Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Living with the Alabama -Mississippi shore
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Wayne F. Canis T. rki@i
William J. Neal
Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr.
Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr. d0

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Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Program
KASGP-84-008

MISSISSIPPI-ALABAMA
C__b SEA GRANT CONSORTIUM
Caylor Building
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Ocean Springs, Mississippi 39564

Living with the Alabama -Mississippi shore
I

I .

I
I

Living with the Shore

Series editors
Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr.
William J. Neal

The beaches are moving: the drowning of America7s shoreline,
new e&tion

Wallace Kaufman and Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr.

Living with the Louisiana shore
Joseph I Kelley, Alice R. Kelley, Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr., and Albert A. Clark

Living with the Texas shore
Robert A. Morton, Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr., and
William J. Neal

Living with the West Florida shore
Larry J. Doyle, Dinesh C. Sharma,. Albert C. Hine, Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr.,
William I Neal, Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr., David Martin, and Daniel F. Belknap

Living with the East Florida shore
Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., Dinesh C. Sharma, Harold R. Wanless, Larry J. Doyle,
Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr., William J. Neal, and Barbara L. Gruver

Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Wayne F. Canis
William J. Neal
Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr.
and Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr.

C"
Cn Property of CSC Library

Duke University Press Durham, North Carolina 1985
US Department of Commerce
KOAA Coastal Services Center Library
2234 South Hobson Avenue
Charleston, SC 29405-2413

This work is a result of research sponsored in part by NOAA 1985 Duke University Press, all rights reserved
Office of Sea Grant, Department of Commerce under Grant No.: Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
NA8 i AA-D-0005o, and the Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Con-
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
sortium. The U.S. Government is authorized to produce and dis- Main entry under title:
tribute reprints for governmental purposes notwithstanding any Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore.
copyright notation that may appear hereon. (Living with the shore)
Publication of the various volumes in the Living with the Shore Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
series has been greatly assisted by the following individuals and i. House construction. 2. Shore protection -Alabarna.
organizations: the American Conservation Association, an anony- 3. Shore protection- Mississippi. 4. Coastal zone
management -Alabama. 5. Coastal zone management-
mous Texas foundation, the Charleston Natural History Society, Mississippi. 6. Coasts -Alabama. 7. Coasts -Mississippi.
the Coastal Zone Management Agency (NOAA), the Geraldine R. 1. Canis, Wayne F., 1939- . 11. Series.
TH481a.L58 1985 333.9"7'09761 84-24679
Dodge Foundation, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, ISBN 0-8223-0510-0
the George Gund Foundation, the Mobil Oil Corporation, Eliza- ISBN o-8223-0511-9 (pbk.)
beth O'Connor, the Sapelo Island Research Foundation, the Sea
Grant programs of North Carolina, Florida, Mississippi/ Alabama,
and New York, The Fund for New Jersey, M. Harvey Weil, and
Patrick H. Welder, Jr. The Living with the Shore series is part of
the Duke University Program for the Study of Developed Shore-
lines.

Contents

Where does the beach sand come from? 29
List of figures and tables viii Where do seashells come from? 30
Why do beaches erode? 30
Foreword xi If most shorelines are eroding, what is the long-range future of
beach development? 31
1. A coastal perspective 1 What can I do about my eroding beach? 31
Top of the rainbow: a brief description of the coast 1 The evolution of barrier islands: how they operate 32
Southern Riviera or New Jersey of the South? 6 Front side moves back by erosion 33
New Jerseyization: man's mistakes 6 Back of island moves landward by growth 33
Practical advice 8 The island maintains its elevation during migration 33
The foundations of development: historical perspective 8 Coastal environments: an integrated system 34
Guess who came to dinner? 10
Hurricane history: the lesson of the past 10 3. Man and the shoreline 36
Hurricane origin: blow, blow, blow the man down 17 Shoreline engineering: no deposit-no return 36
Hurricane forces: the triple punch 18 Beach replenishment 36
Ranking hurricanes: the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale 19 Groins and jetties 39
Seawalls 41
2. Shoreline dynamics 21 Sea-level rise: built-in obsolescence 43
Barrier islands: the line of defense 21 The future of beach "protection": increasing natural and social resis-
The origin of barrier islands: where did they come from? 21 tance 45
The accelerating rise in sea level 24 A philosophy of shoreline conservation: "We have met the enemy and
The mainland shore: keeping step with the sea-level rise 26 he is us" 45
Beaches: the shock absorbers 26 Truths of the shoreline- 47
How does the beach respond to a storm? 27 The solutions 49
How does the beach widen? 28 Questions to ask if shoreline engineering is proposed 49

vi Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

4. Selecting a site along the Alabama-Mississippi coast 51 Individual area analysis: high-, moderate-, and low-risk zones 69
Choosing your area: the first step to safety 51 Alabama 69
Selecting your site: playing the odds 53 Baldwin County 69
Stability indicators: what to look for at your site 54 Perdido Bay area 69
Terrain and elevation 54 Gulf beaches (Perdido Pass to West Beach) 71
Vegetation 54 Fort Morgan Peninsula 80
Soil profiles 54 Mobile Bay: eastern shore 84
Seashells 55 Mobile County 92
Coastal environments: what natural processes are operating at the Mobile 92
site 55 Mobile Bay: western shore 94
Primary dunes 55 Mississippi Sound: Alabama shore 96
Dune fields 56 Dauphin Island 98
Overwash fans 56 Mississippi 104
Grasslands 58 Jackson County 104
Passes (inlets) 58 Grand Batture Islands, Point Aux Chenes, Bayou Casotte 104
Forest, thicket, and shrub areas 58 Pascagoula- Pascagoula Bay 105
Marshes 58 Gautier to Ocean Springs 107
BI uffs 60 Ocean Springs 109
Water problems: an invisible crisis 60 Gulf Islands National Seashore 109
Water supply 61 Petit Bois Island 110
Waste disposal 62 Horn Island 110
Finger canals 62 Ship Island 111
Site safety: rules of survival 64 Harrison County 111
Checklist for evaluation of the safety of your site 65 Deer Island: a case example of development controversy 112
Escape routes 68 Biloxi to Pass Christian 115
Select an escape route ahead of time 68 Hancock County 121
Use the escape route early 68 Bay St. Louis, Waveland, Clermont Harbor- Lakeshore 121

Contents vil

Clermont Harbor to Pearl River 123 Keeping dry: pole or "stilt" houses 143
Past reflections, future expectations 123 An existing house: what to look for, where to improve 150
Geographic location 150
5. The coast, land use, and the law 124 How well built is the house? 150
Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982 125 What can be done to improve an existing house? 157
The National Flood Insurance Program 125 Mobile homes: limiting their mobility 159
High-rise buildings: the urban shore 160
Some flood insurance facts 125
Hurricane evacuation 129 Modular-unit construction: prefabricating the urban shore 164
Coastal zone management 129 An unending game: only the players change 166
Mississippi 130
Alabama 131 Appendix A. Hurricane checklist 167
Building codes 135 Appendix B. A guide to federal, state, and local agencies involved In
Mobile home regulations 136 coastal development 171
Water quality and waste disposal 137
Endangered species 137 Appendix C. Useful references 189
6. Building or buying a house near the beach 138 Index 211
Real estate roulette: protecting your bet 138
Coastal realty versus coastal reality 138
The structure: concept of balanced risk 139
Coastal forces: design requirements 140
Hurricane winds 140
Storm surge 142
Hurricane waves 142
Barometric pressure changes 142
House selection 143

Figures and tables

Figures

1.1. Index map of the Alabama- Mississippi coast 2 2.7. Dynamic equilibrium of the beach 27
1.2. Sand Island Lighthouse 4 2.8. Beach flattening in response to a storm 28
1.3. New Jerseyization 7 2.9. Coastal environments 29
1.4. Typical northeastern Gulf hurricane tracks for the past 3.1. Model of beach nourishment 37
century 12 3.2. Harrison County's artificial beach in Mississippi 38
1.5. Historic hurricane destruction 14 3.3. Perdido Pass jetties 39
1.6. Flooding along foot of Government Street, Mobile 14 3.4. Groin field on the eastern end of Dauphin Island 40
1.7. The Hurricane of 1947 destroyed the Harrison County, Missis- 3.5. Model map view of a groined shoreline 40
sippi, seawall 15 3.6. Seawall Saga 42
1.8. Damage to building behind seawall due to the 1947 hurricane, 3.7. Monmouth Beach, New Jersey, seawall 43
Harrison County, Mississippi 15 3.8. Cape May, New Jersey, seawall 46
1.9. Hurricane Camille of August 1969 in Pass Christian, Mississippi 3.9. Beach loss and New Jerseyization of shore resulting from shore-
16 line engineering 49
1.10. Eastbound lane of U.S. Highway 90 in Pass Christian, Mississippi, 4.1. Overwash fan produced by Hurricane Frederic on Dauphin Island
destroyed during Hurricane Camille 17 57
2.1. Position of the Gulf shoreline 15,000-18,000 years ago 22 4.2. Storm pass produced by Hurricane Frederic 59
2.2. Origin of barrier islands in a rising sea level 23 4.3. Finger canal 60
2.3. Western migration of Petit Bois Island and western Dauphin Island 4.4. Finger canal model illustrating associated water quality problems
23 63
2.4. Configuration of tidal deltasthatform in frontof and behind passes 4.5. Post-Frederic view of finger canals on Dauphin Island 64
-between barrier islands 24 4.6. Site analysis: Perdido Key to Shelby Lakes 66
2.5. Sea-level rise and flooding of the continental shelf during the past 4.7. Condominium construction on Perdido Key 70
18,000 years 25 4.8. Ono Island and bridge onto Perdido Key prior to development on
2.6. Ratio of horizontal shoreline migration to vertical sea-level rise the key 71
26 4.9. Romar Beach area illustrating contrasting site safety 73

List of figures and tables ix

4.10. Site analysis: Shelby Lakes, Gulf Shores, West Beach, Little La- 4.30. Site analysis: Bayou Casotte- Pascagoula to Belle Fontaine Point
goon 74 106
4.11. Post-Frederic construction in the Gulf Shores area 76 4.31. Site analysis: Belle Fontaine Point to Ocean Springs, and Deer
4.12. Area between Gulf Shores and inlet into Little Lagoon 77 Island 108
4.13. Rubble of cinder block cottage on north shore of Little Lagoon 4.32. Site analysis: Deer Island- Biloxi- Edgewater Park-Back Bay of
77 Biloxi 113
4.14. Site analysis: Fort Morgan Peninsula 78 4.33. Site analysis: Mississippi City- Gulf port- Long Beach 116
4.15. Building sites at Surfside Shores laid out on the back of the 4.34. Site analysis: Pitcher Point-Pass Christian-Bayou Portage 119
beach 80 4.35. Damaged seawall in vicinity of Bay St. Louis 120
4.16. Row of beach-front cottages at Surfside Shores facing the Gulf 4.36. Site analysis: Bay St. Lou i s-Waveland -Clermont Harbor-Lake-
without protection 81 shore 122
4.17. Hurricane Frederic's debris on bay side of Fort Morgan Penin- 5.1. Post-Frederic construction, West Beach, Alabama 132
sula 82 5.2. Early construction phase of Lei Lani Towers on Perdido Key 133
4.18. Stumps and debris on beach are evidence of a retreating shore- 6.1. Forces to be reckoned with at the shoreline 141
line 83 6.2. Modes of failure and how to deal with them 144
4.19. Site analysis: Bon Secour Bay and Weeks Bay 84 6.3. Shallow and deep supports for poles and posts 145
4.20. The armored eastern shore of Mobile Bay 86 6.4. Framing system for an elevated house 146
4.21. Site analysis: Mobile Bay's eastern shore; Mullet Point to Fair- 6.5. Pole house with poles extending to the roof 147
hope 86 6.6. Tying floors to poles 148
4.22. Site analysis: Mobile Bay's eastern shore; Red Bluff to Bridge- 6.7. Inadequate piling depths and inadequate size and bracing of pil-
head 88 ings are common causes of failure during storm-surge flooding
4.23. Bluff shoreline 90 149
4.24. Site analysis: Head-of-the-Bay 91 6.8. Foundation anchorage 151
4.25. Site analysis: Mobile Bay's western shore; Mobile to Dauphin 6.9. Stud-to-floor, plate-to-floor framing methods 151
Island Causeway 92 6.10. Roof-to-wall connectors 152
4.26. Site analysis: Mississippi Sound 97 6.11. Where to strengthen a house 153
4.27. Active dune field, eastern Dauphin Island 98 6.12. Reinforced tie beam for concrete block walls 155
4.28. Site analysis: Dauphin Island 100 6.13. Tieclowns for mobile homes 156
4.29. Development on western Dauphin Island in high-hazard zone 6.14. Hardware for mobile home tiedowns 157
102

x Living with the Alabama- Missi ssi ppi shore

6.15. Mobile home in wooden frame was destroyed by Hurricane Fred-
eric 161
6.16. Some rules for selecting or designing a house 165

Tables

1.1. Damage data for Hurricane Camille in Mississippi 11
1.2. Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale 20
4.1. Storm stillwater surge levels 52
5.1. Alabama-Mississippi barrier coast affected by Coastal Barrier Act
126
6.1. Tiedown anchorage requirements 160

Preface being carried out at an ever-increasing rate. First came the harbors
and ports that required channel maintenance; then came the sea-
shore resorts that attracted construction on the retreating shore-
lines. Earlier generations of Americans were either wise enough to
locate properly or resigned to watch their homes fall victim to
People have lived at the shore for thousands of years, and shoreline retreat; but modern coastal developers are more inclined
throughout that time nature has taught lessons about how shore- to build to the very edge of the sea, then find it necessary to
lines change. Sometimes these lessons have been subtle, barely attempt to stop shoreline retreat in order to extend the lifespans of
noticeable, but more often the lessons have been of the "hard buildings along the shore. The long-range results of such efforts,
knocks" variety in which property and lives were lost. This is the however, are economic and environmental calamity. Such results
case for Alabama and Mississippi. No other part of the American are visible along the New Jersey, South Florida, and other older
coast has suffered more severely from recent hurricanes. Part of coastal development shorelines. Coasts strewn with rubble from
the presentation that follows is an examination of the dangers destroyed "protective" structures attest to the fact that humanity's
disguised by the tranquility and beauty of nature. success in holding back nature for its own ends does not neces-
If you stand on a sand dune on a sunny day and look across the sarily enhance our surroundings or the quality of our life.
beach toward the Gulf of Mexico, it is difficult to imagine the Our goal is to help Gulf Coast residents learn to live in harmony
possibility of a hurricane or how destructive such a storm can be. with nature at the shoreline and to understand fully the conse-
It is just as difficult to imagine that the coast does not remain just quences of doing otherwise. This book is not meant to discourage
as we see it. Dr. George Crozier of the Dauphin Island Marine development; we hope, rather, that it encourages proper, limited
Laboratory has described this coast as a double-edged sword -an development. Although certain natural areas warrant protection
attraction because of access to some of the country's finest beaches, from development, preservationisin is an unrealistic philosophy to
bays, and barrier islands, and a threat because people are deciding follow on all of the coast, especially when a development pattern is
to remain on the coast. Sunny-day decisions are leading to dan- already established on much of it. Unrestricted development, how-
gerous development. ever, endangers coastal residents and resources. The public should
The sandy shoreline of the Gulf Coast is a dynamic, ever-chang- become aware of and concerned about our important coastal re-
ing environment that often does not interact well with the trap- sources in order to conserve them.
pings of man. The exploitation of this dynamic coastal area is The present volume is one of a series being published by Duke

x1i Living with the Alabama -Mississippi shore

University Press. The series will eventually cover all coastal states. and Alabama's mainland shore. Bill Neal, a geologist from Grand
The first volume, entitled From Currituck to Calabash: Living Valley State College in Michigan, has worked on the barrier is-
with North Carolina's Barrier Islands, is concerned with the bar- land coasts of the Carolinas and Georgia where he formerly lived.
rier island coast of North Carolina. The success of this book in He is familiar with shoreline erosion problems in the Great Lakes
promoting safe and sound use of the North Carolina islands led to that are similar to those of the Gulf Coast embayments. Orrin
support from federal agencies to produce the other books. Most Pilkey, Jr., coastal geologist and geological oceanographer at Duke
of the state books are closely patterned after From Currituck to University, has addressed shoreline problems from Texas to New
Calabash. Several sections, such as the ones on safe construction England. After Hurricane Camille, he was on the business end of
and the philosophy of shoreline conservation, are repeated here a shovel helping his parents dig out and clear the debris from their
with minor revisions. With the use of this book we hope to aid Waveland, Mississippi, home. Orrin Pilkey, Sr., experienced that
Gulf Coast citizens in evaluating the safety and longevity of vari- hurricane and learned why hurricane-resistant construction and
ous portions of their shore. We doift want anyone to be in the proper site selection is a necessity for the well-being of all Gulf
frustrating and even tragic position of saying "How was I to know Coast residents. As a civil engineer, his knowledge and experience
that ... T' provided a basis for chapter 6 on coastal construction.
As part of this coastal safety series Van Nostrand-Reinhold The information presented here represents the summation of
Company published Coastal Design: A Guidefor Builders, Plan- the work of many investigators, too numerous to mention, but to
ners, and Homeowners by Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr., Walter D. Pilkey, whom we owe a sincere thanks. We also were helped by many
Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., and William J. Neal in 1983. Coastal Design people who live and work along the shore, including representa-
emphasizes coastal construction principles to a much greater ex- tives of various state agencies. We express special thanks to David
tent than the individual state books. We recommend that the pru- Barley, Carlyle Blakeney, Jerry Burns, George Crozier, Joe Gill,
dent coastal citizen also obtain this reference. Stan Hecker, Myrt Jones, Ervin Otvos, Doug Parker, Cy Rhode,
We came to write this book from several different backgrounds. and Malcolm Ware. We are grateful for the cooperation, insights,
Wayne Canis teaches geology at the University of North Alabama and concerns we acquired from them. We appreciate the coopera-
and the Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium at the Sea tion and assistance of the following agencies: Alabama Coastal
Lab on Dauphin Island. He has seen first-hand the "before" and Area Board; Alabama Department of Environmental Manage-
,, after" Hurricane Frederic conditions on Perdido Key, at Gulf ment; Alabama Department of Economic and Community Af-
Shores, and along the Fort Morgan Peninsula, on Dauphin Island, fairs; Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, Bureau of

Foreword xiii

Marine Resources- Mississippi Marine Conservation Committee; us chart a course through the shifting channels of the federal
Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium -Dauphin Island bureaucracy. Dennis Carroll, Jim Collins, Jet Battley, Peter Gib-
Sea Lab; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers- Mobile District; U.S. son, Melita Rodeck, Richard Krimm, Chris Makris, and many
Geological Survey National Cartographic Information Center- others also helped us through the Washington maze. Special thanks
National Space Technology Laboratories; National Park Service- are extended to Bette Weerstra for typing the manuscript, and to
Gulf Islands National Seashore; Civil Defense offices of Baldwin Barbara Gruver for drawing the line illustrations. Finally, we are
and Mobile counties, Alabama; Jackson County, Mississippi, Di- in the debt of many coastal residents, fellow geologists, coastal
saster Emergency Services; other local offices; and the National engineers, and state and local government officials too numerous
Audubon Society. Appendix B contains the addresses and phone to name who enthusiastically provided us with a wealth of data,
numbers of these and other agencies. ideas, and "war stories.'
The overall project of producing these books is an outgrowth of We dedicate this work to all who have helped, and to all who
initial support from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- come to enjoy the coasts of Alabama and Mississippi.
ministration through the Office of Coastal Zone Management. The
project was administered initially through the North Carolina Sea William J. Neal Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr.
Grant Program. Support from the Federal Emergency Manage- series editors
ment Agency allowed us to expand the book project to all coastal October 1984
states. The technical conclusions presented herein are those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of the supporting
agencies.
We owe a debt of gratitude to many individuals for support,
ideas, encouragement, and information for the series project. Peter
Chenery of the North Carolina Science and Technology Research
Center and Richard Foster of the Federal Coastal Zone Manage-
ment Agency gave us encouragement and support at critical junc-
tures of this project. Doris Schroeder has helped us in many ways
as Jill-of-all-trades over more than a decade. Mike Robinson of
the Federal Emergency Management Agency worked hard to help

1 - A coastal perspective Top of the rainbow: a brief description of the coast
The Alabama-Mississippi coast lies at the apex of the Gulf-Sun
Belt arch. The straight-line distance of state-to-ocean border is
Wrapped around the Gulf of Mexico is a band of real estate not great, but the total shoreline distance around islands, along
known as the "Sun Belt." Like a rainbow attracting gold seekers, sounds, and into embayments approaches i,ooo miles (fig. i.i).
the Sun Belt states are drawing increasing numbers of tourists and Alabama's shore is the longest with 607 miles of tidal shoreline, of
retirees as well as industries with their associated work forces. The which 46 miles are sandy bcach. Mississippi has 359 miles of tidal
coastal zone is where this rainbow touches the sea; and from Key shoreline, much of which is beach, including man-made beaches.
West to the Rio Grande, this is where the most rapid development Barrier islands form about 70 miles of the leading edge of the
is taking place. Gulf Coast. These are the long, thin islands that parallel the main-
Increased development brings with it the potential to destroy land coast. Even what is now mainland coast from Perdido Key
the amenities that were its wellspring, namely the natural environ- through the Fort Morgan Peninsula may once have been a chain
ment and the living resources of that environment. Indeed, we can of barrier islands (fig. i. i ). This stretch of coast may be treated as
smother the proverbial gold-producing goose and unknowingly similar to modern barrier islands as far as many processes and
place ourselves at risk while pursuing the rainbow of our dreams their associated hazards are concerned. Much of the Mississippi
and goals. Building and living in the coastal zone is a risk-a risk mainland shore is an old coastal barrier ridge system that formed
that some are taking without knowing the available facts. during an interglacial high stand of sea level, probably more than
The purpose of this book is to provide a starting point on the 35,000 years ago. Ali Alabama and Mississippi ocean-facing shore-
road to understanding the environment, the risks, and the ways to lines are very dynamic. They are constantly altered by storms,
conserve the former while reducing the latter, particularly when changing shape or elevation as they absorb wave energy or are
buying property or building near the shore. The range of topics flooded and washed over. As their sand is moved about, the barrier
included are aimed, however, at a wider audience because every- islands migrate, shifting laterally and somewhat landward through
one has a stake in the coast and its future. Residents, tourists, time as the world's sea level rises. Part of Petit Bois Island was
hunters and fishermen, those who earn their daily bread in the once in Alabama waters, but it has moved laterally and is now
commerce and industry of the coast, and every taxpayer in Ala- completely in Mississippi. Could the island be making a political
bama and Mississippi will gain or lose according to the direction comment? The lighthouse at the mouth of Mobile Bay was built
taken by coastal development. on a small sand island. The island's sand migrated, leaving the

2 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

0 5 10 15 20 25KH .. :,e r".
0 5 10 1@ 20
M e
N
MISS1 SSIPPI

JACKSON
COUNTY
HARRISON
COUNTY
D'Iberville

N SPRINGS
HANCOCK 0 a oln
ST DEE 0
COUNTY GULFPORT
LO IS ISLAND LA '.G
Sc
BAY
Y Long Beach BAY
Pass Christian
Wavelan Bay, St. Louis MISSISSIPPI SOUND
LOUISIANAI c@5 cIR lp
one
6R'Z' /\7W
F ass
1@4'@@ N ISLAND
Ck HOR
SHIP ISLAND PETIT
ell
,land Pas GULF OF MEXICO 'Zo BOIS IS
ran

Fig. 1.1. Index map of the Alabama- Mississippi coast.

1. A coastal perspective

4b's

MCI I

ALABAMA
MOBILE
Fa1rhope
COUNTY BALDWIN :Is
MOBILE COUNTY

BAY

Bayou La Batre Foley
We ks Bay
00%
A @D
BAY ol SX04
@Irande ow
Batture RIVER erdido FLORIDA
Islands BA4. -Bav e, .
@-3
pas, s BON
tits oeron
Gfaau)( SECOUR Gulf St Te
pass 84Y .-Pr PERDIDO KEY
R mar 11,
PELICAN Gulf B a c @-o
1 -eDAUPHIN ISLAND <Y awww-' West Shores
FORT MORGAN Beach %
SAND ISLAND PENINSULA

4 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

00 scale in feet 8000

4 )V
A y
Pelican
Island

-----1868

................
1908
-1957

"S'
Sand Island W
C

GULF
OF ...............
MEXICO

\1/)SAND
;NTISLAND
LIGHT

Fig. 1.2. Sand Island Lighthouse: (a) map of island migration from 1868
to 1957, (b) the lighthouse today is no longer on an island. Photo by
Bill Neal.

1. A coastal perspective 5

lighthouse with its feet in the bay (fig. 1.2). Similarly, mainland The mainland shore of the sound is a complex of shoreline types,
shoreline positions retreat landward as sea level rises. including barrier-like islands that mark the positions of former
The barrier islands will provide a point of reference throughout ridges (drowned as the sea level rose), marsh islands, tidal marshes,
the following chapters, both for the discussion of natural processes low bluffs, and some narrow, sandy beaches, sometimes cutting
as well as comparison between different approaches to coastal land back into the adjacent pine forests. These shores are of low wave
use. Alabama has chosen to develop much of its ocean-facing energy in comparison to the wide, more coarse-sanded, ocean-
barrier shore, whereas Mississippi's barrier islands remain unde- facing beaches of the barrier islands; but many of them are eroding,
veloped. This usage is more an accident of nature than a reflection and all are subject to flooding.
of any early, farsighted land-use plans. Mainland access is feasible A series of small bays (St. Louis, Biloxi, Pascagoula, Point Aux
for Alabama@s barrier beaches, but the Mississippi islands lie 3.5 Chenes, Grand, Fowl River) of still lower wave energy and lower
to 12.5 miles offshore. salinity extend into the mainland from the sound. Their shores
One small Mississippi island was a popular resort in the ig2os. also are subject to wave erosion and flooding. Their tidal marshes
The Isle of Caprice between Horn Island and Ship Island emerged are important breeding grounds for marine organisms.
by a process of offshore bar buildup around the turn of the cen- Mobile Bay, because of its great size and location, behaves
tury. Once exposed, the island built up with dunes and vegetation, oceanographically as a separate system from Mississippi Sound.
but by the late 1920S it was eroding and by 1939 had faded into Mobile Bay's shores are similar to those of Mississippi Sound,
history as a resort. A hurricane in 1947 removed what was left of however, including widespread marsh, some high-bluffed areas, a
the island, providing a lesson about the stability of such islands for few narrow, sandy beaches, and extensive developed shoreline be-
development. The lesson, like the island, has been lost to later hind artificial bulkheads.
developers of parts of Dauphin Island, West Beach, and similar Little Lagoon, Perdido Bay, Wolf Bay, and the freshwater bodies
areas. north of Gulf State Park also have low-energy shorelines.that are
low-lying and subject to flooding.
Between the barrier islands and the edge of the mainland is The rich contrast of shoreline types, of open Gulf to sound to
Mississippi Sound, more like an embayment than an open gulf. bay or lagoon, of salinities, and scenery make this coastal zone
The sound is an important ecosystem that supports the food chain one of the most attractive in America. The history of development
essential to the seafood fisheries. This broad area of shallow water of this beautiful coast is a long passage through 450 years of forti-
behind the barrier islands adds to the protective cushion against fication, logging, farming, and fishing, until the mini-boom of the
hurricane waves. 194os and beyond. Recreational development dates back to the

6 Living with the Alabama- M i ssi ssippi shore

183os and beyond when New Orleans residents began building development were proper and which were not. On the New Jersey
summer homes on the Mississippi coast. By the i 89os sea bathing, and southern Florida coasts, there have been numerous environ-
fishing, and boating were building a resort reputation, but in a mental crises and a great deal of property loss because residents
southern tradition of verandas and camps. The latest and most have failed to recognize the basic, natural processes of the shore-
profound burst of development began in the 1950s. line. Some good may still come from these losses if they serve to
guide today's developers away from past mistakes. Consider the
Southern Riviera or New Jersey of the South? New Jersey coast.
As new centers of development or resorts arise, comparisons New Jerseyization: man's mistakes
with existing famous places are in order. So it is that Pass Chris-
tian was once called the "Saratoga of the South ,' and Mississippi's On the New Jersey coast, environmental crises and property
"Gold Coast" is not a unique name for it conjures up images of losses have resulted when residents, planners, and developers failed
Mediterranean beaches. Gulf Shores -Perdido Key is affectionately to recognize the basic, natural processes of the shoreline. Those
known as the "Redneck Riviera" again with a Mediterranean con- losses should serve to guide today's developers away from past
notation, and the Riviera theme is widespread. A boast of the mistakes. We will call such damaging development trends New
"world's whitest beaches" also is good advertising copy. Jerseyization (fig. 1-3).
The Alabama-Mississippi shores need no comparisons, put-ons, New Jersey's shoreline development began around 18oo with
or put-downs because they are a unique and rich resource. The improved access and accommodations. Development proceeded
shoreline running from the Florida Panhandle through the great very rapidly because of the proximity of Philadelphia and New
sounds and embayments to the delta country of Louisiana stands York. Hotels and cottages were crowded together on every avail-
alone and holds something for everyone. Unlike the resorts of the able piece of land, with little thought about the safety of the site.
upper and mid-Atlantic states, the Gulf Coast's shores offer year- Often these were not even as well-built as inland buildings, despite
round fare. the fact that the forces they would have to endure would be much
But all is not going well with our coastal development. We can greater. This development was soon threatened by natural coastal
clearly see where we are heading, because others have been there processes. People were concerned that the beaches seemed to be
before us. By studying the histories of other developed shorelines, eroding away. New Jersey often chose to armor its shoreline in
Alabama and Mississippi can determine which decisions affecting order to protect the beaches and development. Seawalls, bulk-
heads, groins, and jetties were built.

1. A coastal perspective 7

Today the remains of many of the protection schemes clutter
the shore. In some places the beach has completely disappeared.
A trip to the New Jersey shore at Cape May or Monmouth Beach
Would be worthwhile for every Gulf Coast resident because it con-
veys a more dramatic message than the pages of any book.
New Jerseyization is not only a problem of destroyed beauty
(after all, some prefer to see a hot dog stand on the beach rather
than a grass-covered dune). It also is a serious threat to coastal id
residents. The threat is basically in the following 5 areas.
Hurricanes. Where there is the constant threat of hurricanes, Aar-
lives and property are endangered by unsafe construction and the
use of hazardous building sites. Unfortunately, development on
the Gulf Coast has not proceeded from the safest to the less safe
sites. Often the most eager builders have owned the most dan-
gerous shoreline property. Poor construction quality, which is in-
dependent of the safety of a building site, also is a danger. Fig. 1.3. New Jerseyization. Photo by Orrin Pilkey, Jr.
Increasing costs. The burgeoning seawalls on the shores of the
Gulf and bays cost a lot of money. The New Jersey experience striking aspect of New Jerseyization. Beach-saving devices work
shows that it is not only the initial costs of shoreline protection only temporarily at best. Where seawalls are built, the beach is
that are high; maintenance also is expensive, and continuous. eventually lost. Old beach resorts in New Jersey and South Florida
Pollution. Improper waste disposal threatens the health of coastal have no beaches at all except where sand has been pumped in. In
citizens and destroys the natural resources that support the local addition, beach repair is done at great cost to the taxpayer. The
marine fishing industry. latest I 5-mile beach restoration project in Miami Beach, begun in
Environmental destruction. The beach-the very environment we 1977, eroded the public coffers by $68 million.
rush to the shore to enjoy-is ultimately destroyed when over- Reduced public access. Private development inevitably reduces
developed. Scenic dunes, maritime forests, and marsh habitats access to the beach for the public, which must often nonetheless
gradually disappear. The alteration of the environment is the most pay the bills for beach repairs. Access to the beach is frequently

8 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

prohibited to all but adjacent property owners, and others must (chapter 3). We will then present information about how to evalu-
pay access charges. ate a possible development site, including a segment-by-segment
Mississippi and Alabama have taken more than just a few steps analysis of the Alabama-Mississippi coast (chapter 4). We also
down the road to New Jerseyization. The medium-rise buildings will go over the federal, state, and local laws that apply to land use
snuggled up to the beach, missing sand dunes, houses at the high- in the coastal zone (chapter 5). Finally, we will discuss the ways
water mark, and various erosion protective devices are but a few that buildings can be constructed to make them safer in a coastal
signs of the trend. But encouraging signs also are present. Two of environment (chapter 6). These discussions are supplemented by
them are the establishment of the original Alabama Coastal Area three appendixes: a hurricane checklist, a guide to government
Board, whose functions have been incorporated into the Office of agencies involved in coastal development, and an annotated list of
State Planning and the new Department of Environmental Man- useful references.
agement, and the Mississippi Coastal Program under the Marine
Resource Council and Bureau of Marine Resources. Also, some
planners and public officials have realized that seawalls and groins The foundations of development: historical perspective
are not satisfactory long-range solutions to the problem of coastal
erosion. Legends aside, the first known European to explore this coast
was the Portuguese Gaspar Cortereal shortly before i5oo. A pub-
Practical advice lished map is evidence of his discovery. The Spanish followed
closely thereafter, particularly in the eastern part of the Gulf.
Development will continue on the Gulf Coast. It would be un- Mobile Bay appears on a 1507 map, and the Spanish explorer
realistic to expect it to stop. If we are to avoid the mistakes that Pifieda probably sailed into the bay in 199. The Spanish claimed
have been made elsewhere, however, it must be done intelligently. what is now Alabama and continued their exploration. Hernando
The purpose of this book is to provide Gulf and Bay residents de Soto's famous trek from 1539 to 1542 took him from West
and property owners with the information they need to make in- Florida into the interior of Alabama and Mississippi, to the dis-
telligent decisions about coastal development. Thus, after giving covery of the great river, and ultimately to his death.
the brief history of development and storms along the Alabama- In 1558 the Spanish attempted to establish a settlement either
Mississippi coast that closes this chapter, we will outline the nat- on the eastern shore of Mobile Bay or in the Pensacola region. On
ural processes that are at work at the shore (chapter 2) and the August 19 of that year the settlers' fleet was struck by a hurricane
various ways that people have tried to control these processes (reference i, appendix C). Most of their ships were sunk or blown

1. A coastal perspective 9

ashore. It was a poor start, and the attempt at colonization failed 3 Ship Island). From Bay St. Louis to Pascagoula the mainland
years later. shore began to see "summer home" development in the period
The French were more successful more than a century later. beginning in the 1830s. Growth accelerated after the War Between
Robert Cavelier de La Salle sailed down the Mississippi River to the States, and by the turn of the century the Mississippi coast
its mouth in 1682, and in 1688 Henri de Tonti explored the Gulf. In was coming to national attention as a resort. Hurricanes were
1699 the first French settlement was established. After exploring having an impact on the coast as well, and Mississippi's urbanizing
the land adjacent to the mouth of Mobile Bay including Dauphin shore was moving in a pattern similar to that of New Jersey.
Island, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville sailed on to Biloxi Bay where The New Jerseyization phase of the Mississippi shore began as
he established a fort and settlers as far west as the Bay St. Louis early as 1915 and continued in the 1920S when the first seawalls
area. Three years later he moved his settlement to what is now were constructed. Of 75 miles of shoreline, approximately 40 miles
Mobile. During this time Dauphin Island was the principal an- of seawall now exists, fronting extensive residential and commer-
chorage for French ships coming to Mobile. However, over the cial development. Much of this shoreline is faced with an artificial
years sand accumulated in the island's harbor, rendering it use- beach; a beach from which material still erodes (for example, a
less. So the French moved their capital back to old Biloxi in 17 19, recession of from 5 o feet to i 6o feet was noted between 195 1 and
and Ship Island became the new anchorage. Nevertheless, French 1965 [reference 15, appendix Q. Periodic renourishment is neces-
development centered on Mobile and on New Orleans in par- sary. Armoring the city of Mobile's shore also dates back to the
ticular. The intervening coast remained wild or with subsistence earlier part of this century.
settlements. The rapid growth of port facilities, military installations, and
In 1763 Mobile and the Gulf Coast between the Mississippi commercial/ industrial development from the 194os and beyond
River and Spanish Florida passed into English control. Coastal led to the urbanization of the Bay St. Louis to Biloxi shore, the
development still did not flourish, but British efforts to regain its Pascagoula waterfront, as well as an enlarging area around Mobile.
foothold after losing the Revolutionary War led to the fortification Bridges, causeways, and road improvements led to the rapid de-
of Mobile Point in 18 13. It was the military significance of coastal velopment of communities such as Dauphin Island, Gulf Shores
positions at bay and sound entrances that continued to spur occu- and vicinity, and along some of the bay fronts. Although Alabama
pation of the barrier islands through the nineteenth century (for generally does not have the massive seawalls and artificial beaches
example, Fort Pickens at the entrance to Florida's Pensacola Bay of Mississippi, the New Jerseyization trend is under way in areas
and related batteries on Perdido Key, Fort Morgan, and Fort such as the east shore of Mobile Bay (Baldwin County) where a
Gaines at the mouth of Mobile Bay, and Fort Massachusetts on single row of cottages sits on low ground behind a nearly con-

10 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

tinuous set of revetments, groins, with little or no beach, and, simi- The remainder of this chapter addresses the first question, while
larly, along some of the bay front of Mobile County. the focus of the entire book is on the second question. The indi-
The rapid flood of population to the coast into developments vidual property owner can select site and structure with an eye to
old and new is setting the table for disaster. safety. The question of "who pays" requires collective action on
the part of society, but it is concisely addressed in chapter 5.
Guess who came to dinner?
Frederic and Camille! Unlike the friendly couple next door, Hurricane history: the lesson of the past
these 2 giants came uninvited and unanticipated. Born in the equa- From the earliest days of settlement, hurricanes have been the
torial Atlantic and suckled on seawater, the hurricanes came to scourge of the Gulf Coast. A storm that struck on September ig,
the Gulf Coast with an appetite for solid sand. Their appetite 1559, was a harbinger of winds and waves to come as it destroyed
knew no barrier as storm surge and waves chewed into barrier a Spanish fleet anchored in Pensacola Bay. Prior to the eighteenth
islands and the coastal plain shore of Alabama and Mississippi. century no permanent settlements were located on the Alabama-
The bones spit out in the wake of this pair included skeletal re- Mississippi coast, so the early record of storms is sparse. Begin-
mains of cottages, stores and motels, trees and telephone poles, ning in the early 1700s, settlements were established near the coast
boats and cars, sewer pipes, roads, and causeways. The final tally and became the recorders of storm events. In September of 1711 a
of the destruction is recorded in the record book (table i. i); the two hurricane destroyed the cathedral in New Orleans and moved on
costliest storms ever to visit America's shore-more than $3.7 bil- to strike Mobile, a city only a decade old. Because of damage in-
lion total! Storm warnings and preplanned evacuation procedures flicted by the storm and associated flooding, Mobile was relocated
kept the death tolls down, but 8 died in Frederic, and Camille to its present site-a convenient port but not out of danger from
claimed 256 souls. hurricanes.
Two of the worst storms in history coming only io years apart In the past 270 years the Alabama-Mississippi coast was affected
ought to raise a great deal of concern on the part of coastal resi- in varying degrees by more than 8o hurricanes. The figures vary
dents. Such concern should raise some fundamental questions: from one report to another, but on the average this coast is affected
Were these hurricanes rare and unusual events? Could their record by a tropical disturbance once every 2.5 years. Of these, hurricane-
of destruction have been prevented or at least minimized? And, as strength storms occur every 3.6 to 4.7 years. For individual sites
in the case of the customer who eats and runs, who should be the average frequency is about i hurricane every 8 years. Such
responsible for paying the storm's tab? average figures are misleading. At least 3 times in the last 2 cen-

1. A coastal perspective 11

Table 1.1. Damage data for Hurricane Camille (1969) in Mississippi (estimated total damage in excess of $1 billion)

Counties

Subject Hancock Harrison Jackson George Pearl River Stone Regional totals

Persons dead 12 114 4 0 0 0 130
Persons injured 2,095 2,110 76 0 37 1 4,319
Persons hospitalized 20 234 56 0 13 0 323
Dwellings destroyed 602 3,075 118 0 29 9 3,833
Dwellings with major damage 1,775 8,493 482 6 520 15 11,291
Dwellings with minor damage 1,496 19,132 1,089 14 2,039 350 24,120
Mobile homes destroyed 162 116 66 0 25 7 376
Mobile homes with major damage 0 206 40 3 33 8 290
Farm buildings destroyed 42 22 40 14 81 49 248
Farm buildings with major damage 81 60 49 27 132 400 749
Small businesses destroyed or with major damage 151 210 60 0 110 2 533
Total families suffering loss 4,375 45,000 2.900 24 3,100 - 55,409
Source: State of Mississippi, The Mississippi Gulf Coast Comprehensive Development after Camille (1970). See reference 82, appendix C.

turies as many as 3 hurricanes have struck the Alabama-Missis- blew down houses in Mobile, and carried destruction inland.
sippi coast in a single year, and within a 2-month span. The Mobile and the coast from the Mississippi Delta eastward were hit
occurrence of 6 hurricanes in a io-year interval has not been un- hard again in 1772. The Bay St. Louis Hurricane in 18 19 brought
common. Seven major hurricanes struck between igoo and ig8o. widespread destruction along the coast, including casualties. The
The conclusion that must be drawn is that any given structure shores of Mobile Bay were flooded, and Mobile streets were awash
on the coast will experience a major hurricane in its expected with everything from ships to turtles and alligators! The same
lifetime -perhaps several hurricanes. When taking out a 25-year areas were struck again in 1821 by a storm that caused deaths,
mortgage to build or buy in a high-hazard zone, one should pause property destruction, and shoreline erosion. Both states were af-
at length to consider hurricane history. fected by hurricanes in 1831 and 1837; Pascagoula was heavily
How would modern developments hold up under the onslaught damaged in the latter. The Great Mobile Hurricane of August
of 2 hurricanes within i week as occurred in 1740? The "Twin 1852 was one of the costliest storms up to that time, and repairs
Mobile Hurricanes" Of 174o eroded away half of Dauphin Island, and reconstruction were barely complete when another hurricane

12 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

struck on September 15, 1855, and raked the Mississippi coast
from Bay St. Louis to Biloxi. In 1860 3 severe hurricanes struck
the Gulf Coast between August i i and October 2! And so it con-
tinued throughout the nineteenth century. At least 15 storms af-
fected the area from 1838 to 1893, culminating in the October
1893 hurricane that made its landfall near Pascagoula. The 1893
storm left 2,ooo dead in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. In
some small waterfront communities nearly all of the inhabitants
died; the greatest number of casualties were found on Grand Isle,
Louisiana. A wall of water 20 feet high swept away the village, the
sand spit on which it stood, and 1,650 of the i,8oo inhabitants!
The high dollar losses along the coast paled in view of the death
toll.
The twentieth century has seen a continuation of this stormy
past. Biloxi (igoi), Pascagoula- Mobile (igo6), Pass Christian-
Pascagoula (igog) were costly openers. The September 1915 hur- Fig. 1.4. Typical northeastern gulf hurricane tracks for the past century.
ricane caused $13 million in damages and 275 deaths in Louisiana (Not all storms from this time period are shown. MH indicates a major
and Mississippi. The loss of more than half the beach road (U.S. hurricane.) 1. October2,1893, MH; 2. August 15,1901; 3. September 27,
go) along the Mississippi coast prompted action toward the devel- 1906, MH; 4. September 20, 1909, MH; 5. September 29, 1915, MH;
opment of the continuous seawall seen today; this in spite of the 6. July 5, 1916, MH; 7. October 18,1916, MH; 8. September 28,1917;
fact that the same storm demonstrated in Bay St. Louis that sea- 9. September 21, 1920; 10. September 21, 1926, MH; 11. August 31,
walls are vulnerable. Less than a year later a lesser storm caused 1932; 12. August 6,1940; 13. September 19,1947, MH; 14. September
another $200,000 in damages to the same communities. Although 24,1956 (Flossy); 15. September 15,1960 (Ethel); 16. October 3,1964,
(Hilda); 17. September 9, 1965 (Betsy); 18. August 17, 1969 (Camille),
the storms of 19 16, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1923, 1926 (2), 1932, and 1940 MH; 19. September 23, 1975 (Eloise), MH; 20. July 11, 1979 (Bob);
(figs. 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6) were not as destructive as the 1915 storm or 21. September 12,1979 (Frederic), MH. Modified from Report on Hurri-
storms that were to come, they caused considerable damage along cane Survey of Mississippi Coast, by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
the Mississippi-Alabama coast. ref. 15, appendix C.

A coastai P.,,pective

7
vi 0
"..x
2 N

A-L 414)
6 FL

-'city

Wan

21
19 qol'

'-4r
....................
........ . . ............. ........ 13
. ... .......... .&i I ...
5 (@) 7 6 3
0

14 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Fig 1.6. Flooding along foot of Government Street, Mobile, after the
1916 hurricane. Photograph courtesy of the Erik Overby/Mobile Li-
brary Collection and the University of South Alabama Archives.
0_4

A0,
-Wl@

In%

Fig 1.5. Destruction along the Mobile waterfront after the 1916 hurri-
cane. Photograph courtesy of the Erik Overby/Mobile Library Collec-
tion and the University of South Alabama Archives.

1. A coastal perspective 15

In September 1947 Mississippi was hit by the most destructive ............... ..... .
hurricane up to that time. The tide at Bay St. Louis reached a level
of 1 .2 feet 00
5 3 feet above the maximum level expected once in i
years. Note that the i-in-ioo-year level has been exceeded twice in
this century! The storm's associated flood, waves, and wind killed PV
44,
22 and caused S17.5 million in damage in Mississippi alone, $3.4
neers
report (reference 15, appendix C) estimates that Biloxi's da
million being damage in Biloxi. A U.S. Army Corps of Engi mage #4@
from a 1947-like storm in terms of 1965 dollars would have been
$16 million, and we could guess that it would be several times
more by the inflated standards of the ig8os. The damage was high
because once again the seawalls were topped or washed out, and
flooding also came from back bay areas (figs 1 .7 and 1.8).
Some good resulted from the 1947 storm because the Southern
Building Code was adopted with added restrictions on construc-
ting temporary buildings that disintegrate into storm debris. The

Fig 1.7. The hurricane of 1947 destroyed the Harrison County, Missis-
sippi, seawall.
Fig 1.8. Damage to building behind seawall due to the 1947 hurricane, re
F,
_*7

Harrison County, Mississippi. Photograph provided by the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, from Report on Hurricane Sul
of Mississippi Coast (reference 15, appendix C).

16 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

storm, however, was the catalyst for adopting a shoreline stabili-
zation philosophy. The seawalls of the 192os, built in response to
the 1915 storm, were now reinforced with an artificial beach as
a response to the 1947 storm. A false sense of security was pre- 4
served, and the shoreline was redeveloped. This prelude and the
relatively hurricane-free period from 1948 through the early ig6os
set the stage for Camille in Mississippi, and similarly Frederic in
Alabama. Weak and/or offshore hurricanes Baker (ig5o), Ethel A
(ig6o), and Hilda (1964) did nothing to break this false sense of
security. Even Betsy (1965) had little effect on the develol
trend. .164,
Hurricane Camille (1969) was i of the 2 Class 5 hurricanes (the 11 43
strongest recorded) to strike the Gulf Coast in this century (figs 1.9
and i. i o). That storm is one of the reasons this book and compan-
ion volumes in the series were written.
Orrin Pilkey, Sr., and his wife lived in Waveland, Mississippi.
Their home was at an elevation Of 13 feet above sea level, but at the
peak of Hurricane Camille the interior of the house was flooded
by water 5 feet deep. As the floodwater surged through the house,
nearby trees crashed into the roof. In reflecting on their loss, and
Fig 1.9. Hurricane Camille of August 1969 flattened the three-story
Richelieu Apartments in Pass Christian, Mississippi. This pair of "be-
qW,I
fore" and "after" views demonstrate the widespread destruction of the
storm. Twenty of the 23 persons who chose not to evacuate the apart-
ment building died in the storm. Photographs provided by the US
Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, from Hurricane Camille 14-
22 August 1969 (reference 16, appendix C).

1. A coastal perspective 17

the post-storm cleanup, the Pilkeys' experience led to their in-
volvement in trying to communicate the need for prudent coastal
development.
The record is clear. Hurricanes are not rare and unusual events.
Frederic and Camille were coming and could have been met with
more preparation. Development since those storms is following
the same imprudent path, because more dangerous storm visitors
are on their way. The best agent to depend on in minimizing the
effects of these future events is yourself. You can do this through
selection of low-risk sites, good construction practices, prestorm
emergency preparation, and by heeding storm warnings.
n1k

Hurricane origin: blow, blow, blow the man down
Each year on June i the official hurricane season begins. For
the next 6 months conditions favorable to hurricane formation
Fig 1.10. The eastbound lane of U.S. Highway 90 immediately behind can develop over the tropical to subtropical waters of the Western
the seawall at Pass Christian, Mississippi, was destroyed during Hur- Hemisphere. Hurricanes that ultimately strike the eastern United
ricane Camille. Photographs provided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engi- States sometimes originate in the Gulf of Mexico or Caribbean
neers, Mobile District, from Hurricane Camille 14-22 August 1969 Sea early in the season but are more likely to form in the eastern
(reference 16, appendix C). Atlantic Ocean during August, September, and October. Although
meteorologists are still seeking answers to the causes and behavior
of hurricanes, the basic model is fairly well understood.
During the summer the surface waters off west Africa heat up
to at least 791 F. Evaporation produces a layer of warm, moist air
over the ocean. This moist air layer is trapped by warm, dry air
coming off the African continent, but some of it is drawn upward.
As the moist air rises, it cools and condenses, releasing its stored

18 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

heat (latent heat of vaporization), which in turn warms the sur- Hurricane forces: the triple punch
rounding air, causing it to rise. As a result of the increasing mass Once a hurricane forms, it begins to move north-northwest,
of rising air, a low pressure area forms (tropical depression) and tracking up the Atlantic sometimes into the Caribbean and the
warm, easterly winds rush in to replace the rising air. The effect of Gulf of Mexico. At first the movement is slow, but the speed in-
the earth's rotation (Coriolis) deflects the air flow, and a counter- creases as the storm moves northward, sometimes in excess of 6o
clockwise rotating air mass begins to take on the familiar shape of mph. If the hurricane makes a landfall, the coast will be subjected
a hurricane. Air forced to the middle of the spiral can only move to 3 forces, namely high winds, storm surge, and wind-driven
upward producing a chimneylike column of rising air-the "eye" waves. In addition, tornadoes may be spawned.
of the storm. When a storm makes its landfall, the greatest wind velocities
This heat-engine effect evolves with rising moist air cooling/ will be to the right of the eye when viewed in the direction of the
condensing/ releasing heat to cause more air to rise. Lower air storm migration (northward for the Gulf Coast). The counter-
rushes in to replace rising air, and the sea provides an endless clockwise air flow around the eye will produce onshore winds over
moisture surface. Heavy rainfall characterizes the edges of the a stretch of several tens of miles east of the eye's landfall for the
cloud mass, and when sustained wind velocities reach 74 mph the Alabama-Mississippi coast. Not only is this area subject to the
storm is classed as a hurricane. The strongest winds of a hurricane most intense winds, but also maximum flooding and wave activity.
may exceed 200 mph, but the maximum winds of the largest storms If you find yourself in an area east of the predicted landfall ... all
to hit coastal areas are rarely recorded because wind-measuring the more reason to evacuate early! The best precaution, however,
instruments are destroyed or blown away! Frederies winds reached is early evacuation regardless of your position. If you are in a low
16o mph, at sea, and blew at 145 mph in the Dauphin Island area, area, a poorly constructed house, or a mobile home, leave for
but Camille came ashore as one of the most intense hurricanes designated shelter at thefirst warning.
ever with devastating i go mph winds. Considering that the diame- Storm surge is a rise in sea level above the normal water level
ter of a hurricane ranges from 6o to i,ooo miles, and that gale- during a storm. Storm surge develops off the coast over deep water
force winds may extend over most of this area, the total energy where low pressure in the center of the storm causes the surface of
released over the thousands of square miles covered by the storm the sea to bulge upward. A second phenomenon occurs simul-
is almost beyond comprehension. No ship or seawall, cottage, con- taneously: the counterclockwise swirl of the hurricane winds in-
dominium, or other static structure will be immune from the im- duces a similar swirling in the water column; this water swirl
pact of such forces! eventually may extend downward to depths as great as 300 feet.
The highest wind speeds are to the right of the hurricane's path-

1. A coastal perspective 19

to the east if the hurricane is traveling north; hence, the maximum tive structures, sometimes undermining them to generate collapse.
water swirl is also to the right of the stornfs path. In a typical Debris accumulates to become battering rams and missiles in the
storm the maximum wind speed and water swirl will occur about next set of waves.
15 miles to the right of the track, placing this area in most danger
from storm surge.
As the hurricane approaches land and the water becomes shal- Ranking hurricanes: the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale
lower, the swirling water scrapes bottom and begins to build up in
a mound to a height considerably above sea level. At the coastline, Hurricane chroniclers note that many historical accounts char-
storm surge may reach a height Of 15 to 20 feet or more above sea acterize each major storm as "the worst ever" or "greater than" the
level. During Hurricane Camille the surge rose to 25 feet above previous "worst" storm. Although storm activity may be cyclic, it
mean sea level in some locations! In most hurricanes inundation is doubtful that storms have increased in intensity. We might con-
of the coastal zone by storm surge and the accompanying storm clude erroneously that Hurricane Betsy (1965) and Hurricane
waves causes the most property damage and loss of life. Camille (ig6g) were of equal strength because each storm caused
Often the pressure of the wind backs water into streams or damages totaling $1.4 billion. In reality, Hurricane Betsy was a
estuaries already swollen from the exceptional rainfall brought by weaker storm, but it struck more well-developed areas. As coastal
the hurricane. Water is piled into the lagoons. When the storm development has increased, storm damage has increased accord-
moves inland, the water in the bays and lagoons suddenly flows ingly. Similarly, loss of life cannot be used to measure storm in-
back seaward much faster than it entered. The result is that a tensity or as a comparative measure between storms. Relatively
house may be flooded from the bay or lagoon side. This flooding is small storms of a century ago were more deadly because they came
particularly dangerous when the wind pressure keeps the intide without warning; there was no time to evacuate. This is why 6,ooo
from running back out from tide-water rivers, so that the next people died in the i goo Galveston, Texas, hurricane. Today, ad-
normal high tide can push the accumulated waters back-and vance warning, efficient evacuation, and safer construction should
higher still. result in low casualty rates even in a major hurricane. But unsafe
The culprit expending energy to destroy structures is the storm development, allowing population growth to exceed the capacity
wave. Wind-generated, coming on top of the storm-surge flood for safe evacuation, and complacency on the part of coastal resi-
level, waves fight at the shoreline may add another io feet to dents could reverse this trend with shocking results. The National
the water's height! The waves erode away protective dunes, strip Hurricane Center has warned repeatedly that tens of thousands
vegetation, smash buildings, and scour around pilings and protec- of Americans could die (and probably will) if a major storm

20 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Table 1.2. Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale

Storm Central
Winds surge pressure
Category (mph) (f eet) (inches) Damage Example

1 74-95 4-5 @28.94 minimal Ethel(1960)
2 96-110 6-8 28.50-28.91 moderate Hilda (1964)
3 111-130 9-12 27.91-28.47 extensive Frederic (1979)
4 131-155 13-18 27.17-17.88 extreme September 19, 1947
5 >155 >18 <27.17 catastrophic Camille (1969)

strikes certain low-elevation areas of heavy development such as
in southern or western Florida.
To better warn coastal residents of the strength or intensity of
an impending hurricane, the National Weather Service uses the
Saffir-Simpson Scale (table 1.2) to describe storms. The scale is
based on 3 storm variables: wind velocity, storm surge, and baro-
metric pressure. Considerable correlation exists between these
variables, which when combined with a knowledge of the seabed
and coastline of a given area can lead to more accurate and timely
forecasting of hurricane impact.
Do not be misled by the scale, however. A hurricane is a hurri-
cane, so the scale is defining how bad is bad. Regardless of whether
the hurricane is a category i or category 5, when the word comes
to evacuate, do it. Wind velocity may change or the configuration
of the coast may amplify storm-surge level, so the category rank
you hear in the news report may change by the time the storm
reaches your position. Doif t gamble with your life or the lives of
others. Go!

