[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]







       SHORELINE

COUNTERMEASURES

         MANUAL




         - .









    TROPICAL COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS




NATIONAL OCEANIC C'- ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
        HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
      RESPONSE __ ASSESSMENT
            DIVISION

            MAY 1993











           SHORELINE
     COUNTERMEASURES
            MANUAL







    TROPICAL COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS














NATIONAL OCEANIC &. ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
         HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
       RESPONSE 47f ASSESSMENT
              DIVISION

              MAY 1992








Contents






 IDecision Process Organization.................................................
   Shoreline Evaluation Process ..1..............................................
   I   Shoreline Assessment Group..........................................2
   2   Shoreline Product Review Group                                                           .....................................2
   3   Technical Advisory Group                                                                ............................................4
   Termination of Countermeasure Activities                                                      ...................................5
   Summary of the Decision Process.............................................5


 2Shoreline Types and Sensitive Resources                                                       .....................................7
   ESI I      Exposed Rocky Shores and Vertical, Hard Man-Made Structures                .      ......  8
   ESI 2  Exposed Wave-Cut Rock Platforms ..................................10
   ESI 3  Fine-Grained Sand Beaches.........................................12
   ESI 4   Medium- to Coarse-Grained Sand Beaches...........................14
   ESI SA Mixed Sand and Gravel Beaches ....................................16
   ESI SS    Artificial Fill Containing a Range of Grain Size and Materials..........18
   ESI 6A Gravel Beaches....................................................20
   ESI 6B Exposed Riprap ...............................;....................22
   ESI 7  Exposed Tidal Flats ................................................24
   ESI 8   Sheltered Rocky Shores and Coastal Structures .......................26
   ESI 9  Sheltered Tidal Flats ...............................................28
   ESI I DA Mangroves........................................................30
   ESI 10OB Other Estuarine Wetlands..........................................32
   Special Considerations                        ........................................................34
        Coral Reefs.............................................................34
         Seagrasses ..............................................................35
        Turtle Nesting Beaches                                ........ ..........................................37









Contents,cot



3 Shoreline Mapping and Prioritization .........................................41
   Guidelines for Shoreline Surveys .............................................41
         Ground Surveys ......................................................42
         Selecting and Naming Segments .......................................43
         The Shoreline Survey Evaluation Forms................................43
   Abbreviated Shoreline Surveys ...............................................44
   Surface Oil Cover Summary ..................................................46
   Shoreline Oil Terminology/Codes.............................................47
         Shoreline Survey Evaluation Form (exhibit).............................49
         Shoreline Survey Evaluation Short Form (exhibit).......................50
         Sketch Map ..........................................................51



4 Matrices of Recommended Countermeasure. Methods ..........................53
         Very Light Oils........................................................55
         Light Oils.............................................................56
         Medium Oils .........................................................57
         Heavy Oils ...........................................................58


 5Treatment Methods Not Requiring Regional Response Team Approval ..........59
      INo Action............................................................60
   2   Manual Removal .....................................................60
   3   Passive Collection (Sorbents)...........................................61
   4   Debris Removal.......................................................62
      5 Trenchiing.............................................................62
   6   Sediment Removal ...................................................63
   7   Ambient-Water Flooding (Deluge) ......................................64
   8a  Ambient-Water/Low-Pressure Washing ................................65








Contents,


    8b Ambient-Water/High-Pressure Washing ............................................................ 66
     9   Warm-Water/Moderate-to-High-Pressure Washing ......................................... 67
     I 0 Hot-Water/High-Pressure Washing ...................................................................... 68
     ! !   Slurry Sand Blasting .................................................................................................. 69
     1 2 Vacuum ........................................................................................................................ 69
     1 3 Sediment Reworking ................................................................................................. 70
     1 4  Sediment Removal, Cleansing, and Replacement ............................................. 71
     I $ Cutting Vegetation ..................................................................................................... 72


    Treatment Methods Requiring Regional Response Team Approval ......................... 75
     ! 6a Chemical Oil Stabilization with Elastomizers ..................................................... 75
     16b Chemical Protection of Beaches .............................................................................. 76
     I 6c Chemical Cleaning of Beaches ................................................................................. 77
     17 ?In-situ Burning ........................................................................................................... 78
     !18 Nutrient Enhancement ............................................................................................. 79
     1 9 Microbial Addition ..................................................................................................... 80


Appendices
    A Guidelines for Treatment Operations ............................................................ A-1
    B Best Management Practices ......................................................................................... B-1
    C    NOAA Scientific Support Coordinators ................................................................... C-.i


Glossary ............................................................................................................................................ D-1


Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... E-1








introduction


Shoreline countermeasures following an oil spill are a critical element in determining
the ultimate environmental impact and cost resulting from a spill. As with most aspects
of spill response, careful planning can significantly increase the effectiveness of
treatment operations. Local response organizations need to develop mechanisms for
identifying shorelines requiring treatment, establishing treatment priorities, monitoring
the effectiveness and impacts of treatment, and for identifying and resolving problems
as the treatment progresses.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) developed this
manual as a tool for shoreline countermeasure planning and response by Regional
Response Teams, Area Planning Committees, and State and local response agencies.
This manual has been written specifically for tropical environments, to support oil spill
planning and response activities in both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean regions.
Similar manuals have been prepared for temperate regions, and a freshwater manual is
under preparation.

Even though this manual has been adapted for tropical environments, further
customization for each geographic area is needed and encouraged. Each section of the
manual should be adapted to address specific issues, priorities, and concerns in the
planning area. These ele'ments provide the information needed to select cleanup
methods for specific combinations of shoreline and oil types. Adapting and completing
the various sections creates a better manual that meets the specific needs of the area.
More importantly, the pre-spill process of adapting this manual should allow response
agencies the opportunity to discuss and resolve shoreline treatment issues prior to a
spill emergency.

The shoreline environments have already been revised to reflect those found in tropical
areas, based on those included in the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) atlases
prepared by NOAA for Florida, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and Guam.
The shoreline descriptions and rankings in these atlases descriptions have been updated
to reflect the current research on oil behavior and response activities, and they are
discussed in Chapter 2. The section on Special Considerations at the end of Chapter 2
lists those resource issues that are potentially of concern in tropical environments.


                                           iv








Guidelines have been written for three types of special concerns common to all tropical
regions: coral reefs, seagrasses, and turtle nesting beaches. It is intended that each region
or area would identify those resources of greatest concern to them and prepare similar
guidance on how to best minimize impacts from oil spills.


Chapter 3 of the manual also outlines a process of documenting and recommending
cleanup options for a section of a shoreline after it has been oiled. The scope of the
process should be scaled to fit the spill size and conditions. Thus, both comprehensive
and simplified forms and methods have been included.


Chapter 4 contains the main thrust of the manual, the matrices for recommended
cleanup methods for four main types of oil and the shoreline habitats present in tropical
environments. Each region should complete the matrices for themselves.


Chapters 5 and 6 include detailed descriptions of the various shoreline treatment
methods to be considered. Local experts in shoreline treatment should be involved in
the analysis of the effectiveness and effects of each of these methods for each area.


The appendices include a section on Best Management Practices, which have been
compiled from previous spills. These practices address specific resource issues which
were raised during an oil spill and resolved by the scientific community. They are
included as examples for response teams to follow, in the event similar issues arise.
Each region is encouraged to contribute to this appendix additional practices as they are
developed during actual spills, so that all may benefit from the lessons learned.








   1Decision Process Organization


A   Shoreline Evaluation Process

The shoreline evaluation process requires a commitment of trained personnel to assess,
evaluate, and communicate the effects of oil on the shoreline, as well as to recommend
countermeasures to mitigate adverse effects. At most spills, a repetitive, detailed, and
systematic survey of the extent and degree of shoreline contamination is needed to:

          I  Assess the need for shoreline cleanup
       2      Select the most appropriate cleanup -method
       3      Determine priorities for shoreline cleanup
       4      Document the spatial oil distribution over time
       5      Maintain an internally consistent historical record of shoreline oil
             distribution for use by other scientific surveys of intertidal and subtidal
             impacts

The organizational structure described in the following pages details a three-phase
model for the On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) to use in establishing the shoreline
evaluation process during an incident. During a small spill event, one team of
individuals may be able to conduct all three phases of support.

On the other end of the spectrum, du ring a larger spill event, three or more separate
teams would be required to conduct all three phases of support to the OSC. The products
of the shoreline evaluation process for a larger spill would include collecting the
individual shoreline sketches noting the extent of oiling, developing a database either in
text matrix or graphics displaying the oil distribution on the shoreline, recording the
decision process from the initial assessment of oiling, and monitoring and final
evaluation of the countermeasures used.








I Shoreline Assessment Group

Objectives
To determine location and extent of shoreline oiling, and effectiveness of implemented
countermeasures.

Members
Three or four trained personnel prepared to evaluate a section of shoreline, equipped
with proper protective gear and suitable transportation to and from the site. The
assessment group should have representatives of the OSC, State, responsible party, and
trustees. Trained volunteers may assist members of the group. Team members must
have basic site safety training and training sufficient to complete the Shoreline Survey
Evaluation Form (page 33). A person well-versed in oil spill control should be the team
leader. The group leader should seek consensus, however, all areas of controversy or
differences of opinion shall be documented and forwarded to the OSC. Specific
recommendations for cleanup may be included under this phase of the assessment.
Chapter 3 outlines the shoreline field evaluation process.

Products
During a small spill event, the products may be as simple as a field sketch illustrating
the oil distribution on the impacted shoreline and photographic documentation.
During more complex events, the completion of the Shoreline Survey Evaluation Form
would be required to document the many details of the oil's distribution on complex
shoreline features.


2   Shoreline Product Review Group

Objectives
Assure -product quality of the Shoreline Assessment Group. Assure quality of the spill
database.

During larger or complex spill events, the OSC may elect to establish a special quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC) team. The responsibility of this group is to insure
that information from the Shoreline Assessment Group is accurate and consistently
gathered. They will assure items of significance that may have been overlooked by the
Shoreline Assessment Group are added to the assessment process from other data


                                          2








sources (i.e., in-house reports, maps, databases) such as culturally or archaeologically
significant areas.


Significantly, the time-sensitive elements of the response may also be added to
recommendations to the OSC by this team. For example; are there natural resources that
are particularly sensitive to oiling at the time, or season, the spill is occurring? Is there a
window of opportunity to conduct countermeasure operations to protect a turtle nesting
season (remove the oil before they arrive) or terminate countermeasure activities to
protect bird nesting areas (keep the responders away from nesting areas with live
chicks)?

Members
The Shoreline Product Review Group should contain representatives from the OSC,
State, land managers, and database managers, as appropriate. The State representative
shall collect and forward special concerns submitted by local authorities. The NOAA
Scientific Support Coordinator (SSC) team can assist in the design- of the database to
compile detailed data on oil distribution by shoreline segment.

Products
During more complex spill events, a database will be used to collect and summarize the
Shoreline Evaluation Survey forms prepared by the field teams. The use of maps and
other graphics to display the oil's distribution on the shoreline is critical in assisting the
decision process. This display may be as simple as using colored markers on existing
maps or charts. There should not be a requirement for a computer-generated display of
the oil's distribution on the shoreline when lower technology displays will provide the
same information to the Technical Advisory Group and the OSC. The NOAA SSC team
can assist in the design of a visual display for a particular spill event by drawing pictures
representing oil distribution on representations of particular shorelines now available
from National Ocean Survey (NOS) charts.

For more detailed statistical documentation, the use of a database to collect and
summarize distances and extent of shoreline segments that are oiled may also be
required. There should not be a requirement for the computer system to be both a
combination of a visual and a data collection system when lower technology systems can
provide the same information to the Technical Advisory Group and the OSC.





                                           3







3   Technical Advisory Group

Objectives
Review and evaluate Shoreline Survey Evaluation forms to provide timely advice to
the OSC for recommended treatment of oiled shorelines and priorities, including
specific countermeasures. In addition, this group will consider the effects of proposed
countermeasures. They may also suggest alternative or modified countermeasures and
technologies to the OSC for experimental trials during a spill of opportunity.

Members
NCOAA SSC, State representative, trustee(s), U.S. Coast Guard, and responsible party.
The SSC will present group recommendations, including differing opinions, to the OSC.
Participants in this group shall have the authority to commit their agencies to
recommended actions. The level of staff participating on this team should have the
authority to determine the final recommendations.

Products
One key product of the Technical Advisory Group is feedback to the Shoreline
Assessment Group on treatment countermeasures that have been approved. The
Shoreline Assessment Group will then be able to assess the effectiveness of this
treatment method on the affected shoreline and make recommendations back through
the Technical Advisory Group for any adjustments necessary to improve the efficacy of
the cleanup. The form of the feedback may be as simple as a copy of the approved
countermeasure or a work order. The copying of the graphics/charts, in which the oil
distribution is displayed, would be another desirable form of feedback.
Recommendations and authorized countermeasures should be copied to each team
member.














                                          4









B   Termination of Countermeasure Activities


Objective
To reach agreement on the completion of each shoreline segment countermeasure
activity.


Product
Completion of active shoreline countermeasures under the jurisdiction of the Federal
Government is a decision of the OSC. Support of the OSC requires recommendations
on shoreline countermeasures, and also recommendations on when to terminate
response. The process of evaluating the results of countermeasures and the
recommendation to terminate response activities requires a give and take of members
with many different responsibilities and roles. A goal of the Technical Advisory Group
is to determine if the continued use of a particular countermeasure will result in more
damage to the environment than would occur as a result of terminating any active
response measures.




Summary of the Decision Process


This section outlines the cyclical decision tree for evaluating activities.

                                     Shoreline Product Review
                                     Group assure quality of field
         Shoreline Assessment  ....      adnorton
                                  surveys, add information,
         Group evaluation of oil's  prepare graphic summary.
         distribution: use forms,
         sketches, aerial survey.


                                 Technical Advisory Group
                                 evaluates countermeasure.
                                 Question: Will use of
                                 countermeasures damage
                                  more then help?



