[Federal Register Volume 59, Number 43 (Friday, March 4, 1994)]
[Unknown Section]
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From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 94-4841]


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[Federal Register: March 4, 1994]


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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

RIN 1018-AB89

 

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determination of 
Endangered or Threatened Status for 21 Plants From the Island of 
Hawaii, State of Hawaii

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Final rule.

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SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) determines 
endangered status pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as 
amended (Act), for 20 plants: Clermontia lindseyana ('oha wai), 
Clermontia peleana ('oha wai), Clermontia pyrularia ('oha wai), 
Colubrina oppositifolia (kauila), Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii 
(haha), Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii (haha), Cyanea shipmanii 
(haha), Cyanea stictophylla (haha), Cyrtandra giffardii (ha'iwale), 
Cyrtandra tintinnabula (ha'iwale), Ischaemum byrone (Hilo ischaemum), 
Isodendrion pyrifolium (wahine noho kula), Mariscus fauriei (no common 
name (NCN)), Nothocestrum breviflorum ('aiea), Ochrosia kilaueaensis 
(holei), Plantago hawaiensis (laukahi kuahiwi), Portulaca sclerocarpa 
(po'e), Pritchardia affinis (loulu), Tetramolopium arenarium (NCN), and 
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (a'e). The Service also determines threatened 
status for one plant, Silene hawaiiensis (NCN). All but eight of the 
taxa are endemic to the island of Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands; the 
exceptions were from the islands of Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, 
Lanai, and/or Maui as well as Hawaii. The 21 plant taxa and their 
habitats have been variously affected or are currently threatened by 
competition, predation or habitat degradation from introduced species, 
habitat loss from development and other human activities, natural 
disasters and stochastic events. This rule implements the Federal 
protection provisions provided by the Act for these plants. One taxon, 
Hesperocnide sandwicensis, which had been proposed for listing with the 
above species, has been withdrawn from consideration as a result of 
additional information received indicating the species is more abundant 
than previously believed. A notice withdrawing the proposal is 
published in the Federal Register concurrently with this final rule.

EFFECTIVE DATE: This rule takes effect on April 4, 1994.

ADDRESSES: The complete file for this rule is available for public 
inspection, by appointment, during normal business hours at the U.S. 
Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Office, 300 Ala Moana 
Boulevard, room 6307, P.O. Box 50167, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Robert P. Smith, at the above address 
(808/541-2749).

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Background

    Clermontia lindseyana, Clermontia peleana, Clermontia pyrularia, 
Colubrina oppositifolia Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii, Cyanea 
hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii, Cyanea shipmanii, Cyanea stictophylla, 
Cyrtandra giffardii, Cyrtandra tintinnabula, Hesperocnide sandwicensis, 
Ischaemum byrone, Isodendrion pyrifolium, Mariscus fauriei, 
Nothocestrum breviflorum, Ochrosia kilaueaensis, Plantago hawaiensis, 
Portulaca sclerocarpa, Pritchardia affinis, Silene hawaiiensis, 
Tetramolopium arenarium, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense are endemic to or 
have the majority of their populations on the island of Hawaii, 
Hawaiian islands. Thirteen of these taxa are endemic to the Island of 
Hawaii; four additional taxa are now found only on Hawaii. One of these 
taxa is now or was previously also known from Niihau, one from Kauai, 
two from Oahu, four from Molokai, four from Lanai, and six from Maui.
    The island of Hawaii is the southernmost, farthest east, and the 
youngest of the eight major Hawaiian Islands. This largest island of 
the Hawaiian archipelago comprises 4,038 square miles (mi) (10,458 
square kilometers (km)), or two-thirds of the land area of the State of 
Hawaii, giving rise to its common name, the ``Big Island.'' The 
Hawaiian Islands are volcanic islands formed over a ``hot spot,'' a 
fixed area of pressurized molten rock deep within the Earth. As the 
Pacific Plate, a section of the Earth's surface many miles thick, has 
moved to the northwest, the islands of the chain have separated. 
Currently, this hot spot is centered under the southeast part of the 
island of Hawaii, which is one of the most active volcanic areas on 
Earth. Five large shield volcanoes make up the island of Hawaii: Mauna 
Kea at 13,796 feet (ft) (4,205 meters (m)) and Kohala at 5,480 ft 
(1,670 m), both extinct; Hualalai, at 8,271 ft (2,521 m), which is 
dormant and will probably erupt again; and Mauna Loa, at 13,677 ft 
(4,169 m) and Kilauea, at 4,093 ft (1,248 m), both of which are 
currently active and adding land area to the island. Compared to Kauai, 
which is the oldest of the main islands and was formed about 5.6 
million years ago, Hawaii is very young, with fresh lava and land up to 
0.5 million years old (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Culliney 1988, 
Department of Geography 1983, Macdonald et al. 1983).
    Because of the large size and range of elevation of the island, 
Hawaii has a great diversity of climates. Windward (northeastern) 
slopes of Mauna Loa have rainfall up to 300 inches (in) (118 
centimeters (cm)) per year in some areas. The leeward coast, shielded 
by the mountains from rain brought by trade winds, has areas classified 
as desert and receiving as little as 7.9 in (20 cm) of rain annually. 
The summits of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea experience snowfall each year, 
and Mauna Kea was glaciated during the last Ice Age (Culliney 1988, 
Department of Geography 1983, Macdonald et al. 1983, Wagner et al. 
1990).
    Plant communities on Hawaii include those in various stages of 
primary succession on the slopes of active and dormant volcanoes, some 
in stages of secondary succession following disturbance, and relatively 
stable climax communities. On Hawaii, vegetation is found in all 
classifications: Coastal, dryland, montane, subalpine, and alpine; dry, 
mesic, and wet; and herblands, grasslands, shrublands, forests, and 
mixed communities. The vegetation and land of the island of Hawaii have 
undergone much change through the island's history. Since it is an area 
of frequent volcanic activity, vegetated areas are periodically 
replaced with bare lava. Polynesian immigrants, first settling on 
Hawaii by 750 A.D., made extensive alterations in lowland areas for 
agriculture and habitation. European contact with Hawaii brought 
intentional and inadvertent introductions of alien plant and animal 
species. By 1960, 65 percent of the total land area of the island of 
Hawaii was used for grazing, and much land has also been converted to 
modern cropland (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
    The 21 taxa included in this rule occur between sea level and 8,600 
ft (0 and 2,260 m) in elevation in various portions of the island of 
Hawaii. A number of the taxa are also found in central Kauai (one 
taxon), in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu (one taxon), on eastern 
Molokai (three taxa), in central and southern Lanai (two taxa), and on 
east Maui (three taxa). Most of the species in this rule exist as 
remnant plants persisting in grazed areas or in higher elevations which 
have only recently been heavily invaded by alien plant and animal 
species. The taxa in this rule grow in a variety of vegetation 
communities (herbland, shrublands, and forests), elevational zones 
(coastal, lowland, montane, and subalpine), and moisture regimes (dry, 
mesic, and wet). One taxon is found in each of two coastal habitats: 
Dry shrubland and mesic forest. In lowland habitats, five taxa are 
found in dry forest, four in mesic forest, and two in wet forest. In 
montane habitats, one taxon is found in wet herbland, three taxa in dry 
shrubland, three in dry forest, four in mesic forest, and five in wet 
forest. In the subalpine area, one taxon is found in dry shrubland and 
two taxa in dry forest.
    The land on which these 21 plant taxa are found is owned by various 
private parties, the State of Hawaii (including conservation district 
lands, forest reserves, natural area reserves, State parks, and the 
State seabird sanctuary), or is owned or managed by the Federal 
government (including a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service refuge, a U.S. 
Army military reservation and a military training area, a National 
Park, and a U.S. Coast Guard lighthouse area).

Discussion of the 21 Taxa Included in This Rule and the One Taxon 
Withdrawn From Consideration for Listing