2. Shoreline dynamics The islands exist because of rising sea level. The forces acting
on the islands and beaches today are essentially the same as those
that created them. To appreciate these forces fully as well as to
understand the character of the mainland coast, you should be
If you plan to live on or visit the shores of the Alabama-Missis- aware of how the islands were formed.
sippi Gulf Coast or associated bays, you should understand the
natural processes that are at work there. This knowledge is impor- The origin of barrier islands: where did they come from?
tant because your safety and the well-being of the environment
are at stake. Furthermore, structures built on the coast must be Alabama and Mississippi have barrier islands because of the
able to coexist with natural processes without being destroyed or interaction of rising sea level with a coastal plain indented by
changing the system so as to cause destruction in another place. river valleys. Approximately 15,000 to 18,ooo years ago, when sea
level was as much as 200 to 300 feet lower than today, the Gulf
Barrier islands: the line of defense shoreline was many miles offshore, on what is now the continental
shelf (fig. 2.1). Vast glaciers covered the high latitudes of the world,
The Gulf Coast barrier islands have been compared to a line of tying up a great deal of water.
ships in battle formation. The analogy is a good one because the When the ice started melting, the sea began to rise. The rising
islands are a line of defense between the open sea and the main- water flooded the valleys, forming bodies of water called embay-
land shore (see fig. i.i). The islands are a buffer to storm winds ments (fig. 2.2; stage i). If you look at a map of today's shorelines,
and waves, a natural offshore breakwater to absorb energy and you can see many such inundated valleys, especially along the
blunt the storms striking edge before it reaches the mainland. Atlantic coast of the United States. Chesapeake Bay and Delaware
Fortunately, Mississippi's barrier islands remain undeveloped, a Bay are two prominent examples. Mobile Bay and the smaller St.
recreational resource in fair weather, standing in reserve to carry Louis Bay, Biloxi Bay, Pascagoula Bay, and Perdido Bay are Gulf
out their protective role during storms. In contrast, development Coast examples.
on Dauphin Island and from Fort Morgan Peninsula to Perdido If this were all that occurred, the shoreline today would be
Key is either on modern barrier islands or old islands that have jagged. Nature, however, tends to straighten jagged shorelines.
become part of the mainland. Houses, condominiums, and other Shoreline straightening along the Atlantic Coast was carried out
buildings occupy this changing defensive zone. by concentrating shoreline erosion on the headlands between the

22 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

valleys. Wave energy striking the headlands moved sand along the
beach by surf zone currents called longshore currents. However,
MISSISSIPPI ALABAMA because wave energy, and hence current strength, is greatest at the
Mob! FLORIDA headlands, the sand being transported could not turn the corner
0 and flow along the estuary (embayment) shoreline. Instead the
qYLFP0RT.: ._0
san
d built out from the headlands as spits or sand bars, extending
into the bay's mouth (fig. 2.2.; stage 2). The Fort Morgan Penin
sula is a similar feature. As sea level continued to rise, the low-
ED
J'AE14TAL lying land behind such spits, plus the sand dunes of the old head-
I ON
CO
%014
NEW
ORLE S OSS I land shorelines, then became flooded. The flooding behind the old
rlvk I GLAC @@
dune beach complexes resulted in their becoming detached from
the mainland, and the barrier islands were born (fig. 2.2; stage 3).
0 This concept of barrier origin and growth was originally put forth
by Donald Swift, an imaginative geologist who is now with Arco
SA Oil and Gas Company. It was based on the study of Atlantic
Of seaboard barriers.
Studies by Dr. Ervin Otvos, Jr., of the Gulf Coast Research
4K .19- Laboratory, indicate that the barrier islands fronting Mississippi
Sound may have had a different origin. His work, based on drill
hole data, past animal life analysis, and the study of historic maps
suggests that almost all of the present Mississippi Sound was
flooded by the sea no later than 5,ooo years ago. Open marine
Fig. 2.1. The position of the Gulf shoreline 15,000-18,000 years ago. shelf conditions prevailed, but shallow areas (shoals) grew into
Sea level was lower because the water was locked up in continental sand bars and then into islands (reference 22, appendix Q. Dr.
glacial ice caps. Otvos concludes that the islands emerged about 3,000 to 4,000
years ago, but since then they have shifted westward in the direc-
tion of the prevailing littoral drift (direction of sediment transport

2. Shoreline dynamics 23

MISSISSIPPI
0 5 km
---e SOUND
0 3 miles DAUPHIN
V
ISLAND
IN 1848

PETIT BOIS ISLAND
I N 1848
Stagel. [email protected] 0 IM01 Dauphin
Island
1974

Gulf of
Pbtit Bois Mexico
Island
1974
Fig. 2.3. Westward migration of Petit Bois Island and western Dauphin
Stage 2 Format- ot apts a@g headlaWs Island in the direction of longshore sand transport.
by waves and nearshore currents; fig. 2-3). Once the islands formed,
Mississippi Sound was born and subsequently the Pearl River
delta and prograding marshes of the inner sound.
Dauphin Island's origin is a slight modification of this model.
The island's eastern end was a large hill at the time of lower sea
level. As sea level rose, the hill became an island flanked by shal-
Stage 3 Separat- t be,,,., f- -land low water to the west and the tidal delta at the mouth of Mobile
Bay to the east. Such tidal deltas are common at inlets and passes
Fig. 2.2. The origin of barrier islands in a rising sea level. Bays deveiop between islands (fig. 2.4), or in this case between the Fort Morgan
as river mouths are flooded. Spits form from sand delivered by the Peninsula and early Dauphin Island. Sand moved westward from
erosion of headlands between bays. Spits may become isolated as the delta along the partly submerged hill to the shallow area where
rising sea level floods land in back of the spits. it was deposited as a growing sand bar from east to west, creating

24 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

Fig. 2.4. Map showing configuration of tidal deltas that form in front of the low, narrow, elongate island seen today. The sand carried west-
and behind passes between barrier islands such as those off the ward along the growing island fed the developing island chain
Mississippi coast. A large ebb-tidal delta exists at the mouth of Mobile that also migrated westward (fig. 2-3).
Bay between Fort Morgan Peninsula and Dauphin Island. The sea-level rise that flooded the Gulf Coast was quite rapid
until about 5,000 years ago, at which time it slowed down con-
e siderably (fig. 2-5). The slower rate of rise resulted in a somewhat
MAINLAND
more stable shoreline, although normal shoreline erosion contin-
ued. This relative stability, however, appears to have come to an
FLOOD-TIDAL DELTA end recently.
created by
in-comina tides
The accelerating rise in sea level
.'VI
Recent studies suggest that in the 1930s the rise in sea level
J.
suddenly accelerated (fig. 2.5; inset). Sea level is now rising at a
rate of perhaps slightly more than i foot per century. Keep in
77777@\
mind that this refers to a vertical rise. The horizontal change
PRIER BARRIER the distance shorelines or islands migrate as a consequence-is
ISLAND
ISLAN much greater (fig. 2.6): between ioo and 1,500 feet per century.
How much a specific shoreline moves depends on the slope of its
migration surface; the gentler the slope, the farther it will migrate.
Subsidence (sinking) of deltas and marshlands adds to this sea-
level rise effect so that for some parts of the Gulf Coast the rate of
shoreline migration may be even greater.
EBB-TIDAU DELTA The safest assumption you can make about the future of the
created by
out-qoinq tides sea-level rise is that it will continue and accelerate. The National
Academy of Science and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency have warned that all evidence points to a warming of the

2. Shoreline dynamics 25

Present Sea-Level
__O
-5000 years ago-
a)
C tinen 9000 years ago- CD
ta S
h
-503
CD
0 T--13,000 years ago@_ ii; M
0 Ca
CY

(D 8,000 years ago- CO
0 CD
C 5- -100
05 -@ C,
0 CD
<
cc CD
- 10-
-150
0

1920 40 60 1980

Fig. 2.5. The sea-level rise and flooding of the continental shelf during the past 18,000 years. The inset shows the sea-level rise since 1920.

26 Living with the Alabama- M i ssi ssippi shore

Movement of Dune (erosion)- approximately 1000 times V large enough bodies of water to allow strong waves to form. Not
I - only are low-lying areas flooded by the rising sea level, but the
Profile afterirlse Profile before rise shoreline retreats as a result of wave erosion. Stumps in the surf
In sea level In sea level
New Sea Level zone, trees surrounded by beach with their roots in the water,
'cl' scarps and bluffs carved at the back of the beach, and exposures
.k1ginal Low Coastal Plain S ope
I
which Dune-Shoreface System Ig,.feaPrevIoua Sea Level of old swamp peats along the shore attest to this erosion.
From the Florida Panhandle to the Fort Morgan Peninsula the
mainland coast fronts the sea without any offshore island protec-
tion. This stretch of shoreline behaves much like a barrier island
Fig. 2.6. Ratio of horizontal shoreline migration to the vertical sea- because of the bays, sounds, and lagoons that make up the area. It
level rise. For low-lying coastal areas, a small vertical rise can cause is very susceptible to the hazards of coastal processes. Only the
significant horizontal migration. beach dune system provides protection.

Beaches: the shock absorbers
eartWs surface. The burning of fossil fuels has resulted in the ex-
cessive production of carbon dioxide, which causes the atmosphere The beach is one of the earth7s most dynamic environments.
to retain heat. This warming is expected to increase the melting of This zone of active sand movement is ever-changing and ever-
the polar ice caps, which in turn will raise sea level. migrating, and these changes are in accordance with the eartWs
natural laws. The natural laws of the beach control a logical envi-
The mainland shore: keeping step with the sea-level rise ronment that builds up when the weather is good and strategically
(but only temporarily) retreats when confronted by big storm
For the islands to have remained as islands, the mainland shore- waves. This system depends on 4 factors: size of waves, sea-level
line also must have retreated. If you have not guessed already, rise, beach sand supply, and the shape of the beach (fig. 2.7). The
island migration and shoreline migration are the terms that coastal relationship among these factors is a natural balance referred to
scientists use for what beach cottage owners call "beach erosion. ' as a "dynamic equilibrium": when one factor changes, the others
Although the barrier islands provide a line of defense against adjust accordingly to maintain a balance. When human beings
the biggest storm waves, Mississippi Sound and Mobile Bay are enter the system incorrectly-as they often do-the dynamic equi-

2. Shoreline dynamics 27

librium. continues to function in a predictable way, but in a way How does the beach respond to a storm?
that is harmful to human structures. Old-timers and storm survivors have frequently commented on
Answers to the following often-asked questions about beaches how beautiful, flat, and broad the beach is after a storm. The flat
may clarify the nature of this dynamic equilibrium. It is important beach can be explained in terms of the dynamic equilibrium; as
to keep in mind that the beach extends from the base of the dune wave energy increases, materials move to change the shape of the
to an offshore depth of as much as 30 to 40 feet. It is the zone of beach. The reason for this storm response is logical. The beach
sand movement during storms. The part on which we walk is only flattens itself in order to make storm waves expend their energy
the upper beach. over a broader and more level surface. On a steeper surface, storm-
wave energy would be expended on a smaller area, causing greater
damage.
Fig. 2.7. The dynamic equilibrium of the beach. Sometimes besides simply flattening, a storm beach also will
consist of one or more offshore bars. The bars serve the function
Beach sand supply of "tripping7' the large waves long before they reach the beach.
The sand bar produced by storms is easily visible during calm
weather as a line of surf a few to tens of yards off the beach.
Geologists refer to the bar as a ridge and the intervening trough as
a runnel.
Figure 2.8 illustrates the way in which the beach flattens. Waves
Shap Rise in sea level take sand from the upper beach or the first dune and transport it
Of due to melting to the lower beach. If a hot dog stand or beach cottage happens to
beach glaciers be located on the first dune, it may disappear along with the dune
/00@
e

ach sands.
A great deal of sand may be lost during a storm. Much of it will
mooo/ come back, however, gradually pushed shoreward by fair-weather
waves. As the sand returns to the beach, the wind takes over and,
if allowed, slowly rebuilds the dunes, storing sand to respond to
Size of waves natures next storm call. In order for the sand to come back, of

28 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

course, there should be no man-made obstructions -such as a
seawall -between the first dune and the beach. Return of the beach
-First dune may take months and even years.
.. . . .......
. . . . . . ....

How does the beach widen?
Beaches grow seaward in several ways, principally by (i) new
sand brought in by the so-called longshore (surf-zone) current,
0
and (2) new sand brought in from offshore by forming a ridge and
+1
New first dune runnel system. Actually, these 2 ways of beach widening are not
forming 'house mutually exclusive.
Fallen
Longshore currents are familiar to anyone who has swum in the
/New beach position
Normal high tide ocean; they are the reason one sometimes ends up somewhere
Offshore bars down the beach, away from one's beach towel. Such currents result
Gentle slope from waves approaching the shore at an angle; this causes a por-
tion of the breaking waves' energy to be directed along the beach.
,New profile of adjustment +1 When combined with breaking waves, the weak current is capable
after storm
Pre-storm profile of carrying large amounts of very coarse material for miles along a
beach. Along the Alabama-Mississippi coast the dominant direc-
(Shaded area Ii@ is approximately equal to shaded area A.) tion of longshore current movement is toward the west. As a result,
the eastern ends of the barrier islands are undergoing erosion,
while the western ends elongate as sand is deposited. This system
accounts for the westward migration of the islands (fig. 2-3). The
Fig. 2.8. Beach flattening in response to a storm. slightly curved sand bars deposited at the ends of the islands are
called spits, and similar deposits may occur along mainland coasts,
for example, the Fort Morgan Peninsula.
Ridges and tunnels (fig. 2.9) formed during small summer
storms virtually march onto the shore and are "welded" to the

2. Shoreline dynamics 29

L _R Mean Sea Level
A SLANDS -
';71@GR -5
OV@RI@WASH F

..........

t7
LAGOON SEDIMENTS PEAT OVERWASH SOIL DIIINE 6RIFT STEP SHOREFACE
LAYERS BEDDING LINES SEDIMENTS
Fig. 2.9. Coastal environments. I -BEACH

Where does the beach sand come from?
beach. The next time you are at the beach, observe the offshore Along most of the eastern Gulf Coast the sand comes from the
ridge for a period of a few days and verify this for yourself. You adjacent continental shelf. It is pushed up to the beach by fair-
may find that each day you have to swim out a slightly shorter weather waves. Additional sand, sometimes in very large quanti-
distance to stand on the sand bar. ties, is carried laterally by longshore currents that move in the surf
At low tide during the summer the beach frequently has a trough zone parallel to the beach. Lesser amounts of mainland beach
filled or partly filled with water. This trough is formed by the ridge sand may be derived from erosion of the land at the back of the
that is in the final stages of welding onto the beach. Several ridges beach, producing the scarps or bluffs along eroding shorelines.
combine to make the berm, or beach terrace, on which sunbathers Sand carried by rivers does not make it to the coast because it is
loll. deposited inland at the heads of the estuaries. When sea level was

30 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

much lower and the rivers flowed onto the present continental Why do beaches erode?
shelf, river sands were deposited in the area. This accounts for As we have already pointed out, "beach erosion" is the cottage
some of the shelf sand that has been moved landward by waves owner's term for the larger process called shoreline migration. Its
since the rise in sea level. Broken seashell material is another source principal cause is the sea-level rise, presently judged to be about i
of beach sand. foot per century along most of the American shores. We can be
It is important for beach dwellers to know or at least have some thankful that we do not have the higher rates of nearby Louisiana
feeling for the source of sand for their beach. If, for example, or of the New England coast. The reason the sea-level rise can be
there is a lot of longshore sand transport in front of your favorite different in different coastal areas is because the land also may be
beach, it (the beach) may well disappear if someone builds a groin slowly sinking (for example, the Louisiana delta region) or rising
upstream. Community actions taken on an adjacent beach or relative to sea level.
inlet potentially could affect your beach, just as your action may A geologist once spoke at a luncheon in Virginia Beach, Vir-
affect your coastal neighbors. ginia, and told the audience that the most serious problem facing
Where do seashells come from? their eroding shoreline was the rising sea level. A local reporter,
Most shells are the recent remains of animals that lived offshore, mocking the speech, reported that we must "beware the year 4000"
or even within the beach. Most will be broken up to produce for then our houses will be underwater. The joke was on him, for
sand. Surprisingly, some shells from the beach may have radio- by then his house probably would be 20 miles out to sea as well as
carbon ages measured in thousands of years and represent re- in water 30 feet deep! He failed to understand that the impact is
worked shells, eroded and transported as the shoreline migrated within one's lifetime and should not be regarded as such a long-
landward. term event as to be of no consequence.
If you use a shell book to carefully identify specimens from a The real problem is not the vertical sea-level rise, but rather the
beach, you may find that bay or lagoon shells are present on the horizontal retreat of the shoreline caused by the rise (fig. 2.6). As
ocean-side beach. As the shoreline migrated landward, it ran over you remember, the sea level has been going up and down several
the shells of animals that once lived in back-island or bay environ- hundred feet over the last million years because of the advance
ments. In a few hundred or thousand years these shells were re- and retreat of glaciers in the higher latitudes. As the sea level
exposed on the ocean-side beach. rises, nature does not make things hard on herself by constructing
a giant sand ridge or some other such feature to hold back the sea.
On the contrary, the shoreline smoothly moves back and forth

2. Shoreline dynamics 31

with the changing sea level for tens if not hundreds of miles. The future of shoreline development in the United States appears
Keep in mind that the sea-level rise causes the water level to rise to be one of increasing expenditure of money leading to increasing
in the bays, so their shorelines also retreat. In the case of islands loss of beach.
and peninsulas, both sides will erode. Sand bluffs and surf-zone
stumps are evidence of such erosion. What can I do about my eroding beach?
If most shorelines are eroding, what is the long-range future of beach This is a complex question and is partially answered in chapter 3.
development? If you are talking about an open ocean shoreline, there is nothing
The long-range future of beach development is a function of how you can do unless (i) you are wealthy or (2) the U.S. Army Corps
individual shore communities are able to respond to the migration. of Engineers steps in.
Those communities who choose to protect their frontside houses It should be pointed out that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
at all costs need only look to portions of the New Jersey shore to in their periodic hurricane study reports has concluded that addi-
see the end result. The life span of houses can unquestionably be tional expenditure of funds for engineering structures was not war-
extended by "stabilizing" a beach (stopping the erosion). The ulti- ranted for those portions of Alabama and Mississippi studied.
mate cost of stopping erosion, however, is loss of the beach. The Your best response, especially from an environmental stand-
time required for destruction of the beach is highly variable and point, is to move your threatened cottage elsewhere. The bottom
depends on the situation. Barrier islands are usually the most line in trying to stop open ocean shoreline erosion is that the
sensitive. An extensive barrier island seawall may cause extreme methods employed will ultimately increase the erosion rate. For
beach destruction in as little as 10 to 30 years. Often a single example, the simple act of hiring a friendly local bulldozer opera-
storm will permanently remove a beach in front of a seawall. tor to push sand up from the lower beach will steepen the profile
If somehow a community can grit its teeth and buy, move, or let and cause the beach to erode more rapidly during the next storm.
the front row of buildings fall in as their time comes, the beaches Pumping in new sand (replenishment) costs a great deal of money,
can be saved in the long run. Unfortunately, so far in America the and in many cases the artificial beach will disappear much mote
primary factor involved in shoreline decisions that every beach rapidly than its natural predecessor.
community must sooner or later make has been money. Poor com- In sum, there are many ways to stop erosion in the short run if
munities let the beach roll on. Rich ones attempt to hold it in lots of money is available; in the long run, however, erosion cannot
place. be halted except at the cost of losing the beach.

32 Living with the Alabarna- M issi ssippi shore

The evolution of barrier islands: how they operate major overwash deposits have shifted through time. During Hurri-
cane Frederic in 1979 much of the western two-thirds of Dauphin
Every barrier island is unique. Each island evolves by mecha- Island suffered overwash.
nisms that may differ slightly or substantially from those of adja- Other natural differences between islands can be due to such
cent islands; thus, each island must be understood separately.
For years scientists did not realize this and treated all barriers things as average grain size of the sand, island orientation relative
as if they were the same. Geologists and biologists studying barrier to the dominant wind direction, variation in sand supply, amount
islands in Texas argued with those studying barrier islands in New of shells in the sand, amount and type of vegetation, the character
Jersey. Each group of scientists thought the other group was un- of adjacent inlets and tidal deltas, etc. Fine sands retain water
observant. When an investigator attempted to apply what was better than coarse sands; hence, vegetation will restabilize storm-
learned about New Jersey islands to Texas islands, he found the destroyed dunes more rapidly when the sand is fine. Islands ori-
information did not apply, and vice versa. Thus, scientists realized ented with dominant wind direction up and down the length of
that there are fundamental differences among look-alike barrier the island tend to have poor dune buildup because not much sand
is supplied to the island from the beach. Islands with large sand
islands. supply tend to be fatter than those with only a small amount of
Let us compare Alabama-Mississippi and Texas barrier island sand coming ashore. High shell content of the sand, typical for
systems on a broad scale. If you dam a river in Alabama or Missis- many southern U.S. barrier islands, will reduce the amount of
sippi, it should not affect the state's barrier islands at all because sand available for dune construction. Fresh sand that comes ashore
Alabama and Mississippi islands get most of their sand from the during storm washover is winnowed by the wind until a lag layer
adjacent continental shelf. Texas islands, however, are nurtured of coarse shells remains. At that point the wind has a tough time
by rivers such as the Rio Grande and the Brazos that furnish sand getting additional sand because the shells stabilize the sand much
directly to the shoreline during every flood. When this supply is like vegetation does.
stopped by dams, as it partially has been, the beaches begin to
11 starve" and retreat more rapidly. Another major difference be- The point we emphasize is that each island has a different story
tween Texas and Alabama-Mississippi barrier islands is in their to tell. The island dweller must learn and respond to the unique
response to overwash. On Texas barrier islands such as Padre traits of the particular island they inhabit-if they want to pre-
serve it.
Island, overwash passes -where waves wash sand onto the island Having discussed differences among barrier islands, let us men-
-have been flooded again and again during successive storms at tion some things they have in common. While the major mecha-
the same positions. On Alabama-Mississippi islands the sites of nisms by which islands move are the same everywhere, the rates

2. Shoreline dynamics 33

and intensities at which these mechanisms operate differ widely storms. On large ones the overwash may barely penetrate the first
In order for an island to migrate, the front (ocean) side must dune line. On low, narrow ones overwash may be carried across
move landward by erosion, and the back (sound) side must do the island to reach the sound. Overwash waves carry sand that is
likewise by depositional growth. In other words, one end of the deposited in tongue-shaped or fan-shaped masses called overwash
island must lengthen, while the other end erodes. As it moves, the fans. When such fans reach into the sound, the island is widened.
island must somehow maintain its elevation and bulk. Overwash is the method of backside growth used by islands in a
Front side moves back by erosion hurry, that is, those that are migrating rapidly landward. Capes
Island, South Carolina, and some of Louisiana's islands are exam-
The beach moves back because the sea level is rising. This sea- ples. Between i5,ooo and 25,000 years ago when the sea level was
level rise is the main worldwide cause of beach erosion, although rebounding rapidly, most American barrier islands were probably
other local factors such as the lack of sand supply also may cause of the overwash type. Many if not most barrier islands are today
the problem. The shoreline of the Nile Delta, for example, is erod- eroding on both front and back sides in response to the sea-level
ing at an unprecedented rate because the Aswan Dam on the Nile rise. Basically the islands are all going through the first stage of
River has cut off the supply of new beach sand. Beaches in Cali- converting themselves back to overwash islands so they can re-
fornia are disappearing for the same reason, that is, because of spond quickly to the sea-level rise. If the rise continues, a few
dam construction blocking the flow of river sediment. hundred years from now American barrier islands will be totally
As the sea level rises, the sandy coastal plain shoreline retreats. unlike their present-day ancestors.
(The mechanism of shoreline retreat was discussed earlier in the
chapter, in the section on beaches.) At this point, we need only The island maintains its elevation during migration
recognize that the beach retreats horizontally at 100 to i,000 times The remaining problem of a migrating island is how to retain
the rate of vertical sea-level rise, and that the rate of retreat essen- its bulk or elevation as it moves toward or parallel to the main-
tially controls the rate of island migration, as well as mainland land. This problem is solved by two processes: dune formation
shoreline migration. and overwash fan deposition.
Back of island moves landward by growth Dunes are formed by the wind, and if a sufficiently large supply
of sand comes to the beach from the continental shelf via the
One way that islands, especially narrow ones, can be widened is waves, a high elevation island can be formed (fig. 2.9).
by direct frontal overwash of storm waves from the ocean side of The reasons for the lack of dune formation on islands of low
the island (fig. 2.9). All barrier islands receive overwash during elevation are the lack of sand supply from the adjacent continental

34 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

shelf or dominant wind direction up and down the beach rather wash fans from crossing the island during storms. Before the dune
than across it. was built, overwash frequently reached the back side of the island,
and new salt marsh was formed on the edge of the new overwash
Coastal environments: an integrated system fan '. Newly formed Spartina marsh is an excellent erosion buffer
against sound-side waves. By preventing overwash, the frontal
At this point you understand how barrier islands and mainland dune on the island's ocean side precludes new marsh growth and
shorelines develop and operate, and the important principle that increases the sound-side erosion rate.
each system is unique. Therefore, if you want expert advice, do Coastal forests also illustrate the integration of environments.
not ask the old-timer from New Jersey or Texas to evaluate your Large trees form a canopy over the less salt-tolerant undergrowth.
cottage on the Alabama-Mississippi coast. The undergrowth in turn stabilizes the larger trees by holding down
Another important concept to understand is that barrier island the soil. If trees are thinned or removed, sea spray can attack and
environments (fig. 2.9) are interrelated. Each environment is part eliminate the undergrowth. Loss of undergrowth vegetation allows
of an overall integrated system and to some degree depends on or sediment to be eroded by wind or other processes, thereby destroy-
affects other environments within the system. Specific environ- ing the trees.
ments are discussed in chapter 4. Much has been said about the damage to beaches and dunes by
Perhaps the best example of one environment affecting others dune buggies and other off-road vehicles. This problem further
in the system is provided by the role of the ocean-side beach. The attests to the integration of island environments. Dune buggie's
beach is important because (i) it alters its shape during storms in can prevent dunes from stabilizing (become stationary), and de-
such a way as to minimize fundamental damage to the shore by stabilization (sand movement) may result in destroyed dunes and
waves, and (2) it is the major source of sand for the entire system. vegetation or sand dune migration into forests.
Examples of the ways in which man has interfered in the inte- The most common cause of excessive sand movement in coastal
grated system may best illustrate these functions. areas is construction. The problem is particularly acute during the
Dr. Paul Godfrey of the University of Massachusetts discovered early stages of construction and in many instances has halted fur-
that the building of the National Park Service's dune-dike system, ther construction altogether. A very common mistake in coastal
the long, continuous, artificial dune on the Outer Banks of North construction is placing roads in such a way as to ensure that they
Carolina near Cape Hatteras, is causing erosion on the sound side will someday be overwash passes when a good-sized storm comes
of the island. The problem is that the artificial dune prevents over- by. Along many American beaches you can drive down roads that

2. Shoreline dynamics 35

run parallel to the beach and observe that at the end of each beach
feeder road there is a giant notch through the last row or two of
dunes. The notch is certain to someday be filled by storm wave
overwash and storm-surge floodwaters.
Just as environments on a single island or coast depend on
one another, so do environments on adjacent coasts and islands.
Beaches are like flowing rivers of sand. Frequently beaches depend
on neighboring beaches for sand supply. When the river of sand is
cut off by inlet dredging or construction of jetties, groins, or sea-
walls, the beach erosion rate increases. This raises the question of
what actions should be taken to slow down shoreline erosion, and
what will be the impact of these "solutions"?

3. Man and the shoreline from the Dauphin Island groin field, and in front of the extensive
wooden revetment walls along the eastern shore of Mobile Bay. In
some cases beach loss or retreat caused by man may be greater
and more spectacular than nature's own.
As a result of coastal evolution, storm waves, and the general The economic and environmental price for stabilizing shorelines
sea-level rise, shoreline recession is a widespread phenomenon. In also is high. Public awareness of the magnitude of the problem is
the past developers may have been unaware of the problem; in essential before any decisions are made to extend such projects
recent times some have ignored it. Older development has been and further burden the taxpayer. There are, of course, a few situa-
lost, and the eroding scarp at the back of the beach threatens tions in which stabilization is an economic necessity. Shipping
structures in its path. The common response to this natural process channels leading to our major ports, such as Mobile, Pascagoula,
is usually some method of shoreline stabilization. Note that the Biloxi, and Gulfport, for example, must be maintained. The con-
word is shoreline-not beach- stabilization. Stabilization means tinuous stabilization project in front of the urbanized shore from
holding in place. Biloxi to Bay St. Louis cannot be abandoned now. But similar
projects can be avoided.
Shoreline engineering: no deposit-no return There are 3 major ways by which shorelines are stabilized. These
methods are listed below, in decreasing order of environmental
Shoreline engineering is a general phrase that refers to methods safety.
of changing or altering the natural shoreline system in order to Beach replenishment
stabilize it. Stabilization methods range from the simple planting
of dune grass to the complex construction of large seawalls using If a beach must be repaired, beach replenishment is probably
draglines, cranes, and bulldozers. Structures may run for miles in the most gentle approach. Replenishment consists of pumping or
front of urbanized shores, or only tens of feet in front of an indi- trucking sand onto the beach and building up the former dunes
vidual bay lot. and upper beach. Sufficient money is almost never available to
The benefits of these methods are often short-lived and usually replenish the entire beach out to a depth Of 30 or 40 feet. Thus,
cause beach retreat or beach loss in front of the stabilized property only the upper beach is covered with new sand, so that in effect a
or adjacent property. Such is the case, for example, in front of the steeper beach is created (fig. 3J). This new steepened profile often
Bay St. Louis seawall, parts of the Pascagoula seawall, downdrift increases the rate of erosion. Few studies have been made of this

3. Man and the shoreline 37

phenomenon, but replenished beaches often disappear faster than
Wide nourished beach the natural beaches they replaced. In beach replenishment, sand is
but steepened
New d1ne offshore slope either pumped from the adjacent continental shelf, offshore sand
it 0 growh
B bars, barrow pits on the land, or from the adjacent bay or sound.
If the replenishment sand is muddy or of a finer size than the
A original beach sand, it quickly washes off the beach. Dredging can
Overwash disturb the ecosystem, and the hole created can change the local
Channel pattern of waves and currents. In a replenishment project along
the Connecticut coast, wave patterns changed by a dredged hole
on the shelf quickly caused the replenished beach to disappear.
Such holes can also be hazards to waders and swimmers. A dredge
------ A sand pumped from hole produced some 1,500 feet offshore near Buccaneer State Park,
bay to beach
B sand dredged from Waveland, Mississippi, caused at least 25 drownings from 1966
offshore and placed
until it was filled in the early ig8os. The pit was produced about a
on or near beach
year after Hurricane Betsy when sand was dredged to reconstruct
Narrow eroding beach
with gentle offshore a beach in front of the seawall in Bay St. Louis. The hole had
slope backfilled with a soupy mud, creating a quicksandlike bottom.
A more threatening effect of beach replenishment is that a false
Fig. 3.1. Model of beach nourishment. sense of security from storm attack is maintained. Value of prop-
erty behind a nourished beach is maintained or increases, spur-
ring an increase in development -including condominiums. The
growth in development density increases the shore community's
demand for the next round of beach replenishment. Historically,
however, beaches cannot be replenished again and again. Sand
supplies become exhausted, more distant, and more costly. Natural
sand supply diminishes as the stabilized beach, held in place where
we think it "should be," becomes more and more out of equilib-

38 Living with the Alabama- M issi ssi ppi shore

rium with the rising sea level. Eventually the coastal community
will resort to more drastic stabilization measures such as a seawall.
In Harrison County, Mississippi, beach fill was utilized to protect
the stepped seawall, which was constructed to protect the shore-
'V,
line, etc., etc. Recent nearshore construction in Alabama is setting
the stage for future demands for beach nourishment, seawalls,
groins, and similar structures. The lessons of New Jersey have
been lost on a new generation. PEW._
The most celebrated beach replenishment of recent years was
the $68 million Miami Beach project. Fifteen miles of beach were
replaced. On a nationwide basis the cost of beach replenishment
is approaching $2 million per mile. Consider the fact that virtually
hundreds of miles of American shoreline have buildings crowded
close to the beaches. All of these communities will soon be "in
danger" from shoreline erosion because sea level is rising. If the
majority of these communities seek to stabilize their shorelines,
the potential cost to the taxpayer, local and federal, is tremendous.
So much so in fact that a taxpayer's rebellion is brewing as re-
flected by the introduction of barrier island bills in recent sessions Fig. 3.2. Harrison County's artificial beach at Biloxi (1950s). The beach
of Congress. Such legislation will limit federal expenditures (sub- was built in 1951 to protect the seawall at the back of the beach and
sidies) in coastal areas. Future support for beach replenishment must be renourished periodically. Photo provided by U.S. Army Corps
most likely will become more and more difficult to obtain. of Engineers, Mobile District.
The Harrison County, Mississippi, beach nourishment project
(fig. 3.2) is an example of a modest short-term success. The coun-
ty'S 27-mile Gulf shoreline was beachless in ig5o, in part because
of the stepped seawall (see later section in this chapter on the
effects of seawalls). The entire 27 miles was nourished with more
than 7 million cubic yards of sand in 1951. The sand was borrowed

3. Man and the shoreline 39

from about 1,500 feet offshore, forming a continuous 14-foot-deep for such projects. Beach replenishment, however, may be viewed as
trench parallel to the shoreline. In the first 7 years after the beach the lesser of structural stabilization evils, particularly when com-
construction, a time without major storms, only 15 percent of the pared to the following methods.
fill was lost. By 1972 the loss was approaching 30 percent. Hurri- Groins and jetties
cane Camille did not destroy the beach, perhaps because the storm
tide rose and receded so fast along this coast. Nevertheless, this Groins and jetties are walls built perpendicular to the shoreline.
long stretch of beach ultimately will require renourishment. Storm A jetty, often very long (sometimes miles), is intended to keep
conditions like those of the 1940s and earlier hurricanes could sand from flowing into a ship channel (for example, Perdido Pass,
eliminate this artificial beach relatively quickly. Some of the lost fig. 3.3). Groins, much smaller walls built on straight stretches of
sediment will be trapped in the original dredge trench, but the beach away from channels and inlets, are intended to trap sand
question remains, where will future sand supplies come from for flowing in the longshore (surf-zone) current. There are groins pres-
beach renourishment? ent along significant stretches of the Mobile Bay shore, on the
In summary, beach replenishment upsets the natural system,
is costly and temporary, and requires subsequent replenishment
projects to remain effective. The Corps of Engineers refers to Fig. 3.3. Perdido Pass jetties. Photo by Bill Neal.
beach replenishment projects as "ongoing, ' but the implication is
an "eternal" confrontation with nature. Thus, serious economic
questions can be raised by the public (taxpayers) when the facts
associated with beach nourishment are considered. The expense
of such projects and the burden of "perpetual care" with continu-
ally recurring costs provide the greatest benefit, not to the general
public, but to shorefront property owners whose property they
me OiO I
protect." Cries for beach nourishment projects invariably co 412*vml @,
from those with direct economic interests associated with beach
use, that is, owners of cottages, motels, beachwear and gift shops,
and other commercial interests in the community. Many feel that
beach nourishment is a form of government subsidy for such in-
terests. Beach visitors, the public who use the beach, rarely clamor

40 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

is working correctly, more sand should be piled up on one side of
it than on the other. The problem with the groin is that it traps
sand that is flowing to a neighboring beach. Thus, if a groin on
one beach is functioning well, it must be causing erosion elsewhere
by "starving" another beach (fig. 3-5). The same is true, of course,
of jetties. During storms, erosion often detaches the groins from
the shore, causing them to be useless as sand traps (fig. 3-4).
Miami Beach illustrates the results of groin use. After one was
built, countless others had to be constructed-in self-defense. Prior
to the 1977 beach renourishment project, Miami Beach looked
like a military obstacle course; groins obstructed both pedestrian
and vehicular traffic. Groins and other forms of shoreline engi-
neering destroyed the beach at Miami Beach. Now, only through
an eternal commitment to beach renourishment can the artificial
Fig. 3.4. Groin field on the eastern end of Dauphin Island. Note de- beach be maintained.
tached groin, 1981. Photo by Bill Neal.

Fig. 3.5. Model map view of a groined shoreline.

east end of Dauphin Island (fig. 3.4), and along portions of the
Mississippi shoreline in combination with seawalls. Groins can be OJ
made of wood, stone, concrete, steel, or nylon bags filled with
sand.
Stone groins with revetments are also common in areas where
beaches and property are threatened. Great Point Clear, eastern
Mobile Bay, and Pelican Point on Dauphin Island are good
examples.
Both groins and jetties are very successful sand traps. If a groin

3. Man and the shoreline 41

Seawalls 4. It concentrates wave and current energy at the ends of the wall,
Seawalls, built back from and parallel to the shoreline, are de- increasing erosion at these points.
signed to receive the full impact of the sea at least once during a The emplacement of a seawall or other "hard" structure is an
tidal cycle. Present in almost every highly developed coastal area, irreversible act with limited benefits. By gradually removing the
seawalls are common along most of the developed Mississippi coast beach in front of it, every seawall must eventually be replaced with
(fig. 3.2). Other common structures are bulkheads and revetments. a bigger ("better"), more expensive one, or an artificial beach must
Bulkheads are a type of seawall placed farther from the shoreline be maintained. While a seawall may extend the lives of beach-
in front of the first dune-or what was the first dune-and de- front structures in normal weather, it cannot protect those on a
signed to take the impact of storm waves only. Wooden bulkheads low-lying coast or barrier island from the havoc wrought by hurri-
are used commonly in bays and estuaries to prevent shoreline canes; it cannot prevent overwash or storm-surge flooding. In fact,
erosion. Although less costly than more massive seawalls, bulk- floodwaters may be trapped and held behind such a wall during a
heads require maintenance and cannot withstand large storm storm.
waves. Revetments are usually stone facings placed on eroding The long-range effect of seawalls can be seen in New Jersey and
scarps or bluffs to slow storm-wave erosion. Miami Beach. In Monmouth Beach, New Jersey, the town build-
Building a seawall, bulkhead, or revetment is a very drastic ing inspector told of the town's seawall history. Pointing to a sea-
measure on the ocean-side beach, harming the environment in the wall he said, "There were once houses and even farms in front of
following ways: that wall. First we built small seawalls and they were destroyed by
i. It reflects wave energy, ultimately removing the beach and steep- the storms that seemed to get bigger and bigger. Now we have
ening the offshore profile. The length of time required for this come to this huge wall which we hope will hold." The wall he
damage to occur is I to 30 years. The steepened offshore profile spoke of, adjacent to the highway, was high enough to prevent
increases the storm-wave energy striking the shoreline; this in even a glimpse of the sea beyond (fig. 3.7). There was no beach in
turn increases erosion. front of it, but remnants of old seawalls, groins, and bulkheads
2. It increases the intensity of longshore currents, hastening re- extended for hundreds of yards to sea.
moval of the beach (fig. 3.6). Beach community residents must be aware of the bottom line
3. It prevents the exchange of sand between dunes and beach. when a seawall is constructed. A seawall is an expensive commit-
Thus, the beach cannot supply new sand to the dunes, nor can ment to preservation of shorefront structures only. The beach will
the beach flatten as it tends to do during storms. be destroyed.

42 Living with the Alabarria- Mississippi shore

1. BEFORE THE WALL 3. TWO TO FORTY YEARS LATER

00
5carped dune is evidence of There is no beach. The wall is
eroding shoreline. overwashed by storms, and wave
now undermining and
energy is
Gentle
7,
h foreshore

2. WALL CONSTRUCTED
Development proceeds as buyers
believe property is protected by 0. 4. TEN TO SIXTY YEARS LATER (New Jerseyization)
th 11

Road
Immediate narrowing Bigger, "better" reinforced
of beach seawall is put in.

Fig. 3.6. Seawall Saga. ULTIMATE RESULTS: Development is behind wall, no beach is available, and
the sea floor is cluttered with fallen walls and groins.

3. Man and the shoreline 43

Sea-level rise: built-in obsolescence

If the techniques of shoreline stabilization have such a poor
record, why are they built? Rest assured, such structures were
neither designed to fail nor to enhance erosion problems. When
the earliest of these structures was built, the understanding of
shoreline processes was not what it is today. Furthermore, most
--A.00' engineering projects have a design life of less than 50 years. In
other words, long-term geologic effects beyond 50 years are not
red. In fact, 10 to 20 years is a more common design life of
conside
shoreline engineering projects. The experiences of the Cape May,
pop-, New Jersey, jetties and seawall, Miami Beach, and numerous other
projects that represent long-term future commitments should tell
the engineers that for all new projects the long-term consequences
must be considered, figured into benefit/cost ratios, and entered
into the final decision of whether or not to pursue the stabilization
project. We suggest that their conclusions will be against future
projects except in a few highly urbanized areas where there is no
Fig. 3.7. Monmouth Beach, New Jersey, seawall. Photo by Orrin Pilkey, alternative.
Jr. Several reasons account for the long-range failure of shoreline
stabilization schemes, but the most important and fundamental of
them is that the sea level is rising. Along the Gulf Coast this rise
may amount to about i foot per century. We do not know pre-
cisely why the sea level is rising, but it is probably because the
polar ice caps are continuing to melt. In a report released in 1983
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reinforced the National
Academy of Science warning that even within this century the
warming effect of excess carbon dioxide produced by the burning

44 Living with the Alabarna- M i ssi ssippi shore

of fossil fuels will cause increased melting of the ice. As more coal and is held in its original position, it will be placed in increasing
and oil are burned, more carbon dioxide is released into the atmos- jeopardy as the years roll by. As an extreme example, imagine
phere, causing it to act as a giant greenhouse. The atmosphere lets what would have happened if engineers had tried to hold the shore-
light energy in, but tends not to let heat energy out, so a gradual line in place when it first formed at the edge of the continental
warming occurs and more glacial ice melts in summer than freezes shelf i8,ooo years ago. Now it would be 300 feet under water, and
in winter. This so-called "greenhouse effect" is probably the cause the seawalls between land and sea indeed would have to be spec-
of today's sea-level rise. All indications are that the rise in sea level tacular in size! That is basically what engineers are trying to do
will be with us for a long time, and it may well accelerate. today. On a smaller scale they are attempting to hold back a sea
All along the American shore, what we now call beach erosion that is rising, but the designs have not taken this phenomenon
is largely a response to the sea-level rise. Barrier islands are be- into account. Thus, obsolescence is built into the structures.
ginning a long process (a very rapid process in terms of geologic What specifically happens in the long run as the beach becomes
time) of slimming down prior to landward migration. At the same increasingly out of equilibrium is shoreface steepening. It appears
time, of course, mainland shores must also erode, otherwise the from the New Jersey experience that the offshore beach profile
islands will soon "bump into" the mainland and no longer will down to a depth of perhaps 30 feet gets steeper and steeper. As a
they be islands. Part of the Fort Morgan Peninsula may be an consequence, waves striking the shoreline get larger and larger.
example of such welding onto the mainland shore by an earlier Shoreline stabilization schemes evolve from replenishment to re-
barrier island. This attachment occurred thousands of years ago plenishment and groins, to small seawalls, to bigger and better
during an earlier high stand of sea level. Island formation and seawalls, to even bigger and better seawalls (fig. 3.6). As the sea
beach migration are dependent on sea-level rise, and under nor- outflanks a structure, it must be extended, and more and more
mal circumstances the sea-level rise does not threaten or endanger shoreline becomes armored. Thus, the eventual effect of ignoring
islands or beaches in any way. the sea-level rise is New Jerseyization! The message for the Gulf
What happens when we stabilize a barrier island or beach, that Coast and all coastal states is., clear: to choose shoreline stabiliza-
is, what happens when we try to stop islands or beaches from tion as the solution to coastal hazard mitigation will be an expen-
migrating? Basically shoreline engineering holds the beach, or the sive road to follow, and one that will lead ultimately to failure.
island, where it does not want to be held. The beach or island is
said to be out of equilibrium. It also can be said to be in trouble!
If the shoreline is prevented from migrating as the sea level rises

3. Man and the shoreline 45

The future of beach "protection": increasing natural and social maintenance or beach nourishment: taxpayer resistance in-
resistance creases to paying for such projects, causing postponement or a
reduction in scale of the project.
Much of the Mississippi coast is already wed to shoreline sta- 6. Increases in the number of "endangered" beach developments
bilization schemes such as seawalls, groins, and artificial beaches within the state and nation increase the demand for similar
(Pascagoula, all of Harrison County from Biloxi to Pass Christian, projects: less federal and state money is available for the older
and Bay St. Louis - Waveland). Other Gulf-front and bay shores projects, and taxpayer resistance increases when the local com-
are headed in this direction. Coastal residents in these areas should munity is asked to bear a larger share of the cost.
consider the future of such engineered shorelines, a future that 7. Some combination of the above: the beach either disappearing or
hinges on natural events and the social commitment in dollars becoming New Jerseyized with the rubble of failed structures.
and technology to maintain these engineering programs.
Shoreline stabilization and beach protection that rely on engi-
neering structures or nourishment schemes face an uncertain f .u- A philosophy of shoreline conservation: "We have met the
ture. Some of the possible events and responses are these: enemy and he is us"
i. Closely spaced "big" hurricanes continue to occur: natural and In i8oi Postmaster Ellis Hughes of Cape May, New Jersey,
artificial beaches disappear or structures are damaged and de- placed the following advertisement in the Philadelphia Aurora:
stroyed. The subscriber has prepared himself for entertaining com-
2. Sea level continues to rise, possibly at an accelerating rate: pany who uses sea bathing and he is accommodated with
beaches erode faster and structures are flooded. extensive house room with fish, oysters, crabs, and good
3. Adjacent coastal areas, passes, or harbor mouths are stabilized, liquors. Care will be taken of gentlemen's horses. Carriages
cutting off natural sand supplies: natural and artificial beaches may be driven along the margin of the ocean for miles and the
erode faster. wheels will scarcely make an impression upon the sand. The
4. Suitable sand for renourishment projects becomes increasingly slope of the shore is so regular that persons may wade a great
scarce: the cost to nourish beaches increases or unsuitable sand distance. It is the most delightful spot that citizens can go in
is used causing longer intervals between nourishment or in- the hot season.
creased erosion rates. This was the first beach advertisement in America and sparked
5. Changes in the economic climate increase costs of structure the beginning of the American rush to the shore.

46 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

In the next 75 years 6 presidents of the United States vaca-
tioned at Cape May. At the time of the Civil War it was certainly 7
the country's most prestigious beach resort. The resorfs prestige
continued into the twentieth century. In 19o8 Henry Ford raced
his newest model cars on Cape May beaches.
Today Cape May is no longer found on anyone's list of great
beach resorts. The problem is not that the resort is too old-fash-
ioned, but that no beach remains on the cape (fig. 3.8).
The following excerpts are quoted from a grant application to
the federal government from Cape May City. It was written by
city officials in an attempt to get funds to build groins to "save the .6W
beaches." Though it is possible that its pessimistic tone was exag-
gerated to enhance the chances of receiving funds, its point was
clear: -T'
Our community is nearly financially insolvent. The economic
consequences for beach erosion are depriving all our people
of much needed municipal services.... The residents of one
area of town, Frog Hollow, live in constant fear. The Frog
Hollow area is a 12 block segment of the town which becomes
submerged when the tide is merely I to 2 feet above normal. Fig. 3.8. Cape May, New Jersey, seawall (1976). Note the absence of a
The principal reason is that there is no beach fronting on this beach. Photo by Orrin Pilkey, Jr.
area.... Maps show that blocks have been lost, a boardwalk
that has been lost.... The stone wall, one mile long, which
we erected along the ocean front only five years ago has al-
ready begun to crumble from the pounding of the waves since
there is little or no beach.... We have finally reached a point
where we no longer have beaches to erode.

3. Man and the shoreline 47

Alabama and Mississippi will not have to wait a century and a It is, in fact, an integral part of coastal evolution (see chapter 2)
half for this crisis to reach their shores. The pressure to develop is and the entire dynamic system. When a beach retreats, it does
here and increasing. Like the original Cape May resort, our struc- not mean that it is disappearing; it is migrating. Many developed
tures are not placed far back from the shore; nor have we been so shorelines, especially on barrier islands, are migrating at surpris-
prudent as to always place structures behind dunes or on high ingly rapid rates, though only the few investigators who pore over
ground. Consequently, our coastal development is no less vulner- aerial photographs are aware of it. Whether the beach is growing
able to the rising sea than was Cape May's, and no shoreline or shrinking does not concern the visiting swimmer, surfer, hiker,
engineering device will prevent its ultimate destruction. The solu- or fisherman. It is when man builds a "permanent" structure in
tion lies in recognizing certain "truths" about the shoreline. this zone of change that a problem develops.
Construction by man on the shoreline causes shoreline changes.
Truths of the shoreline The sandy beach exists in a delicate balance with sand supply,
beach shape, wave energy, and sea-level rise. This is the dynamic
Cape May is the country's oldest shoreline resort. Built on a equilibrium discussed in chapter 2. Most construction on or near
shoreline that migrates, it is a classic example of a poorly devel- the shoreline changes this balance and reduces the natural flexi-
oped shoreline where communities chose to confront nature rather bility of the beach. The result is change that often threatens man-
than work with it. Alabama and Mississippi can learn from New made structures. Dune removal, which often precedes construc-
Jersey's mistakes. tion, reduces the sand supply used by the beach to adjust its profile
From examples of Cape May and other shoreline areas, certain during storms. Beach cottages-even those on stilts-may ob-
generalizations or "universal truths" about the shoreline emerge struct the normal sand exchange between the dunes, beach, and
quite clearly. These truths are equally evident to scientists who the shelf during storms. Similarly, engineering devices interrupt
have studied the shoreline and old-timers who have lived there all or modify the natural cycle (see chapter 2 and figs. 2.7, 3.5, and
their lives. As aids to safe and aesthetically pleasing shoreline de- 3.6).
velopment, they should be the fundamental basis of planning in Shoreline engineering protects the interests of a very few, often at
any coastal zone. a very high cost in federal and state dollars. Shoreline engineering is
There is no erosion problem until a structure is built on a shoreline. carried out to save beach property, not the beach itself. Shore
Beach erosion is a common, expected event, not a natural disaster. stabilization projects are in the interest of the minority of beach
Shoreline erosion in its natural state is not a threat to the coast. property owners rather than the public. If the shoreline were

48 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

allowed to migrate naturally over and past the cottages and hot dog low in the long run for a variety of reasons. Maintenance, repairs,
stands, the fisherman and swimmer would not suffer. Yet beach and replacement costs are typically underestimated because it is
property owners apply pressure for the spending of tax money- erroneously assumed that the big storm, capable of removing an
public funds-to protect the beach. Since these property owners entire beach replenishment project overnight, will somehow by-
do not constitute the general public, their personal interests do pass the area. The inevitable hurricane or storm, moreover, is
not warrant the large expenditures of public money required for viewed as a catastrophic act of God or a sudden stroke of bad luck
shoreline stabilization. for which one cannot plan. The increased potential for damage
Exceptions to this rule are the beaches near large metropolitan resulting from shoreline engineering is also ignored in most cost
areas. The combination of extensive high-rise development and evaluations. In fact, very few shoreline engineering projects would
heavy beach use (ioo,ooo or more people per day) affords ample be funded at all if those controlling the purse strings realized that
economic justification for extensive and continuous shoreline sta- such "lines of defense" must be perpetual.
bilization projects. For example, to spend tax money for replen- Once you begin shoreline engineering, you can't stop it! This state-
ishing Coney Island, which accommodates tens of thousands of ment, made by a city manager of a Long Island Sound commu-
people daily during the summer months, is more justifiable than nity, is confirmed by shoreline history throughout the world. Be-
to spend tax dollars to replenish a beach that serves only a small cause of the long-range damage caused to the beach it "protects,"
number of private cottages. In the case of the former, beach main- this engineering must be maintained indefinitely. Its failure to
tenance is in the interest of the public that pays for it. Whereas in allow the sandy shoreline to migrate naturally results in a steepen-
the latter case, the expenditure amounts to middle-class welfare. ing of the beach profile, reduced sand supply, and therefore accel-
Shoreline engineering destroys the beach it was intended to save. erated erosion (see chapter 2). Thus, once man has installed a
If this sounds incredible to you, drive to New Jersey and examine shoreline structure, "better"- larger and more expensive -struc-
their shores. See the miles of "well-protected" shoreline -without tures must subsequently be installed, only to suffer the same fate
beaches (fig. 3.9)! This truth applies equally to the Gulf Coast. as their predecessors (fig. 3-9).
The 27 miles of Harrison County, Mississippi, seawall contributed History shows us that there are 2 situations that may terminate
to the loss of the beach. The beach today in front of the seawall shoreline engineering. First, a civilization may fail and no longer
was built by man and must be maintained in order to exist. build and repair its structures. This was the case with the Romans,
The cost of saving beach property through shoreline engineering who built mighty seawalls that are now ruins or forever lost.
is usually greater than the value of the property to be saved Price Second, a large storm may destroy a shoreline stabilization system
estimates for shoreline engineering projects are often unrealistically so thoroughly that people decide to throw in the towel. In America,

3. Man and the shoreline 49

The solutions

i. Design to live with the flexible coastal environment. Do not
fight nature with a "line of defense' "
z. Consider all man-made structures near the shoreline temporary.
3. Accept as a last resort any engineering scheme for beach restora-
Now--, tion or preservation, and then, only for metropolitan areas.
4.Base decisions affecting coastal development on the welfare
of the public rather than the minority of shorefront property
owners.
5. Let the lighthouse, beach cottage, motel, or hot dog stand fall
...............
when its time comes.