                    NO - continue process. I  I YES - terminate Drocess. I






                               I~~~~~
                     On-Scene
                     Coordinator
                     implements
                     countermeasure.








Summary products of the decision process, including the use of maps and other graphics
to display the oil's distribution on the shoreline, is critical in assisting this cyclical
decision process.'

   C& This display may be as simple as using colored markers on existing maps or
       charts.

   C& For more detailed and statistical documentation, the use of a database to collect
       and summarize distances of shoreline segments that are, for example, heavily or
       lightly oiled, may also be required.

       The NOAA SSC team can present the visual and database information, including
       differing opinions of members, to the OSC.

   c. This report of the recommendations and countermeasures approved for use
       should be copied to each team member and collected for inclusion in the final
       OSC report as required.
































                                           6








2 Shoreline Types and Sensitive

       Resources


The type of shoreline, degree of exposure to waves and currents, and associated
biological sensitivity are the main criteria for selecting appropriate treatment techniques.
Prediction of the behavior and persistence of oil on intertidal habitats is based on an
understanding of the coastal environment, not just the substrate type and grain size.
The vulnerability of a particular intertidal habitat is an integration of the:

          IShoreline type (substrate, grain size, tidal elevation, origin)
       2      Exposure to wave and tidal energy
       3      Biological productivity and sensitivity
       4      Ease of cleanup

All of these factors are used to determine the relative sensitivity of shorelines. Key to
the sensitivity ranking is an understanding of the relationships between: physical
processes, substrate, shoreline type, product type, sediment transport, and product fate
and effect. The intensity of energy expended upon a shoreline by wave action, tidal
currents, and river currents directly affects the persistence of stranded oil. The need for
shoreline cleanup activities is determined, in part, by the lack or slowness of natural
processes in. removal of oil stranded on the shoreline.

These concepts were used in the development of the Environmental Sensitivity Index
(ESI), which ranks shoreline environments as to their relative sensitivity to oil spills,
potential biological injury, and ease of cleanup. Generally speaking, areas exposed to
high levels of physical energy, such as wave action and tidal currents, and low biological
activity rank low on the scale, while sheltered areas with associated high biological
activity have the highest ranking. The shoreline ranking system provides a useful first
step in the design of contingency plans because it identifies the priority areas that require
maximum effort for protection and cleanup. The shoreline types used in this manual
are the rankings, on a scale of I to 10, used on ESI maps prepared for Florida, Puerto
Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and Guam The descriptions, predicted oil impact, and
recommended response activity listed in the following sections were updated from
existing ESI maps, based on NOAA (1992). These shoreline types are then used in the
matrices in Chapter 4.


                                           7








ESI= I   Exposed Rocky Shores and Vertical, Hard Man-
             Made Structures (e.g., Seawalls)

Description
      Exposed rocky shores are composed of vertical scarps (>450 in slope) in bedrock.

      They are most common on exposed headlands with steep nearshore topography.
CSO    They are exposed to high wave energy or tidal energy on a regular basis.

   C& In places, the vertical scarps are buttressed at the base by large slump blocks.

   C& Seawalls and piers occur in developed areas to provide protection to residential
      and industrial developments.

   C& Substrate may be colonized by intertidal algae and limpets, although attached
      organisms are usually sparse to moderate.

Predicted Oil Impact
      Most commonly, oil would be held offshore by waves reflecting off the steep rock
      faces.

      Deposited light oils would be removed rapidly by wave action; heavier, sticky oils
      are likely to remain longer as a patchy band at or above the high-tide line.

      Heavy and weathered oils would adhere to rough surfaces and in crevices; there
      is little potential for penetration.

      Effects on intertidal communities are expected to be of short duration; an
      exception would be where heavy concentrations of a light refined product (e.g.,
      No. 2 fuel oil) came ashore very quickly.




























                        _ '
                                AO ~~~~CAVE















Recommended Response Activity
      On very exposed shores, no cleanup is necessary (and may be dangerous).

      On less exposed shores:

          High-pressure spraying may be effective while oil is still liquid.

      c, Manual scraping of seawalls may be necessary for removal of tarry deposits, to
          minimize aesthetic impacts.






                                         9








ESI=2   Exposed, Wave-Cut Rock Platforms

Description
       Platforms are wave-cut or low-lying benches in rock, generally exposed to high
       wave action.

   coThe platform may be covered by a thin veneer of sand and gravel, frequently
       colonized by intertidal algae and limpets.

   C& Rock surfaces are irregular, with numerous tidal pools and associated organisms.
       The rock surface may be colonized by intertidal algae and limpets.

   C- In places, low-lying, pitted, and pinnacled limestone merges into offshore reef -
       flat platforms.
cs     The reef-flat platform supports large populations of encrusting plants and
       animals. Often, the heaviest growth on the reef-flat platform is restricted to low-
       tide moats or where holes and depressions retain water during low tide.

Predticted oil Impact
CIO    Oil would not adhere to the rock platform, but rather be transported across the
       platform and accumulate along the high-tide line.

   CO Light oils may penetrate porous volcanic rocks at the high-tide line.

Cs.    Oil can penetrate and persist in the beach sediments on the landward side of the
       platform, if present.

   CP Light oils would tend to be removed rapidly by waves and evaporation.

Cal    Heavy oils and tar balls would tend to melt into crevices and depressions,
       especially on porous, irregular rock surfaces.

Cs,    Persistence may be from days to months, depending on the site-specific, wave-
       energy levels and type of oil.
Cs.    Tidal pool organisms and algae may be killed, but recovery can be rapid.











                                          10











































Recommended Response Activity
       Cleanup is not necessary in most areas, except for removal of oiled wrack and
       accumulated pooled oil.

       High recreational-use areas may be cleaned effectively using high-pressure water
       spraying of non-vegetated areas if oil is still fresh.

       Avoid removal of organisms.

C$'    Low-pressure flushing may be appropriate on vegetated areas that continue to
       sheen after several days.








ESI=3   Fine-Grained Sand Beaches

Description
MO.    Not a dominant beach type because of the abundance of coarse shells and coral
      rubble.

      On islands they are usually found as pocket beaches bordered by rocky headlands.

Cs.    They are high-use recreational areas.

      The beaches are generally flat and hard-packed, and infauna are scarce.

Predicted Oil Impact
      Large oil accumulations would cover entire active beach face.

      Light oil accumulations would be deposited as oily swashes along the upper
      intertidal zone.

Cs-   Oil would accumulate in any wrack that may be present.

C81    Penetration of oil into the beach can be up to 10 cm; burial would be minimal.

      Asphalt pavements can form under heavy accumulations; pavements change the
      nature and stability of the substrate and thus its biological utilization.

      Shorebirds resting/feeding on these beaches may be oiled.

      Biological effects include temporary declines in beach organisms, which may also
      affect feeding shorebirds.

Recommended Response Activity
Cs.    Fine-grained sand beaches are the easiest beach type to clean.

C&    Cleanup should concentrate on removal of oil and oiled wrack.

Cso    Sand removal should be minimized to avoid erosional problems; sediment
      removal activities should commence only after all the oil has come ashore.

Cs-    Manual cleanup, rather than use of road graders and front-end loaders, is advised
       to minimize volume of sand removed and prevent grinding the oil deeper,
       depending on the size of the oiled area.

Cs,    Techniques which wash oiled sand into the lower intertidal and subtidal should
      be avoided.





                                          12
































   SPRING
HIGH-TIDE LINE
 (SEAWEED)





                                                                                  SHELLS















































                                                 13








ESI=4   Medium- to Coarse-Grained Sand Beaches

Description
cs~    These beaches are present in areas sheltered by barrier reefs or wide reef-flat
      platforms, as pocket beaches bordered by rocky headlands, or as long stretches that
      have been renourished.

C$.    They have moderate beach slopes and are narrow with soft sediments.

      They occur in areas with intermittent high waves and wrack can be common.

   c. Species density and diversity is usually low.

Predicted Oil Impact
   CO Under heavy accumulations, oil can cover the entire beach face, although the oil
      would be lifted off the lower part of the beach with the rising tide.

   C. Small accumulations would be deposited in swash lines and wrack deposits.

   C0 Large amounts of oil can accumulate behind the high-tide berm, where it is
      unable to drain off the beach at low tide.

   2Oil can penetrate 10-25 cm, with light oils penetrating deeper than heavy oils.

   C0 Oil may become deeply buried (30-60 cm) as clean beach sediments are deposited
      on top of the oiled layer.

   C& Asphalt pavements can form under heavy accumulations in more sheltered
      areas; pavements. change the nature and stability of the substrate and thus its
      biological utilization.

   c    Temporary declines in infaunal populations may occur.

Recommended Response Activity
    Cleanup may be difficult because of relatively soft sediments (e.g., vehicular
      access may be impaired).

      Cleanup should focus on oil/oily debris removal from the upper beach face.

    Sand removal should be minimized to avoid erosional problems; sediment
      removal activities should commence only after all the oil has come ashore,







                                         14











                                                           ESI=4















                 a,,,,.j+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ol}   A







              HIGH-TIDE
                LINE
             (SEAWEED)            CUSP            . 

                                                         SHELLS






   Traffic should be limited to prevent mixing oil deeper into the sediments.

   Use of heavy equipment for oiled sand removal may result in the removal of
   excessive amounts of sand; manual cleanup may be less disruptive, depending
   on the size of the oiled area.

C  Nutrient addition may be an option, particularly when other dcleanup methods
   have reached their practical limit of application. Effectiveness of nutrients would
   have to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.








ESI=5A  Mixed Sand and Gravel Beaches

Description
cap    These beaches are composed of a variable mixture of carbonate sand, shells, coral
       rubble, and rock fragments.

Cal  They occur in a wide variety of settings, but are most common on exposed
       shorelines in shallow indentions adjacent to eroding headlands and on top of
       reef-flat platforms.

coal   Active beaches have low infaunal densities because of sediment mobility; more
       stable beaches have moderate densities.

Predicted Oil Impact
       Oil penetration may be high (tens of cm), with greatest penetration in coarser,
      well-sorted sediments.

c$O    Under very heavy accumulations, oil may spread across the entire beach.

      During small spills, oil would be deposited along and above the high-tide swash
      line.

      Burial of oil by clean sediments may be very deep (more than I m) at the high-
      tide berm.

       Oil can be stranded on low-tide terraces composed of gravel, particularly if the oil
      is weathered or emulsified.

      Asphalt pavements are likely to form in more sheltered beaches where heavy
      accumulations of oil fill the voids between the sediments; once formed, these
      pavements are very stable and can persist for many years.

      Any oil stranded above the high-tide line would be highly persistent.

      Biota present may be killed by the oil, either by smothering or by lethal
      concentrations of dissolved components in interstitial water.











                                          16




















                          0~~~~~~~~~~~~~0












   clau shul c ome onl fe l h olhscm soe
                               I,~~~~~ t' ï¿½                 I  




      /I                  .*,"'-.  ,       ï¿½o


















C& Oiled wrack and debris deposits should be removed manually.

C, Low-pressure spraying may be used effectively on coarser-grained beaches.

cn Berm relocation is effective for speeding natural removal of subsurface oil.

C& Nutrient addition may be an option, particularly when other cleanup methods
   have reached their practical limit of application. Effectiveness of nutrients would
   have to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.




                                       17








ESI=5B Artificial Fill Containing a Range of Grain Size
             and Materials

Description
cm.    Most of the developed ports and harbors have areas that have been modified by
       creating beaches, assorted breakwaters, etc., by artificial placement of a variety of
       materials.

       Usually has the consistency of mixed sand and gravel beaches, being composed of
       sand mixed with coral and rock debris.

       These beaches may be exposed only to very intermittent wave energy.

Predicted Oil Impact
      Oil penetration may be high (tens of cm), with greatest penetration in coarser,
       well-sorted sediments.

       Deeply penetrated oil may leach for a period of time, generating a source of
       chronic oiling to adjacent habitats.

      Under very heavy accumulations, oil may spread across the entire beach.

      During small spills, oil would be deposited along and above the high-tide swash
      line.

C&     Natural removal rates may be very slow, depending on the local wave or boat
      wake energy.

      Asphalt pavements are likely to form in more sheltered beaches where heavy
      accumulations of oil fill the voids between the sediments; once formed, these
      pavements are very stable and can persist for many years.

      Any oil stranded above the high-tide line would be highly persistent.

Recommended Response Activity
C&.    Oiled wrack and debris deposits should be removed manually.

CS.    Low-pressure spraying may be used effectively.

CS.    Removal of sediment may be advisable if more fill is available to replace it, to
      control chronic leaching or remove pavements.






                                         18



























Sketch Not Available
































         19








ESl=6A Gravel Beaches

Description
CS.    Gravel beaches are composed purely of gravel-sized sediments, with little-to-no
       sand.

       The gravel-sized sediments include coral rubble and/or shell and rock fragments.

cs.    Gravel beaches are present adjacent to eroding headlands.

CS.    They can be steep, with multiple wave-built berms forming the upper beach.

Predicted Oil impact
-S.    Oil on gravel beaches would coat individual pieces of gravel.

C5.    Coral rubble is very porous and most oils will soak into the coral rubble itself.

       High porosity and permeability would allow deep penetration to several tens of
       centimeters into substrate.

cam    Penetration would be greatest in areas of largest grain size and best sorting.

       In exposed areas, waves would remove surface contamination.

       In intermittent-energy areas, buried or penetrated oil would tend to seep out
       slowly, generating sheens that can recontaminate the shoreline.

c~o    There is a high potential for oil burial by accretional features.

CS.    If left to harden, heavy accumulations of oil would likely form an asphalt/gravel
       pavement in sheltered areas.

Recommended Response Actiuity
cs.    Heavily oiled wrack and debris should be removed.

       Removal of sediments is not recommended because of the slow rate of natural
       replacement of gravel.

       High-pressure spraying of oiled gravel may help in cleaning exposed surfaces, but
       would have little effect on oil that penetrated deeply into gravel.