    Rock (1957) named Clermontia hawaiiensis var. grandis on the basis 
of sterile specimens collected on the island of Hawaii in the 1950s. 
Later, after examining fertile material, he named the taxon C. 
lindseyana and also described a variety, var. livida (Rock 1962). The 
specific epithet commemorates Thomas Lindsey, a naturalist who brought 
the species to Rock's attention. St. John (1987a) described two other 
species, C. albimontis and C. viridis, but the author of the current 
treatment of the genus (Lammers 1990, 1991) considers St. John's 
species to fall within the range of C. lindseyana and recognizes no 
subspecific taxa.
    Clermontia lindseyana of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae) is a 
terrestrial or epiphytic (not rooted in the soil) branched shrub or 
tree 8.2 to 20 ft (2.5 to 6 m) tall. The alternate, stalked, toothed 
leaves are 5 to 9 in (13 to 24 cm) long and 1.5 to 2.6 in (3.8 to 6.5 
cm) wide. Two flowers, each with a stalk 0.4 to 1 in (1 to 2.5 cm) 
long, are positioned at the end of a main flower stalk 1 to 1.6 in (2.5 
to 4 cm) long. The calyx (fused sepals) and corolla (fused petals) are 
similar in size and appearance, and each forms a slightly curved, five-
lobed tube 2.2 to 2.6 in (5.5 to 6.5 cm) long and 0.4 to 0.7 in (0.9 to 
1.8 cm) wide which is greenish white or purplish on the outside and 
white or cream-colored on the inside. The berries are orange and 1 to 
1.6 in (2.5 to 4 cm) in diameter. This species is distinguished from 
others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by larger leaves and flowers, 
similar sepals and petals, and spreading floral lobes (Cuddihy et al. 
1983, Lammers 1990, 1991).
    Historically, Clermontia lindseyana was known from the island of 
Maui on the southern slope of Haleakala and from the island of Hawaii 
on the eastern slope of Mauna Kea and the eastern, southeastern, and 
southwestern slopes of Mauna Loa. One population of the species is 
known to be extant on State-owned land on Maui. This population extends 
from Wailaulau Gulch to Manawainui Gulch and contains between 100 and 
150 plants (Robert Hobdy, Department of Land and Natural Resources, in 
litt., 1993). The 14 known populations on the island of Hawaii extend 
over a distance of about 53 by 13 mi (85 by 21 km). Populations are 
found near Laupahoehoe, in Piha, in Makahanaloa, near Puaakala, near 
Puu Oo, near Kulani Correctional Facility, near Kapapala, in Waiea 
Tract, near Kaapuna Lava Flow, and near Kahuku on privately and State-
owned land. Approximately 125 to 175 individuals exist (Hawaii Heritage 
Program (HHP) 1991a1 to 1991a13). This species typically grows in 
Acacia koa (koa)- and Metrosideros polymorpha ('ohi'a)-dominated 
Montane Mesic Forests, often epiphytically, at elevations between 4,000 
and 7,050 ft (1,220 and 2,150 m) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, HHP 1991a1 to 
1991a13, Hawaii Plant Conservation Center (HPCC) 1991a, Lammers 1990, 
1991). Associated species include Coprosma sp. (pilo), Ilex anomala 
(kawa'u), and Myrsine sp. (kolea) (HHP 1991a2, 1991a5, HPCC 1991a; Fern 
Duvall, Olinda Endangered Species Propagation Facility, pers. comm., 
1992). The major threats to Clermontia lindseyana are competition from 
alien plant species such as Passiflora mollissima (banana poka) and 
Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu grass), grazing and trampling by cattle 
(Bos taurus) and goats (Capra hircus), and habitat disturbance by feral 
pigs (Sus scrofa) (Cuddihy et al. 1983, HPCC 1991a, Pratt and Cuddihy 
1991; F. Duvall and Arthur Medeiros, Haleakala National Park, pers. 
comms., 1992).
    Clermontia peleana was first collected by John Lydgate at Hamakua, 
island of Hawaii, and listed as an unnamed variety of C. gaudichaudii 
by Hillebrand (1888). Rock later collected a specimen of the taxon near 
Kilauea, the volcano home of the Hawaiian goddess Pele, after whom he 
named the species (Rock 1913). Other names by which the species has 
been known include: Clermontia gaudichaudii var. singuliflora (Rock 
1919b), C. singuliflora (Rock 1919b), C. gaudichaudii var. barbata 
(Rock 1919b), C. clermontioides var. singuliflora (Hochreutiner 1934); 
C. clermontioides var. mauiensis, a superfluous name (Hochreutiner 
1934); and C. clermontioides var. barbata (St. John 1973). In the most 
recent treatment of the species (Lammers 1991), two subspecies of C. 
peleana, ssp. singuliflora and ssp. peleana, are recognized.
    Clermontia peleana of the bellflower family is an epiphytic shrub 
or tree 5 to 20 ft (1.5 to 6 m) tall which grows on 'ohi'a, koa, 
Cheirodendron trigynum ('olapa), and Sadleria spp. (ama'u). The 
alternate, stalked, oblong or oval, toothed leaves reach a length of 3 
to 8 in (8 to 20 cm) and a width of 1.2 to 2 in (3 to 5 cm). Flowers 
are single or paired, each on a stalk 1.2 to 1.8 in (3 to 4.5 cm) long 
with a main stalk 0.3 to 0.7 in (0.8 to 1.7 cm) long. Five small green 
calyx lobes top the hypanthium (basal portion of the flower). The 
blackish-purple (ssp. peleana) or greenish-white (ssp. singuliflora) 
petals, 2 to 2.8 in (5 to 7 cm) long and 0.3 to 0.5 in (0.8 to 1.3 cm) 
wide, are fused into a one-lipped, arching tube with five down-curved 
lobes. Berries of ssp. peleana are orange and 1 to 1.2 in (2.5 to 3 cm) 
in diameter; berries of ssp. singuliflora are unknown. This species is 
distinguished from others of the genus by its epiphytic growth habit; 
its small green calyx lobes; and its one- lipped, blackish-purple or 
greenish-white corolla (Lammers 1990, 1991).
    Historically, Clermontia peleana ssp. peleana has been found only 
on the island of Hawaii on the eastern slope of Mauna Loa and the 
northeastern and southeastern slopes of Mauna Kea. Today, the taxon is 
found near Waiakaumalo Stream, by the Wailuku River, near Saddle Road, 
and between the towns of Glenwood and Volcano. The six known 
populations, which extend over a distance of about 12 by 5 mi (19 by 8 
km), are located on State- and federally-owned land and contain a total 
of approximately eight known individuals (HHP 1991b1 to 1991b7). 
Clermontia peleana ssp. singuliflora was formerly found on the island 
of Hawaii on the northern slope of Mauna Kea and on East Maui on the 
northwestern slope of Haleakala, but the taxon has not been seen in 
either place since early in the century and is believed to be extinct 
(HHP 1991c1 to 1991c3, Wagner et al. 1990). This species typically 
grows epiphytically in Montane Wet Forests dominated by koa, 'ohi'a, 
and Cibotium spp. and/or Sadleria spp. (tree ferns) at elevations 
between 1,740 and 3,800 ft (530 and 1,160 m) (HHP 1991b1 to 1991b4, 
1991b6, 1991b7, Lammers 1990, 1991). Associated species include 'olapa, 
Melicope clusiifolia (kolokolo mokihana), and Scaevola chamissoniana 
(naupaka kuahiwi) (HHP 1991b1; Warren L. Wagner, Smithsonian 
Institution, pers. comm., 1992). The major threats to Clermontia 
peleana are habitat disturbance caused by feral pigs and illegal 
cultivation of Cannabis sativa (marijuana), roof or black rat (Rattus 
rattus) damage, flooding, and stochastic extinction and/or reduced 
reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing individuals 
(Bruegmann 1990, Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) 1990).
    A sterile specimen of Clermontia pyrularia was first collected on 
Mauna Kea, island of Hawaii, during the United States Exploring 
Expedition of 1840 and 1841 and was named Delissea obtusa var. mollis 
by Gray (1861b). Later, Hillebrand (1888) collected fertile specimens 
of the taxon and named it C. pyrularia, referring in the specific 
epithet to the fruits, which are sometimes shaped like those of Pyrus 
(pear).
    Clermontia pyrularia of the bellflower family, a terrestrial tree 
10 to 13 ft (3 to 4 m) tall, has alternate toothed leaves 5.9 to 11 in 
(15 to 28 cm) long and 1 to 2 in (2.5 to 5 cm) wide with winged 
petioles. A cluster of two, three, or sometimes up to five flowers has 
a main stalk 1.1 to 2.4 in (2.8 to 6 cm) long; each flower has a stalk 
0.3 to 0.8 in (0.8 to 2 cm) long. Five small green calyx lobes top the 
hypanthium. The white or greenish-white petals are covered with fine 
hairs, measure 1.6 to 1.8 in (4 to 4.5 cm) long, and are fused into a 
curved two-lipped tube 0.2 to 0.3 in (5 to 8 mm) wide with five 
spreading lobes. The orange berry is inversely ovoid or inversely pear-
shaped. This species is distinguished from others of the genus by its 
winged petioles; its small, green calyx lobes; its two-lipped flowers 
with white or greenish-white petals; and the shape of its berry 
(Lammers 1990, 1991).
    Historically, Clermontia pyrularia has been found only on the 
island of Hawaii on the northeastern slope of Mauna Kea, the western 
slope of Mauna Loa, and the saddle area between the two mountains. 
Today, the species is found near the Humuula-Laupahoehoe boundary, near 
Hakalau Gulch, near Kealakekua, and near Kaawaloa. The five extant 
populations, which extend over a distance of about 47 by 6 mi (76 by 10 
km), are located on privately, State and federally owned land. Although 
the exact number of individuals is not known, it is likely that not 
more than five individuals exist (HHP 1991d1 to 1991d6). This species 
typically grows in koa- and/or 'ohi'a-dominated Montane Wet Forests and 
Subalpine Dry Forests at elevations between 3,000 and 7,000 ft (910 and 
2,130 m) (HHP 1991d2 to 1991d5, Lammers 1990, 1991). Associated species 
include pilo, Lythrum maritimum (pukamole), and Rubus hawaiensis 
('akala) (HHP 1991d2, 1991y). The major threat to Clermontia pyrularia 
is competition from alien grasses and shrubs in the forest understory 
and banana poka as well as stochastic extinction and/or reduced 
reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing populations and 
individuals (HHP 1991d2).
    Colubrina oppositifolia was first collected by Remy in the 1850s 
and was named in 1867 by Adolphe Theodore Brongniart (Mann 1867). The 
specific epithet describes the plant's opposite leaf arrangement. St. 
John (1979) called Oahu plants C. oppositifolia var. obatae, but no 
subspecific taxa are recognized in the current treatment of the genus 
(Wagner et al. 1990).
    Colubrina oppositifolia of the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae), a 
tree 16 to 43 ft (5 to 13 m) tall, has opposite, stalked, oval, thin, 
pinnately veined, toothless leaves with glands on the lower surface. 
Leaves measure 2.4 to 4.7 in (6 to 12 cm) long and 1.2 to 2.8 in (3 to 
7 cm) wide in mature plants and are larger in seedlings. Ten to 12 
bisexual flowers are clustered at the end of a main stalk 0.1 to 0.3 in 
(3 to 8 millimeters (mm)) long; each flower has a stalk about 0.07 to 
0.1 in (2 to 3 mm) long which elongates in fruit. The five triangular 
sepals measure about 0.06 to 0.08 in (1.5 to 2 mm) long, and the five 
greenish-yellow or white petals are about 0.06 in (1.5 mm) long. The 
somewhat spherical fruit, 0.3 to 0.4 in (8 to 11 mm) long, is similar 
to a capsule and opens explosively when mature. This species can be 
distinguished from the one other species of the genus in Hawaii by its 
growth habit and the arrangement, texture, venation, and margins of its 
leaves (Wagner et al. 1990).
    Historically, Colubrina oppositifolia was found on the island of 
Oahu in the central and southern Waianae Mountains and on the island of 
Hawaii in the following areas: The Kohala Mountains; the northern slope 
of Hualalai; and the western, southwestern, and southern slopes of 
Mauna Loa. Today, the species is known on Oahu in eastern Makaleha 
Valley, Mokuleia Forest Reserve, and Makua Valley; on Mt. Kaala; and 
near Honouliuli Contour Trail on privately and State-owned and 
federally managed land. The 6 extant populations on Oahu, which extend 
over a distance of about 9 by 4 mi (14 by 6 km), contain approximately 
94 known individuals (HHP 1991e1, 1991e2, 1991e5, 1991e9 to 1991e12). 
On the island of Hawaii, there are 7 extant populations which extend 
over a distance of about 16 by 4 mi (26 by 6 km), are located on 
privately and State-owned land, and contain about 185 to 205 known 
individuals. The species occurs along the Mamalahoa Highway on the 
northern slope of Hualalai as well as in Kapua and Puueo in the 
southernmost portion of the island (HHP 1991e3, 1991e4, 1991e6 to 
1991e8, 1991e13 to 1991e16). This species typically grows in Diospyros 
sandwicensis (lama)-dominated Lowland Dry and Mesic Forests, often on 
aa lava, at elevations between 800 and 3,000 ft (240 and 910 m). 
Associated species include Canthium odoratum (alahe'e) and Reynoldsia 
sandwicensis ('ohe) (HHP 1991e3, 1991e8, 1991e9, 1991e15, 1991e16, HPCC 
1991b). The major threats to Colubrina oppositifolia are competition 
from alien plant species such as Lantana camara (lantana), Pennisetum 
setaceum (fountain grass), and Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas 
berry); habitat disturbance by feral pigs; plant damage and death from 
black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus); fire; damage and disturbance 
from military exercises; and limited regeneration (HHP 1991e4, 1991e8, 
1991e9, 1991e15, 1991e16; Joel Q. Lau, The Nature Conservancy of 
Hawaii, pers. comm., 1992).
    Rock (1917) named Cyanea copelandii to honor his collecting 
companion, M.L. Copeland, with whom he first collected the species in 
1914 on the island of Hawaii (Rock 1917). St. John (1987b, St. John and 
Takeuchi 1987), believing there to be no generic distinction between 
Cyanea and Delissea, transferred the species to the genus Delissea, the 
older of the two generic names, creating D. copelandii. The current 
treatment of the family (Lammers 1990), however, maintains the 
separation of the two genera, and plants found on the island of Hawaii 
are considered to be C. copelandii ssp. copelandii. Subspecies 
haleakalaensis, found on Maui, is not as rare.
    Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii of the bellflower family is a 
shrub with a habit similar to that of a woody vine. The alternate, 
stalked, toothed leaves are 7.9 to 10.6 in (20 to 27 cm) long and 1.4 
to 3.3 in (3.5 to 8.5 cm) wide and have fine hairs on the lower 
surface. Five to 12 flowers are clustered on the end of a main stalk 
0.8 to 1.8 in (2 to 4.5 cm) long; each flower has a stalk 0.2 to 0.6 in 
(0.4 to 1.6 cm) long. The slightly hairy hypanthium is topped by five 
small, triangular calyx lobes. Petals, which are yellowish but appear 
rose-colored because of a covering of dark red hairs, are fused into a 
curved tube with five spreading lobes; the corolla is 1.5 to 1.7 in 
(3.7 to 4.2 cm) long and about 0.2 in (4 to 5 mm) wide. Berries are 
dark orange and measure 0.3 to 0.6 in (0.7 to 1.5 cm) long. This 
subspecies is distinguished from ssp. haleakalaensis, the only other 
subspecies of Cyanea copelandii, by its narrower leaves. The species 
differs from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by its growth habit 
and the size, shape, and dark red pubescence of its corolla (Lammers 
1990).
    Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii, which has been collected only 
twice on the southeastern slope of Mauna Loa near Glenwood, was last 
seen in 1957. It is difficult to adequately survey the area because of 
vegetation density and the terrain. This population, located on State-
owned land, was sighted recently enough that it is still considered 
extant and contains an unknown number of individuals (HHP 1991f; Thomas 
Lammers, Field Museum, pers. comm., 1992). This taxon often grows 
epiphytically and is typically found in Montane Wet Forests at 
elevations between 2,200 and 2,900 ft (660 and 880 m) (Lammers 1990). 
Associated species include tree ferns (HHP 1991f). The major known 
threat to Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii is stochastic extinction 
and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the single known population.
    Using sterile type material, Rock (1957) named Cyanea carlsonii to 
honor Norman K. Carlson, who first saw the taxon (Degener et al. 1969). 
Carlson cultivated a plant of the taxon in his garden, from which Rock 
later described the flowers and fruit (Rock 1962). Recently, St. John 
(1987b, St. John and Takeuchi 1987) placed the genus Cyanea in synonymy 
with Delissea, resulting in the new combination Delissea carlsonii, but 
Lammers (1990) retains both genera in the currently accepted treatment 
of the family. He also considers the taxon to be a subspecies of 
another species, resulting in the name C. hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii 
(Lammers 1988).
    Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii of the bellflower family, a palm-
like tree, grows 9.8 to 26 ft (3 to 8 m) tall and has alternate 
stalkless leaves 20 to 31 in (50 to 80 cm) long and 3 to 5.5 in (8 to 
14 cm) wide. Clusters of 5 to 10 flowers have a main stalk 0.6 to 1.2 
in (1.5 to 3 cm) long; each flower has a stalk 0.2 to 0.5 in (0.5 to 
1.2 cm) long. The hypanthium is topped with five small narrow calyx 
lobes. The magenta petals are fused into a one-lipped tube 2.3 to 3.1 
in (6 to 8 cm) long and 0.2 to 0.4 in (0.6 to 1.1 cm) wide with five 
down-curved lobes. The purplish-red berries are topped by the 
persistent calyx lobes. This subspecies is distinguished from ssp. 
hamatiflora, the only other subspecies, by its long flower stalks and 
larger calyx lobes. The species differs from others in the genus by its 
growth habit, its stalkless leaves, the number of flowers in each 
cluster, and the size and shape of the corolla and calyx (Lammers 
1990).
    Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii is only known to have occurred at 
two sites on the island of Hawaii, on the western slope of Hualalai and 
the southwestern slope of Mauna Loa. These two extant populations, 
located on privately and State-owned land at Honuaulu Forest Reserve 
and Keokea, are about 28 mi (45 km) apart and contain approximately 19 
individuals (HHP 1991g1, 1991g2, HPCC 1991c1 to 1991c3). This taxon 
typically grows in 'ohi'a-dominated Montane Wet Forests at elevations 
between 4,000 and 5,700 ft (1,220 and 1,740 m) (HHP 1991g1, 1991g2, 
Lammers 1990). Associated species include kawa'u, pilo, and Myoporum 
sandwicense (naio) (HHP 1991g1). The major threats to Cyanea 
hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii are competition from alien plant species 
such as banana poka, grazing and trampling by cattle, and stochastic 
extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of 
existing populations and individuals (HHP 1991g2; Carolyn Corn, Hawaii 
Department of Land and Natural Resources (Hawaii DLNR), in litt., 
1991).
    Based on sterile specimens collected on the island of Hawaii during 
the United States Exploring Expedition of 1840 and 1841, Gray (1861b) 
noted Cyanea grimesiana var. ? citrullifolia. Rock collected the plant 
in 1955 in the company of Herbert Shipman, after whom he named it as a 
species, resulting in Cyanea shipmanii (Rock 1957). St. John (1987b, 
St. John and Takeuchi 1987) placed the genus Cyanea in synonomy with 
Delissea, resulting in Delissea shipmanii, but Lammers (1990) retains 
the species in the genus Cyanea.
    Cyanea shipmanii of the bellflower family is an unbranched or few-
branched shrub 8 to 13 ft (2.5 to 4 m) tall with small sharp 
projections, especially in young plants. The alternate, stalked leaves 
are 6.7 to 12 in (17 to 30 cm) long, 2.8 to 5.5 in (7 to 14 cm) wide, 
and deeply cut into 20 to 30 lobes per leaf. Flowers are covered with 
fine hairs and are clustered in groups of 10 to 15, the main stalk 0.4 
to 1.2 in (1 to 3 cm) long and each flower stalk 0.4 to 0.6 in (1 to 
1.5 cm) long. The hypanthium is topped with five small calyx lobes. The 
pale greenish-white petals, 1.2 to 1.4 in (3 to 3.6 cm) long, are fused 
into a curved five-lobed tube 0.1 to 0.2 in (3 to 4 mm) wide. The fruit 
is an ellipsoid berry. This species differs from others in the genus by 
its slender stems; stalked, pinnately lobed leaves; and smaller flowers 
(Lammers 1990).
    Cyanea shipmanii has been known from only one population, located 
on the island of Hawaii on the eastern slope of Mauna Kea on privately 
owned land. When originally discovered, only 1 mature plant was found, 
with a total population size of fewer than 50 individuals (HHP 1991h). 
This species typically grows in koa- and 'ohi'a-dominated Montane Mesic 
Forests at elevations between 5,400 and 6,200 ft (1,650 and 1,900 m) 
(HHP 1991h, Lammers 1990). Associated species include kawa'u and kolea 
(HHP 1991h). The major threat to Cyanea shipmanii is stochastic 
extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the single existing 
population and the small number of known individuals.
    Based on a specimen he collected in 1912 on Mauna Loa, island of 
Hawaii, Rock (1913) described Cyanea stictophylla, choosing the 
specific epithet to refer to the long and narrow leaves. Other names by 
which the taxon has been known include: Cyanea palakea (Forbes 1916), 
C. quercifolia var. atropurpurea (Wimmer 1953), C. stictophylla var. 
inermis (Rock 1957), and C. nelsonii (St. John 1976). St. John (St. 
John and Takeuchi 1987), believing there to be no generic distinction 
between Cyanea and Delissea, transferred the species to the genus 
Delissea, the older of the two generic names, creating D. nelsonii, D. 
palakea, D. quercifolia var. atropurpurea, D. stictophylla, and D. 
stictophylla var. inermis (St. John 1987b). The separation of the two 
genera is maintained in the current treatment of the family (Lammers 
1990), and all the above listed taxa are considered to fall within the 
range of variation of C. stictophylla.
    Cyanea stictophylla of the bellflower family is a shrub or tree 2 
to 20 ft (0.6 to 6 m) tall, sometimes covered with small, sharp 
projections. The alternate, stalked, oblong, shallowly lobed, toothed 
leaves are 7.8 to 15 in (20 to 38 cm) long and 1.6 to 3.1 in (4 to 8 
cm) wide. Clusters of five or six flowers have main flowering stalks 
0.4 to 1.6 in (1 to 4 cm) long; each flower has a stalk 0.3 to 0.9 in 
(0.7 to 2.2 cm) long. The hypanthium is topped with five calyx lobes 
0.1 to 0.2 in (2 to 4 mm) long and 0.04 to 0.1 in (1 to 2 mm) wide. The 
yellowish-white or purple petals, 1.4 to 2 in (3.5 to 5 cm) long, are 
fused into an arched, five-lobed tube about 0.2 in (5 to 6 mm) wide. 
The spherical berries are orange. This species differs from others in 
the genus by its lobed, toothed leaves and its larger flowers with 
small calyx lobes and deeply lobed corollas (Lammers 1990).
    Historically, Cyanea stictophylla was known only from the island of 
Hawaii on the western, southern, southeastern, and eastern slopes of 
Mauna Loa. Today, the species is known to be extant near Keauhou and in 
South Kona on privately owned land. The 3 known populations, which 
extend over a distance of about 38 by 10 mi (61 by 16 km), contain a 