Questions to ask if shoreline engineering is proposed
Fig. 3.9. Beach loss and New Jerseyization of shore resulting from
shoreline engineering. Photo by Bill Neal. When a community is considering some form of shoreline engi-
neering, it is almost invariably done in an atmosphere of crisis.
however, such a storm is usually regarded as an engineering chal- Buildings and commercial interests are threatened, time is short,
lenge and thus results in continued shoreline stabilization projects. an expert is brought in, and a solution is proposed. Under such
As noted in chapter 2, rubble from 2 or more generations of sea- circumstances the right questions are sometimes not asked. The
walls remains off some New Jersey beaches! A smaller scale exam- following is a list of questions you might ask if you find yourself a
ple occurs at Waveland, Mississippi. member of such a community.
i. Will the proposed solution to shoreline erosion damage the
recreational beach? in i o years? in 20 years? in 30 years? in 5o
years?
2. How much will maintenance of the solution cost in io years?

50 Living with the Alabama- M i ssissippi shore

in 20 years? in 30 years? in 50 years? Where will the funds i i. What are the alternatives to the proposed solution to shoreline
come from? erosion? Should the threatened buildings be allowed to fall in?
3. If the proposed solution is carried out, what is likely to happen Should they be moved? Should tax money be used to move
in the next big storm? mild hurricane? severe hurricane? them?
4. What has been the erosion rate of the shoreline here during 12. What are the long-range environmental and economic costs of
the last io years? 20 years? since the late 1930s (the time of the the various alternatives from the standpoint of the local prop-
first coastal aerial photography)? since the mid-18oos (the time erty owners? the beach community? the entire shoreline? the
when the first accurately surveyed shoreline maps were pro- citizens of the state and the rest of the country?
duced by the old U.S. Geodetic Survey)?
5. What will the proposed solution do to the beach front? Will
the solution for one portion of a shoreline create problems for
another portion?
6. What will happen if an adjacent inlet migrates? closes up?
What will happen if the tidal delta offshore from the adjacent
inlet changes its size and shape or if the channel moves?
7. If the proposed erosion solution is carried out, how will it affect
type and density of future beach-front development? Will addi-
tional controls on beach-front development be needed at the
same time as the solution?
8. What will happen 20 years from now if the inlet nearby is
dredged for navigation? if jetties are constructed? if seawalls
and groins are built nearby?
9. What is the 50- to ioo-year environmental and economic prog-
nosis for the proposed erosion solution if predictions of an
accelerating sea-level rise are accurate?
io. If stabilization -for instance, a seawall-is permitted here,
will this open the door to seawalls elsewhere? (The answer to
this one has always been "yes" in most other coastal states.)

4. Selecting a site along the Alabama a specific homesite or business site. Consider, for example, a river
and the floodplain (flat area) next to it. Even casual observation
Mississippi coast reveals that the river floods. If this system is observed for a long
period of time, it may be noted that the time and size of the floods
follow a pattern. The area next to the river is flooded every spring,
No coastal locality is absolutely safe. Given the right conditions, while the middle floodplain of the river is covered only every 5 to
hurricane, flood, wind and wave erosion, overwash, and inlet io years. Once or twice in a lifetime, a devastating flood will cover
formation can attack any area in the coastal zone. Furthermore, the entire floodplain. These observations have been confirmed by
human activity, particularly construction, almost always reduces detailed stream studies. Thus, we can determine and predict the
the stability of the natural environment. Man-made structures are frequency and size of floods in a given area, though we cannot
static (immobile); when placed in a dynamic (mobile) system, predict exactly when a flood of a given size will actually occur. We
they tend to disrupt the balance of that system. Interference with can then describe an individual flood as a i-in-io-year flood, or a
sand supply, disruption of plant cover, topographic alteration, and i-in-5o-year flood, based on the frequency of a given flood level.
similar effects associated with man-made structures actually create Obviously we would not want to build a house or business in an
conditions favorable to the damage or loss of those structures. area that is flooded once (or more) every year, or even every io
When building a new structure or buying an existing one, you years; given the choice we would rather locate where the likeli-
should first evaluate the safety of the general area in which you hood of flooding is once in 5 0 to i oo years. The decision to locate
are locating, and then similarly evaluate the specific site. in a flood-prone area would be determined by how essential it is
to be there and the level of economic loss we are willing to sustain.
Choosing your area: the first step to safety In a like manner we also can predict the frequency and level of
storm flooding in coastal areas (table 4.1, see also reference 69,
Though some areas are considerably safer for development than appendix Q. Although the frequency and levels can be predicted,
others, all are vulnerable to the natural processes at work in the the time of a given storm is not yet predictable. Thus, if a i-in-25-
coastal zone. Structures placed in the most stable areas (subject to year storm-flood level of 8 to 9 feet is expected for a certain stretch
less movement or change) are least likely to be damaged or de- of coast, it would be sensible to build at an elevation greater than 9
stroyed. If we can identify such areas as well as rates and inten- feet above mean sea level. This concept has been incorporated in
sities of natural physical activity, we will have a basis for choosing many coastal zone building codes, and it is why new construction

52 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

Table 4.1 Storm stillwater surge levels for 1-in-25-, 50-, and 100- is required to be a certain elevation above ground level (usually
year storms (in feet above mean sea level) on "stilts"; see chapter 6 on construction).
1-in-25 1-in-50 1-in-100 The ioo-year flood level is a standard used for both inland and
Destin beaches, Florida 10.5 coastal areas in determining areas eligible for the National Flood
Fort Walton beaches, Florida 9.2 Insurance Program. Persons unfamiliar with this concept some-
Santa Rosa Island, Florida - - 10.5 times mistakenly believe that after such a flood level occurs, it
Perdido-Wolf Bay area, Alabama 4.9 5.7 6.5 will not happen again for ioo years. The fact is that a flood of
Bayou St. John Area, Alabama 6.5 7.5 8.5
Fort Morgan-Gulf Shores, Alabama 8.7 10.1 11.4 such magnitude can occur in successive years, or twice in one
Mobile Bay, Alabama 7.9 9.3 10.6 year, and so on. The flooding along the Pearl River over the last
Dauphin Island 8.1 9.8 11.5 several years has taught floodplain residents a hard lesson about
Grand Bay-Bayou La Batre, Alabama 9.4 11.4 13.3
Pascagoula, Mississippi 10.0 12.2 14.2 flood recurrence. And those Gulf residents whose property was
Biloxi, Mississippi 10.4 12.9 15.4 twice damaged or destroyed by hurricanes over an i i -year interval
Bay St. Louis, Mississippi 12.0 14.8 17.4 (Camille in 1969 and Frederic in 1979) know that the ioo-year
Source: Adapted from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' publications (refer- storm-surge level is just an average.
ences 7 and 16, appendix C). Perhaps it is better to think of a ioo-year flood as a level of
flooding having a i percent statistical probability of occurring in
any given year (but each and every year). During the life of a
house within the flood zone, a house with a 3o-year mortgage,
there is a 26 percent probability that the property will be flooded.
The chance of losing your property becomes roughly i in 4, rather
than i in ioo. Because of such risk the federal government has
tightened requirements and raised the price of flood insurance in
the coastal zone (see chapter 5).
In evaluating an area, then, 2 important questions need to be
asked: Is the area (community) within the flood zone? And is
flood insurance available?
Another important question is: How has the shoreline responded

4. Selecting a site 53

to past human activity, particularly construction? The shoreline is Regardless of the coastal area you choose, site selection is the
not necessarily safe merely because it has been developed. The next important step.
new and modern development of Gulf Shores, West Beach, or on
the Fort Morgan Peninsula gives no indication of the near total Selecting your site: playing the odds
destruction of Hurricane Frederic. Other than steps leading up to
a few vacant lots, there is no indication of what Hurricane Camille Human nature is such that we are willing to gamble if the poten-
did to the urbanized Mississippi coast. tial reward is worth the risk. In the case of the coast the rewards
What are some of the clues of a troubled shoreline? The pres- are the amenities of the seashore and other coastal environments.
ence of groins, seawalls, or revetments on the beach tells you the The risk is losing your property. Like smart gamblers who know
shoreline is subject to erosion, now compounded by the stabiliza- the odds and try to reduce the house advantage, property buyers
tion structures. Such a shoreline certainly is to be avoided. Re- and owners can and should identify the natural odds of coastal
moval of vegetation, for purposes of construction or to get a better hazards and act accordingly.
view of the sea, may increase the potential for storm damage or Structures placed in the least dynamic zones (stable areas sub-
create a blowing sand nuisance. Roads to the beach built through ject to less movement or change) are less likely to be damaged. If
the dune line may act as overwash passes. Removal of dunes or we can identify such areas, as well as the rates and intensities of
construction in front of them is an invitation to storm disaster. natural physical activity, we have a basis for evaluating site safety,
Areas of extensive, artificially filled marshes are likely to be flooded selecting the site that provides the greatest protection against natu-
and commonly experience groundwater problems. Instability of ral hazards, and taking appropriate precautions. The previous ex-
bluff shorelines, such as adjoining Mobile Bay and Biloxi Bay, ample of identifying the flood zone illustrates the point. If you
also is increased by adjacent construction. expect a i-in-25-year storm-surge flood level of 8 feet for a par-
The political infrastructure of your prospective coastal area may ticular site, it would be sensible either to avoid the site or to build
have as strong a bearing on its overall safety as the natural system. at an elevation of greater than 8 feet. Because storm waves will
Unchecked growth or unenforced building and sand dune codes further increase that flood height, you should seek even higher
are examples of social conditions that may create threats to health elevations in addition to using a construction technique that raises
or safety. Overloaded sewage treatment systems, inadequate or the house several feet off the ground (see chapter 6).
unsafe escape routes, loss of natural storm protection, structures What other clues can we look for in evaluating site safety and
lacking storm worthiness, and vulnerable utilities are but a few stability?
examples of man-made problems.

54 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Stability indicators: what to look for at your site Vegetation
Along the Alabama-Mississippi coasts a number of environ- Vegetation may indicate environmental stability, age, and eleva-
mental characteristics indicate the natural history of a given area. tion. In general, the taller and thicker the vegetative growth, the
In revealing how dynamic an area has been through time, these more stable the site and the safer the area for development. Man-
characteristics aid prospective builders and buyers in deciding time forests grow only at elevations high enough to preclude fre-
whether a site offers protection against natural hazards or not. quent flooding. In addition, since a mature live oak or pine forest
Natural indicators include terrain and land elevation, vegetation, takes many years to develop, the homeowner or prospective buyer
soil profile, and even seashells. can be assured further that the forest areas generally provide the
safest homesites in the coastal zone. Of course, safe is a relative
Terrain and elevation term. Hurricanes do knock down trees and inflict wind damage in
Terrain and elevation are good measures of an area's safety from forested areas. One should evacuate from even the "safest" coastal
various adverse natural processes. Low, flat areas are subject to site in the event of an impending hurricane.
destructive wave attack, overwash, storm-surge flooding, and blow- The exception to using forest as an indicator of stability is where
ing sand. Table 4. 1 shows the expected storm-surge levels for dif- rapidly eroding shorelines have advanced into the forest. This is
ferent parts of the Florida-Alabama-Mississippi coasts. On islands occurring along parts of the Mobile Bay shore, along the main-
peninsulas, and areas backed by lagoons, embayments, or coastai land shore of Mississippi Sound in Mobile County and Jackson
lakes and ponds, the flooding may come from the direction of those County, and on Dauphin Island east of Bienville Beach. Fallen
bodies of water rather than from the direction of the Gulf. Hurri- trees and stumps on the beach and in the surf zone identify locali-
cane Camille generated flood levels on the order Of 25 feet. Refer- ties to be avoided.
ences 61 and 62 (appendix C) show the areas flooded by Camille Bare, unvegetated areas usually indicate erosion or moving sand
and Frederic. and are unsafe for development.
High elevations are always preferable to lower elevations. How- Soil profiles
ever, stay away from the retreating edges of eroding bluffs such as
those that occur along parts of Mobile Bay and Mississippi Sound. Soil profiles may give a clue to building site stability. White-
The higher elevations of sand dunes also afford protection, but bleached sand overlying yellow sand to a depth of several feet
keep in mind that sand dunes are unstable. suggests stability, because such a soil profile requires a long period
of time to develop. Note the soil profile by looking in road cuts,

4. Selecting a site 55

along canals, or in a pit you have dug. Red sands do not occur Coastal environments: what natural processes are operating
naturally in most coastal areas, so beware where your soil profile at the site
includes this red material; it probably means that a low area has
been filled, and may, or may not, be suitable for development. Inland developments typically occupy a single environment,
Keep in mind that even formerly stable, forested areas can be such as a pine forest or former pastureland. In contrast, the coastal
eroded by a migrating shoreline, so you may find a "stable" soil zone consists of small areas of very different environments, and
profile in an unstable position. Avoid areas Where profiles show typical developments overlap environmental boundaries without
layers of peat or other organic materials. Such layers have a high regard to the consequences. By knowing what environment(s) a
water content and lack the strength to support an overlying struc- lot occupies, you can identify prevailing conditions that may or
ture. The weight of a house can compress the layers, causing the may not be conducive to development. In addition to the beach,
house to sink. Furthermore, such soil conditions cause septic tank environmental features include primary dunes, overwash fans,
problems. grasslands, passes, maritime forests and thickets, marshes, and
bluffs (fig. 2.9).
Seashells
Seashells also provide clues to the natural or man-made processes Primary dunes
that have occurred in an area. A mixture of brown-stained and Primary dunes usually are defined as the row of dunes closest to
natural-colored shells is often washed onshore from the Gulf dur- the Gulf, although a distinct line or row may not be obvious. In
ing storms. Shells with these mixed colors, then, indicate overwash some places these dunes may be totally absent. Where present,
zones. Do not build where overwash has occurred; it is likely to such dunes serve as a sand reservoir that feeds the beach during
occur again in that area. If you must build, do so on stilts so that storms and provide elevation as a temporary line of defense against
the building allows overwash to pass beneath the structure. wind and waves. The temporary nature of dunes was demonstrated
Mixed black and white shells without brown or natural-colored in the area east of Gulf Shores, Alabama, and just west of the
shells are almost a certain sign that material has been pumped or public fishing pier. Before Hurricane Frederic (September 12-13,
dredged from the sound or bay. Such material is used to artificially 1979) that area had some of the finest and best developed pri-
fill low areas or passes, or to nourish an eroding beach. Thus, such mary dunes on the Gulf Coast. The hurricane waves and storm
a shell mixture may indicate an unstable area where development surge completely removed the dunes, however; damage inland was
should be avoided. lessened because the storm's fury was spent on eroding the dunes.
Primary dunes are the natural main line of defense against ero-

56 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

sion and storm damage to man-made structures. This line of de- Locating on a primary dune is nearly as dangerous. In such a
fense is "leaky" because of the discontinuous nature of the dune location you should expect to lose your cottage or condo during
line and overwash passes between the dunes. When man interferes the next major storm.
with the dune system, both the natural and man-made systems
suffer. We must recognize the mobility of dune systems, even those Dune fields
stabilized by vegetation. By prohibiting vehicles on the dunes, and Dune fields are open, bare to grassy sand dune areas found
by building boardwalks and footbridges over the dunes rather than between the primary dunes and the forest (if present), or between
building footpaths through them, we may preserve the dunes. the primary dunes and the sound or bay if such a body of water
Avoiding the construction of seawalls, groins, and bulkheads also exists. Some of these dunes are active, with the sand and dune
preserves dunes by assuring that the sand flow that feeds them is positions continually shifting; other dune fields are temporarily
not interrupted. stable and do not move much at all.
If dunes are destroyed or threatened, there are some remedial Stable dune fields may offer sites that are relatively safe from
steps that can be taken to stabilize them artificially. Planting vege- the hazards of wave erosion, overwash, and storm-surge flooding
tation types that can live in the dune environment serves to sta- provided that the elevation is sufficiently high. However, digging
bilize existing dunes and encourages additional dune growth (see up or disturbing the dunes for construction may cause blowing
references 71 through 8o, appendix Q. Snow fencing is commonly sand, the destabilization of dune vegetation, and increasing sand
used to trap sand and to initiate or increase dune growth. movement. Do not build where dunes show bare, unvegetated
The high elevation of a dune does not in itself make a site safe. surfaces; such dunes are active.
An area with a high erosion rate is quite likely to lose its dune
protection during the average lifetime of a cottage. Even setback Overwash tans
ordinances, laws which require that buildings be placed a mini- Overwash fans develop when water, thrown up by waves and
mum distance behind the dune, do not guarantee long-term pro- storm surge, flows between and around dunes or across flat
tection. Hurricane Frederic removed much of the protective dune stretches of coastal property into bodies of water landward from
line on which such an Alabama law was based. Post-Frederic the beach. Such overwash waters carry sand and deposit it in flat,
construction was still placed as if the dune line remained. These fan-shaped masses (fig. 4A). They also transport brown, white,
beach-front cottages and condominiums will not fare well in the and natural-colored shells inward from the beach. These fans pro-
next hurricane because they are without any natural protection! vide sand to form and maintain dunes and build up the elevation.

4. Selecting a site 57

Although the overwash process is constructive in the long term,
during actual fan formation erosion and destruction of structures
are likely to occur. When primary dunes are high and continuous,
overwash is relatively unimportant and restricted to the beach and
near-shore area. This case is illustrated on the extreme western
end of the Fort Morgan Peninsula. Where dunes are absent, low,
or discontinuous, overwash fans may extend across narrow necks
of land between bodies of water as they do on the western end of
Dauphin Island, Petit Bois Island, Ship Island, Horn Island, and
Cat Island, and near Gulf Shores where overwash into Little
Lagoon and Shelby Lakes occurred during Hurricane Frederic.
a During severe hurricanes, only the highest elevations (generally
above 15 to 20 feet) are safe from overwash.
q- Overwash may damage or bury man-made structures. Roads
may be buried (fig. 4-1) and escape routes blocked. Level roads
'4 4 cut straight to the beach often become overwash passes during
storms, especially where roads cut through dunes rather than over
them. Thus, the roads built to increase development may contrib-
ute to its destruction.
Try to avoid building on overwash fans, especially if fresh or
unvegetated. Such areas may be difficult to recognize if fans have
been destroyed or modified by bulldozing or sand removal. If no
Fig. 4.1. Overwash fans produced by Hurricane Frederic on Dauphin alternative site is available, you must build on stilts and allow
Island, 1979. Note that the lobe- shaped massesof sand buryand block overwash to continue and to build up sand. Use overwash deposits
the only escape route from the island. Photograph provided by the removed from roads and driveways to rebuild damaged dunes; do
Topographic Bureau of the Florida Department of Transportation. not remove the sand from the area.

58 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Grasslands Alabama-Mississippi coast, passes formed in the offshore barrier
Grasslands are located either behind dune fields or adjacent to islands tend to close rapidly but reopen in subsequent storms,
salt marshes. Such areas may be relatively flat, built up as a terrace although the pass between the two parts of Ship Island has re-
of coalescent overwash fans, and generally are subject to future mained open since it was cut by Hurricane Camille in 1969. Be-
flooding and overwash. Natural grasslands may be difficult to dis- cause passes (inlets) tend to reappear in the same places, such sites
tinguish from artificial bulldozer-flattened developments, but the are not good places to build structures. For example, Dauphin
former is characterized by a diversity of plants (for example, salt- Island has been cut twice in this century in the same area, and that
meadow cordgrass, yucca, cactus, and thistle). area is now developed!
Sediment carried through passes, either into the sound or sea-
Passes (inlets) ward, builds an underwater shoal referred to as a tidal delta. The
Passes, or inlets, are the channels that separate islands and/or sediment may accumulate to fill the pass or cause shoaling so that
lead into bodies of water inland from the beach (for example, the pass is unnavigable. The strong westerly sand transport along
Little Lagoon). Some passes are permanent, while others usually the barrier island tends to cause shoaling in the eastern parts of
form, or reopen, during hurricanes or severe storms (fig. 4.2). As the passes, forcing a westward migration. Today most larger passes
a hurricane approaches a coastal area, strong offshore winds drive are dredged to keep the channels open for navigation, so that the
storm-surge waters and waves against the shore, into adjacent natural healing and migration processes are less common. The
bodies of water, and up embayments. As the storm passes, the associated tidal deltas also are important natural sand reservoirs
wind either stops blowing or shifts to blow seaward, causing water that contribute to coastal equilibrium. Sand Island off the mouth
to return seaward. If existing passes do not allow the water to of Mobile Bay is an emergent portion of such an ebb-tidal delta.
escape fast enough, a new pass may be cut from the "land" side. Forest, thicket, and shrub areas
Low, narrow areas lacking extensive salt marsh and/or opposite
river or estuary mouths are likely spots for pass development. Forest, thicket, and shrub areas are generally the safest places for
They should therefore be avoided as building sites. Parts of Per- cottage construction. Under normal conditions, overwash, flood-
dido Key, West Beach, and Dauphin Island in Alabama, Deer ing, and blowing sand are not problems in these vegetated envi-
Island, and the barrier islands of Mississippi are particularly sus- ronments. The plants stabilize the underlying sediment and offer
ceptible to pass formation. a protective screen.
Once formed, a pass may migrate laterally, destroying struc- If you are building in a vegetated area, preserve as much vege-
tures and property in its path, or it may close naturally. Along the tation as possible, including undergrowth. Trees are excellent pro-

4. Selecting a site 59

tection from flying debris during hurricanes. Remove large, dead
trees and limbs from the construction site, but conserve the sur-
rounding forest to protect your home. Stabilize bare construction
areas as soon as possible with new plantings.
The presence of an active dune field on the margin of a forest
may threaten the forest. For example, on Dauphin Island where
large dunes have migrated landward into a pine forest, the re-
exposed trunks of trees buried and killed as the dunes migrated
are now seaward of the present dunes. These dunes have been
artificially stabilized by sand fencing and planted vegetation.

Marshes
Marshes are prolific breeding areas for many organisms such as
fish, birds, crabs, and shrimp. Their extensive shallows provide
considerable protection against wave erosion. In the past, how-
Z
ever, marshes have been filled to expand land areas on which to
a il(o build. Many examples can be noted around Mobile, Pascagoula,
Biloxi, and on the north side of the Fort Morgan Peninsula. Areas
around finger canals (fig. 4-3) often have been built up from dredge
and fill of marsh.
Nature usually takes revenge on those who occupy this land.
Fig. 4.2. Storm pass produced by Hurricane Frederic, 1979, in the Buried marsh provides poor support for foundations, and the
Shelby Lakes area east of Gulf Shores, Alabama. Note that the pass groundwater reservoir usually is destroyed. Thus, such building
cuts the only road through the area (left to right), and that the road is sites may have an inadequate supply of freshwater unless con-
burried by overwash and is washed out in several places. Photograph nected to a municipal system. If septic systems are needed in the
provided by the Topographic Bureau of the Florida Department of absence of a sewer system, they often do not function properly. In
Transportation. addition, effluent waste from such sites has closed adjacent marshes
to shellfishing.

60 Living with the Alabama- M i ssissi ppi shore

Bluffs
Bluffs are the product of a retreating shoreline into an upland.
wh& Uplands, of course, are safe for development, but buildings should
be located well back from the bluff edge. Wave erosion, especially
during storms, undercuts and steepens the slope, which causes
slumping. The beach at the base of the bluff is often narrow or
absent, and there may be a pile of slumped bluff material (talus)
that serves to temporarily protect the base of the bluff. Such
material should not be removed. Groundwater seeping through
the bluff face contributes to the erosion as material is sapped away.
@7@ Bluff retreat is usually sporadic, taking place during storms. How-
ever, loading the bluff with structures, ground vibration, or adding
water to the ground may accelerate bluff retreat. Something as
simple as watering a lawn at the edge of a bluff may trigger bluff
Fig. 4.3. Finger canal. Photo by Bill Neal. failure. Bluffs can be partially stabilized through vegetation cover
and drainage systems to remove water. The bluffs are sand sources
for adjacent beaches, so revetments are not recommended.
Marshes should not be dredged or filled. It is illegal to do so Most bluff shorelines are found along the bays, such as in the
without a permit. New marsh may indicate overwash being carried Fairhope area and the spectacular Red Bluff. Lower bluffs occur
into the sound to provide shallows for marsh growth, another clue along the north side of Sunny Cove in southwest Mobile Bay, west
to active overwash areas. Where sound shorelines are eroding, it of the Pascagoula River in Jackson County, along parts of Biloxi
is possible to create new marshes to stabilize the shoreline. This Bay, and in other embayments.
method is highly preferable to bulkheading; it not only protects
the shoreline, but it also allows for the formation of new living Water problems: an invisible crisis
areas for marine plants and animals. Bay-front property owners
should encourage marsh growth, rather than remove marsh for One of the more significant hazards to living in the coastal zone,
easier water access. especially in areas not served by a municipal water supply, is con-

4. Selecting a site 61

tammated water. Although such pollution has not yet caused an clean sand underlie the area, the thickness of the lens should be
epidemic, its potential to do so threatens much of the developing about 40 feet for every i foot of average island elevation. The top
coast, from individual homes, to small villages, to large develop- of the freshwater lens is known as the groundwater table, and
ments. Basically the problem involves 3 factors: water supply, on most islands it is this shallow reservoir that supplies domestic
waste disposal, and any form of alteration that affects either of freshwater.
them. While finger canals are the most obvious illustration of If too many wells are dug into the groundwater table, the table
alteration, keep in mind that dredge-and-fill operations (for ex- drops. Early occupants of a development should not be surprised
ample, the channeling of islands or the piling of dredge spoil) and if their shallow wells dry up as the development grows. If many
other construction activities of man also may alter the ground- wells are overpumped and the groundwater table goes down, salt-
water system. water intrusion may occur. Seeking alternative sources of water
Water supply such as deep aquifers, or building alternative sources such as
municipal water systems (deep wells, pipelines, filtration plants),
Just as the quality and availability of water determine the plant is expensive.
and animal makeup of a coastal ecosystem, they also determine in Shallow groundwater wells also are a major source of domestic
part the coastal zone's ability to accommodate man. Water quality water for areas on the mainland adjacent to the coast. Because of
is measured by potability, freshness, clarity, odor, and the presence tidal effects in the estuaries, surface waters are not primary sources
or absence of pathogens (disease-carrying bacteria). Availability of drinking water.
implies the presence of an adequate supply, both in quality and Large developments draw their water supply from rock units
quantity. beneath the younger surface sands and muds (for example, Dau-
The only freshwater directly available to many coastal areas, phin Island). These aquifers are rock formations that are exposed
especially barrier islands, is from rainfall. This water seeps through on the coastal plain (their recharge area) and that dip seaward
the porous and permeable sands and builds up as a lens or wedge beneath the coast. The freshwater in such aquifers has been ac-
of freshwater. This lens overlies saltwater that seeps into the sedi- cumulating over thousands of years, but large developments with-
ments from the adjacent Gulf, sound, or bay. The higher the land's draw it faster than it can be replaced (recharged). In effect, the
elevation above sea level, and the greater the accumulation of water is being mined, and as it is pulled out the space is filled in
freshwater, the greater the thickness of the freshwater lens. In with salt-water, contaminating existing wells and destroying the
theory, for islands and peninsulas, if you assume that many feet of adjacent aquifer as a freshwater source.
As condominiums and high-rises replace cottages, the water

62 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

demand will increase. Alternatives must be sought, and they may because of contamination by sewage and other pollutants. Others
be expensive. Coastal property owners will bear the cost. have been killed as they were buried under silt.
Consult the proper authorities about water quality and quantity Municipal waste treatment plants may be one answer for larger
before you buy! (Also see appendix B, Water resources.) communities, although such plants may become overloaded or in-
efficient. Stricter enforcement of existing codes, policing of exist-
Waste disposal ing systems, and proper site evaluation before issuance of permits
Waste water disposal goes hand in glove with water supply. should be required by civil officials. In addition, homeowners
Where municipal sewer systems are lacking, the primary means should learn the mechanics of septic systems in order to prevent
of waste-water disposal is the home septic system. This system malfunctioning or to spot problems early (see Sanitation and sep-
consists of a holding tank, in which solids settle and sewage is tic system permits, appendix B).
biologically broken down, and a drain field that allows water to
percolate into the soil. The soil then filters and purifies the water. Finger canals
Unfortunately, the same natural system that is used to cleanse the A common man-made alteration that causes water problems is
water is often used to supply water to residences. the finger canal (figs. 4.3 and 4-4). Finger canal is the term applied
Many communities are unaware of the potential water problems to the ditches or channels that are dug for the purpose of providing
they face. In the wake of Hurricane Frederic the Mobile County everyone with a waterfront lot. Canals can be made by excavation
Health Department issued a series of regulations concerning the alone, or by a combination of excavation and infill of adjacent,
repair and replacement of damaged septic systems on Dauphin low-lying areas (usually marshes). Finger canals can be found in
Island. Officials also reiterated the ban on new septic systems Perdido Bay, on Dauphin Island, and in St. Louis Bay.
initiated in 1976. The developed eastern half of Dauphin Island is The major problems associated with finger canals are the (i)
now served by a municipal sewage system. Crowded development, lowering of the groundwater table; (2) pollution of groundwater by
improperly maintained systems, and systems installed in soils un- seepage of saltwater or brackish canal water into the groundwater
suitable for filtration have resulted in poorly treated or untreated table, which also can adversely affect vegetation; (3) pollution of
sewage entering the surrounding environment. Polluted water may canal water by septic seepage; (4) pollution of canal water by
flood from septic tanks into domestic wells, spreading hepatitis stagnation resulting from lack of tidal flushing or poor circulation
and other diseases. It also may enter sounds and marshes, con- of waters; (5) fish kills caused by higher canal water temperatures;
taminating shellfish. Many oyster reefs are closed to harvesting and (6) fish kills caused by nutrient overloading and deoxygena-
tion of water.

4. Selecting a site 63

Land FINGER CANAL Land

CO
............
......... ........ ....
......... ........
.............

fD Se
i t U-
L- CL (Salt or brackish water) Sys

(Salt water)

Septic effect pollutes ground water supply as well as finger canal water. Poor
circulation, high nutrient input, and associated fish kills result in concentration of
pollutants in canal waters.

Salt water infiltrates into ground water, destroying quality of fresh water supply.

Fig. 4.4. Finger canal model illustrating associated water quality problems.

64 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Bad odors, flotsam of dead fish and algal scum, and contamina-
tion of adjacent shellfish grounds are symptomatic of polluted
canal water. Thus, finger canals often become health hazards or
simply places it is unpleasant to live near. Residents along some
older Florida finger canals have built walls to separate their cot-
tages from the canal!
Should you consider buying a lot on a canal, remember that
canals are generally not harmful until houses are built along them.
Short canals, a few tens of yards long, are generally much safer
than long ones. Also, while most canals are initially deep enough
for small-craft traffic, sand movement can result in the filling of
the canals and subsequent navigation problems. Finally, on narrow 4(@
T"
stretches of land, finger canals dug almost to the Gulf offer a path
of least resistance to storm waters and are therefore potential
locations for new inlets. Property owners along finger canals on
Dauphin Island found themselves owning tiny islands or open
water after Hurricane Frederic in 1979 (fig or their canal was A
.4-5),
choked with sand. The costly redredging and reconstruction of the
canals was not a cost these owners anticipated when they pur-
chased their property.

Fig. 4.5. Post-Frederic view of finger canals on Dauphin Island. As the
Site safety: rules of survival sea washed over the island, the canals became channels that focused
In order to determine site safety along a hurricane-prone coast erosion, leading to their breaching and the isolation of intercanal prop-
erty (islands). In other cases, overwash sand filled in canals. Photo-
it is necessary to evaluate all prevalent dynamic processes that graph provided by the Topographic Bureau of the Florida Department
operate. Information on storm surge, overwash, erosion rates, inlet of Transportation.
formation and migration, longshore drift, and other processes may

4. Selecting a site 65

be obtained from maps, aerial photographs, scientific literature, however, that small maps of large areas must be generalized and
or personal observations. Appendix C provides an annotated list that every site must still be evaluated individually. Safe sites may
of scientific sources; you are encouraged to obtain those of interest exist in high-risk zones, whereas dangerous sites may exist in low-
to you. Although developers and planners usually have the re- risk zones.
sources and expertise to use such information in making decisions, Following is a list of the characteristics that are essential to site
they sometimes ignore it. In the past the individual buyer was not safety.
likely to seek such information in deciding on the suitability of a
given site. Today's buyer should be better informed. Checklist for evaluation of the safety of your site
To help the dweller along the Mississippi-Alabama coast, we
have drawn a series of diagramatic maps (figs. 4.6, 4. 10, 4-4, 4.19, 1. Site elevation is above anticipated storm-surge level (table 4. 1
4-21-4.22, 4.24-4.26, 4.28, 4.30-4-31, 4.33-4-35, 4.37) that sum- 2. Site is behind a natural protective barrier, such as a line of sand
marize information currently available from a cross section of dunes.
scientific literature. Our conclusions, as represented on the maps, 3. Site is well away from any pass or position of former pass.
are based on published data, aerial photographs, charts and maps, 4. Site is in an area of shoreline growth (accretion) or low shoreline
as well as our personal communications and observations. These erosion. Evidence of an eroding shoreline includes (a) sand
maps present zones classified as high, moderate, or low risk on the bluff or dune scarp at back of beach; (b) stumps or peat exposed
basis of the summarized information. The risk terms are some- on beach; (c) slumped features such as trees, dunes, or man-
what arbitrary, but high risk implies at least 3 real dangers from made structures; (d) protective devices such as seawalls, groins,
among flood potential, wave impact, erosion, overwash, pass mi- or pumped sand.
gration or formation, poor escape routes, or the lack of natural 5. Site is located in an area backed by salt marsh (for island or
protection (for example, dunes, elevation, and vegetation). A low peninsular locations).
risk zone is an area where only i of these hazards is likely. 6. Site is away from low, narrow portions of land backed by water
Buyers, builders, or planners can assess the level of risk they are bodies.
willing to take with respect to coastal hazards. The listing of spe- 7. Site is in an area of no or low historic overwash.
cific dangers and cautions provides a basis for taking appropriate 8. Site is in a vegetated area that suggests stability.
precautions in site selection, construction, and evacuation plans. 9. Site is well away from edge of bluff or escarpment.
Our recommendation is to avoid high-risk zones. Keep in mind, i o. Site drains water readily, even after heavy rain.

66 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
M High Risk F-] Ma,ah
Mode,ate Risk
Lo, Risk Land

0 -1 ==&_3 Kilometers
0 1 Miles

GU@F $TATE PAF
tK

Shelby Lakes 16

ROMAR BEACH
historic inlet
HII I 11111111111111111111111111111111111 1111

DANGER: High storm-surge potential
(flooding and wave attack) DANGER: Civerwash extensive
DANGER: Overwash extensive; protective CAUTION: High storm-surge potential
dunes mostly destroyed by Hurricane CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuatior
Frederic route
DANGER: High inlet potential in front of Variable erosion rate
lakes
DANGER: Potential blockage of evacuation
route
Fig. 4.6. Site analysis: Perdido Key to Shelby Lakes. Variable erosion rate

4. Selecting a site 67

DANGER: Land adjacent to coast is in the
flood zone.
Lowest risk sites are inland on forested
high ground. The evacuation route is
above the flood zone.

Be La Launch Arnica Bay

DANGER: Flood zone
Orange DANGER: Evacuation bridge exits into high-
each e@
PERDIDO BAY risk zone.
Avoid low elevations, particularly at ends
aswel Bear Point of the island. Best sites at higher eleva-
Terry Cove tions behind protective dunes.

st John
ton Bay you
ia arna I
oin TTT@T
0
Old River
at S
PERDID KEY
N

DANGER: Overwash extensive, low, discon-
DANGER: High storm-surge potential
tinuous dunes k (flooding and wave attack)
CAUTION: High storm-surge potential along DANGER: Extensive overwash, no protective
ocean front dunes
CAUTION: Inlet potential DANGER: Potential inlet formation and
CAUTION: Historic high erosion rate migration
CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuation DANGER: Potential blockage of evacuation
route route

68 Living with the Alabama- M issi ssi ppi shore

i i. Fresh groundwater supply is adequate and uncontaminated. have chosen -especially if the area in which you live has grown.
There is proper spacing between water wells and septic systems. With more people using the route, it may not be as satisfactory as
12. Soil and elevation are suitable for efficient septic tank opera- you once thought it was (see Hurricane information, appendix B).
tion.
13. No compactable layers such as peat are present in the soil below Use the escape route early
building footings. Site is not on a buried salt marsh. Be aware that some coastal areas have only i route for escape to
14. Adjacent structures are adequately spaced and of sound con- higher elevations. In the event of a hurricane warning, evacuate
struction. immediately; do not wait until the route is blocked or flooded.
Anyone who has experienced the evacuation of a community
Escape routes knows of the chaos at bottlenecks. Depend on it: excited drivers
will cause wrecks, run out of gas, have flat tires, and cars of
Because of the threat of hurricanes, there must be a route that frightened occupants will be lined up for miles behind them. Be
will permit escape from any low-lying coastal area to a safe loca- sure to have plans made for where you will go. Keep alternative
tion inland within a reasonably short time. The presence of a destinations in mind in case you find the original refuge filled or in
ready escape route near your building site is essential to site safety, danger.
especially in high-risk areas where the number of people to be Hurricane Carmen, which hit the Gulf Coast in September 1974,
evacuated, transported, and housed elsewhere is large. illustrated the desirability of leaving early to miss the traffic jam.
More than 75,000 people are said to have evacuated from what
Select an escape route ahead of time were thought to be the danger areas in Louisiana and Mississippi.
Check to see if any part of a potential escape route is at a low The traffic was bumper-to-bumper on the few roads leading north.
elevation, subject to blockage by overwash or flooding; if so, seek One accident backed up traffic for ig miles. Motel lobbies were
an alternate route. Several exit routes from Gulf Coast low-lying filled with people looking for a place to stay; all rooms were taken.
areas are flood-prone. Note whether there are bridges along the Weary people were forced to continue traveling north until they
route. Remember that some residents will be evacuating pleasure found available space. Also keep in mind that hurricane-force
boats, and that fishing boats will be seeking safer waters; thus, winds and heavy rainfall will extend far inland. Hurricane Frederic
drawbridges will be accommodating both boats and automobiles. in 1979 generated 75-mph winds at Meridian, Mississippi, and
Assume that the electricity will be cut off, perhaps when the bridge together with torrential rain made driving difficult for those com-
is in the up position! Periodically reevaluate the escape route you ing inland from the coast. The continued population growth in the

4. Selecting a site 69

coastal zone of Alabama and Mississippi has only compounded Perdido Bay area
the evacuation problem. Perdido Key. As shown in figure 4.6, Perdido Key is a high-risk
zone. The area is a good example of barrier coast facing a multi-
Individual area analysis: high-, moderate-, and low-risk zones tude of natural hazards, and one that is totally unsuited for devel-
The Mississippi-Alabama coastal zone is a complex of different opment for the following reasons. (i) Except for areas immediately
environments, each with its own set of conditions and problems. adjacent to Alabama Highway 182, the Alabama portion of the
We have divided the area into a number of smaller units to facili- key is low in elevation (slightly above io feet). Hurricane Frederic
tate discussion. totally flooded most of the key with high-water marks reaching 9
to 14 feet above sea level. (2) Sand dunes are poorly developed
and sparsely vegetated. Many of the dunes are active, and the
Alabama area is characterized by blowing sand. Hurricane Frederies storm
surge and waves swirled over the key, washing the highway out in
Baldwin County several places and damaging the few houses that were in the area.
(3) Overwash has been extensive. (4) The potential exists for ero-
Diversity characterizes the Baldwin County coast with more sion, flooding, and inlet formation to occur from the landward
than 30 miles of ocean Gulf shoreline, and many times that length side of the key. Perdido Pass is an engineered inlet, no longer able
of shore again in Mobile Bay, Bon Secour Bay, Wolf Bay, Perdido to widen or "blow-out" in response to a big hurricane. These waters
Bay, Bayou St. John, Old River, and the many smaller bays and are likely to seek a new route to the sea during flooding by form-
bayous. Because of shoreline diversity the county is subdivided ing a new inlet. (5) These last 3 hazards may preclude evacuation
into 3 major sections to simplify this discussion. The first area is on Highway 182, the only escape route. (6) Erosion data show
Perdido Key, Ono Island, and the Orange Beach- Caswell- Bear mixed results; this beach is sometimes eroding, sometimes build-
Point area. The second area is the Gulf Coast west of Perdido ing up, but net erosion is expected over the intermediate term
Pass to Mobile Point at the end of the Fort Morgan Peninsula, because of the rising sea level. Sand trapping due to the break-
including Gulf Shores, Gulf Highlands, and the peninsula's bay water cannot be regarded as the pattern for the entire key.
side. The third area of the county to be examined is the eastern In 1983 construction began on condominiums in this area (fig.
shore of Mobile Bay, including the shores of Bon Secour Bay 4.7; see chapter 5 for a review of the controversy). Construction
north of the Bon Secour River. leveled dunes, and buildings are being located precariously close
to the shoreline. Destruction will be severe for this area, even in

70 Living with the Alabama- Mi ssi ssippi shore

changes in Perdido Pass (fig. 3-3). Ono Island's low western end
also has undergone some changes in shoreline position. The is-
i _4F;, land's position landward of Perdido Key affords protection from
direct storm surge and wave attack, but farther west in the Gulf
Shores area cottages on the north side of Little Lagoon suffered
considerable damage or destruction during Hurricane Frederic in
spite of a similar "protected" position.
rhose central portions of the island with higher elevations on
-A-i vegetated dune ridges are suitable for limited development. There-
fore, Ono Island can be looked on with caution, particularly in
view of the single escape routes exit onto Perdido key (fig. 4.8), a
high-hazard zone. As development on Perdido key increases, Ono
Island's evacuation problem worsens. In addition, water supply
Fig. 4.7. Condominium construction on Perdido Key, 1984. Compare may be a problem. During the summer of 1984 the island experi-
to Figures 4.8 and 5.2. Note absence of dunes and positioning of build- enced a water shortage and sewer difficulties.
ing at back edge of beach. Photo by Eugene Brannan, Freelance Orange Beach- Caswell-Bear Point The peninsula that lies be-
Photography Unlimited, @ 1984. tween Bay La Launch-Arnica Bay and Terry Cove-Bayou St.
John is an example of a more protected area in the coastal zone
the next moderate hurricane to make local landfall. The Florida that is suitable in part for development. Shoreline property along
section of Perdido Key has a few areas of higher ground (locations Terry Cove is flood-prone, as is water-front property west of
not flooded by Frederic), but in general it suffered the same type Orange Beach at the south end of Wolf Bay. For example, Fred-
of destruction as the western portion during Hurricane Frederic. eric's flood level approached 8 feet along the south shore. Low-risk
Ono island. This island owes its "island" character to the work of sites are in the central portion of the peninsula where elevations
man. At one time this strip of land was connected to the Alabama are on the order of 20 feet. Keep in mind that structures at higher
mainland, but between 1867 and 1892 the local residents exca- elevations are still vulnerable to hurricane winds, and in the event
vated a channel through the western end of the peninsula. The of a hurricane early evacuation may be warranted. High ground
connection of Perdido Bay directly to Perdido Pass via Bayou St. with good vistas plus proximity to water access and a short drive
John reduced the flow through Old River and contributed to later to the beaches make this a prime area for consideration.

4. Selecting a site 71

Cotton Bayou (North Shore). The point of land between Cotton
Bayou and Terry Cove is a low-lying, marshy area that has been
filled and partially developed. The entire area was flooded during
Hurricane Frederic and will be flooded in the future. Finger canals .......
dredged to provide more property with water access have enhanced
this likelihood, as well as creating the potential for other water N1
quality problems. Although the area is protected from the open
Gulf, it should be regarded as a moderate-risk zone. Owners of
existing structures should consider improving the structural integ-
rity of their buildings (see chapter 6).

Gulf beaches (Perdido Pass to West Beach)
@d
Gulf beaches, south of Cotton Bayou. The peninsula from Perdido
Pass (Alabama Point) to the area near the junction of Alaba
ma
Highways 182 and 161 is developed on the Gulf side and in the
vicinity of the pass. The east end, adjacent to Perdido Pass, his-
torically is an area of rapid shoreline erosion (greater than i o feet a
year; reference 58, appendix Q. However, the stabilization of the
inlet with the construction of the seawall/ breakwater in the 196os
altered this pattern. Fill in back of the breakwater and some accre- Fig. 4.8. Ono Island and bridge onto Perdido Key in 1981 prior to
tion to the west widened the area near the jetty; however, all of the development on the key. Ono Island's relative low-risk sites on vege-
land in front of Cotton Bayou should be viewed as a moderate-risk tated high ground behind dunes stand in sharp contrast to the high-
zone. Therefore, all development in the area should be approached risk sites of the low, nearly featureless key that faces the open Gulf.
with caution. Note the low elevation of the escape route. Residents should evacuate
As a general guideline in looking for the safest sites, the land early in the face of a hurricane threat. Photo by Bill Neal.
located in the central part of the peninsula, near the highway, at
the higher elevations behind the dunes is best, assuming prudent
construction practices are followed. For the most part, this area is

72 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

landward of the line of pre-Frederic cottages that were not flooded The low-lying shore along Cotton Bayou is subject to flooding.
in that storm but that lost protective dune elevation between them Again, the higher elevations are adjacent to the highway.
and the Gulf Although stable and vegetated dunes exist along the The area east of Romar Beach is also classified as a moderate-
beach front, they are generally low and offer no protection to the risk zone (fig. 4.6); however, it is somewhat more stable than the
cottages built between the dunes and the Gulf of Mexico! Access peninsula.
roads and driveways that cut through dunes create potential sites Romar Beach-Shelby Lakes area. Beach-front sites are danger-
for overwash during storms. ous. Figure 4.6 indicates the increasing risk due to coastal hazards
Shorefront property should be avoided. A moderate hurricane westward from the junction of Highways 16 1 and 182 to west of
making a landfall west of this area will cause damage or destruc- Romar Beach. Much of the area inland from the beach is part of
tion to property even in the most ideal sites within this zone. The Gulf State Park and is either marsh or very low in elevation. West
newer condominiums and a hotel scheduled for construction in from the junction for a distance of approximately 2.3 miles, this
1984 lie in Frederic's storm-surge zone. Unfortunately, the pri- mainland coast has dunes that locally reach elevations greater than
mary dune line as defined for the setback requirement was severely 12 feet. Sites at these higher elevations near the highway, and
eroded during Hurricane Frederic, and overwash was extensive. where there are protective dunes between the site and the beach
New structures that satisfy the setback requirement, but that in front, may be regarded as being in the moderate-risk category (fig.
fact lack the intended natural protection of a well-developed dune 4-9). For instance, Frederic's flood level was in excess of 15 feet
line, are facing high risk. Such development actually adds to the above mean low water at some points in this area.
threat that exists for its neighbors, especially when dunes have Continuing through Romar Beach to the eastern beach bound-
been leveled during construction. Not surprisingly, some of the ary of the state park, Frederic's storm surge eroded away the dunes
original residents in this area refer to these development methods that formerly offered some protection from storm waves. Flood
as "rape and run"-strong terms that reflect the opinion that the levels were near 17 feet, and wave runup brought water to eleva-
developers will be gone, leaving new owners and their neighbors tions of nearly 24 feet above mean low water level, one of the
to suffer the consequences. The lesson is to know the ownership of highest for Frederic. Flooding and overwash extended into the
adjacent properties, their likely future, and how rigorous state low areas north of the highway. Dunes near the water were totally
regulations and building codes will be interpreted and enforced, destroyed; others were extensively reduced in elevation. Until the
or be ready to do legal battle (not what you came to the beach to washed-out dunes rebuild, this entire low-lying area is highly vul-
enjoy). nerable to wave attack and overwash associated with future storms.

4. Selecting a site 73

If Hurricane Frederic had made its landfall a few miles farther
east, this area would have experienced the same devastation that
occurred in Gulf Shores.
The area included in Gulf State Park south of the Shelby Lakes
is vulnerable to inlet formation, flooding, and overwash (figs. 4.6
and 4-io). Fortunately, this high-risk area is available for public
recreation without extensive development. Unfortunately, the con-
enter and adjoining lodging facilities were constructed in
the high-risk zone. Subsequently, Hurricane Frederic proved the
high-risk nature of the site. Currently, protective dune growth is
A being engineered in front of the facilities.
The narrow strip of sand that separates west Shelby Lake from
the Gulf was an inlet at some time in the past. The situation is like
east Shelby Lake, which was connected to the Gulf by an inlet in
historic times; this water connection was reopened temporarily
-Sep-
during Hurricane Frederic. This opening was closed in mid
6 tember Of 1979 to prevent saltwater mixing with the freshwaters
of Shelby Lakes.
Fig. 4.9. Romar Beach area illustrating contrasting site safety. Front Gulf Shores area. The community of Gulf Shores stands as a
row of cottages lacks natural protection. Owners are attempting to classic example of how coastal development in a high-risk zone
establish sand dunes through the use of sand fences. Cottages in originates, evolves, and responds to storm impact. Prior to World
second row have good setback, are on higher ground, and have some War 11 the seed of this development was a single row of beach
natural protection in the form of dunes and vegetation. Note access cottages owing their location to the fact that it was the end of the
roads that cut through the dunes. These are likely to become over- road. The Sibley Holmes Trail, Alabama Highway 59, was the
wash passes during a hurricane. Photo by Bill Neal. access. Highway 182 was a later catalyst for lateral growth. When
beach-front real estate came into shorter supply, the marsh was
developed. The dredge spoil from finger canals was the fill to make

74 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

,,-IDANGER: Shore-front flood zone
CAUTION: Moderate erosion rate
Good sites on forested, higher elevations

sey
Mour B'lutj

Fine Hills

La k 0)
Little Lagoon
Ile,

West Beach
Pine Beach recent inlet
historic inlet

DANGER: High storm-surge potential
(flooding and wave attack)
DANGER: Total overwash probable. Hurri-
cane Frederic totally destroyed protective
dunes.
HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS DANGER: High potential for inlet formation
High Risk DANGER: Evacuation route extremely vul-
M Moderate Risk 71 Marsh nerable to blockage
Low Risk F-1 Land Variable erosion rate
North shore of Little Lagoon is also an
area of moderate to high risk. Low-risk
Fig. 4.10. Site Analysis: Shelby Lakes, Gulf Shores, West Beach, Little Lagoon. sites at higher elevations on forested
inland.

4. Selecting a site 75

0 2 3
Kilometers
Miles

7,
Shelby Lake

ULF S ORE

historic inlet

DANGER: Storm-surge flood zone
DANGER: Overwash potential, no protective
dunes
DANGER: Evacuation route in flood zone
CAUTION: Beach-front property is in poten-
tial storm-wave zone.
Low inlet potential.
North side of development in moderate-
risk zone.

76 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

wetland dry while providing more waterfront property. Occasional
storms did not deter development. Camille, which generated flood
levels of 6 to 9 feet above mean low water, was not taken as a
harbinger of what might happen here io years later.
The development illustrates the folly of building in unprotected,
h
-hazard coastal areas (fig. 4.io). Hurricane Frederic devas-
igh
tated Gulf Shores. Highway 182 was buried by sand or washed
out in several places. Nearly every cottage and building suffered
IF
destruction or heavy damage. The tally was 8o percent (400) of
the cottages destroyed and another 6 percent (21) of the cottages
so severely damaged that the residents had to seek alternative
shelter.
The area is very low in elevation, including the poorly developed
dunes that existed prior to Hurricane Frederic. The pre-hurricane ""to
maps show the discontinuity of the dunes and susceptibility to
overwash. Many of the dunes had lost their stabilizing cover of
vegetation due to human activity. Few dunes survived the storm.
Flood level reached ii to 12 feet above mean low water, both 0
along the beach front and in the back marsh area. On top of the
storm surge, waves battered the structures. The entire community
was flooded. Fig. 4.11. Post-Frederic construction in the Gulf Shores area. Note
Frederic was not the last chapter in Gulf Shores storm history. complete absence of primary dunes and location of multi-unit con-
The next storm will find the community more vulnerable because struction at the edge of the narrow beach. Pilings at left are for a
the protective dunes are gone and the sand reservoir depleted. similar unit, increasing the density of development in this high-risk
Future storms will be more costly because cottages are being re- zone. This area was completely flooded by Hurricane Frederic, and all
placed by condominiums (fig. 4.11). Although the experience of of the area between the beach and road was overwashed. Photo by
Frederic has increased precaution, the bravado to build the com- Bill Neal.

