required that all proposals over
2 years old be withdrawn. A 1-year grace period was given to proposals
already over 2 years old. On December 10, 1979, the Service published a
notice in the Federal Register (44 FR 70796) withdrawing the portion of
the June 16, 1976, proposal that had not been made final, including the
above taxa, along with four other proposals that had expired. The
Service published updated notices of review for plants on December 15,
1980 (45 FR 82479), September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39525), and February 21,
1990 (55 FR 6183). In these notices, 11 of the taxa (including
synonymous taxa) that had been in the 1976 proposed rule were treated
as category 1 candidates for Federal listing. Category 1 taxa are those
for which the Service has on file substantial information on biological
vulnerability and threats to support preparation of listing proposals.
Other than Mariscus pennatiformis, Neraudia sericea (as N.
kahoolawensis), Plantago princeps (as P. p. var. acaulis and var.
queleniana), Sesbania tomentosa (as S. hobdyi), Solanum incompletum (as
S. haleakalense), and Spermolepis hawaiiensis, all the aforementioned
taxa that were proposed as endangered in the June 16, 1976, proposed
rule were considered category 1 candidates on all three notices of
review. Flueggea neowawraea appeared as Neowawraea phyllanthoides in
the 1980 and 1985 notices. In the 1980 and 1985 notices, Sesbania
tomentosa (as S. hobdyi) and Solanum incompletum (as S. haleakalense)
were considered category 1* species. Category 1* species are those that
are possibly extinct. Plantago princeps (as P. p. var. acaulis and var.
queleniana) appeared as a category 2 taxon and Neraudia sericea (as N.
kahoolawensis) as a category 3A species in the 1980 and 1985 notices.
Category 2 taxa are those for which there is some evidence of
vulnerability, but for which there are not enough data to support
listing proposals at the time. Category 3A taxa are those for which the
Service has persuasive evidence of extinction. Through taxonomic
revisions, each of the category 1*, 2, and 3A taxa were synonymized
under category 1 taxa on the 1990 list. Mariscus pennatiformis (as
Cyperus p. var. bryanii) first appeared on the 1985 notice of review as
a category 1 taxon. Spermolepis hawaiiensis first appeared on the 1990
notice of review as a category 1 species after it was rediscovered in
1986.
Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires the Secretary to make
findings on petitions that present substantial information indicating
that the petitioned action may be warranted within 12 months of their
receipt. Section 2(b)(1) of the 1982 amendments further requires all
petitions pending on October 13, 1982, be treated as having been newly
submitted on that date. On October 13, 1983, the Service found that the
petitioned listing of these species was warranted, but precluded by
other pending listing actions, in accordance with section
4(b)(3)(B)(iii) of the Act; notification of this finding was published
on January 20, 1984 (49 FR 2485). Such a finding requires the Service
to consider the petition as having been resubmitted, pursuant to
section 4(b)(3)(C)(i) of the Act. The findings were reviewed in October
of 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, and 1991. The proposed
rule published on September 14, 1993 (58 FR 48012) to list 12 species
of plants from the Hawaiian Islands as endangered species constituted
the final 1-year finding that was required for these species.
Based on comments and recommendations received in response to the
proposal (see Comments and Recommendations, below), the Service now
determines these 12 plant species to be endangered with the publication
of this final rule.
Summary of Comments and Recommendations
In the September 14, 1993, proposed rule and associated
notifications, all interested parties were requested to submit factual
reports or information that might contribute to the development of a
final rule. The public comment period ended on November 15, 1993.
Appropriate State agencies, county governments, Federal agencies,
scientific organizations, and other interested parties were contacted
and requested to comment. Newspaper notices inviting public comment
were published in ``The Maui News'' on October 7, 1993, the ``Hawaii
Tribune-Herald'' on October 8, 1993, and the ``Honolulu Advertiser'' on
October 7, 1993.
Comments were received from three parties: One from an individual
in support of the listing of Spermolepis hawaiiensis, but offering no
additional information; one from an individual in support of the
listing of Spermolepis hawaiiensis, Adenophorus periens and Sesbania
tomentosa, and providing information on the possible extirpation of the
population of Adenophorus periens at Kane Nui o Hamo by volcanic
activity and drought, and indicating that the actual number of plants
of Sesbania tomentosa in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is more than
50; the third respondent provided information on three previously
unknown populations of Sesbania tomentosa, one from the south coast of
East Maui and two from the northwest coast of the island of Hawaii. The
information provided by these respondents has been incorporated into
this final rule. The information received does not indicate that any of
these species are under less threat than previously thought.
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) and
regulations (50 CFR part 424) promulgated to implement the Act set
forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal lists of
endangered and threatened species. A species may be determined to be an
endangered or threatened species due to one or more of the five factors
described in section 4(a)(1). The threats facing these 12 species are
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2.--Summary of Threats
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Feral animal activity
Species ------------------------------------------------ Alien Fire Human Insects Limited
Pigs Goats Deer Cattle plants impacts numbers*
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Adenophorus periens....................... X .......... .......... .......... X X .......... .......... ............
Bonamia menziesii......................... X X X X X X .......... .......... ............
Diellia erecta............................ X X .......... X X .......... .......... .......... X\1\
Flueggea neowawraea....................... X X X X X X .......... X ............
Hibiscus brackenridgei.................... X X X X X .......... X .......... X\1\
Mariscus pennatiformis.................... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... X\1\
Neraudia sericea.......................... X X .......... .......... X .......... .......... .......... X1,2
Plantago princeps......................... X X .......... .......... X .......... .......... .......... ............