total of approximately 15 individuals (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i3). This 
species, sometimes growing epiphytically, is found in koaand 'ohi'a-
dominated Lowland Mesic and Wet Forests at elevations between 3,500 and 
6,400 ft (1,070 and 1,950 m) (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i3, Lammers 1990). 
Associated species include tree ferns, Melicope volcanica (alani), and 
Urera glabra (opuhe) (HHP 1991i1 to 1991i3). The major threat to Cyanea 
stictophylla is grazing and trampling by feral cattle as well as 
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the 
small number of existing populations and individuals (F. Duvall, pers. 
comm., 1992).
    Cyrtandra giffardii was first collected in 1911 on the island of 
Hawaii by Rock, who named the species to honor Walter M. Giffard, who 
collected a flowering specimen in 1918 (Rock 1919a).
    Cyrtandra giffardii of the African violet family (Gesneriaceae) is 
a shrubby tree usually 10 to 20 ft (3 to 6 m) tall. The opposite, 
stalked, papery-textured, toothed leaves are usually 2.4 to 4.7 in (6 
to 12 cm) long and 1 to 1.8 in (2.5 to 4.6 cm) wide and have a few 
tiny, coarse hairs on the upper surface. Clusters of three to five 
flowers have a moderate amount of short brown hairs throughout the 
cluster, a main stalk 1 to 1.4 in (2.5 to 3.5 cm) long, two linear 
bracts about 0.25 in (6 to 7 mm) long, and individual flower stalks 0.6 
to 1.2 in (1.5 to 3 cm) long. The calyx, 0.1 to 0.4 in (3 to 9 mm) 
long, has an outer covering of short, soft brown hairs and is divided 
into five narrowly triangular lobes. The corolla consists of five fused 
white petals about 0.5 in (12 mm) long, with lobes about 0.08 to 0.1 in 
(2 to 3 mm) long. Only immature berries have been observed, and they 
were white and about 0.4 in (1 cm) long. Both this species and 
Cyrtandra tintinnabula are distinguished from others of the genus and 
others on the island of Hawaii by a combination of the following 
characteristics: The opposite, more or less elliptic, papery leaves; 
the presence of some hairs on the leaves and more on the 
inflorescences; the presence of three to six flowers per inflorescence; 
and the size and shape of the flowers and flower parts (Wagner et al. 
1990).
    Historically, Cyrtandra giffardii was found on the island of Hawaii 
on the northeastern slope of Mauna Kea near Kilau Stream and south to 
the eastern slope of Mauna Loa near Kilauea Crater. The 3 extant 
populations on State-owned land are located near Kilau Stream, 
Stainback Highway, and Puu Makaala, extending over a distance of 
approximately 31 by 3 mi (50 by 5 km) and containing a total of about 
14 to 20 plants (HHP 1991j1 to 1991j5; W. Wagner, pers. comm., 1992). 
This species typically grows in shady koa-, 'ohi'a-, and tree fern-
dominated Montane Wet Forests at elevations between 2,400 and 4,900 ft 
(720 and 1,500 m) (HHP 1991j1 to 1991j3, HPCC 1991d1, 1991d2, Wagner et 
al. 1990). Associated species include other taxa of Cyrtandra 
(ha'iwale), Hedyotis spp., and Perrottetia sandwicensis (olomea) (HHP 
1991j1 to 1991j3, HPCC 1991d1; W. Wagner, pers. comm., 1992). The major 
threats to Cyrtandra giffardii are habitat disturbance and plant damage 
by feral pigs as well as stochastic extinction and/or reduced 
reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing populations 
(Stone 1985; W. Wagner, pers. comm., 1992).
    Based on a plant he collected in 1909 on Mauna Kea, island of 
Hawaii, Rock named Cyrtandra tintinnabula. The specific epithet 
describes the bell-shaped calyx of the plant (Rock 1919a).
    Cyrtandra tintinnabula of the African violet family is a shrub 3.3 
to 6.6 ft (1 to 2 m) tall with opposite, stalked, elliptical or oval, 
papery-textured leaves 5 to 10 in (13 to 26 cm) long and 2 to 4.8 in (5 
to 12.3 cm) wide. Leaves, especially the lower surfaces, have 
yellowish-brown hairs. Flower clusters, densely covered with long soft 
hairs, comprise three to six flowers, a main stalk 0.4 to 0.7 in (1 to 
1.8 cm) long, individual flower stalks 0.2 to 0.6 in (0.5 to 1.5 cm) 
long, and leaflike bracts. The green bell-shaped calyx is about 0.4 in 
(9 to 10 mm) long and has triangular lobes. The hairy white corolla, 
about 0.5 in (12 mm) long and about 0.2 in (5 mm) in diameter, is 
divided into five lobes, each about 0.1 in (3 mm) long. Fruit and seeds 
have not been observed. This species differs from Cyrtandra giffardii 
by its habit, its larger leaves, and its shorter flower stalks (Wagner 
et al. 1990).
    Historically, Cyrtandra tintinnabula was found only on the island 
of Hawaii on the northern to the eastern slopes of Mauna Kea. Today, 3 
populations of the species are known to occur on State-owned land 
extending over approximately 6 by 1 mi (10 by 3 km) from Kilau Stream 
to Honohina Gulch and containing approximately 18 known individuals 
(HHP 1991k1 to 1991k6). This species typically grows in dense koa-, 
'ohi'a-, and tree fern-dominated Lowland Wet Forests at elevations 
between 2,100 and 3,400 ft (650 and 1,040 m) (HHP 1991k3, 1991k4, 
1991k6, Wagner et al. 1990). Associated species include other kinds of 
ha'iwale and Hedyotis sp. The major threats to Cyrtandra tintinnabula 
are habitat disturbance and plant damage by feral pigs and stochastic 
extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of 
existing populations and individuals.
    Based on a specimen collected on Mauna Loa by James Macrae in 1825, 
Weddell (1856 to 1857) described Urtica sandwicensis, choosing the 
specific epithet to refer to the Sandwich Islands, an older name for 
the Hawaiian Islands. Later (1869), he transferred the species to 
another genus, resulting in Hesperocnide sandwicensis.
    Hesperocnide sandwicensis of the nettle family (Urticaceae) is an 
erect annual herb 8 to 24 in (20 to 60 cm) tall covered with coarse 
stinging hairs as well as shorter non-stinging hairs. The opposite, 
stalked, thin, toothed leaves are 0.6 to 3 in (1.5 to 7 cm) long and 
0.4 to 1 in (0.9 to 2.5 cm) wide. Most of the small petalless flowers 
are male, but they are mixed with some female flowers in clusters 0.08 
to 0.2 in (2 to 5 mm) long which originate in the leaf axils. Sepals of 
male flowers are fused into a four-lobed calyx about 0.02 in (0.5 mm) 
long which encloses four stamens. The calyx of the female flower, about 
0.04 in (1 mm) long and enclosing an unstalked stigma, swells slightly 
in fruit and encloses a flattened achene (dry, one-celled, unopened 
fruit) about 0.04 in (1.1 mm) long. The only Hawaiian member of the 
genus, Hesperocnid sandwicensis is distinguished from other native 
Hawaiian genera of its family by its annual herbaceous habit and its 
stinging hairs. It is distinguished from the alien, naturalized species 
Urtica urens (dwarf nettle) by the lack of calyx lobes (Wagner et al. 
1990).
    Historically, Hesperocnide sandwicensis occurred on the island of 
Hawaii on the eastern and western slopes of Mauna Kea, the northern to 
western slopes of Mauna Loa, the Humuula Saddle between Mauna Kea and 
Mauna Loa, and the southeastern slope of Hualalai. Twelve extant 
localities are known, extending over a distance of approximately 38 by 
15 mi (61 by 24 km) in much of the historic range of the species. It 
has not been seen on Hualalai for some time and is presumed extirpated 
there. Known populations now occur on or near the following areas: Puu 
Kanakaleonui, Puu Laau, Ahumoa Cone, Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA), and 
Sulphur Cone. Because the species is an annual plant, the total number 
of individuals varies with the time of year and amount of rainfall. At 
the time the proposed rule was written, several hundred to a thousand 
individuals were known from PTA, a State- and federally owned area of 
land which is managed by the U.S. Army. Other, smaller populations 
totalling approximately 80 to 130 plants were located on privately and 
State-owned land (HHP 1991l1 to 1991l7, HPCC 1991e; Robert Shaw, 
Colorado State University, pers. comm., 1992). Extensive surveys in 
1992 and 1993 indicate the presence of tens of thousands of 
Hesperocnide sandwicensis in many populations on and near PTA (R. Shaw, 
in litt., 1993). This species is clearly much more abundant than 
previously thought. This species typically grows in open Sophora 
chrysophylla (mamane)- and naio- dominated Subalpine Dry Forests at 
elevations between 5,840 and 8,600 ft (1,780 and 2,620 m) (Gagne and 
Cuddihy 1990, HHP 1991l1 to 1991l3, 1991l6, HPCC 1991e, Wagner et al. 
1990). Associated species include Asplenium fragile, Santalum 
paniculatum ('iliahi), and the naturalized Urtica urens (HHP 1991l1, 
1991l6; R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1992). Individual Hesperocnide 
sandwicensis plants and populations of plants are threatened by 
competition from alien grasses such as Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet 
vernalgrass) and Holcus lanatus (common velvet grass); grazing by feral 
pigs, goats, and sheep (Ovis aries); habitat disturbance and damage to 
plants as a result of military exercises; and fire (HHP 1991l6, HPCC 
1991e; Ken Nagata, U.S. Department of Agriculture, pers. comm., 1992). 
However, Hesperocnide sandwicensis is maintaining large, reproductive 
populations throughout PTA in areas that are relatively secure from 
these threats. The thousands of plants found in and along lava flows 
are particularly unlikely to be threatened by feral herbivores, 
military activities, or competition from alien grasses (Loyal A. 
Mehrhoff, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, pers. observation, 1993). It 
is also unlikely that either natural or man-caused fires could destroy 
a significant percentage of the total populations. Hesperocnide 
sandwicensis fails to meet the definition of either an endangered or 
threatened species. Therefore, the Service has withdrawn Hesperocnide 
sandwicensis from consideration for endangered or threatened status 
(see notice of withdrawal of proposed rule published concurrently with 
this final rule).
    Ischaemum byrone was first collected by James Macrae during the 
expedition of the Blonde in 1825 and named Spodiopogon byronis by 
Trinius in 1832. The specific epithet refers to Byron's Bay, now called 
Hilo Bay, where this specimen was collected. Steudel (1855) transferred 
the species to the genus Andropogon, and in 1889, Hackel redescribed 
the species, naming it Ischaemum lutescens, a superfluous name. In 
1922, Hitchcock published Ischaemum byrone, the currently accepted name 
(O'Connor 1990).
    Ischaemum byrone of the grass family (Poaceae) is a perennial plant 
with creeping stems and erect stems 16 to 31 in (40 to 80 cm) tall. The 
uppermost sheaths (portions of leaves surrounding the stems) are often 
inflated and sometimes partially enclose the yellow to yellowish-brown 
racemes (flowering clusters). The hairless leaf blade (the flat 
extended part of the leaf) is 2.8 to 7.9 in (7 to 20 cm) long and 1.2 
to 2 in (3 to 5 cm) wide; the uppermost blades are much smaller in 
size. Flowers, arranged in two or sometimes three digitate (originating 
from one point), elongate racemes 1.6 to 3.9 in (4 to 10 cm) long, 
consist of two types of two-flowered awned (having bristles) spikelets 
(subclusters of flowers). The fruit is a caryopsis (grain) about 0.1 in 
(3 mm) long. The only species of the genus found in Hawaii, Ischaemum 
byrone differs from other grasses in the State by its C4 
photosynthetic pathway; its digitate racemes; and its two-flowered, 
awned spikelets (O'Connor 1990).
    Historically, Ischaemum byrone was found on Oahu at an unspecified 
location, on the northeastern coasts of Molokai and east Maui, and 
along the central portion of the eastern coast of the island of Hawaii. 
Extant populations still occur on Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii. Two 
populations on east Molokai are located about 2 mi (3 km) apart at the 
head of Wailau Valley and on Kikipua Point on privately owned land. Six 
populations on east Maui are found along approximately 16 mi (26 km) of 
coast on privately, State-, and federally owned land on Pauwalu Point, 
on Kalahu Point, near Hana, on Kauiki Head, and on the following 
offshore islets: Keopuka Islet, Mokuhuki Islet, and Puukii Islet. On 
Hawaii, the species is still found in two populations at Auwae and 
Kamoamoa on privately and federally owned land. The total distribution 
of the species includes 10 populations on 3 islands with approximately 
1,200 to 2,200 individuals (HHP 1991m1 to 1991m10, 1991m12 to 1991m14), 
though the total number may be in the range of 5,000 individuals (R. 
Hobdy, in litt., 1993). Because this species occupies lowland habitat, 
it is at high risk from development, alien weeds, and in the past, from 
alien ungulates. This species typically grows in Coastal Dry Shrublands 
among rocks or on basalt cliffs at elevations between sea level and 250 
ft (0 and 75 m) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, O'Connor 1990). Associated 
species include Bidens spp. (ko'oko'olau), Fimbristylis cymosa, and 
Scaevola sericea (naupaka kahakai) (HHP 1991m5, 1991m7, 1991m9, 
1991m11, HPCC 1991f). The major threats to Ischaemum byrone are 
competition from alien species such as Digitaria ciliaris (Henry's 
crabgrass) and habitat change from volcanic activity (HHP 1991m3, HPCC 
1991f; Charles H. Lamoureux, Lyon Arboretum, pers. comm., 1992).
    Isodendrion pyrifolium was first collected on Oahu during the 
United States Exploring Expedition in 1841 and was named by Gray in 
1852. The specific epithet refers to the resemblance of the leaves of 
this species to those of Pyrus (pear). In his monograph of the genus, 
St. John (1952) named the following species, all of which are 
considered in the current treatment of the genus (Wagner et al. 1990) 
to be synonymous with I. pyrifolium: I. hawaiiense, I. hillebrandii, I. 
lanaiense, I. molokaiense, and I. remyi.
    Isodendrion pyrifolium of the violet family (Violaceae), a shrub 
about 2.6 to 6.6 ft (0.8 to 2 m) tall, has persistent stipules 
(leaflike appendages on leaves) and alternate, stalked, elliptic or 
sometimes lance-shaped, papery leaves which measure 1 to 2.6 in (2.5 to 
6.5 cm) long and 0.3 to 1.3 in (0.8 to 3.2 cm) wide. The solitary, 
bilaterally symmetrical, fragrant flowers have five lance-shaped sepals 
0.1 to 0.2 in (3.5 to 5 mm) long with membranous edges fringed with 
white hairs and three types of clawed (with a narrow petiole-like base) 
greenish-yellow petals 0.4 to 0.6 in (10 to 15 mm) long with lobes 
about 0.2 in (4 to 5 mm) long. The three-lobed, 0.5 in (12 mm) long 
capsule opens to release olive-green seeds about 0.1 in (3 mm) long and 
about 0.08 in (2 mm) in diameter. This species differs from others in 
this endemic Hawaiian genus by its slightly smaller, greenish-yellow 
flowers and by the presence of hairs on the stipule midribs and leaf 
veins (Wagner et al. 1990).
    Historically, Isodendrion pyrifolium was found at unspecified 
localities on Niihau, Molokai, and Lanai, as well as on Oahu in the 
central portion of the Waianae Mountains, on Maui in the northeastern 
to southwestern regions of the West Maui mountains, and on the island 
of Hawaii at the western base of Hualalai (HHP 1991n1 to 1991n5, Wagner 
et al. 1990). The species had not been collected since 1870 and was 
presumed extinct. However, in 1991, four plants were found on Hawaii at 
Kealakehe near Kona on State-owned land being developed for residential 
housing and a golf course (C. Corn, in litt. 1991; Francis Blanco, 
Hawaii Housing and Finance Development Corporation, and K. Nagata, 
pers. comms., 1992). In late 1992 and early 1993, 50 to 60 additional 
plants were found at this site (Evangeline Funk, Botanical Consultants, 
pers. comm., 1993). This species typically grows on dry sites in 
Lowland Dry to Mesic Forests at low elevations (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, 
Wagner et al. 1990). Associated species include 'iliahi, mamane, and 
Waltheria indica ('uhaloa) (Paul Weissich, Weissich and Associates, 
pers. comm., 1992). The major threats to Isodendrion pyrifolium are 
habitat conversion associated with residential and recreation 
development, competition from alien species such as fountain grass, 
fire, and stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due 
to the single known population and the small number of existing 
individuals (C. Corn, K. Nagata, and P. Weissich, pers. comms., 1992).
    In 1920, Kuekenthal described Cyperus fauriei based on a specimen 
collected by Faurie on Molokai in 1910 (Wagner et al. 1989). Koyama 
(1990), in the current treatment of the genus, transferred the species 
to Mariscus, resulting in M. fauriei.
    Mariscus fauriei of the sedge family (Cyperaceae), a perennial 
plant with somewhat enlarged underground stems and three-angled, single 
or grouped aerial stems 4 to 20 in (10 to 50 cm) tall, has leaves 
shorter than or the same length as the stems and 0.04 to 0.1 in (1 to 
3.5 mm) wide. Three to 5 bracts, the lowest one 2.4 to 7.9 in (6 to 20 
cm) long, are located under each flower cluster, which measures 0.8 to 
1.6 in (2 to 4 cm) long and 1.2 to 3.9 in (3 to 10 cm) wide and is made 
up of 3 to 10 spikes (unbranched clusters of unstalked flowers). Each 
spike measures 0.3 to 1.2 in (0.8 to 3 cm) long and 0.3 to 0.4 in (8 to 
10 mm) wide and is made up of compressed spreading spikelets, each 
comprising seven to nine flowers. Fruits are three-angled achenes about 
0.05 in (1.2 mm) long and about 0.03 in (0.7 mm) wide. This species 
differs from others in the genus in Hawaii by its smaller size and its 
narrower, flattened, and more spreading spikelets (Koyama 1990).
    Historically, Mariscus fauriei was found on east Molokai, in the 
northwestern and southwestern portions of Lanai, and on the island of 
Hawaii on the northern slope of Hualalai and the northwestern and 
southernmost slopes of Mauna Loa. A total of 3 extant populations and 
about 33 to 43 known individuals of the species are found on Molokai 
and Hawaii; the species is almost certainly extinct on Lanai now. One 
population of about 20 to 30 plants occurs on Molokai above Kamiloloa 
on State-owned land. Two populations located about 45 mi (72 km) apart 
are known on Hawaii on the Hualalai side of Mauna Loa and in the South 
Point area. The land is privately owned, and there are a total of about 
13 known individuals on that island (HHP 1991o1 to 1991o8, HPCC 1991g; 
R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1992). This species typically grows in lama-
dominated Lowland Dry Forests, often on aa substrate, at elevations 
between 880 and 6,000 ft (300 and 1,830 m) (HHP 1991o8, HPCC 1991g, 
Koyama 1990). Associated species include alahe'e, Peperomia sp. 
('ala'ala wai nui), and Rauvolfia sandwicensis (hao) (HHP 1991o8, HPCC 
1991g). The major threat to Mariscus fauriei on Molokai is grazing and 
trampling by feral goats and axis deer (Axis axis), and on Hawaii, 
competition from alien species such as Christmas berry and Oplismenus 
hirtellus (basketgrass). On both islands, the species is faced with 
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the 
small number of existing populations and individuals (HHP 1991o8, HPCC 
1991g; R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1992).
    First collected on the island of Hawaii by Charles Pickering during 
the United States Exploring Expedition of 1840 and 1841, Nothocestrum 
breviflorum was named by Gray in 1862. He chose the specific epithet to 
refer to the short corolla of the flower of this species. In 1888, 
Hillebrand named var. longipes, but in the current treatment of the 
genus (Symon 1990), no varieties of the species are recognized.
    Nothocestrum breviflorum of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), a 
stout tree 33 to 39 ft (10 to 12 m) tall with a trunk up to 18 in (45 
cm) in diameter, has deciduous, alternate, stalked, oblong or elliptic-
oblong, thick and papery-textured, toothless leaves which are 2 to 4.7 
in (5 to 12 cm) long and 1.2 to 2.4 in (3 to 6 cm) wide. Numerous 
bisexual, radially symmetrical flowers are clustered at the ends of 
short spurs (branches with much shortened internodes) on individual 
stalks 0.2 to 0.4 in (4 to 10 mm) long. Each flower consists of a 0.2 
to 0.4 in (6 to 11 mm) long, four-lobed tubular calyx split on one side 
and a greenish-yellow four-lobed corolla which barely projects beyond 
the calyx. The fruit, a somewhat spherical or oblong, orange-red berry 
about 0.2 to 0.3 in (6 to 8 mm) in diameter, is enclosed by the calyx. 
Seeds have not been observed. This species can be distinguished from 
others of this endemic Hawaiian genus by the leaf shape; the clusters 
of more than three flowers arranged on the ends of short branches; and 
the broad fruit enclosed by the calyx (Symon 1990).
    Historically, Nothocestrum breviflorum was found only on the island 
of Hawaii from the southern portion of the Kohala Mountains; the 
northern slope of Hualalai; and the eastern, southern, and western 
slopes of Mauna Loa. Today, extant populations have been found in much 
of the species' historic range, from near Waimea, near Kiholo, in Puu 
Waawaa, in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (HVNP) in Kipuka Ki and near 
Holei Pali, and in the South Point area. These 9 populations, which 
extend over a distance of about 63 by 41 mi (101 by 66 km), are found 
on privately, State-, and federally owned land and contain an estimated 
53 known individuals (HHP 1991p1 to 1991p12; J. Lau and W. Wagner, 
pers. comms., 1992). This species typically grows in koa- and 'ohi'a- 
or lama-dominated Lowland Dry Forests and Montane Dry or Mesic Forests, 
often on as substrate, at elevations between 590 and 6,000 ft (180 and 
1,830 m) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, HHP 1991p1, 1991p2, 1991p5, 1991p7, 
1991p12, HPCC 1991h, Symon 1990). Associated species include 'iliahi, 
Caesalpinia kavaiensis (uhiuhi), and Erythrina sandwicensis (wiliwili) 
(HHP 1991p1, 1991p3, 1991p4, 1991p12, HPCC 1991h; W. Wagner, pers. 
comm., 1992). The major threats to Nothocestrum breviflorum are habitat 
conversion associated with residential and recreational development, 
competition from alien species such as Christmas berry, fountain grass, 
lantana, and Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole); browsing by cattle; 
fire; and stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due 
to the small number of existing individuals (HHP 1991p4, 1991p6, 
1991p12, Lamb 1981; W. Wagner, pers. comm., 1992).
    Ochrosia kilaueaensis was first collected by Forbes in 1915 and was 
named by St. John in 1978. The specific epithet refers to Kilauea, the 
type locality of the plant on the island of Hawaii. Based on a specimen 
collected in 1909 by Rock, St. John (1978) named O. konaensis. In the 