       Berm relocation is effective for speeding natural removal of subsurface oil.

       Nutrient addition may be an option for treating oiled gravel beaches, particularly
       when other cleanup methods have reached their practical limit of application.
       Effectiveness of nutrients would have to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.



                                          20















                                                                ESI6A










,,                h                                -~~~~~%I












           0 ~        ~~~~~~~~~~~ 450




















                                        42    1








ESI=6B Exposed Riprap

Description
   C  Riprap consists of large rocks as well as concrete armor units (tetrapods, dolos,
       etc.).

    Riprap is present in harbor entrances and along developed areas for shore
       protection.

       Biomass is generally low in high energy areas, but attached organism density and
       species diversity are higher at more protected sites.

Predicted Oil Impact
    Heavy oil would coat the surface as well as penetrate and completely fill the
       cavities in riprap structures.

    In exposed areas, waves would remove surface contamination.

    In lower-energy areas, oil would tend to seep out of the oil-filled cavities slowly,
       generating sheens that can recontaminate adjacent shorelines.

   C  If oil is left to harden, an asphalt pavement may result.

Recommended Response Activity
   C  High-pressure spraying of oiled riprap may help in cleaning exposed surfaces but
      would have little effect on oil that penetrated deeply into the riprap.

    For small areas of contamination, riprap units can be manually wiped or scraped
      to remove oil.

   C  It may be necessary to remove heavily oiled riprap and replace it.

CS.    Sometimes, the only option is to use snare booms to pick up oil as it is naturally
      removed.











                  ESI6B



  ERODING
  SHORELINE











23l.P       ~c/l\  .ISAN









































23








ESI=7   Exposed Tidal Flats

Description
Cs&    They are an uncommon shoreline type in tropical U.S. waters because of the
    - small tidal range in the Caribbean Sea and open Pacific Ocean.

C&     They are present near river mouths in areas sheltered by barrier reefs or wide
       fringing reefs, in the lee of offshore islands, or near tidal inlets.

       The dominant grain size is sand, perhaps with minor amounts of mud and gravel.

       They are exposed to moderate wave and tidal current energy.

C&     They are always associated with another shoreline type on the landward side of
       the flat.

       Biological utilization can be very high, with large numbers of organisms and
       heavy use by birds for roosting and foraging.

       Intertidal benthic algae may dominate this habitat.

Predicted Oil Impact
C-     Heaviest concentrations would be along the high-tide line.

C&     Most oil would be transported across the flat with the rising tide; seldom would
       oil adhere to the tidal flat or be buried.

       Heavy accumulations would cover the flat during low tide.

       Oil does not penetrate the water-saturated sediments, except into burrows in the
       upper intertidal zone, but it may coat the attached algae, particularly if it is dead
       or dries out during exposure at low tide.

       Biological impacts may be severe, primarily to organisms, thereby reducing food
       sources for birds and other predators.

Recommended Response Activity
       Cleanup is difficult; therefore these areas require priority protection.

       Cleanup is possible only during low tides.

       The use of heavy machinery should be avoided at all times.

C&     Cleanup efforts should concentrate on removing oil and oily debris along the
       high-tide line.

Cs,  Operations should be conducted from boats to minimize sediment disturbance.


                                          24










                         ES1=7










.....~~x .... ..
SANDY TIDAL FLAT











































            25








ESI=8   Sheltered Rocky Shores and Coastal Structures

Description
Cs.    Sheltered rocky shores occur in small coves and bays, and in developed areas
       where canals have been dug into bedrock.

       They occur as vertical rock walls and boulder-strewn rocky ledges.

       Seawalls, piers, bulkheads, and other structures can dominate developed
       shorelines along harbors and bays.

Predicted Oil Impact
CS.    Oil would coat the intertidal surfaces of rocky shores and seawalls.

       Oil would penetrate into the joints and voids of the rocks.

       On vertical surfaces, the oil would form a distinct oil band along the high-tide
       line; the lower half of the rock face usually stays wet enough to prevent oil from
       adhering and remaining.

cs.    Heavy oil accumulations can coat the entire intertidal zone.

       Oil may persist for weeks to months; fresh oil and light refined products have
       high acute toxicities, which can affect attached organisms after even short
       exposures.

       Biota living on the surface (e.g., urchins, crabs, snails) would be impacted.

Recommended Response Activity
       High- and low-pressure water spraying of the rocky surfaces and seawalls may be
       required:

       * To remove oil

       ï¿½ To prepare area for recolonization of epifauna

       * For aesthetic reasons, in populated areas

       * To prevent the chronic leaching of oil from the surface

       High-pressure spraying of coastal structures should be conducted only when the
       tide is high, to prevent the released oil from adhering to the sediments at the base
       of the structures. Sorbents can also be used to recover the oil.





                                          26











                             MANGFROVES       I~










97 































                         27








ESI=9    Sheltered Tidal Flats

Description
CS.    Sheltered tidal flats are not common, because of the small tidal range.

e.1    They are often associated with mangroves.

c30    They are composed predominantly of mud, but may contain sand and/or gravel,
       ana are sheltered from wave and tidal energy.

Predicted Oil Impact
cs.    Oil would most likely to be transported across the tidal flat and deposited along
       the high-tide line in the accumulated wrack deposits.

       Very heavy accumulations can cover much of the flat surface, but penetration
       would not occur into the water-saturated sediments of the flat, except possibly
       into burrows at the high-tide line.

cs.    Long-term contamination of muddy tidal-flat sediments is possible in areas of
       high suspended sediments through the sorption of the oil on these particulates.

coo    Oil stranded at the high-tide line or mixed into the sediments may persist for
       many years; natural removal is very slow.

       Organisms living in and on the sediments would be impacted.

Recommended Response Activity
coo    These environments are high-priority areas necessitating the use of spill
       protection devices such as booms to prevent or minimize oil impact.

       Foot traffic on oiled tidal flats should be prohibited.

       If cleanup is necessary, it should be restricted to the upper reaches of the high-tide
       swash line or be conducted from boats.

       Passive deanup efforts such as deployment of sorbent boom can be used to
       recover oil as it is removed naturally, but they must be changed frequently to be
       effective.

       Any cleanup should be supervised closely to minimize the mixing of oil into the
       sediment during the deanup effort.






                                          28














MANGROVES-


























































                         29








ESI= 1I A Mangroves

Description
C80    Mangroves are the most sensitive shoreline habitat to oil-spill effects.

Cs-    Mangrove forests can range in width from one to hundreds of meters.

C80    Red (Rhizophora) and black (Avicennia) mangroves are the most common
       mangrove species.

       The sediment ranges from thin to thick layers of sand and mud, to muddy peat
       on bedrock, to a rubble veneer on bedrock.

       They can vary widely in the degree of exposure to wave and tidal energy, with
       exposed forests along the outer shoreline and sheltered forests in bays and
       estuaries well-protected from physical processes.

Cs,    There can be many storm swash lines of heavy wrack deposits deep into the forest.

Cs,    The mangrove roots support a rich diversity of attached animals and plants.

Predicted Oil Impact
cs-    As oil enters mangrove forests, their roots and associated epiphytic communities
      would be covered with a band of oil.

       Degree and type of acute mortality is oil-type dependent:
       * Light oils (gasoline, jet fuel, No. 2 fuel oil) would have acute, toxic effects to
          both trees and intertidal biota
       *  Crude oils/heavy refined products are toxic due to coating and sediment
          contamination

       Oiling of sediments would occur if large quantities of oil were washed ashore; of
       particular concern are organic-rich sediments that are exposed at low tide.

cM.    No. 2 fuel oil would have the greatest effects due to penetration; it can persist and
       remain toxic for many years if it penetrates burrows and prop root cavities.

Cs, Persistence would be long-term with heavy oil accumulations.

cs.    A beach berm fronting the mangroves would normally limit oil contamination
       to the seaward side of the berm, preventing oiling of forest interiors.

Recommended Response Activity
       These highly sensitive areas are very difficult to clean up and thus require the
       highest protection priority.



                                          30







                                                     ESI=1 0A


                                          ~?>~..~., ~RED
                                                        , 'N.MANGROVES









                                              CALM ISHALLOW







       Under most conditions, the best practice is to allow natural recovery, especially
       where natural cleaning can occur.

       Placement of sorbent boom along the mangrove forest fringe may reduce the
       quantity of stranded oil significantly.

       Booms should be deployed in an attempt to protect the most sheltered areas
       where greatest persistence is likely.

      However, deployment of boom is seldom effective with light refined oils because
       of the low viscosity of these products.

       Heavy accumulations should be skimmed or flushed with low-pressure water
       flooding, as long as there is NO disturbance or mixing of oil into the substrate. If
       substrate mixing is likely or unavoidable, it is better to leave the oil to weather
      naturally.

      Oily debris and wrack can be a source of chronic sheening and should be
       removed, taking care not to disturb the substrate.

      Vegetation should never be cut or otherwise removed.

       Sorbents can be used to wipe heavy oil coating from prop roots in areas of firm
       substrate. Close supervision of cleanup is required.

can    Nutrient addition may be an option for treatment of residual oil contamination
       in mangrove sediments. Effectiveness would have to be evaluated case-by-case.


                                          31








ESI= 1 OB Other Estuarine Wetlands

Description
       Many of the river systems on tropical islands contain estuarine wetlands which,
       in some areas, extend over 1 km inland.

       Principal plants on Pacific Ocean Islands include the Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans),
       pago (Hibiscus tiliaceus), tangan-tangan (Leucaena sp.), bamboo, and
       miscellaneous grasses, among others.

       These wetlands have high density and diversity of plants, and they are important
       habitats for many animals.

Predicted Oil Impact
       Estuarine conditions allow the possibility for oil to be transported into these
       wetlands during flood tides.

       Specific effects of oil on many of these species is unknown, but wetlands are
       usually heavily impacted during oil spills.

C&     Oil adheres readily to the vegetation.

       The band of coating would vary widely, depending upon the tidal stage at the
       time that the oil slicks are in the vegetation. There can be multiple bands.

       Large slicks would persist through multiple tidal cycles and coat the entire plant
       from the high-tide line to the base.

Cal    Fresh crudes and heavy oils would tend to "slide" down the stem over time in
       warmer weather and pool on the sediments at the base of the plant.

       Weathered oils do not "slide" as much; the oil stays on the vegetation.

       If the vegetation is thick, heavy oil contamination can be restricted to the outer
       fringing vegetation, with penetration and lighter oiling further inland.

       Lighter oils (light refined, fresh crudes) can penetrate deeply into the wetland, to
       the high-tide line.

C@.    Medium to heavy oils do not readily adhere to or penetrate the wet, muddy
       sediments, but they can pool on the surface and in burrows.

       Light oils can penetrate the top few cm of sediment and deeply into burrows and
       cracks (up to 100 cm).



                                           32






                                                            ESI=1 OB




                                                               MANGROVES o 















Recommended Response Activity
       These highly sensitive areas are very difficult to clean up, therefore they require
       the highest of priority protection.

c&     Under most conditions, the best practice is to allow natural recovery, especially
       where natural cleaning is effective, such as along river channels exposed to wave
       and tidal energy.

cs.    Placement of sorbent boom along the vegetative fringe may reduce the quantity
       of oil impacting the area.

       Deployment of boom is seldom effective with light refined oils because of the low
       viscosity of these products.

       For other products, booms should be deployed to attempt to protect the most
       sheltered areas where greatest persistence is likely.

       Heavy accumulations should be skimmed or flushed with low-pressure water
       flooding, as long as there is NO disturbance or mixing of oil into the substrate. If
       substrate mixing is likely or unavoidable, it is better to leave the oil to weather
       naturally.

       Oily debris should be removed, taking care not to disturb the substrate.

Cs.    Live vegetation should not be cut or otherwise removed.

os.    These activities should be closely supervised.


                                           33







Special Considerations

Carat Reefs

Description
This section deals with coral reefs, that is, structures which are created and maintained
by the establishment and growth of populations of hermatypic coral and coralline algae.
Coral reefs are mostly subtidal in nature, although the most shallow portions of some
reefs can be exposed during very low tides. The four major categories of reefs are:

   C, Fringing reefs - long, narrow bands of coral reefs parallel to and near the
       shoreline. When near coastal development, they are susceptible to stress from
       sedimentation and chronic pollution.
   0    Barrier reefs - similar to fringing reefs except that they are further offshore and
       much broader.
   C, Atoll reefs - reefs formed by the buildup of coral on the rim of a subsiding
       volcano. They are circular or portions of a circle, forming a sheltered lagoon.
   cm Patch reefs - small, irregularly shaped coral reefs that occur in isolated patches
       rather than long bands.
Recent studies have found that many coral species throughout the world spawn
simultaneously over a very short time period (days), a behavior which makes the entire
year's recruitment very vulnerable.

Predtictedt Oil Impact
C*P    Oil would usually pass over subtidal reefs with no direct contamination.

   C. Exceptions where floating oil would potentially coat living reef communities are:
       ï¿½  Landward border of fringing reef platforms which are exposed at low tide
       *  Certain reef-flats which are floored with bedrock and may have high coral
          heads growing on them, and
       *  The outer, seaward part of reef-flat platforms that are usually slightly elevated
          and are consequently exposed at low tide and heavily washed by waves





                                           34







       Except in the event of extremely heavy oil concentrations, oil would be readily
       removed from these reef areas with the rising tide. This is especially true of the
       outer reef platform.

       There is little documentation of long-term impacts to coral reefs from oil spills,
       except in the situations where the pollution is chronic, or in the rare instance
       where oiled sediments might be transported to the bottom. The best case history
       is a five-year study of the corals impacted by the Texaco spill in Panama.

       Studies have shown sublethal impacts to coral from oil spills, with short-term
       recovery.

       Greatest impacts to the reef would result from spills of light refined products
       directly into the shallow waters overlying reefs and where high concentrations of
       water-soluble fractions persist. Also, large spills during the period of
       simultaneous spawning could affect the larvae of all coral species, regardless of
       water depth.