Sesbania tomentosa........................ .......... .......... X X X X X .......... ............
Solanum incompletum....................... .......... .......... .......... .......... X .......... .......... .......... X2,3
Spermolepis hawaiiensis................... .......... .......... X .......... X .......... .......... .......... ............
Vigna o-wahuensis......................... X .......... X .......... X X .......... .......... X\1\
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*No more than 100 individuals and/or fewer than five populations.
\1\No more than 100 individuals.
\2\Fewer than five populations.
\3\No more than 10 individuals.
These factors and their application to Adenophorus periens L.E.
Bishop (pendant kihi fern), Bonamia menziesii A. Gray (no common name
(NCN)), Diellia erecta Brack. (NCN), Flueggea neowawraea W. Hayden
(mehamehame), Hibiscus brackenridgei A. Gray (ma'o hau hele), Mariscus
pennatiformis (Kekunth.) T. Koyama (NCN), Neraudia sericea Gaud.
(ma'aloa), Plantago princeps Cham. and Schlechtend. (ale), Sesbania
tomentosa Hook. and Arnott ('ohai), Solanum incompletum Dunal (thorny
popolo), Spermolepis hawaiiensis Wolff (NCN), and Vigna o-wahuensis
Vogel (Oahu vigna) are as follows:
A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment
of Their Habitat or Range
Native vegetation on all of the main Hawaiian Islands has undergone
extreme alteration because of past and present land management
practices including ranching, deliberate alien animal and plant
introductions, and agricultural development (Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
Wagner et al. 1985). The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands have undergone
similar alteration, but to a lesser degree. The primary threats facing
the 12 plant species included in this ruling are ongoing and threatened
destruction and adverse modification of habitat by feral animals and
competition with alien plants.
Eleven of the 12 species in this ruling are variously threatened by
feral animals. (See Table 2.) Animals such as pigs, goats, axis deer,
black-tailed deer, and cattle were introduced either by the early
Hawaiians (pigs) or more recently by European settlers (all ungulate
species) for food and/or commercial ranching activities. Over the 200
years following their introduction, their numbers increased and the
adverse impacts of feral ungulates on native vegetation have become
increasingly apparent. Beyond the direct effect of trampling and
grazing native plants, feral ungulates have contributed significantly
to the heavy erosion still taking place on most of the main Hawaiian
islands.
Pigs (Sus scrofa), originally native to Europe, Africa, and Asia,
were introduced to Hawaii by the Polynesian ancestors of Hawaiians, and
later by western immigrants. The pigs escaped domestication and invaded
primarily wet and mesic forests and grasslands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai,
Maui, and Hawaii. They presently threaten the existence of at least
eight of the taxa in those habitats. While foraging, pigs root and
trample the forest floor, encouraging the establishment of alien plants
in the newly disturbed soil. Pigs also disseminate alien plant seeds
through their feces and on their bodies, accelerating the spread of
alien plants through native forest (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Stone
1985). On Kauai, three populations each of Adenophorus periens and
Flueggea neowawraea and a single population each of Plantago princeps
var. anomala and P. p. var. longibracteata have sustained loss of
individual plants and/or habitat as a result of feral pig activities
(HHP 1992d18, 1992i2; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). The following numbers
of populations of the plants on Oahu are threatened by pigs: 4
populations of Bonamia menziesii, 15 of Flueggea neowawraea, 1 of
Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. mokuleianus, and 2 populations each of
Plantago princeps var. longibracteata and P. p. var. princeps. On
Molokai, one population each of Diellia erecta, Plantago princeps var.
laxiflora, and Vigna o-wahuensis, and two populations of Neraudia
sericea are also threatened by pigs. On East Maui, pigs are destroying
the habitat of three populations of Plantago princeps var. laxiflora
(HHP 1992i12; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On the island of Hawaii,
feral pigs are a major threat to species at the following locations: in
Kahaualea NAR, Olaa Tract, and 2.4 km (1.5 mi) northwest of Puu Kauka,
where at least three populations of Adenophorus periens occur; and in
the regions of Manuka and Honomalino in the South Kona District, where
one or more populations of Diellia erecta and Flueggea neowawraea
remain (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Goats (Capra hircus), native to the Middle East and India, were
first successfully introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1792. Feral
goats now occupy a wide variety of habitats from lowland dry forests to
montane grasslands on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii, where
they consume native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, accelerate
erosion, and promote the invasion of alien plants (Stone 1985, van
Riper and van Riper 1982). Goats are significantly degrading the
habitat of at least five species in this rule. On Kauai, goats
contribute to the substantial decline of one population of Bonamia
menziesii, four populations of Flueggea neowawraea, and one population
of Plantago princeps var. anomala (HHP 1992d18, 1992d30, 1992d31,
1992i2; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On Oahu, encroaching urbanization
and hunting pressure tend to concentrate the goat population in the dry
upper slopes of the Waianae Mountains, where one population of Bonamia
menziesii and two populations of Flueggea neowawraea exist (HHP
1992d15; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). The goat population in the Waianae
area is apparently increasing, becoming an even greater threat to the
rare plants that grow there. On Molokai, two populations of Diellia
erecta in Halawa Valley and Puu Kolekole and one population of Neraudia
sericea at Makolelau are presently threatened by goats (HHP 1992c12,
1992c13; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Until a few years ago, feral goats
were a major threat to rare plants in Haleakala National Park on East
Maui, but because of an active ungulate control program, the goat
population was reduced to 100 by 1988. While they are no longer a
significant threat, the future ingress and reestablishment of goats are
still a possibility (Lloyd Loope, National Park Service (NPS), pers.
comm., 1992) and could potentially affect the three populations of
Plantago princeps var. laxiflora found in the park (J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1992).