current treatment of the genus (Wagner et al. 1990), O. konaensis is 
considered synonymous with O. kilaueaensis.
    Ochrosia kilaueaensis of the dogbane family (Apocynaceae) is a 
hairless tree 49 to 59 ft (15 to 18 m) tall with milky sap. The lance- 
or ellipse-shaped toothless leaves are arranged three or four per node, 
are 2.4 to 7.5 in (6 to 19 cm) long and 0.9 to 2.6 in (2.2 to 6.5 cm) 
wide, and have veins arising at nearly right angles to the midrib. Open 
clusters of numerous flowers have main stalks 1.8 to 2.5 in (4.5 to 6.3 
cm) long, secondary branches 0.4 to 1 in (1.1 to 2.5 cm) long, and 
individual flower stalks 0.2 to 0.3 in (5 to 7 mm) long. Each flower 
has a five-lobed calyx about 0.4 in (10 to 11 mm) long and a trumpet-
shaped greenish-white corolla with a tube 0.3 to 0.4 in (7 to 11 mm) 
long and lobes 0.5 to 0.6 in (12 to 15 mm) long. The fruit is a drupe 
(a fruit with a firm outer layer, a fleshy inner layer, and a stony 
inner layer surrounding a single seed) thought to be yellowish brown at 
maturity, 1.8 to 1.9 in (4.5 to 4.9 cm) long, and 0.9 to 1.1 in (2.4 to 
2.9 cm) wide. This species is distinguished from other Hawaiian species 
of the genus by the greater height of mature trees, the open flower 
clusters, the longer flower stalks, and the larger calyx and lobes of 
the corolla (Wagner et al. 1990).
    Historically, Ochrosia kilaueaensis has been collected on the 
northern slope of Hualalai and on the eastern slope of Mauna Loa. There 
is one known extant population located at Puu Waawaa on State-owned 
land and consisting of an unknown number of individuals (HHP 1991q1, 
1991q2). This species typically grows in koa- and 'ohi'a- or lama-
dominated Montane Mesic Forests at elevations between 2,200 and 4,000 
ft (670 and 1,220 m) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, HHP 1991q1, 1991q2, 
Wagner et al. 1990). Associated species include 'aiea, kauila, Gardenia 
brighamii (nanu), and Psychotria hawaiiensis (kopiko) (HHP 1991q1). The 
major threats to Ochrosia kilaueaensis are competition from alien 
species such as fountain grass, browsing by feral goats, fire, and 
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the 
single existing known population (Bruegmann 1990, CPC 1990).
    Gray (1862) named Plantago pachyphylla var. hawaiiensis and P. 
pachyphylla var. hawaiiensis subvar. gracilis based on specimens 
collected on the island of Hawaii during the United States Exploring 
Expedition of 1840 and 1841 and by Remy in the 1850s, respectively. 
Leveille (1911) published P. gaudichaudiana based on another specimen 
from the island of Hawaii. In 1923, Pilger raised the taxon to specific 
rank, resulting in P. hawaiensis, and also published a new variety, 
var. laxa (Pilger 1937). The specific epithet refers to the island 
where the plant grows. In the current treatment of the genus, only P. 
hawaiensis is accepted (Wagner et al. 1990).
    Plantago hawaiensis of the plantain family (Plantaginaceae), a 
perennial herb which grows from a stout short stem, has thick, 
leathery, narrowly oval or oblong leaves located at the base of the 
plant which measure 3 to 8.7 in (7.5 to 22 cm) long and usually 0.6 to 
1.3 in (1.5 to 3.2 cm) wide. The flowering stalk is 7.9 to 35 in (20 to 
90 cm) long and is topped by a spike usually 5.9 to 9 in (15 to 23 cm) 
long. Each upward pointing flower, subtended by a single bract 0.08 to 
0.1 in (2.1 to 2.6 mm) long, has a four-lobed calyx 0.06 to 0.09 in 
(1.6 to 2.2 mm) long and a trumpet-shaped corolla about 0.04 in (1 mm) 
long. The capsule, 0.1 to 0.2 in (2.6 to 4 mm) long and projecting from 
the calyx, opens to release four to six dull black seeds about 0.04 in 
(1 mm) long and winged on one end. This species is distinguished from 
other endemic and naturalized species of the genus in Hawaii by its 
perennial herbaceous habit; its thick leathery leaves; its upward 
pointing flowers; and its capsules which project from the calyx (Wagner 
et al. 1990).
    Historically, Plantago hawaiensis was found only on the island of 
Hawaii on the southern slope of Mauna Kea; the northeastern, 
southeastern, and southern slopes of Mauna Loa; and the western slope 
of Hualalai. Today, the species is known to occur on the Humuula 
Saddle, in the Upper Waiakea Forest Reserve, and near the Keapohina 
Upland on privately and State-owned land. The four extant populations 
extend over a distance of approximately 14 by 4 mi (23 by 6 km). There 
are no more than 10 known individuals (HHP 1991r1 to 1991r6). This 
species typically grows in boggy conditions in Montane Wet Herblands or 
in Montane Dry Shrublands dominated by koa or 'ohi'a trees of short 
stature, or sometimes in lava cracks, at elevations between 5,900 and 
6,400 ft (1,800 and 1,950 m) (HHP 1991r1, 1991r2, 1991r4, 1991r6, 
Wagner et al. 1990). The major threat to Plantago hawaiensis is 
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the 
small number of existing populations.
    Portulaca sclerocarpa was first collected during the United States 
Exploring Expedition of 1840 and 1841 and was named by Gray (1854). The 
specific epithet refers to the hardened capsule.
    Portulaca sclerocarpa of the purslane family (Portulacaceae), a 
perennial herb with a fleshy tuberous taproot which becomes woody, has 
stems up to about 7.9 in (20 cm) long. The stalkless, succulent, 
grayish-green leaves are almost circular in cross-section, 0.3 to 0.8 
in (8 to 21 mm) long, and about 0.06 to 0.1 in (1.5 to 2.5 mm) wide. 
Dense tufts of hairs are located in each leaf axil and underneath the 
tight clusters of three to six stalkless flowers grouped at the ends of 
the stems. Sepals are about 0.2 in (5 mm) long and have membranous 
edges. Petals are white, pink, or pink with a white base, about 0.4 in 
(10 mm) long, and surround about 30 stamens and an 8-branched style. 
The hardened capsules are about 0.2 in (4 to 4.5 mm) long, have walls 
0.01 to 0.02 in (0.18 to 0.5 mm) thick, open very late or not at all, 
and contain glossy, dark reddish-brown seeds about 0.02 in (0.4 to 0.6 
mm) long. This species differs from other native and naturalized 
species of the genus in Hawaii by its woody taproot, its narrow leaves, 
and the colors of its petals and seeds. Its closest relative, Portulaca 
villosa, differs mainly in its thinner-walled, opening capsule (Wagner 
et al. 1990).
    Historically, Portulaca sclerocarpa was found on an islet off the 
south coast of the island of Lanai and on the island of Hawaii in the 
Kohala Mountains, on the northern slope of Hualalai, the northwestern 
slope of Mauna Loa, and near Kilauea Crater. There is one extant 
population on Poopoo Islet off the coast of Lanai which contains about 
10 plants (R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1992). On Hawaii, 11 extant 
populations extend over a distance of about 54 by 32 mi (87 by 51 km) 
and are located on 3 cinder cones in the Nohonaohae area; at PTA near 
the Multi-Purpose Range Complex (MPRC); at Puu Anahulu; and near Puu 
Keanui and Puu Lehua on privately, State-, and federally owned land. 
The 11 populations on the island of Hawaii contain a total of 
approximately 72 to 122 individuals (Cuddihy et al. 1983, HHP 1991s1 to 
1991s12; R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1992; R. Shaw, in litt., 1993). This 
species typically grows in Montane Dry Shrublands, often on bare cinder 
and even near steam vents, at elevations between 3,380 and 5,340 ft 
(1,030 and 1,630 m) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990, Wagner et al. 1990). 
Associated species include mamane and 'ohi'a (HHP 1991s1, 1991s8 to 
1991s10, 1991s12, HPCC 1991i). The major threats to Portulaca 
sclerocarpa are competition from alien grasses such as fountain grass 
and Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge); trampling and habitat 
disturbance by feral goats, pigs, and sheep; habitat disturbance and 
damage to plants as a result of military exercises; and fire (HHP 
1991s2, 1991s9, HPCC 1991i; R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1992).
    Based on collections by Rock on the island of Hawaii, Beccari named 
Pritchardia affinis and three varieties: Var. halophila (misspelled as 
``holaphila''), var. rhopalocarpa, and var. gracilis (Beccari and Rock 
1921). In the current treatment of the genus (Read and Hodel 1990), no 
subspecific taxa are recognized.
    Pritchardia affinis of the palm family (Arecaceae) is a fan-leaved 
tree 33 to 82 ft (10 to 25 m) tall with pale or pinkish soft wool 
covering the underside of the petiole and extending onto the leaf 
blade. The wedge-shaped leaf has a green and smooth upper surface and a 
pale green lower surface with scattered yellowish scales. The branched, 
hairless flower clusters are located among the leaves. Each flower 
comprises a cup-shaped, three-lobed calyx; three petals; six stamens; 
and a three-lobed stigma. The spherical fruit is about 0.9 in (2.3 cm) 
in diameter. This species is distinguished from other species of 
Pritchardia by the long, tangled, woolly hairs on the underside of the 
petiole and the base of the lower leaf blade; the stout hairless flower 
clusters which do not extend beyond the wedge-shaped leaves; and the 
smaller, spherical fruit (Read and Hodel 1990).
    Historically, Pritchardia affinis was found only on the island of 
Hawaii in the Kohala Mountains and along the western and southeastern 
coasts. Today, scattered individuals of the species can be found 
throughout much of the historically known coastal range at Kiholo, at 
Kukio, near Palani Road, on Alii Drive in Kailua, in Captain Cook, at 
Hookena, at Milolii, and at Punaluu. Most plants grow within areas of 
human habitation or development, and the trees may have been cultivated 
by Hawaiians or others rather than having occurred in these areas 
naturally. There are an estimated 50 to 65 known individuals at 8 or 
more localities which extend along about 110 mi (180 km) along the 
coast on privately and State-owned land (HHP 1991t1 to 1991t6; Norman 
Bezona, Hawaii Cooperative Extension Service, Brien Meilleur, Amy 
Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden, and P. Weissich, pers. comms., 1992). 
This species typically grows in Coastal Mesic Forests at coastal sites 
or in gulches further inland at elevations between sea level and 2,000 
ft (0 and 610 m), possibly associated with brackish water (HHP 1991t2, 
Read and Hodel 1990; C. Corn, pers. comm., 1992). Native associated 
species of this loulu are unknown, since all trees are found in 
cultivated zones, which have long been cleared of their native cover 
(B. Meilleur, pers. comm., 1992). The major threats to Pritchardia 
affinis are predation on seeds by roof rats, development of land where 
individuals grow, and stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive 
vigor due to the small number of existing individuals. In the past, the 
species' natural habitat was cleared for agriculture and housing, and 
feral pigs destroyed seedlings of the species, preventing regeneration 
(Beccari and Rock 1921, Hull 1980; C. Corn, pers. comm., 1992).
    Gray (1854) mentioned an unnamed variety of Silene struthioloides, 
in reference to a specimen collected on the island of Hawaii during the 
United States Exploring Expedition of 1840 and 1841. Sherff named this 
taxon S. struthioloides var. gracilis in 1946 and later elevated it to 
specific rank, resulting in S. hawaiiensis (1949). He chose the 
specific epithet to refer to the island where the plant is found.
    Silene hawaiiensis of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), a 
sprawling shrub with slanting or climbing stems 6 to 16 in (15 to 40 
cm) long originating from an enlarged root, is covered with short, 
often sticky hairs. The stalkless narrow leaves are 0.2 to 0.6 in (6 to 
15 mm) long and 0.02 to 0.03 in (0.5 to 0.8 mm) wide. Flowers are 
arranged in elongate clusters. Each flower has a stalk 0.1 to 0.2 in (3 
to 6 mm) long; a five-toothed purple or purple-tinged calyx 0.4 to 0.6 
in (11 to 14 mm) long; and five petals, greenish white above and maroon 
below, with a stalk-like base and a flat, two-lobed, expanded portion 
about 0.2 in (4.5 to 5.5 mm) long. The fruit is a capsule about 0.3 in 
(6.5 to 8 mm) long which releases pale brown seeds 0.02 to 0.03 in (0.4 
to 0.7 mm) long. This species differs from others of Silene in Hawaii 
by its growth habit; its covering of short, often sticky hairs; the 
shape of its leaves; the arrangement of its flower clusters; and the 
color of its petals (Wagner et al. 1990).
    Historically, Silene hawaiiensis was found only on the island of 
Hawaii from the western slope of Mauna Kea; the summit of Hualalai; 
Humuula Saddle; the northern, western, and northwestern slopes of Mauna 
Loa; and near Kilauea Crater. Today, over 50 populations are found in 
Hamakua District; on Humuula Saddle; at PTA, including inside MPRC; 
north of Puu Keanui; and in HVNP on privately, State-, and federally 
owned land. These populations extend over a distance of approximately 
12 by 7 mi (19 by 11 km) and contain over 3,000 individuals (HHP 1991u1 
to 1991u10, HPCC 1991j; R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1992, R. Shaw, in litt., 
1993). This species typically grows in Montane or Subalpine Dry 
Shrublands in decomposed lava and ash, but can be found on all ages of 
lava and cinder substrates, at elevations between 3,000 and 4,300 ft 
(900 and 1,300 m) and sometimes up to 8,500 ft (2,575 m) (Wagner et al. 
1990; R. Shaw, in litt., 1993). Associated species include Dodonaea 
viscosa ('a'ali'i), Styphelia tameiameiae (pukiawe), and Vaccinium 
reticulatum ('ohelo) (HHP 1991u6, HPCC 1991j; R. Shaw, pers. comm., 
1992). Many populations of Silene hawaiiensis are threatened by 
competition with alien plant species, particularly fountain grass; 
grazing, browsing, and trampling by feral goats, pigs, and sheep; 
habitat disturbance and damage to plants as a result of military 
exercises; fire; and volcanic activity (HPCC 1991j). While the existing 
populations of Silene hawaiiensis are not in immediate danger of 
extinction, if these threats are not curtailed, the species will become 
endangered in the future.
    Gray (1861a) named a plant collected on the island of Hawaii during 
the United States Exploring Expedition of 1840 and 1841 Vittadenia 
arenaria. Hillebrand (1888) transferred the species to the genus 
Tetramolopium and named a second variety, var. dentatum. In the current 
treatment of the genus (Lowrey 1986, 1990), two subspecies, ssp. 
arenarium and ssp. laxum, are recognized. Variety confertum, described 
by Sherff in 1934, is recognized (Lowrey 1986, 1990) as a variety of 
ssp. arenarium. Because of a recently recognized typification problem, 
ssp. laxum actually should be referred to as ssp. arenarium, leaving 
what was called ssp. arenarium without a published name (Laven et al. 
1991).
    Tetramolopium arenarium of the aster family (Asteraceae), an erect 
tufted shrub 2.6 to 4.3 ft (0.8 to 1.3 m) tall, is covered with tiny 
glands and straight hairs. The alternate, toothless or shallowly 
toothed leaves are more or less lance-shaped, 0.6 to 1.5 in (15 to 37 
mm) long, and 0.1 to 0.4 in (3 to 9 mm) wide. Five to 11 heads (dense 
flower clusters) are grouped at the end of each stem. Each head 
comprises a bell-shaped structure of 20 to 34 bracts 0.1 to 0.2 in (2.5 
to 5 mm) high and 0.2 to 0.4 in (4 to 9 mm) in diameter beneath the 
flowers; a single series of 22 to 45 white, male ray florets 0.05 to 
0.09 in (1.3 to 2.2 mm) long; and 4 to 9 bisexual disk florets with 
maroon petals 0.12 to 0.17 in (3.1 to 4.4 mm) long. Fruits are 
compressed achenes 0.06 to 0.1 in (1.5 to 3 mm) long and 0.02 to 0.03 
in (0.5 to 0.8 mm) wide. This species is distinguished from others of 
the genus by its erect habit; the presence and types of glands and 
hairs on the plant; the fewer heads per flower cluster; the larger, 
male ray florets; the fewer, bisexual, maroon-petalled disk florets; 
and the wider achenes (Lowrey 1990).
    Historically, Tetramolopium arenarium was found on the island of 
Maui on the western slope of Halakeala and on the island of Hawaii from 
the Kohala Mountains, the northwestern slopes of Mauna Kea and Mauna 
Loa, and the slopes of Hualalai. Only one population is known today, 
and it occurs on Hawaii in Kipuka Kalawamauna at PTA on federally 
managed land. At last count (January 1993), there were 29 reproductive 
and 79 juvenile plants in a 660 by 200 ft (200 by 60 m) area (HHP 
1991v1 to 1991v4, 1991w, HPCC 1990a, Laven et al. 1991; R. Shaw, pers. 
comm., 1992; R. Shaw, in litt., 1993). This species typically grows in 
open 'a'ali'i-dominated Lowland or Montane Dry Forests at elevations 
between 2,600 and 4,900 ft (800 and 1,500 m) (Lowrey 1990). Associated 
species include 'a'ali'i, pukiawe, Chamaesyce olowaluana ('akoko), and 
Dubautia linearis (na'ena'e) (HPCC 1990a). The major threats to 
Tetramolopium arenarium are competition from alien plant species, 
particularly fountain grass; grazing, browsing, trampling, and habitat 
disturbance by feral goats, pigs, and sheep; habitat disturbance and 
damage to plants as a result of military exercises; fire; and 
stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the 
single existing population (Douglas et al. 1989, HPCC 1990a, Herbst and 
Fay 1979).
    Hillebrand (1888) described Zanthoxylum hawaiiense based on a 
specimen collected on the island of Hawaii and also indicated an 
unnamed variety for a specimen collected on Lanai. Other names 
published for portions of this taxon include: Z. bluettianum (Rock 
1913), Z. hawaiiense var. citriodora (Rock 1913), Z. hawaiiense var. 
velutinosum (Rock 1913), and Z. hawaiiense var. subacutum (St. John 
1976). Some authors placed Hawaiian species in the genus Fagara, 
resulting in F. hawaiiensis (Engler 1896) and F. bluettiana (Engler 
1931). Sherff (1958) named F. hawaiiensis var. citriodora, F. 
hawaiiensis var. subacutata, and F. hawaiiensis var. velutinosa, all of 
which are considered within the range of variation of Z. hawaiiense in 
the current treatment of the Hawaiian species (Stone et al. 1990).
    Zanthoxylum hawaiiense of the rue family (Rutaceae), a thornless 
tree usually 10 to 26 ft (3 to 8 m) tall with a trunk up to 10 in (25 
cm) in diameter, has alternate leaves comprising three leathery, 
triangular-oval or lance-shaped, gland-dotted, lemon-scented, toothed 
leaflets usually 1.3 to 3.9 in (3.4 to 10 cm) long and 0.6 to 2 in (1.5 
to 5 cm) wide. The stalk of each of the two side leaflets has one 
joint, and the stalk of the terminal leaflet has two joints. Flowers 
are usually either male or female, and usually only one sex is found on 
a single tree. Clusters of 15 to 20 flowers 1.6 to 3.1 in (4 to 8 cm) 
long have a main flower stalk 0.8 to 2 in (20 to 50 mm) long and 
individual flower stalks 0.08 to 0.2 in (2 to 4 mm) long. Each flower 
has four narrowly triangular sepals about 0.04 in (1 mm) long and four 
hairless petals (possibly absent in male flowers) of an unknown color. 
The fruit is a sickle-shaped follicle (dry fruit that opens along one 
side) 0.3 to 0.4 in (8 to 10 mm) long, containing one black seed about 
0.3 in (7 to 8 mm) in diameter. This species is distinguished from 
other Hawaiian species of the genus by its leaves, which are always 
made up of three leaflets of similar size; the presence of only one 
joint on some of the leaflet stalks; and the shorter follicle with a 
rounded tip (Stone et al. 1990).
    Historically, Zanthoxylum hawaiiense was known to occur in the 
central portion of the island of Kauai; on east Molokai; in the central 
part of the island of Lanai; on east Maui on the southwestern and 
southern slopes of Haleakala; and on the island of Hawaii in the Kohala 
Mountains, on the northern slope of Hualalai, and on the northwestern 
slope of Mauna Loa. There is now one living individual known on Kauai 
in Kawaiiki Valley on State-owned land. On Molokai, three extant 
populations of the species occur on privately and State-owned and 
federally managed land in Kalaupapa National Historical Park (NHP), in 
Pelekunu Valley, and near Puu Kolekole. The Molokai populations extend 
over a distance of about 3 by 2 mi (5 by 3 km). Although the number of 
plants at one of the sites is uncertain, it is estimated that the three 
populations contain five plants. On Lanai, one population with an 
unknown number of individuals has been reported on privately owned 
property in Kaiholena Gulch. On east Maui, extant populations of Z. 
hawaiiense have been found in Kahikinui, above Lualailua, above Kanaio, 
and in Auwahi. These four populations extend over a distance of 
approximately 5 by 3 mi (8 by 5 km) and contain a total of fewer than 
ten plants. On the island of Hawaii, individuals are found at Puu 
Waawaa and at PTA on State-owned and federally managed land. These 
extant populations are located about 13 mi (21 km) apart and contain a 
total of about 150 plants (R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1993; R. Shaw in 
litt., 1993). In summary, Zanthoxylum hawaiiense is currently located 
on 5 islands and consists of 11 populations and about 166 individuals 
(HHP 1991x1 to 1991x16; R. Shaw, pers. comms., 1991, 1993; R. Shaw, in 
litt., 1993).
    Zanthoxylum hawaiiense typically grows in 'ohi'a-dominated Lowland 
Dry or Mesic Forests, and Montane Dry Forests, often on aa lava, at 
elevations between 1,800 and 5,710 ft (550 and 1,740 m) (Gagne and 
Cuddihy 1990, Stone et al. 1990). Associated species include Antidesma 
platyphyllum (hame) on Kauai, Pleomele auwahiensis (hala pepe) on 
Molokai, Streblus pendulinus (a'ia'i) on Maui, and mamane and naio on 
the island of Hawaii (HHP 1991x1, 1991x5, 1991x9, 1991x11, HPCC 1990b; 
R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1992). A threat to Z. hawaiiense on Kauai is 
competition from alien plant species such as lantana and Melia 
azedarach (Chinaberry) (HHP 1991x11). On Molokai, competition with 
alien plant species, grazing, browsing, trampling, and habitat 
disturbance by feral goats are threats (HHP 1991x5; Lyman Perry, The 
Nature Conservancy of Hawaii, in litt., 1993). On Maui, competition 
with Kikuyu grass, which forms a continuous mat in many areas, and 
grazing, browsing, trampling, and habitat disturbance by cattle and 
goats are threats (A. Medeiros, pers. comm., 1992; A. Medeiros and 
Lloyd Loope, Haleakala National Park, in litt., 1993). The major 
threats to the species on the island of Hawaii are competition from 
alien plant species such as fountain grass; grazing, browsing, 
trampling, and habitat disturbance by feral goats and sheep; habitat 
disturbance and damage to plants as a result of military exercises; and 
fire (CPC 1990, HHP 1991x10, HPCC 1990b). In addition, the species is 
threatened by stochastic extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor 
due to the small number of existing individuals.