4. Selecting a site 77

munity back "bigger and better" than before has not lessened the
risks from the now well-known hazards.
Federal attempts to control development through restrictions on
a new sewer system did not meet with local acceptance. The sys-
tem was financed without federal aid, thereby avoiding growth
restrictions. While this action is commendable from the point of
view that the community is not relying on a federal subsidy,
it will
allow for greater growth. As the size of the investment grows,
pressure will develop to protect that investment. By way of pre-
diction, that pressure will come in the disguise of a movement to
protect the beach (which, incidentally, still existed after Frederic). =21
Gulf Shores - West Beach. The area separating Little Lagoon from
the Gulf responds to storms in the same way as a narrow barrier
island (fig. 4. 1 o). Highly susceptible to erosion from flooding and
overwash, it is unstable and unsuited for development. The nar-
row, low sections also may be cut by new inlets like those that
have formed in the past (fig. 4.12). The destruction from Frederic

Fig. 4.12. Area between Gulf Shores and inlet into Little Lagoon. The am,
AS-A,_
unvegetated white sand area is the overwash deposit of Hurricane
Frederic. The cottages are post-hurricane occupation of a high-risk
velocity zone. During storms the inlet may shift laterally, or a new inlet
may form across the barrier between the Gulf and the lagoon. Photo
by Bill Neal.
Fig. 4.13. Rubble of cinder block cottage on north shore of Little
Lagoon. Note cottages on the low barrier in the background, looking
toward the Gulf across Little Lagoon. Photo by Bill Neal.

78 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

DANGER: High p
flooding HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
M High Risk @@2 Marsh
DANGER: Potential for inlet formation EM Moderate Risk
DANGER: Local high erosion rate (5-10 Little Point Clear Low Risk EE Land
feet/year)
DANGER: Potential blockage of evacuation
route 0 1/2 1 2 a Kilometers
2 Miles
CAUTION: Overwash may penetrate from
front side Saxon Bay
CAUTION: Extensive marsh BON SECOUR BAY

@.@'__RON SECOUk-
Edith
St. Andrew# ---NATIONAL WILDLIFE
Bay % .. .% - '' --*" Hammock
RtFUGIt
Navy Cove

SURFSIDE GULF
A AT MORGA14 SHORES HIGHLANDS
I

Mobile Point
F
DANGER, Highpotential for storm-su 'ge
"Oodi ng
DANGER -Potenti al forin let formation
DANGER Localh gh erosi on rate (5 _10
feet/yea r)
DANGER 'Potenti albICC kage of evacuat, on

DANGER: High potential for storm-surge flooding and wave attack
DANGER: Extensive overwash zone; Hurri cane Frederic washed away protective dunes
DANGER: Moderate potential for inlet formation, western half
DANGER: Evacuation route likely to be blocked during storm
CAUTION: Local problems with erosion and water supply are likely

Fig. 4.14. Site analysis: Fort Morgan Peninsula (Little Lagoon to Mobile Point; Mobile Bay and Bon Secour Bay).

4. Selecting a site 79

DANGER: Shore-front flood zone
CAUTION: Local shore-front erosion and
stabilization structure.
Avoid shore-front sites. Lower-risk sites
located at higher elevations inland.

Seymour al
GASQUE uti

ALMETTO
BEAC Pine Hills

CEDAR GROVE

9000"
LIttle L
fzz- L,k

BON SECOUR
Pine Beach

NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE

DANGER: Beach-front overwash and flood-
ing
CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuation
route.
Avoid the front 1,000 feet. Lower-risk sites
located on inland vegetated dune ridges,
behind remaining front dune.

80 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

as described above included this area. The hurricane's wind and
storm surge also destroyed a large number of cottages on the north
shore of Little Lagoon (fig. 4.13). Do not locate in this area unless
you are willing to take the risk. Residents in this zone should
evacuate early in the case of a storm warning.

Fort Morgan Peninsula
Figure 4-14 classifies both the Gulf and bay sides of the penin
sula. With the exception. of local areas of high ground in Gulf
Highlands, most of the area is in a high-hazard zone. The Gulf
side has experienced shoreline erosion, and moderate hurricanes
flood and overwash much of the area. The potential for new inlets
also exists.
Gulf Highlands - Surfside Shores. A series of east-west arcuate
dunes ridges, curving slightly to the north, extend for a distance of
.... ... ...
4 to 5 miles along the peninsula. These ridges may represent a
remnant of an old barrier island. Elevations along some crests are
in excess Of 20 feet. The eastern portion of the ridge complex Fig. 4.1 S. Bu i Id i n g sites at -Su rf side S h ores laid out on the back of the
consists of sharply defined ridges separated by wide, low areas, beach in 1980. Although formerly a line of dunes, Hurricane Frederic
sometimes wetlands. This extension of the upland is part of a wild- reclassified this land as beach in 1979. Dynamic equilibrium says it
life refuge and contains very few sites suitable for development. will be beach again! Photo by Bill Neal.
To the west, the sand ridges merge into a more continuous up-
To the west, the sand ridges merge into a more continuous up-
land that includes the residential development. Individual sites
vary in relative safety, and even the best locations have a moderate
risk. Frederic's floodwaters penetrated the frontal 8oo to i,ooo
feet of shore front, and cottages in this zone were destroyed or

4. Selecting a site 81

heavily damaged. Even if a high, continuous frontal dune had
been present before the storm, the area would not have escaped
damage. Recorded flood levels varied between io.i and 13.6 feet
above mean low water, existing sand dunes were leveled or heavily
eroded, and even cottages on higher ground were damaged or
destroyed by the brunt of Frederic's forces. Like Gulf Shores, the
Gulf Highlands and Surfside Shores developments illustrate the
temporary nature of human intrusion into such a dynamic zone.
Such development is truly at Mother Nature's mercy.
In the rush to rebuild after Frederic, the now-absent protective
dunes and vegetation were ignored. Builders bulldozed sand onto
the back of the beach to create building sites (fig. 4.15) in the
high-hazard zone. Many structures were built seaward of the post-
storm dune line (fig. 4. 16) and are in jeopardy from future storms
and shoreline retreat.
e If you must locate in these developments, choose a site on one
of the well-vegetated dune ridges, preferably above 15 feet in ele-
Fig. 4.16. Row of beach-front cottages at Surfside Shores facing the vation. Locate behind the first vegetated dune ridge, at least goo
Gulf without protection. Previous hurricanes have wiped this area to i,ooo feet inland. Remember that storm surge is likely to flood
clean, destroying dunes and earlier cottages. Stumps exposed on all the way across the barrier to the bay. Debris from frontal cot-
beach are evidence of shoreline erosion. Photo by Bill Neal. tages will act as battering rams against inland buildings unless
they are above flood-wave level. Preserve the vegetation cover on
your site to afford wind protection. In case of a hurricane warn-
ing, evacuate early! Low elevations along Highway 18o will flood,
blocking escape.
West Surfside Shores to Mobile Point. From Surfside Shores to
the tip of the Fort Morgan Peninsula is a high-risk zone (fig.

82 Living with the Alabama- M i ssissi ppi shore

4.14). Storm-surge flooding, wave attack, erosion, and overwash
brought widespread destruction to the area in 1979. Inlet forma-
tion during hurricanes is also a possibility. Most of Highway i8o,
the only evacuation route, lies in the flood zone, and portions of
the road washed out or were buried during Hurricane Frederic.
The only ground above flood level is in the vicinity of Fort Mor-
gan, along with a narrow strip along the highway leading into the
state park. Between Surfside Shores and Fort Morgan State Park
several areas are being developed or redeveloped in the aftermath
of storm destruction. As in the West Beach area where a line of
dunes once offered some protection, the topography now is an it
unobstructed slope to the beach. If Frederic were to be repeated
in this area today, the destruction would be greater than in 1979.
New condominiums in part of this development only add to the
problems of effective evacuation and provision of an adequate,
high-quality water supply. Some of these structures have been in
violation of ordinances (see chapter 5).
Bay Side (Palmetto Beach-Gasque to Fort Morgan). Low coastal
sites in east Palmetto Beach are subject to flooding. Avoid sites Fig. 4.17. Hurricane Frederic's debris on bay side of Fort Morgan
located right on the shore, especially at elevations less than 7 or 8 Peninsula. Cottages that remained intact floated into adjacent struc-
feet. There are safer sites just inland with sufficient elevation to tures and into the bay in some cases. Photo by Bill Neal.
afford some protection. For example, south of the highway near
Cedar Grove the land rises to above 15 feet. Edith Hammock is
the backside of the barrier forming the Gulf Highlands and in-
cludes some protected sites, particularly the higher ridges south of
the highway.
Living on the bay side of the peninsula is no guarantee that

4. Selecting a site 83

your property will escape storm destruction. Examine not only
your site, but the area between your property and the Gulf as
well. Avoid low, narrow areas of the peninsula where floodwaters
may attack from either direction (fig. 4.17). Much of the bay shore
is eroding, so even if there were no hurricanes, shorefront property
owners are faced with the added expense of trying to combat such
erosion (fig. 4A8). These battles are lost to hurricanes; or, when
persistent, strong winds out of the northwest generate destructive
waves.
About i mile west of Edith Hammock an extensive marsh makes
"NOW
up Little Point Clear and extends to St. Andrews Bay. This area
is part of the Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge. Although a
few forested sand ridges break up the marsh, Little Point Clear is
not suitable for development. One would expect that a marsh
@Mb-- -16 would not be developed, even if it were not part of a protected
........... area. This is not the case.
Less extensive tracts of marsh land to the west of St. Andrews
Fig. 4.18. Stumps and debris on beach are evidence of a retreating Bay on the narrow peninsula have been dredged and filled for
shoreline. The property owners must maintain the wooden bulkhead bay-side development. From St. Andrews Bay to Fort Morgan
or their property will erode to the same position. The irregularity pro- this development is in a very high-hazard zone based on just about
duced in the shoreline is likely to increase the rate of erosion for the every criteria that might be used to evaluate risk. Historic erosion
adjacent property, leaving both properties more vulnerable to the next rates for a significant part of this shore are from 5 to io feet per
storm. Photo by Bill Neal. year. Storm-surge flooding affects the entire area, overwash may
extend across from the front side, and new inlets may form.
Numerous cottages along this Mobile Bay shore were destroyed or
damaged by Hurricane Frederic. Between St. Andrews Bay and
Fort Morgan State Park land is still available for purchase and
development for those willing to take a very high risk.

84 Living with the Alabama- M i ssissi ppi shore

Mobile Bay. eastern shore
Figures 4.14 through 4.23 characterize the hazards of the coastal
margin along the east side of Mobile Bay and part of Bon Secour
Bay. No risk classification is assigned in most of the figures, but
the hazards are listed. Natural processes that threaten bay-front
property tend to be fewer in number or of less magnitude than
along the Gulf. Nevertheless, storm-surge flooding and hurricane
winds pose a real danger along this bay shore. Hurricane Frederic
caused extensive damage in the area. Locally, the only route for
evacuation is in the flood zone (for example, around Bailey Creek). Weeks Say
Shoreline erosion also is a permanent problem. Hundreds of
feet of shoreline retreat have been recorded in this century. Prop-
erty owners have responded by building revetments and groins.
From north of Weeks Bay to Fairhope the shoreline is a continu-
Fish
Ous hodgepodge of such structures (fig. 4.20). Beaches are absent River
. . . . . . Point
except immediately south of Great Point Clear. When buying
property, keep the following in mind. Revetments and groins are
evidence of an erosion problem. You will have the additional cost
of maintaining these structures. Such structures do not protect
property from flooding. Know your evacuation route, and do not DANGER: Flood zone
have a false sense of security because you live on the bay and not DANGER: Low evacuation route
on the Gulf. CAUTION: Shoreline erosion
Bon Secour River to Gasque (Southeast Bon Secour Bay). A coastal CAUTION: Revetment maintenance
marsh extends from the Bon Secour River to Seymour Bluff (figs.
4.14 and 4. 19). This marsh zone is totally unsuited for development,
although inland from the marsh the upland is sufficiently removed
from the coast to be safe from flooding. Seymour Bluff, aptly Fig. 4.19. Site analysis: Bon Secour Bay and Weeks Bay.

4. Selecting a site

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
High Risk 71 Marsh
Moderate Risk
Kilometers Lo. Risk Land
. . ........ 0 112 1 2 Mile. Groins

j
8
on
Secour
River
Bon Sec@our National Wildlife Refuge-_.-@'
2

Cypress
Point

DANGER: Flood zone/wetland
DANGER: Potential water quality problems DANGER: High storm surge-potential
CAUTION: Shoreline erosion (flooding and wave attack)
DANGER: Problems with water supply and
foundations
MOBILE BAY CAUTION: Moderate erosion rates
CAUTION: Low evacuation route

86 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

r it's
n,
_L77-
jo,
I n

Seacliff 'A 4' 0

Fig. 4.20. The armored eastern shore of Mobile Bay. The high rate of DANGER: Erosion/bluff retreat
shoreline erosion has led to property owners' constructing a hodge- Highlands are I
podge of groins, bulkheads, and walls. Beaches and dunes are gen-
erally absent. Photo by Bill Neal. Magnolia Beach
CAUTION: Flood zone (very narrow)
named for its relatively high elevation along the south shore of CAUTION: Revetment maintenance
Bon Secour Bay, parallels the bay to the community of Gasque. Fairhope has good elevation
Sites located on the immediate shore front as at Gasque are in the
flood zone as they discovered in 1979. Safer sites are to be found
inland at the higher elevations, for example, south of Highway DANGER: High erosion rate
i8o east of Gasque and farther east in the vicinity of Miller Ceme- DANGER: Flood zone
tefy, north of the highway. DANGER: Engineered shoreline, no beach
Sites along bluffs and wave-cut scarps should be avoided. Bluffs
are semi-stable so the addition of a building or a simple activity
such as watering the lawn can cause slope movement. Instead of Fig. 4.21. Site analysis: Mobile Bay's eastern shore; Mullet Point to
the sea rising to claim the house, the house descends to meet the Fairhope.

4. Selecting a site

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS 0 1/? 1 2 3 Kilometers
High Risk Marsh Miles
Moderate Risk m waMp -
Low Risk Land

Groins

Mullet Point

DANGER: Shore-front flood zone
DANGER: Engineered shoreline, no beach
CAUTION: Evacuation route floods in Bailey
POINT CLEA Creek area
Battles Wharf DANGER: Flood zone CAUTION: Shoreline erosion
Beach area

Great Point Clear

MOBILE BAY

88 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

Z
0 1/2 1 2 3 Kilometers
0 2 Miles

0
(D

Park 1
1'6)

0 4
Spanish Fort
'011ve say

qlakely RivOI

.. ........ ........

Fig. 4.22. Site analysis: Mobile Bay's eastern shore; Red Bluff to Bridgehead.

4. Selecting a site

_j
.4

.. .... rose

DANGER: Erosion/bluff retreat
Ra ged Highlands are low-risk area
P int
Village
Point
Mobile Bay HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
@ High Risk F7 Marsh
CAUTION: Flood zone (variable width) EM Moderate Risk Land
CAUTION: Revetment maintenance Low Risk F-1
Highlands are low-risk area
PR@ Groins

90 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

sea! In the area from the Bon Secour River to Catlin Bayou, Pauline. The safest sites anywhere in the coastal zone are on these
erosion rates Of 3 feet per year have been measured. uplands, but well back from the edge!
Son Secour River to Fairhope. The flood zone is continuous from Head-of-the-Bay. The delta complex at the head of the bay is
the Bon Secour River to Fairhope (figs. 4J9 and 4.21). South of made up of unstable marsh land, swamps, and shifting channels
Weeks Bay a wide area of marsh and swamp is subject to flooding. (fig. 4.24). Flooding may come from river runoff or coastal storms.
Most of this region is part of the Bon Secour National Wildlife The habitat provided by the delta make it an important natural
Refuge, but the development south of Weeks Bay lies in the dan- resource, and it has been placed on the National Register of
ger zone. North of Weeks Bay to Magnolia Beach in Fairhope the Natural Landmarks. With the possible exception of expendable
flood zone is usually narrow, extending inland to elevations of hunting or fishing camps, the delta is unsuitable and unsafe for
between 5 and io feet. Most of the cottages between the shore and development. Frederic caused considerable damage to both the
Eastern Shore Boulevard lie within or at the edge of the flood causeway and commercial buildings along the highway.
zone. Many of these buildings, including the Grand Hotel on Great
Point Clear, were damaged during Hurricane Frederic. Swamps
(Gum, Caldwell, Titi) and creek floodplains inland of the coastal Fig. 4.23. Bluff shoreline. Waves erode base of bluff, causing slumping.
road also are subject to flooding. Loading of bluff edge also causes slumping. Photo by Bill Neal.
Fairhope to Bridgehead. From Fairhope to Spanish Fort (fig.
4.22) at the head of the bay the shoreline is formed by the bluff
edge of the upland. The cliffs or bluffs reach a height of ioo feet at
Red Bluff and form a shoreline quite different from that south
of Fairhope. Very little land is present between the base of the i
bluffs and the bay (fig. 4.23). These narrow strips are totally unsafe
for development. Likewise, sites along the immediate edge of the r@
sandy bluffs also should be avoided. Shoreline erosion at the base
of the cliff, groundwater seepage from the bluff face, or loading of
the upper edge of the bluff may trigger slumping or sliding. With
time, the cliff edge will migrate inland as the erosion process con-
tinues. The price paid for the fantastic view from a bluff-edge
house is likely to be a real-life cliff-hanger as in the old Perils Of

4. Selecting a site

0 1/ 3 Kilometers
Miles

1 0

Delven Bay

Polecat Bay

MOBIL e Checaloochee Bay

31
6 42

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS 00,
High Risk E7 Marsh 10
Moderate Risk
Low Risk 71 Land DANGER: Flooding
DANGER: High erosion rate
@DANGER: Wave zone

Fig. 4.24. Site analysis: Head -of -the- Bay.

92 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

Fowl HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
Bay High Risk
Barron Point Marsh
Moderate Risk
Low Risk Land
*MON LOUIS ISLAND HOLLINGERS ISLAND
Mississippi Sound

er n 'ay 0 Be[ f
*al

0 edar
(16 Point unny Cove
M n Louis
Alabama Faustinas Deer River
ID Port @oint
/ Judith Point
DANGER: *Local high erosion rate (5-10
MOBiLE BAY feet/year)
CAUTION: Lowland flooding
Qau hin Island CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuation
route
DANGER: High flood potential
DANGER: Flooding of evacuation route, po- CAUTION: Narrow flood zone
tential washout of roads and bridges Avoid low shore-front elevations
DANGER: Erosion rate moderate to high
DANGER: Flood potential
DANGER: Moderate to high erosion ra
CAUTION: Potential blockage of evac
route

Fig. 4.25. Site analysis: Mobile Bay's western shore; Mobile to Dauphin Island Causeway.

4. Selecting a site 93

Mobile County
As in Baldwin County, the diverse shoreline of Mobile County
is subdivided for purposes of discussion. Four distinct areas can
be defined, both in terms of general types of coast and human use.
These include the Mobile urban shoreline, the western shore of
Mobile Bay, the northern shore of Mississippi Sound, and Dauphin
Island.
_2_3_4_5 Kilometers
Miles Mobile
The Mobile shoreline is a typical urbanized coast (fig. 4.25).
From the mouth of Chickasaw Creek to the southern edge of the
Lq Brookley area the shoreline is either artificial or extensively modi-
fied. Large-scale dredge-and-fill operations were necessary for the
T M ILE
Port of Mobile, associated facilities, the airbase, transportation
Dog River r corridors, and similar development. Much of McDuffie and Pinto
Point islands is artificial land, built out of dredge spoil over the past
century. Since 19 17 over i,6oo acres of new land was added in the
Mobile Harbor area, most of it constructed during the period of
CAUTION: Minor erosion
CAUTION: Minor flood potential rapid development in the 195os and 196os.
Prior to the intense development of this coast, it was eroding.
Studies indicate that before the early igoos Choctaw Point and
industrial/ the shoreline south to Brookley were eroding. That old shoreline
Urban Coast now lies buried as much as 2,000 feet inland as a result of fill
projects. And new fill projects are likely in the future.
The industrial park development and proposed expansion of
the state port facilities will require additional new land construc-

94 Living with the Alabarna- M i ssissippi shore

tion in the area between Brookley and McDuffie Island. Such were damaged by Frederic's floodwaters, and associated wave ac-
development is not without repercussions. The efficiency of storm tivity destroyed piers, seawalls, and other waterfront structures.
sewers that outfall in the fill area may be affected. Flooding prob- Although erosion rates are highly variable, locally as much as 8
lems in some parts of Mobile may be related to existing shoreline feet per year average loss occurs.
development that has altered drainage. The problem of increased As a general rule when choosing a site for low risk, try to locate
pollution is always present as additional modification and develop- at an elevation of at least io feet. Stay well back from the shore-
ment take place. Disposing of dredge spoil, a potential pollutant, line, especially if there is evidence of erosion. Such evidence is
is a growing problem. Planners must take into account the total usually obvious in the form of a cliff or scarp at the back of the
urban system of Mobile before future projects take place. The beach, fallen trees on the beach, stumps or roots of former trees in
citizens of the city must be alert to possible problems before new place on the beach, or simply that the beach is narrow or absent.
filling, dredging, and construction, rather than reacting after the Private erosion control measures (for example, bulkheads, and
fact. groins) also reflect the problem.
From the standpoint of coastal hazards to the individual resi- Locally, narrow fringes of marsh mark the shore. Do not regard
dence or business, flooding is the greatest threat. Frederic, which such marsh as unsightly or something to be removed. The grasses
was a i-in-2540-3o-year storm, flooded businesses in the vicinity baffle wave energy, trap sediment, and protect the shoreline. Re-
of Water Street in downtown Mobile. Yet the July 1916 flood was moval of the marsh, even a little patch, may trigger shoreline ero-
2.8 feet higher than the one in 1979! Four other hurricane-related sion. Likewise, flotsam of tree trunks and stumps is common in
floods in this century have come within 2 feet of Frederic's flood some areas as a result of the shore retreating into forested areas.
level. Avoid low-lying areas along the waterfront, Threemile Creek, Such driftwood may be looked on as clutter, but it also may serve
and the adjacent wetlands that are in the flood zone. as a natural protection against more rapid erosion.
Mobile Bay. western shore Hurricane-strength winds also should be expected during the
lifetime of any given structure along the western shore. Consider-
Figure 4.25 characterizes the hazards of the west side of Mobile able wind damage accompanied Frederic. Appropriate construc-
Bay. Like the eastern shore, storm-surge flooding and shoreline tion precautions may prevent costly damage.
erosion are the 2 common threats to bay-front property. Hurri- Brookiey to Dog River. This area experienced storm-surge levels
canes Frederic and Camille generated flood levels ranging from 6 of 8 to ii feet during Hurricane Frederic. Development located
to 14 feet above mean low water along this coast. Many cottages at lower elevations suffered considerable damage. A significant

4. Selecting a site 95

stretch of Bay Front Drive was flooded, and heavy damage in the flood zone, such as south of the tidal South Fork Deer
occurred along Highway 163 in the vicinity of Dog River. The River and along the small creeks near Belleforitaine, to lots that
Mobile Yacht Club and numerous businesses located on the low, remain high and dry, such as those between Bellefontaine and
filled marsh at the river's mouth were heavily damaged or de- Sunny Cove (fig. 4.25). Flood levels associated with Frederic were
stroyed. higher in this area than to the north, as would be expected. The
North of Dog River Point the present shoreline is in about the 10- to 15400t minimum ground elevation is a good guideline for
same position as it was in the 185os. Apparently the shore built up avoiding flooding. Keep in mind that stilt or pole house construc-
until about 1918 and has been eroding slowly since that time. tion may still be required to place the first floor above the ioo-year
South of Dog River Point to Dog River the history of the shore- flood level. Locally, erosion rates can be high in this zone. Look
line position is somewhat different. After a period of stability in for shore-front evidence of erosion, and talk to the neighbors to
the nineteenth century, considerable erosion has occurred since see what they have experienced.
1918. The addition of piers, revetments, and similar structures Mon Louis Island. Lying between East Fowl River and Heron
may be contributing to the continuation of this trend. Bay Cutoff, the northern portion of the island shore is much like
Hollingers Island The bay front between Dog River and Deer the regions described above. Frederic's floodwaters were nearly 14
River is marked by a continuous row of cottages. Most of these feet above mean low water. Homes on high ground escaped water
buildings were above the 6- to 7-fOOt flood levels of Frederic and damage (for example, around Faustinas), although wind damage
Camille. Structures in the narrow flood zone at or below these occurred. Homes in low areas, such as north of Mon Louis and at
elevations were damaged. Sites above io feet and back from the the edges of the bayous, were flooded. Historic erosion rates have
shore can be developed with caution. Erosion rates are low along varied, and individual sites warrant individual evaluation. Gen-
most of this stretch but will vary from site to site. The extensive erally speaking, however, shoreline erosion is not a major threat at
marsh shore between Deer River Point and Deer River has been the present time.
eroding at rates between 3 to io feet per year. Just north of the From Point Judith south, the southern portion of the region
mouth of Deer River a road-rail line terminal has been built from should be looked upon as a high-risk zone for development. The
dredge spoil out into the bay. The effect of this structure on adja- proximity to the Gulf and open water makes the region highly
cent shorelines remains to be seen. susceptible to flooding (fig. 4.25). In this case, evacuation routes
Deer River to East Fowl River. This mainland shore rises inland may be cut off, so if you do live in the area, evacuate early when
to elevations in excess Of 20 feet. Developed sites range from those the hurricane warning comes. Heron Bay, Alabama Port, and

96 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Point Judith were all inundated by Frederic. Locally high erosion receives polluted water, adds up to a large cumulative loss for
rates also are a threat to bay-front property. coastal residents.
Cedar Point. This area and the marsh island between Heron and Storm-surge floods totally inundate these marshes (Frederic: 8
Mobile bays are good examples of the fragility of coastal environ- to 9 feet above mean low water) as well as the adjacent inland
ments, physically, biologically, and as escape routes during storms. areas. Marsh shorelines are very unstable and are eroded rapidly.
Over the years erosion is the dominant process to affect this area, Modern erosion rates for representative localities, such as Barron
especially Cedar Point. The point eroded and migrated northwest- Point, Cat Island, and Marsh Island, range between 5 to 11 feet
ward for hundreds of feet over the past century. Modern erosion per year (reference 58, appendix Q.
rates are in excess of 8 feet per year at Cedar Point. This marsh West of Bayou Como and up Bayou La Batre is an area of old
island is the mainland approach route off the Dauphin Island recreational development (San Souci Beach and south of Coden)
Bridge and causeway. The 1979 hurricane not only destroyed the and the newer commercial development at Bayou La Batre (fig.
bridge but washed out segments of the road. Keep in mind that a 4.26). San Souci translates to "without care" or "without worry.'
very small break anywhere along Highways 163 and 188 in this Perhaps "Avec Souci Beach" would be a more appropriate name
area is sufficient to trap evacuees. The Heron Bay Cutoff bridge to imply that development in this area should proceed with care!
and especially the low road north of Cedar Point may be the weak It is difficult to imagine this area as a once popular resort. Today
links in the escape chain. Early evacuation is a must for residents the road is at the edge of Portersville Bay, separated from the
of southern Mon Louis Island as well as Dauphin Island. water by a deteriorating steel bulkhead. The numerous patches in
the road, refill in back of this wall, and repaired sections of the
Mississippi Sound. Alabama shore bulkhead are evidence of an erosion problem. The bulkhead is a
Mon Louis Island-Portersville Bay. Most of this coast is salt marsh miniature seawall. The beach is absent. A row of summer cottages
broken by tidal creeks (figs. 4.25 and 4.26). The marshes are not and some of the old resort buildings remain, but they face a ques-
suitable for development, both from the standpoint of coastal haz- tionable future. The absence of a protective beach dune system, the
ards and their importance as marine nurseries. Many fish and low elevation, and potentially high flood levels make a poor com-
shellfish spawn in these creeks and wetlands. Every acre of marsh bination for safe development. Anyone depending on the coastal
lost to development is a loss to the fishing industry. The marsh road for evacuation should leave very soon after the warning
seems vast, but each small area dredged or filled, each acre that comes!

4. Selecting a site

I orno f4
Ba u La Bat a og___ta Kil t
BAY SWAMP.' Miles
.61@ANQ

Coden

Sans Souci
0

say

Grand Point
PORTERSVILLE BAY

oes
ID
\e
HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
High Risk Marsh
DANGER: High flood potential UM Moderate Risk
Point aux Pins DANGER: Engineered shoreline, revetment Low Risk Land
maintenance required
DANGER: Potential blockage of evacuation
route

Fig. 4.26. Site analysis: Mississippi Sound (Portersville Bay).

98 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

The prospective buyer/builder also should be cautious of areas
along or near the bayous. Even though inland from Mississippi
Sound, hurricanes push floodwaters to the heads of bayous. Sites
above io feet in elevation are safer from flooding than lower eleva-
'W"
tions, but elevated structures may be required to make sure the
living unit is above the ioo-year flood level. High elevation alone
is not sufficient for establishing site safety. For example, west of
Bayou La Batre is the Grand Bay Swamp. Much of the swamp is
at or near the elevation of io feet. The forest vegetation and the
elevation may give a false impression of stability, but a coastal
swamp is not a safe place to build. It is subject to significant flood-
ing during storms. The same is true for the marshes around Little A00
Bay and the western shore of Portersville Bay. Two to 3 miles
inland, though, is the edge of the upland, rising from 30 feet to
elevations greater than go feet. The upland provides safe sites with
close proximity to boat launches, bay access, and recreational sites.
Grand Bay. From Point Aux Pines to the Grand Batture Islands @P&
the shore is a continuous expanse of salt marsh, extending inland Ile
into swamps, and not illustrated in the map series. As noted above,
this marsh also is subject to flooding and is highly erosion-prone
(3 to 9 feet per year). Because it is unsuitable for development,
and because of its great economic importance to the state of Ala- Fig. 4.27. Active dune field, eastern Dauphin Island. Dunes have mi-
bama's fishing industry, this entire area should be preserved in its grated into edge of forest. The area forested in the middle of the island
natural state. behind this continuous dune ridge was the only area of Dauphin Island
not flooded by Hurricane Frederic's storm surge. Photo by Bill Neal.
Dauphin Island
Prior to the War Between the States, Petit Bois Island was in
Alabama. Over the last century, however, Petit Bois Pass migrated

4. Selecting a site 99

laterally to the west, as did Petit Bois Island (fig. 2.3). Today Petit i,8oo feet), lacks well-developed continuous dunes, lacks good
Bois lies entirely in Mississippi, giving Dauphin Island the dis- vegetation cover, and is fringed along its bay side by salt marsh.
tinction of being Alabama@s only barrier island. This 15-mile ram- All of the common barrier island hazards apply to this segment of
part of sand protects Mississippi Sound and the mainland shore the island, that is, overwash, flooding, wave attack, shoreline ero-
from the direct onslaught of hurricanes, but like Petit Bois it is an sion, and inlet formation. Said simply, this area is one of the most
ephemeral feature. Hurricane Frederic in 1979 was the most recent dangerous on the Alabama coast!
in a series of storms to rake the island. The eye of the hurricane Hurricane Frederic demonstrated the fragility of the spit portion
passed over the center of the island, and the storm's economic of the island. The storm-surge flood is known to have exceeded 13
fallout brought Dauphin Island to the center of a political storm feet above mean low water in the Bienville Beach area. How deep
over barrier island policies. it was over the spit area is unknown because the flood totally
Dauphin Island is not a typical barrier island after the fashion inundated the natural features against which water levels might be
of the Texas or Carolinas' barriers. The island did not form far measured! Overwash was extensive and crossed the island into the
from its present position and migrate across the shelf as sea level sound. North-south streets and driveways funneled the overwash
rose. The eastern 3.5 miles of the island was once a hill on the across the island. Cottages along Bienville Boulevard were heavily
coastal plain mainland that existed in this position when sea level damaged or destroyed. The eye of the storm passed over Dauphin
was lower. As sea level rose, flooding the former mainland, only Island so the impact was not as great as farther east, for example,
the upper part of the hill was left emergent. Wave and wind ero- the Fort Morgan Peninsula, West Beach, and Gulf Shores. Imag-
sion and longshore drift began to rework and redistribute the sand ine waves in Mississippi Sound that could lift and wash away the
making up the hill. Gulf-side beaches formed, and a dune field concrete decking of the causeway and bridge! Developments along
developed at the back of the beach. These dunes are still active, finger canals on the back side of the island (Silver Cay and Oro
migrating slowly into the forest that has grown on the former Point) also suffered. Some intercanal property was left as minia-
upland (fig. 4.27). ture islands, while other canals trapped sediment washed across
Sand carried to the west began constructing a spit, extending the island (fig. 4-5). Homeowners were faced not only with cottage
the island from the former hill to its present tip some i i miles to repair/ reconstruction but also with rebuilding the canals. Silver
the west. The character of the spit is more typical of an active Cay property owners were faced with a collective out-of-pocket
barrier island, and it is classified as a high-risk zone (fig. 4.28). It bill in excess of S8o,ooo for canal dredging and bulkhead repair
is low in elevation (less than io feet), narrow in width (less than or replacement. Such potential additional costs are worth consider-
ing in site selection next to finger canals.

100 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS 9 .1/2 1 13 '2 Kilometers
M High Risk Ej Marsh 17@ 2 Miles N
Moderate Risk
Low Risk Land Mississippi Sound Oro Point 00

71 T

Z 0
DAUPHIN ISLAND
-1-forical inlet

GULF OF MEXICO

DANGER: High potential for total storm-
surge flooding and wave attack
DANGER: High potential for total overwash
and overwash channels. Hurricane Fred-
'Storm-

Iove rwash
ne Fred_

fo rm ati 0n
frot
eric destroyed protective dune ]
s.
DANGER: High potential for inlet formation
DANGER: Island migration, ocean-front
shoreline erosion
DANGER: Potential blockage of evacuation
route

Fig. 4.28. Site analysis: Dauphin Island.

4. Selecting a site 101

DANGER: High potential for total storm- It seems incredible, but after the destruction of Frederic, prop-
surge flooding, wave attack, and breaching erty owners rushed to rebuild on sites of destruction, made even
DANGER: High overwash potential more dangerous by the removal of protective dunes, stabilizing
40 DANGER: Inlet formation likely vegetation, and reduction of elevation (fig. 4.29). Shoreline erosion
and the potential for inlet formation add to the risk.
Early in this century a hurricane breached Dauphin Island,
D up n
Island 91 C, forming a 5-mile-wide, shallow inlet. The inlet gradually filled in
Bay until a single island had re-formed by 1942. The September 4,
1948, hurricane again breached the island about 4,000 feet west of
Oro Point. Extensive overwash occurred at that time as well. The
a POst-195os development on the spit portion of the island has been
'D
in these unstable areas. All sites on the entire spit must be re-
Fort Gaines garded as in the high-risk zone (fig. 4.28). Even the very best
Pelican Point construction will be vulnerable in such an area.
H111111111111111111111 Because the spit is rapidly building up at its western end, aver-
aging more than 150 feet per year, it is tempting to conclude that
DANGER: High potential for blockage of island growth will increase its suitability for development. This is
evacuation route during storms not the case. The western part of the island cannot be developed
CAUTION: Backside flooding safely. The entire western segment is migrating northward. As
CAUTION: Migrating dunes
CAUTION: Variable erosion rate much as 8oo feet of northward movement in the last 130 years has
Lower-risk sites located at higher eleva- been documented. The present Gulf shoreline is now in the former
tions behind the sand dunes in the for- position of the island's Mississippi Sound shore! Put in somewhat
ested interior of the island. different terms, the western end of the island eroded at a rate of
over io feet per year in a study period between 1917 and 1974.
Hardly a wise place to build.
In contrast, the main body of the eastern portion of the island
has some stable features, and lower-risk building sites are to be

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4. Selecting a site 103

Hazard zones to be avoided in the eastern section include the bit of moving sand is unsuitable for development, but the original
ocean-front area between the beach and the high dune line. This plans for the new bridge are said to have included an exit ramp
area is subject to storm floods and wave attack, overwash, and onto Little Dauphin Island. If so, the ramp plan was abandoned,
occasional erosion. It is undeveloped and should remain so. The and the area was recently included as a unit in the Bon Secour
eastern end of the island includes Fort Gaines and the Marine National Wildlife Refuge.
Environmental Science Consortium facility. The shoreline along How do such high-risk zones as those on Dauphin Island come
Pelican Point to the front of the island has been stabilized by to be developed? Access is the answer. The development of Dau-
groins. The groins on the front side have become detached during phin Island is largely the result of the ease of access provided by
storms, allowing some sediment bypassing (fig. 3-4). After Hurri- the Dauphin Island Parkway Bridge (Highway 163), completed in
cane Frederic, considerable amounts of sand were pumped up on 1954. Development, once in place, created the political pressure to
the eastern end of the island, burying some of the groins. The maintain access that allows for more development. Frederic's de-
sand provided a temporary beach, but erosion is removing the struction of the bridge was met with nearly immediate Federal
sand, reexposing the groins. Additional projects will be necessary Highway Administration approval of an "emergency" grant to re-
in the future to maintain the shoreline position. build the bridge. The $38 million is a subsidy that serves redevel-
The sound side of the eastern portion of the island is extensively opment in high- to moderate-risk areas that had only i,6oo per-
developed, including finger canals and land areas built up from manent residents at the time (references 93-95, appendix Q. One
dredge spoil. All of the back side of the island was flooded by study calculated that the bridge subsidy amounted to $50,000 per
Frederic and will be flooded in future storms. Development along structure on the island before the storm, or $20,000 per structure
the bridge approach received considerable damage. if all mapped lots were developed! These monies are on top of the
Little Dauphin Island. A narrow ridge of sand and back marsh payoff in federal flood insurance, low-interest loans from the Small
forms the barrier enclosing Dauphin Island Bay. At one time it Business Administration, federal dollars for a new sewage treat-
was connected to the main island and probably derived part of ment facility, federal dollars to underwrite the emergency activities
its sand supply from the eroding east end. The connection was of the Army Corps of Engineers, and other expenditures of federal
severed with the dredging of Government Cut, a water access and state tax revenues. It adds up to a financial boon to refurbish
route between the adjacent bays. The cut is not unlike the various an island that could be wiped out again next year, or in io years,
inlets that have breached the island in several places over the years. or several times in the next century.
The island is very low and unstable. One would conclude that this Hurricane Frederic's impact on Dauphin Island focused the

104 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

nation's attention on the folly of barrier island development at the of Davis Bayou. Property along smaller bays and bayous provides
expense of the general public. As a result, it became the center of water access. Such new developments are not always in low-risk
controversy over American barrier island policy and was impor- areas. The county is divided into 4 segments for purposes of dis-
tant in the framing and passage of the Coastal Barrier Resources cussing hazard evaluation, namely, the area east of Pascagoula,
Act. When the next storm redestroys the federal investment, Dau- Pascagoula and vicinity, the region between Pascagoula Bay and
phin Island may become the straw that broke the camel's back, Davis Bayou, and Ocean Springs.
and the next round of legislation will be aimed at developed bar-
rier islands. Grand Batture Islands, Point Aux Chenes, Bayou Casotte
Sand Island and Pelican Island. These islands lie south of the A vast marsh swamp straddles the Alabama-Mississippi state
eastern end of Dauphin Island. The position and size of these line. The north shore of Mississippi Sound from Bayou La Batre
sand bodies change dramatically with time. They build up from to Point Aux Chenes is a complex of embayments, bayous, and
sand shoals to maximum size during times when no hurricanes tidal creeks separating marsh tracts that grade inland into swamp.
come into the area, and then they virtually vanish during hurri- The Grand Batture Islands are the thin sandy edge of this watery
canes. Such islands are unsuitable for development. The lighthouse land, all that remains of a once-extensive island chain. The islands
at the entrance to Mobile Bay was built on such a feature (fig. are barely sandy enough to call beach, and many are flooded marsh
1.2). The island migrated away leaving the lighthouse standing in remnant rather than barrier islands. As these protective islands
the water! disappear, the marsh boundaries of the old, abandoned Escatawpa
Delta come under wave attack and rapidly erode. These extensive
Mississippi fragile marshes and islands probably never will be considered for
development, and rightly so, for they lie in a high-hazard area
Jackson County (not shown in the map sequence).
Inland, however, the swamp is characterized by bottomiand
With the exception of Pascagoula, Mississippi's eastern shore forest that gives an impression of stability. It is not inconceivable
is lightly developed. Extensive areas of marshland and limited that building sites could be developed, especially if fill were added
access account for the slow development, but inland growth is to build up the elevation. But appearances can be misleading be-
toward the shore. Developers are discovering the area south of cause the area is unsuitable for development. The low elevation,
Gautier, the sandy ridge of Belle Fontaine Point, and the shores unstable subsoil, groundwater problems, and frequency of flood-

4. Selecting a site 105

ing create a situation that should keep this land in its natural in front of the seawall, held in place by a second wall. Along most
state, or allow only forestry or restricted agricultural uses. For of the waterfront only a concrete seawall separates the waves from
instance, the area was extensively flooded 3 times in the 15-year the land. Waves break along the wall, sending spray onto Beach
period from 1965 through 1979. The flooding extended as far in- Boulevard, the buffer zone between sea and property fronts. West
land up the valley of the Escatawpa River as U.S. Highway go. of Market Street the elevation rises abruptly so that the land as
An extensive area of lowland in the flood zone south of the little as i block inland is above the flood zone. Such inland prop-
Jackson County Airport has been reclaimed and built up with- fill erty falls into the low-risk category, providing access to both the
to develop the Bayou Casotte Industrial Area. The development amenities of the coast and an urban environment. Going to the
provides a port facility. east, however, the nearshore elevations are lower. Flooding is a
Low-risk residential development areas all lie inland at eleva- likely hazard, and caution is in order.
tions of at least io feet above sea level. You should consult flood The narrow buffer zone withstood Hurricane Betsy's 5.5- to
maps when choosing a site (see appendix B and references 61 and 6.4-feet above sea level flooding in 1965 and Hurricane Frederic's
62, appendix C), but general areas above the flood zone include 5.8-feet storm surge in 1979. The 9 inches of torrential rainfall
the land north of the Jackson County Airport, Kreole and Moss that accompanied the latter storm did cause some inland flooding,
Point away from the wetlands and floodplain of the Escatawpa and high winds caused considerable damage to homes and busi-
River, and between Kreole and Orange Lake north of U.S. go. nesses. Both storms flooded parts of Beach Boulevard, but it was
Only the westernmost part of this area is shown on the risk maps the low floodplain of the Pascagoula River that was most exten-
(fig. 4.3o). Development along Back Bayou and Bayou Casotte to sively flooded.
east Pascagoula is in a high-risk zone. Some damage was sustained Hurricanes Betsy and Frederic were storms with a recurrence
in this area during Hurricane Frederic, and Hurricane Camille interval of i in 25 to 30 years, although they came just 14 years
caused severe flooding. apart. Pascagoula withstood these storms fairly well, but it was
not in the highest impact zone east of the eye. In ig6g the city and
Pascagoula-Pascagoula Bay outlying areas were extensively flooded by the storm surge asso-
The shoreline of Pascagoula (fig. 4.3o) exemplifies the urban, ciated with Hurricane Camille. Floodwaters rose to more than 11
engineered shoreline. No remnant of a natural beach remains along feet above mean sea level, and flooding was extensive for several
the 2.2 miles of Mississippi Sound shore, and the riverfront is blocks inland along the riverfront and in the southeast part of
highly modified. The small public beach is artificial: pumped sand town. Again, Pascagoula was far enough from the eye of the storm

106 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONM
High Risk Mars
N@ 0 1 2 3 4 Kilometer
Moderate Risk

Low Ris
0 1 3 Mile s; a rsh
Lake A F k F Land
Gautier
0
amp Lamo e
7",
a 'PAO 4@
V, CA OU

-IS,
-C4GOULA
BAY
Spanish Point CO
Zone oi-, M
C)
Belle Fontaine Point beach C:@G
nourishment
Mississippi Sound

DANGER: High flood potential; some cot DANGER: Flood zone
tages in velocity zone DANGER: Overwash potential DANGER: High flood potential from both the DANGER: High flood potential
DANGER: Overwash potential DANGER: Inlet migration river and storm surge DANGER: Avoid low elevations, rnz
CAUTION: Potential for inlet formation CAUTION: Erosion DANGER: Shifting channels shorefront
CAUTION: Severe local shoreline erosion CAUTION: Low evacuation route DANGER: Shoreline erosion; unstable marsh CAUTION: Local shoreline erosion
CAUTION: Low evacuation route ---- ------
ANGER: hore-front flood zone DANGER: Flood zone
DANGER: Flood zone CAUTION: Local shoreline erosion CAUTION: Engineered-urbanized shoreline;
CAUTION: Overwash potential Good sites above 10' elevations and away seawall and/or beach maintenance re-
CAUTION: Shoreline erosion from shoreline. Shoreline owners should quired to protect property
CAUTION: Low evacuation route preserve protective marsh fringe. Good inland sites at elevations above
flood zone _j

Fig. 4.30. Site analysis: Bayou Casotte- Pascagoula to Belle Fontaine Point.

4. Selecting a site 107

to escape the devastation that ravaged the area from Bay St. Louis Lamotte and Seacliffe. Be wary of sites on finger canals. Figure
to Biloxi. 4.30 classifies the area as being a moderate-risk zone for water-
In each case, Petit Bois and Horn islands, barrier islands 5 to front sites, low risk for inland sites.
io miles south of the city, softened the blow and reduced storm Belle Fontaine Point The area here lies between the mouth of
surge. Round Island, between Pascagoula and Horn Island, also Graveline Bayou to the east (fig. 4.3o) and Davis Bayou to the
has been a buffer to absorb wave energy, but it is eroding away. Its west (fig. 4.31). The marshes are obviously unsuited for develop-
landmark lighthouse will soon be claimed by the sea. The barrier ment, but the adjacent land is not much better, even though de-
islands are part of the Pascagoula shoreline's "luck:' but that luck velopment is taking place. Between Graveline Bayou and Belle
will not last forever. Fontaine Point the shoreline is undergoing erosion. The beach
Future development in the greater Pascagoula area should be immediately in front of the golf course near the water tower shows
on sites at least io feet in elevation. Construction should take typical evidence of erosion (stumps, scarping, and past road dam-
into account the high probability of hurricane-strength winds, and age). Any structure built close to the shore will be "on the water"
proper precautions should be observed. The same is true for Moss in a few years! Storm flooding also is a threat.
Point and vicinity. West of the point, development is occupying the narrow, length-
Gautier to Ocean Springs ening sand spit. Longshore currents are eroding the eastern seg-
ment and transporting the sand to the western segment, causing it
Gautier to Graveline Bayou. This shoreline is the west side of to grow toward the mouth of Biloxi Bay. The spit is so narrow, of
Pascagoula Bay. The land slopes rapidly from sea level to eleva- such a low elevation, and usually lacking good protective sand
tions of more than i o feet. Camille's flood level was 12.7 feet here, dunes that the future of most cottages built there is easily pre-
but good waterfront sites exist at elevations above the i-in-5o- dicted: destruction by a future hurricane just as the previous cot-
year flood level. Locally shoreline erosion may be a problem, but a tages were destroyed by Hurricane Camille. The spit is highly
check for stumps on the beach or other evidence of such erosion susceptible to flooding, wave erosion, overwash, and potential inlet
will allow you to avoid such areas. Locations back from the water's formation. Late evacuation will be impossible. Surviving struc-
edge in well-vegetated areas are usually the best. This also is true tures may be on an island or standing in the water of a breach!
along bayous. If fringing marsh is growing along the shore, pre- If you are willing to take a high risk, seek the more stable sites.
serve it as insurance against erosion. Remember to take precau- Here and there are good dunes and thickets with live oaks. Set
tions against potential wind damage. Developments include Camp back from the waterfront. If buying an existing cottage, check

108 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

DANGER: High flood potential
DANGER: Inlet potential
r8AY
CAUTION: Shoreline erosion
CAUTION: Low evacuation route

DANGER: Shorefront flood zone
, Ir
CAUTION: May be local erosion
Lower-risk sites inland at higher elevation 0, 0 cean ri s
C@
Ki me or
n..i R.-I
ks
U 2 ill

N
BILOXI

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS BILOXI BAY Marsh oint
High Risk
El Marsh o P I Igsw r
Moderate Risk
Land
Low Risk

DANGER: High flood potential
DANGER: Potential inlet formation
DANGER: Shoreline erosion may be severe
DANGER: Overwash potential MISSISSIPPI SOUND
DANGER: Evacuation problems
DANGER: High flood potential; extensive
marsh and low elevations unsuitable for
development
DANGER: Local potential for inlet formation
CAUTION: Local shoreline erosion
CAUTION: Low evacuation route
Good sites inland on forested ridges
Fig. 4.31. Site analysis: Belle Fontaine Point to Ocean Springs, and Deer Island.

4. Selecting a site 109

construction quality carefully. When the storm warning comes, city is at an elevation above the storm-surge flood zone. Hurricane
evacuate early. Camille, an extreme, pushed water levels to 15.8 feet above mean
Better yet, sacrifice being right on the water for a much lower- sea level, flooding parts of the town. The presence of Deer Island
risk inland site, such as along Point Aux Chenes Road where and Marsh Point afford protection from the open waters of Mis-
elevations are above 2o feet. Your heirs instead of the sea will sissippi Sound (fig. 4-30. As in all of the area, low-lying coastal
inherit your cottage. land is subject to frequent flooding. The beach fronting Ocean
Marsh Point. This area marks the western extension of land Springs is artificial and will not survive severe storm wave attack.
beyond Belle Fontaine Point (fig. 4.31). Most of the sound shore Keep in mind that high rainfall is associated with most hurri-
is marsh, but a long upland lies between Simmons Bayou and canes, so even at higher elevations you should choose a site with
Mississippi Sound. Although the upland is not waterfront property, good drainage. Wind and wind-blown debris also should be taken
the elevations of 2o feet (Camille flooded to 14 feet) and vegetative into account. All of these comments also apply to the area along
cover may make it suitable for future development. Public boat Old Fort Bayou.
access could be made available without disturbing significant areas
of marsh. Gulf Islands National Seashore
Davis Bayou. Davis Bayou@s north shores and bayou accesses
provide upland development sites on or near the waterfront. Hur- Petit Bois Island and Horn Island in Jackson County and Ship
ricanes push floodwaters to the heads of the bayous and generate Island in Harrison County make up the Gulf Islands National
destructive winds even for upland sites. Nevertheless, the area east Seashore (along with part of the Florida barrier system; see appen-
of Ocean Springs has many developed and developable sites in the dix B, Parks and recreation). Cat Island, the westernmost island
low-risk category (fig. 4.31). Camille's flood level reached nearly of the chain in Harrison County, is not part of the designated
16 feet, but site elevations of 12 feet should be above most floods. federal seashore (fig. i.i).
If storm evacuation is necessary, avoid the waterfront roads as The islands, 7 to 15 miles off the mainland coast, form a fragile
escape routes. division between Mississippi Sound and the Gulf of Mexico. These
long, narrow strips of sand are migrating as a result of marine
Ocean Springs processes (see chapter 2).
Ocean Springs lies at the head of Biloxi Bay and east of the Exposure to the open Gulf makes the islands vulnerable to high
Back Bay of Biloxi. Although peninsular in character, most of the wave energy and storm surge so that the fronts of the islands

110 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

commonly erode. The sand either is transported to the west by the island, are now exposed on the eroding beaches. Dr. Steve
longshore drift or across the islands as overwash during hurricanes. Shabica, a research oceanographer, has reported that the island is
The eastern ends of the islands lack a nourishing sand supply and now one-half its original size.
erode significantly, while the western ends lengthen as sand is The ends of the island are changing in response to both nature
added from the longshore drift. The net effect is that the islands, and man. The eastern end is eroded by the westward drift and the
and the passes between them, are migrating to the west and slightly migration of Petit Bois Pass. Normally, the western end would be
landward. an area of shoreline growth, but dredging of the shipping channel
Fortunately, the islands' national seashore designation removes for Pascagoula through Horn Island Pass is removing sand and
them from the realm of development. All are high-risk areas in destroying shoals that act as protective buffers against beach ero-
terms of exposure to natural hazards and not suitable for develop- sion. Although the island may not totally disappear, this shrinking
ment. Their cost to taxpayers as parks and natural areas will be results in loss of wildlife habitat and the loss of the mainland
much less than the subsidies that would be required to develop and shore's protection against the full force of hurricanes. People living
repair them if they were commercially exploited. In their present on the Jackson County coast should be concerned about the future
state the islands generate tourism revenues and preserve wildlife of Petit Bois and Horn islands.
habitats, including those important to the state's fisheries. Given the rapid disappearance of the island, its historic lateral
Petit Bois Island shift, and the extremely high-risk nature of the island with respect
to natural hazards, it seems inconceivable that it would be con-
Thirty-five to 40 years ago the eastern end of Petit Bois Island sidered for development. Incredibly, at the time the Gulf Islands
was in Alabama. If it had been covered with cottages at that time, National Seashore was taking shape, private land on Petit Bois
they would have fallen into the sea long ago. Petit Bois is a typical was being traded with the intent to develop the island! This land
barrier island: long, narrow, and migrating. The low, discontinuous ultimately was condemned under the eminent domain procedure
ridge of dunes through the middle of the island is only slightly and is now part of the Gulf Islands National Seashore.
more than io feet above sea level at its highest points. Hurricanes Horn Island
flood the island, carrying sand across to the sound as overwash.
Dr. Ervin Otvos of the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory has docu- De Bienville is said to have named this island in 1699 when one
mented that both the front and back sides of the island are erod- of his men lost a powder horn there. From that time on, human
ing. Marsh peats, which formed in marshes on the back side of beings occasionally occupied the island but never dominated it.