Eight individuals of axis deer (Axis axis), introduced to the
island of Molokai in 1868, increased to thousands of animals within
about 30 years (Tomich 1986). By the turn of the century, the herds so
damaged the vegetation of Molokai that professional hunters were hired
to control their numbers (Tomich 1986). By then, the native vegetation
had suffered irreparable damage from overgrazing by axis deer. They
degrade the habitat by trampling and overgrazing vegetation, which
removes ground cover and exposes the soil to erosion (J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1992). Activity of deer on Molokai has resulted in loss of
habitat and/or individuals of at least six of the species. In the
absence of a protective fence, axis deer continue to invade the
unfenced areas and threaten to trample the plants. On both Molokai and
Lanai, the axis deer populations are presently actively managed for
recreational hunting by the Hawaii State Department of Land and Natural
Resources. Extensive red erosional scars caused by decades of deer
activity are evident on Lanai. The habitat of three Lanai populations
of Bonamia menziesii and one population of Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp.
brackenridgei on that island is negatively affected by axis deer (HHP
1992e1; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Two populations of Sesbania
tomentosa at Paomai and Mahana on Lanai were last seen in the mid-1950s
(HHP 1992j17, 1992j38). Those areas have long supported axis deer,
which probably pose the primary threat to those two Sesbania
populations. Elsewhere on Lanai, one population of Vigna o-wahuensis
above Lapaiki and one population of Spermolepis hawaiiensis at Kapoho
are threatened by axis deer (HHP 1992L7, 1992m23). To control deer in
what remains of Lanai's dry forests, The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii
(TNCH) is presently erecting fenced exclosures to protect populations
of rare taxa (including two populations of Bonamia menziesii) that
occur within Kanepuu Preserve (Heidi Bornhorst, TNCH, and J. Lau, pers.
comms., 1992). Although the fence is high enough to normally inhibit
entry by deer, human pressure can force the deer to jump over the
fence. On Maui, deer damaged plants of two populations of Hibiscus
brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei at Puu O Kali by stripping the bark
and breaking limbs (HHP 1992e1, 1992e8).
Black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were first introduced to
Kauai in 1961 for the purpose of sport hunting and today probably
number well over 500 animals. The deer are presently confined to the
western side of the island, where they feed on a variety of native and
alien plants (van Riper and van Riper 1982). On Kauai, one population
of Bonamia menziesii in Paaiki Valley and the population of Flueggea
neowawraea in Paaiki and Mahanaloa valleys are threatened by black-
tailed deer (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Large-scale ranching of cattle (Bos taurus) in the Hawaiian Islands
began in the middle of the 19th century on the islands of Kauai, Oahu,
Maui, and Hawaii. Large ranches, tens of thousands of acres in size,
developed on East Maui and Hawaii (Cuddihy and Stone 1990) where most
of the State's large ranches still exist today. Degradation of native
forests used for ranching activities became evident soon after full-
scale ranching began. The negative impact of cattle on Hawaii's
ecosystem is similar to that described for goats and deer (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, Stone 1985). Cattle grazing continues in several lowland
regions in the northern portion of the Waianae Mountains of Oahu: in
Lualualei, where one population of Bonamia menziesii exists, and in
Kaumoku Gulch, where one population of Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp.
mokuleianus remains (HHP 1992b30; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On
Molokai, cattle ranching is slowly recovering from setbacks caused by
recent herd reductions enforced in an effort to eliminate bovine
tuberculosis from domestic and feral stock. As cattle ranching becomes
reestablished on Molokai and the number of cattle increases, the threat
to the rare plant species that remain in those ranching areas will also
likely increase. One population of Sesbania tomentosa located east of
Moomomi Preserve grows in a grazing area. On Maui, cattle ranching is
the primary agricultural activity on the west and southwest slopes of
East Maui and in lowland regions of West Maui. On both East and West
Maui, one or more populations of Bonamia menziesii, Diellia erecta, and
Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei and the only Maui population
of Flueggea neowawraea continue to be threatened by grazing cattle (HHP
1992c13; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). The Flueggea neowawraea population
and one of the Bonamia menziesii populations grow within a fenced
exclosure. Although probably minimal, the possibility of cattle
entering the exclosure poses a potential threat. In the Kamaoa-Puueo
and South Point regions of the island of Hawaii, cattle continue to
graze in habitat currently occupied by most of the populations of
Sesbania tomentosa on that island (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). In
addition, one population of Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei
and the only known population of Bonamia menziesii on that island grow
in regions currently used for cattle ranching (J. Lau, pers. comm.,
1992).
Habitat disturbance caused by human activities threatens two of the
taxa. On West Maui, all-terrain vehicles have driven over Sesbania
tomentosa plants growing west of Nakalele Point lighthouse (HHP
1992j43). Continued off-road activity threatens to destroy a
significant portion of that population. On the island of Hawaii, a dirt
road runs through a population of Sesbania tomentosa located in the
Kamaoa-Puueo region (HHP 1992j50). Off-road activity could damage a
significant portion of that population as well. In the Puu Anahulu
region on that island, a ranch road was bulldozed close to a plant of
Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei in 1989 (HHP 1992e6).
Continued road development threatens to destroy the only known
population of that taxon in the area.