       Of greater concern at most spills are the organisms that concentrate around the
       coral reef habitat.

Recommended Response Activity
       Sorbents and booms should be used to prevent oil from being transported over
       the reefs.

       No cleanup is recommended. Cleanup of the reef itself by natural processes is
       expected to be rapid.

       Oil should be removed from adjacent intertidal areas to prevent chronic
       exposure of the corals to oil leaching from these sites.

       Any use of sorbents should be limited to those that can be contained and
       recovered.



Seagrasses


Description
Seagrasses in tropical environments in the Caribbean and U.S. Pacific territories are
dominated by turtlegrass (Thalassia sp.), manatee grass (Syringodium sp.), and
shoalgrass (Halodule sp. and Enhalus sp.). Their distribution is limited by water



                                           35








temperature, light penetration (thus turbidity and water depth), and salinity. Seagrasses
play a very important role in shallow coastal marine environments, including:
C&     Sediment stabilization.

       Detritus production which provides a major basis of food chains, although the
       bulk of the biomass is in the sediments (in the rhizomes).

CSO    Substrate for a highly productive epiphytic community, with a total biomass
       which often approaches or exceeds that of the plants themselves.

       A directly utilized food source for a few organisms, namely turtles, who graze on
       seagrasses.

       Habitat which is utilized by fish and shellfish as nursery areas.

       Key role in nutrient cycling, including nitrogen, phosphorous, and sulfur.

Predicted Oil Impact
       Greatest impacts occur on seagrasses that are intertidal, where the oil comes in
       direct contact with exposed blades.

       Oil readily adheres to exposed blades, particularly when the oil is heavy or
       weathered.

CS,    Unless the sediments are also oiled, any oiled blades are quickly defoliated and
       the plants have the capacity to grow new leaves (the leaves grow from a
       relatively protected meristem). Recovery can occur with 6-12 months.

       Plant mortality has been observed at spills when the sediments were
       contaminated by oil, although such incidents have been rare.

       The most sensitive component of the seagrass ecosystem is the epiphytic
       community and juvenile organisms using the grass beds as a nursery. These
       species and life stages can be highly sensitive to both the water-soluble and
       insoluble fractions of oil.

       The plants can uptake hydrocarbons from the water column and sediments,
       potentially lowering their tolerances to other stresses.


Recommended Response Activity
C&     Where possible, oil should be prevented from entering shallow, sheltered areas
       where seagrass beds occur. Highest priority should be those beds which are
       known to provide nursery areas for commercially important species.


                                           36








       Little can be done to protect seagrass beds along exposed sections of shoreline.

       Extreme care should be taken not to disturb the sediments during cleanup
       operations in the vicinity of seagrasses, which could result in total loss of the
       seagrass bed.

       Cleanup efforts onshore should not result in the deposition of oiled sediments in
       the beds, e.g., from water flushing of intertidal substrates.

       Oiled wrack on adjacent beaches should be removed quickly, to prevent re-entry
       of oiled detritus into the nearshore environment.

Cs.    Removal of oiled blades should only be considered when it can be demonstrated
       that special species (such as endangered turtles) are at significant risk of injury
       from contact or grazing on the blades.

       Otherwise, the best strategy for oiled blades is to allow natural recovery; the oiled
       blades are sloughed off within days to weeks.



Turtle Nesting Beaches


Description
This section deals with beaches which are used by turtles for laying and incubation of
eggs. The most sensitive life stages are the eggs when they are buried in the sand, the
hatchlings as they dig their way out of the nest and enter the water, and young juveniles
which are pelagic surface dwellers. Important aspects of the life histories of the five
species of sea turtles which spend part of their lives in coastal waters (Kemp's ridley,
loggerhead, green turtle, hawksbill, and leatherback) are:
       Sea turtles may nest every 1-4 years after reaching maturity (which is estimated to
       take 10-50 years).

       The female may lay anywhere from I to 10 clutches of about 100 eggs per season,
       depending on the species.

       The nests are normally located above the high-tide level.

as.    Incubation takes about two months.

       The greatest source of natural mortality of sea turtles is probably predation of
       hatchlings in the ocean.

       There is strong nesting beach fidelity.


                                            37







Predicted Oil Impact
CS.    The greatest threat of oil spills on land is the toxic effects of direct contamination
       of eggs in the nest. However, it should be noted that, because the eggs are laid
       above the high-tide line, direct oiling is unlikely when it occurs during nesting.
       The number of unhatched eggs is much higher when fresh crude oil is on the
       sand surface during the last half to quarter of the incubation period. This effect is
       thought to be due to displacement of oxygen by the lighter oil fractions when the
       rate of oxygen consumption is at its peak.
       Many weathered crude oils are less toxic to turtle eggs than fresh crude oils.

       Hatchling morphology is affected by the amount of oil and time of oiling.
       Weights are lower and sizes are smaller when the eggs are exposed to a light
       dosage of oil mixed in the sand.
Cs.    Young turtles exposed to oil in water in tests have demonstrated disturbed diving
       and respiratory patterns, decreased blood glucose levels, reddening and sloughing
       off of the skin, and dysfunctioning of the salt glands.
CS     ' Turtles feed on floating objects, therefore they are susceptible to ingestion of
       tarballs and coating of oil on their flippers and in their mouths.
Recommended Response Activity
       Removal of eggs from nests along beaches under immediate threat of oiling is
       seldom an option because the eggs should not be moved after 24 hours post-
       laying. The yolks and embryos settle to one side within 48 hours, thus any
       movement after that period usually results in decreased viability.

       Only experienced or trained personnel should attempt to move threatened eggs.
       Nesting beaches should receive highest priority for cleanup if they are oiled prior
       to the nesting period.
       Rapid removal of oil from a beach with active nests may be attempted,
       particularly if the oil has not reached the nest sites.
can    If hatchlings emerge while oil is coming onshore and slicks are still in nearshore
       waters, hatchlings should be captured and released in clean waters.

       Hatchlings usually emerge during night hours, so nests should be monitored to
       intercept hatchlings before they swim into contaminated waters.



                                           38







      Cleanup activities on nesting beaches should be monitored by experienced
      personnel so that the nests are not physically disturbed.

Other special considerations may need to be developed for:

Birds
ca     Rookeries and nesting sites         CS    High concentration migration
                                                 stopovers
Marine Mammals
      Population concentration areas

Terrestrial Mammals and Plants
      Concentration areas                 C&    Threatened and endangered plants
                                                 adjacent to the shoreline


Fish and Shellfish
      Estuarine areas which are           C      Shellfish seed beds and nursery
      important fish nursery areas              areas, high concentration areas


Recreation
      -, High-use recreational beaches           Marinas and boat ramps

      High use boating, fishing, and
      diving areas


Management Areas
      State marine parks/federal marine  c&    Wildlife management areas and
      sanctuaries                                refuges

Cs.    Nature preserves and reserves


Resource Extraction
      Commercial fishing areas            C&    Aquaculture sites

      Subsistence harvest areas           C&    Water intakes


Cultural Resources
      Archaeological and other historically significant sites










                                         39








3 Shoreline Mapping and

       Prioritization


Guidelines for Shoreline surveys

At most spills, a repetitive, detailed, and systematic survey of the extent and degree of
shoreline contamination is needed to:

       I     Assess the need for shoreline cleanup
       2      Select the most appropriate cleanup method
       3      Determine priorities for shoreline cleanup
       4      Document the spatial oil distribution over time

       5      Maintain internally consistent historical record of stranded oil
             distribution for use by other scientific surveys of intertidal and subtidal
             impacts.


Though general approvals for use of shoreline cleanup methods are to be developed
during planning stages, site-specific cleanup recommendations must be based on field
data on the shoreline types and type and degree of shoreline contamination. Thus,
shoreline surveys become a very important component of the decision-making process,
and- they must be conducted in a systematic manner. Also, repeated surveys are needed
to monitor the effectiveness and effects of on-going treatment methods (any migration
of beached oil, as well as natural recovery), so that the need for additional treatment or
constraints can be evaluated.

Several methods of data collection can be used to obtain information on shoreline
character and degree of oil contamination. For example, aerial surveys provide
reconnaissance-level information that is necessary for broad scale evaluations,
definition of the impacted area, and general characterization of the oiling conditions.
During aerial surveys, observers should note presence of resources at risk that need
immediate protection, recommendations for boom deployment sites, access points, or
restrictions, etc.




                                         41








Ground surveys provide detailed information necessary for site-specific decisions on
shoreline treatment techniques. The methods and forms for ground surveys described
here have been modified from those developed by Exxon and their contractors during
the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound (Owens and Teal, 1990). These
methods have been revised for application to specific regions, such as the Oil Spill SCAT
Manual for the coastline of British Columbia (Environment Canada, 1992). Guidance on
methods and forms for use in ground surveys are described in the following section.

Ground Surveys
The primary purpose of ground surveys is to collect information on the extent of oiling
on various shoreline types and to feed this information into the decision-making
process for shoreline cleanup. Thus, it is imperative that survey teams use consistent
methods and terminology throughout the spill event. A series of forms have been
developed as the basis for data collection and reporting. Field teams should conduct a
training program so all members understand the objectives, methods, data forms, terms,
etc., and to insure standardized application. The teams need to visit at least one site as a
group so that their observations can be calibrated.

At a large spill, the scientific members of the Shoreline Assessment Team usually
consist of the following:

       Oil Spill ScientistlCoastal Geologist (OG)
       Should have at least B.Sc. degree in geology or physical geography and oil-spill
       experience, plus familiarity with shorelines of impacted area. Responsible for
       logistical/direction and detailed documentation (i.e., completion of Shoreline
       Survey Evaluation Form).

       Ecologist (ECO)
       Should have degree in biology and oil-spill experience, plus familiarity with the
       local affected habitats and organisms. Responsible for characterization of the
       intertidal communities and assessing affects of oil or cleanup 'efforts.

       Archaeologist (ARCH)
       Usually a M.S.- or Ph.D.-level archaeologist. Main responsibilities are identifying
       and updating archaeological and historical sites, and determining potential
       impacts of oiling or deanup measures.




                                           42








In addition to the core scientific group, the team also usually has representatives of:
(a) operations group of the party responsible for cleanup; (b) the State government;
(c) the Federal Government; and (d) the land owner or manager. At smaller spills or
under emergency conditions, team members may have to assume more than one role.

Selecting and Namning Segments
The general approach is to divide the impacted area into segments, which are sections of
the oiled shoreline for which detailed observations are recorded. The size of segments
depends on the variabilities in degree of oiling and shoreline type. Boundaries of the
segments should be defined where the shoreline geomorphology or degree of oiling
changes significantly. However, it should be noted that new forms are completed for
each segment, so the interval should not be so small that the number of forms required
becomes unmanageable for the size of the spill. Segment lengths up to several
kilometers would be acceptable for large spills, where smaller spills may have lengths in
the hundreds of meters.

Numbering of the segments in a logical order helps location recognition. Usually an
alpha-numeric code is employed, with two-letter abbreviations for the local area (e.g.,
HB for segments located along the Hanama Bay and CI for those on Coconut Island), and
numbers for each segment in the order it was surveyed. Thus, if Coconut Island was
divided into four segments, they would be designated as CM- through CIA4. The
boundaries of the segments would be delineated on detailed maps.

The Shoreline Survey Evaluation Formns
For each segment, the Shoreline Survey Evaluation Form should be completed. Two
versions of a Shoreline Survey Evaluation Form have been included in this manual.
This section briefly outlines the methods to be used to complete the long form.


The Shoreline Terminology/Codes sheet lists the common terms and abbreviations to
be used to describe the oil, sediments, and other features on the forms and sketch maps.
The blocks on the Shoreline Survey Evaluation Form, where the codes are used, are
indicated on the sheet. One member of the team, usually the OG, should be responsible
for completing the forms, although all members collect the field data. The segment is
walked and observations on the oiling conditions are recorded. It is very important to
make accurate measurements or estimates of the dimensions of each type of oil. Areas
containing surface oil are shown on a field sketch of the shoreline segment. The oiled
sites, which are designated by letters, are described systematically by ifilling in Block 6 of


                                          43








the Shoreline Survey Evaluation Form. A blank sketch form is attached, and an
example is included for ill ustration purposes.

Subsurface oil is investigated by digging trenches and recording measurements of the
degree and depths of subsurface oil. Each trench is numbered, and the location of each
trench should be shown on the sketch. A symbol is used to differentiate between oiled
and clean trenches (filled-in versus open triangle). The sketches are a very important
component of the field survey data; they are better than photographs at depicting overall
conditions. Sketches help reviewers put the tabular data on oiled area and type in
perspective, thereby facilitating decision making. They provide documentation in a
manner not achieved by photographs, videotapes, or statistics, and they allow ready
comparisons over time.

The objective of the surveys should always be kept in mind: to collect the information
needed by operations personnel and decision makers to formulate and approve
shoreline treatment plans. An operations manager should be able to use the data to
develop a detailed cleanup plan, including equipment and manpower needs, from these
surveys. Government agencies should be able to use the data, along with natural
resource information, to develop cleanup priorities, identify site-specific or temporal
constraints, and approve the proposed cleanup plan.

The Comment section and sketch map will be important references for documentation
of sensitive resources and impacts. The Comments section should highlight the
information the field team considers to be very important to the shoreline treatment
decision making. The Comments section is also where the field team makes treatment
recommendations that would best remove the oil without causing further
environmental damage, or identify specific constraints that should be incorporated into
the cleanup plan.


Abbreviated Shoreline Surveys
Comprehensive surveys, as outlined above, are not always appropriate for smaller spills,
or those that are relatively simple in oiling conditions. Yet, there is still the need for
systematic observations and documentation of shoreline oiling conditions and cleanup
progress. An abbreviated shoreline survey at smaller or less complicated spills would
consist of:




                                          44








       Trained team(s) with members from State and Federal response agencies, the
       cleanup contractor, and responsible party to document shoreline oiling
       conditions.