4. Selecting a site Ill

Commercially hunted, marginally farmed, used for recreation of in the 192os and 1930s, today there is only ocean. Fire destroyed
various sorts from the earliest days, used as a gunnery range and some of the buildings; nature took the island.
home for a biological warfare experiment station during World Horn Island and its associated shoals are a natural laboratory
War 11, all suggest a search for some ideal use. Designation of a where change can be studied. Perhaps it will give up secrets of
portion of the island as a national wildlife refuge in 1958 was a barrier islands that have been lost in the commercial scenery-of-
return to what the island was designed for-home to hundreds of sameness of much of America's coast.
species of aquatic and land plants and animals. Ship Island
At more than 12 miles in length, and with dunes a few tens of
feet in elevation, Horn Island is the largest of the barrier chain. In The western island of the Gulf Islands National Seashore lies in
spite of its size, it is, like Petit Bois and Ship islands, an unstable Harrison County. Ship Island, whose name reflects its long history
feature. Shoreline erosion, island migration, and overwash are all at as an anchorage, is the most accessible of the national seashore
work. Hurricane Ethel (ig6o) took away a half-mile of the island's barriers (see appendix B, Parks and recreation). Fort Massachu-
eastern end, while the western end grew by a quarter-mile. In setts and the island's role in the Civil War, as well as its natural
19o6 a hurricane swept away the island's lighthouse, its keeper, state as a barrier island, make this an excellent island to visit.
and his family. But these events pale when compared with the In character the island is much like Petit Bois. Hurricane Ca-
impact of Hurricane Camille. Waves ate away at the beach, leveled mille breached the island producing Ship Island Channel, creating
dunes, and flooded across the island, sweeping debris all the way what are now commonly referred to as Big Ship and Little Ship
to the mainland coast. The island lost 1.6 miles off its western end islands. If no significant storms occur, the breach may close natu-
and one-third mile off its eastern end in the 1969 storm. rally. The only certainty is change. Rubble from an 1854 brick
Isle of Caprice (Dog island). Mentioned in chapter i, this island lighthouse that was felled by the retreating shoreline in the nine-
was part of the dynamic sand shoal off the western end of Horn teenth century attests to a history of change.
island in Dog Keys Pass. Generalizations can be dangerous, and
the model of western migration does not mean that the barrier Harrison County
islands always show growth on their western ends. Hurricanes have
proven the opposite, and so has shoreline erosion. In addition to Ship Island, Deer Island and the mainland shore
Where Dog Island stood with a dance pavillion, restaurant, of Mississippi Sound compose the Harrison County coast. The
casino, pier and docks, small cabanas, trees, scrubs, and sea oats mainland shore consists of approximately 27 miles of continuous

112 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

urban-suburban development. The area's economy is tied to a lesson that such a system is not a defense against property loss.
complex of tourism, commercial fishing, harbor facilities, light The seawall "held the line" of the coast; it did not save the beach
industry, military installations, and related businesses, all in the or even the property in back of the wall. The system has served
vulnerable coastal zone. its purpose in lesser storms, but the "big event" obviously can-
In 1915 one of the most costly Gulf Coast hurricanes inflicted not be dismissed. Social questions such as the scenarios outlined
heavy damage to this area. More than half of U.S. go was washed in chapter 3 will become the new determining factors in the fu-
out between Biloxi and Pass Christian, along with a great deal of ture of this coast. Fortunately, the protective offshore barrier is-
beach-front property. The response between 1925 and 1927 was to lands will remain in their near natural state as part of the Gulf
build 25 miles of seawalls from the Biloxi lighthouse and Hender- Islands National Seashore. Only Deer Island, the low, narrow
son Point. With the exception of i mile of concave wall, the sea- island extending southeast from Biloxi, is threatened with high-
wall is the concrete step type, ranging in height from 8 to i i feet. risk development.
Construction of the seawall was a commitment to hold a fixed Figures 4.32 through 4.36 classify the risk categories of the
shoreline and led down the road of shoreline engineering. Five Harrison County coast.
sections of wall failed in the 1947 storm as all of the seawall was
topped, and property damage was again extensive. As a result of
this storm, Biloxi adopted the Southern Standard Building Code, Deer Island. a case example of development controversy
and the 1948 River and Harbor Act authorized the construction The "Friday the 13th" arrival of Pierre LeMoyne Sieur d'Iber-
of an artificial beach to protect the wall and beachless shoreline. ville on the Ile-aux-Chevreuiles in 16gg may have been an omen.
In ig5i a 3oo-foot-wide, 5-foot-high beach was placed in front of Just as the island beckoned this early explorer, it has beckoned
the wall. By 1965 its width had been reduced to between 140 feet other coastal adventurers. Today, as a remaining stretch of open
and 250 feet. Conditions during Camille were such that the beach coast, it beckons the developer. History does repeat itself.
was not severely damaged, but clearly a long-term and costly com- In 1915 Deer Island was being advertised as the "Coney Island
mitment has been made to this engineered shoreline. of the South" with a pier, dance hall, merry-go-round, penny ar-
Natural processes such as erosion-buildup, overwash, dune for- cades, refreshment stands, and the opportunity to buy into this
mation, and migration have lost their significance in coastal evo- paradise-a lot complete with bungalow. The hurricane of igi5
lution. Army Corps dredges and county dump trucks have become destroyed the amusement park in its first season, killed real estate
part of an artificial equilibrium. Camille brought home the hard sales, and led the financiers to prudently withdraw.

4. Selecting a site
Backbay area
DANGER: Flood zone
CAUTION: Local shoreline erosion; avoid
low elevations and bluff edges
CAUTION: Evacuation problems
Good inland sites on high ground
---------------
2 3 Kilometers
:!]@@ 7vE
1/2 1 Mil
Taw
...... ....

a t C.. BACK BAY OF BILOXI_Z@@

BIG LAKE
N
'@@VB I G
D

H,
......... .. . . .-,
............
............
............

9A
so
P A
. . . . . . . . . .. ........

Engineered-urbanized shoreline
Permanent maintenance of continuous
ENVIRONMENTS seawall and beach nourishment required DANGER: High flood potential
HAZARD ZONES to protect property DANGER: Overwash potential
M High Risk E:j Marsh DANGER: Flood zone DANGER: Possible new inlet formation and
Moderate Risk CAUTION: Evacuation problems migration
Low Risk F-1 Land CAUTION: Blowing sand nuisance DANGER: Evacuation problems
Best sites are inland on high ground DANGER: Shoreline erosion

Fig. 4.32. Site analysis: Deer Island -Biloxi -Edgewater Park-Back Bay of Biloxi.

114 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

The decision was a wise one because by all criteria Deer Island after agreeing with the local county commission not to develop
is a very high-hazard zone for development (figs. 4.31 and 4.32). such areas; such sand as needed on Deer Island is in limited sup-
Although this island lies behind the barrier island line of the outer ply and wetland destruction would likely result); (3) mosquito
Mississippi Sound, it behaves as a true barrier island. Stumps on control to be achieved through the use of pesticides (mosquito
the beaches attest to its migrating character, and its low elevation breeding grounds probably lie beyond limited spraying reach; wet-
allows overwash and storm-surge flooding. The lack of a continu- lands would be adversely affected by pesticides); (4) public recrea-
ous natural sand supply accounts for retreating beaches. The nar- tion to be restricted (read this as doublespeak for denied access);
row width leaves the island vulnerable to inlet breaching. The (5) vehicular traffic to be limited (and so would the opportunity
impact of frequent storms accounts in part for the island's remain- for swift egress in the event of storm evacuation).
ing in its natural state. However, as the northwest end of the island Supporting the developer are local officials (Biloxi's city fathers)
has built up, the distance between island and mainland is ever who see such development as "excellent" and "a good economic
shortening. Today only the distance of a football field separates boost *"The president of the chamber of commerce envisages an
the two, half the distance of open water that existed in the 1850S. expanding population base as good for business and thinks the
By the late 1970S the island was coming into the center of a new proposed development ecologically sound (?), but reserves the right
storm. This storm was not nature's as in the 1915 destruction, or for a change of mind if things doWt go as expected (what a "change
Camille's submergence and battering, or the dozens of other storms of mind" will achieve after the damage is done goes unexplained)!
that have raked the island. The modern storm is the political- History forgotten.
economic-social controversy generated by a new set of proposals The oppo,,,ing camp is that of the "environmentalists which
to develop the privately owned island; it is a case example to the includes views ranging from "leave-it-just-as-it-is" preservationism
student of coastal development. to those who favor limited development, encouraging recreational
Generator of the controversy is the "promise-them-anything" and educational uses of this unique asset. That the island is the
developer. In this case the following claims were made: (i) con- only place in Mississippi where salt flats and salt pans still exist,
crete condominiums designed to withstand 25o-mph winds, as that half of the island is salt marsh (fisheries' nursery land), and
tested by a major university (the university had not tested, was un- that it is home to some rare birds and alligators are facts that
aware of any other such tests, and had given no stamp of approval suggest the total island system is an "endangered species", worthy
to the design); (2) the beaches to be nourished (the same devel- of limited use.
opers bulldozed several acres of dune beach complex in Florida Perhaps the most important group-the taxpaying public, citi-

4. Selecting a site 115

zens of the city, county, and state-have little voice in the impor- resulted, especially along the waterfront. Waves came into direct
tant controversy. They must rely on the prudence of their elected contact with buildings, and the waves won! High winds, wind-
officials and the coastal governing/ regulating agencies. In this case blown debris, and high rainfall added to the damage. If you are
permits were denied by the Bureau of Marine Resources, although new to the area since 1969, obtain copies of the U.S. Geological
some construction did take place. Survey Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-404 and 405 to see
If Deer Island is developed, there will be winners and losers. just how far and wide Camille's flood extended (reference 61, ap-
The winners will be the developers, contractors, and service units. pendix Q. The entire beach front-including all of Beach Boule-
Short-term winners will be the island dwellers and the local tax vard, all of the area from Gulf to Bay east of Central High School,
coffers-until the first storm. The losers will be the buyers who the land between Keegan and Auguste bayous north of Division
ultimately lose all or part of their property and possibly their lives, Street, and the area east of Main Street and north of the railroad
the public denied access to the beach, the wildlife that lose their -was flooded! The routes and/or approaches to bridges to the
habitat, and ultimately the taxpayers of the state who will be asked east and north were flooded. Survivors of Camille know the value
to subsidize infrastructure costs and post-storm cleanup. of an evacuation plan and the need to leave the area early.
Hurricane Camille may have been exceptional, but at least 4
Biloxi to Pass Christian other hurricanes had brought limited flooding and destruction dur-
The classification shown in figures 4.32 through 4.34 is for the ing this century, which should be reason enough for the prudent
immediate coastal zone. This general area is difficult to assess be- to seek home sites away from the shore and on high ground. For
cause the risk category depends on how well the seawall and arti- example, such sites may be found around Keesler Air Force Base
ficial beach system are maintained. If a hurricane or long-term or along the ridges to the west.
erosion remove the beach (as is the case at Pascagoula and Wave- Back Bay of Biloxi. Biloxi's Back Bay area (fig. 4.32) is protected
land, for example), the property immediately in back of the wall from the direct attack of storms, but the storm-surge effect pushes
would be more vulnerable to destruction. A property owner's best and holds waters in embayments and bayous. High rainfall in
guides in site evaluation are elevation, vegetative cover, and re- association with hurricanes pumps more water into the system, so
sponse to recent historic hurricanes (for example, Betsy, Camille, flooding becomes a problem. Sometimes flood levels are amplified
Frederic). by the constricted coastline. In 1965 Hurricane Betsy generated
Biloxi. The city (fig. 4.32) was hit by a 16- to 19.5400t storm maximum water levels of 8.3 to 9.5 feet, and Camille's flood
surge in association with Hurricane Camille. Extensive damage reached between 13 to 15 feet along most of the north shore, flood-

116 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

Fig. 4.33. Site analysis: Mississippi City- Gulf port- Long Beach.

U. S. NAVAL
0 1/2 1 2 3 Kilometers E RV T'ON
0 112 1 2 Miles

so Gaston
Point

LONG
BEACH

Mississippi Sound

HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
High Risk Marsh
Moderate Risk
Low Risk Land

4. Selecting a site

Mississippi
City

Engineered-urbanized shoreline
Permanent maintenance of continuous
seawall and beach nourishment required
to protect property
DANGER: Flood zone
CAUTION: Evacuation problems
CAUTION: Blowing sand nuisance
----------- Best sites are inland on high ground

118 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

ing D'Iberville. A lesser threat to property adjacent to the bay is and reached maximum elevations of more than 21 feet. Wind
erosion. This includes bluffs that slump when undercut. Avoid damage was excessive throughout the region.
areas of artificial fill, no matter how high the elevation. Choose Sites of lowest risk are those at elevations Of 20 feet or more,
sites that are well drained. away from the shore. Based on Camille, a general guideline would
West of Biloxi. The flood zone here is restricted to the area on be to locate north of the L&N railroad tracks. The Gulfport Har-
either side of U.S. 90 (fig. 4.32). Hurricane Camille's storm-surge bor and Jones Memorial Park complex appears to have created
flood level reached ig.5 feet, so areas below the 20400t contour some artificial protection for the area north of the complex. Hur-
were flooded, for example, Beauvoir, the area south of Southern ricane flooding has not penetrated as far inland behind the com-
Memorial Park, and all along U.S. go. In 1965 Hurricane Betsy plex as in the immediately adjacent areas. The harbor also acts
flooded portions of this area. as an obstruction to longshore drift and is causing local beach
Inland developments such as Southern Memorial Park and buildup.
Edgewater Park are above flood level and may be regarded as Any location in this area may suffer flooding under the unusual
low-risk areas if a few basic guidelines are kept in mind. First, all conditions generated by hurricanes. Wind damage is almost cer-
of the area will be subject to high winds, so construction should tain, especially if no special construction precautions are taken.
be wind-resistant. Second, evacuation may be required; therefore, Be aware of your community's evacuation plan and routes. Heed
know where shelters are located and the route to reach such shel- hurricane warnings.
ters. Third, take all hurricane warnings seriously. Pass Christian. Pass Christian (fig. 4.34) was more severely dam-
Mississippi City. This area (fig. 4.33) straddles the flood zone aged by Hurricane Camille than the area to the east because it
that extends a few hundred yards inland. Water marks left from was in the "critical" position, just east of the storm's eye when
Camille exceeded 20 feet. Selecting sites greater than 2o feet in landfall was made. Flood levels exceeded 22 feet in elevation, and
elevation is a good first step in reducing risk as all such locations essentially all routes out of Pass Christian were ultimately flooded
are above the flood zone and removed from the shore. Generally as the entire area from Henderson Point to Bayou Portage was
the safest sites are north of the railroad, but creeks and bayous submerged. Pass Christian lacks the extensive area of higher ele-
provide routes for floodwaters beyond the shoreline. vations found to the east, or across the bay in Bay St. Louis. All
Gulfport-Long Beach. This area (fig. 4.33) suffered heavy losses sites are subject to potential flooding.
from Hurricane Camille, particularly along the waterfront due to In recent years extensive development has taken place in the
storm-surge flooding. This flooding extended several blocks inland Henderson Point to Mallini Point area and along waterways into

4. Selecting a site

DANGER: Flood zone
CAUTION: Shoreline erosion
CAUTION: Reveled shoreline must be
maintained
CAUTION: Potential finger canal problems
CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuation
route
HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENTS
High Risk
aJ ini Say P E71 Marsh
Point 0,tsv. Moderate Risk
DANGER: Flood zone Low Risk E:1 Land
CAUTION: Reveled shoreline must be main-
tained to prevent erosion 0 /V
CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuation
0 1 Kilometers
route 3
0 h 1 2 miles

00-

10 17

Pitcher Point
Pass Ch istian

Engineered-urbanized shoreline
Permanent maintenance of continuous
seawall and beach nourishment required
to protect property
DANGER: Flood zone
CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuation
route
Best sites are inland on high ground
red

a
tic
@

Fig. 4.34. Site analysis: Pitcher Point-Pass Christian-Bayou Portage.

120 Living with the Alabama- M i ssi ssippi shore

Mallini Bayou. All sites in this area are in the moderate- to high-
risk category. Hazards range from flooding and shoreline erosion
to water quality problems.
People locating in this area should seek maximum site elevation
away from the water, elevate structures, build with strong winds
in mind, and take evacuation seriously.
Cat Island. The westernmost of the Mississippi barrier islands,
Cat Island is unusual in its T-shape. The T is a result of the re-
gional geologic history (reference 17, appendix Q. The east-west
part of the island represents earlier beach ridge formation, ter-
minated by sinking through compaction of the underlying sedi-
ments, while erosion of the east end produced the pair of north-
south spits, crossing the T.
The island is privately owned, and various alternatives for its
use have been presented, including sale to the U.S. government,
-launching facility,
mining the sand resources, using it for a satellite
or developing the island. The latter approach is highly questionable
because the island is definitely high risk with respect to natural
hazards. Access will always be by boat, and its position of approxi-
mately io miles offshore warrants early evacuation in case of a
hurricane warning. In spite of this high-risk categorization and Fig. 4.35. Damaged seawall in vicinity of Bay St. Louis. Note the ab-
the uniqueness of the island's habitat, it was not included in the sence of a beach. Photo by Bill Neal.
Coastal Barrier Resources Act as a result of successful lobbying
by the island's owner.
Most of the island is low in elevation, marsh to around 5 feet
above sea level. All of the island is in the flood zone, subject to
overwash and shoreline erosion throughout its eastern end. High

4. Selecting a site 121

points on the island reach 15 to 17 feet, but these are spot eleva- to io feet above normal tide in the Bay St. Louis area, causing
tions. There is insufficient upland for development. The most ap- flooding, shoreline erosion, damage to the seawall, and extensive
propriate use of this ephemeral island would be inclusion in the property damage.
Gulf Islands National Seashore. Hurricane Camille (1969) was the most devastating of these
storms, pushing water elevations to more than 21 feet in Bay St.
Hancock County Louis and more than ig feet in Waveland where the eye of the
storm made its landfall. Wind and wave destruction were wide-
The 2o-mile coast of Hancock County falls into 2 distinct divi- spread. The flood zone in Waveland extended to the L&N railroad
sions: the developed shore of Bay St. Louis and Waveland includ- tracks, 2,000 to 4,000 feet from the shore.
ing the bayshore, and the contrasting extensive marsh-bayou coast Bay St. Louis is centered on high ground, the edge of which
extending to the Pearl River, the state boundary with Louisiana. extends to the shore south of the bay bridge. Flooding penetrated
The former is urbanized and engineered, while the latter remains to Beach Boulevard, but houses on the upland above the 22400t
in its natural state. Although Hancock County's coast is tucked level suffered only wind damage. The campus of St. Stanislaus
behind the seaward extension of the Mississippi River Delta com- College is on somewhat lower ground and was flooded. Southwest
plex, it is not immune from the impact of storms and coastal of the campus, Camille's floodwaters penetrated I to 2 blocks in-
processes. land and to the railroad going toward Waveland.
Bay St. Louis, Waveland, Clermont Harbor-Lakeshore North of the bay bridge ramp the low-lying marsh land and all
of the development north and northwest of the yacht club, cen-
The town of Bay St. Louis constructed a vertical concrete sea- tered on Dunbar Avenue and out to Cedar Point on St. Louis
wall in igi5 and 1920 to protect the business district. Between Bay, were flooded. Hurricane Betsy (1965) had flooded a portion
1926 and 1928 the county built approximately io additional miles of this area as well. Similarly all of the development between Bay
of concrete step seawall between Bayou Caddy and Joe's Bayou. St. Louis and the Jourdan River along Watts Bayou and Joes
For the most part a protective beach is absent (fig. 4.35). From Bayou was flooded.
time to time artificial beaches have been constructed but have Southwest and west of Waveland, Camilles flooding and wind
not been maintained as permanent features. There are also some damage was extensive. Clermont Harbor and Lakeshore were sub-
groins. Figure 4.36 classifies this shoreline as one of moderate risk. merged. Intervening bayous were avenues for rapid flooding.
At least 6 times this century hurricanes have pushed flood levels The experiences of Camille, Betsy, and the hurricanes Of 1915,

122 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

DANGER: Flood zone
CAUTION: Beach absent seawall must b
maintained to protect property
HAZARD ZONES ENVIRONMENT CAUTION: Potential blockage of evacuat
route
High Risk Marsh
Caution should be exercised in locating on El
some inland developments. Extensive low- Moderate Risk Cowand Point
lands (<10 feet) into which finger canals Low Risk Land T:_L_0U1S
have been cut are subject to flooding. Pos- BAY
sible water quality problems, and potential
evacuation problems. Seek sites above 15 4(
feet in elevation.

0 JIg 1 -2 Kilometers
0 1/2 1 2 M les
...... ........

r I
u
d

-urbanized shoreline
Engineered
Permanent maintenance of continuous
seawall required
Mississippi Sound DANGER: Flood zone
DANGER: F 'ood zone DANGER: Potential blockage of evacuation
route
DANGER: Storm waves top seawall; no pro-
CAUTION: Beach absent; artificial beach
tective beach
erodes away; seawall sometimes in dis-
DANGER: Potential erosion if seawall not
repair
maintained
DANGER: Potential blockage of evacuation
route

Fig. 4.36. Site analysis: Bay St. Louis-Waveland -Clermont Harbor- Lakeshore.

4. Selecting a site 123

igi6, and 1947 define the hazard zones. If you decide to locate in Past reflections, future expectations
this general area, choose low-risk sites at elevations above 20 feet. In summary, locating at the shore calls for greater prudence
This zone is generally north of the L&N railroad tracks and south
of U.S. Highway go, at least three-quarters of a mile east of Jack- than in locating in an inland environment. First, less uniformity
son Marsh in the Waveland area to Bay St. Louis. Wind is still a of environment exists at the shore. Topography, sediment, and
hazard in this area, and all homes should be evaluated for wind vegetation change abruptly from beach, to dune, to overwash ter-
resistance. race, to forest, and to marsh. These systems are not stable for a
Sites to avoid are all beach-front and bay-front property. Prop- very long time and change or shift in response to the rise in sea
erty with elevations under 20 feet is questionable, and elevations level and shoreline migration. Look to the future when selecting a
under io feet should be avoided. Bayous and marshes will be path- site. Thefuture comes sooner on the coast.
ways for flooding, so choose locations away from these wetlands. Second, coastal hazards such as hurricane winds, storm-surge
Finally, evacuation may be a problem, even if your property is on flooding, wave attack, overwash, and persistent erosion are unlike
high ground. People living in areag such as Lakeshore, Clermont anything you have experienced in the relative quiet and stability
Harbor, or the low country north of these communities should of the coastal plain or other inland, upland environments. Choose
evacuate early. Escape routes cross marshes or low, swampy areas your site with such forces in mind and reinforce your construction
that may flood the road well in advance of an approaching hur- to improve its strength to survive such forces. Expect maintenance
ricane. to be more frequent and somewhat more expensive.
Third, coastal communities have their own set of dynamics, both
Clermont Harbor to Pearl River because they are resorts and because they must respond collec-
The last segment of Mississippi coast is a morass of marsh, tively to coastal hazards. Responses to erosion, flooding, overwash,
bayous, and tidal creeks. Here the slope of the land is so low that and other hazards, as well as the kind and extent of development
it is difficult to tell where the waters of the Gulf end and land allowed, set a course in coastal communities that is more difficult
begins. Here and there dry land interrupts the marsh where long, to alter than in an inland town. Expect increasing regulation and
narrow islands like Point Clear Island rise a few feet above the higher community costs to meet the impact of the hazards. The
marsh. pattern of regutation is suggested in the next chapter.
None of the area is safe for development, and lack of access
precludes any likely future development.

5. The coast, land use, and the law use at the regional level is the only way our beaches can be saved
from following the New Jersey example. The guidelines for such
controls must be based on the recognition of the dynamic nature
of the shore. We must be willing to accept natural changes in the
Development of the Gulf Coast shorelines, and those of asso- shore rather than adopt the philosophy of man against the sea.
ciated bays, has been haphazard. Mississippi's urbanized shore- Population growth, affluence, and the migration to the Sun Belt
lines must now be maintained at public expense through perpetual will necessitate increased regulation of the coastal zone. By analo-
beach nourishment and seawall maintenance. Rapid post-Frederic gy, as the traffic increases, more traffic laws and regulations are
redevelopment along the Alabama coast on Dauphin Island, and required to avoid the certainty of traffic jams.
particularly on the Baldwin County coast, has placed a multitude The best philosophy on shoreline development is that land use
of buildings in high-risk zones. The owners of these properties are should be in harmony with the natural environments and processes
likely candidates to form a voice for seawalls and beach nourish- that constitute the system. Of course, various segments of society
ment projects along that stretch of coast. view the coastal zone differently. The extreme views range from
The previous chapters demonstrate that the coastal zone is a untouched preservationism to unplanned, uncontrolled urbaniza-
dynamic area where land, wind, wave, and organisms interact. tion. Increasingly, decisions on land use are made by government
The resulting rapid changes are especially apparent along beaches under the pressure of various special-interest groups. Existing leg-
and on barrier islands. We cannot occupy this zone without some islation is often that of compromise, satisfying the various federal,
level of interference, or without risking being affected by natural state, and local levels of the political infrastructure. We can expect
changes. that regulations will continue to be established and modified with
Wise land-use planning, environmental maintenance, and con- the intention of insuring reasonable, multiple land use of the
servation of the coastal zone are necessary to protect the environ- coastal zone while attempting to protect both inhabitants and the
ment, but just as significant, they are necessary to protect our- natural environment. Developers have had this expectation in the
selves. The ecosystem is as important to the human population as past, and in some cases it has spurred unwise development. Cur-
it is to a population of pelicans or a stand of sea oats. Curiously, rent and prospective owners of coastal property, especially on bar-
laws are passed to protect the latter with the goal of protecting the rier islands, should be aware of their responsibilities under current
former- sometimes from ourselves. Although we may find added law and expect additional regulation with respect to development
regulations distasteful, it is obvious that increased control of land and land use.

5. Land use and the law 125

A partial listof relevant current land-use programs and regula- that encourage barrier island development, for example, roads,
tions applicable to the Alabama-Mississippi coast follows. The bridges, water supply systems, waste water treatment systems, and
explanations provided are general and introductory in nature; ap- erosion control projects. Any new structure built on these desig-
pendix B lists the agencies that will supply more specific and de- nated barrier islands (as of October 1, 1983) is not eligible for
tailed information. The regulations listed here range from federal federal flood insurance. Certain activities and expenditures under
laws that protect the interests of the larger society to state and the act are permissible. The act does not prohibit private devel-
local laws and ordinances that serve the interest of the states' citi- opment on the designated barrier islands but passes the risks and
zens and the local community. A review of these regulations before costs of development from taxpayers to owners. All applicable
investing in or undertaking property development anywhere on federal, state, and local permits still must be obtained before any
the coast will be in your best interest. We recommend that you get development begins in the designated areas.
in touch with the local county or municipal planning, zoning, or The Coastal Barrier Resources Act affects only a small portion
building department to determine state and federal permit require- of the Alabama-Mississippi coast, covering approximately 23 miles
ments. of Gulf beaches (table 5. 0. For exact boundaries of the designated
areas, get in touch with local city or county planning departments
Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982 or order the map for the area needed from the E-NCIC as listed in
table 5.1.
Recognizing the serious hazards, costs, and problems with fed-
erally subsidized development of barrier islands, the United States The National Flood Insurance Program
Congress passed the Coastal Barrier Resources Act (Public Law
97-348) in October 1982. The purpose of this federal law is to Some flood insurance facts
minimize loss of human life and property, wasteful expenditure of One of the most significant legal pressures applied to encourage
federal taxes, and damage to fish, wildlife, and other natural re- land-use planning and management in the coastal zone is the
sources from incompatible development along the Atlantic and National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The National Flood
Gulf coasts. The act covers 19o designated areas, covering 700 Insurance Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-448) as amended by the Flood
miles of undeveloped barrier beaches in the United States. Disaster Protection Act Of 1973 (P.L. 92-234) was passed to en-
Specifically, the act prohibits the expenditures of federal funds courage prudent land-use planning and to minimize property
(including loans and grants) for the construction of infrastructures damage in flood-prone areas like barrier beaches. Local commu-

126 Living with the Alabama- M ississi ppi shore

Table 5.1. Alabama-Mississippi barrier coast affected by permits for all proposed construction and other development within
Coastal Barrier Resources Act the flood zone and ensures that construction materials and tech-
Area Map number Miles of beach niques are used to minimize potential flood damage. At this point
Alabama the community is in the "Emergency Phase" of the NFIR The
Mobile Point unit Q01 3.5 federal government makes a limited amount of flood insurance
Pelican Island 001A 1.75 coverage available, charging subsidized premium rates for all exist-
Dauphin Island Q02 9 ing structures and/or their contents, regardless of the flood risk.
Mississippi FEMA may provide a more detailed Flood Insurance Rate
Round Island R01 1.25 Map (FIRM) indicating flood elevations and flood-hazard zones,
Belle Fontaine Point R01A 1.25
Deer Island R02 4 including velocity zones (V-zones) for coastal areas where wave
Cat Island R03 2 action is an additional hazard during flooding. The FIRM iden-
Source: Public Law 97-348. tifies Base Flood Elevations (BFE), establishes special flood haz-
Note: The Coastal Barrier Resources System maps (36" X ard zones, and provides a basis for floodplain management and
42") are available for $3.25 each from the Eastern-National establishing insurance rates.
Cartographic Information Center, U.S. Geological Survey, 536
National Center, Reston, VA 22092. Order by title and map To enter the Regular Program phase of the NFIP, the commu-
number. nity must adopt and enforce floodplain management ordinances
that at least meet the minimum requirements for flood hazard
nities must adopt ordinances to reduce future flood risks in order reduction as set by FEMA. The advantage of entering the Regular
to qualify for the National Flood Insurance Program. The NFIP Program is that increased insurance coverage is made available,
provides an opportunity for property owners to purchase flood and new development will be more hazard-resistant. All new
insurance that generally is not available from private insurance structures and substantially improved preexisting structures will
companies. be rated on an actual risk (actuarial) basis, which may mean higher
The initiative for qualifying for the program rests with the com- insurance rates in coastal high-hazard areas but generally results in
munity by contacting the Federal Emergency Management Agency a savings for development within numbered A-zones (areas flooded
(FEMA). FEMA will provide the community with a Flood Hazard in a ioo-year coastal flood but less subject to turbulent wave
Boundary Map (FH B M). Any community may join the National action).
Flood Insurance Program provided that it requires development

5. Land use and the law 127

FEMA maps use the " i oo-year flood" as the base flood eleva- the NFIP and for additional information on the insurance, contact
tion to establish regulatory requirements. People unfamiliar with your local property agent or call the NFIP's servicing contractor
hydrologic data sometimes mistakenly take the "wo-year flood" (phone: [8oo] 638-6620) or the NFIP State Assistance Office
to mean a flood that occurs once every ioo years. In fact, a flood (phone: Alabama [205] 832-6963; Mississippi [6oi] 982-6376).
of this magnitude could occur in successive years, or twice in one For more information, request a copy of "Questions and Answers
year, and so on. The flooding in Jackson, Mississippi, that has on the National Flood Insurance Program" from FEMA (refer-
occurred over the past few years illustrates this point. If we think ence 85, appendix C).
of a ioo-year flood as a level of flooding having a i percent statis- Before buying or building a structure on a barrier beach, an
tical probability of occurring in any given year, then during the individual should ask certain basic questions:
life of a house within this zone that has a 3o-year mortgage, there i. Is the community I'm located in covered by the Emergency or
is a 26 percent probability that the property will be flooded. The Regular Phase of the National Flood Insurance Program?
chances of your property being flooded becomes i in 4, rather 2. Is my building site located in the designated areas of the Coastal
than i in ioo. Having flood insurance makes good sense. Barrier Resources Act, where no federal flood insurance on new
In V-zones, new structures will be evaluated on their potential structures was to be available after October 1, 1983? (See Table
to withstand the impact of wave action, a risk factor over and 5.1.)
above the flood elevation. When your insurance agent submits an 3. Is my building site above the ioo-year flood level? Is the site
application for a building within a flood hazard area, a certifica- located in a V-zone? V-zones are high-hazard areas and pose
tion of structural design must accompany the application. For serious problems.
buildings within a V-zone the elevations are adjusted, usually an 4. What are the minimum elevation and structural requirements
additional 2 to 6 feet above stillwater flood levels, to minimize for my building?
wave damage. The insurance rates are also higher in these zones. 5. What are the limits of coverage?
The insurance rate structure provides incentives of lower rates if Make sure your county is enforcing the ordinance requiring
buildings are elevated above the minimum federal requirements. minimum construction elevations. After Hurricane Frederic 0 979)
Flood insurance coverage is provided for structural damage as a number of homeowners from Santa Rosa County, Florida, whose
well as contents.
Most coastal communities with barrier beaches are now covered houses were flooded, put in claims for federal flood insurance. It
under the Regular Program. To determine if your community is in turned out that on direct order from the county commissioners,

128 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

the elevation requirements for insurance were not being enforced construction, where practical, away from locations which are
by the county. One woman who had paid $i 58.oo a year for her threatened by flood hazard . To date, development in flood-hazard
insurance discovered she should have been paying over $13,ooo a areas continues at a rapid rate.
year because her house was 5 feet below the ioo-year flood level. FEMNs elevation requirements have encouraged buildings de-
Prior to construction, her house plans had been approved by the signed to withstand the flood hazard. Revision of minimum flood
county and no mention was made of the elevation problem. Before elevations in the V-zones of coastal counties takes into account
payment of her $17,000 claim, the National Flood Insurance Pro- the additional hazard of storm waves atop stillwater flood levels.
gram subtracted the correct $13,000 premium. Later, all parties Existing FEMA regulations stipulate protection of "dunes and
agreed on a lower but still substantial figure for flood insurance vegetation" in the V-zones, but implementation of this require-
premiums. More than 20 people in the National Flood Insurance ment by the local communities has not always been strong. The
Program in the local community were forced to continue paying existing requirements of the NFIP do not address other hazards
exorbitant insurance premiums for buildings built below the re- of "migrating" shorelines, for example, shoreline erosion or inlet
quired elevation because the banks that held their mortgages in- migration. Thus, buildings may meet the minimum FEMA eleva-
sisted upon it. This problem came about because county officials tion requirements, but at the same time they can be located near
said nothing about flood elevations when issuing building permits. highly exposed and eroding shorelines. In addition to recognizing
The county commissioners fared very poorly in the next election! the flood hazard, there is a need to incorporate location and
Most lending institutions and community planning, zoning, and structural codes that reflect migrating shorelines, hurricane winds,
building departments will be aware of the flood insurance regula- wave uplift, horizontal pressures and scouring to minimize the
tions and can provide assistance. It would be wise to confirm such loss of structures and tax dollars that have supported the insurance
information with appropriate insurance representatives. All insur- program.
ance companies charge the same rates for federal flood insurance In the past the National Flood Insurance Program has been
policies. subsidized and has grown to become a large federal liability. As of
The National Flood Insurance Program states its goal as "to ... August 31, ig8i, more than i.qi8 million flood insurance policies
encourage State and local governments to make appropriate land valued at $97-972 billion had been sold nationwide. Coastal coun-
use adjustments and to constrict the development of land which is ties had i. 165 million of these policies valued at $64.667 billion. In
exposed to flood damage and minimize damage caused by flood more local terms, Mobile County had flood insurance policies
losses" and "to ... guide the development of proposed future valued at over $97.7 million in 1978. Claims paid in 1979, mostly

5. Land use and the law 129

due to Hurricane Frederic, exceeded $10.7 million. The impact of Hurricane evacuation
Hurricane Frederic on the NFIP is reflected in another statistic,
the cost/loss per policy in velocity zones. During 1978-79 the The Disaster Relief Act Of 1974 authorized FEMA to establish
average premium for federal flood insurance policies located in all disaster preparedness plans in cooperation with local communities
velocity zones was $13 1 a year while the average expense and loss and states. Alabama (Civil Defense Act of 1955; Governor's exec-
per policy in these areas was $422 a year, due mainly to Frederic. utive order No. 14, 6/14/71) and Mississippi (State Code 33-15)
Such losses have encouraged the addition of wave heights to flood already had such plans in place, which are now coordinated with
elevations, and as a result insurance rates have been raised sub- the federal act as well as local ordinances. Hurricane evacuation
stantially. remains a critical problem on barrier islands and coastal flood-
Recognition of natural hazards and tax subsidy problems pro- plains. Due to heavy concentrations of population in areas of low
vided the rationale for Congress to pass the Coastal Barrier Re- elevation, narrow roads and vulnerable bridges and causeways,
sources Act in 1982. The act prohibits the sale of flood insurance plus limited hurricane warning capability (possibly 12 hours or
for new construction or substantial improvements after October 1, less), it may be difficult to evacuate all people prior to a hurricane.
1983, on certain designated undeveloped barrier islands and ended .Coastal communities have formulated detailed hurricane evacu-
federal assistance for any infrastructures for development (for ation plans. You should check for hurricane evacuation plans with
example, bridges, highways, water-treatment systems). There is the county Civil Defense or Disaster Preparedness officer and find
an urgent national need to address the problems of developed or out if any potential evacuation problems will exist during a hurri-
developing barrier beaches which were not covered in the Coastal cane. These offices can provide information on the location of
Barrier Resources Act in order to minimize hazards to human hurricane evacuation shelters and are responsible for providing
lives and loss of property in these areas. An incentive program to emergency and relocation assistance after hurricanes. The Civil
encourage sound land-use planning, limit density of development, Defense Office also can provide information on expected losses
improve hurricane evacuation, and allow relocation of damaged from hurricanes.
structures after hurricanes needs to be developed before a disaster
strikes the coast. Coastal zone management
The federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-
583) generated an effort by most coastal states to manage their

130 Living with the Alabama- M i ssi ssippi shore

shorelines and conserve a vital national resource. Key requirements achieved through the Bureau of Marine Resources, which acts as
of the act are coastal land-use planning based on land classification a clearinghouse for permits. For example, suppose you wish to
and on identification and protection of critical areas. construct a dock on your waterfront that will involve some dredge
The federal requirements were broad enough to allow each state and fill. You would need permits from both the MCP and the
to establish management regulations through its own legislative Army Corps of Engineers. The "one-stop permitting" process
process. The result is a variety of approaches to actual manage- through the Bureau of Marine Resources will meet both applica-
ment. Alabama and Mississippi are examples of the contrast in tion requirements through a single set of forms. The processing
approach and the problems that can arise. and issuing of permits is coordinated, and review or processing is
reduced to the shortest practical time.
Mississippi Before any activity in the coastal zone (for example, construc-
The backbone of this state's management program is the Wet- tion, dredge and fill, removal of vegetation, installation of septic
lands Protection Law of 1973 and the Mississippi Marine Resource or water treatment systems, sediment or water discharge) is under-
Council enabling legislation, under the umbrella of the Mississippi taken, you should check with the Bureau of Marine Resources
Coastal Program (MCP; reference 89, appendix C; see also ap- (see appendix B). While the BMR is the primary administrator of
pendix B). The Bureau of Marine Resources of the Department the coastal program, the Bureau of Pollution Control and Land
of Wildlife Conservation is the state agency charged with enforce- and Water Resources (also in the Department of Natural Re-
ment of the Mississippi Coastal Program. sources) and the Department of Archives and History also are
Some of the goals of the program are "to provide for reasonable responsible for monitoring decisions that affect the coastal area of
industrial expansion in the coastal area" but at the same time Hancock, Harrison, and Jackson counties and all coastal waters.
"to conserve the resources of the coastal area for this and succeed- The Mississippi Coastal Program has been relatively free of
ing generations ,7 "to encourage the preservation of natural scenic controversy. The fact that the Mississippi coast is already highly
qualities," and "to assist local governments in the provision of urbanized and that the barrier islands are part of the National
public facilities and services in a manner consistent with the coastal Seashore has resulted in less conflict over residential development.
program.9 Deer Island is one of the exceptions (see chapter 4). Perhaps the
Another important objective is to consolidate state policy in the biggest problem facing the program is the pressure to industrialize
coastal area and simplify the process of applying for and obtaining coastal areas that are now wetlands. Such land is often viewed as
various types of permits and licenses. "One-stop permitting" is worthless in its present state, a prime target for dredge and fill to

5. Land use and the law 131

create industrial parks. The test of the coastal management pro- The 1982 creation of ADEM was an effort to streamline the
gram will be whether or not the wetland resource is protected. permitting process and consolidate the environmental regulatory
Alabama programs. One-stop permitting is achieved through the Depart-
ment of Environmental Management. Before you engage in any
In contrast, the coastal management program in Alabama was activity that will alter the coastal zone system, you must apply for
based on new legislation, stimulated by the federal program. The the necessary permits through ADEM (see appendix B).
Alabama Coastal Area Program (ACAMP) was approved in 1979 Obtain a copy of "Building in the Coastal Counties: A Guide
(reference 87, appendix Q. Act 534, the Alabama Coastal Area to the Permitting Process with Special Emphasis on the Coastal
Act, established the Coastal Area Board (CAB) with the mandate Areas" (reference 88, appendix Q for specific information. One
to develop a comprehensive management program with rules and of the most important requirements is that construction must be
regulations. The same act established the coastal area from the 40 feet landward of the primary dune line crest.
contiguous i o-foot inland contour to the seaward limit of the state's Controversy. Almost from its inception the Coastal Area Board
territorial water (3 nautical miles), including coastal islands. In (CAB) was under fire from man and nature. Legislative attempts
1982 the Alabama legislature created the new Department of En- to change the program and Hurricane Frederic created such un-
vironmental Management (ADEM), and in October, 1982, the certainty that it is debatable whether the CAB ever reached its
functions of the CAB were transferred to ADEM and the De- design effectiveness. About the time it defined the primary dune
partment of Economic and Community Affairs (DECA). ADEM line (to enforce the mandated 40 feet of setback behind such a
is charged with all coastal permitting and regulation, whereas line), Frederic washed the dunes away! At the time of this writing
ADECA includes planning and nonpermit/nonregulatory func- some state officials still regard that now nonexistent rampart as
tions. the legislated line of permitting authority. The dune line must
The purpose of the Alabama Coastal Area Act is "to promote, have been chosen because of its protective role. To insist on the
improve and safeguard the lands and waters in the coastal areas ... letter of the law when real protective dunes no longer exist, and
through a comprehensive and cooperative program designed to are likely to reestablish landward of this former position (see chap-
preserve, enhance and develop such valuable resources" for the ter 2, sea-level rise), is like being in the crowd that watched the
future. Resources include "natural, commercial, recreation, indus- king in his invisible clothes, afraid to tell him of his nakedness.
trial and aesthetic." The fragility of the natural ecosystem and the The beach houses rebuilt after Frederic behind these imaginary
need for balanced development are recognized. dunes are just as naked (fig. 5. 1

132 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Although the formation of ADEM and the division of the
Coastal Area Board functions between the new agency and the
ADECA were designed in part to streamline the permitting pro-
cess and consolidate coastal and other environmental regulatory
programs, the transition year 1982-1983 was one of increasing
controversy and a breakdown in regulatory permitting rather than
increased efficiency or prudent land use. As the CAB held its final
meeting, it was clear that the oil and gas industry was not being
monitored closely. The admitted illegal dumping of drilling wastes
into Mobile Bay was an embarrassment to all. On the Fort Morgan
Peninsula developers of condos were bulldozing primary dunes
and "rebuilding" them closer to the water. Dune sands were being
removed to fill wetland for a sewage plant. These activities were
going on without all of the necessary permits. No certificate of
consistency was issued for the Fort Morgan development as called
for by ACAMP. U.S. Capitol Corporation, builder of a 300-unit
complex on Highway 18o, was cited for code violations by Baldwin
County regarding fire-resistance requirements. Construction in the
wetland was halted by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers because Fig. 5.1. Post-Frederic construction, West Beach, Alabama. Note the
of violations of the Clean Water Act. Some wells in this area were absence of any dune line. The original dune line governing the set-
already known to be polluted, and groundwater supply is limited. back requirement was destroyed by the hurricane. Photo by Bill Neal.
In April 1983 a civil suit was filed against ADEM contending
that the department had failed to enforce regulations of the Coastal
Area Management Program. In May the news broke that federal
funds were being withheld because of questions about how Ala-
bama was handling its program. The federal officials contended
that the CAB had been the permitting agency, but the director of

5. Land use and the law 133

ADEM contended it was not, that it lacked the proper technical
expertise or staff to make decisions of a technical nature, and that
the county commissioners are authorized under CAMP to issue
permits (where the counties get their technical expertise is un-
clear). In June, ADEM closed its Mobile office and the media
reported the coastal management program to be "broke." An edi-
torial in the Azalea City News lamented that "this program has
become erroneously interpreted, inadequately enforced, incompe-
tently managed to the point of bankruptcy." In August, Coastal
Environmental Alliance, Inc., was formed because its members
felt that the Mobile area had lost its ability to police its environ-
ment with the loss of the Coastal Area Board. The Theodore
Industrial Complex outfall line and its potential pollution impact
on important oyster beds was their first case in point, However, in
1984, ADEM opened another office in Mobile, further illustrating
71 JV W-52" the story of change.
777:@,
Although some of these statements are charged with emotion-
alism, they bear seeds of truth. A sharp eye was not being kept on
Fig. 5.2. Early construction phase of Lei Lani Towers on Perdido Key. the coast, and problems were spreading. In August, FEMA di-
To paraphrase a popular expression: "Where's the beach?" Photo by rected the Baldwin County Commission to issue stop-work orders
Eugene Brannan, Freelance Photography Unlimited, (D 1983. on 7 beach-front developments. Romar House (later excluded from
the order), Perdido Dunes, Lei Lani Towers (fig. 5.2), Winddrift
Condominiums, Perdido Quay, and Perdido Hotel in the Alabama
Point-Perdido Key area, and the Surf Club and Marina in the
Fort Morgan area were believed to be in violation of FEMA flood
insurance requirements, particularly in the significant alteration of
dunes in the designated velocity zones (V-zones). The resulting

134 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

hearings and news reports again put ADEM in the spotlight. the setback was supposed to be, or what the plan looked like on
(Interested readers might wish to contact the Robertsdale Inde- paper, or who said what, when, and to whom, the structure is
pendent, Robertsdale, Alabama, for a series of informative articles being built at the edge of the surf! The building site was sand
by Mike Williams.) By December 1983, ADEM found it neces- bulldozed into the position shown at the water's edge, with addi-
sary to impose a moratorium on development for approximately 2 tional sand pushed up in front of the construction to keep it from
weeks. The controversy and the law suits continue. flooding while being built. The "erosion problem" is "built in"
Perhaps the programs designed to protect are in fact part of the here just as sure as are the kitchen cabinets.
problem. Did the knowledge of the coming federal Coastal Barrier This development in the V-zone is a replay of what has hap-
Resources Act spur developers to accelerate building on previously pened again and again in other states. A recent example from
undeveloped properties? It is quite likely. Did the state Coastal South Carolina is the blueprint for what is likely to happen at Lei
Area Act intend the primary dune line as it existed prior to Hur- Lani Towers and its sisters near the surf. Condominiums were re-
ricane Frederic (1979) to be the definitive line on which all future cently built near the ocean at the Wild Dunes Beach and Racquet
development was to be based? Or did the law intend for the set- Club on the Isle of Palms. Even during construction, beach sand
back line to fluctuate through time, as the dune line fluctuates? If was being bulldozed and packed in front of the buildings to pro-
the line is rigid, the law will be defeated by a rising sea level. If we tect them from flooding. Waves gnawed at these artificial barriers.
legally define dunes as something they are not in the natural sys- In the words of a local resident who watched the development:
tem, then lawyers will defeat the law. At one point in the contro- "Residents purchased condominiums that were built too close to
versy, the setback requirement in the absence of a dune was 250 the ocean. They were so enamored of their close-range seascape
feet inland of the first vegetation at the back of the beach. The that they risked having sea water spill over their sundecks . . .
assumption apparently is that the primary dune crest will reform regular and predictable erosion cycles so familiar to coastal ecolo-
approximately in keeping with legal requirements. In still another gists were not so familiar to the condominium purchasers. They
case the permit to build was issued with the requirement that an coveted too strongly their own vista. It blinded them.'
artificial dune be constructed and maintained to meet the setback Almost immediately the new owners found their property in
requirement. Until such variances cease, the Coastal Area Pro- trouble. They petitioned for a riprap seawall and sought permits
gram will not serve its defined purpose. for such construction. Although their island neighbors protested,
Figure 5.2 is a clear illustration of the real situation. Cutting public officials allowed the engineering solution. One island resi-
away all discussion of where the dune may be forming, or what dent noted that either the condominiums would be saved and the

5. Land use and the law 135

beach lost, or vice versa, but it could not be both ways. The mayor traditional design in this dynamic zone would have a much shorter
(like a good politician and ignoring an existing wall with no beach life expectancy than the same house in an inland location. The
at high tide) said you can have it both ways. The developer made services for this house and many like it (for example, electric lines,
no bones about it: the revetment was to save the buildings, not the gas mains, water lines), the sewage generated, and the roads,
beach. bridges, and service structures required for such development will
In issuing the permit, however, the state coastal management exceed the carrying capacity of a barrier island or beach dune
agency hung a millstone around the necks of the condominium system much quicker than for a similar inland community devel-
owners. The permit requires that the homeowners and club keep opment. The resulting damage to the environment through pollu-
the riprap covered with sand and the beach in front of the wall tion, loss of habitat, stabilization structures, and the like removes
nourished. If enforced, this requirement will be a heavy financial the amenities that most shore dwellers originally came to enjoy.
burden to pay for the ocean vista that is still not worry-free! Not only is aesthetic value lost, but the risk from coastal hazards
Clearly, in all coastal states, there is a gap between what is to be is magnified.
learned from coastal experience/coastal science, how such experi- Building codes and zoning ordinances provide a means of con-
ence may be fruitfully applied in coastal regulation, and in what trolling building location and design and set minimum standards
coastal political arena such regulation is to take place. Since sci- for materials and construction to reduce the likelihood of property
ence, politics, business, and bureaucracy seem destined to meet at damage or loss to natural processes. Most progressive communities
the shore, perhaps future ADEM meetings and hearings should require that new construction adhere to the provisions of a recog-
be scheduled at the Lei Lani during storms, preferably where all nized building code. If you plan to build in an area that does not
participants can see the beach, or lack of it, during discussions. follow such a code, you would be wise to insist that your builder
do so to meet your requirements.
Building codes Local building officials in storm areas often adopt national codes
that contain building requirements for protection against high
Coastal dynamics preclude shoreline and island development wind and water. Compiled by knowledgeable engineers, code en-
patterned after traditional inland styles. A one-story, ranch-style forcement officials, and architects, these codes regulate the design
house at the back of the beach will block wind transport of sand, and construction of buildings and the quality of building materials.
interfere with overwash, and ultimately behave as a seawall before The Standard Building Code (formerly the Southern Standard
being destroyed in its turn by storm waves and flooding. This Building Code; reference 113, appendix Q is the building code in

136 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

general use along the Gulf Coast. This code has certain hurricane- Mobile home regulations
resistance requirements such as continuity, stability, and anchor- Mob
age, all related to calculated reference wind speed as modified by ile homes differ in construction and anchorage from per-
height above ground and building shape factors to determine the manent structures. The design, shape, lightweight construction
design load. materials, and other characteristics required for mobility, and for
Individual counties and coastal communities often adopt amend- staying within axle-weight limits, create a unique set of potential
ments or modifications to this code, particularly for structures problems for residents of these dwellings. Because of their thinner
placed on the floodplain or in the V-zone. These supplements have walls, for example, mobile homes are more vulnerable than per-
more stringent requirements for piling size, piling support, depth manent homes to wind and wind-borne projectiles. Thus, some
of piling embedment, framing, plumbing, and mechanical and coastal states and communities have separate requirements for
electrical installations to improve wind and flood resistance. mobile homes. The mobile home owner should check with the
It is emphasized that the purpose of these codes is to provide appropriate authority.
minimum standards to safeguard lives, health, and property. Com- Mobile home anchorage may be regulated by local ordinance.
munities have the right to strengthen the adopted code in order Tiedowns should be required to make the structure more stable
to improve it or make it more stringent. As a result, numerous against wind stress (for recommendations, see the section on mo-
communities do have specifications that go beyond the Standard bile homes in chapter 6). Violations of anchorage or foundation
Building Code. We recommend such strengthening amendments regulations may go undetected unless there are a sufficient number
as those suggested by the Florida Department of Natural Re- of conscientious inspectors to monitor trailer courts. One poorly
sources in their "Recommendations for a Coastal Construction anchored mobile home can severely damage adjacent homes whose
Building Code" (reference 125, appendix Q. Check with your owners abided by sound construction practice. Some operators or
local building inspector to determine the specific code for your managers of mobile home parks are alert to such problems and
area. see that they are corrected; others simply collect the rent.
Individuals can and should insist on designs and materials that The spacing of mobile homes also may be regulated by local or-
go beyond the minimum code requirements (see chapter 6 on dinance. Providing residents with open space between homes, this
construction). Sanibel Island, Florida, has adopted one of the bet- type of ordinance preserves some aesthetic value for a neighbor-
ter codes on the Gulf Coast with respect to coastal construction. hood and helps to maintain a healthier environment. For exam-
ple, if mobile home septic tanks are closely spaced, there is the

5. Land useand the law 137

potential for groundwater or surface water pollution. Similarly, if tation and septic system permits). The Marine Protection, Re-
mobile homes are built too close to finger canals, canal water may search and Sanctuaries Act Qf1972 (P.L. 92-532) regulates dump-
become polluted. ing into ocean water. The Water Resources Development Act of
Check with your city or county building inspector's office about 1974 (P.L. 93-251) also provides for comprehensive coastal zone
mobile home regulations. planning.
At the state and local levels the coastal zone management agen-
Water quality and waste disposal cies (ADEM in Alabama; Bureau of Marine Resources in Missis-
sippi) and the municipal or county health departments have the
Protecting the water resources of barrier coasts as well as the bay primary permitting authority with respect to activities that may
coasts is essential for safeguarding the various uses of the coast. affect water quality. Before drilling a well or installing a septic
Fisheries, all forms of water recreation, and the general ecosystem system, check with these state and local offices.
depend on high-quality surface waters. Potable water supply is
drawn mainly from groundwater that also must be of high quality. Endangered species
As noted in chapter 4, water resources are being threatened, and
existing pollution is costly to both local communities and the state. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 protects several animals
When shellfishing waters are closed or the health of local residents common to the Gulf Coast. In particular, whales, the West Indian
is threatened, the loss is more than economic. Manatee, the American alligator, Loggerhead and Green Sea Tur-
Water quality is measured by fecal coliform count. Fecal coli- tles, the Atlantic Ridley, Hawksbill, and Leatherback turtles are
form is a type of bacteria found in human wastes, and its abun- covered by the act. The penalty for intentionally shooting, killing,
dance is a good measure of the extent of pollution. or harming any endangered, threatened, or protected animal is
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments Of 1972 severe. Consult your state's conservation and resources offices (see
(P.L. 92-500), as administered by the U.S. Environmental Pro- appendix B, Wildlife).
tection Agency in cooperation with state agencies, control any
type of land use that generates, or may generate, water pollution.
The dredging and filling of wetlands and water bodies is regulated
through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (see appendix B, under
Dredging, filling, and construction in coastal waterways, and Sani-

6. Building or buying a house which gives more detail on coastal construction and supplements
this volume. In addition, the Federal Emergency Management
near the beach Agency's Design and Construction Manualfor Residential Build-
ings in Coastal High Hazard Areas is an excellent guide to coastal
construction and additional reference material (see references 107
Real estate roulette: protecting your bet and io8, appendix Q.
In reading this book you may conclude that the authors are at Coastal realty versus coastal reality
cross-purposes. On the one hand, we recommend that develop-
ment of barriers and beach front be avoided because of the risks Coastal property is not the same as inland property. Do not
and dangers attendant to building on the coast. On the other hand, approach it as if you were buying a lot in a developed woodland of
we provide you with a guide to evaluate the risks; and in this northern Alabama or a subdivided farm field in the Coastal Plain.
chapter we describe what type of structure is best to buy or build The previous chapters illustrate that the shores of the Gulf Coast,
near the beach. especially the barrier islands, are composed of variable environ-
This apparent contradiction is more rational than it might seem ments and are subjected to nature's most powerful and persistent
at first. For those who will heed the warning, we describe the risks forces. The reality of the coast is its dynamic character. Property
of owning shore-front property. For those who decide that the lines are an artificial grid superimposed on a changing land and
satisfaction of living on the edge of the sea is worth the risk, we sea that know no such boundaries. If you choose to place yourself
provide some guidelines to reduce but not eliminate those risks. or others in this zone, prudence is in order.
Reality dictates that development will not stop. Some individuals A quick glance at the architecture of the structures on the
will always be willing to gamble their real wealth to be near the Alabama-Mississippi coast provides convincing evidence that the
shore. For those who elect to play this game of real estate roulette, reality of coastal processes was rarely considered in their construc-
we provide some advice as to how to place their chips in the game. tion. Apparently the sea view and aesthetics were primary con-
We do not recommend that you play the game! siderations. Except for meeting minimal building requirements,
If you want to learn more about construction near the beach, no further thought seems to have been given to the safety of many
we recommend the book Coastal Design: A Guidefor Builders, of these buildings. The failure to follow a few basic architectural
Planners, and Home Owners (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983), guidelines that recognize this reality will have disastrous results in

6. Building or buYing a house 139

the next major storm. Gamblers usually try to stack the odds as should fully comprehend the risks involved, the likelihood of harm
much in their favor as possible; the same should be true when to home or family. The risks should then be weighed against the
designing to five with nature. benefits to be derived from the residence. Similarly the developer
Life's important decisions are based on an evaluation of the building a motel should weigh the possibility of destruction and
facts. Few of us buy goods, choose a career, take legal, financial, death during a hurricane versus the money or other advantages to
or medical actions without first evaluating the facts and seeking be gained from such a building. Then and only then should con-
advice. In the case of coastal property 2 general aspects should be struction proceed. For both the homeowner and the developer,
evaluated: site safety and the integrity of the structure relative to proper construction and location reduce the risks involved.
the forces to which it will be subjected. The concept of balanced risk should take into account the fol-
A guide to evaluating the site(s) of your interest on the Gulf lowing fundamental considerations:
Coast and bay shorelines is presented in chapter 4, along with i. Construction must be economically feasible.
hazard evaluation maps. The remainder of this chapter focuses on 2. Therefore, ultimate and total safety is not obtainable for most
the structure itself, whether cottage or condominium. homeowners on the coast.
3. A coastal structure, exposed to high winds, waves, or flooding
The structure: concept of balanced risk should be stronger than a structure built inland.
A certain probability of failure for any structure exists within 4. A building with a planned long life, such as a year-round resi-
dence, should be stronger than a building with a planned short
the constraints of economy and environment. The objective Of life, such as a mobile home.
building design is to create a structure that is both economically 5. A building with high occupancy, such as an apartment building,
feasible and functionally reliable. A house must be affordable and should be safer than a building with low occupancy, such as a
have a reasonable life expectancy free of being damaged, destroyed, single-family dwelling.
or wearing out. To obtain such a house, a balance must be achieved 6. A building that houses elderly or sick people should be safer
among financial, structural, environmental, and other conditions. than a building housing able-bodied people.
Most of these conditions are "higher" on the coast, for example,
higher property values, higher desire for aesthetics, higher envi- Structures can be designed and built to resist all but the largest
ronmental sensitivity, higher chance of storms and other hazards. storms and still be within reasonable economic limits.
Structural engineering is the designing and constructing of build-
The individual who builds or buys a home in an exposed area
ings to withstand the forces of nature. It is based on a knowledge

140 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

of the forces to which the structures will be subjected and an Hurricane winds
understanding of the strength of building materials. The effective- Hurricane winds can be evaluated in terms of the pressure they
ness of structural engineering design was reflected in the aftermath exert. A ioo-mph wind exerts a pressure or force of about 40
of Cyclone (hurricane) Tracy that struck Darwin, Australia, in
1974. Housing that was not based on structural engineering prin- pounds per square foot on a flat surface. The pressure varies with
ciples suffered 70 percent destruction and 20 percent seriously the square of the velocity. For example, a wind of i go-mph velocity
damaged; that is, only io percent of such housing weathered the exerts a force of 144 pounds per square foot. This force is modified
storm. In contrast, more than 70 percent of the structurally engi- by several factors that must be considered in designing a building.
neered large commercial, government, and industrial buildings For instance, the effect on a round surface, such as that of a sphere
came through with little or no damage, and less than 5 percent o or cylinder, is less than the effect on a flat surface. Also, winds
such structures suffered destruction. Because housing accounts for increase with height above ground, so a tall structure is subject to
greater pressure than a low structure.
more than half of the capital cost of the buildings in Queensland, A house or building designed for inland areas is built primarily
the state government there established a building code that re- to resist vertical loads. It is assumed that the foundation and fram-
quires standardized structural engineering for houses in hurricane- ing must support the load of the walls, floor, and roof, and rela-
prone areas. This improvement has been achieved with little in- tively insignificant wind forces.
crease in construction and design costs. A well-built house in a hurricane-prone area, however, must be
constructed to withstand a variety of strong wind forces that may
Coastal forces: design requirements come from any direction. Although many people think that wind
damage is caused by uniform horizontal pressures (lateral loads),
Hurricanes, with their associated high winds and storm surge most damage, in fact, is caused by uplift (vertical) suctional (pres-
topped by large waves, are the most destructive of the forces to be sure outward from surface), and torsional (twisting) forces. High
reckoned with on the coast. Winter storms, however, also can be horizontal pressure on the windward side is accompanied by suc-
devastating. Figure 6.1 illustrates the effects of hurricane forces tion on the leeward side. The roof is subject to downward pressure
on houses and other buildings. and, more importantly, to uplift. Often a roof is sucked up by the
uplift drag of the wind. Usually the failure of houses is in the
devices that tie the parts of the structure together. All structural
members (beams, rafters, columns) should be fastened together

6. Building or buying a house 141

WIND WAVES

Loose
101) objects
Wind Debris
direction

Pressure Suction

Arrows show direction of House is damaged by the
forces on house. force of the waves.
DROP IN BAROMETRIC PRESSURE HIGH WATER

Low Normal high
pressure . pressure High water level
outside inside house

The passing eye of the storm n n
creates different pressure inside CL@3 -J L-
@
rm al high
'es'u'e High water lev@el
ide hou'!
iio,p@

and out, and high pressure inside Unanchored house floats off
attempts to burst house open. its foundation.