B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes
Overutilization is not known to be a factor, but unrestricted
collecting for scientific or horticultural purposes would seriously
impact the six species whose low numbers make them especially
vulnerable to disturbances (Diellia erecta, Hibiscus brackenridgei,
Mariscus pennatiformis, Neraudia sericea, Solanum incompletum, and
Vigna o-wahuensis).
C. Disease and predation.
Black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus) has been cited as an
immediate threat to all extant populations of Flueggea neowawraea (J.
Lau, pers. comm., 1992). The black twig borer burrows into the branches
and introduces a pathogenic fungus, pruning the host severely and often
killing branches or whole plants (Howarth 1985). All known plants of
Flueggea neowawraea suffer slight to severe defoliation and reduced
vigor due to infestations of this alien insect.
Evidence of predation on two of the taxa by ungulates (cattle,
deer, goats) is documented on Oahu, Lanai, and Maui. On Oahu, plants of
Bonamia menziesii at Lualualei grow over native vegetation and drape
well below the browse line of cattle, indicating the potential for
cattle to feed on the plants (HHP 1992b30). On Lanai, axis deer are
known to feed on this species, especially at Kanepuu. Depredation of
Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei by goats has been observed on
Lanai and Maui. Goats are known to eat the branch tips and strip the
bark of the plants (HHP 1992e14). While there is no evidence of
predation on the other 11 species, none of them are known to be
unpalatable to cattle, deer, or goats. Predation is therefore a
probable threat to species growing at sites where those animals have
been reported (Diellia erecta, Flueggea neowawraea, Neraudia sericea,
Plantago princeps, Sesbania tomentosa, Spermolepis hawaiiensis, and
Vigna o-wahuensis) (See Factor A.).
D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms
Of the 12 species in this ruling, a total of 10 have populations
located on private land, 2 on County land, 10 on State land, and 7 on
Federal land. With the exception of Neraudia sericea which is
restricted to private land, all of the other species occur in more than
one of those ownership categories. The known populations of these
species located on Federal lands are inadequate to ensure their long-
term survival.
There are no State laws or existing regulatory mechanisms at the
present time to protect or prevent further decline of these plants on
private or State land. However, Federal listing would automatically
invoke listing and associated protection under Hawaii State law.
E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their Continued Existence
Eleven of the 12 species are threatened by competition with one or
more alien plant species. (See Table 2). The most significant of these
appear to be Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmasberry), Psidium
cattleianum (strawberry guava), Melinus minutiflora (molasses grass),
Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass), Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse),
Lantana camara (lantana), Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole), Prosopis
pallida (kiawe), Toona ciliata (Australian red cedar), Cenchrus
ciliaris (buffelgrass), Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry),
Passiflora mollissima (banana poka), and Rubus ellipticus (Himalayan
raspberry).
Many noxious alien plants such as Christmasberry have invaded the
dry to mesic lowland regions of the Hawaiian Islands. Introduced to
Hawaii before 1911, Christmasberry forms dense thickets that shade out
and displace other plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). This fast-growing
species is found in lowland areas of the major Hawaiian Islands (Smith
1985) and is currently expanding its range. Christmasberry is a major
component of the mesic forests of the Waianae and Koolau Mountains of
Oahu. For example, over half of the populations of Bonamia menziesii, 2
of the populations of Plantago princeps var. princeps, and all 15
populations of Flueggea neowawraea that occur on Oahu are negatively
affected by this invasive plant (HHP 1992b18, 1992b22, 1992b31, 1992d3,
1992d15, 1992d16; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). In addition, one
population of Diellia erecta at Halawa Valley on Molokai and one
population of Bonamia menziesii on Lanai are also affected (J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1992). On Maui, Christmasberry is spreading in Iao Valley
and on the south slope of East Maui (Haleakala Volcano) and is one of
the primary alien plant threats to one or more populations of Bonamia
menziesii, Diellia erecta, and Plantago princeps var. laxiflora that
exist there (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On the island of Hawaii,
Christmasberry continues to threaten at least two populations of
Diellia erecta and Flueggea neowawraea in the regions of Manuka and
Honomalino in the South Kona District (HHP 1992d34; J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1992).
Strawberry guava, an invasive shrub or small tree native to
tropical America, has become naturalized on all of the main Hawaiian
islands. Like Christmasberry, strawberry guava is capable of forming
dense stands that exclude other plant species (Cuddihy and Stone 1990)
and is dispersed mainly by feral pigs and fruit-eating birds (Smith
1985). This alien plant grows primarily in mesic and wet habitats and
provides food for several alien animal species, including feral pigs
and game birds, which disperse the plant's seeds through the forest
(Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1985). Strawberry guava is considered one of
the greatest alien plant threats to Hawaii's rain forests and is known
to pose a direct threat to at least one population of Adenophorus
periens and Bonamia menziesii on the island of Kauai (HHP 1992a16; J.
Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Strawberry guava is a major invader of forests
in the Waianae and Koolau Mountains of Oahu, where it often forms
single-species stands. It poses an immediate threat to 6 populations of
Bonamia menziesii, 10 populations of Flueggea neowawraea, and 1
population of Plantago princeps var. princeps on that island (HHP
1992b5, 1992b14, 1992b18, 1992b21; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). On
Molokai, the habitat of the Halawa Valley population of Diellia erecta
is currently being invaded by strawberry guava (HHP 1992c12). On Maui,
strawberry guava is beginning to invade the habitat of one population
each of Bonamia menziesii and Plantago princeps var. laxiflora on West
Maui and at least one population each of Diellia erecta and Plantago
princeps var. laxiflora on East Maui (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). It is
also a major threat to the habitat of Adenophorus periens in Kahaualea
NAR on the island of Hawaii (HHP 1992a8).