Previous Federal Action

    Federal action on these plants began as a result of section 12 of 
the Act, which directed the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to 
prepare a report on plants considered to be endangered, threatened, or 
extinct in the United States. This report, designated as House Document 
No. 94-51, was presented to Congress on January 9, 1975. In that 
document, Clermontia lindseyana, Clermontia peleana, Colubrina 
oppositifolia, Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii (as C. carlsonii), 
Cyanea shipmanii, Hesperocnide sandwicensis, Ischaemum byrone, 
Nothocestrum breviflorum (as N. breviflorum var. breviflorum), 
Portulaca sclerocarpa, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (as Z. hawaiiense 
var. citriodora) were considered to be endangered. Cyrtandra giffardii, 
Silene hawaiiensis (as S. hawaiiensis var. hawaiiensis), and 
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (as Z. hawaiiense var. hawaiiense and Z. 
hawaiiense var. velutinosum) were considered to be threatened. 
Clermontia pyrularia, Isodendrion pyrifolium, Nothocestrum breviflorum 
(as N. breviflorum var. longipes), and Tetramolopium arenarium (as T. 
arenarium var. arenarium, T. arenarium var. confertum, and T. arenarium 
var. dentatum) were considered to be extinct. On July 1, 1975, the 
Service published a notice in the Federal Register (40 FR 27823) of its 
acceptance of the Smithsonian report as a petition within the context 
of section 4(c)(2) (now section 4(b)(3)) of the Act, and giving notice 
of its intention to review the status of the plant taxa named therein. 
As a result of that review, on June 16, 1976, the Service published a 
proposed rule in the Federal Register (41 FR 24523) to determine 
endangered status pursuant to section 4 of the Act for approximately 
1,700 vascular plant species, including all of the above taxa 
considered to be endangered or thought to be extinct. The list of 1,700 
plant taxa was assembled on the basis of comments and data received by 
the Smithsonian Institution and the Service in response to House 
Document No. 94-51 and the July 1, 1975, Federal Register publication.
    General comments received in response to the 1976 proposal are 
summarized in an April 26, 1978, Federal Register publication (43 FR 
17909). In 1978, amendments to the Act required that all proposals over 
2 years old be withdrawn. A 1-year grace period was given to proposals 
already over 2 years old. On December 10, 1979, the Service published a 
notice in the Federal Register (44 FR 70796) withdrawing the portion of 
the June 16, 1976, proposal that had not been made final, along with 
four other proposals that had expired. The Service published updated 
notices of review for plants on December 15, 1980 (45 FR 82480), 
September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39526), and February 21, 1990 (55 FR 6184). 
In these notices, 10 of the taxa (including synonymous taxa) that had 
been proposed as endangered in the June 16, 1976, proposed rule were 
treated as Category 1 candidates for Federal listing. Category 1 taxa 
are those for which the Service has on file substantial information on 
biological vulnerability and threats to support preparation of listing 
proposals. Clermontia lindseyana, Clermontia pyrularia, Colubrina 
oppositifolia, Cyanea shipmanii, Hesperocnide sandwicensis, Ischaemum 
byrone, Nothocestrum breviflorum, Portulaca sclerocarpa, and 
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense, which were proposed as endangered in the June 
16, 1976, proposed rule, were considered Category 1 candidates on all 
three notices of review; Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii was 
considered a Category 1 taxon as Cyanea carlsonii in the 1980 and 1985 
notices and as Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii in the 1990 notice. 
Cyanea stictophylla and Silene hawaiiensis were considered Category 1 
species in all three notices. In the 1980 and 1985 notices, Isodendrion 
pyrifolium and Tetramolopium arenarium were considered Category 1* 
species. In the 1990 notice, these two species were accorded Category 
3A status, but because new information regarding their existence has 
become available, they were proposed in 1992 for listing. Category 1* 
taxa are those which are possibly extinct, and Category 3A taxa are 
those for which the Service has persuasive evidence of extinction. 
Cyrtandra giffardii appeared as a Category 2 species and Clermontia 
peleana as a Category 3C species in the 1980 and 1985 notices. Ochrosia 
kilaueaensis first appeared as a Category 2 species in the 1985 notice. 
Category 2 taxa are those for which there is some evidence of 
vulnerability, but for which there are not enough data to support 
listing proposals at the time. Category 3C taxa are those which are 
more abundant than previously believed, and/or those that are not 
subject to any identifiable threat. Because new information provided 
support for listing, the above three species were conferred Category 1 
status in the 1990 notice. The Service recognized Cyanea copelandii 
ssp. copelandii, Cyrtandra tintinnabula, Mariscus fauriei, Plantago 
hawaiensis, and Pritchardia affinis as Category 1 taxa for the first 
time in the 1990 notice.
    Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires the Secretary to make 
findings on petitions that present substantial information indicating 
that the petitioned action may be warranted within 12 months of their 
receipt. Section 2(b)(1) of the 1982 amendments further requires all 
petitions pending on October 13, 1982, be treated as having been newly 
submitted on that date. On October 13, 1983, the Service found that the 
petitioned listing of these taxa was warranted, but precluded by other 
pending listing actions, in accordance with section 4(b)(3)(B)(iii) of 
the Act; notification of this finding was published on January 20, 1984 
(49 FR 2485). Such a finding requires the Service to consider the 
petition as having been resubmitted, pursuant to section 4(b)(3)(C)(i) 
of the Act. The finding was reviewed in October of 1984, 1985, 1986, 
1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, and 1991. Publication of the proposed rule 
constituted the final 1-year finding for these taxa.
    On December 17, 1992, the Service published in the Federal Register 
(57 FR 59951) a proposal to list 22 plant taxa from the island of 
Hawaii as endangered. This proposal was based primarily on information 
supplied by the Hawaii Heritage Program, the Hawaii Plant Conservation 
Center, and observations of botanists and naturalists. The Service now 
determines 20 taxa primarily from the island of Hawaii to be endangered 
and 1 taxon from the island of Hawaii to be threatened, with the 
publication of this rule. One additional taxon has been withdrawn from 
consideration for listing.