Fig. 6.1. Forces to be reckoned with at the shoreline.

142 Living with the Alabarna- M i ssissippi shore

on the assumption that about 25 percent of the vertical load on and frequency of storm surge for the area. In general, building
the member may be a force coming from any direction (sideways standards require that the lowest floor of a dwelling be above the
or upwards). When lumber is poorly connected, its capacity for ioo-year flood level. At this level a building has a i percent proba-
strength is wasted. Such structural integrity also is important if it bility of being flooded in any given year.
is likely that the building may be moved to avoid destruction by Hurricane waves
shoreline retreat.
Hurricane waves can cause severe damage not only in forcing
Storm surge water onshore to flood buildings but also in throwing boats, barges,
Storm surge is a rise in sea level above the normal water level piers, houses, and other floating debris inland against standing
during a storm. During hurricanes the inundation of the coastal structures. In addition, waves can destroy coastal structures by
zone by storm surge and the accompanying storm waves causes scouring away the underlying sand, causing collapse. It is possible
most property damage and loss of life. (Storm surge was discussed to design buildings for survival in crashing storm surf. Many
in chapter 2.) lighthouses, for example, have survived storm surge. But in the
Often the pressure of the wind backs water into streams, estu- balanced-risk equation, it usually is not economically feasible to
aries, or bays already swollen from the exceptional rainfall brought build ordinary cottages to resist the more powerful of such forces.
on by the hurricane. Water is piled into the sounds between islands On the other hand, cottages can be made considerably more storm-
and the mainland by the offshore storm. This flooding is particu- worthy by following the suggestions in the following sections.
larly dangerous when the wind pressure keeps the tide from run- The force of a wave may be realized when one considers that a
ning out of inlets, so that the next normal high tide pushes the cubic yard of water weighs over three-fourths of a ton; hence, a
accumulated waters back and higher still. breaking wave moving shoreward at a speed of several tens of miles
People who have cleaned the mud and contents out of a house per hour is one of the most destructive elements of a hurricane.
subjected to flooding will retain vivid memories of the effects of Barometric pressure changes
that flooding. Flooding can cause an unanchored house to float off
its foundation and come to rest against another house, severely Barometric pressure changes also may be minor contributors to
damaging both. Even if the house itself is left structurally intact, structural failure. If a house is sealed at a normal barometric pres-
flooding may destroy its contents. sure Of 30 inches of mercury, and the external pressure suddenly
Proper coastal development takes into account the expected level drops to 26.61 inches as happened in Hurricane Camille, the pres-

6. Building or buying a house 143

sure exerted within the house would be 245 pounds per square used in the construction of small residential structures.
foot. An ordinary house would explode if it were leakproof. In It is hard to beat a wood frame house that is properly braced
tornadoes, where there is a severe pressure differential, many and anchored, and its members well connected. The well-built
houses do just that. In a hurricane the problem is much less severe. wood house will often hold together as a unit even if moved off
Fortunately, most houses leak; yet they must leak fast enough to its foundation, where other types of structure would disintegrate.
prevent damage. Given the more destructive forces of hurricane Although all of the structural types noted above are to be found in
wind and waves, pressure differential may be of minor concern. the coastal zone, newer structures tend to be of the elevated wood
Venting the underside of the roof at the eaves is a common means frame type.
of equalizing internal and external pressure.
Figure 6.2 illustrates some of the actions that a homeowner can Keeping dry: pole or "stilt" houses
take to deal with the forces just described.
In coastal areas subject to flooding nearly all communities have
House selection adopted building codes or zoning ordinances that comply with
minimum standards established by the National Flood Insurance
Having listed the forces to which a house near the beach may be Program. In V-zones these ordinances and/or codes generally re-
subjected, and having presented a guide for evaluating the site, let quire that residences be elevated on pilings or columns so that the
us turn to the house itself. Some types of houses are better than lowest horizontal structural member of the lowest floor is at or
others, and an awareness of the differences will help you make a above the ioo-year flood elevation. Areas below that elevation
better selection either in building a new house or buying an exist- must be left free of obstructions, or at least enclosed by walls that
ing place. will break away if struck by waves, and contain no habitable space.
Worst of all are unreinforced masonry houses, whether they be The ioo-year flood elevation is being adjusted upward in these
brick, concrete block, hollow clay-tile, or brick veneer, as they communities to include wave heights that are superimposed on
cannot withstand the lateral forces of wind, wave, and settling of top of the storm surge.
foundation. In A-zones residences can be elevated by any means so that the
Adequate and extraordinary reinforcing in coastal regions will lowest floor is at or above the elevation of the ioo-year flood.
alleviate the inherent weaknesses of unit masonry, if done properly. Although elevation of a residence by building a mound out of fill
Reinforced concrete and steel frames are excellent but are rarely generally would be permitted in A-zones, this method is not ad-

144 Living with the Alabama- M i ssissippi shore

Problem: Problem: Problem:
Higher pressure inside than out. Overturning and lateral movement Loss of parts of house.

Wind or '**@' 1,

Wind or
Pressure waves

waves
Li Li
Cure: Cure: Cure:
Open windows on leetside of the Anchor house to foundation with Install adequate connections and
house. Put vents in he attic to tension connection. properly sized materials.
equalize the pressure.

Problem: Problem:
Racking (lateral collapse). Penetration by flying debris.

Flying
debris
Wind or Wind or

waves waves

Cure: Cure:
Install bracing, such as diagonals Construct walls and roof solidly.
and plywood sheets well nailed to Make windows extra Strong; use
studs and floor plates; in masonry smaller panes.
houses, install reinforcing.

Fig. 6.2. Modes of failure and how to deal with them. Modified from U.S. Civil Defense Preparedness Agency Publication TR83.

6. Building or buying a house 145

visable in most coastal areas because the fill is likely to be eroded
by waves or flowing floodwaters. Because of these hazards, mod-
ern flood-prone structures are elevated on pilings that are well
anchored in the subsoil.
Current building design criteria for pole-house construction
under the flood insurance program are outlined in the Design and ......j,
W.,
W.,
W.,
W.,
Construction Manualfor Residential Buildings in Coastal High 6' to 8-
Hazard Areas (reference io8, appendix Q. Regardless of these Spikes or lags
requirements, pole-type construction with deep embedment of
piles is advisable in any area where waves and storm-surge flood-
-11 Post with concrete footing
waters will erode foundation material.
Deeply embedded pole
Materials used in pole construction include the following: on a concrete pad
Piles. Piles are long, slender columns of wood, steel, or concrete
driven into the earth to a sufficient depth to support the vertical
load of the house and to withstand the horizontal forces of flowing
water, wind, and water-borne debris. Pile construction is especially
suitable in areas where scouring (soil "washing out" from under
the foundation of a house) is a problem. Hea@y
ized
galvan
Posts. Posts are usually of wood; if of steel, they are called strap
columns. Unlike piles, they are not driven into the ground but, 121 minimum Bolt
I tag
rather, are placed in a pre-dug hole at the bottom of which may be I 1 0,
a concrete pad (fig. 6-3). Posts may be held in place by backfilling Wood post anchored to a
concrete footing
and tamping earth or by pouring concrete into the hole after the
L_J
pole is in place. Posts are more readily aligned than driven piles Concrete collar for pole
and are, therefore, better to use if poles must extend to the roof. In permits shallower embedment
J/

general, treated wood is the cheapest and most common material Fig. 6.3. Shallow and deep supports for poles and posts. Source:
for both posts and piles. Southern Pine Association.

146 Living with the Alabama- M i ssissi ppi shore

-C r
JoisL [DcpLh of embednicnit nm@ var@
header frorn 6 to 10 feet, dopciidiiiq on
spaciriq arid size of polv@;' Willd
1-101(, is 110tche'd load, arid so forth.
or, iaced.

SSLII'C-

1.3 d jojsL
CS
er
oil head
Cr@ ;

LlI

Fig. 6.4. Framing system for an elevated house. Source: Southern Pine
Association.

6. Building or buying a house 147

Piers. Piers are vertical supports, thicker than piles or posts,
usually made of reinforced concrete or reinforced masonry (con-
crete blocks or bricks). They are set on footings and extend to the
underside of the floor frame.
Pole construction can be of two types. The poles can be cut off
at the first floor level to support the platform that serves as the
dwelling floor. In this case, piles, posts, or piers can be used. Or
they can be extended to the roof and rigidly tied into both the
floor and the roof. In this way they become major framing mem-
hers for the structure and provide better anchorage to the house as
a whole (figs. 6.4 and 6.5). A combination of full- and floor-height
112- poles is used in some cases, with the shorter poles restricted to
supporting the floor inside the house (fig. 6.6).
Where the foundation material can be eroded by waves or winds,
the poles should be deeply embedded and solidly anchored either
A kl@ by driving piles or by drilling deep holes for posts and putting in a
i-7
) V concrete pad at the bottom of each pole. Where the embedment is
Fig. 6.5. Pole house with poles extending to the roof. Extending poles shallow, a concrete collar around the poles improves anchorage
to the roof, instead of the usual method of cutting them off at the first (fig. 6-3). The choice depends on the soil conditions. Piles are more
floor, greatly strengthens a beach cottage. Photo by Orrin Pilkey, Jr. difficult than posts to align to match the house frame; posts can be
positioned in the holes before backfilling. Inadequate piling depths,
improper piling-to-floor connections, and inadequate pile bracing
all contribute to structural failure when storm waves liquify and
erode sand support (fig. 6-7).
When post holes are dug, rather than pilings driven, the posts
should extend 4 to 8 feet into the ground depending on the type of
soil and the weight (vertical load) on the pole. Hole excavations

148 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Outside pole beyond 8 feet become excessively expensive. For this reason, posts
do not provide suitable deep anchorage in V-zones or where deep
Joist hang rs soil erosion is likely to occur. Post foundations are suitable for
Knee some parts of the A-zone. The lower end of the post should rest
bracing on a concrete pad, spreading the load to the soil over a greater
Bolts area to prevent settlement. When the soil permits the embedment
to be shallow, it is best to tie the post down to the footing with
Interior pole straps or other anchoring devices.
(trimmed below floor) The depth of embedment of driven orjetted piles depends upon
the type of soil, the location of the house with respect to the sea,
and other criteria. Loose sand requires more penetration than
dense sand and still more than dense clay. The minimum penetra-
Solid wood or Exterior Subfloor tion should be 8 feet, but a much greater penetration can be dic-
Sole plate plywood subfloo, sheathing tated by local building codes. As an example of a special situation,
Header joists FEMA recommends that piles in the V-zone penetrate sand to at
Joist least a tip elevation Of 5 feet below mean sea level if the Base Flood
Elevation is io feet or less above mean sea level. If the house must
Bolt be elevated higher than io feet above mean sea level (expected
Lag or bolt Bolts height of water plus waves), then the pile tips should penetrate at
least to i o feet below mean sea level. You may want posts or pilings
to extend deeper than minimum code requirements.
ly
,d
w,
w. -d1b or
0.01m
We
@d. p
0"' hanger
I!Inte, Knee
, cu@g
b ac,.g

("'mm ' p
ed

Sole plate '-d fl fo.

Heade
or '0@
it

Outside pole Joists Outside pole The floor and the roof should be securely connected to the poles
Band joist with bolts or other fasteners. When the floor rests on poles that do
not extend to the roof, attachment is even more critical. A system
of metal straps is often used. Unfortunately, it is very common for
Fig. 6.6. Tying floors to poles. Source: Southern Pine Association. builders simply to attach the floorjoists or beams to a notched pole
by i or 2 undersized bolts. Hurricanes have proven this method

6. Building or buying a house 149

insufficient. During the next hurricane on the northeast Gulf Coast
many houses will be destroyed because of inadequate attachment.
Local building codes specify the size, quality, and spacing of the
piles, ties, and bracing, as well as the methods and materials for
fastening the structure to them. Building codes often are minimal
requirements; however, building inspectors are usually amenable
to allowing designs that are equal or more effective.
The space under an elevated house, whether pole-type or other-
wise, must be kept free of obstructions to minimize the impact
of waves and floating debris. The convenience of closing in the
ground floor for a garage or extra bedroom may be costly because
it violates insurance requirements and actually can cause the loss
of the house in a hurricane.
In some instances it may be desirable to enclose part or all of
the space under the elevated structure. If this is done, the walls
should be built so they will break away under pressure from water
or debris, but in such a manner that they will not float away and
add to the water-borne debris problem. This can be done in several
ways, including hinging so they will swing out of the way, or mak-
Fig. 6.7. Inadequate piling depths, and inadequate size and bracing ing them detachable for removal prior to the storm. The National
of pilings are common causes of failure during storm-surge flooding Flood Insurance Program suggests open-wood latticework as the
as resulted from Hurricane Frederic. About 4 to 6 feet of sand was preferred option for people who want enclosed space for aesthetic
scoured from the base of these pilings, and the remaining sand may reasons. Generally, enclosing the space is discouraged.
have been liquefied to a depth of 3 to 4 feet by the floodwaters. Hence,
the leaning pilings. Damage to the superstructure was caused mainly
by wind. Photo by H. C. Miller.

15o Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

An existing house: what to look for, where to improve ested, look closely at the adjacent homes. If poorly built, they may
If instead of building a new house, you are selecting a house float over against your house and damage it in a flood. You may
already built in an area subject to flooding and high winds, con- even want to consider the type of people you will have as neighbors.
sider the following factors: (i) where the house is located, (2) how Will they "clear the decks" in preparation for a storm or will they
well the house is built, and (3) how the house can be improved. leave items in the yard to become wind-borne missiles? The house
itself should be inspected for the following:
Geographic location The house should be well anchored to the ground. If it is simply
resting on blocks, rising water may cause it to float off its founda-
Evaluate the site of an existing house using the same principles tion and come to rest against your neighbor's house or out in the
given earlier for the evaluation of a possible site for new construc- middle of the street. If well built and well braced internally, it
tion. House elevation, frequency of high water, escape route, and may be possible to move the house back to its proper location,
how well the lot drains should be emphasized, but you should go but chances are great that the house will be too damaged to be
through the complete site safety checklist in chapter 4. habitable.
You can modify the house after you have purchased it, but you If the house is on piles, posts, or poles, check to see if the floor
cannot prevent hurricanes or winter storms. The first step is . to beams are adequately bolted to them. If it rests on piers, crawl
stop and consider: do the pleasures and benefits of this location A
balance the risks and disadvantages? If not, look elsewhere for a under the house if space permits to see if the floor beams are
home; if so, then evaluate the house itself. securely connected to the foundation. If the floor system rests un-
anchored on piers, do not buy the house.
How well built is the house? It is difficult to discern whether a house built on a concrete slab
In general, the principles used to evaluate an existing house are is properly bolted to the slab because the inside and outside walls
hide the bolts. If you can locate the builder, ask if such bolting
the same as those used in building a new one (references 107 to was done. Better yet, if you can get assurance that construction of
125, appendix Q. It should be remembered that many of the the house complied with the provisions of a building code serving
houses were built prior to the enactment of the National Flood the needs of that particular region, you can be reasonably sure
Insurance Program and may not meet the standards required of that all parts of the house are well anchored-the foundation to
structures or improvements built since then. the ground, the floor to the foundation, the walls to the floor, and
Before you thoroughly inspect the house in which you are inter- the roof to the walls (figs. 6.8, 6.9, and 6.io).

6. Building or buying a house 151

Metal
plate
Ground Stud Strap 8d nail
line

Bolt
2" x 611 braces

reated
sill

Heavy galvanized 5heathing
strap anchor
Lag screws

Sill or Header
Large plate plate joist
washer Poured
cap

Anchor bolt
r-- spaced 4' to 6'
apart
Nail to header joist.

Fig. 6.8. Foundation anchorage. Top: anchored sill for shallow embed-
ment. Bottom: anchoring sill or plate to foundation. Source of bottom
drawing: Houses Can Resist Hurricanes, U.S. Forest Service Research Fig. 6.9. Stud-to-floor, plate-to-floor framing methods. Source: Houses
Paper FPL 33. Can Resist Hurricanes, U.S. Forest Service Research Paper FPL 33.

152 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Be aware that many builders, carpenters, and building inspectors
Rafter Rafter who are accustomed to traditional construction are apt to regard
Joist Strap metal connectors, collar beams, and other such devices as new-
10d nails anchor Joist fangled and unnecessary. If consulted, they may assure you that a
Toenail Toenail house is as solid as a rock, when in fact it is far from it. Neverthe-
less, it is wise to consult the builder or knowledgeable neighbors
Plate
Strap Plate when possible.
anchor Stud The root should be well anchored to the walls. This will prevent
Eld nails 8d nails uplifting and separation from the walls. Visit the attic to see if
such anchoring exists. Simple toe-nailing (nailing at an angle) is
not adequate; metal fasteners are needed. Depending on the type
of construction and the amount of insulation laid on the floor of
the attic, these may or may not be easy to see. If roof trusses or
Rafter braced rafters were used, it should be easy to see whether the
Joist Rafter
various members, such as the diagonals, are well fastened together.
6d common or
1-3/41' roofing
nails Again, simple toe-nailing will not suffice. Some builders, unfor-
8d nails Toenail rafter to plate tunately, nail parts of a roof truss just enough to hold it together
(opposite side).
to get it in place. A collar beam or gusset at the peak of the roof
Wall plate
(fig. 6. 11 ) provides some assurance of good construction.
Stud Stud Quality roofing material should be well anchored to the sheathing.
A poor roof covering will be destroyed by hurricane-force winds,
a'fle, Raf.1rer
S,r P
an chr
Te..,'I' Toenail

h.r

nails

Id nails Toena-,,

S
u,
t S'.'
Fig. 6.10. Roof-to-wall connectors. The top drawings show metal strap allowing rain to enter the house and damage ceilings, walls, and
connectors: left, rafter to stud; right, joist to stud. The bottom left draw- the contents of the house. Galvanized nails (2 per shingle) should
ing shows a double-member metal-plate connector-in this case with be used to connect wood shingles and shakes to wood sheathing
the joist to the right of the rafter. The bottom right drawing shows a and should be long enough to penetrate through the sheathing
single-member metal-plate connector. Source: Houses Can Resist (fig. 6. 11). Threaded nails should be used for plywood sheathing.
Hurricanes, U.S. Forest Service Research Paper FPL 33. For roof slopes that rise i foot for every 3 feet or more of hori-

6. Building or buying a house 153

Wind or WiA or Wind or Wind or
Q@ 4i;l 4;;) Q@ s
waves waves wa es waves

Reinforced masonry walls Plywood diaphragms Diagonal metal strap Diagonal wood bracing
(in tension) (in compression)
Reinforce exterior walls by bracing perpendicular interior walls

S
Sheathi 9 Anchorage across ridge
secure"d

liar beam

Clip angle

Bond beam

Metal plate
conne ctors sec ore Roof tied to
roof joists to wall I.undaticin to
resi.
Reinforcing steel

Metal plate connector Anchor plate
secures wall to platei
to foundation
he at
se cur

Clip ang
,le 4..nd b,
.r ore

eight of concrete + earth +
building itself needs to be Masonry System
enough to prevent overturning

Wood-Frarned System

Fig. 6.11. Where to strengthen a house. Modified from: U.S. Civil Defense Preparedness Agency Publication TR83.

154 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

zontal distance, exposure of the shingle should be about one-fourth The design of a house or building in a coastal area should mini-
of its length (4 inches for a 16-inch single). If shakes (thicker and mize structural discontinuities and irregularities. A house should
longer than shingles) are used, less than one-third of their length have a minimum of nooks and crannies and offsets on the exterior
should be exposed. because damage to a structure tends to concentrate at these points.
In hurricane areas asphalt shingles should be exposed somewhat Some of the newer beach cottages along the Gulf Coast are of
less than usual. A mastic or seal-tab type or an interlocking shin- a highly angular design with such nooks and crannies. Award-
gle of heavy grade should be used. A roof underlay of asphalt- winning architecture will be a storm loser if the design has not
saturated felt and galvanized roofing nails or approved staples (6 incorporated the technology for maximizing structural integrity
for each 3-tap strip) should be used. with respect to storm forces. When irregularities are absent, the
The fundamental rule to remember in framing is that all struc- house reacts to storm winds as a complete unit.
tural elements should be fastened together and anchored to the Brick, concrete-block, and masonry-wali houses should be ade-
ground in such a manner as to resist all forces, regardless of which quately reinforced. This reinforcement is hidden from view. Build-
direction these forces may come from. This prevents overturning, ing codes applicable to high-wind areas often specify the type of
floating off, racking, or disintegration. mortar, reinforcing, and anchoring to be used in construction. If
The shape of the house is important. A hip roof, which slopes in 4 you can get assurance that the house was built in compliance with
directions, is better able to resist high winds than a gable roof, a building code designed for such an area, consider buying it. At
which slopes in 2 directions. This was found to be true in Hurri- all costs avoid unreinforced masonry houses.
cane Camille (1969) in Mississippi and later in Cyclone Tracy, A poured concrete bond-beam at the top of the wall just under
which devastated Darwin, Australia, in December 1974. The rea- the roof is i indication that the house is well built (fig. 6.12). Most
son is twofold: the hip roof offers a smaller shape for the wind to bond beams are formed by putting in reinforcing and pouring
blow against, and its structure is such that it is better braced in all concrete in U-shaped concrete blocks. From the outside, however,
directions. you cannot distinguish these U-shaped blocks from ordinary ones
Note also the horizontal cross section of the house (the shape of and therefore cannot be certain that a bond beam exists. The
the house as viewed from above). The pressure exerted by a wind vertical reinforcing should penetrate the bond beam.
on a round or elliptical shape is about 6o percent of that exerted Some architects and builders use a stacked bond (i block di-
on the common square or rectangular shape; the pressure exerted rectly above another), rather than overlapped or staggered blocks,
on a hexagonal or octagonal cross section is about 8o percent of because they believe it looks better. The stacked bond is definitely
that exerted on a square or rectangular cross section.

6. Building or buying a house 155

weaker than the latter. Unless you have proof that the walls are
adequately reinforced to overcome this lack of strength, you should
avoid this type of construction.
Bond beam Steel In past hurricanes the brick veneer of many houses has separated
reinforcing
bars from the wood frame, even when the houses remained standing.
Asbestos-type outer wall panels used on many houses in Darwin,
Australia, were found to be brittle and broke up under the impact
Concrete Block Wall of wind-borne debris in Cyclone Tracy. Both types of construction
should be avoided along the coast.
Poured-in-place Ocean-facing glazing (windows, glass doors, glass panels) should
concrete
be minimal. Although large open glass areas facing the ocean pro
c" vide an excellent sea view, such glazing may present several prob-
lems. The obvious hazard is glass that disintegrates and blows
inward during a storm. Glass projectiles are lethal. Less frequently
2-1/2" bars recognized problems include the fact that glass may not provide as
U-Block Tie Beam much structural strength as wood, metal, or other building ma-
terials; and ocean-facing glass is commonly damaged through sedi-
0b;0
76A
ment sand blasting, transported by normal coastal winds. The
solution to this latter problem may be in reducing the amount of
4-5/8" bars
glass in the original design, or installing storm shutters that come
in a variety of materials from steel to wood.
Is

Consult a good architect or structural engineer for advice if you
Poured Concrete Tie Beam are in doubt about any aspects of the house. A few dollars spent
for wise counsel may save you from later financial grief.
Fig. 6.12. Reinforced tie beam (bond beam) for concrete block walls- To summarize, the beach house should have: (i) roof tied to
to be used at each floor level around the perimeter of the exterior walls, walls tied to foundation, and foundation anchored to the
walls. earth (the connections potentially are the weakest link in the

156 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Over-Lhe-Lop Liedown

Anchor
Frame tie

Frame tie -,Q
type 3
type I @Lype2
These sketches illustrate various methods for connecting frame ties to the mobile home frame.
Type 2 system can resist greater horizontal forces than type 1. Type 3 system involves
placement of mobile home an concrete slab. Anchors embedded in concrete slab are
connected to ties.
'a- e
t. @e
type I

L
-3

Additions or canopies also
need to be secured with Double wides do not require
over-the-top tiedowns. over-Lhe-Lop Liedowns.

Fig. 6.13. Tiedowns for mobile homes. Source: U.S. Civil Defense Preparedness Agency Publication TR75.

6. Building or buying a house 157

structural system); (2) a shape that resists storm forces; (3) floors
high enough (sufficient elevation) to be above most storm waters CABLE - Minimum diameter galvanized
Ste' I cable 7/32" If commercial adapter is not
(usually the ioo-year flood level plus 2 to 6 feet); (4) piles that are Minimum diameter galvanized available, use wood blocks to
of sufficient depth or embedded in concrete to anchor the structure aircraft 1/4" and Q x19) distribute pressure ofI able.
and to withstand erosion; and (5) pilings that are well braced. Use at least two cable c"mps,J I
w ith nuts placed 0, live COACH
side of cable. BODY
What can be done to improve an existing house?
If you presently own a house or are contemplating buying one Use . Closed eye
wire
in a hurricane-prone area, you will want to know how to improve rope Section
occupant protection in the house. If so, you should obtain the thimble. @ Drop-forged turnbuckle
sized to equal breaking
excellent publication, Wind Resistant Design Conceptsfor Resi- strength of rope Turnbuckles with hook ends
hould not be used
dences (TR83), by Delbart B. Ward (reference i i i, appendix Q. Top of (they can bend open under
Of particular interest are the sections on building a refuge shelter a high wind loadings).
module within a residence. Whereas TR83 is aimed at residences,
supplements TR83A and B (reference 112, appendix Q deal with
larger buildings and may be of interest to the general public, espe- Commercial adapters or
'I d s 0
mounting brac1k:lsapte`p,.v`ent
cially residents in urban areas. These references provide a means cable or strap tiedowns from
of checking on whether the responsible authorities are doing their cutting into mobile home
jobs to protect schools, office buildings, and apartments. A num-
ber of other pertinent references are listed in appendix C. Fig. 6.14. Hardware for mobile home tiedowns. Modified from U.S.
Suppose your house is resting on blocks, but not fastened to Civil Defense Preparedness Agency Publication TR75.
them, and thus is not adequately anchored to the ground. Can
anything be done? One solution is to treat the house like a mobile
home by screwing ground anchors into the ground to a depth Of 4
feet or more and fastening them to the underside of the floor sys-
tems. See figures 6.13 and 6.14 for illustrations of how ground
anchors can be used.

158 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

Calculations to determine the needed number of ground anchors who is resistant to new ideas. One builder told a homeowner,
will differ between a house and a mobile home because each is "You don't want all those newfangled straps and anchoring de-
affected differently by the forces of wind and water. Note that vices. If you use them, the whole house will blow away, but if you
recent practice is to put these commercial steel-rod anchors in at build in the usual manner [with members lightly connected], you
an angle in order to better align them with the direction of the may lose only part of it.'
pull. If a vertical anchor is used, the top 18 inches or so should be In fact, the very purpose of the straps is to prevent any or all of
encased in a concrete cylinder about 12 inches in diameter. This the house from blowing away. The Standard Building Code for
prevents the top of the anchor rod from bending or slicing through hurricane-prone areas says, "Lateral support securely anchored
the wet soil from the horizontal component of the pull. to all walls provides the best and only sound structural stability
Diagonal struts, either timber or pipe, also may be used to against horizontal thrusts, such as winds of exceptional velocity"
anchor a house that rests on blocks. This is done by fastening the (reference 113, appendix Q. And the cost of connecting all ele-
upper ends of the struts to the floor system and the lower ends to ments securely adds very little to the cost of the frame of the
individual concrete footings substantially below the surface of the dwelling, usually under io percent, and a very much smaller per-
ground. These struts must be able to take both uplift (tension) centage to the total cost of the house.
and compression and should be tied into the concrete footing with If the house has an overhanging eave and there are no openings
anchoring devices such as straps or spikes. on its underside, it may be feasible to cut openings and screen
If the house has a porch with exposed columns or posts, it should them. These openings keep the attic cooler (a plus in the summer)
be possible to install tiedown anchors on their tops and bottoms. and help to equalize the pressure inside and outside of the house
Steel straps should suffice in most cases. during a storm with a low-pressure center.
When accessible, roof rafters and trusses should be anchored to Another way to improve a house is to modify a special room so
the wall system. Usually the roof trusses or braced rafters are that it can be used as an emergency refuge in case you are trapped
sufficiently exposed to make it possible to strengthen joints (where in a major storm. This is not an alternative to evacuation prior to
2 or more members meet) with collar beams or gussets, particu- a hurricane. Examine the house and select the best room to stay
larly at the peak of the roof (figs. 6. 1 o and 6. 11). in during a storm. A small windowless room such as a bathroom,
A competent carpenter, architect, or structural engineer can re- utility room, den, or storage space is usually stronger than a room
view the house with you and help you decide what modifications with windows. A sturdy inner room, with more than i wall be-
are most practical and effective. Do not be misled by someone tween it and the outside, is safest. The fewer doors, the better; an

6. Building or buying a house 159

adjoining wall or baffle wall shielding the door adds to the pro- so aptly put it: "People who live in flimsy houses shouldn't have
tection. hurricanes."
Consider bracing or strengthening the interior walls. Such re- Several lessons can be learned from past experiences in storms.
inforcement may require removing the surface covering and in- First, mobile homes should be located properly. After Hurricane
stalling plywood sheathing or strap bracing. Where wall studs are Camille (1969) it was observed that where mobile home parks were
exposed, bracing straps offer a simple way to achieve needed rein- surrounded by woods and where the units were close together,
forcement against the wind. These straps are commercially pro- damage was minimized, caused mainly by falling trees. In unpro-
duced and are made of 16-gauge galvanized metal with prepunched tected areas, however, many mobile homes were overturned and
holes for nailing. These should be secured to studs and wall plates often destroyed by the force of the wind. The protection afforded
as nail holes permit (fig. 6. 11). Bear in mind that they are good by trees is greater than the possible damage from falling limbs.
only for tension. Two or more rows of trees are better than a single row, and trees
If, after reading this, you agree that something should be done 30 feet or more in height give better protection than shorter ones.
to your house, do it now. Do not put it off until the next hurricane If possible, position the mobile home so that the narrow side faces
or big storm hits you! the prevailing winds.
Locating a mobile home in a hilltop park will greatly increase
Mobile homes: limiting their mobility its vulnerability to the wind. A lower site screened by trees is safer
from the wind, but it should be above storm-surge flood levels.
Because of their light weight and flat sides, mobile homes are A location that is too low, obviously, increases the likelihood of
vulnerable to the high winds of hurricanes, tornadoes, and severe flooding. There are fewer safe locations for mobile homes than for
storms. Such winds can overturn unanchored mobile homes or stilt houses.
smash them into neighboring homes and property. Nearly 6 million A second lesson taught by past experience is that the mobile
Americans live in mobile homes today, and the number is growing. home must be tied down or anchored to the ground so that it will
Twenty or 30 percent of single-family housing production in the not overturn in high winds (figs. 6. 13, 6.14, and table 6. 1). Simple
United States consists of mobile homes. High winds damage or prudence dictates the use of tiedowns, and in many communities
destroy nearly 5,000 of these homes every year, and the number ordinances require it. Many insurance companies, moreover, will
will surely rise unless protective measures are taken. As one man not insure mobile homes unless they are adequately anchored with
whose mobile home was overturned in Hurricane Frederic (1979) tiedowns.

160 Living with the Alabama- M i ssi ssippi shore

Table 6.1. Tiedown anchorage requirements
10- and 12-ft.-wide mobile homes 12- and 14-ft.-wide mobile
30 to 50 ft. long 50 to 60 ft. long homes, 60 to 70 ft. long
Wind
velocity No. of No. of over- No. of No. of over- No. of No. of over-
(mph) frame ties the-top ties frame ties the-top ties frame ties the-top ties

70 3 2 4 2 4 2
80 4 3 5 3 5 3
90 5 4 6 4 7 4
100 6 5 7 5 8 6
110 7 6 9 6 10 7

A mobile home may be tied down with cable or rope, or rigidly off the piers. This applies to single mobile homes up to 14 feet in
attached to the ground by connecting it to or within a wood-post width. Double wides do not require over-the-top ties, but they do
foundation system. An alert owner of a mobile home park can require frame ties.
provide permanent concrete anchors or piers to which hold-down Mobile home owners should be sure to obtain a copy of the
ties may be fastened. In general, an entire tiedown system costs booklet Protecting Mobile Homesfrom High Winds (reference
only a nominal amount. 115, appendix Q, which treats the subject in more detail. The
A mobile home should be properly anchored with both ties to booklet lists specific steps that one should take on receiving a
the frame and over-the-top straps; otherwise it may be damaged hurricane warning and suggests a type of mobile home park com-
by sliding, overturning, or tossing. The most common cause of munity shelter. It also includes a map of the United States that
major damage is the tearing away of most or all of the roof. When indicates areas subject to the strongest sustained winds.
this happens the walls are no longer adequately supported at the
top and are more prone to collapse (fig. 6. 15). Total destruction of High-rise buildings: the urban shore
a mobile home is more likely if the roof blows off, especially if the
roof blows off first and then the home overturns. The necessity for A high-rise building on the beach is generally designed by an
anchoring cannot be overemphasized. There should be over-the- architect and a structural engineer who are presumably well quali-
top tiedowns to resist overturning and frame ties to resist sliding fied and aware of the requirements for building on the shoreline.

6. Building or buying a house 161

Tenants of such a building, however, should not assume that it is
invulnerable. People living in apartment buildings Of 2 or 3 stories
were killed when the buildings were destroyed by Hurricane Ca-
mille in Mississippi in 1969. Storms have torn away the fronts of
5-story buildings in Delaware. Larger high-rises have yet to be
thoroughly tested by a major hurricane.
The first aspect of high-rise construction that a prospective
apartment dweller or condo owner must consider is the type of
pilings used. High-rises near the beach should be built so that even
tie if the foundation is severely undercut during a storm, the building
will remain standing. It is well known in construction circles that
shortcuts are sometimes taken by less scrupulous builders, and
pilings are not driven deeply enough. Just as important as driving
the pilings deep enough to resist scouring and to support the loads
they must carry is the need to fasten them securely to the structure
above them that they support. The connections must resist hori-
Fig. 6.1 S. Mobile home in wooden frame was destroyed by Hurricane zontal loads from winds and waves during a storm and also uplift
Frederic, but it was held in place and did not become a battering ram. from the same sources. It is a joint responsibility of builders and
Photo by H. C. Miller. building inspectors to make sure the job is done right. Hurricane
Eloise (1975) exposed the foundation of a just-under-construction
high-rise in Florida, revealing that some of the pilings were not
S_#_@

attached to the building. This happened in Panama City Beach,
but such problems probably exist everywhere that high-rises crowd
the beach.
Despite the assurances that come with an engineered structure,
life in a high-rise building holds definite drawbacks that prospec-
tive tenants should take into consideration. The negative condi-

162 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

tions that must be evaluated stem from high wind, high water, with coastal storms. A power failure can cause great distress. Peo-
and poor foundations. ple can be caught between floors in an elevator. New York City
Pressure from the wind is greater near the shore than it is inland, had that experience once on a large scale. Think of the mental
and it increases with height. If you are living inland in a 2-story and physical distress after several hours of confinement. And com-
house and plan to move to the eleventh floor of a high-rise on pound this with the roaring winds of a hurricane whipping around
the shore, you should expect 5 times more wind pressure than you the building, sounding like a freight train. In this age of electricity
are accustomed to. This can be a great and possibly devastating it is easy to imagine many of the inconveniences that can be caused
surprise. by a power failure in a multistory building.
The high wind pressure actually can cause unpleasant motion Fire is an extra hazard in a high-rise building. Even recently
of the building. It is worthwhile to check with current residents of constructed buildings seem to have difficulties. The television pic-
a high-rise to find out if it has undesirable motion characteristics; tures of a woman leaping from the window of a burning building
some have claimed that the swaying is great enough to cause in New Orleans rather than be incinerated in the blaze are a hor-
motion sickness. More seriously, high winds can break windows, rible reminder from recent history. The number of hotel fires of
damage property, and injure people. Tenants of severely damaged the past few years further demonstrates the problem. Fire Depart-
buildings will have to relocate until repairs are made. ment equipment reaches only so high. And many areas along the
Those who are interested in researching the subject further- coast are too sparsely populated to afford that particular type of
even the knowledgeable engineer or architect who is engaged to high-reaching equipment.
design a structure near the shore-should obtain a copy of Struc- Fire and smoke travel along ventilation ducts, elevator shafts,
tural Failures: Modes, Causes, Responsibilities (reference 116, ap- corridors, and similar passages. The situation can be corrected
pendix Q. Of particular importance is the chapter entitled, "Fail- and the building made safer, especially if it is new. Sprinkler sys-
ure of Structures Due to Extreme Winds." This chapter analyzes tems should be operated by gravity water systems rather than by
wind damage to engineered high-rise buildings from the storms at powered pumps (because of possible power failure), i.e., from
Lubbock and Corpus Christi, Texas, in 1970. water tanks higher up in the building. Battery-operated emer-
Another occurrence that affects a multistoried building more gency lights that come on only when the other lights fail, better
seriously than a low-occupancy structure is a power failure or fire walls and automatic sealing doors, pressurized stairwells, and
blackout. Such an occurrence is more likely along the coast than emergency elevators in pressurized shafts will contribute to greater
inland because of the more severe weather conditions associated safety. Unfortunately, all of these improvements cost money, and

6. Building or buYing a house 163

that is why they are often omitted unless required by the building of the superstructure. Some of the high-rise buildings suffered
code. glass damage in both windows and sliding glass doors.
There are 2 interesting reports on damage caused by Hurricane Apparently few, if any, of the residences and buildings were
Eloise, which struck the Florida Panhandle the morning of Sep- built to conform to the Southern Standard Building Code require-
tember 23, 1975. One is by Herbert S. Saffir, a Florida consulting ments because much of the construction preceded the use of the
engineer; the other is by Bryon Spangler of the University of code, so it was not legally applicable. If such requirements had
Florida. The forward movement of the hurricane was unusually been met, much of the damage could have been prevented at a
fast, causing its duration in a specific area to be lessened, thus minimum of cost.
minimizing damage from both wind and tidal surge. The stillwater Some surprising things were noticed. In almost every case where
height at Panama City was 16 feet above mean sea level, plus there was a swimming pool, considerable erosion occurred. Loss
about a 3400t topping wave; wind gusts Of 154 mph for a period of sand beneath the walkways prior to the storm created a channel
of one-half hour were measured. for the water to flow through and wash out more sand during the
At least one-third of the older structures in the Panama City storm, which in turn increased both the velocity and quantity of
Beach area collapsed. These were the beach-front motels, restaur- the flow of water in the channel. This flow ate away the sand
ants, apartments and condominium complexes, and some perma- supporting adjacent structures, accelerating their failure.
nent residences. The structures built on pilings survived with Slabs on grade (on the ground) performed poorly. Often wave
minimal damage. In one case, part of a motel was on spread foot- action washed out the sand underneath the slab. When this oc-
ings and part on piles. Only the part on spread footings was curred there was no longer support for the structure above it, and
severely damaged. failure resulted.
The anchorage systems, connections between concrete piles or The storm revealed some shoddy construction. Some builders
concrete piers, and the grade beams under several high-rise build- had placed wire mesh for a slab directly on the sand. Then the
ings were inadequate to resist uplift loads, illustrating that code concrete was poured on top of it, leaving the mesh below and in
enforcement and proper inspection by a qualified professional is the sand where it served no structural purpose. To be effective,
essential. the mesh should have been set on blocks or chairs, or pulled up
Many of the residences and some of the buildings were built on into the slab during the pouring of the concrete.
spread footings that failed because the sand they were resting on In some cases cantilevered slabs for overhangs were reinforced
washed away with scour. Failure of the footings resulted in failure for the usual downward gravity loads. Unfortunately when waves

164 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

dashed against the buildings they splashed upward, imposing an turer to take shortcuts if he is so inclined. It is possible that some
upward force against the slab for which it was not reinforced, modular dwelling units have their wiring, plumbing, ventilation,
causing it to crack and fail. and heating and air conditioning installed at the factory by un-
qualified personnel, and it is possible the resulting inferior work is
Modular-unit construction: prefabricating the urban shore either not inspected or inspected by an unconscientious or inept
individual. Therefore, it is important to consider the following:
The method of building a house, duplex, or larger condominium Were wiring, plumbing, heating and air conditioning, and ventila-
structure by fabricating modular units in a shop and assembling tion installed at the factory or at the building site? Were the in-
them at the site is gaining in popularity for development on shore- stallers licensed and certified? Was the work inspected at both the
line property. The larger of these structures are commonly 2 to 3 factory and on the construction site?
stories in height and may contain a large number of living units. Most important, is the modular dwelling unit built to provide
Modular construction makes good economic sense, and there is safety in the event of fire? For example, just a few of the many
nothing inherently wrong in this approach to coastal construction. safety features that should be included are 2 or more exits, stairs
These methods have been used in the manufacturing of mobile remote from each other, masonry fire walls between units, non-
homes for years, although final assembly on mobile homes is done combustible wall sheeting, and compartmentalized units so that if
in the shop rather than in the field. Doing as much of the work as fire does occur it will be confined to that unit.
possible in a shop can save considerable labor and cost. The In general, it is very desirable to check the reputation and in-
workers are not affected by outside weather conditions. They can tegrity of the manufacturer just as you would when hiring a con-
be paid by piecework, enhancing their productivity. Shop work tractor to build your individual house on site. The acquisition of a
lends itself to labor-saving equipment such as pneumatic nailing modular unit should be approached with the same caution as for
guns and overhead cranes. other structures.
If the manufacturer desires it, shop fabrication can permit higher The Standard Building Code, which is followed in most areas,
quality. Inspection and control of the whole process are much easier. governs prefabricated structures. Prefabricated construction must
For instance, there is less hesitation about rejecting a poor piece conform to the same regulations as other types of housing with
of lumber when you have a nearby supply than if you are building some exceptions such as testing by a recognized testing laboratory.
a single dwelling and have just so much lumber on the site. If you are thinking of buying a modularized dwelling unit, you
On the other hand, because so much of the work is done out of are well advised to take the following steps:
the sight of the buyer, there is the opportunity for the manufac-

6. Building or buying a house 165

Dune
A. Pick a good
building site. Ocean

Anchor across
ridge

Members tied
together

B. Forces may come from
any direction. C. Hotise should be well
anchored to the ground. D. Structure should have
continuity.
tj) t@q
0 rEr) q fD
F. Avoid irregular shapes. G. Wind has less effect on
Hip roof is better th
E an gable. curved surfaces than on flat.

HH, PLAN YOUR ESCAPE
, @PLA Y@O PE
_@@_EIC@A
ROUTE

Fig. 6.16. Some rules for selecting or designing a house.

166 Living with the Alabama- M issi ssippi shore

i. Check the reputation and integrity of the developer and manu- knows when to hold them, when to fold them, and when to walk
facturer. away.
2. Check to see if the developer has a state contractor's license. Our goal is to provide guidance to today's and tomorrow's
3. Check the state law on who is required to approve and certify players. This book is not the last or by any means the complete
the building. guide to coastal living, but it should provide a beginning. In the
4. Check what building codes are enforced. appendixes that follow are additional resources that we hope every
5. Check to see if the state fire marshal's office has indicated that reader will pursue.
the dwelling unit complies with all applicable codes. Also check
to see if this office makes periodic inspections.
6. Check to see that smoke alarms have been installed, if windows
are the type that can be opened, if the bathroom has an exhaust
fan, and if the kitchen has a vent through the roof.
For the location of modular units, as with all other types of
structures, also consider site safety and escape route(s).

An unending game: only the players change

Hurricane or calm, receding shore or growing shore, storm-surge
flood or sunny sky, migrating dune or maritime forest, win or lose,
the gamble of coastal development will continue. If you choose
your site with natural safety in view, follow structural engineering
design in construction, and take a generally prudent approach to
living at the shore (fig. 6.16), then you become the gambler who

Appendix A. Hurricane checklist -Board up or tape windows and glassed areas. Close storm
shutters. Draw drapes and window blinds across windows and
glass doors. Remove furniture in their vicinity.
Keep this checklist handy for protection of family and property. Stock adequate supplies:
- transistor radio - flashlights
When a hurricane threatens - fresh batteries - candles
- canned heat - matches
- Listen for official weather reports. - hammer - nails
- Read your newspaper and listen to radio and television for - boards - screwdriver
official announcements. - pliers - ax*
- Note the address of the nearest emergency shelter. - hunting knife - rope*
- Know the official evacuation route in advance. - tape - plastic drop cloths,
- Pregnant women, the ill, and the infirm should call a physician - first-aid kit waterproof bags, ties
for advice. - prescribed medicines - containers for water
- Be prepared to turn off gas, water, and electricity where it - water purification - disinfectant
enters your home. tablets - canned food, juices,
- Fill tubs and containers with water (one quart per person per - insect repellent soft drinks (see
day). - gum, candy below)
- Make sure your car's gas tank is full. - life jackets - hard-top headgear
- Secure your boat. Use long lines to allow for rising water. - charcoal bucket and - fire extinguisher
- Secure movable objects on your property: charcoal - can opener and
- doors and gates - garbage cans - buckets of sand utensils
- outdoor furniture - bicycles or large Check mobile-home tiedowns.
- shutters sports equipment
- garden tools - barbecues or grills *Take an ax (to cut an emergency escape opening) if you go to the upper
- hoses - other floors or attic of your home. Take rope for escape to ground when water
subsides.

168 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

Suggested storm food stock for family of four Assume other trapped people may wish to use the building for
- two 13-Oz. cans evaporated milk shelter.
- four 7-Oz. cans fruit juice Special precautions for mobile homes
- 2 cans tuna, sardines, Spam, chicken
- three io-oz. cans vegetable soup - Pack breakables in padded cartons and place on floor.
- i small can of cocoa or Ovaltine - Remove bulbs, lamps, mirrors-put them in the bathtub.
- one 15-oz. box raisins or prunes - Tape windows.
- salt - Turn off water, propane gas, electricity.
- pet food? - Disconnect sewer and water lines.
-one I 4-Oz. can cream of wheat or oatmeal - Remove awnings.
- one 8-oz. jar peanut butter or cheese spread - Leave.
- two 16-oz. cans pork and beans Special precautions for businesses
- one 2-oz. jar instant coffee or tea
- 2 packages of crackers - Take photos of building and merchandise.
- 2 pounds of sugar - Assemble insurance policies.
- 2 quarts of water per person - Move merchandise away from plate glass.
- Move merchandise to as high a location as possible.
Special precautions for apartments Icondominiums - Cover merchandise with tarps or plastic.
- Make one person the building captain to supervise storm - Remove outside display racks and loose signs.
preparation. - Take out lower file drawers, wrap in trash bags, and store high.
- Know your exits. - Sandbag spaces that may leak.
- Count stairs on exits; you! 11 be evacuating in darkness. - Take special precautions with reactive or toxic chemicals.
- Locate safest areas for occupants to congregate.
- Close, lock, and tape windows. If you remain at home
- Remove loose items from terraces (and from your absent neigh-
bors' terraces). - Never remain in a mobile home; seek official shelter.
- Remove or tie down loose objects from balconies or porches. - Stay indoors. Remember, the first calm may be the hurricane's
eye. Remain indoors until an official all-clear is given.