-z     Consistent terminology for description of oiling conditions and of shoreline
       features.

   C. Segmentation of the oiled areas into sections by shoreline type, degree of oiling,
       etc., and for which specific cleanup recommendations can be made.

   C& Field sketches to identify the area surveyed, record oil observations, identify
       sensitive areas to avoid, and utilize as the basis for a work plan by cleanup crews.

   C& Simplified forms for recording observations, making recommendations for
       cleanup, listing segment-specific restrictions, and generating summary statistics
       on shoreline oiling conditions. The forms would also document team
       composition, samples, photographs, etc., for each segment.


The Shoreline Survey Evaluation Short Form was developed to meet the
documentation requirements at smaller spills. The form contains space for recording
measurements of the length and degree of shoreline contamination, but allows for
textual descriptions of the oiling conditions. It is important that the standard terms be
used in these descriptions and that specific features be shown on the field sketch. The
Short Form also includes space for recording segment-specific considerations for cleanup
operations. This section would include information on the location of areas that should
be avoided or that require special care or restricted activities by cleanup crews. For
example, the location of sensitive wildlife such as eagle nests would be noted in this
section. Sites to be avoided, such as archeological sites or private property, would be
delineated. Photographs and samples taken at the site would be recorded in the section
for Other Comments.














                                           45








Surface Oil Cover Summary
As the shoreline surveys are being completed, a rating system must be used to describe
and summarize the surface oil conditions on the shoreline. These conditions are:

              Heavy
              Moderate
              Light
       ca Very Light

These ratings are assigned based upon the Oil Category Width and the Surface Oil
Distribution, as defined on the sheet on Shoreline Oil Terminology/Codes. Following is
an Initial Surface Oil Cover Matrix for use during spills.



                                   <                 )'OS  3 Ca 'o0  Ivi

            i     ~tnu  ~ ~ Heavy       Heavy         Moderate        Light



     g'                   H e a v y      H e a v y    Mo d e r a t e  Light



                    .  :Moderate       Moderate        Light        Very  Light



        X i ~ ipora.~ :    Light         Light        Very  Light    Very  Light



A}~*.*********:'C i"   Very  Light    Very  Light    Very  Light    Very  Light



















                                          46








Shoreline Oil Terminology/codes                                                11/5/92

Shoreline Slope                                                         (Enter in Block 3)

       Low         Less than 30 degrees
       Medium    Between 31 and 60 degrees
       High        Between 61 and 90 degrees
       Vertical    Vertical or near vertical

Oil Categorv Width                                                      (Enter in Block 4)
(To be determined for each segment, depending on width of the intertidal zone)

       W         Wide              > 6 m wide
       M         Medium            > 3 m to < 6 m
       N         Narrow            > 0.5 m to < 3 m
       V         Very Narrow        < 0.5 m

Oil Distribution  (Enter in Block 5)

       C         Continuous        91 - 100%
       B         Broken            51- 90%
       P         Patchy            11- 50%
       S         Sporadic            1 - 10%
       T         Trace              <1%

Surface Oiling Descriptors - Thickness                                  (Enter in Block 5)

       PO        Pooled Oil (fresh oil or mousse > 1 cm thick)
       CV        Cover (oil or mousse from >0.1 cm to <1 cm on any surface)
       CT        Coat (visible oil <0.1 cm, which can be scrapped off with fingernail)
       ST        Stain (visible oil, which cannot be scrapped off with fingernail)
       FL        Film (transparent or iridescent sheen or oily film)

Surface Oilinz Descrivtors - Tvre                                       (Enter in Block 5)

       FR        Fresh Oil (unweathered, liquid oil)
       MS        Mousse (emulsified oil occurring over broad areas)
       TB        Tarballs (discrete accumulations of oil <10 cm in diameter)
       PT        Patties (discrete accumulations of oil >10 cm in diameter)
       TC        Tar (highly weathered oil, of tarry, nearly solid consistency)
       SR        Surface Oil Residue (non-cohesive, heavily oiled surface sediments,
                 characterized as soft, incipient asphalt pavements)
       AP         Asphalt Pavements (cohesive, heavily oiled surface sediments)
       NO        No Oil
       DB        Debris; logs, vegetation, rubbish, garbage, response items such as
                 booms, etc.









                                           47








Shoreline Oil Terminology/Codes                                               11/5/92

Subsurface Oilinz Descriptors                                          (Enter in Block 6)

       SAP       Subsurface asphalt pavement (cohesive)
       COP       Oil-Filled Pores (pore spaces are completely filled with oil, to the extent
                 that the oil flows out of the sediments when disturbed). May also
                 consist of weathered oil such as a buried lens of asphalt pavement
       PP        Partially Filled Pores (pore spaces partially filled with oil, but the oil
                 does not flow out of the sediments when disturbed)
       OR        Oil Residue (sediments are visibly oiled with black/brown coat or
                 cover on the clasts, but little or no accumulation of oil within the pore
                 spaces)
       OF        Oil Film (sediments are lightly oiled with an oil film, or stain on the
                 dclasts)
       TR        Trace (discontinuous film or spots of oil, or an odor or tackiness)
       NO        No Oil (no evidence of any type of oil)

Shoreline Zone                                                  (Enter in Blocks 5 and 6)

       SU        Supratidal (above normal spring high tide levels)
       U1        Upper Intertidal
       MI        Middle Intertidal
       LU        Lower Intertidal

Sediment Tv-oes                                                 (Enter in Blocks 5 and 6)

       R         Bedrock outcrops

                 Gravel
       B         Boulder (>256 mm in diameter)
       C         Cobble (64-256 mm)
       P         Pebble (4-64 mm)
       G         Granule (2-4 mm)

       S         Sand (0.06-2 mm)
       M         Mud (silt and clay, < 0.06 mm)
       AR        Riprap (man-made permeable rubble)
       A W       Seawalls (impermeable)
       AP        Man-made pilings

Sheen Color                                                            (Enter in Block 6)

       B         Brown
       R         Rainbow
       S         Silver
       N         None








                                           48





SHORELINE SURVEY EVALUATION FORM                                                   Page __ of _
1 GI Segment Name:                       Survey                    Survey         (use military time)
  El Segment ID:                        I Date:                   I Time: __________ to _________ 
  NI Surveyed From:  Foot I Boa  Ieicper        Weather. Sun /Clouds I Fog I Rain I Snow

2 T ITeam No.                                   l operations:
  ElIOG:                                       Istate:                            for:
  AI ECO:                                       I Federal:                        for:
  MIARCHI:                                      11Land Manager:                   for:

3 SlOverall 'Classification for UITZ-select onEISediment Beach:        Sediment Flat:
  H Bedrock:  Cliff          Platform __ Boulder-Cobble __Sand           Boulder-Cobble __Sand-
  0 Manmade: Permeable -_  Impermeable   -Pebble-Cobble              1 Pebble-Cobble _
  R Marsh/Wetlands                        iSand-Gravel          -       Sand-Gravel
  El Secondary Shore Type:                             l13ackshore Type:
 4LIGeomorphology
  AIlSope: Low ___%1  Med.   -%  High ____% Vert. IWave Exposure: Low I Medium I High
  NI Estimated Segment Length:           m     ITotal Estimated Length Surveyed:
  DlAccess Restrictions:

5 Ol0il Category Width:                 ITotal Pavement !   sq.m   by ..___cm
   I Wide -     m Very Narrow          mIPatties/Tarballs -  bags   Oiled Debris? Yes/No
  L Medium -  m No Oil                miDebris/Amount:-Lg Vegetation
    Narrow -  m Unsurveyed            mlTrash ____Other                           ____

       6                     ~~~~~D
  S L  AREA                    I                 SURFACE OIL                       SHORELINE
  U 0 Lo w4        ZONE       S     THICKNESS                 TYPE                  SEDIMENT
  R 0m m SU Ul MI LI T OCV CT STFL R IhBTB PT TCSR AP ND   TYPE
  F
  A
  C
  E

  0

  L

  Distribution (DIST): C = 100-91%: B = 90-51%; P =50-11%; S = 10-1%; T = 1%  Photo Roll #___Frames___
75                             TRNHOILED  SUBSURFACE         WATER           SURFACE-   CLEAN
  U N   TRENCHES       DEPTH   ZONE      OIL CHARACTER    TABLE SHEEN SUBSURFACE  BELOW
  B 0 SU  Ul Ml  LI am    CM-l"  CP PP CR CF TR NDO  cm   COLOR SEDIMENTS    V/N
  S
  U
  R
  F
  A
  C
  E
  Sheen Color: B =Brown   R Rainbow   S Silver   N=None

8 COMMENTS






SHORELINE SURVEY EVALUATION SHORT FORM
                                                                                    Page _  of _
1 GI Segment Name:                         Survey                      Survey         (use military time)
  ElSegment ID:                           IDate:                      ITime:            to             I
  NISurveyed From:  Foot / Boat / Helicopter       Weather:  Sun / Clouds / Fog / Rain / Snow           I

2 TITeam No.                                                                                            I
  EIName:                         for:                Name:                    for: 
  AlName:                          for:                Name:                   for: 
  MIName:                          for:                Name:                   for: 

3 LiShoreline Types:
  AlSediment Types:
  NIAccess Restrictions:
  DI                                                                                                   I

                                      Length of Shoreline for Each Oil Category
             Oil             Wide      Medium       Narrow      Very Narrow    No   Total Estimated
           Distribution      (>6m)       (3-6m)   (0.5-3m)        (<0.5m)        Oil   Segment Length
4 0 Continuous (91-100%)           m           m           m                m
  I Broken (51-90%)    _ m                    m           m                m _m   -m
  L Patchy (11-50%)                m           m      _ m                  m
    Sporadic (1-10%)              m           m           m _              m

5 Description of oiling conditions (use standard terms/refer to sketch)
  SURFACE OIL




  SUBSURFACE OIL:





6 Segment-specific considerations for cleanup operations
  (sensitive wildlife areas to avoid, etc.)









7 Other Comments








                                                                SKETCH MAP                                                                                   1 l/05/92o



Segment Name
Segment No.
Date
Names

Checklist
_North Arrow
_Scale
_Oil Distribution
High-Tide Line
_Low-Tide Line
_Substrate Types
__Trench Locations

Legend
   1A
Trench Number.
No Subsurface Oil
   2&
Trench Number.
Subsurface Oil








4 Matrices of Recommended

      Countermeasure Methods by

      Oil and Shoreline Type


The matrices included in this chapter show which shoreline countermeasure techniques
have been considered for the ten shoreline types described in Chapter 2. Four matrices
have been constructed for the major categories of oil (very light, light, medium, and
heavy).

Countermeasure methods are described in Chapters 5 and 6. Countermeasures in
Chapter 5 are traditional techniques that the OSC can use without any additional
concurrence. However, the cutting of vegetation countermeasure should be used only
during specific seasonal windows under specific conditions and with landowner
approval. Countermeasures in Chapter 6 are described under a separate section called
'Treatment Methods Requiring Regional Response Team Approval" and may be useful
in certain situations. The matrices are a particularly dynamic component of the manual
and should continue to be revised as the existing techniques are used and evaluated, and
as both old and new techniques are refined.

Each matrix has a written explanation of how it is to be used as a countermeasure
advisability matrix. The matrix is only a general guide for removing oil from shoreline
substrates. It must be used in conjunction with the entire 'Shoreline Countermeasures
Manual" plus field observations and scientific advice. The countermeasures listed are
not necessarily the best under all circumstances, and any listed technique may need to be
used in conjunction with other techniques (including ones not listed herein). The
Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) or the State OSC operating with the FOSC's
authorization has the responsibility for and authority to determine which
countermeasure~s) are appropriate for the various situations encountered.

Selection of countermeasure techniques to be used in each spill is based upon the degree
of oil contamination, shoreline types, and the presence of sensitive resources. Extremely
sensitive areas are limited to manual cleanup methods. It is important to note that the
primary goal of countermeasure implementation is to speed up or enhance
environmental recovery of the shoreline habitats. Aesthetic considerations are

                                        53








secondary but also important. Nevertheless, shoreline countermeasures should cause
no further injury or destruction to the environment. The three categories of guidance
used in the matrices are defined as follows:

      R      Recommended          Method that best achieves the goal of minimizing
                                  destruction or injury to the environment

      C      Conditional          Viable and possibly useful but may result in limited
                                  adverse effects to the environment

       Shaded                      Not recommended










































                                          54





                     Shoreline Countermeasure Matrix

                                Verv Liaht Oils (Jet fuels. Gasoline)
                         * Highly volatile (should all evaporate within 1 - 2 days)
                         * High concentrations of toxic (soluble) compounds
                         * Result: Localized, severe impacts to water column and intertidal resources
                         * Duration of impact is a function of the resource recovery rate
                         * No dispersion necessary

                                               SHORELINE TYPE CODES
                1 -Exposed rocky shores and vertical, hard  man-made   6A-Gravel beaches
                   structures (e.g., seawalls)                             6B -Exposed riprap
                2 -Exposed wave-cut rock platforms and reef flats           7- Exposed tidal flats
                3 -Fine-grained sand beaches                                8- Sheltered rocky shores and
                4-Medium- to coarse-grained sand beaches                       coastal structures
               5A-Mixed sand and gravel beaches                             9-Sheltered tidal flats
               5B -Artificial fill containing a range of grain size and    10-Mangroves
                   materials
          COUNTERMEASURE                                                   SHORELINE TYPES

                                                             1 2 3 4 5A5B 6A 6B 7 8 9 10
         1) No Action
         2) Manual Removal
         3) Passive Collection (Sorbents)
         4) Debris Removal
         5) Trenchina
         6) Sediment Removal
         7) Ambient Water Floodinci (Deluae)
         8) Ambient Water Washino
            a) Low Pressure (< 50 psi)
            b) Hiqh Pressure (< 100 psi)
         9) Warm Water Washinq/Mod.-Hiah Pressure
        10) Hot Water/Hiqh Pressure Washina
        11) Slurry Sand Blastina
        12) Vacuum
        13) Sediment Reworkinq
        14) Excavation, Cleansinq, and Replacement
        15) Cuttina Vecetation
        16) Chemical Treatment t
              a) Oil Stabilization with Elastomizers
             b) Protection of Beaches
             c) Cleaninq of Beaches
        17) In situ Burninq of Shorelines t
        18) Nutrient Enhancement t
        19) Microbial Addition t

       t - Requires RRT approval
       R - Recommended - may be preferred alternative
       C- Conditional                                              E    Not Recommended


This countermeasure advisability matrix is only a general guide for removal of oil from shoreline substrates. It must be used in
conjunction with the entire Shoreline Countermeasures Manual plus field observations and scientific advice. The countermeasures
listed are not necessarily the best under all circumstances, and any listed technique may need to be used in conjunction with other
techniques (including ones not listed herein). The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) or the state OSC operating with the FOSC's
authorization has the responsibility for and authority to determine which countermeasure(s) are appropriate for the various situations
encountered. Selection of countermeasures is based on the degree of oil contamination, the shoreline type, and the presence of
sensitive resources. Extremely sensitive areas are limited to manual cleanup countermeasures.