First introduced to the Hawaiian Islands as cattle fodder, molasses
grass was later planted for erosion control (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
This alien grass quickly spread to dry and mesic forests previously
disturbed by ungulates. Molasses grass produces a dense mat capable of
smothering plants (Smith 1985), essentially preventing seedling growth
and native plant reproduction (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). Because it
burns readily and often grows at the border of forests, molasses grass
tends to carry fire into areas with woody native plants (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, Smith 1985). It is able to spread prolifically after a fire
and effectively compete with less fire-adapted native plant species,
ultimately creating a stand of alien grass where forest once stood.
Molasses grass is becoming a major threat to seven of the species on
four islands. In the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, three populations of
Bonamia menziesii and one population of Plantago princeps var. princeps
are immediately threatened by this grass. On Molokai, at least one
population each of Diellia erecta, Plantago princeps var. laxiflora,
and Neraudia sericea and all populations of Vigna o-wahuensis on the
island are also negatively affected. Molasses grass is quickly
spreading throughout the dry regions of West Maui, threatening two
populations of Diellia erecta there. On Hawaii Island, a population of
Sesbania tomentosa in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is located in an
area invaded by molasses grass (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Like molasses grass, fountain grass has greatly increased fire risk
in some regions, especially on the dry slopes of Hualalai, Kilauea, and
Mauna Loa volcanoes on the island of Hawaii. The effects of fountain
grass invasion are similar to those discussed above for molasses grass.
Fountain grass threatens the native vegetation on the leeward slopes of
Hualalai in a region where at least one population of Hibiscus
brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei and the only known Hawaii Island
populations of Bonamia menziesii and Vigna o-wahuensis exist (HHP
1992m12; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Koster's curse, a noxious shrub native to tropical America, was
first reported on Oahu in 1941. It had spread through much of the
Koolau Mountains by the early 1960s, and spread to the Waianae
Mountains by 1970 (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). It poses a serious threat
to two populations of Plantago princeps var. longibracteata in the
Koolau Mountains. Koster's curse is widespread in Honouliuli and
threatens two populations of Flueggea neowawraea that occur in that
area of the Waianae Mountains. This prolific alien plant has recently
spread to five other islands, including Kauai, where there are at least
five small infestations totaling about 40 ha (100 ac) (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990); one of these poses an immediate threat to one population
of Adenophorus periens in Waioli Valley (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Lantana, a native of the West Indies, became naturalized in dry to
mesic forests and shrublands of the Hawaiian Islands before 1871
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990). This shrub often forms thick cover and
produces chemicals that inhibit the growth of other plant species
(Smith 1985). On Kauai, lantana is a major component of the vegetation
at Paaiki Valley and Waimea Canyon and is rapidly becoming established
in Pohakuao. It poses a threat to populations of Flueggea neowawraea in
those areas (HHP 1992d13, 1992d17, 1992d18, 1992d30, 1992d31). One
population of Bonamia menziesii on Lanai and one on Maui are also
negatively affected by this invasive plant (HHP 1992b1, 1992b24).
Koa haole, a shrub naturalized and often dominant in low elevation,
dry, disturbed areas on all of the main Hawaiian Islands, threatens to
degrade the habitat of six of the species. Koa haole is one of the
major weeds found at Polihale on the island of Kauai, growing in the
vicinity of a population of Sesbania tomentosa (HHP 1992j33; J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1992). In the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, koa haole is one
of the primary weed threats to half of the Bonamia menziesii
populations and all of the Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. mokuleianus
populations found in the area (HHP 1992b12, 1992b19, 1992e23; J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1992). Most of the Molokai populations of Sesbania
tomentosa and one of the Kahoolawe populations of Vigna o-wahuensis are
also negatively affected by koa haole (HHP 1992j13; J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1992). On Maui, koa haole poses a threat to Hibiscus
brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei and Spermolepis hawaiiensis in the
Lihau section of the West Maui NAR, and is probably also a threat to
Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. brackenridgei and Sesbania tomentosa
elsewhere on West Maui (HHP 1992e3; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
Kiawe, a deciduous thorny tree that can grow to 20 m (65 ft) in
height, overshadows other plants and competes with associated
vegetation for available water and space. At Polihale, on the island of
Kauai, it is the primary alien plant threat to Sesbania tomentosa. Two
Molokai populations of Sesbania tomentosa compete with kiawe for water
and space on Moomomi's beaches. The primary alien plant threat to Vigna
o-wahuensis on the island of Kahoolawe is kiawe (HHP 1992m21).
Australian red cedar is a fast-growing tree that was probably
introduced to Hawaii for lumber. It is now found in many of Hawaii's
extensively planted lowland forests and has become naturalized in mesic
to wet forests (Wagner et al. 1990). Today, this tree is a definite
threat to at least one population of Bonamia menziesii and most of the
plants of Flueggea neowawraea in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu (J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1992).
Buffelgrass forms continuous cover in dry habitats and provides
excellent fuel for fire, from which it recovers quickly. Its seeds are
easily dispersed by wind (Smith 1985). Buffelgrass threatens the
habitat of two populations of Sesbania tomentosa on Molokai, and at
least one population of Vigna o-wahuensis on Kahoolawe (J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1992).