Appendix A. Hurricane checklist 169

- Stay on the "downwind" side of the house. Change your posi- - radio
tion as the wind changes. - fresh batteries
- If your house has an "inside" room, it may be the most secure - bottled water
part of the structure. - purse, wallet, valuables
- Keep continuous communications watch for official informa- - life jackets
tion on radio and television. - games and amusements for children
- Keep calm. Your ability to meet emergencies will help others. - Disconnect all electric appliances except refrigerator and
freezer. Their controls should be turned to the coldest setting
If evacuation is advised and the doors kept closed.
- Leave food and water for pets. Seeing-eye dogs are the only
- Leave as soon as you can. Follow official instructions only. animals allowed in the shelters.
- Follow official evacuation routes unless those in authority direct - Shut off water at the main valve (where it enters your home).
you to do otherwise. - Lock windows and doors.
- Take these supplies: - Keep important papers with you:
- change of warm, protective clothes - driver's license and other identification
- first-aid kit - insurance policies
- baby formula - property inventory
- identification tags: include name, address, and - Medic Alert or other device to convey special medi-
next of kin (wear them) cal information
- flashlight
- food, water, gum, candy During the hurricane
- rope, hunting knife
- waterproof bags and ties - Stay indoors and away from windows and glassed areas.
- can opener and utensils - If you are advised to evacuate, do so at once.
- disposable diapers - Listen for continuing weather bulletins and official reports.
- special medicine - Use your telephone only in an emergency.
- blankets and pillows in waterproof casings - Follow official instructions only. Ignore rumors.

170 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

- Keep open a window or door on the side of the house opposite - Should you require an additional supply, be sure to boil
the storm winds. water for 30 minutes before use.
- Beware of the "eye of the hurricane. A lull in the winds does - If you are unable to boil water, treat water you will need
not necessarily mean that the storm has passed. Remain in- with water purification tablets.
doors unless emergency repairs are necessary. Exercise caution. Note: An official announcement will proclaim tap water "safe.'
Winds may resume suddenly, in the opposite direction and with Treat all water except stored water until you hear the announce-
greater force than before. Remember, if wind direction does ment.
change, the open window or door must be changed accordingly.
- Be alert for rising water. After the hurricane has passed
- If electric service is interrupted, note the time.
- Turn off major appliances, especially air conditioners. - Listen for official word of danger having passed.
- Do not disconnect refrigerators or freezers. Their controls - Watch out for loose or hanging power lines as well as gas leaks.
should be turned to the coldest setting and doors closed People have survived storms only to be electrocuted or burned.
to preserve food as long as possible. Fire protection may be nil because of broken power lines.
- Keep away from fallen wires. Report location of such - Walk or drive carefully through the storm-damaged area.
wires to the utility company. Streets will be dangerous because of debris, undermining by
- If you detect gas: washout, and weakened bridges. Watch out for poisonous
- Do not light matches or turn on electrical equipment. snakes and insects driven out by flood waters.
- Extinguish all flames. - Eat nothing and drink nothing that has been touched by flood
- Shut off gas supply at the meter.* waters.
- Report gas service interruptions to the gas company. - Place spoiled food in plastic bags and tie securely.
- Water: - Dispose of all mattresses, pillows, and cushions that have been
The only safe water is the water you stored before it had in flood waters.
a chance to come in contact with flood waters. - Contact relatives as soon as possible.

*Gas should be turned back on only by a gas serviceman or licensed Note: If you are stranded, signal for help by waving a flashlight at
plumber. night or white cloth during the day.

Appendix B. A guide to federal, state, Aerial photography and remote-sensing imagery
and local agencies involved in If you are interested in aerial photography, remote-sensing
coastal development imagery, or agencies that supply aerial photographs or images,
write or call the appropriate office listed below.
For historic listings of available photography (type, scale, year
flown, coverage, percentage of cloud cover, etc.) contact:
National Cartographic Information Center
U.S. Geological Survey
Numerous agencies at all levels of government as well as in the 507 National Center
private sector are engaged in planning, regulating, or studying Reston, VA 22092
coastal development in Alabama and Mississippi. Some of these Phone: (703) 86o-6o45
governmental agencies issue permits for various phases of con- Request "APSRS Aerial Photography Summary Record Sys-
struction. Others provide information on development (or envi- tem: No. i /Alabama, Georgia" or "No. 3 /Arkansas, Louisiana,
ronmental characteristics pertinent to development) to the home- Mississippi" and accompanying microfiche (price $2.00).
owner, developer, or planner. Following is an alphabetical list of Recent aerial photography should be available from:
topics related to coastal development; under each topic are the U.S. Department of Agriculture
names of agencies to consult for information on that topic. Some Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
of these sources also provide similar information on noncoastal Aerial Photography Field Office
areas. 2222 West, 2300 South
Appendix C presents a list of references, some of which provide P.O. Box 30010
additional agency listings as well as basic information of interest Salt Lake City, UT 84125
to the coastal dweller. In particular, readers needing a more com- Phone: (8oi) 524-5856
plete list of federal and state agencies involved in coastal develop- Request "Status of Aerial Photography Coverage" for Alabama
ment should get in touch with either the Alabama Department . of or Mississippi. Black-and-white vertical aerial photographs are
Environmental Management or the Mississippi Bureau of Marine available for coastal counties.
Resources.

172 Living with the Alabarna- M i ssissippi shore

Gulf Coast residents are conveniently close to the Public Office Mississippi Coastal Program
of the National Mapping Division, National Cartographic Infor- Bureau of Marine Resources
mation Center of the U.S. Geological Survey. The facility will P.O. Box 959
provide assistance in finding aerial photographs, space imagery, as Long Beach, MS 3956o
well as maps, map products, and geodetic control. The office is Phone: (6oi) 864-4602
located in the South Reception Center of the National Space Tech- Other sources that may be more conveniently located and that
nology Laboratories (take NASA exits off Interstate Highways may have aerial photographs of your area available for inspection
1-io or 1-59). Contact: include the office of the tax assessor in your county, departments of
National Mapping Division geography or geology in local colleges and universities, the Mobile
U.S. Geological Survey Facility district office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the
Building 3101 following.
National Space Technology Laboratories Geological Survey of Alabama
NSTL Station, MS 39529 P.O. Drawer 0
Phone: (6oi) 688-3541 University, AL 35486
Offices that may have aerial photography available for inspec- Phone: (205) 349-2852
tion but are generally not suppliers of photographs include: Geological, Economic and Topographic Survey
Alabama Department of Environmental Management P. 0. Box 4915
Field Office Jackson, MS 39216
4358 Midmost Drive Phone: (6oi) 354-6228
Mobile, AL 366og For information on satellite imagery and the National High Alti-
Phone: (205) 343-7841 tude Photography Program, contact:
Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs EROS Data Center
3465 Norman Bridge Road U.S. Geological Survey
Montgomery, AL 36130 Sioux Falls, SD 57198
Phone: (205) 284-8700 Phone: (605) 594-6151

Archives and records Mississippi Coastal Program Appendix B. Guide to agencies 173
Historic information on coastal counties and possible sources Bureau of Marine Resources
for historic maps and photographs are: P.O. Box 959
Long Beach, MS 3956o
Department of Archives and History Phone: (6oi) 864-4602
Archives and History Building U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
624 Washington Avenue Mobile District
Montgomery, AL 36130 P.O. BOX 2288
Phone: (205) 261-4361 Mobile, AL 36628
Department of Archives and History Phone: (205) 69o-2529
ioo South State Street Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium
P.O. BOX 571 P.O. Drawer AG
Jackson, MS 39205 Ocean Springs, MS 39564
Phone: (6oi) 354-6218 Phone: (6oi) 875-9341
Beach erosion Remote-Sensing /Topographic Division
Information on beach erosion, pass history, floods, and high Geological Survey of Alabama
winds is available from: P.O. Drawer 0
Alabama Department of Environmental Management University, AL 35486
State Capitol Phone: (205) 349-2852
Montgomery, AL 36130 Coastal Erosion Information System
Phone: (205) 271-7700 or (field office, Mobile) 343-7841 Department of Environmental Sciences
Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs University of Virginia
3465 Norman Bridge Road Charlottesville, VA 22903
Montgomery, AL 36130 (Summary of historic patterns of shoreline change along the
Phone: (205) 284-8700 U.S. coasts prepared for National Atlas)

174 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Bridges and causeways Civil Preparedness. See also Disaster assistance
The U.S. Coast Guard has jurisdiction over the issuing of per- Director, Civil Defense Department
mits to build bridges or causeways that will affect navigable waters. State Administrative Building.
Information is available from: 64 North Union Street
Bridge Administration Office Montgomery, AL 36130
8th U.S. Coast Guard District Phone: (205) 269-7787
Hale Boggs Federal Building Director, Mississippi Civil Defense Council
New Orleans, LA 70120 P.O. Box 4501, Fondren Station
Phone: (504) 589-2965 Jackson, MS 39216
Phone: (6oi) 354-7200
Building codes and zoning Baldwin County Civil Defense
Counties or municipalities are responsible for such codes and P.O. Box 426
their enforcement. Generally the Standard Building Code (old 24 North Section
Southern Building Code) is the basis for local codes. Some local Fairhope, AL 36532
governments add more stringent requirements and may have spe- Phone: (205) 928-7661
cial regulations on mobile homes. Those communities participat- Mobile County Emergency Agency
ing in the National Flood Insurance Program will have elevation 348 North McGregor Avenue
requirements in order to meet the specifications of the program.
For the specific code in your area, contact the city or county build- Mobile, AL 366o8
ing inspector. Phone: (205) 46o-8ooo
Alabama residents can find a listing of addresses and phone Jackson County Disaster Emergency Services
numbers for city clerks, building inspectors, and planning commis- 6oo Convent Avenue
sions in Building in the Coastal Counties (reference 88, appendix Pascagoula, MS 39567
C). Phone: (6oi) 769-79oo, ext. 200 or 210
Hancock County Civil Defense
Old Spanish Trail

Appendix B. Guide to agencies 175

Bay St. Louis, MS 39520 Alabama Department of Environmental Management
Phone: (6oi) 467-9226 State Capitol
Harrison County Civil Defense Montgomery, AL 36130
P.O. Box 68 Phone: (205) 271-7700
Gulfport, MS 39501 Alabama Department of Environmental Management
Phone: (6oi) 865-4002 Field Office
4358 Midmost Dr.
Coastal zone management Mobile, AL 366og
In Alabama the coastal zone is managed through the permitting Phone: (205) 343-7841
authority of the Alabama Department of Environmental Manage- Mississippi Coastal Program
ment, and in Mississippi by the equivalent authority of the Missis- Bureau of Marine Resources
sippi Coastal Program through the Bureau of Marine Resources. P.O. Box 959
These agencies coordinate the permitting process with the U.S. Long Beach, MS 3956o
Army Corps of Engineers and other state and federal offices that Phone: (6oi) 864-4602
have general regulatory authority in the coastal zone (for example, For additional information on management and planning write
those dealing with fish and game, water and air quality, and the above offices or contact:
resource development, including groundwater). In Alabama the Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs
Department of Economic and Community Affairs oversees non- 3465 Norman Bridge Road
regulatory and nonpermitting activities for the coastal zone (for Montgomery, AL 36130
example, planning).
Before undertaking any activity that will change the character Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management
of the coastal zone land or waters (for example, construction, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
dredge and fill, well drilling, septic tank installation, water dis- U.S. Department of Commerce
charge, and similar activities), contact these lead agencies for in- 3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W.
structions on necessary permits and permit application. Washington, DC 20235

176 Living with the Alabama- M i ssissippi shore

Consultants Dredging, filling, and construction in coastal waterways
It is not appropriate for the authors of this publication to endorse State coastal zone management agencies and the U.S. Army
any individual or firm as a recommended coastal or construction Corps of Engineers have permitting authority to regulate various
consultant. We do encourage prospective buyers as well as owners activities in coastal waters and wetlands. The state agency usually
of existing property to seek expert advice on safe housing con- coordinates permitting if more than i agency is involved, so before
struction, selection of safe sites with respect to coastal hazards, engaging in any activity in these areas contact:
and nonstructural techniques for maintaining beaches and dunes. Alabama Department of Environmental Management
The offices listed in this appendix under other topics and the State Capitol
offices of your local government are sources of advice on many of Montgomery, AL 36130
the problems you are likely to encounter. Your state colleges and Phone: (205) 271-7700, or call the Mobile field office for
universities and their affiliated marine laboratories, particularly information (343-7841)
those with coastal geologists and coastal engineers, may be valu-
able sources of information. Conservation organizations such as Mississippi Coastal Program
the National Audubon Society should not be overlooked. Such Bureau of Marine Resources
agencies may be able to put you in touch with reputable consul- P.O. Box 959
tants. Long Beach, MS 3956o
Phone: (6oi) 864-4602
Disaster assistance. See also Civil preparedness In some cases you will need a building permit. Contact your
Federal Emergency Management Agency county or municipality building inspector's office and inquire if a
Region IV Office permit is needed for your project. You also may need a permit
1375 Peachtree Street, N.E. from the state docks department. The offices listed above will be
Atlanta, GA 30309 able to inform you of such requirements.
Phone: (404) 881-2391 Federal law requires that any person who wishes to dredge, fill,
American National Red Cross or place any structure in navigable water (almost any body of
Disaster Services coastal water including bays, sounds, and estuaries) must apply
Washington, DC 2ooo6 for a permit from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Information
Phone: (202) 857-3722 is available from:

Appendix B. Guide to agencies 177

U.S. Army Engineer District, Mobile completed by a duly licensed surveyor of the State of Alabama,
P.O. BOX 2288 showing the primary dune "crestline" and the location of the pro-
Mobile, AL 36628 posed construction. This survey must be submitted to ADEM no
Phone: (205) 6go-2529 more than go days before the permit application is filed. ADEM
U.S. Army Engineer District, Vicksburg can grant variances to the setback requirement under special cir-
P.O. Box 6o cumstances, however, "it shall be in violation of the Coastal Area
Vicksburg, NIS 3918o Management Program to alter the primary dune system through
Phone: (6oi) 634-5000 the removal of dune or beach sands and grasses, through the opera-
tion of vehicles on the dune system, or any activity that could
Both state and federal permit application reviews require lead result in the destruction of the dune" (reference 88, appendix C).
time. You should expect action on such applications to take at Before engaging in any activity which may affect coastal sand
least 45 days, and as long as 12o days. dunes contact:
Dune alteration Alabama Department of Environmental Management
Sand dunes are recognized as important natural protection State Capitol
against storm waves and storm-surge flooding, as well as sand Montgomery, AL 36130
reservoirs for natural beach maintenance. Both Alabama and Phone: (205) 271-7700
Mississippi have regulations against dune alteration and removal, In Mississippi's coastal management program a criterion for
although the wording of their coastal zone regulatory guidelines delineating Areas of Particular Concern (APCs) is the identifica-
are different. tion of areas needed to protect, maintain, or replenish coastal lands
Alabama generally requires preservation and restoration of or resources. Sand dunes and beaches are regarded as such areas
dunes as part of the erosion control program. Any construction on and therefore fall under the state's permitting authority. Dune areas
dunes requires a permit from the Alabama Department of Envi- are less common along the urbanized Mississippi coast, but before
ronmental Management (ADEM). Construction is not permitted engaging in any construction on or alteration of dunes, contact:
seaward of a "construction setback" line that is 40 feet intand of Mississippi Coastal Program
the crestline of the primary dune. When applying to build in a Bureau of Marine Resources
dunes area, the applicant must provide a survey of his property, P.O. Box 959

178 Living with the Alabama- M i ssi ssippi shore

Long Beach, MS 3956o Flood insurance. See Insurance
Phone: (6oi) 864-4602
Local communities also may have sand dune ordinances in addi- Geologic information
tion to the state law. Contact your local municipal and county Branch of Distribution
planning offices. U.S. Geological Survey
1200 South Eads Street
Environmental affairs Arlington, VA 22202
Administrator (Request "Geologic and water-supply reports and maps,
I
Environmental Protection Agency Alabama ,' or the same title for Mississippi; free index)
401 M Street, S.W. U.S. Geological Survey
Washington, DC 2o46o Southeastern Region
Phone: (202) 755-2673 Richard B. Russell Federal Building, Suite 772
EPA Region 4 Office 75 Spring Street, S.W.
1421 Peachtree Street, N.E. Atlanta, GA 30309
Atlanta, GA 30309 Gulf Coast Hydroscience Center
Phone: (404) 526-5727 National Space Technology Laboratories
Environmental Health Administration Bay St. Louis, MS 39529
Department of Public Health Geological Survey of Alabama
State Office Building P.O. Drawer 0
5oi Dexter Avenue University, AL 35486
Montgomery, AL 36130 Phone: (205) 349-2852
Phone: (205) 261-5004 Geological, Economic, and Topographic Survey
Air and Water Pollution Control Commission 2525 North West Street
Robert E. Lee Building P.O. Box 4915
Jackson, MS 39201 Jackson, MS 39216
Phone: (6oi) 354-6783 Phone: (6oi) 354-6228

Appendix B. Guide to agencies 179

Gulf Coast Research Laboratory Natural Hazards Research and
Ocean Springs, MS 39564 Applications Information Center
Phone: (6oi) 875-9341 Institute of Behavioral Science #6
Department of Geology Campus Box 482
University of Alabama University of Colorado
University, AL 35486 Boulder, CO 80309
Phone: (205),348-5095 Health. See also Sanitation and septic system permits
Department of Geology and Geography The local health department in your city and/or county will
University of South Alabama provide information on home waste treatment systems, require-
Mobile, AL 36688 ments for hookups to municipal systems, water supply systems,
Phone: (205) 46o-638i and similar health matters. Questions relating to water quality
Department of Geology and Geological Engineering may be addressed to these offices, or:
University of Mississippi Environmental Health Administration
University, MS 38677 Department of Public Health
Phone: (6oi) 232-7498 State Office Building
Department of Geology and Geography 5oi Dexter Avenue
Mississippi State University Montgomery, AL 36130
Mississippi State, MS 39762 Phone: (205) 261-5004
Phone: (6oi) 325-5926 Air and Water Pollution Control Commission
Robert E. Lee Building
Hazards. See Beach erosion and Insurance Jackson, MS 39201
Office of Ocean and Coastal Resources Management Phone: (6oi) 354-6783
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration History. See Archives and records
3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20235 Housing. See Subdivisions

180 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Hurricane information. See Civil preparedness Environmental Data Service
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is the National Climatic Center
best agency from which to request information on hurricanes. Federal Building
NOAA Storm-Evacuation Maps are prepared for vulnerable areas Asheville, NC 288oi
and Cost $2.oo each. Alabama-Mississippi maps are as follows: The weather departments of your local television and radio sta-
T1500I Slidell (Louisiana to southwest Mississippi coast) tions and U.S. Coast Guard offices will provide forecast informa-
T15002 Gulfport (Lakeshore-Waveland to Mississippi City) tion, and sometimes provide informational literature. We recom-
T15003 Biloxi (Edgewater Park to Pascagoula) mend the free brochure "Hurricane Survival Checklist" available
T15004 Bayou La Batre (Point aux Chenes to Fort Morgan from the Insurance Information Institute (see reference 13, ap-
including Dauphin Island and southwest Mobile Bay) pendix C; see also appendix A).
T15005 Mobile (upper Mobile Bay, north of Fairhope) County Civil Defense offices are the local coordinating agencies
Maps for the southeastern part of Mobile Bay and the adjacent for defining evacuation routes. Check with your county's office for
Fort Morgan Peninsula-Gulf Shores-Perdido Key are not yet information (addresses listed under Civil preparedness in this
available. To obtain the map(s) for your area of interest, call or appendix).
write: Insurance
Distribution Division (C-44) Information on windstorm insurance can be obtained through
National Ocean Survey your insurance agent.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Flood insurance is available in communities that participate in
Riverdale, MD 2o840 the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). These commu-
Phone: (301) 436-699o nities have adopted special building requirements for construction
Other federal sources include: in flood-prone areas. By complying with these local regulations,
National Hurricane Center property owners also will ensure that flood insurance premiums
1320 South Dixie Highway are affordable.
Miami, FL 33146 For information on obtaining flood insurance, contact your
insurance agent. Further information is available by calling, toll
free, i -8oo-638-6620, or by writing:

Appendix B. Guide to agencies 181

National Flood Insurance Program Your insurance agent and community building inspector should
Federal Emergency Management Agency be able to provide you with information on the location of your
Federal Insurance Administration building site on the Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) or Flood
Washington, DC 20472 Hazard Boundary Map (FHBM), as well as the required elevation
For flood insurance maps, elevation certificates, and other forms, for the first floor of your structure.
write: Note that a flood insurance policy under the National Flood
Insurance Program is separate from your regular homeowner's
National Flood Insurance insurance policy.
P.O. Box 34604
Bethesda, MD 2o817 Land acquisition
For information on community participation, building require- When acquiring property or a condominium -whether in a sub-
ments, and floodplain mapping, contact your local building or division or not-consider the following: (i) Owners of property
zoning department or: next to dredged canals should make sure that the canals are de-
FEMA Region IV signed for adequate flushing to keep the waters from becoming
1375 Peachtree Street, N.E. stagnant. (2) Descriptions and surveys of land in coastal areas are
Atlanta, GA 30309 often complicated. Old titles to lands along the waterline may be
Phone: (404) 881-2391 upheld in court; titles should be carefully reviewed by a competent
attorney before they are transferred. A boundary described as the
Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs high-water mark may be impossible to determine. (3) Ask about
3465 Norman Bridge Road the provision of services such as sewage disposal, garbage pickup,
Montgomery, AL 36130 fire protection, and utilities including water supply, electricity, gas,
Phone: (205) 284-8700 and telephone. (4) Be sure that any promises of future improve-
Mississippi Research and Development Center ments, access, utilities, additions, common property rights, main-
P.O. Drawer 2470 tenance, and similar services, are in writing. (5) Find out who will
Jackson, MS 39205 bear the costs of future erosion control, post-storm cleanup and
Phone: (6oi) 982-6376 reconstruction, and restoration of roads, bridges, and all services.
(6) Be sure to visit the property and inspect it carefully before

182 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

buying it (see the following sections on Planning and land use and Flood-zone maps: see Insurance.
Subdivisions). Planning maps: call or write your local county commission.
Maps Soil maps and septic suitability: see Soils.
Nautical charts in several scales contain navigation information
A wide variety of maps are useful to planners and managers on Gulf coastal waters. A nautical chart index map is available
and may be of interest to individual property owners. Topographic, from:
geologic, coastal zone (topobathy), land-use maps, and orthophoto National Ocean Survey
quadrangles are available from: Distribution Division (C-44)
Distribution Section National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
U.S. Geological Survey 65oi Lafayette Avenue
1200 South Eads Street Riverdale, MD 2o840
Arlington, VA 22202 Phone: (301) 436-699o
A free index to the type of map desired (for example, the "Index There also is the Geological Highway Map of the Southeastern
to Topographic Maps of Alabama") should be requested and then Region, compiled by A. P. Bennison and others, and published by
used for ordering specific maps. Similar maps are available from: the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Although this
Geological Survey of Alabama map is not aimed specifically at the coast, it provides the layman
P.O. Drawer 0 with a sernitechnical treatment of the regional geology of the Gulf
University, AL 35486 Coast. In addition to the map, there is a discussion of the geo-
Phone: (205) 349-2852 logical development of the region and its rock and mineral re-
Geological, Economic, and Topographic Survey sources, a photographic map, subsurface cross sections, descrip-
2525 North West Street tions of gemstones and fossils, and a list of points of geologic
P.O. Box 4915 interest. Available from:
Jackson, MS 39216 American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Phone: (6oi) 349-2852 P.O. Box 979
Evacuation maps: Call your County Department of Emergency Tulsa, OK 74101
Preparedness (also see Hurricane information).

Appendix B. Guide to agencies 183

Contact the Alabama or Mississippi state highway departments Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium
for county road maps: Dauphin Island Sea Lab
Alabama Highway Department P.O. Box 369-370
State Highway Building Dauphin Island, AL 36528
i i South Union Street Phone: (205) 861 -2141
Montgomery, AL 36130 J. L. Scott Marine Education Center
Phone: (205) 832-5440 165o East Beach Boulevard
Mississippi Highway Department Biloxi, MS 39530
1004 Woolfolk State Office Building Phone: (6oi) 374-5552
5oi North West Street Information
Jackson, MS 39201 Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
Phone: (6oi) 354-6034 Ocean Springs, NIS 39564
Marine and coastal zone information Phone: (6oi) 875-2244
In addition to the government agencies listed by topic in this Mississippi Sand Hill Crane Refuge
appendix, many private agencies, laboratories, and educational P.O. Box 699
institutions are valuable sources for reports, descriptive pamphlets, Gauthier, MS 39553
contacts for having questions answered, and sponsors of coastal Gulf Islands National Seashore
programs including lectures, seminars, and film series. The follow- 4ooo Hanley Road
ing list is not meant to be complete but suggests the range of Ocean Springs, MS 39564
possibilities: Phone: (6oi) 875-9057
Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Program Marine Resources Division
Caylor Building Alabama Department of Conservation
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory and Natural Resources
Ocean Springs, MS 39564 P.O. Box 189
Phone: (6oi) 875-9341 Dauphin Island, AL 36528
Phone: (205) 861-2882

184 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Mariculture Center the Massachusetts coast, the theme of the film is pertinent to the
P.O. Drawer 458 Gulf Coast. Available from Circle Oak Productions, 73 Girdle
Gulf Shores, AL 36542 Ridge Drive, Katonah, NY 10536 (phone: (94) 232-9451; rental,
Phone: (205) 968-7575 $48.oo).
ADEM Field Office Coastal Follies is a 20-minute slide-tape presentation that exam-
4358 Midmost Drive ines the problems of coastal development and offers some guide-
Mobile, AL 366og lines to developers and planners as well as current and prospective
Phone: (205) 343-7841 property owners. Available from the National Audubon Society,
Bureau of Marine Resources Southeast Regional Office, P.O. Box 1268, Charleston, SC 29402
P.O. Box 959 (rental, $30-00).
Long Beach, MS 3956o Information on audiovisual materials also is available from:
Phone: (6oi) 864-4602 Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium
Caylor Building
Movies and audiovisual materials Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
It@ Your Coast is a 28-minute film produced by the National Ocean Springs, MS 39564
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) on coastal Phone: (6oi) 875-9341
zone management problems. The film is available through NOAA Educational programs including film schedules are available at:
and state film libraries or from the Marine Advisory Program, J. L. Scott Marine Education Center
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. Other NOAA films 165o East Beach Boulevard
of interest include Tornadoes, Hurricane Before the Storm (a film Biloxi, MS 39530
centered on Hurricane Eloise), and The Greatest Storm on Earth Phone: (6oz) 374-5552
(the problem of the next big hurricane).
Portrait of a Coast is an excellent, 29-minute film that addresses Barrier Islands and Beaches is a slide-tape program that de-
the interrelated problems of rising sea level, coastal erosion, and scribes many aspects of barrier islands from Massachusetts to
shoreline stabilization. Although the examples are from the At- Texas. The program can be purchased for $250 from Dinesh
lantic Coast, including dramatic footage of a major storm striking Sharma, 275o Rhode Island Avenue, Fort Myers, FL 33901.

Appendix B. Guide to agencies 185

Parks and recreation Fort Morgan is located 22 miles west of Gulf Shores on Mobile
Gulf Islands National Seashore, Mississippi-Florida, includes Point at the entrance to Mobile Bay. The fort was completed in
all of the Mississippi barrier islands, except Cat Island, and a 1834 and was an important fortification during the War Between
small mainland area on Davis Bayou, Mississippi (park headquar- the States. For information, contact:
ters). West Ship Island and historic Fort Massachusetts are acces- Alabama Historical Commission
sible on scheduled concession boats that run out of Gulfport and 725 Monroe Street
Biloxi (no camping on West Ship Island; nice public beach with Montgomery, AL 36130
lifeguards). East Ship Island, Horn Island, and Petit Bois Island Fort Morgan
can be reached only by private or charter boat. Primitive camping Star Route 278o
is permitted on these islands. For information on recreational use Gulf Shores, AL 36542
of the islands, contact or visit: Phone: (205) 540-7125
Gulf Islands National Seashore
4ooo Hanley Road Planning and land use. See also Coastal zone management
Ocean Springs, MS 39564 For specific information on your area, check with your local
Phone: (6oi) 875-9057 town or county commission. Most local governments have plan-
Information on state parks is available from: ning boards that answer to the state coastal agencies and have
available copies of existing or proposed land-use plans. For more
Division of State Parks general information, contact:
Department of Conservation and Natural Resources Department of Economic and Community Affairs
Administration Building
64 North Union Street 3465 Norman Bridge Road
Montgomery, AL 36130 Montgomery, AL 36130
Phone: (205) 832-6323 Phone: (205) 284-8700
Park Commission Federal-State Programs
717 Robert E. Lee Building Office of the Governor
Jackson, MS 39201 400 Watkins Building
Phone: (6oi) 354-6324 5io George Street

186 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Jackson, MS 39201 you will need a well. Check with your county health department
Phone: (6oi) 354-7570 to determine the quality of the local groundwater. Make sure that
Roads and property access the design and location of your septic system will safeguard your
water supply.
Before buying property determine if roads and access rights will Activity resulting in effluent discharge or runoff into surface
be provided. If connecting a driveway to county or state main- waters requires certification from the state water pollution control
tained right-of-way, you should contact the appropriate county or agency that the proposed activity will not violate water quality
state office before construction. standards. For information contact:
Alabama Highway Department Alabama Department of Environmental Management
State Highway Building State Capitol
ii South Union Street Montgomery, AL 36130
Montgomery, AL 36130 Phone: (205) 271-7700
Phone: (2o5) 832-5440 Mississippi Coastal Program
Mississippi Highway Department Bureau of Marine Resources
1004 Woolfolk State Office Building P.0 Box 959
501 North West Street Long Beach, MS 3956o
Jackson, MS 39201 Phone: (6oi) 864-4602
Phone: (6oi) 354-6034 A permit for the construction of a sewage disposal system or
Sanitation and septic system permits any other structure in navigable waters must be obtained from the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers as well as the state. More informa-
Usually before construction permits will be issued, the permit tion is available from:
for a septic system (where there is not access to a sewer system
must be obtained from your local health department. Such a per- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
mit is issued only if the soil is suitable for the septic system. Old Mobile District
marsh muds and peaty soils are usually unsuitable. Likewise, if Mobile, AL 36628
your property does not have access to a municipal water system, Phone: (205) 6go-2529

Appendix B. Guide to agencies 187

A permit for any discharge into navigable waters must be ob- U.S. Department of Agriculture
tained from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Recent Soil Conservation Service
judicial interpretation of the Federal Water Pollution Control Milner Building, Room 590
Amendments Of 1972 extends federal jurisdiction above the mean P.O. Box 61o
high-water mark for protection of wetland. Federal permits may Jackson, MS 39205
now be required for the development of land that occasionally is State Extension Office
flooded by water draining indirectly into a navigable waterway. (see white pages of your telephone directory)
Information may be obtained from: Soil and Water Conservation District Office
Enforcement Division (see white pages of your telephone directory)
Environmental Protection Agency Your community or county health department usually can pro-
Region IV vide information on soils relative to construction and septic per-
1421 Peachtree Street, N.E. mits or refer you to another agency for specific soil information.
Atlanta, GA 30309

Soils. See also Sanitation and septic system permits and Vegetation Subdivisions
Soil type is important in terms of (i) the type of vegetation it Subdivisions containing more than 50 lots and offered in inter-
can support, (2) the type of construction technique it can with- state commerce must be registered with the Office of Interstate
stand (for example, loading, support of piling), (3) its drainage Land Sales Registration (as specified by the Interstate Land Sales
characteristics, and (4) its ability to accommodate septic systems. Full Disclosure Act). Prospective buyers must be provided with a
The following agencies cooperate to produce a variety of maps property report. This office also produces a booklet entitled "Get
and reports useful to property owners: the Facts ... Before Buying Land" for people who wish to invest
U.S. Department of Agriculture in land. Information on subdivision property and land investment
Soil Conservation Service is available from:
138 South Gay Street, Wright Building Office of Interstate Land Sales Registration
P.O. Box 311 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Auburn, AL 36830 Washington, DC 20410

188 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

Office of Interstate Land Sales Registration Game and Fish Commission
Atlanta Regional Office 308 Robert E. Lee Building
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Jackson, MS 39201
230 Peachtree Street, N.W. Phone: (6oi) 354-7333
Atlanta, GA 30303 The following research laboratory works on sanitation of oyster
Phone: (404) 526-4364 reefs, shellfish, and finfish. They will provide information on oyster
Vegetation reefs and sanitary conditions in coastal areas.
Information on vegetation may be obtained from your local soil Gulf Coast Technical Services Unit
and water conservation district office. For information on the use Food and Drug Administration
of grass and other plantings for stabilization and aesthetics, con- P.O. Box 158
sult the publications listed in appendix C under Vegetation. Dauphin Island, AL 36528
Phone: (205) 861-2961
Water resources. See Coastal zone management, Dredging, filling, Zoning. See Building codes
and construction in coastal waterways, Health, and Sanitation

Wildlife
Mississippi Sand Hill Crane Refuge
P.O. Box 699
Gauthier, MS 39553
Division of Fish and Game
Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
Administrative Building
64 North Union Street
Montgomery, AL 36130
Phone: (2o5) 832-6300

Appendix C. Useful references 4. Concise Natural History of East and West Florida, by Ber-
nard Romans, 1775. This very early history includes accounts
of hurricanes. Reprinted in 1961 by Pelican Publishing Com-
The following publications are listed by subject, arranged in the pany, New Orleans.
approximate order that they appear in the preceding chapters. A 5. Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, Celebrating too Years of Incor-
brief description of each reference is provided, and sources are poration, sponsored by the Bay St. Louis Centennial Cor-
included for those readers who would like more information on a poration, 1958. This community publication includes some
particular subject. Many of the references listed are either low in interesting accounts of early coastal history in Mississippi and
cost or free. We encourage the reader to take advantage of these photographs of the destruction caused by hurricanes in igog,
informative publications. 1915, and 1947. Out of print, but copies should be available
History from Bay St. Louis and Hancock County Library.
i .Alabama: A Documentary History to igoo, by Lucille Grif- Hurricanes
fith, 1972. This volume provides a good introduction to the
exploration of the Gulf Coast. Published by the University of 6. Early American Hurricanes, 1492-1870, by D. M. Ludlum,
Alabama Press, University, AL 35486 1963. An excellent summary of the stormy history of the At-
2. Dauphin Island-French Possession, 1699-1763, 2nd edi- lantic and Gulf coasts that provides a lesson on the frequency,
tion, by J. M. Kennedy, ig8o. This short history presents an intensity, and destructive potential of hurricanes. Published
by the American Meteorological Society, Boston. Available
interesting account of the French occupation of Dauphin Is- in public and university libraries.
land as well as the entire Alabama-Mississippi coastal zone,
including incursions up the rivers. Published by Strode Pub- 7. Hurricane Frederic Post-Disaster Report, by the U.S. Army
lishers, Inc., Huntsville, AL 35801. Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, 1981. This publication
3- History of Louisiana, by C. E. A. Gayarre, 1905. This early contains a great deal of information concerning the physical,
history text is a good source for map review in looking social, and economic effects of Hurricane Frederic on the
at coastal changes and includes accounts of hurricanes. Re- Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida coasts. A series of maps
printed in 1965 by Pelican Publishing Company, New Orleans. shows the areas flooded by storm tides. Anyone contemplat-
ing buying property in the coastal zone should review this

190 Living with the Alabama-Mississippi shore

publication. Copies are available through the U.S. Army 11. The Hurricane and Its Impact, by R. H. Simpson and H.
Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, P.O. BOX 2288, Mobile, Riehl, 198 1. An up-to-date treatment of the greatest of coastal
AL 36628. Local planning offices also may have copies for hazards. Chapters include discussions of origin, impact of
inspection. winds, waves, and tides, assessment and risk reduction,
8. Natural Disaster Survey Report- Hurricane Frederic: Au- awareness and preparedness, prediction and warning, plus
gust 29-September 13, 1979, produced by the National informative appendixes. The volume should be in libraries of
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. This NOAA re- coastal communities. Published by Louisiana State University
port summarizes the findings of a survey team that came into Press, Baton Rouge, LA 7o8O3.
the area affected by Hurricane Frederic immediately after it 12. Hurricane Frederic, edited by Hal Barron, 1979. A magazine
crossed the coast. Their objective was to determine how the format photographic essay on the destruction caused by Fred-
warning system worked. A brief history of the hurricane's eric in Mobile, Ocean Springs, Pascagoula, Pensacola, and
formation and movement is included. The report probably along the Dauphin Island Parkway. Although severe damage
had limited distribution, but local planning and emergency is depicted, there are no photographs of the terrible destruc-
services offices may have inspection copies. tion that occurred in Alabama7s shoreline communities, such
9. Hurricane Information and Atlantic Tracking Chart, by the as on Dauphin Island and Gulf Shores. The magazine in-
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1974. A cludes a good description of hurricanes, including an account
brochure that describes hurricanes, defines terms, and lists of the Galveston Hurricane of i goo that killed at least 6,ooo
hurricane safety rules. Outlines method of tracing hurricanes people. Available from C. F. Boone, Publisher, P.O. Box
and provides a tracking map. Available from the Superinten- 10411, Lubbock, TX 794o8 (price: $3.95 postpaid).
dent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash- 13. Hurricane Survival Checklist is a free publication available
ington, DC 20402. from the Insurance Information Institute. Call 1-800-221-
io. Bibliography on Hurricanes and Severe Storms ofthe Coast- 4954 or send a self-addressed, stamped business-sized en-
al Plains Region and Supplement, by the Coastal Plains velope to Publications Service Center, Insurance Information
Center for Marine Development Services, 197o and 1972. A Institute, i i o William Street, New York, NY 10038.
list of references that provides a good starting point for peo- 14. Some Climatological Characteristics of Hurricanes and
ple seeking detailed information on hurricanes and hurricane Tropical Storms, Gulf and East Coasts of the U.S., by the
research. Available through college and university libraries.

Appendix C. Useful references 191

National Weather Service, 1975. Technical Report NWS 15 guidebook was prepared for the New Orleans Geological
from NWS, NOAA, Washington, D.C. Society and in part is an update of a similar 1973 guidebook,
15. Report on Hurricane Survey of Mississippi Coast, by the Geology of the Mississippi-Alabama CoastalArea and Near-
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, 1965. The shore Zone. These guides may be used as an introduction to
report provides a good summary of hurricanes that have had the geology of the region, but there also are sections on human
an impact on the Mississippi coast, including damage sum- geography, early history of the region, and historical coastal
maries. Appendix A is a chronological history of Mississippi changes. The 66-page guidebook is available from the Gulf
hurricanes from 1711 through 1964's Hurricane Hilda. In the Coast Research Laboratory Bookstore, East Beach Drive,
254-year period covered, there were 54 hurricanes, for an Ocean Springs, MS 39564 (price: $5.00).
average of i hurricane every 4.7 years. The report is available 18. Bibliographyof CoastalAlabama with Selected Annotations,
for inspection in the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile by R. L. Lipp and R. L. Chermock, 1975. A good biblio-
District Office, Mobile, AL 366oi. graphical starting point for references on the Alabama coastal
16. The following are a sampling of additional hurricane-related zone. Available as Alabama Geological Survey Bulletin io8
reports produced by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, from the Geological Survey of Alabama, P.O. Drawer 0,
Mobile District, and available through that office: After University, AL 35486.
Action Report on Hurricane Camille, 1970; Hurricane Ca- 19. Mississippi Sound: Salinity Distribution and Indicated Flow
mille, 1970; Report on Hurricane Survey of Alabama Coast, Patterns and Hydrodynamics of Mobile Bay and Mississippi
1972; Report on Hurricane Survey of Mississippi Coast, Sound are just 2 of many titles dealing with the oceanography
1972; Post-Disaster Report, Hurricane Eloise, 16-23 Sep- of coastal waters that are available from the Mississippi-
tember, 1975,1976; and Feasibility Reportfor Beach Erosion Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, Caylor Building, Gulf Coast
Control and Hurricane Protection- Mobile County, AL, Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs, MS 39564. Write for
1978 (includes Dauphin Island). their free list of publications, or call (6oi) 875-9341.
Geology and oceanography 2o. Guide to the Marine Resources of Mississippi, edited by
Bobby Irby and Della McCaughan, 1975. This 356-page
17. Coastal Geology of Mississippi, Alabama, and Adjacent volume brings together a wide range of information on the
Louisiana Areas, by Ervin Otvos, Jr., 1982. This technical Mississippi Gulf Coast. Topics range from history through the

192 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

sciences of geology, oceanography, biology, and ecology. Re- Barrier islands and shoreline evolution
sources are reviewed, followed by a description of many
relevant institutions and their programs, including regulatory 22. Barrier Island Formation through Nearshore Aggradation-
agencies with addresses and phone numbers. This book is Stratigraphic and Field Evidence, by Ervin Otvos, 198 1. This
entertaining as well as informative; we recommend it to all technical paper outlining the origin and history of the eastern
Mississippi citizens, especially coastal residents, and visitors. Gulf Coast barrier islands is recommended to serious students
The guide is available from Schools Textbook Supply, P.O. of coastal evolution. Published in Marine Geology, Vol. 43,
Box 771, Jackson, MS 39202, or check with your local book- PP. 145-243. Thisjournal is likely to be found only in college,
store (price: $16.oo). university, and research libraries.
21. Symposium on the Natural Resources of the Mobile Estuary, 23. Geologic Evolution of the Mississippi Sound Area, Missis-
Alabama, edited by Harold Loyacano, Jr., and J. Paul Smith, sippi-Alabama; A Brief Account, by Ervin Otvos, 1982.
1979. Sponsored by the Alabama Coastal Area Board, Mis- Together with the previous reference, this paper provides an
sissippi-Alabarna Sea Grant Consortium, and the U.S. Fish outline of the geologic evolution of the coast, bays, sounds,
and Wildlife Service, this collection of technical papers treats and islands. Published in the "Mississippi Sound Symposium
a wide range of topics from bay sediments and their chemistry, Proceedings," Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium,
to hydrography and circulation in the bay, to pollution. Dis- Caylor Building, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean
cussion of the living resources includes marshes, grasses, Springs, MS 39564.
zooplankton, benthos, fish, oyster, crab, and shrimp fishenies, 24. The Offshore Barrier Islands of Mississippi and Alabama,
as well as waterfowl and mammals, and recommendations for published by the Marine Education Center, Biloxi, MS. This
management. Available through the sponsoring agencies. concise outline gives the origin and some history of these
Numerous reports on the geology of the states and the barrier islands, including a map that shows how the islands are
oceanography of the adjacent bays, sounds, and Gulf are migrating to the west. Free as Marine Educational Leaflet No.
available from the Alabama and Mississippi Geological Sur- 9 at the center, or request a copy from the Public Information
veys and various marine laboratories. See appendix B for Office, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs, MS
addresses. 39564.

Appendix C. Useful references 193

25. Barrier Island Handbook, by Steve Leatherman, 1982. A perts. Topics include island ecosystems, ecology, geology,
nontechnical, easy-to-read paperback about barrier island politics, and planning. Good bibliographical source for those
dynamics and coastal hazards. Many of the examples are studying barrier islands. Available from the Publications
from the Maryland and New England coasts but are appli- Department, Conservation Foundation, 1717 Massachusetts
cable to the Gulf Coast as well. Available from various Na- Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20036 (price: $4-oo). Re-
tional Seashores or by mail from Coastal Publications, 5201 quest the foundation' s free list of publications.
Burke Drive, Charlotte, NC 282o8 (price: $5.75 postpaid). Beaches
26. Barrier Islandsftom the Gut(of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of 29. Waves and Beaches, by Willard Bascom, 1964. A discussion
Mexico, edited by Steve Leatherman, 1979. This collection of of beaches and coastal processes. Published by Anchor Books,
technical papers presents some of the current geological re- Doubleday and Co., Garden City, NY 1153o. Available in
search on barrier islands. Of particular interest to students of paperback from local bookstores.
Gulf Coast barrier islands is the paper by Ervin Otvos en-
titled, "Barrier Island Evolution and History of Migration, 3o. Beaches and Coasts, 2nd edition, by C. A. M. King, 1972.
North Central Gulf Coast .' Published by Academic Press and Classic treatment of beach and coastal processes. Published
available through most college and university libraries. by St. Martin's Press, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY
27. Barrier Island Genesis: Evidencefrom the Central Atlantic 100io.
Shelf, by Don Swift, 1975. Technical discussion of the origin 31. Beach Processes and Sedimentation by Paul Komar, 1976.
of Atlantic Coast barrier islands and their migration due to a The most up-to-date technical explanations of beaches and
rising sea level. Published in Sedimentary Geology, vOl. 14, beach processes. Recommended only to serious students of
PP. 1 -43, a journal likely to be found only in major college the beach. Published by Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
and university libraries. 07632.
28. Barrier Islands and Beaches, 1976. Proceedings of the May 32. LandAgainst the Sea, bythe U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers,
1976 barrier islands workshop, this is a collection of technical 1964. Readable introduction to coastal geology and shoreline
papers prepared by scientists studying islands. Provides an processes. However, the authoes belief in the value of certain
up-to-date, readable overview of barrier islands. Comprehen- engineering methods is either outdated or unsubstantiated.
sive coverage from aesthetics to flood insurance by the ex- Available as Miscellaneous Paper No. 4-64 from the U.S.

194 Living with the Alabama- M i ssi ssippi shore

Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research lined in a nontechnical presentation. Available through your
Center, Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, VA 22o6o. local bookstore or from Time-Life Books, 541 North Fair-
33. Barrier Beach Development: A Perspective on the Problem, banks Court, Chicago, IL 6o6ii (price: $12-95).
by S. P. Leatherman, 198 1. This article in Shore and Beach 37. First Aidfor Damaged Beaches and Dunes, by Judy Stout,
magazine (VOI. 49, no. 2, pp. 2-9) is an excellent statement of ig8o. A short guide to actions that may be taken to combat
the problems of building in the coastal zone. The brief, non- short-term erosion. Available from the Alabama Cooperative
technical discussion includes an outline of the federal gov- Extension Service, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36830
ernmenf s role and offers recommendations. (request MASGP-80-003-02).
34. Beaches and Dunes vs. Off Road Vehicles, by R. D. Donohoe Coastal environments
and J. P. Hess, 198 1. This pamphlet briefly relates the impor-
tance of dunes, vegetation, and beaches to the stability of 38. Alabama Coastal Region Ecological Characterization, by P.
coastal sites. Alabama's legislation concerning the use of O'Neil, M. F. Mettee, J. H. Friend, and others, 1982. A 3-
vehicles on the dunes and beaches is outlined. Available from volume set that contains detailed summary information on the
the Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn Uni- coastal ecosystem. Volume i is a Coastal Bibliography, while
versity, Auburn, AL 36830 (request MASGP-8o-oo6-4). volume 2, A Synthesis of Environmental Data, contains
35. The Encyclopedia of Beaches and Coastal Environments, detailed descriptions of geology, geography, hydrology, cli-
mate, biology, and conceptual models of coastal ecosystems.
edited by M. L. Schwartz, 1982. This is a good source book The geology section identifies areas of coastal erosion and
for information and answers to coastal questions, but it is an accretion. Volume 3, A Socioeconomic Study, concentrates
expensive text and is aimed at the more serious student of the on social, demographic, and economic factors at work in the
coast. Published by Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, PA 1836o, Alabama coastal region, These 3 lengthy reports are available
and available through most college and university libraries. as Information Series Nos. 6o, 61, and 62 from Publication
36. Edge of the Sea, by Russell Sackett, 1983. This volume in the Sales, Geological Survey of Alabama, P.O. Drawer 0, Uni-
Time-Life Planet Earth Series outlines the importance and versity, AL 35486.
fragility of beaches and barrier systems. Coastal processes, 39. Delineation of Ecological Critical Areas in the Alabama
the buffer-zone effect, the significance of coastal breeding Coastal Zone, by Barry Vittor and Judy Stout, 1975. This
grounds, and human impact on these environments are out- report provides a good summary of coastal environments

Appendix C. Useful references 195

(habitats) in terms of descriptions and distribution. Appendix sortium. Inspection copies are available in the consortium7s
B of the report is the "Atlas of the Ecological Habitats of offices in Ocean Springs, Mississippi (phone: [6oi] 875-934 0,
Coastal Alabama.' The study was published as Report No. and on Dauphin Island, Alabama (phone: [205] 861-2141),
75-oo2 by the Dauphin Island Sea Lab, Dauphin Island, AL or these offices can inform you where a copy of the report is
36528. available in your area.
40. Inventory of Alabama's Coastal Resources and Uses, by the 42. Cooperative Gu#of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and Study,
(former) Alabama Coastal Area Board, ig8o. This 16g-page Mississippi, edited by J. Y. Christmas, 1973. A good introduc-
report covers a wide range of topics, including descriptive tion to the Mississippi coastal zone and Mississippi Sound,
topography, geology, soils, and climate of the coast, as well as this volume, although a technical publication, provides a start-
socioeconomic setting, coastal resource uses, and natural re- ing point for obtaining descriptions of coastal environments
sources. Of particular interest are sections on beaches and and processes. The 434-page text is published by and available
dunes, shoreline use, and natural hazard management. Maps from the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, East Beach Drive,
showing flood zones and shoreline retreat are included. Copies Ocean Springs, MS 39564 (price: around $8.oo).
may still be available through local planning offices or the 43. Tidal Marshes- Yhe Boundary Between Land and Ocean,
Alabama Department of Environmental Management. by James Gosselink, ig8o. A 13-page brochure that defines
41. Mississippi Sound: A Hydrographic and Climatic Atlas, by tidal marshes, their origin, and importance to man. This
C. K. Eleuterius and S. Beaugez, ig8o. This oversized book is nontechnical publication is well illustrated, including organ-
a storehouse of information on Mississippi Sound and its isms commonly found in marshes. For a free copy, contact the
adjacent shores. The volume includes such information as Information Transfer Specialist, National Coastal Ecosystems
storm history, including a list of all hurricanes and tropical Team, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, NASA-Slidell Com-
storms that passed within ioo nautical miles of Mississippi puter Complex, ioio Gause Boulevard, Slidell, LA 70458.
Sound between 1871 and 1979; an account of Hurricane 44. ne Status of the Barrier Islands of the Southeastern Coast,
Camille and its storm-surge levels; maps of water properties by Langdon Warner, 1976. General information on island
such as salinities, circulation patterns, and bathymetry; and environments, development pressures, government stimulants
information on the ecosystem. A limited number of copies to private development, and property assessments. Tables
were published by the Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Con- summarize the status of development on barrier islands in

196 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

each southeastern coastal state. A readable, useful reference. related problems. The symposium was cosponsored by the
Persons seeking more detailed information on the develop- Office of Coastal Zone Management. Available from that
ment status, property assessments, and local land-use regula- office, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
tions on individual islands may wish to obtain Barrier Island 3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20235.
Inventory (price: $I 5.oo). Both references are available from 48. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Sea-
the Open Space Institute, 36 West 44th Street, Room io18, shells, by Harold A. Rehder, 198 1. This well-illustrated refer-
New York, NY 10036. ence is an excellent handbook for the serious shell collector.
45. Know Your Mud, Sand, and Water: A Practical Guide to Published by Alfred A. Knopf and available in most book-
Coastal Development, by K. M. Jurgensen, 1976. Clearly and stores.
simply written, this pamphlet describes the various island en- 49. Mississippi Beaches- Fun in the Sun, Enjoyyour Leisure-
vironments relative to development. Recommended to coastal Go Fishing!, and Outdoor Seafood Cookery are 3 sample
dwellers. Available from UNC Sea Grant, Box 8605, North titles from the wide range of publications on recreation, fishing
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695. guides, recipes, charter boat directories, tide tables, first aid,
46. Coastal Ecosystems, Ecological Considerations for Man- and similar subjects available from the Sea Grant Marine
agement of the Coastal Zone, by John Clark, 1974. A clearly Advisory Services. For a free publication list or answers to
written, well-illustrated book on the applications of the prin- your coastal questions, write the Mississippi-Alabama Sea
ciples of ecology to the major coastal zone environments. Grant Consortium, Caylor Building, Gulf Coast Research
Available from the Publications Department, The Conserva- Laboratory, Ocean Springs, MS 39564, or call (6oi) 875-
tion Foundation, 1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Wash- 9341. The Marine Education and Training Section at the
ington, DC 20036. same address has plant and animal identification guides
available.
Recreation
47. Recreation in the Coastal Zone, 1975. A collection of papers Shoreline engineering
presented at a symposium sponsored by the U.S. Department 5o. Beach Nourishment Along the Southeast Atlantic and Gu6r
of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, Southeast Coasts, by Todd Walton and James Purpura, 1977. Appear-
Region. Outlines different views of recreation in the coastal ing in the July 1977 issue of Shore and Beach magazine (pp.
zone and the approaches taken by some states to recreation- i o - 18) this article examines successes and failures of several

Appendix G. Useful references 197

beach nourishment projects, including the postnourishment 53. Shore Protection Guidelines, by the U.S. Army Corps of
losses of beach fill along the Harrison County, Mississippi, Engineers, 1971. Summary of the effects of waves, tides, and
shore. winds on beaches and engineering structures used for beach
51. Beach Behavior in the Vicinity of Groins, by C. H. Everts, stabilization. Available free from the Department of the
1979. An interesting description of the effects Of 2 groin fields Army, Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC 20318.
in New Jersey, which concludes that groins deflect the move- 54. Shore Protection Manual, by the U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
ment of sand seaward, causing erosion in the downdrift shad- neers, 1973. The "bible" of shoreline engineering. Published
ow area. This negative downdrift effect occurs even if groin in 3 volumes. Request publication o8-0-22-00077 from the
compartments are filled with sand. Published in the Proceed- Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
ings of the Specialty Conference on Coastal Structures 79 (131). Office, Washington, DC 20402 (price: $4.25).
853- 67) and available from U.S. Army Coastal Engineering 55. Help Yourself, by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Bro-
Research Center, Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, VA 22o6o, chure addressing the erosion problems in the Great Lakes
as reprint 79-3. region. May be of interest to bayshore residents as it outlines
52. Low-Cost Shore Protection, by the U.S. Army Corps of shoreline processes and illustrates a variety of shoreline engi-
Engineers, 1982. A set Of 4 reports written for the layman, neering devices used to combat erosion. Free from the U.S.
this title includes the introductory report, a property owner's Army Corps of Engineers, North Central Division, 2 19 South
guide, a guide for local government officials, and a guide for Dearborn Street, Chicago, IL 6o604-
engineers and contractors. The reports are a summary of the 56. Publication List, Coastal Engineering Research Center
Shoreline Erosion Control Demonstration Program and sug- (CER C) and Beach Erosion Board (BEB), by the U.S. Army
gest a wide range of engineering devices and techniques to Corps of Engineers. A list of published research by the Corps.
stabilize shorelines, including beach nourishment and vegeta- Free from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engi-
tion. In adopting these approaches, one should keep in mind neering Research Center, Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir,
that they are short-term measures and may have unwanted VA 22o6o.
side effects. The reports are available from John G. Housley,
Section 54 Program, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, USACE 57. Perdido Pass Channel, Alabama, by the U.S. Army Corps of
(DAEN-CWP-F), Washington, DC 20314. Engineers, 1964. Published as Senate Document 94, 88th
Congress, 2nd Session.