                     Shoreline Countermeasure Matrix

                         Liaht Oils (Diesel. No. 2 Fuel Oils. Liaht Crudes)
                * Moderately volatile; will leave residue (up to 1/3 of spilled amount)
                * Moderate concentrations of toxic (soluble) compounds
                * Will 'oil' intertidal resources with long-term contamination potential
                * Has potential for subtidal impacts (dissolution, mixing, sorption onto suspended
                sediments)
                 * No dispersion necessary
                 * Cleanup can be very effective
                                               SHORELINE TYPE CODES
                1 -Exposed rocky shores and vertical, hard                 6A- Gravel beaches
                   man-made structures (e.g., seawalls)                    6B- Exposed riprap
                2- Exposed wave-cut rock platforms and reef flats           7- Exposed tidal flats
                3- Fine-grained sand beaches                                8- Sheltered rocky shores and
                4 -Medium- to coarse-grained sand beaches                       coastal structures
               5A- Mixed sand and gravel beaches                             9- Sheltered tidal flats
               5B .Artificial fill containing a range of grain size and     10- Mangroves
                   materials
          COUNTERMEASURE                                                     SHORELINE TYPES

                                                            1 2 3 4 5A5B 6A 6B 7 8 9 10
        1) No Action
        2) Manual Removal
        3) Passive Collection (Sorbents)
        4) Debris Removal
        5) Trenching
        6) Sediment Removal
        7) Ambient Water Flooding (Deluge)
        8) Ambient Water Washing
            a) Low Pressure (< 50 psi)
            b) High Pressure (< 100 psi)
        9) Warm Water Washing/Mod.-High Pressure
       10) Hot Water/High Pressure Washing
       11) Slurry Sand Blasting
       12) Vacuum
       13) Sediment Reworking
       14) Excavation, Cleansing, and Replacement
       15) Cutting Vegetation *
       16) Chemical Treatment t
             a) Oil Stabilization with Elastomizers
             b) Protection of Beaches
            c) Cleaning of Beaches
       17) In situ Burning t
       18) Nutrient Enhancement t
       19) Microbial Addition t

      t - Requires RRT approval
       R - Recommended - may be preferred alternative
       C - Conditional                                             E    Not Recommended


This countermeasure advisability matrix is only a general guide for removal of oil from shoreline substrates. It must be used in
conjunction with the entire Shoreline Countermeasures Manual plus field observations and scientific advice. The countermeasures
listed are not necessarily the best under all circumstances, and any listed technique may need to be used in conjunction with other
techniques (including ones not listed herein). The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) or the state OSC operating with the FOSC's
authorization has the responsibility for and authority to determine which countermeasure(s) are appropriate for the various situations
encountered. Selection of countermeasures is based on the degree of oil contamination, the shoreline type, and the presence of
sensitive resources. Extremely sensitive areas are limited to manual cleanup countermeasures.





                     Shoreline Countermeasure Matrix
                                   Medium Oils (Most Crude Oils)
                                * About 1/3 will evaporate within 24 hours
                                * Maximum water-soluble fraction is 10 - 100 ppm
                                * Oil contamination of intertidal areas can be severe/long term
                                * Impact to waterfowl and fur-bearing mammals can be severe
                                * Chemical dispersion is an option within 1 - 2 days
                                * Cleanup most effective if conducted quickly
                                               SHORELINE TYPE CODES
                 1 Exposed rocky shores and vertical, hard  man-made   6A- Gravel beaches
                   structures (e.g., seawalls)              .6B -Exposed riprap
                 2 Exposed wave-cut rock platforms and reef flats            7 -Exposed tidal flats
                 3 -Fine-grained sand beaches                                8-Sheltered rocky shores and
                 4 Medium- to coarse-grained sand beaches                       coastal structures
               5A-Mixed sand and gravel beaches                              9-Sheltered tidal flats
               5B Artificial fill containing a range of grain size and     10 -Mangroves
                   materials
          COUNTERMEASURE                                                    SHORELINE TYPES

                                                            1 2 3 4 5A5B 6A 6B 7 8 9 10
         1) No Action
         2) Manual Removal
         3) Passive Collection (Sorbents)
         4) Debris Removal
         5) Trenchina
         6) Sediment Removal
         7) Ambient Water Floodinq (Deluae)
         8) Ambient Water Washinq
            a) Low Pressure (< 50 psi)
            b) Hiah Pressure (< 100 psi)
         9) Warm Water Washina/Mod.-Hiah Pressure
        10) Hot Water/Hiah Pressure Washina
        11) Slurry Sand Blastinq
        12) Vacuum
        13) Sediment Reworkinq
        14) Excavation, Cleansina, and Replacement
        15) Cuttina Veqetation *
        16) Chemical Treatment t
              a) Oil Stabilization with Elastomizers
              b) Protection of Beaches
              c) Cleanina of Beaches
        17) In situ Burnina t
        18) Nutrient Enhancement t
        19) Microbial Addition t

      t - Requires RRT approval
       R - Recommended - may be preferred alternative
       C - Conditional                                                  Not Recommended


This countermeasure advisability matrix is only a general guide for removal of oil from shoreline substrates. It must be used in
conjunction with the entire Shoreline Countermeasures Manual plus field observations and scientific advice. The countermeasures
listed are not necessarily the best under all circumstances, and any listed technique may need to be used in conjunction with other
techniques (including ones not listed herein). The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) or the state OSC operating with the FOSC's
authorization has the responsibility for and authority to determine which countermeasure(s) are appropriate for the various situations
encountered. Selection of countermeasures is based on the degree of oil contamination, the shoreline type, and the presence of
sensitive resources. Extremely sensitive areas are limited to manual cleanup countermeasures.





                    Shoreline Countermeasure Matrix
                     Heaw Oils (Heaw Crude Oils. No. 6 fuel. Bunker C)
                      * Heavy oils with little or no evaporation or dissolution
                      * Water-soluble fraction likely to be <10 ppm
                      * Heavy contamination of intertidal areas likely
                      * Severe impacts to waterfowl and fur-bearing mammals (coating and ingestion)
                      * Long-term contamination of sediments possible
                      * Weathers very slowly
                      * Dispersion seldom effective
                      * Shoreline cleanup difficult under all conditions
                                               SHORELINE TYPE CODES
                 1 -Exposed rocky shores and vertical, hard                 6A- Gravel beaches
                   man-made structures (e.g., seawalls)                    6B- Exposed  riprap
                 2 -Exposed wave-cut rock platforms and reef flats           7- Exposed tidal flats
                 3 -Fine-grained sand beaches                                8 - Sheltered rocky shores and
                 4 -Medium- to coarse-grained sand beaches                       coastal structures
                5A -Mixed sand and gravel beaches                             9 - Sheltered tidal flats
                5B -Artificial fill containing a range of grain size and     10 - Mangroves
                   materials
          COUNTERMEASURE                                                     SHORELINE TYPES

                                                             1 2 3 4 5A5B 6A 6B 7 8 9 10
        1) No Action
        2) Manual Removal
        3) Passive Collection (sorbents)
        4) Debris Removal
        5) Trenching
        6) Sediment Removal
        7) Ambient Water Flooding (deluge)
        8) Ambient Water Washing
           a) Low Pressure (< 50 psi)
           b) High Pressure (< 100 psi)
        9) Warm Water Washing/Mod.-High Pressure
       10) Hot Water/High Pressure Washing
       11) Slurry Sand Blasting
       12) Vacuum
       13) Sediment Reworking
       14) Excavation, Cleansing, and Replacement
       15) Cutting Vegetation *
       16) Chemical Treatment t
            a) Oil Stabilization with Elastomizers
            b) Protection of Beaches
            c) Cleaning of Beaches
       17) In situ Burning t
       18) Nutrient Enhancement t
       M1) MIcroblal Aaddtion t

      *t - Requires RRT approval
       R - Recommended - may be preferred alternative
       C - Conditional                                              E  Not Recommended


This countermeasure advisability matrix is only a general guide for removal of oil from shoreline substrates. It must be used in
conjunction with the entire Shoreline Countermeasures Manual plus field observations and scientific advice. The countermeasures
listed are not necessarily the best under all circumstances, and any listed technique may need to be used in conjunction with other
techniques (including ones not listed herein). The Federal On-Scene Coordinator (FOSC) or the state OSC operating with the FOSC's
authorization has the responsibility for and authority to determine which countermeasure(s) are appropriate for the various situations
encountered. Selection of countermeasures is based on the degree of oil contamination, the shoreline type, and the presence of
sensitive resources. Extremely sensitive areas are limited to manual cleanup countermeasures.








5 Treatment Methods

      Not Requiring Regional

      Response Team Consideration


The following section lists and describes those techniques that have been approved by
the Regional Response Team (RRT), Local Response Team, and/or the Area Committee.
Methods and equipment currently in use for these approved shoreline treatment
methods are described in some detail below. These methods, when used according to
the guidelines in this manual, may be used on most sites as part of the OSC-directed
response. It should be noted that some of these methods may require other
authorizations or permits before work begins. Currently approved methods are:

      I     No Action
      2      Manual Removal
      3      Passive Collection (Sorbents)
      4      Debris Removal
      5      Trenching
      6      Sediment Removal
      7      Ambient-Water Flooding (Deluge)
      8a    Ambient-Water/Low-Pressure Washing
      8b    Ambient-Water/High-Pressure Washing
      9      Warm-Water/Moderate-to-High-Pressure Washing
      I 0    Hot-Water/High-Pressure Washing
      I I    Slurry Sand Blasting
      1 2    Vacuum
      13    Sediment Reworking *
       14    Sediment Removal, Cleansing, and Replacement *
      1 5    Cutting Vegetation *





* May require special consideration



                                     59







1. No Action
Objectiue
      No attempt is made to remove stranded oil, because there is no proven effective
      method for cleanup, or it is determined that cleanup will be more harmful to the
      habitat than leaving the oil in place.
Description
      No action is taken. However, the OSC continues to monitor the incident.
Applicable Shoreline Types
      Can be used on all shoreline types.
When To Use
      If the shoreline is extremely remote or inaccessible, when natural removal rates
      are very fast, or cleanup actions will do more harm than leaving the oil to be
      removed naturally.
Biological Constraints
      This method may be inappropriate for areas where high numbers of mobile
      animals (birds, marine mammals, crabs, etc.) use the intertidal zone or adjacent
      nearshore waters.
Environmental Effects
      Intertidal - The same as the oil.
      Subtidal - The same as the oil.


2. Manual Removal
Objective
      Removing stranded surface oil with hand tools and manual labor.
Description
      Removing surface oil and oily debris by manual means (hands, rakes, shovels,
      etc.) and placing in containers for removal from the shoreline. No mechanized
      equipment is used.
Applicable Shoreline Types
      Can be used on all shoreline types.
When To Use
      Generally used on shorelines where the oil can be easily removed by non-
      mechanical means. Most appropriate for light to moderate oiling conditions.





                                         60








Biological Constraints
       Foot traffic over sensitive areas (shellfish beds, tidal flats, bird nesting areas, turtle
       nesting beaches, marshes, etc.) is to be restricted. May be periods when shoreline
       access is restricted (e.g., bird nesting, turtle nesting).
Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - Minimal if surface disturbance by cleanup activities and work force
       movement is limited.
       Subtidal - None.


3. Passive Collection (Sorbents)
Objective
       Removal of oil by adsorption onto oleophilic material placed in the intertidal
       zone.
Description
       Sorbent material is placed on the surface of the shoreline substrate allowing it to
       absorb oil as it is released by tidal or wave action. Oil removal is dependent on
       the capacity of the particular sorbent, energy available for lifting oil off the
       shoreline, and degree of weathering.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Can be used on any shoreline type, especially riprap and on intertidal vegetation.
When to Use
       When the shoreline oil is mobile and transport of oil is expected on or off the
       site. The oil must be of a viscosity and thickness to be released by the substrate
       and absorbed by the sorbent. Often used as a secondary treatment method after
       gross oil removal, and along sensitive shorelines where access is restricted.
Biological Constraints
       None, although this method can be slow, thus allowing oil to remain in critical
       habitats during sensitive periods of time.
Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - There may still be significant amounts of oil remaining on the
       shoreline after the sorbents are no longer effective. Also, if all the sorbents are
       not recovered, they will become oily debris which does not degrade.
       Subtidal - None.





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4. Debris Removal
Objective
      Removal of contaminated debris and seagrass wrack.
Description
      Manual or mechanical removal of debris from the upper beach face and the zone
      above high tide beyond the normal wash of waves.
Applicable Shoreline Types
      Can be used on any shoreline type where safe access is allowed.
When to Use
      When driftwood, marine debris, and seagrass wrack are heavily contaminated
      and either a potential source of chronic oil release, an aesthetic problem, or a
      source of contamination for other organisms on the shoreline.
Biological Constraints
      Disturbance to adjacent upland areas should be minimized. Foot traffic over
      sensitive intertidal areas (tidal flats, bird nesting areas, turtle nesting beaches,
      marshes, etc.) is to be restricted. May be periods when shoreline access is
      restricted (e.g., bird nesting, turtle nesting).
Environmental Effects
      Intertidal - None.
      Subtidal - None.