Prickly Florida blackberry was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands
in the late 1800s (Haselwood and Motter 1983). The fruits are easily
spread by birds to open areas where this plant can form dense,
impenetrable thickets (Smith 1985). The Kauai population of Adenophorus
periens, which is located at the boundary of Hono O Na Pali NAR and Na
Pali Coast State Park, is threatened by this noxious weed (J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1992).
A vine in the passionflower family, banana poka was introduced to
the islands in the 1920s, probably as an ornamental. This vine is
extremely detrimental to certain wet forest habitats of Kauai, Maui,
and Hawaii. Heavy growth of this vine can cause damage or death to the
native trees by overloading branches, causing breakage, or by forming a
dense canopy cover, intercepting sunlight and shading out native plants
below. An infestation of this vine is located at Olaa Tract on the
island of Hawaii, the site of one population of Adenophorus periens (J.
Lau, pers. comm., 1992).
A recent introduction to the Hawaiian Islands, yellow Himalayan
raspberry is rapidly becoming a major weed pest in wet forests,
pastures, and other open areas on the island of Hawaii. It forms large
thorny thickets and displaces native plants. Its ability to invade the
understory of wet forests enables it to fill a niche presently
unoccupied by any other major wet forest weed in Hawaii. This has
resulted in an extremely rapid population expansion of this alien plant
in recent years. One population of Adenophorus periens grows in Olaa
Tract within Hawaii Volcanoes National Park in a region where yellow
Himalayan raspberry is found in increasing numbers (J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1992).
There are a number of other alien plant species that pose a
significant threat to populations of the plants in this ruling. Cynodon
dactylon (Bermuda grass) is a major threat to at least one population
of Sesbania tomentosa at Moomomi on Molokai. Senecio mikanioides
(German ivy), a noxious, wind-dispersed vine that forms localized mats
of vegetation, is a threat to the only currently known population of
Solanum incompletum on the island of Hawaii (J. Lau, pers. comm.,
1992). This Solanum incompletum population is fenced and protected from
ungulates; however, it is not protected from German ivy. Syzygium
cumini (Java plum), a large evergreen tree, is an aggressive invader of
undisturbed forests (Smith 1985). It threatens to shade out the only
known populations of Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. mokuleianus on Oahu
(J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Melia azedarach (pride of India), a fast-
growing deciduous tree that forms deep shade, grows in open dry
habitats. A major infestation of this large tree in Waimea Canyon on
Kauai poses an immediate threat to individuals of Flueggea neowawraea
(HHP 1992d18, 1992d31).
Fire threatens six plant species growing in dry to mesic grassland,
shrubland, and forests on five islands. On Oahu, fire is a potential
threat to three populations of Bonamia menziesii and two populations of
Flueggea neowawraea located adjacent to Makua Military Reservation,
where current ordnance training exercises could unintentionally ignite
fires (HHP 1992b12, 1992b19, 1992b20, 1992d12; J. Lau, pers. comm.,
1992). The area has had a history of fires that may have burned through
at least one of the populations of Bonamia menziesii, and burned to
within a few tens of meters of another (HHP 1992b19, 1992b20). Fire is
also a threat to the following populations: one population each of
Bonamia menziesii and Flueggea neowawraea on Oahu, one population of
Bonamia menziesii on Lanai, two populations of Sesbania tomentosa and
one population of Vigna o-wahuensis on Molokai, all known populations
of Vigna o-wahuensis on Kahoolawe, and at least one population each of
Bonamia menziesii and Sesbania tomentosa on the island of Hawaii (HHP
1992d12; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1992). Of note is a population of
Adenophorus periens in Kahaualea NAR on the island of Hawaii (HHP
1992a8). Tephra fallout and lava flows from Kilauea Volcano have
affected the NAR over the past several years. Wildfires ignited by
volcanic activity have destroyed some of the NAR's mesic and wet
forests. In addition, tephra fallout and noxious volcanic gasses have
caused extensive damage to surrounding native forests. Such
catastrophic natural events threaten to destroy the region's largest
population of Adenophorus periens.
The small number of populations and of individual plants of six of
these species (Diellia erecta, Hibiscus brackenridgei, Mariscus
pennatiformis, Neraudia sericea, Solanum incompletum, and Vigna o-
wahuensis) increases the potential for extinction from stochastic
events. The limited gene pool may depress reproductive vigor, or a
single human-caused or natural environmental disturbance could destroy
a significant percentage of the individuals or the only known extant
population. For example, Solanum incompletum is known from a single
population on the island of Hawaii and numbers only two individuals.
Two of the species have fewer than 5 populations and 6 of the species
are estimated to number no more than 100 individuals (See Table 2). All
of the species in this ruling except Sesbania tomentosa either number
fewer than 20 populations or total fewer than 200 individuals. The
reproductive system of Flueggia neowawraea further exacerbates the
problem of limited numbers. Since each tree bears only male or female
flowers, they must be cross-pollinated from a different tree (Hayden
1990). If only a few trees flower at the same time, or if flowering
trees are too widely separated for pollination by insects, no seed will
be set. The survival of small, isolated populations, which probably are
already experiencing depressed reproductive vigor, is therefore further
threatened.
The Service has carefully assessed the best scientific and
commercial information available regarding the past, present, and
future threats faced by these species in determining to make this rule
final. Based on this evaluation, this rulemaking will list these 12
species as endangered: Adenophorus periens, Bonamia menziesii, Diellia
erecta, Flueggea neowawraea, Hibiscus brackenridgei, Mariscus
pennatiformis, Neraudia sericea, Plantago princeps, Sesbania tomentosa,
Solanum incompletum, Spermolepis hawaiiensis, and Vigna o-wahuensis.