198 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Hazard evaluation areas with critical erosion problems. Growth in development
since the late 1960s has magnified the problem. The report
58. Shoreline and Bathymetric Changes in the Coastal Area of may be found in some libraries and regional planning offices.
Alabama: A Remote-Sensing Approach, by J. D. Hardin, 61. Hurricane Camille Tidal Floods of August 1969 along the
C. D. Sapp, J. L. Emplaincourt, and K. E. Richter, 1976. This Gulf Coast, by K. V. Wilson and J. W. Hudson, 1969. This
report documents shoreline changes that have taken place series Of 14 U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Investigations
since the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, both Atlas maps (HA-395 through HA-4o8) cover all of the Missis-
along the oceanfront and in the bays. Plate i summarizes the sippi coast and into Alabama as far as Bayou La Batre. The
trends and identifies regional stretches of shoreline with ero- maps show the area flooded by Hurricane Camille and give
sion rates under 5 feet per year, 5 to i o feet per year, and more spot elevations of peak water heights. Each map includes a
than i o feet per year. The dynamic changes of Dauphin Island printed text describing the hurricane and its associated haz-
as well as its rapid development by man between 195o and ards of flooding and wave effects. Past hurricane tide levels are
1975 are well documented. Residents along the shores of shown in table form, and positions of emergency water supply
Mobile Bay will find a particularly interesting treatment of the wells are shown. The maps are available from the Branch of
bay's physical character and processes. The report is available Distribution, U.S. Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street,
as Information Series 5o from Publication Sales, Geological Arlington, VA 22202.
Survey of Alabama, P.O. Drawer 0, University, AL 35486.
59. Shoreline Erosion and Mitigation, by the Mississippi Bureau 62. Hurricane Frederic Tidal Floods of September 12-13, 1979
of Marine Resources, ig8o. Appearingas section 2, chapter7, along the Gul(Coast, by L. R. Bohman and J. C. Scott, i 98o.
in Mississippi Coastal Program, this paper identifies general This series Of 21 U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic Investi-
areas of erosion and buildup along the Mississippi shoreline, gations Atlas maps (HA-621 through HA-640 cover the area
as well as briefly discussing beach erosion forces, existing from eastern Mississippi into the western Florida Panhandle,
erosion control projects, and outlining management tech- including all of the ocean and bay coasts of Alabama. The
niques. See reference 89. maps include Hurricane Frederic's flood zone, spot elevations
of storm-surge height, a printed discussion of the hurricane
6o. National Shoreline Study Regional Inventory Report, South and its associated hazards, photographs of the resulting de-
Atlantic- Gul(Region, by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, struction, past flood history, and related information. The
1971. This report was part of a national study/summary of maps are available from the Branch of Distribution, U.S.

Appendix C. Useful references 199

Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, VA 67. Shoreline Waves, Another Energy Crisis, by Victor Gold-
22202. smith, 1975. Shelf bathymetry is shown to be a controlling
63. Effects of Hurricane Frederic on Dauphin Island, Alabama, factor in wave refraction, which in turn controls wave-height
by W. E. Schramm and others, ig8o. This paper provides a distribution along the beach. Suggests that wave-energy dis-
good summary of the physical impact of Hurricane Frederic. tribution may be controlled by modifying bathymetry. Free
Published in Shore and Beach magazine (vOl. 48, no. 3, PP. from Sea Grant College Program, Virginia Institute of Ma-
20-25). rine Science, Gloucester Point, VA 23o62. Request VIMS
64. Surge Effectsfrom Hurricane Eloise, by W. W. Burdin, 1977. Contribution No. 734.
Published in Shore and Beach magazine (vOl. 45, no. 2, pp. 68. Natural Hazard Management in Coastal Areas, by G. F.
2-8), this article provides an example of storm surge as a White and others, 1976. The most recent summary of coastal
coastal hazard. hazards along the entire U.S. coast. Discusses adjustments
to such hazards and hazard-related federal policy and pro-
65. Detection of Shoreline Changes from ERTS-i Data, by grams. Summarizes hazard management and coastal land
J. L. G. Emplaincourt and C. C. Wielchowsky, 1974. Pub- planning programs in each state. Appendixes include a direc-
lished in Southeastern Geographer (vol. i, no. 1, PP. 38-45), tory of agencies, an annotated bibliography, and information
and also available from the Geological Survey of Alabama, on hurricanes. An invaluable reference, recommended to
P.O. Drawer 0, University, AL 35486, as Reprint Series 29, developers, planners, and managers. Available from the Of-
this article documents shoreline erosion. fice of Coastal Zone Management, National Oceanic and
66. Coastal Mapping Handbook, edited by M. Y. Ellis, 1978. A Atmospheric Administration, 3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W.,
primer on coastal mapping outlining the various types of Washington, DC 20235.
maps, charts, and photography available, sources for such 69. Guidelinesfor Identifying Coastal High Hazard Zones, by
products, data and uses, state coastal mapping programs, in- the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1975. Report outlining
formation appendixes, and examples. A valuable starting such zones with emphasis on "coastal special flood-hazard
reference for anyone interested in maps or mapping. For areas" (coastal floodplains subject to inundation by hurricane
sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government surge with a i percent chance of occurring in any given year).
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 (stock no. 024-001- Provides technical guidelines for conducting uniform flood
03046-2).

200 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

insurance studies and outlines methods of obtaining i oo-year 73. Dune Restoration and Revegetation Manual, by Jack Sal-
storm-surge elevations. Recommended to island planners. mon, Don Hermingsen, and Tom McAlpin, 1982. This is the
Available from the Galveston District, U.S. Army Corps of most recent Florida Sea Grant Program advisory publication
Engineers, Galveston, TX 77553. on dune restoration and maintenance. Available as SGR-48
7o. Report of Investigation of the Environmental Effects of Pri- from the Marine Advisory Program, G022 McCarty Hall,
vate Waterfront Lands, by W. Barada and W. M. Partington, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 (price: $2.00).
1972. An enlightening reference that treats the effects of finger 74. Stabilizing Beaches and Dunes with Vegetation in Florida.
canals on water quality. Available from the Environmental A 2-page Marine Advisory Program information sheet for
Information Center, Florida Conservation Foundation, Inc., property owners and developers, the information is extracted
935 Orange Avenue, Winter Park, Fl, 32789. from the more detailed Sea Grant Report Number 7 listed
below (reference 75). Topics include the role of plants, vege-
Vegetation tation zones, preservation and restoration, and suggestions for
71. First Aidfor Damaged Beaches and Dunes, by Judy Stout, plantings. Free from the Marine Advisory Program, G022
198 o. A booklet to aid homeowners in establishing protective McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.
dunes between their cottages and the beach. Available from 75. Stabilization of Beaches and Dunes by Vegetation in Florida,
the Alabama Cooperative Extension Service, Auburn Uni- by J. H. Davis, Jr., 1975. A more detailed treatment of the role
versity, Auburn, AL 36830. of plants in building and holding dunes, plant types, how
72. Dune Building and Stabilization with Vegetation, by W. W. vegetation indicates the setback line, and how to use plantings
Woodhouse, Jr., 1978. This report includes a section on the to preserve or restore dunes. Different regions and the asso-
plants and planting methods needed to build and stabilize ciated plants are noted, and suggestions for the use of sand
dunes in the Gulf Coast region. Available from the Superin- fencing in conjunction with plantings are outlined. Other
tendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, references and sources of information are listed. Available as
Washington, DC 20402 (request stock no. oo8-022-00124-7; Report Number 7 from the Marine Advisory Program, G022
price: $3.00). McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.
The following vegetation studies and reports are for other 76. Salt Tolerant Plantsfor Florida Landscapes, by W. E. Bar-
states but are applicable to the Alabama-Mississippi coast. rick, 1979. A good companion reference to the report listed

Appendix C. Useful references 201

above (reference 75). Sixty-one different trees, palms, shrubs, 79. Shore Stabilization with Salt Marsh Vegetation, by P. L.
ground cover, and vines are illustrated and briefly described, Knutson and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr., 1983. Summarizes the
including their growth rates and hardiness with respect to use of coastal marsh vegetation as an erosion control measure.
Florida's 3 climatic zones. Salinity tolerance of plants is dis- Artificial plantings are often a good alternative to building
cussed, and soil-conditioning suggestions are given to help protective structures against erosion of low-energy or shel-
minimize soil salinity problems. Plant information is indexed tered shorelines, such as in bays, sounds, lagoons, and estu-
and tabled for convenient summary, and additional references aries. The publication outlines criteria for determining site
are provided. Ask for Report Number 2 8 and the accompany- suitability for planting, selection of plant types, planting pro-
ing list of commercial sources of salt-tolerant vegetation from cedures, and estimating costs. The Special Report No. 9 is
the Marine Advisory Program, G022 McCarty Hall, Univer- available from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and is an
sity of Florida, Gainesville, FL 326 11, or contact your county update of earlier work by Woodhouse and others (for exam-
marine agent through the cooperative extension service for a ple, "Propagation and Use of Spartina alterniflora for Shore-
copy or additional advice on plantings. line Erosion Abatement ,' 1976, CERC Technical Report 76-
77. Building and Stabilizing Coastal Dunes with Vegetation 2). Both reports and additional information on coastal stabili-
(UNC-SG-82-o5) and Planting Marsh Grassesfor Erosion zation are available from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Control (UNC-SG-81-og), by S. W. Broome, W. W. Wood- Coastal Engineering Research Center, Kingman Building,
house, Jr., and E. D. Seneca, 1982. These recent publications Fort Belvoir, VA 22060, or write to NTIS, Attn: Operations
on using vegetation as stabilizers are available from UNC Sea Division, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161, and
Grant, Box 8605, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, request publication by title, author, and year. There is a charge
NC 27695. State publication number with your request. for these publications.
78. 7he Dune Book: How to Plant Grassesfor Dune Stabiliza- 8o. Vegetation Establishment and Shoreline Stabilization: Gal-
tion, by Johanna Seltz, 1976. Brochure outlining the impor- veston Bay, Texas, by J. W. Webb and J. D. Dodd, 1976. This
tance of sand dunes and means of stabilizing them through study evaluates plants as shoreline stabilizers in a low-energy
grass plantings. Available from UNC Sea Grant, Box 8605, estuarine environment in Texas. The results may be pertinent
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695. to similar environments along the Alabama-Mississippi shore.
Available as CERC Technical Paper 76-13 from the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research

202 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

Center, Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, VA 22o6o, or write Gainesville, FL 32611, or the Florida Department of Natural
to NTIS, Attn: Operations Division, 5285 Port Royal Road, Resources, Bureau of Beaches and Shores, 2o2 Blount Street,
Springfield, VA 22161. Tallahassee, FL 32304.
Site analysis 84. Handbook: Building in the Coastal Environment, by R. T.
Segrest and associates, 1975. A well-illustrated, clearly and
81. Inventory of Basic Environmental Data-Alabama, pre- simply written book on Georgia coastal zone planning, con-
pared by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile District, struction, and selling problems. Topics include vegetation,
and the Alabama Office of State Planning and Federal Pro- soil, drainage, setback requirements, access, climate, and
grams, State Planning Division, January ig8i. Shows areas building orientation. Includes a list of addresses for agencies
of erosion and deposition along the coast as well as flood- and other sources of information. Much of the information
prone areas. Copies should be available through those offices. applies to the Gulf Coast. Available from the Graphics De-
82. 7he Mississippi Gu6r Coast Comprehensive Development partment, Coastal Area Planning and Development Com-
after Camille, by the State of Mississippi, 197o. The plan mission, P.O. Box 1316, Brunswick, GA 31520.
outlines a post-Camille reconstruction in 3 parts: strategy for Conservation, planning and regulation
redevelopment, the Gulf Coast Development and Services
Corporation, and program areas. Of particular interest are the 85. Questions and Answers on the National Flood Insurance
Camille damage data, the "inundation areas" map that can be Program, by the Federal Emergency Management Agency
used for future site evaluation, and comparison of the recom- (FEMA), 1983. This pamphlet explains basics of flood insur-
mendations of the study with what has been done. Copies may ance and provides addresses of FEMA offices. Free from
still be available for inspection in planning offices. FEMA, Washington, DC 20472.
83. Building Construction on Shoreline Property, by C. A. Col- 86. Development of the Coast: Facing the Tough Issues, a
lier. Homeowners and prospective buyers of coastal property Coastal States Organization conference held in Charleston,
will find this pamphlet to be a handy checklist in evaluating 1979. These published final proceedings give an abbreviated
location, elevation, building design and construction, utilities, overview of the wide range of problems generated by coastal
and inspection. Available free from either the Marine Advi- development. Available from CSO, Conference Management
sory Program, G022 McCarty Hall, University of Florida, Associates, Ltd., 1044 National Press Building, Washington,
DC 20045.

Appendix C. Useful references 203

87. The Alabama Coastal Area Management Program and Final 89. Mississippi Coastal Program, by the Bureau of Marine Re-
Impact Statement, by the U.S. Department of Commerce, sources, Mississippi Department of Wildlife Conservation,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of ig8o. This is the governing document for Mississippi's Coastal
Coastal Zone Management, and the Alabama Coastal Area Zone Management Program, including wetlands and fish-
Board, 1979. This governing document for the Alabama eries. Rules, regulations, guidelines, and permitting proce-
Coastal Zone Management Program defines permitting and dures are listed. People involved in planning and development
enforcement procedures within the area of management. within the coastal zone should be familiar with this publica-
Although it may not be of interest to the general reader, any- tion. Copies should be available through local planning offices
one involved in planning and development should be familiar as well as the Bureau of Marine Resources, Mississippi De-
with this publication. Copies should be available through local partment of Wildlife Conservation, P.O. Box 959, Long
planning offices as well as the Alabama Department of Envi- Beach, MS 3956o (phone: [6oi] 864-46o2).
ronmental Management, State Capital, Montgomery, AL go. Mississippi Coastal Area: Its Future, 1975, and Mississippi
36130. Coastal Resources: A Survey to Determine Attitudes and
88. Building in the Coastal Counties: A Guide to the Permitting Opinions of Local Citizens, 1976. These short, descriptive
Process with Special Emphasis on the Coastal Area, 1984. brochures dealing with coastal planning are available from the
This edition is recommended reading for anyone in the coastal Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium, Caylor Build-
zone of Alabama who is considering building a house, in- ing, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, Ocean Springs, MS
stalling or modifying a septic system, drilling a well, or en- 39564.
gaging in any construction or water discharge activity in gi. A Survey of Wetlands Law, Effects of Hurricane Camille on
wetlands or waterways. The booklet provides an outline of the Economy of Harrison County, and Economic-Ecologic
required permits, steps in obtaining permits, and addresses of Modelfor Mississippi-Alabama Coastal Counties are 3 rep-
all federal, state, and local agencies that must be contacted. resentative titles of the many legal and socioeconomic studies
A few minutes spent in reading this guide may save you hours available from the Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant.Consor-
of work, and it may help avoid penalties for not following tium, Caylor Building, Gulf Coast Research Laboratory,
the law. Available from the Permit Coordination Center, Ocean Springs, MS 39564. Write for their free list of titles, or
Alabama Department of Environmental Management, State call (6oi) 875-9341.
Capital, Montgomery, AL 36130 (phone: [205] 277-3630).

204 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

92. Mississippi Guide to Saltwater Fishing Regulations, 1983. A Mobile Magazine, Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce. Also
digest of regulations for sport and commercial fishing in the available from Coastal Zone Studies, University of West
marine waters of Mississippi, including shellfish. The pamph- Florida, Pensacola, FL 32504.
let includes a list of endangered and protected species and 94. Relieffrom Disaster Relief. Reportfrom Dauphin Island, by
where to call if you find such animals stranded. Available from Tom Horton, ig8i. This short article captures the socioeco-
the Department of Wildlife Conservation, Bureau of Marine nomic dilemma of the danger of barrier beach development
Resources, P.O. Drawer 959, Long Beach, MS 3956o; phone and who should pay for the inevitable post-storm reconstruc-
(6oi) 864-4602. tion. Expenditures of federal tax dollars in post-Frederic
93. Dauphin Island: At the Crossroads of Decision, by Cy reconstruction averaged more than $50,000 for each of the
Rhode, ig8o and ig8i. This study was published in Mobile 650 permanent structures on Dauphin Island, according to
Magazine in 4 parts, beginning with the November-December the article. Such costs plus other hidden subsidies realized
ig8o issue. The author traces the storm history of the island, in the aftermath of Hurricane Frederic are resulting in a
the impact of Hurricane Frederic in terms of physical damage tightening of federal programs. This article appeared in the
(144 homes with total loss or major damage; 856 homes with Amicus Journal (summer ig8i, pp. 22-25).
severe damage) and dollar loss; he compares Frederic to a 95. Barrier Islands, by H. C. Miller, ig8i. Published in Envi-
similar i qo6 storm to illustrate that development set the stage ronment (Vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 6-11, 36-42), this is an excellent
for this staggering loss. The loss of the causeway to the island review of how the federal government has stimulated barrier
is examined as an opportunity to assess options other than island development and the resulting losses in tax dollars.
bridge replacement; and the replacement cost in terms of
federal subsidies is documented. Part III reviews the island I s 96. The Law of the Coast in a Clamshell, by Peter H. F. Graber.
general problems associated with population growth, includ- These articles in Shore and Beach magazine on the contem-
ing marshland filling, poor sanitation, saltwater intrusion, Porary law of the coast were written for nonattorneys. The
and similar problems. The conclusion outlines a study pro- initial article presents an overview (vOl. 48, no. 4, PP. 4-20),
gram for planning. However, only time will tell if this good followed by "The Federal Government's Expanding Role"
advice is heeded. This article is recommended reading to all (vOl. 49, no. i, pp. 16-2o) and articles for each coastal state.
coastal property owners, and taxpayers in general. Contact Shore and Beach should be available through your library on
interlibrary loan.

Appendix C. Useful references 205

97. The Water@ Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone, systems, man's impact on barrier islands, and tools and tech-
edited by B. H. Ketchum, 1972. Scientific summary of coastal niques for coastal area management. Also contains a good
zone problems. Published by M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, MA barrier island bibliography. Available from the Center for
02139. Urban and Regional Studies, University of North Carolina,
98. Design with Nature, by Ian McHarg, 1969. A now-classic text io8 Battle Lane, Chapel Hill, NC 27514.
on the environment. Stresses that when man interacts with ioi. The Fiscal Impact of Residential and Commercial Develop-
nature, he must recognize its processes and governing laws ment: A Case Study, by I Muller and G. Dawson, 1972.
while realizing that such interaction both presents opportu- A classic study which demonstrates that development may
nities for and requires limitations on human use. Published by ultimately increase, rather than decrease, community taxes.
Doubleday and Co., Garden City, NY 11530. Available from The Publications Office, the Urban Institute,
99. Who's Minding the Shore, by the Natural Resources Defense 2100 M Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20037 (price: $3.00).
Council, Inc., 1976. A guide to public participation in the Refer to URI-22000 when ordering.
coastal zone management process. Defines coastal ecosystems i o2. Report ofthe Conference on Marine Resources ofthe Coastal
and outlines the Coastal Zone Management Act, coastal de- Plains States, 1974. Collection of papers presented at a meet-
velopment issues, and means of citizen participation in the ing in Wilmington, North Carolina. Topics include seabed
coastal zone management process. Lists sources of additional mineral resources, sport fishing, recreation and tourism, and
information. Available from the Office of Coastal Zone Man- coastal zone planning. Of special interest is a paper entitled
agement, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "Reasonable Development and Reasonable Conservation"
3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20235. by David Stick. Sponsored and published by the Coastal
i oo. Ecological Determinants of Coastal Area Management, by Plains Center for Marine Development Services.
Francis Parker, David Brower, and others, 1976. Volume 1 103. Coastal Ecosystem Management, by John Clark, 1977. This
defines the barrier island and related lagoon-estuary systems 928-page text covers most aspects of the coastal zone from
and the natural processes that operate within them. Outlines descriptions of processes and environments to legal controls
marfs disturbing influences on island environments and sug- and outlines for management programs. Essential reading for
gests management tools and techniques. Volume 2 is a set of planners and beach community managers. Published by John
appendixes that includes information on coastal ecological Wiley and Sons, New York. (The 1983 reprint with correc-

206 Living with the Alabarna- Mississippi shore

tions is available from Krieger Publishing Co., P.O. Box 9542, Building or improving a home
Melbourne, FL 32902 for $59-50 postpaid). Both current and prospective owners and builders of homes
io4. Coastal Environmental Management, prepared by the Con- in hurricane-prone areas should supplement the information and
servation Foundation, ig8o. Guidelines for conservation of advice provided in this book with that offered in references deal-
resources and protection against storm hazards, including ing specifically with safe construction. These excellent references
ecological description and management suggestions for coast- contain sound, useful information that should help the residents
al uplands, floodplains, wetlands, banks and bluffs, dune- of such areas minimize losses caused by extreme wind or rising
lands, and beaches. Part 11 presents a complete list of federal water. Many of these publications are free. The government pub-
agencies and their authority under the law to regulate coastal lications are paid for by your taxes, so why not use them? The fol-
zone activities. A good reference for planners and persons lowing references are recommended to those readers who wish to
interested in good land management. Available from the investigate further the subject of hurricane-resistant construction.
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402. 107. Coastal Design: A Guide for Planners, Developers, and
Homeowners, by Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., Orrin H. Pilkey, Sr.,
105. Coastal Affair, edited by Jennifer Miller, 1982. A special Walter D. Pilkey, and William J. Neal, 1983. A detailed
subject issue of Southern Exposure magazine (vol. X, no. 3), companion volume and construction guide expanding on the
that explores a wide range of coastal issues from the physical information outlined in this text. Chapters include discussions
to the social and economic. Available from Southern Ex- of shoreline types, individual residence construction, making
posure, P.O. Box 531, Durham, NC 27702 (price: $4.00). older structures storm-worthy, high-rise buildings, mobile
i o6. Patterns and Trends of Land Use and Land Cover on A tlan- homes, coastal regulations, and the future of the coastal zone.
tic and Gulf Coast Barrier Islands, by H. F. Lins, Jr., i 98o. Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York (price:
U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 1156, available $25-00).
from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government 108. Design and Construction Manualfor Residential Buildings
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, or through your in Coastal High Hazard Areas, prepared by Dames and
local college or university library. Moore for HUD, on behalf of the Federal Emergency Man-
agement Agency, ig8i. A guide to the coastal environment

Appendix C. Useful references 207

with recommendations on site and structure design relative to iii. Wind-Resistant Design Conceptsfor Residences, by Delbart
the National Flood Insurance Program. The report includes B. Ward. Displays with vivid sketches and illustrations con-
design considerations, examples, construction costs, and ap- struction problems and methods of tying structures to the
pendixes on design tables, bracing, design worksheets, wood ground. Considerable text and excellent illustrations devoted
preservatives, and a listing of useful references. The manual is to methods of strengthening residences. Offers recommenda-
available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Gov- tions for relatively inexpensive modifications that will increase
ernment Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 (publication the safety of residences subject to severe winds. Chapter 8,
number 722-967/545), or contact a FEMA office. "How to Calculate Wind Forces and Design Wind-Resistant
i og. Elevated Residential Structures, Reducing Flood Damage Structures," should be of particular interest to the designer.
Through Building Design: A Guide Manual, prepared by the Available as TR83 from the Civil Defense Preparedness
Federal Insurance Administration, 1984. An excellent outline Agency, Department of Defense, The Pentagon, Washing-
of the flood threat and necessity for proper planning and ton, DC 20301, or from the Civil Defense Preparedness
construction. Illustrates construction techniques and includes Agency, 28oo Eastern Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21220.
glossary, references, and worksheets for estimating building 112. Interim Guidelinesfor Building Occupant Protectionfrom
costs. Order publication 0-438-116 from the Superintendent Tornadoes and Extreme Winds JR83A) and Tornado Pro-
of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing- tection- Selecting and Designing Safe Areas in Buildings
ton, DC 20402, or contact an office of the Federal Emergency (TR83B). These are supplement publications to the above
Management Agency. reference (i i i) and are available from the same address.
iio. Flood Emergency and Residential Repair Handbook, pre- 113. Southern Standard Building Code. Available from Southern
pared by the National Association of Homebuilders Research Building Code Congress, 1116 Brown Marx Building, Bir-
Advisory Board of the National Academy of Science, ig8o. mingham, AL 35203, or Southern Building Code Publishing
Guide to floodproofing as well as step-by-step cleanup pro- Company, 3617 8th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35222.
cedures and repairs, including household goods and appli- 114. The Uniform Building Code. Available from International
ances. Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Conference of Building Officials, 536o South Workman Mill
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. Order Road, Whittier, CA go6oi.
stock no. 023-000-00552-2 (price: $3.50).

208 Living with the Alabama- Mississippi shore

115. Protecting Mobile Homesfrom High Winds, prepared by the 118. Guidelinesfor Beachfiront Construction with Special Refer-
Civil Defense Preparedness Agency, 1974. An excellent book- ence to the Coastal Construction Setback Line, by C. A.
let that outlines methods of tying down mobile homes and Collier and others, 1977. Report no. 2o, available from Florida
means of protection such as positioning and windbreaks. Sea Grant Publications, Florida Cooperative Extension Ser-
Publication 1974-0-537-785, available free from the Superin- vice, Marine Advisory Program, Coastal Engineering Labora-
tendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, tory, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.
Washington, DC 20402, or from the U.S. Army, AG Publi- 119. Houses Can Resist Hurricanes, by the U.S. Forest Service,
cations Center, Civil Defense Branch, 28oo Eastern Boule- 1965. An excellent paper with numerous details on construc-
vard (Middle River), Baltimore, MD 21220. tion in general. Pole-house construction is treated in particu-
116. Structural Failures: Modes, Causes, Responsibilities, 1973. lar detail (pp. 28-45). Available as Research Paper FPL 33
See especially the chapter entitled "Failure of Structures Due from Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U.S. De-
to Extreme Winds" (PP. 49-77). Available from the Research partment of Agriculture, P.O. Box 5130, Madison, WI 53705.
Council on Performance of Structures, American Society of 120. Pole House Construction and Pole Building Design. Avail-
Civil Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017 able from the American Wood Preservers Institute, 1651 Old
(price: $4.00). Meadows Road, McLean, VA 22101.
117. Hurricane- Resistant Constructionfor Homes, by T. L. Wal- 121. Standard Detailsfor One-Story Concrete Block Residences,
ton, Jr., 1976. An excellent booklet produced for residents by the Masonry Institute of America. Contains 9 foldout
of Florida but equally as useful to those on the Gulf coast. drawings that illustrate the details of constructing a concrete
A good summary of hurricanes, storm surge, damage assess- block house. Principles of reinforcement and good connec-
ment, and guidelines for hurricane-resistant construction. tions presented are aimed at design for seismic zones but
Technical concepts are presented on probability and its impli- apply to design in hurricane zones as well. Written for both
cations on home design in hazard areas. A brief summary of layman and designer. Available as Publication 701 from Ma-
federal and local guidelines is given. Available from Florida sonry Institute of America, 255o Beverly Boulevard, Los
Sea Grant Publications, Florida Cooperative Extension Ser- Angeles, CA 90057 (price: $3.00).
vice, Marine Advisory Program, Coastal Engineering Labora- 122. Masonry Design Manual, by the Masonry Institute of Ameri-
tory, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 326 11. ca. An oversized 384-page manual that covers all types of

Appendix C. Useful references 209

masonry, including brick, concrete block, glazed structural 8o-i, Bureau of Beaches and Shores, Florida Department of
units, stone, and veneer. Very comprehensive and well pre- Natural Resources, 3900 Commonwealth Boulevard, Talla-
sented. Probably of more interest to the designer than to the hassee, FL 32303.
layman. Available as Publication 6oi from the Masonry Insti-
tute of America, 255o Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA
90057 (price: $14.00).
123. Model Minimum Hurricane- Resistant Building Standards
for the Texas Gulf Coast. Although written specifically for
the Texas coast, the conditions are similar enough that this
publication is appropriate for the Alabama-Mississippi coast.
Available from the Texas Coastal and Marine Council, P.O.
Box 13407, Austin, TX 78711.
124. Construction Materials for Coastal Structures, by Moffatt
and Nichol, Engineers, 1983. A lengthy (427-page) summary
of the properties and uses of a wide range of materials em-
ployed in coastal structures, beach protection devices, and
erosion control. This technical reference should be of par-
ticular interest to coastal engineers and construction con-
tractors who build such structures. Request Special Report
No. io, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering
Research Center, Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, VA 22o6o.
125. Coastal Construction Building Code Guidelines, edited by R.
R. Clark, ig8o. Although developed for Florida, these guide-
lines are applicable to the rest of the Gulf Coast and make
specific recommendations to strengthen the Standard Build-
ing Code in coastal areas. Available as Technical Report No.

Index

access roads, 8, 34-35, 72, 186 environments, 34-35 Bellefontaine, 95
accretion, shoreline, 65, 69 evolution, 32-34 Bellefontaine Point, 104, io6, 107, io8, 109, 126
aerial photography, 47, 5o, 65, 171-72 migration, 24, 26, 28, 30, 44 Bienville Beach, 54, 99
Alabama Coastal Area Act, 131 origin, 21-24 Bienville Boulevard, 99
Alabama Coastal Area Board, 8, 131-33 storm response, io, 58 Big Ship Island, i i i
Alabama Coastal Management Program, 131, 132, widening, 28-29 Biloxi, 12, 15, 22, 36, 38, 45, 52, 59, 107, 112, 113, 114,
133,203 Barron Point, 96 ii5-ili
Alabama Highway 59, 73 Bay Front Drive (Mobile), 95 lighthouse, 112
Highway 161, 182 Bay La Launch, 70 Biloxi Bay, 5, 9, 21, 53, 6o, 107, 109
Highway 163, 96, 103 Bay St. Louis, 5, 9, 11, 12, 15, 21, 36, 45, 52, 62, 107, Bon Secour Bay, 69, 78, 84, 86
Highway 18o, 81, 82, 86 118, 120, 121-23 Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge, 83, 90, 103
Highway 182, 69, 72, 73, 76 seawall, 36, 37 Bon Secour River, 69, 84, 90
Highway 188, 96 Bay Side, 82 Bridgehead, 88, go
Alabama Point, 133 Bayou Caddy,121 bridges, 68, 96, 129, 174
Alabama Port, 95 Bayou Casotte, 104, io5, io6 Brookley, 92, 94
anchoring, house. See construction, anchoring Bayou Casotte Industrial Area, 105 Buccaneer State Park, 37
Arnica Bay, 70 Bayou Como, 96 building codes, 8, 51, 53, 59, 62, 72, 123, 125, 135-36,
Aswan Dam, 33 Bayou La Batre, 96, 98, 104, 198 140, 149, 150, 154, 161, 163, 164, 166, 174, 203,
Audubon Street (Dauphin Island), 102 Bayou Portage, 118, iig 209
Auguste Bayou, 115 Bayou St. John area, 52, 69, 70 buildings, 138-66. See also flood insurance and
A-zones, 126, 143, 148 bays, 19, 54, 56, 58, 6o, 205 building codes
Azaka City News, 133 beach access. See access roads high-rise, 21, 37, 56, 61, 69, 70, 72, 76, 82, 114, 132,
beaches, 5, 7, 77, 123, 184, 193-94, 195 134, 16o-64, 168, 2o6
Back Bay of Biloxi, i og, 113, 115, 118 artificial, 9, 16, 31, 38, 40, 41, 45, 105, 121 homes, permanent, 139
Back Bayou, 105 dynamic equilibrium, 26-35 improving existing, 138, 150-59, 2o6
Bailey Creek, 84 erosion, 27, 29, 30-31, 32, 36, 173, 179 mobile homes, 18, 136-37, 139, i5g-6o, 164, 168,
Baldwin County, 9, 69-91, 92, 124 replenishment, 31, 35, 36-39, 44, 58, 59, 61, 64, 124, 2o6,2o8
commission, 133 176 modular, 164-66
barometric pressure, 20, 142-43 shape, 26, 27, 41, 48 pole, 143, 145, 147-49
barrier islands, 1, 5, 9, 21-24, 184, 191, 192, 195, 204, stabilization. See shoreline engineering bulkheads, 6, 41, 56, 6o, 83, 86, 94, 96
205,2o6 Bear Point, 69, 70 Bureau of Marine Resources (Mississippi), 8, 115, 130,
dynamics, 21-35 Beauvoir, i 18 137

Index 211

Bureau of Pollution Control and Land and Water Coney Island, N.Y., 48 Deer Island, 58, io8, iog, I 11, 112-15
Resources (Mississippi), 130 Connecticut coast, 37 Deer River, 95
construction, 138-66, 2o6-9 Deer River Point, 95
Caldwell Swamp, go anchoring, 145, 147-49, 150-52, 157-58, 16o, 163 Delaware Bay, 21
California coast, 33 brick, 154-55, 2o8-9 deltas, 6, 11, 23, 24, 32, 50, 158
Camp Lamotte, 107 concrete-block, 154, 2o8-9 Department of Economic and Community Affairs
canals. See finger canals design, 138, 139, 140-42, 154 (Alabama), 131-35
Cape Hatteras, N.C., 34 masonry, 143, 153, 154-55, 2o8-9 Department of Environmental Management
Cape May, N.J., 7, 43, 45 -47 modular units, 164, 166 (Alabama), 8, 131-35, 175
seawall, 46 piles, 145, i5o, 163 Destin beaches, Fla., 52
Capes Island, S.C., 33 pole or stilt, 147-49, 150, 2o8 development. See coastal development
Caswell, 69, 70 roof, 140, 152, 154 D'Iberville, i 18
Cat Island, 57, 96, iog, 120-21, 126, 185 slabs, i5o, 03-64 disaster preparedness, 129, 174-75, 176
Catlin Bayou, go strengthening, 150-59 Disaster Relief Act of 1974, 129
Cedar Grove, 82 walls, 150, 152 Division Street (Biloxi), 115
Cedar Point, 96, 121 windows, 155, 157, 163 Dog Island (Isle of Caprice), i i i
Central High School (Biloxi), 115 wood-frame, 153 Dog Keys Pass, i i i
channels, 36, 58, 61. See also overwash continental shelf, 25, 29, 30, 32, 33, 37, 44, 47 Dog River, 95
Chesapeake Bay, 21 Corps of Engineers. See U.S. Army Corps of Dog River Point, 95
Chicasaw Creek, 92 Engineers dredging and filling. See beaches, replenishment
Choctaw Point, 92 Corpus Christi, Tex., 162 dune buggies, 34, 194
Civil Defense. See disaster preparedness Cortereal, Gaspar, 8 dunes, 5, 7, 33, 47, 65, 123, 131, 194, 195
Clean Water Act, 132 Cotton Bayou, 71, 72 artificial, 34, 36, 56, 73, 177
Clermont Harbor, 121-23 currents. See longshore currents primary, 41, 55, 72, 76, 132
Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982, 104, 120, 124, Cyclone Tracy, 154,155 protection, 8, 19, 34, 54, 57, 589 59, 73, 200
134 removal, 53, 69, 81, 133
coastal development, 5-6, 7, 10, 21, 34, 36-49, 50-123 dams, 32, 33 Stability, 22, 26, 27, 32, 36, 7,oi
pasSiM, 202 Darwin, Australia, 154, 155 dynamic equilibrium. See beaches
future, 8, 50, 129-35 Dauphin Island, 5, 9, 11, 18, 21, 23, 24, 52, 54, 57, 58,
history, 5, 9, 124 59, 61, 62, 64, 92, 96, 98-io4, 124, 126, 18g, igo, East Fowl River, 95
Coastal Environmental Alliance, Inc., 133 198, igg East Ship Island, 185
coastal zone, 1, 5, 47, 51, 6o, 175, 183-84, 205 groin field, 36, 40 Eastern Shore Boulevard, go
Coastal Zone Management Act Of 1972, 129, 205 Dauphin Island Causeway, 92, 96 Edgewater Park, 113, 118
Coden, 96 Dauphin Island Parkway Bridge, 103, 190 Edith Hammock, 82, 83
condominiums. See buildings, high-rise Davis Bayou, xo4, 107, 109, 195 elevations, 33, 52, 54, 56, 57, 61, 65, 69, 70, 72, 129,

212 Index

198, 202 Fort Morgan, 9, 52, 82, 93, 132, 133, 185 Gum Swamp, 90
Endangered Species Act Of 1973, 137 Fort Morgan Peninsula, 1, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 44, 53,
erosion, 8, 51, 173, 179 57, 59, 69, 78, 8o, 81, 82, 99, 132 Hancock County, 121-23
due to shoreline engineering, 31, 33, 36-50, 53, 134 Fort Morgan State Park, 82, 83 Harrison County, 15, 38, 45, 109, 111-20, 197, 203
due to sea-level rise, 21, 24, 65, 69, 123 Fort Pickens, 9 seawall, 48
indicators, 33 foundation, house. See construction, anchoring Head-of-the-Bay, 90, 91
rates, 30-32, 47, 64 Fowl River Bay, 5 Henderson Point, 112, 118
escape routes. See evacuation preparations French, as explorers and settlers, 9, 110, 189 Hernando Street (Dauphin Island), 102
Escatawpa Delta, 104 Heron Bay, 95, 96
Escatawpa River, 105 Galveston, 19, 190 Heron Bay Cutoff, 95, 96
Evacuation preparations, 10, 17, 18, 19, 20, 53, 57, 65, Gasque, 82, 84, 86 Hollingers Island, 95
69, 70, 71, 8o, 81, 82, 95, 96, 102, 109, 118, 129, Gautier, 104, 107 Horn Island, 5, 57, 107, 109, 110, 111, 185
169 Georgia coast, 202 Horn Island Pass, 110
glaciers, 21, 27, 30 houses. See construction
Fairhope, 84, 86, go Godfrey, Paul, 34 Hurricane
Faustinas, 95 Government Cut, 103 Baker (1950), 16
Federal Emergency Management Agency, 126, 128, Grand Batture Island,98, 104 Betsy (1965), 12-13, 16, 19, 37, 105, 115, 118, 121
133 Grand Bay, 5, 52 Bob (1979), 12-13
Federal Highway Administration, 103 Grand Bay Swamp, 98 Camille (1969), 10, 11, 12-13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 39,
Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of Grand Hotel, 90 52, 53, 54, 58, 76, 94, 95, 105, 107, 109, 111, 112,
1972,137,187 Grand Isle, La., 12 114, 115, 118, 121, 159, 161, 191, 195, 198, 203
finger canals, 59, 6o, 61, 62-64, 73, 103, 107, 137 grasslands, 58 Carmen (1970), 68
fisheries, 5, 7, 59, 62, 71, 96, 98, 203, 204 Graveline Bayou, 107 Eloise (1975), 12-13, 161, 163, 191, 199
Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973, 125 Great Point Clear, 40, 84, 90 Ethel (1960), 12-13, 16, 20, 111
Flood Hazard Boundary Map, 126 "greenhouse effect," 24, 43-44 Flossy (1956), 12-13
flood insurance, 52, 103, 125-29, 133, 18o-81, 199- groins, 6, 8, 10, 30, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 53, Frederic (1979), 10, 12-13, 16, 18, 20, 32, 52, 53, 54,
200, 202. See also National Flood Insurance 56,65,84,94,197 55, 56, 57, 59, 62, 64, 68, 69, 70-73, 76, 77, 80,
Program groundwater. See water, ground 81, 83, 90, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105,
flood zones, 52, 53, 65, 82, 195, 198, 202, 207 Gulf Coast Research Laboratory, 22, 110 115, 124, 127, 129, 131, 132, 134, 142, 154, 159,
Florida coast, 54, 64, 189, 200-201 Gulf Highlands, 69, 81, 82 189,190,198,199
Florida Department of Natural Resources, 136 Gulf Islands National Seashore, 109-11, 112, 121, 185 Hilda (1964), 12-13, 16, 20, 191
Florida east coast, 6, 7, 20 Gulf Shores, 6, 9, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 69, 70, 73, 74, 76, Of 1740 (Twin Mobile Hurricanes), 11
Florida Panhandle, 6, 26, 163, 198 77,81,99,185,190 Of 1819,11
Florida west coast, 8, 20 Gulf State Park, 5, 72 of 1852 (Great Mobile Hurricane), 11
Fort Gaines, 9, 102, 103 Gulfport, 22, 36, 116, 118 of 1855,12-13
Fort Massachusetts, 9, 111, 185 Gulfport Harbor, 118 of 186o,12-13

Index 213

of 1900, 19,190 Jackson County Airport, 105 maps, 65, 182-83, 195, 199, 202
Of 1901, 12-13 Jackson Marsh, 123 Marine Environmental Science Consortium facility
of 1906, 12-13 jetties, 6, 35, 39, 40, 43, 50 (Dauphin Island), 103
Of 1909, 12-13, 189 Joe's Bayou, 121 Marine Resources Council (Mississippi), 8, 130
Of 1915, 12-13, 16, 112, 14,121, 189 Johnston Drive (Dauphin Island), 102 Marsh Island, 96
of 1916, 12-13,14,123 Jones Memorial Park (Gulfport), 118 Marsh Point, 109
Of 1917, 12-13 Jourdan River, 121 marshes, 5, 7, 24, 34, 55, 58, 59, 60, 76, 96, 123, 195
Of 1919, 12-13 Meridian, 68
of 1920, 12-13 Keegan Bayou,115 Miami Beach, 7, 38, 40, 41, 43
Of 1923, 12-13 Keesler Air Force Base, 115 migration. See barrier islands
Of 1926 (2 hurricanes), 12-13 Key West, Fla., 1 Miller Cemetery, 86
Of 932,12-13 Kreole, 105 Mississippi City, 116, 118
Of 1940, 12-13 Mississippi Coastal Program, 8, 130, 198, 203
Of 1947,5, 12-13, 16,20, 123, 189 L & N Railroad tracks (Gulfport),118, 121, 123 Mississippi Delta, 11
Of 1948,101 lagoons. See bays Mississippi Sound, 5, 22, 23, 26, 54, 92, 96, 97, 98, 99,
hurricanes, 3 1, 48, 51, 54, 68, 71 Lakeshore, 121-23 101, 104, 105, 109, 111, 114, 191, 195
defined, 17-18 Land Sales Full Disclosure Act, 187 Mobile, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 22, 36, 59, 92, 94, 190
destruction, 7, 10-17, 19, 45, 55-56, 69-70, 109, 121 land-use regulations, 8, 124, 185-86, 196,206 Mobile Bay, 8, 9, 11, 14, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 39, 40, 52,
forces, 7, 18- 19, 57, 59, 68, 69, 110, 123, 140, 142, La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, 9 53, 54, 6o, 69, 78, 83, 84, 86, 88, 92, 94, 96, 185,
190,199 Lei Lani Towers (Perdido Key), 133-35 191,198
frequency, 45. See also hurricane listing above Little Bay, 98 lighthouse, 1, 104
history, 8, 10-17, 189 Little Dauphin Island, 103 revaments, 36
origin, 17-18 Little Lagoon, 5, 57, 70, 74, 77, 78, 80 Mobile County, 10, 54, 92-104, 128
precautions, 8, 59, 167-70 Little Point Clear, 83 Mobile County Health Department, 62
waves, 5, 10, 19 Little Ship Island, 111 mobile homes. See buildings
littoral drift. See longshore currents Mobile Point, 69, 78, 81, 126, 185
lberville, Pierre LeMoyne d, 9, 112 Long Beach, 116, 119 Mon Louis Island, 95, 96
lberville Drive (Dauphin Island), 102 longshore currents, 22, 28, 29, 37, 39, 41, 64 Monmouth Beach, N.J., 7, 41, 43
inlets. See passes Louisiana, 6, 12, 30, 33, 68 mortgage loans, 103
insurance. See flood insurance and National Flood Lubbock, Tex., 162 Moss Point, 105, 107
Insurance Program Mullet Point, 86
islands. See barrier islands McDuffie Island, 92, 94
Isle of Caprice (Dog Island), 5, 111 Magnolia Beach, go National Academy of Science, 24, 43
Main Street (Biloxi), 115 National Audubon Wildlife Sanctuary (Dauphin
Jackson,127 Mallini Bayou, 120 Island), 102
Jackson County, 54, 6o, 104-9 Mallini Point, 118 National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, 125

214 index

National Flood Insurance Program, 52, 125-28,207 potential, 51, 80 revetments. 10, 36, 40, 41, 53, 60,94
National Hurricane Center, 19 Pearl River, 52, 123 Richelieu Apartments, 16
National Park Service, 34 delta, 23 ridge and runnel system, 27
National Weather Service, 2o Pelican Bay, 4 Rio Grande, 1
New Jersey coast, 6, 30, 32, 34, 197 Pelican Island, 4, 104, 126 Robertsdale Independent, 134
New Jerseyization, 6-7, 8, 9, 44, 45, 49 Pelican Point, 40 Romar Beach, 72, 73
Now Orleans, 6, 9, 10, 22 Pensacola, 8, 190 Romar House, 133
Nile Delta, 33 Pensatola, Bay, 9, 10 Round Island, 107, 326
1948 River and Harbhor Act, 112 Perdido Bay,5, 21, 52, 62, 69, 70
North Carolina coast, 99 Perdido Dunes, 133 Saffir, Herbert S., 163
Perdido Hotel, 133 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale, 19-20
Ocean Springs, 104, (108, 109, 190 Perdido Key, 1, 6,9, 21, 58, 66, 70, 71, 133 St. Andrews Bay, 83
Office of State Planning (Alabama), 8 Perdido Pass, 39, 69, 70 St. Stanislaus College, 121
Old Fort Bayou, 109 Perdido Pass Channel, 197 salt marshes. See marshes
Old River 69, 70 Perdido Quay, 133 sand, 22, 53, 54, 56, 57, 69
Ono Island, 69, 70, 71 petit Bois Island, 23, 57, 98,99,107, 109, 110, 111, 185 excavation 36, 37, 38- 39, 65
Orange Reach, 69, 70 Petit Bois Pass, 98, 110 loss, 7-7, 31, 34, 45
Orange Lake, 105 Piers See construction, anchoring removal, 57
Oro Point, 99, 101 piles. See construction, anchoring Supply, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 45, 47, 48, 51, 55,60,
Otvos, Ervin, Jr., 22, 110 Pilkey, Orrin, Sr., 16-17 76
Outer Banks, N.C., 34 Pirreda, 8 transport, 22, 24, 26, 27, 30, 56, 58
overwash, 33, 34, 35, 37, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 64,65, 72, Pinto Island, 92 sand bars, See spits
73, 76, 80, 82, 123 Pitcher Point, 119 Sand Island, 4, 104
Point Aux Chenes, 104 lighthouse 4, 5
Pedro Island, Tex., 32 Point Aux Chenes Bay, 5 Sanibel Island, Fla., 136
Palmetto Beach, 82 Point Aux Chenes Road, 109 Sam Souci Beach, 96
Panama City Beach, Fla., 161, 163 Point Aux Pines, 98 Santa Rosa City, Fla., 127
Pascagoula, 9, 11, 12, 36, 45, 52, 59, 104, 105, 106, Point Clear Island, 123 Santa Rosa Island, Fla., 52
107, 110,115,190 Point Judith, 95, 96 Seacliffe, 107
seawall, 36 poles. See construction sea-level changes, 1, 5, 21-26, 29-30, 31, 33, 36, 38,
Pascagoula BaY, 21, 104,105, 107 Pollution, 7, 61, 62, 96, 137 43-44,45, 47, 50, 123,134
Pascagoula River, 60, 105 Portersville Day, 96, 97, 98 seashells, 30, 32, 54, 55, 56, 196
Pass Christian, 6, 16, 17, 45, 112, 115, 118-20 seawalls, 6,7, 8, 9, 12, 15, 17, 18, 31, 35, 36, 37, 38,40
Passes, 24, 32,55, 58-59, 73, 77 rrecreation, 5 -6, 21, 184, 196, 204, 205 41-42, 43-45, 46,48, 53, 56, 86,94,96,105, 112
artificial, 35, 39 Red Bluff, 60, 88, 90 120,114
migration, 50, 64 renourishment. See shoreline engineering septic tank system-, 55, 59, 62,68, 136,179, 186-87
203

Index 215

sewage, 53, 59, 62, 76, 94, 103, 186-87 Swift, Donald, 22 76,94,123,142,197,199
Seymour Bluff, 84 Weeks Bay, 84, 90
Shabica, Steve, im Terry Cove, 70, 71 West Beach, 5, 53, 58, 74, 77, 82, 99, 132
Shelby Lake (west), 73 Texas coast, 32, 34, 99, 201, 209 West Ship Island, 185
Shelby Lakes, 59, 66, 72, 73, 74 Theodore Industrial Complex, 133 West Surfside Shores, 81
Ship Island, 5, 9, 57, 5 8, 1 og, i i i Threemile Creek, 94 Wetlands Protection Law Of 1973, 130
Ship Island Channel, i i i Titi Swamp, go Wild Dunes Beach and Racquet Club (Isle of Palms,
shoreline dynamics, 21-35 Tonti, Henri de, 9 S.C.), 134
shoreline engineering, 7, 8, 9, 19, 28, 36-50, 58, 59, wildlife habitat, 83, 90, 103, 110, 137, 188
112,196-97 Uniform Building Code, 207 Williams, Mike, 134
shoreline retreat. See erosion U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 15, 31, 39, 103, 112, Winddrift Condominiums, 133
Sibley Holmes Trail, 73 132,137,197 winds. See hurricanes
Silver Cay, 99 U.S. Capitol Corporation, 132 Wolf Bay, 5, 52, 69, 70
Simmons Bayou, tog U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 24, 43
site safety, 6, 7, 8, 17, 50-123 passim, 138-66 passim U.S. Geodetic Survey, 50
snow fencing, 56, 59, 73 U.S. Highway go, 12, 17, 105, 112, 118, 123
Soto, Hernando de, 8
South Carolina coast, 99, 134 vegetation, 5, 7, 32, 51, 53, 54, 55, 62, 69, 123, 188
South Fork Deer River, 95 patterns, 58
Southern Memorial Park, 118 stabilizing, ig, 34, 56, 58, 59, 65, 73, 76, 188, zoo,
Southern Standard Building Code, 15, 112, 135-36, 201
163,207 V-zones (velocity zones), 126, 127, 128, 133, 134, 136,
Spangler, Byron, 163 143,148
Spanish, as explorers, 8, to
Spanish Fort, go washover channels. See overwash
Spits, 22, 23, 27, 28, 29 waste disposal, 7, 61. See also septic tank systems and
stabilization. See shoreline engineering sewage
Standard Building Code, 135, 136, 158, t64 water
storm surge, to, 18, 19, 20, 53, 54, 56, 58, 64, 65, 69, ground, 53, 59, 6o, 69
70, 72, 76, 81, 82, 83, 84, 98, io5, 115, 118, 123, problems, 6o-62, 70, 71
142,199 resources, 6o-62, 68, 82, 188, 198
Sun Belt, 1, 124 Water Street (Mobile), 94
Sunny Cove, 95 Watts Bayou, 121
Surf Club and Marina (Perdido Key), 133 Waveland, 16, 37, 45, 49, 115, 121-23
surf zones, 26, 29 waves (wave energy), 1, 26, 27, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 41,
Surfside Shores, 8o, 81, 82 42, 47, 51, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 6o, 65, 69, 70, 72,

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'K-jd.0jl?- DATE DUE i
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GAYLORD No. 2333 1PRINTED IN USA

Ecology /environment Living with the shore

Living with the Alabama -Mississippi shore 0 Easy-to-follow discussion of the dynamics of shoreline change;
The Alabama-Mississippi shoreline along the Gulf of Mexico eWays to guard yourself from the hazards of hurricanes;
boasts some of the world's most beautiful beaches and balmiest
climes. Ever-increasing numbers of retirees, recreation lovers, and 9Photographs, drawings, maps, and checklists for further read-
industries with their work forces are being attracted to the "Sun Ang;
Belt- " On a soft April day the Gulf's waters look as peaceful as a
pond. 9And guides to federal, state, and local agencies involved in
Yet this same serene shoreline has been ravaged by seven major coastal development that will be of value to the homeowner,
hurricanes during this century. Several years more than one fear- planner, or developer.
ful storm has come hurtling in during a single "season." Loss of
life and property damage have been devastating. And newcomers This volume is the eighth book in the Living with the shore
seem almost unaware of the potential dangers. series, which will include more than twenty books on coastal living
The authors of this book offer a vivid, historical overview for and management, to be published under the general editorship Pf
understanding the environment of the Alabama-Mississippi shore. Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., Duke University, and William J. Neal, Grand
They describe the risks faced by new residents, and they point the Valley State College of Michigan. Ultimately the series will cover
way toward safe and sane coastal development. the entire Atlantic and Pacific shorelines as well as the Great
Written for the layman, this richly illustrated volume includes: Lakes. In addition, Duke University Press has reissued in a new
edition The Beaches are Moving: 7he Drowning of America's
Shoreline, by Wallace Kaufman and Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., which
� Specific guidelines for building and buying at the shore with serves as an introduction and background to the series, covering
maximum protection for your investment and yourself; the basic issues that are applied to specific coastlines in the vol-
umes of the series.
� Site-safety maps and descriptions for every stretch along the The series editors also have 'written Coastal Design: A Guide
coastline from Perdido Key to Bay St. Louis in enough detail for Builders, Planners, and Home Owners, which concentrates
to help you find your specific homesite; on safe construction principles for builders (available from Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc.).
� Up-to-date advice on land use and the law;

Duke University Press Durham, North Carolina ISBN 0-8223-0511-9

3 6668 00000 0119