5. Trenching
Objective
      Remove subsurface oil from permeable substrates.
Description
      Dig trenches to the depth of the oil and remove oil floating on the water table by
      vacuum pump or super sucker. Water flooding or high-pressure spraying at
      ambient temperatures can be used to flush oil to the trench.
Applicable Shoreline Types
      Can be used on beaches ranging in grain size from fine sand to gravel. Trenching
      should not be used in areas where there are known cultural resources in the
      intertidal zone.






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When To Use
      When large quantities of oil penetrate deeply into permeable sediments and
      cannot be removed by surface flooding. The oil must be liquid enough to flow at
      ambient temperatures.
Biological Constraints
      Trenches should not be dug in the lower intertidal when seagrasses and
      organisms are abundant.
Environmental Effects
      Intertidal - On gravel beaches, there may be a period of beach instability as the
      sediments are redistributed after the trenches are filled in.
      Subtidal - None.


6.  Sediment Removal
Objective
      Removal of surface oiled sediments.
Description
      Oiled sediments are removed by either manual use of hand tools or mechanical
      use of various kinds of motorized equipment. The oiled material must be
      transported and disposed of off-site.
Applicable Shoreline Types
      Can be used on any shoreline with surface sediments. On rocky coasts, only
      manual removal is feasible. When using equipment on beaches, special
      supervision is required to minimize sediment removal. Sediment removal
      should not be used in areas where there are known cultural resources in the
      intertidal zone.
When to Use
      When only very limited amounts of oiled sediments have to be removed.
      Should not be considered where beach erosion may result. Care should be taken
      to remove the sediments only to the depth of oil penetration, which can be
      difficult with heavy equipment.
Biological Constraints
      Excavating equipment must not intrude upon sensitive habitats or areas of
      known cultural resources in the intertidal zone. Only the upper intertidal and
      supratidal areas should be considered for sediment removal to minimize
       disturbance of biological communities in the subtidal, particularly when coral


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       reefs and seagrass beds occur very close to shore. There may be site-specific
       constraints limiting placement of equipment and temporary sediment storage
       piles in the backshore. Replaced material must be free of oil and toxic substances.
Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - The equipment is heavy, and required support personnel is
       extensive. May be detrimental if excessive sediments are removed without
       replacement. All organisms resident in the beach will be affected, though the
       need for removal of the -oil may be determined to be the best overall alternative.
       Subtidal - Release of oil and fine-grained oily sediments to the water during
       sediment removal activities and tidal flushing of the excavated beach surface.


7. Ambient-Water Flooding (Deluge)
Objective
       To wash surface oil and oil from crevices and rock interstices to water's edge for
       collection.
Description
       A large diameter header pipe is placed parallel to the shoreline above the oiled
       area. A flexible perforated header hose is used during deluge of intertidal
       shorelines to better conform to their profiles. Ambient seawater is pumped
       through holes in the header pipes and flows down the beach face to the water.
       On porous beaches, water flows through the substrate pushing loose oil ahead of
       it (or floats oil to the water's surface) then transports the oil down slope for
       pickup. Flow is maintained as long as necessary to remove the majority of free
       oil. Oil is trapped by booms and picked up with a skimmer or other suitable
       equipment.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Beaches with sediments coarser than sand, and gently sloping rocky shorelines.
       Generally not applicable to mud, sand, vegetated, or steep rocky shorelines.
When to Use
       On heavily oiled shorelines when the oil is still fluid and loosely adhering to the
       substrate; and where oil has penetrated into gravel beaches. This method is
       frequently used in combination with other washing techniques (low or high
       pressure, ambient or warm water).





                                          64







Biological Constraints
       Not appropriate at creek mouths. Where seagrass beds or tidal flats occur
       adjacent to the shoreline, flooding should be restricted to tidal stages when these
       sensitive habitats are under water, to prevent secondary oiling.
Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - Habitat may be physically disturbed and smothered as sand and
       gravel components are washed down slope. Organisms may be flushed into
       lower tidal zones.
       Subtidal - Oiled sediment may be transported to shallow subtidal areas,
       contaminating them and burying benthic organisms and seagrasses.


8a. Ambient-Water/Low-Pressure Washing
Objective
       Remove liquid oil that has adhered to the substrate or man-made structures,
       pooled on the surface, or become trapped in vegetation.
Description
       Low-pressure washing (<50 psi) with ambient seawater sprayed with hoses is
       used to flush oil to the water's edge for pickup. Oil is trapped by booms and
       picked up with skimmers or sorbents. Can be used with a deluge system on
       beaches to prevent released oil from re-adhering to the substrate.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       On heavily oiled gravel beaches, riprap, and seawalls where the oil is still fresh
       and liquid. Also, in marshes and mangroves where free oil is trapped.
When to Use
       Where adhered oil is still fresh and must be removed due to continued release of
       oil.
Biological Constraints
       May need to restrict use of flushing to certain tidal elevations so that the
       oil/water effluent does not drain across sensitive low-tide and shallow subtidal
      habitats. In marshes, use only at high tide and either from boats or the high-tide
      line to prevent foot traffic in vegetation.
Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - If containment methods are not sufficient, contamination may be
       flushed into lower intertidal zone.




                                          65







      Subtidal - Oiled sediment may be transported to shallow subtidal areas,
      contaminating them and burying benthic organisms and seagrasses.



8b. Ambient-Water/High-Pressure Washing
Objective
      Remove oil that has adhered to hard substrates or man-made structures.
Description
      Similar to low-pressure washing except that water pressure is up to 100 psi. High-
      pressure spray will better remove oil that has adhered to rocks. When water
      volumes are low, workers may need to place sorbents directly below treatment
      areas to prevent the released oil from adhering to downstream sediments.
Applicable Shoreline Types 
      Riprap and seawalls. Can be used to flush floating oil or loose oil out of tide
      pools and between crevices on riprap.
When To Use
      When low-pressure washing is not effective for removal of adhered oil, which
      must be removed due to continued release of oil. When directed water jet can
      remove oil from hard-to-reach sites. To remove oil from man-made structures
      for aesthetic reasons.
Biological Constraints
      May need to restrict use of flushing to certain tidal elevations so that the
      oil/water effluent does not drain across sensitive low-tide and shallow subtidal
      habitats.
Environmental Effects
      Intertidal - Removes many organisms on the surface. May drive oil deeper into
      the substrate or cause sediment erosion of the finer-grained fraction if water jet is
      improperly applied. If containment methods are not sufficient, contamination
      may be flushed into lower intertidal zone.
      Subtidal - Oiled sediment may be transported to shallow subtidal areas,
      contaminating them and burying benthic organisms and seagrasses.









                                         66







9.  Warm-Water/Moderate-to-High-Pressure Washing
Objective
       Mobilize thick and weathered oil adhered to rock surfaces prior to flushing it to
       the water's edge for collection.
Description
       Heated seawater (ambient to 900F) is applied at moderate-to-high pressure to
       mobilize weathered oil that has adhered to rocks. The warm water may be
       sufficient to flush the oil down the beach. If not, "deluge" flooding and
       additional low- or high-pressure washing can be used to float the oil to the
       water's edge for pickup. Oil is trapped by booms and picked up with skimmers or
       sorbents.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Gravel beaches, riprap, and seawalls that are heavily oiled. However, large
       volumes of water or a deluge system will be needed to prevent the oil from being
       driven in deeper into the sediments.
When To Use
       When the oil has weathered to the point that low-pressure washing with
       ambient water is not effective for removal of adhered oil, which must be
       removed due to continued release of oil. To remove oil from man-made
       structures for aesthetic reasons.
Biological Constraints
      Must restrict use to certain tidal elevations so that the oil/water effluent does not
      drain across sensitive low-tide habitats (damage can result from exposure to oil,
      oiled sediments, and warm water). Should be restricted adjacent to stream
      mouths, tide pool communities, and similar rich intertidal communities.
Environmental Effects
      Intertidal - Can kill or remove most organisms. If containment methods are
      not sufficient, contamination may be flushed into lower intertidal zones that
      would otherwise not be oiled. May drive oil deeper into the substrate or cause
       sediment erosion of the finer-grained fraction if water jet is improperly applied.
      Subtidal - Oiled sediment may be transported to shallow subtidal areas,
      contaminating them and burying benthic organisms and seagrasses.







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10. Hot-Water/High-Pressure Washing
Objective
      Dislodge trapped and weathered oil from inaccessible locations and surfaces not
      amenable to mechanical removal.
Description
      Water heaters mounted offshore on barges or small land-based units heat water
      to temperatures from 90ï¿½F up to 1700F, which is usually sprayed by hand with
      high-pressure wands. Used without water flooding, this procedure requires
      immediate use of vacuum (vacuum trucks or super suckers) to remove the
      oil/water runoff. With a deluge system, the oil is flushed to the water's surface
      for collection with skimmers or sorbents.
Applicable Shoreline Types
      Gravel beaches, riprap, and seawalls that are heavily oiled. However, large
      volumes of water or a deluge system will be needed to prevent the oil from being
      driven in deeper into the sediments.
When To Use
      When the oil has weathered to the point that even warm water at high pressure
      is not effective for removal of adhered oil, which must be removed due to
      continued release of oil. To remove oil from man-made structures for aesthetic
      reasons.
Biological Constraints
      Restrict use to certain tidal elevations so that the oil/water effluent does not
      drain across sensitive low-tide habitats (damage can result from exposure to oil,
      oiled sediments, and hot water). Should be restricted near stream mouths, tide
      pool communities, etc. Released oil must be recovered to prevent further oiling
      of adjacent environments.
Environmental Effects
      Intertidal - All attached organisms in the direct spray zone will be removed or
      killed, and significant mortality of the lower intertidal communities will result
      even when used properly. Where the intertidal community is rich, the tradeoff
      between damage to the intertidal community from the hot-water washing versus
      potential damage from leaving the oil has to be weighed. May drive oil deeper
      into the substrate or cause sediment erosion of the finer-grained fraction if water
      jet is improperly applied.
       Subtidal - Oiled sediment may be transported to shallow subtidal areas,
       contaminating them and burying benthic organisms and seagrasses.


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11. Slurry Sand Blasting
Objective
       Remove heavy residual oil from solid substrates.
Description
       Use of sandblasting equipment to remove oil from the substrate. May include
       recovery of used (oiled) sand in some cases.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Seawalls and riprap. Equipment can be operated from boat or land.
When to Use
       When heavy oil residue is remaining on the shoreline, which needs to be
       cleaned for aesthetic reasons, and even hot-water wash is not effective.
Biological Constraints
       Not to be used in areas of high biological abundance on the shoreline directly
       below or adjacent to the structures.
Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - Complete destruction of all organisms in the intertidal zone.
       Subtidal - Possible smothering of subtidal organisms with sand. When the used
       sand is not recovered, introduces oiled sediments into the subtidal habitat.


12. Vacuum
Objective
       Remove free oil pooled on the substrate or from the water's surface in sheltered
       areas.
Description
      Use of a vacuum unit with a suction head to recover free oil. The equipment can
       range from small portable units that fill individual 55-gallon drums to large
       supersuckers that are truck-mounted and can lift large rocks. Can be used with
       water spray systems to flush the oil towards the suction head.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Can be used on any shoreline type if accessible. May be mounted offshore on
      barges, onshore on trucks, or as individual units on boats or ashore at low tide.
When to Use
       When free, liquid oil is stranded on the shoreline (usually along the high-tide
       line) or trapped in vegetation that is readily accessible.




                                         69







Biological Constraints
      Special restrictions should be identified for areas where foot traffic and
      equipment operation should be limited, such as mangrove forests. Operations in
      wetlands are to be very closely monitored, with a site-specific list of restrictions.
Environmental Effects
      Intertidal - Minimal impacts if used properly and minimal substrate is
      removed.
      Subtidal - None.


13. Sediment Reworking
Objective
       Rework oiled sediments to break up the oil deposits, increase its surface area, and
       mix deep subsurface oil layers that will expose the oil to natural removal
       processes and enhance the rate of oil degradation.
Description
       Beach sediments are rototilled or otherwise mechanically mixed with the use of
       heavy equipment on sand or gravel beaches. The oiled sediments in the upper
      beach area may also be relocated lower on the beach to enhance natural cleanup
       during reworking by wave activity (berm relocation).
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Should be used only on beaches exposed to significant wave activity. Tilling-type
       activities work best on beaches with a significant sand fraction; large equipment
       can be used to relocate sediments up to boulder size. Sediment reworking should
      not be used in areas where there are known cultural resources in the intertidal
       zone.
When to Use
       On beaches with significant amounts of subsurface oil, where sediment removal
       is unfeasible (due to erosion concerns or disposal problems); also where surface
       oil deposits have started to form pavements or crusts.
Biological Constraints
       Could not be used on beaches near shellfish-harvest or fish-spawning areas, or
       near bird nesting or concentration areas because of the potential for constant
       release of oil and oiled sediments. Sediment reworking should be restricted to
       the intertidal, to prevent disturbance of the biological communities in the
       shallow subtidal.


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Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - Due to the mixing of oil into sediments, this process could further
       expose organisms living below the original layer of oil. Repeated mixing over
       time could delay the reestablishment of organisms. Relocated sediments would
       bury and kill organisms. There may be a period of beach instability as the
       relocated sediments are redistributed.
       Subtidal - There is a potential for release of contaminated sediments to the
       nearshore subtidal habitats.