Summary of Comments and Recommendations

    In the December 17, 1992, proposed rule and associated 
notifications, all interested parties were requested to submit factual 
reports or information that might contribute to the development of a 
final decision on the proposal. The public comment period ended on 
February 16, 1993. Appropriate State agencies, county and city 
governments, Federal agencies, scientific organizations, and other 
interested parties were contacted and requested to comment. Newspaper 
notices inviting general public comments were published in the Honolulu 
Advertiser on January 4, 1993 and in the Hawaii Tribune Herald on 
January 6, 1993. Nine letters of comment were received. No requests for 
public hearings were received. Additional biological information 
contained in these comments has been incorporated into the final rule. 
Three letters provided only biological information and did not provide 
any comments on the proposed listing. Three letters provided both 
additional information and supported the listing of all 22 species as 
endangered species. One letter provided additional biological 
information and specifically recommended that three of the species not 
be listed as endangered or threatened. One letter suggested that it 
would be better to promote the horticultural use of a particular taxon 
rather than list it as endangered. These issues and the Service's 
response are discussed below:
    Issue 1: Status of Hesperocnide sandwicensis: One respondent stated 
that this species should not be listed as an endangered or threatened 
plant, because there are a large number of individuals (possibly over 1 
million), the taxon is widespread, the species is adapted to 
disturbance, there is an abundance of protected habitat, and there are 
few serious threats to its survival.
    Service Response: At the time the proposed rule was written, the 
number of Hesperocnide sandwicensis was thought to range from several 
hundred to approximately 1,300 individuals. Extensive surveys in 1992 
and early 1993 have documented tens of thousands of plants on lava 
flows between Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea (R. Shaw, in litt., 1993). The 
Service has carefully considered the respondent's comments and concurs 
with his evaluation. Due to the location and large number of new 
populations and individuals now known, the Service is not including 
Hesperocnide sandwicensis in the final rule. This species is placed in 
category 3C of the Service's plant notice of review and is removed from 
the list of candidate species, although the Service will continue to 
monitor threats to the populations.
    Issue 2: Status of Pritchardia affinis: One respondent suggested 
that an alternative to listing the species as endangered would be to 
promote the use of Pritchardia affinis for use as a culturally 
significant landscape plant.
    Service Response: Designating Pritchardia affinis as an endangered 
species affords this taxon significant legal protection. While the use 
of species such as Pritchardia affinis for landscaping purposes may 
have important educational or cultural benefits, such plantings would 
not ensure the protection of the few remaining individuals in the wild.
    Issue 3: Status of Silene hawaiiensis: One respondent stated that 
this species should not be listed as an endangered or threatened 
species, because the taxon is relatively common throughout its range 
(over 3,000 plants), the taxon is widely distributed, many populations 
are in protected areas, there are few serious threats to its survival, 
and there are significant taxonomic uncertainties regarding its status 
as a species.
    Service Response: At the time the proposed rule was written, the 
number of Silene hawaiiensis was thought to be between 2,600 and 2,700 
individuals in 17 populations. Despite extensive surveys in the area of 
PTA, the total number of known plants is still fewer than 4,000 
individuals (R. Shaw, in litt., 1993). While small populations of this 
taxon are found throughout the area between Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea, 
most populations are still threatened by fire, grazing, and 
disturbances. Fewer than 1,000 plants are known from well protected 
areas (Hawaii Volcanoes National Park). The most authoritative 
taxonomic treatment of Hawaiian Silene maintains this taxon as a valid 
species (Wagner et al. 1990). No published taxonomic studies since then 
have questioned the validity of Silene hawaiiensis. Based on the above 
information, the Service determines that Silene hawaiiensis is not now 
in danger of extinction, but that Silene hawaiiensis is likely to 
become endangered in the foreseeable future if the threats posed by 
fire, competition from alien plant species, and feral goats, pigs, and 
sheep are not curbed. Thus, this taxon is designated a threatened 
species.
    Issue 4: Status of Zanthoxylum hawaiiense: One respondent 
questioned if it was possible to list this taxon as endangered only on 
the islands of Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui and not list it on the 
island of Hawaii because it is more common on Hawaii (possibly between 
750 and 3,750 plants).
    Service Response: The Act does not allow for the listing of plants 
in only a portion of their ranges. Consequently, a plant species is 
listed as endangered if it is in danger of extinction over all or a 
significant portion of its range. At the time the proposed rule was 
written, the number of Zanthoxylum hawaiiense was thought to be fewer 
than 75 individuals. Extensive surveys in the area of PTA have located 
approximately 150 individuals (R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1993). The 
respondent's figures of between 750 and 3,750 plants is based upon an 
extrapolation of plant densities on PTA to lower elevation areas which, 
in general, have been more affected by cattle grazing, goats, pigs, and 
fires. This type of extrapolation is not warranted, given the potential 
differences between the two areas. However, even if these estimates 
were correct, the species would still be in danger of extinction due to 
the presence, throughout its entire range, of uncontrolled threats such 
as fire; competition from alien plant species; and susceptibility to 
grazing, browsing, trampling, and habitat disturbance by feral goats 
and sheep. For these reasons, Zanthoxylum hawaiiense is determined to 
be an endangered species.

Summary of Factors Affecting the Species

    After thorough review and consideration of all information 
available, the Service has determined that 20 plant taxa from the 
island of Hawaii should be classified as endangered species and 1 taxon 
from the island of Hawaii should be classified as threatened. One taxon 
has been withdrawn from consideration.
    Procedures found at section 4 of the Endangered Species Act and 
regulations (50 CFR part 424) promulgated to implement the listing 
provisions of the Act were followed. A species may be determined to be 
an endangered or threatened species due to one or more of the five 
factors described in section 4(a)(1). The threats facing these 21 taxa 
are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.

                      Table 1.--Summary of Threats                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                      Alien   Disease   Alien    Limited
              Species                mammals  insects   plants  numbers*
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Clermontia lindseyana..............  CGPr     .......  X        ........
Clermontia peleana.................  PR       .......  .......  X1      
Clermontia pyrularia...............  r        .......  X        X1,2    
Colubrina oppositifolia............  P        X        X        ........
Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii..  r        .......  .......  X1,2    
Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii..  Cr       .......  X        X2,3    
Cyanea shipmanii...................  r        .......  .......  X2,3    
Cyanea stictophylla................  Cr       .......  .......  X2,3    
Cyrtandra giffardii................  P        .......  .......  X2,3    
Cyrtandra tintinnabula.............  P        .......  .......  X2,3    
Ischaemum byrone...................  dg       .......  X        ........
Isodendrion pyrifolium.............  .......  .......  X        X2,3    
Mariscus fauriei...................  DG       .......  X        X2,3    
Nothocestrum breviflorum...........  C        .......  X        X2,3    
Ochrosia kilaueaensis..............  Gr       X        X        X1,2    
Plantago hawaiensis................  .......  X        X        X1,2    
Portulaca sclerocarpa..............  GPS      .......  X        ........
Pritchardia affinis................  R        P        .......  X3      
Silene hawaiiensis.................  GPS      .......  X        ........
Tetramolopium arenarium............  GPS      .......  X        X2      
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense.............  dG       .......  X        X       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 1. Key:                                                           
C/c=Cattle                                                              
D/d=Deer                                                                
G/g=Goats                                                               
P/p=Pigs                                                                
R/r=Rats                                                                
S/s=Sheep                                                               
X=Immediate and significant threat. Alien mammals shown in uppercase    
  characters.                                                           
P=Potential threat. Alien mammals shown in lowercase characters.        
*=No more than 100 known individuals and/or no more than 5 known        
  populations.                                                          
1=No more than 10 known individuals.                                    
2=No more than 5 known populations.                                     
3=No more than 100 known individuals.                                   


                      Table 2.--Summary of Threats                      
------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                             Natural    Human           
             Species                Fire    disasters  impacts  Military
                                                                        
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Clermontia lindseyana............  .......  .........  .......  ........
Clermontia peleana...............  .......  X          X        ........
Clermontia pyrularia.............  .......  .........  P        ........
Colubrina oppositifolia..........  X        .........  P        X       
Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii  .......  .........  P        ........
Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii  .......  .........  .......  ........
Cyanea shipmanii.................  .......  .........  .......  ........
Cyanea stictophylla..............  .......  .........  .......  ........
Cyrtandra giffardii..............  .......  .........  P        ........
Cyrtandra tintinnabula...........  .......  .........  .......  ........
Ischaemum byrone.................  .......  X          X        ........
Isodendrion pyrifolium...........  X        .........  X        ........
Mariscus fauriei.................  .......  .........  .......  ........
Nothocestrum breviflorum.........  X        .........  X        ........
Ochrosia kilaueaensis............  X        .........  P        ........
Plantago hawaiensis..............  .......  .........  .......  ........
Portulaca sclerocarpa............  X        .........  P        X       
Pritchardia affinis..............  .......  .........  X        ........
Silene hawaiiensis...............  X        X          P        X       
Tetramolopium arenarium..........  X        .........  P        X       
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense...........  X        .........  P        X       
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Key: X=Immediate and significant threat.                                
P=Potential threat.                                                     

These factors and their application to Clermontia lindseyana Rock ('oha 
wai), Clermontia peleana Rock ('oha wai), Clermontia pyrularia Hillebr. 
('oha wai), Colubrina oppositifolia Brongn. ex H. Mann (kauila), Cyanea 
copelandii Rock ssp. copelandii (haha), Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. 
carlsonii (Rock) Lammers (haha), Cyanea shipmanii Rock (haha), Cyanea 
stictophylla Rock (haha), Cyrtandra giffardii Rock (ha'iwale), 
Cyrtandra tintinnabula Rock (ha'iwale), Ischaemum byrone (Trin.) Hitch. 
(Hilo ischaemum), Isodendrion pyrifolium A. Gray (wahine noho kula), 
Mariscus fauriei (Kukenth.) T. Koyama (NCN), Nothocestrum breviflorum 
A. Gray ('aiea), Ochrosia kilaueaensis St. John (holei), Plantago 
hawaiensis (A. Gray) Pilg. (laukahi kuahiwi), Portulaca sclerocarpa A. 
Gray (po'e), Pritchardia affinis Becc. (loulu), Silene hawaiiensis 
Sherff (NCN), Tetramolopium arenarium (A. Gray) Hillebr. (NCN), and 
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense Hillebr. (a'e) are as follows:

A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment 
of Its Habitat or Range

    The habitat of the plants included in this rule has undergone 
extreme alteration because of past and present land management 
practices, including deliberate alien animal and plant introductions; 
agricultural, commercial, and urban development; and military and 
recreational use. Natural disturbances such as flooding, landslides, 
and volcanic activity also destroy habitat and can have a significant 
effect on small populations of plants. Competition with alien plants as 
well as destruction of plants and modification of habitat by introduced 
animals are the primary threats facing 18 of the 21 taxa included in 
this rule (See Table 1).
    Beginning with Captain James Cook in 1792, early European explorers 
introduced livestock, which became feral, increased in number and 
range, and caused significant changes to the natural environment of 
Hawaii. The 1848 provision for land sales to individuals allowed large-
scale agricultural and ranching ventures to begin. So much land was 
cleared for these enterprises that climatic conditions began to change, 
and the amount and distribution of rainfall were altered (Wenkam 1969). 
Plantation owners supported reforestation programs which resulted in 
many alien trees being introduced in the hope that the watershed could 
be conserved.
    Past and present activities of introduced alien mammals are the 
primary factor in altering and degrading vegetation and habitats on the 
island of Hawaii as well as on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui, where 
some populations of these species occur. Feral ungulates trample and 
eat native vegetation and disturb and open areas. This causes erosion 
and allows the entry of alien plant species (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, 
Wagner et al. 1990). Fourteen taxa in this rule are directly threatened 
by habitat degradation resulting from introduced ungulates: 4 taxa are 
threatened by cattle, 1 taxon by deer, 7 taxa by goats, 8 by pigs, and 
4 by sheep.
    Axis deer (Axis axis), native to Sri Lanka and India, were first 
introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1868 as a game animal on Molokai, 
later to Oahu and Lanai, and finally to east Maui in 1960. Hunting of 
axis deer is allowed only on Molokai and Lanai during 2 months of the 
year (Hawaii DLNR 1985, Tomich 1986). The animal constitutes a threat 
to Mariscus fauriei on Molokai and a potential threat to Ischaemum 
byrone and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense on Molokai and Maui (HHP 1991x5, HPCC 
1990b, Medeiros et al. 1986; R. Hobdy, pers. comm., 1992).
    Cattle (Bos taurus), the wild progenitor of which was native to 
Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern Asia, were introduced to the 
Hawaiian Islands in 1793. Large feral herds developed as a result of 
restrictions on killing cattle decreed by King Kamehameha I. While 
small cattle ranches were developed on Kauai, Oahu, and west Maui, very 
large ranches of tens of thousands of acres were created on east Maui 
and Hawaii. Much of the land used in these private enterprises was 
leased from the State or was privately owned and considered Forest 
Reserve and/or Conservation District land. On Kauai, both sides of 
Waimea Canyon were supporting large cattle ranching operations by the 
1870s (Ryan and Chang 1985). Feral cattle roamed Oahu, but most were 
removed by the early 1960s; today only a few can be found in the 
northwestern part of the island (J. Lau, pers. comm., 1990). Feral 
cattle were formerly found on Molokai and Maui and damaged the forests 
there. Feral cattle can presently be found on the island of Hawaii, and 
ranching is still a major commercial activity there. Hunting of feral 
cattle is no longer allowed in Hawaii (Hawaii DLNR 1985). Cattle eat 
native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, cause erosion, create 
disturbed areas into which alien plants invade, and spread seeds of 
alien plants in their feces and on their bodies. The forest in areas 
grazed by cattle becomes degraded to grassland pasture, and plant cover 
is reduced for many years following removal of cattle from an area. 
Several alien grasses and legumes purposely introduced for cattle 
forage have become noxious weeds (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Tomich 1986).
    The habitats of many of the plants in this rule were degraded in 
the past by feral cattle, and this has had effects which still persist. 
Some taxa in this rule are still being directly affected by cattle. 
These include: Clermontia lindseyana, Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. 
carlsonii, Cyanea stictophylla, and Nothocestrum breviflorum (HHP 
1991a1, 1991p4, 1991p5, HPCC 1990b, 1991a, 1991h; F. Duvall and A. 
Medeiros, pers. comms., 1992).
    Goats (Capra hircus), a species originally native to the Middle 
East and India, were successfully introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 
1792, and currently there are populations on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, 
Maui, and Hawaii. On Kauai, feral goats have been present in drier, 
more rugged areas since 1820; they still occur in Waimea Canyon. Goats 
have been on Oahu since about 1820, and they currently occur in the 
northern Waianae Mountains. On Molokai, goats degrade dry forests at 
low elevations. On Maui, goats have been widespread for 100 to 150 
years and are common throughout the south slope of Haleakala (Medeiros 
et al. 1986). On Hawaii, goats damage low-elevation dry forest, montane 
parkland, subalpine woodlands, and alpine grasslands. Goats are managed 
in Hawaii as a game animal, but many herds populate inaccessible areas 
where hunting has little effect on their numbers. Goat hunting is 
allowed year-round or during certain months, depending on the area 
(Hawaii DLNR n.d., 1985). Goats browse on introduced grasses and native 
plants, especially in drier and more open ecosystems. They also trample 
roots and seedlings, cause erosion, and promote the invasion of alien 
plants. They are able to forage in extremely rugged terrain and have a 
high reproductive capacity (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Culliney 1988, 
Tomich 1986). Clermontia lindseyana, Mariscus fauriei, Ochrosia 
kilaueaensis, Portulaca sclerocarpa, Silene hawaiiensis, Tetramolopium 
arenarium, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense are currently threatened by goats 
(Bruegmann 1990, CPC 1990, HHP 1991s5, 1991x5, HPCC 1990b; R. Hobdy, A. 
Medeiros, and R. Shaw, pers. comms., 1992), and Ischaemum byrone is 
potentially threatened by the animal (HHP 1991m11; R. Hobdy, pers. 
comm., 1992).
    Sheep (Ovis aries) have become firmly established on the island of 
Hawaii (Tomich 1986) since their introduction almost 200 years ago 
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990). Like feral goats, sheep roam the upper 
elevation dry forests of Mauna Kea (above 3,300 ft (1,000 m)), 
including PTA, causing damage similar to that of goats (Stone 1985). 
Sheep have decimated vast areas of native forest and shrubland on Mauna 
Kea and continue to do so as a managed game species. Sheep threaten the 
habitat of at least two previously listed endangered species as well as 
the following plant species included in this rule: Portulaca 
sclerocarpa, Silene hawaiiensis, Tetramolopium arenarium, and 
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, HHP 1991s4, HPCC 1990a, 
1990b, Shaw et al. 1990, Stone 1985; K. Nagata and R. Shaw, pers. 
comms., 1992).
    Pigs (Sus scrofa) are originally native to Europe, northern Africa, 
Asia Minor, and Asia. European pigs, introduced to Hawaii by Captain 
James Cook in 1778, became feral and invaded forested areas, especially 
wet and mesic forests and dry areas at high elevations. They are 
currently present on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii and inhabit 
rain forests and grasslands. Pig hunting is allowed on all islands 
either year-round or during certain months, depending on the area 
(Hawaii DLNR n.d., 1985). While rooting in the ground in search of the 
invertebrates and plant material they eat, feral pigs disturb and 
destroy vegetative cover, trample plants and seedlings, and threaten 
forest regeneration by damaging seeds and seedlings. They disturb soil 
substrates and cause erosion, especially on slopes. Alien plant seeds 
are dispersed in their hooves and coats as well as through their 
digestive tracts, and the disturbed soil is fertilized by their feces, 
helping these plants to establish (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Medeiros et 
al. 1986, Smith 1985, Stone 1985, Tomich 1986, Wagner et al. 1990). 
Feral pigs pose an immediate threat to one or more populations of the 
following taxa in this rule: Clermontia lindseyana, Clermontia peleana, 
Colubrina oppositifolia, Cyrtandra giffardii, Cyrtandra tintinnabula, 
Portulaca sclerocarpa, Silene hawaiiensis, and Tetramolopium arenarium 
(Bruegmann 1990, CPC 1990, HPCC 1990a, 1991a, 1991d1, 1991d2; J. Lau, 
A. Medeiros, John Obata, Hawaii Plant Conservation Center, and W. 
Wagner, pers. comms., 1992).
    Land development for housing and commercial activities threatens 
Pritchardia affinis, Isodendrion pyrifolium, and Nothocestrum 
breviflorum (C. Corn, K. Nagata, and P. Weissich, pers. comms., 1992). 
These threats range from specific, previously approved projects to more 
general development pressures affecting much of the leeward portion of 
the island of Hawaii. A State-sponsored housing development at the site 
of the only known population of Isodendrion pyrifolium is currently 
being modified to reduce its impact on this taxa. However, this 
modification is not finalized, and the development could still pose a 
significant threat to the long-term survival of the species.
    Illegal cultivation of Cannabis sativa (marijuana) occurs in 
isolated portions of public and private lands in the Hawaiian Islands. 
This agricultural practice opens areas in native forest into which 
alien plants invade after the patches are abandoned (Medeiros et al. 
1988). Marijuana cultivation is considered a threat to the integrity of 
the habitat of Clermontia peleana (Bruegmann 1990, CPC 1990).