These 12 species are threatened by one or more of the following:
habitat degradation and/or predation by pigs, goats, deer, and cattle;
competition for space, light, water, and nutrients by alien plants;
habitat loss from fires; human impacts from recreational activities;
and insect infestations. Six of the 12 species either number no more
than about 100 individuals or are known from fewer than 5 populations.
Small population size and limited distribution make all of these
species particularly vulnerable to extinction from reduced reproductive
vigor or from stochastic events. Because these 12 species are in danger
of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their ranges,
they fit the definition of endangered as defined in the Act. Therefore,
the determination of endangered status for these 12 species is
warranted.
Critical habitat is not being proposed for the 12 species included
in this rule, for reasons discussed in the ``Critical Habitat'' section
of this rule.
Critical Habitat
Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, requires that, to the
maximum extent prudent and determinable, the Secretary designate
critical habitat at the time the species are determined to be
endangered or threatened. The Service finds that designation of
critical habitat is not presently prudent for these species. Such a
determination would result in no known benefit to the species. The
species have low total populations and/or numbers of individuals and
face anthropogenic threats. The publication of precise maps and
descriptions of critical habitat in the Federal Register, as required
for the designation of critical habitat, would increase the degree of
threat to these plants from take or vandalism and could contribute to
their decline. The listing of these species under the Act publicizes
the rarity of the plants and, thus, can make these plants attractive to
researchers, curiosity seekers, or collectors of rare plants. All
involved parties and the major landowners have been notified.
Protection of the habitat of the species will be addressed through the
recovery process and through the section 7 consultation process.
Therefore, the Service finds that designation of critical habitat for
these species is not prudent at this time, because such designation
would increase the degree of threat from vandalism, collecting, or
other human activities and because it is unlikely to aid in the
conservation of these species.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Endangered Species Act include recognition,
recovery actions, requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions
against certain activities. Listing can encourage and result in
conservation actions by Federal, State, and local agencies, and private
organizations and individuals. The Endangered Species Act provides for
possible land acquisition and cooperation with the State and requires
that recovery plans be developed for listed species. The requirements
for Federal agencies and the prohibitions against certain activities
involving listed plants are discussed, in part, below.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to
evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or
listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical
habitat, if any is being designated. Regulations implementing this
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR
Part 402. Section 7(a)(2) requires Federal agencies to insure that
activities they authorize, fund, or carry out are not likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of a listed species or to destroy or
adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action may affect a
listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible Federal agency
must enter into consultation with the Service.
Two taxa are located on Federal land in a national wildlife refuge
on three Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: Mariscus pennatiformis ssp.
bryanii grows only on the island of Laysan and Sesbania tomentosa grows
on Necker and Nihoa. The national wildlife refuge is under the
jurisdiction of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. On the island of
Hawaii, two species (Adenophorus periens and Sesbania tomentosa) are
located in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Three populations of
Plantago princeps var. laxiflora are located in Haleakala National Park
on Maui. The two national parks on Maui and Hawaii are under the
jurisdiction of the National Park Service. Federal laws protect all
plants on the national wildlife refuges, national parks, and national
historic sites from damage or removal.
Five of the species in this rule occur on land owned or leased by
the U.S. Department of Defense. Populations of Bonamia menziesii and
Flueggea neowawraea are located in the mountains of the Lualualei Naval
Reservation. No military activities currently affect those populations.
On the island of Oahu, Flueggea neowawraea is known to grow on lands
owned by the U.S. Army in Schofield Barracks Military Reservation. One
population of Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp. mokuleianus may possibly
occur at Schofield Barracks as well. Three of the species are located
on State-owned land currently leased to the U.S. military: On Oahu,
Bonamia menziesii and Flueggea neowawraea are located within Makua
Military Reservation and Spermolepis hawaiiensis is located in Diamond
Head Reservation, leased by the Department of Defense. Portions of
Makua Military Reservation are used by the Army and other branches of
the military for ordnance training. The two species are not located
inside the impact areas or adjacent buffer zones and, thus, are not
directly affected by military activities. The Army has constructed
firebreaks on the Makua Military Reservation to minimize damage from
unintentional fires that occasionally result from the use of ordnance
(Herve Messier, U.S. Army, Ft. Shafter, pers. comm., 1990). Plants of
Spermolepis hawaiiensis are restricted to the outer slope of Diamond
Head and are not in an area affected by military activities. One
species, Vigna o-wahuensis, grows on the previously federally owned
island of Kahoolawe where the Federal government is involved with
ordnance disposal. Although periodic detonation of ordnance is required
on the island, the populations of this species found there are at sites
too remote to sustain impacts from such detonation (J. Lau, pers.
comm., 1992). There are no other known Federal activities that occur
within the presently known habitat of these 12 plant species.
The Act and implementing regulations at 50 CFR 17.61, 17.62, and
17.63 set forth a series of general prohibitions and exceptions that
apply to all endangered plant species. With respect to the 12 plant
species subject to this final rule, all prohibitions of section 9(a)(2)
of the Act, implemented by 50 CFR 17.61 apply. These prohibitions, in
part, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the
United States to import or export any endangered plant species to/from
the United States; transport such species in interstate or foreign
commerce in the course of a commercial activity; sell or offer for sale
such species in interstate or foreign commerce; remove and reduce to
possession any such species from areas under Federal jurisdiction;
maliciously damage or destroy any such species on any area under
Federal jurisdiction; or remove, cut, dig up, damage, or destroy any
such species on any other area in knowing violation of any State law or
regulation or in the course of any violation of a State criminal
trespass law. Certain exceptions apply to agents of the Service and
State conservation agencies. Section 10 of the Act and 50 CFR 17.62
provide for the issuance of permits under certain circumstances to
carry out activities involving endangered plants that are otherwise
prohibited by section 9.