B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or 
Educational Purposes

    Unrestricted collecting for scientific or horticultural purposes 
and excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare plants 
could result from increased publicity. This is a potential threat to 
all of the taxa in this rule, but especially to Cyanea copelandii ssp. 
copelandii and Ochrosia kilaueaensis, each of which has only 1 or 2 
populations and a total of 10 or fewer known individuals. Any 
collection of whole plants or reproductive parts of any of these two 
species could cause an adverse impact on the gene pool and threaten the 
survival of the species.

C. Disease or Predation

    Axis deer, cattle, goats, or sheep have been reported in areas 
where populations of most of the taxa occur. As the taxa are not known 
to be unpalatable to these ungulates, predation is a probable threat 
where those animals have been reported, potentially affecting the 
following taxa: Clermontia lindseyana, Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. 
carlsonii, Cyanea stictophylla, Ischaemum byrone, Mariscus fauriei, 
Nothocestrum breviflorum, Ochrosia kilaueaensis, Portulaca sclerocarpa, 
Silene hawaiiensis, Tetramolopium arenarium, and Zanthoxylum 
hawaiiense. The lack of seedlings of several of the taxa and the 
occurrence of some populations or taxa only in areas inaccessible to 
ungulates seem to indicate the effect that browsing mammals, especially 
cattle and goats, have had in restricting the distribution of these 
plants.
    Of the four species of rodents that have been introduced to the 
Hawaiian Islands, the species with the greatest impact on the native 
flora and fauna is probably roof or black rat (Rattus rattus), which 
now occurs on all the main Hawaiian Islands around human habitations, 
in cultivated fields, and in dry to wet forests. Roof rats, and to a 
lesser extent house mouse (Mus musculus), Polynesian rat (R. exulans), 
and Norway rat (R. norvegicus) eat the fruits of some native plants, 
especially those with large, fleshy fruits. Many native Hawaiian plants 
produce their fruit over an extended period of time, and this produces 
a prolonged food supply which supports rodent populations. Rodents 
damage fruit of Pritchardia affinis (Beccari and Rock 1921). It is 
probable that rats damage the fruit of Ochrosia kilaueaensis, which has 
fleshy fruits and occurs in areas where rats are found. Rats feed on 
Clermontia peleana, and, since rats are found in remote areas of most 
islands in Hawaii, it is likely that predation occurs on the other taxa 
of Clermontia and Cyanea, potentially affecting Clermontia lindseyana, 
Clermontia pyrularia, Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii, Cyanea 
hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii, Cyanea shipmanii, and Cyanea stictophylla 
(HPCC 1990a; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1990).
    Black twig borer (Xylosandrus compactus) is a small beetle about 
0.06 in (1.6 mm) in length which burrows into branches, introduces a 
pathogenic fungus as food for its larvae, and lays its eggs. Twigs, 
branches, and even the entire plant can be killed from such an 
infestation. Black twig borer is known to attack Colubrina 
oppositifolia and is a threat to this species (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, 
HHP 1991e9, 1991e16).
    Pritchardia affinis is known to be susceptible to lethal yellows, 
which is a bacteria-like organism producing disease in many palms. This 
disease is not yet in Hawaii, but if it ever is accidentally introduced 
on plant material brought into the State, it is a potential threat to 
this species. Cultivated loulu specimens in areas outside Hawaii may be 
affected by the disease (Hull 1980).

D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

    Hawaii's Endangered Species Act states, ``Any species of aquatic 
life, wildlife, or land plant that has been determined to be an 
endangered species pursuant to the [Federal] Endangered Species Act 
shall be deemed to be an endangered species under the provisions of 
this chapter * * *'' (HRS, sect. 195D-4(a)). Federal listing would 
automatically invoke listing under Hawaii State law, which prohibits 
taking of endangered plants in the State and encourages conservation by 
State agencies (HRS, sect. 195D-4).
    None of the 21 taxa in this rule are presently listed as an 
endangered species by the State of Hawaii. Fifteen of the 21 taxa in 
this rule have populations located on privately owned land. Two taxa, 
Cyanea shipmanii and Cyanea stictophylla, are found exclusively on 
private land. At least one population of each taxon except Cyanea 
shipmanii, Cyanea stictophylla, Silene hawaiiensis, and Zanthoxylum 
hawaiiense occurs on State land. Colubrina oppositifolia, Cyanea 
copelandii ssp. copelandii, Cyrtandra giffardii, Cyrtandra 
tintinnabula, and Ischaemum byrone each have one or more populations 
located in State parks, Natural Area Reserves, or the State seabird 
sanctuary, which have rules and regulations for the protection of 
resources (Hawaii DLNR 1981; HRS, sects. 183D-4, 184-5, 195-5, and 195-
8). However, the regulations are difficult to enforce because of 
limited personnel. One or more populations of at least 18 of the 21 
taxa included in this rule are located on land classified within 
conservation districts and owned by the State of Hawaii or private 
companies or individuals. Regardless of the owner, lands in these 
districts, among other purposes, are regarded as necessary for the 
protection of endemic biological resources and the maintenance or 
enhancement of the conservation of natural resources. Activities 
permitted in conservation districts are chosen by considering how best 
to make multiple use of the land (HRS, sect. 205-2). Some uses, such as 
maintaining animals for hunting, are based on policy decisions, while 
others, such as preservation of endangered species, are mandated by 
both Federal and State laws. Requests for amendments to district 
boundaries or variances within existing classifications can be made by 
government agencies and private landowners (HRS, sect. 205-4). Before 
decisions about these requests are made, the impact of the proposed 
reclassification on ``preservation or maintenance of important natural 
systems or habitat'' (HRS, sects. 205-4, 205-17) as well as the 
maintenance of natural resources is required to be taken into account 
(HRS, sects. 205-2, 205-4). For any proposed land use change that will 
occur on county or State land, will be funded in part or whole by 
county or State funds, or will occur within land classified as 
conservation district, an environmental assessment is required to 
determine whether or not the environment will be significantly affected 
(HRS, chapt. 343). If it is found that an action will have a 
significant effect, preparation of a full Environmental Impact 
Statement is required. Hawaii environmental policy, and thus approval 
of land use, is required by law to safeguard ``* * * the State's unique 
natural environmental characteristics * * *'' (HRS, sect. 344-3(1)) and 
includes guidelines to ``Protect endangered species of individual 
plants and animals * * *'' (HRS, sect. 344-4(3)(A)). Federal listing, 
because it automatically invokes State listing, would also trigger 
these other State regulations protecting the plants.
    State laws relating to the conservation of biological resources 
allow for the acquisition of land as well as the development and 
implementation of programs concerning the conservation of biological 
resources (HRS, sect. 195D-5(a)). The State also may enter into 
agreements with Federal agencies to administer and manage any area 
required for the conservation, management, enhancement, or protection 
of endangered species (HRS, sect. 195D-5(c)). If listing were to occur, 
funds for these activities could be made available under section 6 of 
the Federal Act (State Cooperative Agreements). The Hawaii DLNR is 
mandated to initiate changes in conservation district boundaries to 
include ``the habitat of rare native species of flora and fauna within 
the conservation district'' (HRS, sect. 195D-5.1). State and Federal 
agencies have programs to locate, eradicate, and deter marijuana 
cultivation, which is a threat to one of the taxa in this rule (CPC 
1990). Despite the existence of various State laws and regulations 
which give protection to Hawaii's native plants, their enforcement is 
difficult due to limited funding and personnel. These State laws and 
regulations are therefore inadequate to protect the taxa that occur on 
State land. Listing of these 21 plant taxa would reinforce and 
supplement the protection available under the State Act and other laws. 
The Federal Endangered Species Act would offer additional protection to 
these 21 taxa because, if they were to be listed as endangered or 
threatened, it would be a violation of the Act for any person to 
remove, cut, dig up, damage, or destroy any such plant in an area not 
under Federal jurisdiction in knowing violation of State law or 
regulation or in the course of any violation of a State criminal 
trespass law.

E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Its Continued Existence

    The small numbers of populations and individuals of most of these 
taxa increase the potential for extinction from stochastic events. The 
limited gene pool may depress reproductive vigor, or a single human-
caused or natural environmental disturbance could destroy a significant 
percentage of the individuals or the only known extant population. This 
constitutes a major threat to 15 of the 21 taxa included in this rule 
(See Table 1). Five of the taxa, Cyanea copelandii ssp. copelandii, 
Cyanea shipmanii, Isodendrion pyrifolium, Ochrosia kilaueaensis, and 
Tetramolopium arenarium, are known from a single population. Seven 
other taxa are known from only two to five populations. Fourteen of the 
taxa are estimated to number no more than 100 known individuals. Five 
of these taxa, Clermontia peleana, Clermontia pyrularia, Cyanea 
copelandii ssp. copelandii, Ochrosia kilaueaensis, and Plantago 
hawaiensis, number no more than ten known individuals.
    One or more species of 12 introduced plants threaten 12 of the taxa 
in this rule. The original native flora of Hawaii consisted of about 
1,000 species, 89 percent of which were endemic. Of the total native 
and naturalized Hawaiian flora of 1,817 species, 47 percent were 
introduced from other parts of the world and nearly 100 species have 
become pests (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990). Naturalized, introduced 
species degrade the Hawaiian landscape and compete with native plants 
for space, light, water, and nutrients (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). Some 
of these species were brought to Hawaii by various groups of people, 
including the Polynesian immigrants, for food or cultural reasons. 
Plantation owners, alarmed at the reduction of water resources for 
their crops caused by the destruction of native forest cover by grazing 
feral animals, supported the introduction of alien tree species for 
reforestation. Ranchers intentionally introduced pasture grasses and 
other species for agriculture, and sometimes they inadvertently 
introduced weed seeds as well. Other plants were brought to Hawaii for 
their potential horticultural value (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Wenkam 
1969).
    Lantana camara (lantana), brought to Hawaii as an ornamental plant, 
is an aggressive, thicket-forming shrub which can now be found on all 
of the main islands in mesic forests, dry shrublands, and other dry, 
disturbed habitats (Wagner et al. 1990). One or more populations of 
each of the following taxa are threatened by lantana: Colubrina 
oppositifolia, Nothocestrum breviflorum, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense 
(HHP 1991e4, 1991e8, 1991e15, 1991e16, 1991p4, 1991p12, 1991x11, HPCC 
1991b, 1991h). Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole), a naturalized shrub 
which is sometimes the dominant species in low elevation, dry, 
disturbed areas on all of the main Hawaiian islands, threatens 
Nothocestrum breviflorum (Geesnick et al. 1990, HHP 1991p12, HPCC 
1991h). Melia azedarach (Chinaberry), a small tree widely cultivated 
and naturalized on most of the main Hawaiian Islands, threatens 
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense on Kauai (HHP 1991x11, Wagner et al. 1990). 
Passiflora mollissima (banana poka), a woody vine, poses a serious 
problem to mesic forests on Kauai and Hawaii by covering trees, 
reducing the amount of light which reaches trees as well as understory, 
and causing damage and death to trees by the weight of the vines. 
Animals, especially feral pigs, eat the fruit and distribute the seeds 
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Escobar 1990). Banana poka threatens 
Clermontia lindseyana, Clermontia pyrularia, and Cyanea hamatiflora 
ssp. carlsonii (HHP 1991a3, 1991y, HPCC 1991c1 to 1991c3). After 
escaping from cultivation, Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry) 
became naturalized on most of the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 
1990). It threatens Colubrina oppositifolia, Mariscus fauriei, and 
Nothocestrum breviflorum (HHP 1991e8, 1991e15, 1991e16, 1991o8, 
1991p12, HPCC 1991b, 1991g).
    Several hundred species of grasses have been introduced to the 
Hawaiian Islands, many for animal forage. Of the approximately 100 
grass species which have become naturalized, 6 species threaten 11 of 
the 21 taxa in this rule. Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge) is a 
perennial, tufted grass which is naturalized on Oahu and Hawaii along 
roadsides and in disturbed dry to mesic forest and shrubland. This is a 
fire-adapted grass which threatens Portulaca sclerocarpa (Cuddihy and 
Stone 1990, HPCC 1991i, O'Connor 1990). Digitaria ciliaris (Henry's 
crabgrass) is an annual grass which forms thick mats. It has 
naturalized on all the main Hawaiian islands in lawns and pastures and 
threatens Ischaemum byrone (HPCC 1991f, O'Connor 1990). Oplismenus 
hirtellus (basketgrass) is a perennial grass which is naturalized in 
shaded mesic valleys and forests and sometimes in wet forests on most 
of the main Hawaiian Islands. Mariscus fauriei is threatened by 
basketgrass (HPCC 1991g, O'Connor 1990). Pennisetum clandestinum 
(Kikuyu grass), an aggressive, perennial grass introduced to Hawaii as 
a pasture grass, withstands trampling and grazing and has naturalized 
on four Hawaiian Islands in dry to mesic forest. It produces thick mats 
which choke out other plants and prevent their seedlings from 
establishing and has been declared a noxious weed by the U.S. 
Department of Agriculture (7 CFR 360) (Medeiros et al. 1986, O'Connor 
1990, Smith 1985). Kikuyu grass is a threat to Clermontia lindseyana, 
and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (HPCC 1991a; A. Medeiros, pers. comm., 
1992). Pennisetum setaceum (fountain grass) is a fire-adapted bunch 
grass that has spread rapidly over bare lava flows and open areas on 
the island of Hawaii since its introduction in the early 1900s. 
Fountain grass is particularly detrimental to Hawaii's dry forests 
because it is able to invade areas once dominated by native plants, 
where it interferes with plant regeneration, carries fires into areas 
not usually prone to fires, and increases the likelihood of fires 
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, O'Connor 1990, Smith 1985). Fountain grass 
threatens one or more populations of the following taxa: Colubrina 
oppositifolia, Isodendrion pyrifolium, Nothocestrum breviflorum, 
Ochrosia kilaueaensis, Portulaca sclerocarpa, Silene hawaiiensis, 
Tetramolopium arenarium, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (HHP 1991p5, HPCC 
1990a, 1991h; J. Lau and P. Weissich, pers. comms., 1992).
    Because Hawaiian plants were subjected to fire during their 
evolution only in areas of volcanic activity and from occasional 
lightning strikes, they are not adapted to recurring fire regimes and 
are unable to recover well following a fire. Alien plants are often 
better adapted to fire than native plant species, and some fire-adapted 
grasses have become widespread in Hawaii; native shrubland can thus be 
converted to land dominated by alien grasses. The presence of such 
species in Hawaiian ecosystems greatly increases the intensity, extent, 
and frequency of fire, especially during drier months or drought. Fire-
adapted alien species can re-establish in a burned area, resulting in a 
reduction in the amount of native vegetation after each fire. Fire can 
destroy dormant seeds as well as plants, even in steep or inaccessible 
areas. Fires may result from natural causes, or they may be 
accidentally or purposely set by hunters, or military ordnance or 
personnel. Vegetation within PTA on the northwestern slope of Mauna Loa 
is particularly vulnerable to fire, as this is an area managed for 
recreational hunting and used for military training. The only known 
population of Tetramolopium arenarium occurs in Kipuka Kalawamauna, and 
to protect this area from fires, the U.S. Army has installed firebreaks 
and now redirects ordnance firing away from that kipuka. Planned 
military maneuvers are now being re-evaluated in light of several 
Category 1 and listed endangered species within the boundaries of PTA, 
and an Environmental Impact Statement is being prepared for the area in 
response to a court decision (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service 1979; R. Shaw, pers. comm., 1992). Fire is a threat to 
one or more populations of the following taxa in this rule: Colubrina 
oppositifolia, Isodendrion pyrifolium, Nothocestrum breviflorum, 
Ochrosia kilaueaensis, Portulaca sclerocarpa, Silene hawaiiensis, 
Tetramolopium arenarium, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense (HHP 1991e15, 
1991p5, HPCC 1990a, 1990b, 1991b, 1991h; J. Lau and K. Nagata, pers. 
comms., 1992).
    Natural changes to habitat and substrate can result in the death of 
individual plants as well as the destruction of their habitat. This 
especially affects the continued existence of taxa or populations with 
limited numbers and/or narrow ranges and is often exacerbated by human 
disturbance and land use practices (See Factor A). Landslides produced 
by burrowing seabirds in an offshore islet population of Ischaemum 
byrone are a potential threat to that species (HHP 1991m10; R. Hobdy, 
pers. comm., 1992). Flooding is a threat to Clermontia peleana, which 
often grows in a riparian habitat (Bruegmann 1990, CPC 1990). A 
population of Ischaemum byrone is presumed to have been destroyed by 
volcanic activity, and another population is affected by drifting black 
sand (HHP 1991m3; C. Lamoureux, pers. comm., 1992). Some populations of 
Silene hawaiiensis are also considered to be threatened by volcanic 
activity (HPCC 1991j).
    People are more likely to come into contact with taxa that have 
populations near trails or roads or in recreational areas. Alien plants 
may be introduced into such areas as seeds on footwear, or people may 
cause erosion, trample plants, or start fires (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). 
The following taxa have populations in recreational areas or close to 
roads or trails and are immediately or potentially threatened by human 
disturbance: Clermontia peleana, Clermontia pyrularia, Colubrina 
oppositifolia, Cyrtandra giffardii, Ischaemum byrone, Nothocestrum 
breviflorum, Portulaca sclerocarpa, Silene hawaiiensis, Tetramolopium 
arenarium, and Zanthoxylum hawaiiense.
    The Service has carefully assessed the best scientific and 
commercial information available regarding the past, present, and 
future threats faced by these taxa in determining to issue this final 
rule. Based on this evaluation, this rulemaking will list these 20 
plant taxa as endangered: Clermontia lindseyana, Clermontia peleana, 
Clermontia pyrularia, Colubrina oppositifolia, Cyanea copelandii ssp. 
copelandii, Cyanea hamatiflora ssp. carlsonii, Cyanea shipmanii, Cyanea 
stictophylla, Cyrtandra giffardii, Cyrtandra tintinnabula, Ischaemum 
byrone, Isodendrion pyrifolium, Mariscus fauriei, Nothocestrum 
breviflorum, Ochrosia kilaueaensis, Plantago hawaiensis, Portulaca 
sclerocarpa, Pritchardia affinis, Tetramolopium arenarium, and 
Zanthoxylum hawaiiense. One taxon is listed as threatened, Silene 
hawaiiensis. Fourteen of the taxa determined to be endangered number no 
more than about 100 individuals and/or are known from 5 or fewer 
populations. The 20 taxa are threatened by 1 or more of the following: 
habitat degradation and/or predation by axis deer, cattle, goats, 
insects, pigs, rats, and sheep; competition from alien plants; fire and 
natural disasters; human and military impacts; and lack of legal 
protection or difficulty in enforcing laws which are already in effect. 
Small population size and limited distribution make these taxa 
particularly vulnerable to extinction and/or reduced reproductive vigor 
from stochastic events. Because these 20 taxa are in danger of 
extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their ranges, 
they fit the definition of endangered as defined in the Act.
    Although all populations of Silene hawaiiensis are threatened to 
some degree by fire, competition with alien plant species, predation by 
feral animals, and/or human activities, the widespread distribution of 
populations, rocky habitat, presence of population regeneration, and 
total numbers of plants reduces the danger that this species will 
become extinct in the near future. For these reasons, this species is 
not now in immediate danger of extinction throughout all or a 
significant portion of its range. However, Silene hawaiiensis is likely 
to become endangered in the foreseeable future if the threats are not 
curbed. As a result, Silene hawaiiensis fits the definition of a 
threatened species as defined in the Act.
    Hesperocnide sandwicensis has been reassessed with regard to the 
five factors addressed above and the new information about the species' 
abundance and location. Although individual plants and populations of 
plants are threatened by competition from alien grasses, grazing by 
feral pigs, goats, and sheep, habitat disturbance and damage to plants 
as a result of military exercises, and fire, large reproductive 
populations located throughout PTA are relatively secure from these 
threats. The Service now finds that Hesperocnide sandwicensis fails to 
meet the definition of either an endangered or threatened species, and 
has withdrawn it from consideration for endangered or threatened status 
(see notice of withdrawal published concurrently in this Federal 
Register).
    Critical habitat is not being designated for the 21 taxa included 
in this rule, for reasons discussed in the Critical Habitat section of 
this rule.

Critical Habitat

    Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, requires that, to the 
maximum extent prudent and determinable, the Secretary designate 
critical habitat at the time the species is determined to be 
endangered. The Service finds that designation of critical habitat is 
not presently prudent for these taxa. As discussed under Factor B in 
the ``Summary of Factors Affecting the Species,'' the taxa face 
numerous anthropogenic threats. The publication of precise maps and 
descriptions of critical habitat in the Federal Register, as required 
in a designation of critical habitat, would increase the degree of 
threat to these plants from take or vandalism and, therefore, could 
contribute to their decline. The listing of these taxa as endangered 
publicizes the rarity of the plants and, thus, can make these plants 
attractive to researchers, curiosity seekers, or collectors of rare 
plants. All involved parties and the major landowners have been 
notified of the general location and importance of protecting the 
habitat of these taxa. Protection of the habitat of the taxa will be 
addressed through the recovery process and through the section 7 
consultation process. Designation of critical habitat for these taxa is 
not prudent at this time because such a designation would increase the 
potential for vandalism, collecting, or other human activities and is 
unlikely to aid in the conservation of these taxa.

Available Conservation Measures

    Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or 
threatened under the Endangered Species Act include recognition, 
recovery actions, requirements for Federal recognition, and 
prohibitions against certain activities. Recognition through listing 
encourages and results in conservation actions by Federal, State, and 
private agencies, groups, and individuals. The Endangered Species Act 
provides for possible land acquisition and cooperation with the States 
and requires that recovery actions be carried out for all listed 
species. The protection required of Federal agencies and the 
prohibitions against certain activities involving listed plants are 
discussed, in part, below.
    Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to 
evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or 
listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical 
habitat, if any is being designated. Regulations implementing this 
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR 
part 402. Section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal agencies to 
insure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out are not 
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of such a species or to 
destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action 
may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible 
Federal agency must enter into formal consultation with the Service. 
One or more populations of 10 of the taxa are located on federally 
owned and/or managed land: Four taxa are located in Hawaii Volcanoes 
National Park on the island of Hawaii and one taxon in Kalaupapa NHP on 
Molokai; six taxa are located on military lands, including one species 
on Makua Military Reservation on Oahu and five taxa on PTA on the 
island of Hawaii; two taxa are found in Hakalau Forest National 
Wildlife Refuge on the island of Hawaii; and a population of one taxon 
occurs at a U.S. Coast Guard lighthouse on Maui. Federal agencies that 
would become involved if any of their activities may affect these 21 
taxa include the National Park Service, Department of Defense, 
Environmental Protection Agency, Fish and Wildlife Service, and the 
U.S. Coast Guard.
    The Act and its implementing regulations found at 50 CFR 17.61, 
17.62, 17.63, 17.71 and 17.72 for endangered and threatened plants set 
forth a series of general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all 
endangered or threatened plant species. With respect to the 20 plant 
taxa in this rule listed as endangered, all of the prohibitions of 
section 9(a)(2) of the Act, implemented by 50 CFR 17.61, apply. With 
respect to the taxon listed as threatened, the provisions of 50 CFR 
17.71, apply. These prohibitions, in part, make it illegal with respect 
to any endangered or theatened plant for any person subject to the 
jurisdiction of the United States to import or export; transport in 
interstate or foreign commerce in the course of a commercial activity; 
sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce; remove and 
reduce to possession any such species from areas under Federal 
jurisdiction. For plants listed as endangered, the Act prohibits the 
malicious damage or destruction of any such species on any area under 
Federal jurisdiction; or to remove, cut, dig up, damage, or destroy any 
such species on any other area in knowing violation of any State law or 
regulation or in the course of any violation of a State criminal 
trespass law. Section 4(d) of the Act allows for the provision of such 
protection to threatened species through regulation. This protection 
may apply to this species in the future if regulations are promulgated. 
Certain exceptions apply to agents of the Service and State 
conservation agencies. Seeds from cultivated specimens of threatened 
plant species are exempt from these prohibitions provided that a 
statement ``of cultivated origin'' appears on their containers.
    The Act and 50 CFR 17.62, 17.63 and 17.72 also provide for the 
issuance of permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities 
involving endangered or threatened plant species under certain 
circumstances. It is anticipated that few permits would ever be sought 
or issued. The taxa are not common in cultivation or in the wild, and 
only one taxon, Pritchardia affinis, is known to be in an active 
program of cultivation.
    Requests for copies of the regulations concerning listed plants and 
inquiries regarding prohibitions and permits may be addressed to the 
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, Permits Branch, 
911 NE 11th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97232-4181 (503/231-6241; FAX 503/
231-6243).

National Environmental Policy Act

    The Fish and Wildlife Service has determined that an Environmental 
Assessment or Environmental Impact Statement, as defined under the 
authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be 
prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section 
4(a) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. A notice 
outlining the Service's reasons for this determination was published in 
the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).

References Cited

    A complete list of all references cited herein is available upon 
request from the Pacific Islands Office (see ADDRESSES section).

Author

    The author of this final rule is Loyal A. Mehrhoff, Pacific Islands 
Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Room 
6307, P.O. Box 50167, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850 (808/541-2749).

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17

    Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and 
recordkeeping requirements, and Transportation.

Regulation Promulgation

    Accordingly, part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the 
Code of Federal Regulations, is amended as set forth below:

PART 17--[AMENDED]

    1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:

    Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.

    2. Amend Sec. 17.12(h) by adding the following, in alphabetical 
order, under the families indicated, to the List of Endangered and 
Threatened Plants:


Sec. 17.12  Endangered and threatened plants.

* * * * *
    (h) * * *

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
              Species                                                                                           
-----------------------------------  Historic range     Status      When listed      Critical      Special rules
 Scientific name     Common name                                                      habitat                   
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Apocynaceae--Dog                                                                                                
 bane family:                                                                                                   
    Ochrosia      Holei...........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     Kilaueaensi                                                                                                
     s.                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Arecaceae--Palm                                                                                                 
 family:                                                                                                        
    Pritchardia   Loulu...........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     affinis.                                                                                                   
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Asteraceae--Aste                                                                                                
 r family:                                                                                                      
    Tetramolopiu  None............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     m arenarium.                                                                                               
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Campanulaceae--B                                                                                                
 ellflower                                                                                                      
 family:                                                                                                        
    Clermontia    'Oha wai........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     lindseyana.                                                                                                
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
    Clermontia    'Oha wai........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     peleana.                                                                                                   
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
    Clermontia    'Oha wai........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     pyrularia.                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
    Cyanea        Haha............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     copelandii                                                                                                 
     ssp.                                                                                                       
     copelandii.                                                                                                
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
    Cyanea        Haha............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     hamatiflora                                                                                                
     ssp.                                                                                                       
     carlsonii.                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
    Cyanea        Haha............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     shipmanii.                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
    Cyanea        Haha............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     stictophyll                                                                                                
     a.                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Caryophyllaceae-                                                                                                
 -Pink family:                                                                                                  
    Silene        None............  U.S.A. (HI).....  T                      532              NA              NA
     hawaiiensis.                                                                                               
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Cyperaceae--Sedg                                                                                                
 e family:                                                                                                      
    Mariscus      None............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     fauriei.                                                                                                   
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Gesneriaceae--Af                                                                                                
 rican Violet                                                                                                   
 family:                                                                                                        
    Cyrtandra     Ha'iwale........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     giffardii.                                                                                                 
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
    Cyrtandra     Ha'iwale........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     tintinnabul                                                                                                
     a.                                                                                                         
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Plantaginaceae--                                                                                                
 Plantain                                                                                                       
 family:                                                                                                        
    Plantago      Laukahi kuahiwi.  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     hawaiensis.                                                                                                
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Poaceae--Grass                                                                                                  
 family:                                                                                                        
    Ischaemum     Hilo ischaemum..  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     byrone.                                                                                                    
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Portulacaceae--P                                                                                                
 urslane family:                                                                                                
    Portulaca     Po'e............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     sclerocarpa.                                                                                               
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Rhamnaceae--Buck                                                                                                
 thorn family:                                                                                                  
    Colubrina     Kauila..........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     oppositifol                                                                                                
     ia.                                                                                                        
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Rutaceae--Citrus                                                                                                
 family:                                                                                                        
    Zanthoxylum   A'e.............  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     hawaiiense.                                                                                                
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Solanaceae--Nigh                                                                                                
 tshade family                                                                                                  
    Nothocestrum  'Aiea...........  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     breviflorum.                                                                                               
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
Violaceae--Viole                                                                                                
 t family:                                                                                                      
    Isodendrion   Wahine noho kula  U.S.A. (HI).....  E                      532              NA              NA
     pyrifolium.                                                                                                
                                                                                                                
                                                  * * * * * * *                                                 
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

    Dated: February 10, 1994.
Mollie H. Beattie,
Director, Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 94-4841 Filed 3-3-94; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P