It is the policy of the Service (59 FR 34272) to identify to the
maximum extent practicable at the time a species is listed those
activities that would or would not be likely to constitute a violation
of section 9 of the Act. Such information is intended to clarify the
potential impacts of a species' listing on proposed and ongoing
activities within the species' range. Seven of the twelve species in
this rule are known to occur on lands under the jurisdiction of the
Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service or Department of
Defense. Collection, damage or destruction of these species on these
lands is prohibited without a Federal endangered species permit. Such
activities on non-Federal lands would constitute a violation of section
9 if conducted in knowing violation of Hawaii State law or regulations
or in violation of State criminal trespass law (see Hawaii State Law
section below).
Two of the listed species are of horticultural interest and both
are currently in commercial trade. Hibiscus brackenridgei is a very
attractive member of a genus known for its immense horticultural
popularity and is the official State flower of Hawaii. Sesbania
tomentosa also is an exceptionally attractive species that grows well
in low elevation urban areas. Intrastate commerce (commerce within a
State) is not prohibited under the Act. However, interstate and foreign
commerce (sale or offering for sale across State or international
boundaries), will require a Federal endangered species permit.
(Endangered species may be advertised for sale provided the
advertisement contains a statement that no sale may be consummated
until a permit has been obtained from the Service.) Other than possible
interstate commerce, the Service is not aware of any other activities
being conducted by the public that will be affected by this listing and
result in a violation of section 9. Questions regarding whether
specific activities will constitute a violation of section 9 should be
directed to the Field Supervisor of the Service's Pacific Islands
Office (see ADDRESSES section). Requests for copies of the regulations
concerning listed plants and general inquiries regarding prohibitions
and permits may be addressed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Ecological Services, Endangered Species Permits, 911 N.E. 11th Avenue,
Portland, Oregon 97232-4181 (503/231-2063; FAX 503/231-6243).
Hawaii State Law
Federal listing would automatically invoke listing under Hawaii
State law. Hawaii's Endangered Species Act (HRS, Sect. 195D-4(a))
states, ``Any species of aquatic life, wildlife, or land plant that has
been determined to be an endangered species pursuant to the [Federal]
Endangered Species Act shall be deemed to be an endangered species
under the provisions of this chapter and any indigenous species of
aquatic life, wildlife, or land plant that has been determined to be a
threatened species pursuant to the [Federal] Endangered Species Act
shall be deemed to be a threatened species under the provisions of this
chapter.'' The State law prohibits cutting, collecting, uprooting,
destroying, injuring, or possessing any listed species of plant, or
attempting to engage in any such conduct. The State law also encourages
conservation by State agencies and triggers other State regulations to
protect the species (HRS, sect. 195-4 and 5). The State may enter into
agreements with Federal agencies to administer and manage any area
required for the conservation, management, enhancement, or protection
of endangered species (HRS, Sect. 195D-5(c)).
National Environmental Policy Act
The Fish and Wildlife Service has determined that an Environmental
Assessment or Environmental Impact Statement, as defined under the
authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be
prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section
4(a) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. A notice
outlining the Service's reasons for this determination was published in
the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited herein is available upon
request from the Pacific Islands Office (see ADDRESSES above).
Authors
The authors of this final rule are Joan E. Canfield, Derral R.
Herbst, and Adam Asquith of the Pacific Islands Office (see ADDRESSES
section) (808/541-3441).
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, and Transportation.
Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the
Code of Federal Regulations, is amended as set forth below:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C.
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.
2. Section 17.12(h) is amended by adding the following, in
alphabetical order under the plant families indicated, to the List of
Endangered and Threatened Plants:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
--------------------------------------------------- Historic range Family name Status When listed Critical Special
Scientific name Common name habitat rules
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Flowering Plants
* * * * * * *
Spermolepis hawaiiensis. None.................... U.S.A.(HI).............. Apiaceae............... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Diellia erecta.......... Asplenium-leaved diellia U.S.A. (HI)............. Aspleniaceae........... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Bonamia menziesii....... None.................... U.S.A. (HI)............. Convolvulaceae......... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Mariscus pennatiformis.. None.................... U.S.A. (HI)............. Cyperaceae............. E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Flueggea neowawraea..... Mehamehame.............. U.S.A. (HI)............. Euphorbiaceae.......... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Sesbania tomentosa...... 'Ohai................... U.S.A. (HI)............. Fabaceae............... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Vigna o-wahuensis....... None.................... U.S.A. (HI)............. Fabaceae............... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Adenophorus periens..... Pendant kihi fern....... U.S.A. (HI)............. Grammitidaceae......... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Hibiscus brackenridgei.. Ma'o hau hele........... U.S.A. (HI)............. Malvaceae.............. E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Plantago princeps....... Laukahi kuahiwi......... U.S.A. (HI)............. Plantaginaceae......... E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Solanum incompletum..... Popolo ku mai........... U.S.A. (HI)............. Solanaceae............. E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
Neraudia sericea........ None.................... U.S.A. (HI)............. Urticaceae............. E 559 NA NA
* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dated: September 12, 1994.
Mollie H. Beattie,
Director, Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 94-27302; Filed 11-9-94; 8:45 am]