14. Sediment Removal, Cleansing, and Replacement
Objective
       To remove and clean oiled sediments, then replace them on the beach.
Description
       Oiled sediments are excavated using heavy equipment on the beach at low tide.
       The sediments are loaded into a container for washing. Cleansing methods
       include hot-water wash or physical agitation with a cleansing solution. After the
       cleansing process, the rinsed materials are returned to the original area. Cleaning
       equipment must be placed close to beaches to reduce transportation problems.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Sand- to boulder-sized beaches, depending on the limitations of the cleanup
       equipment. The beaches must be exposed to wave activity, so that the replaced
       sediments can be reworked into a natural distribution. Sediment removal
       should not be used in areas wh~ere there are known cultural resources in the
       intertidal zone.
When to Use
      Applicable on beaches with large amounts of subsurface oil, where permanent
       removal of sediment is undesired and other cleanup techniques are likely to be
       ineffective.
Biological Constraints
       Excavating equipment must not intrude upon sensitive habitats. Only the
       supratidal and intertidal areas should be considered. There may be site-specific
       constraints limiting placement of temporary sediment storage piles. Replaced
       material must be free of oil and toxic substances. The washing must not change
       the grain size of the replaced material, either by removal of fines or excessive
      breakage of friable sediments.


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Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - All resident organisms will be affected, though the need for removal
       of the oil may be determined to be the best overall solution. Equipment can be
       heavy, large, and noisy; disrupting wildlife. Transportation to site may entail
       aircraft, land vehicles, or barges, contributing to environmental disruption.
       There may be a period of beach instability as the replaced sediments are
       redistributed.
       Subtidal - May release oil and fine-grained oily sediments into the water during
       excavation and tidal flushing of beach sediments and exposed excavations.
       Adjacent seagrass and coral reef communities may be at risk.


15. Cutting vegetation
Objective
       Removal of oiled vegetation to prevent oiling of wildlife.
Description
       Manual cutting of oiled vegetation using weed eater or by hand, and removal of
       cut vegetation with rakes. The cut vegetation is bagged immediately for disposal.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Marshes composed of emergent, herbaceous vegetation; oiled seagrass blades.
       Mangrove forests are not included.
When to Use
       Use when the risk of oiled vegetation contaminating wildlife is greater than the
       value of the vegetation that is to be cut, and there is no less destructive method
       to remove or reduce the risk to acceptable levels.
Biological Constraints
       Strict monitoring of the operations must be conducted to minimize the degree of
       root destruction and mixing of oil deeper into the sediments. Access to bird
       nesting areas should be restricted during nesting seasons.
Environmental Effects
       Intertidal - Removal of the vegetation will result in loss of habitat for many
       animals. Cut marsh areas will have reduced plant growth for up to two years.
       Trampled areas (which are inevitable) will recover much slower. Along exposed
       shorelines, vegetation may not regrow, resulting in erosion and permanent loss
       of the habitat.




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Subtidal - Long-term impacts would include increased sediment load in the
subtidal area as a result of increased erosion in the intertidal area. For removal of
oiled seagrass blades, disruption of the roots can result in total destruction of the
bed.

















































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6 Treatment Methods Requiring
       Regional Response Team

      Approval


Research and development is ongoing for both new and improved oil spill treatment
methods. Various chemical and biological degradation techniques are currently being
tested for effectiveness and toxicity, and they may be approved for use in certain
situations. Methods considered to be of potential use in this area are described below.

    16a Chemical Oil Stabilization with Elastomizers
    1 6b Chemical Protection of Beaches
    1 6C  Chemical Cleaning of Beaches
    1 7    In-situ Burning of Shorelines
    I 8    Nutrient Enhancement
    1 9    Microbial Addition


1 6a.        Chemical  Oil Stabilization with  Elastomizers
Objective
      Solidify or gelatinize oil on the water's surface or a beach to keep it from
      spreading or escaping, and to speed recovery rate and efficiency.
Description
      Chemical agent enhancing polymerization of the hydrocarbon molecules applied
      by semi-liquid spray or as a dry chemical onto the oil in the proper dosage.
      Depending on the nature and concentration of the polymerizing agent, the oil
      can be rendered viscoelastic, but still fluid, gelatinous, or semisolid. The primary
      purpose is to stabilize the oil, keeping it from spreading or escaping, causing
      oiling elsewhere. May reduce the solubility of the light (and more toxic)
      fractions, by locking them into the polymer. This reduces both air and water
      exposure. Depending on the beach type and equipment used, recovery may be
      enhanced.
Applicable Shoreline Types
      Suitable on shorelines of low permeability where heavy oil has pooled on the
      surface, except vegetated shorelines.


                                       75








When to Use
       When heavy concentrations of liquid oil are on the substrate and adjacent water
       body, and physical removal can not be completed prior to the next tide so that the
       oil is likely to move to a more sensitive shoreline type. Should be used in
       conjunction with booming or other physical containment.
Biological Constraints
       Not suitable for vegetated or riprap shore types. Should be avoided when birds
       or other wildlife that may be more adversely impacted by the congealed oil can
       not be kept away from the treated shoreline. The congealed oil may stick to
       vegetation and wildlife, increasing physical damage to both. On riprap the
       congealed oil may remain in crevices where it may hamper recovery and prolong
       the release of sheens.
Environmental Effects
       May enhance the smothering effect of oil on intertidal organisms. Thus, the
       treatment should be considered only for heavily oiled beaches where smothering
       effects are already maximal. The congealed oil may stick to vegetation and
       wildlife increasing physical damage, such as impaired flight or thermoregulation
       in birds whose feathers become oiled.



1 6b.         Chemical Protection of Beaches
Objective
       Pretreat shoreline to prevent oil from adhering to the substrate.
Description
       Certain types of water-based chemicals, some of which are similar in composition
       to dispersants, are applied to beaches in advance of the oil.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Coarse- and fine-grained sand beaches, seawalls and piers (particularly piers or
       waterfront facilities that are of historical significance), wave-cut platforms, and
       riprap.
When to Use
       When oil is projected to impact an applicable shoreline, particularly those that
       have high recreational or aesthetic value.
Biological Constraints
      May not be suitable for nutrient-rich environments, particularly in confined
      waters. The toxicity of shoreline treatment products is reportedly much less than


                                          76








       that of oil, but the toxicity of each product should be evaluated prior to
       consideration for use.
Environmental Effects
       The long-term environmental effects of these procedures are unknown. A toxic
       effect of the chemical can be anticipated. Additionally, the nutrient load to
       nearshore and interstitial waters may lead to eutrophication. Whether the
       predicted reduced residence time of the oil on the beach will increase the
       survival rate for sessile and interstitial organisms is unknown.


16C.    Chemical Cleaning of Beaches
Objective
       To increase the efficiency of oil removal from contaminated areas.
Description
       Special formulations, which can be characterized as weak dispersants, are applied
       to the substrate, as a presoak and/or flushing solution, to soften weathered or
       heavy oils to aid in the efficiency of flushing treatment methods. The intent is to
       be able to lower the temperature and pressure required to mobilize the oil from
       the substrate.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       On any shoreline where deluge and water flushing procedures are applicable.
When to Use
       When the oil has weathered to the point where it will not flow using warm to
       hot water. This approach may be most applicable where flushing decreases in
       effectiveness as the oil weathers.
Biological Constraints
       Will require extensive biological testing for toxicity and water quality sampling
       prior to receiving approval for use. The concern is that the treated oil will be
       dispersed in the water column, and thus impact water column and subtidal
       organisms. Field tests will be required to show that use of a beach cleaner does
       not reduce overall recoverability of the oil. Use may be restricted where
       suspended sediment concentrations are high, adjacent to wetlands and tidal flats,
       and near sensitive subtidal resources.







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Environmental Effects
      If more oil is dispersed into the water column, there could be more oil sorbed
      onto suspended sediments and transferred to subtidal habitats, particularly along
      sheltered shorelines.


17. In Situ Burning of Shorelines
Objective
      Removal of oil from the shoreline by burning.
Description
       Oil on the shoreline is burned, usually when it is on a combustible substrate such
       as vegetation, woody material, and other debris. Oil can be burned off of
      nonflammable substrates with the aid of a burn promoter.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       On any shoreline type except tidal flats and mangroves.
When to Use
      Early in the spill event, after ensuring that the product is ignitable.
Biological Constraints
      Should only be considered for use in the upper intertidal or supratidal zones
       since destruction of plants and animals from heat and burn promoters will be
      extensive. This technique is subject to restrictions and permit requirements
       established by federal, state and local laws. It should not be used to burn PCBs,
      wastes containing more than 1,000 parts per million (ppm) of halogenated
       solvents, or other substances regulated by the U. S. Environmental Protection
      Agency (EPA).
Environmental Effects
       Little is known about the relative effects of burning oiled wetlands compared to
       other techniques or natural recovery. Burning may cause significant air
      pollution, which must be considered when weighing the potential benefits and
      risks of the technique. The combustion products may travel great distances
      before deposition.









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18. Nutrient Enhancement
Objective
       To speed the rates of natural microbial degradation of oil by addition of nutrients
       (specifically nitrogen and phosphorus). Microbial biodegradation is the
       conversion by microorganisms of dissolved and dispersed hydrocarbons into
       oxidized products via various enzymatic reactions. Some hydrocarbons are
       converted to carbon dioxide and cell material, while others are partially oxidized
       and/or left unaltered as a residue.
Description
       Nutrients are applied to the shoreline in one of several methods: soluble
       inorganic formulations that are dissolved in water and applied as a spray at low
       tide, requiring frequent applications; slow-release formulations that are applied
       as a solid to the intertidal zone and designed to slowly dissolve; and oleophilic
       formulations that adhere to the oil itself, thus they are sprayed directly on the
       oiled areas.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Could be used on any shoreline type where safe access is allowed.
When to Use
       On moderately to heavily oiled shorelines, after other techniques have been used
       to remove as much oil as possible; on lightly oiled shorelines where other
       techniques are not effective; and where nutrients are a limiting factor in natural
       degradation. Potentially for the treatment of subsurface oil.
Biological Constraints
       Not applicable in shallow water, poorly flushed, restricted embayments where
       nutrient overloading may lead to eutrophication, or where toxicity of nutrients,
       particularly ammonia, is of concern. There must be no risk of oxygen depletion.
       Use is to be restricted adjacent to stream mouths, tide pools, or other rich
       intertidal communities. Contact toxicity of oleophilic formulations may restrict
       areas of direct application. Bioassay test results should be carefully evaluated, as
       other chemicals in the formulations could be toxic to aquatic organisms.
Environmental Effects
       Acute toxicity from direct application to intertidal organisms may result from
       different formulations. Also, toxic effects may occur from the release of
       ammonia to the water column and interstitial water. There may be localized
       zones of oxygen depletion, particularly in the interstitial water.



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19. Microbial Addition
Objectiue
       To speed the rates of natural microbial degradation of oil by addition of nutrients
       and microbial products. Microbial biodegradation is the conversion by
      microorganisms of dissolved and dispersed hydrocarbons into oxidized products
      via various enzymatic reactions. Some hydrocarbons are converted to carbon
       dioxide and cell material, while others are partially oxidized and/or left unaltered
       as a residue.
Description
       Formulations containing hydrocarbon-degrading microbes and fertilizers are
       added to the oiled area. The argument is made that indigenous organisms will be
       killed by the oil, so new microbial species need to be added to begin the process of
       biodegradation. To date, microbial addition has not been shown to work better
       than fertilizer alone in field tests.
Applicable Shoreline Types
       Could be used on any shoreline type where safe access is allowed.
Biological Constraints
       Not applicable in shallow water, poorly flushed, restricted embayments where
       nutrient overloading may lead to eutrophication, or where toxicity of nutrients,
       particularly ammonia, is of concern. There must be no risk of oxygen depletion.
       Use is to be restricted adjacent to stream mouths, tide pool communities, etc.
       Bioassay test results should be carefully evaluated, as other chemicals in the
       formulation could be toxic to aquatic organisms.
Environmental Effects
       Yet to be evaluated for full-scale field applications. There is a potential for the
       introduction of pathogens from contaminated formulations.















                                          80








Appendix A


Guidelines for Treatment

Operations


General Guidelines
Ensure familiarity and compliance with approved treatment methods, approved shoreline
segment work plans, advisories, and special instructions. Restrict all access to wetlands and
tidal flats, except with special authorization.

Conditions to avoid
      c  Treatment techniques (such as high pressure and hot water) that dislodge
          intertidal vegetation and invertebrates, e.g., mussels, barnacles, snails
          Clearing marshes and vegetated shorelines (the presence of algae does not
          characterize a vegetated shoreline)
Actions to encourage
      cs Boom off mud/grass flat adjacent to treatment areas to prevent further
          contamination.
      cs- Boom off tidal creeks to prevent further contamination.
      , Minimize impact to uncontaminated lower intertidal zones, including:
          * land crews during tides that cover the lower intertidal zone
          ï¿½ avoid high-/low-pressure washing where possible
          ï¿½ work heavily oiled upper beach zone hen lower intertidal zones are covered
             by high tides
          * employ sorbents along riprap and below oiled upper beach to protect lower
             intertidal zone from oiling

Ensure that all signs of human activity are removed when cleanup is completed. Ensure
that all trash and wastes are removed daily:
          Oil trapped in booms must be picked up before the next tide cycle
          All food and associated trash must be removed each day to minimize attracting
          wildlife into contaminated areas


                                         A-1








Guidelines Specific to Biological Resources
Advisories and special instructions may address:
   -  bird concentration areas (nesting sites, colonies, rookeries, etc.)
   c* live/dead animal collection policy
      protection of cultural resources
   cs marine mammal haulouts
      collection of eagle feathers and marine mammal parts
      cutting bull kelp
   c  cutting oiled fucus

Appendix B includes existing "best management practices" for specific issues addressed
during previous spills, which can be used as the basis for developing regional guidelines.



































                                          A-2







Appendix B


Best Management Practices


Specialized Areas of Concern - National
(The following notices are provided as guidelines.)

Marine Mammal Notice
Collection of Eagle Feathers and Marine Mammal Parts
Protection of Cultural Resources
Instruction for the Disposition of Dead and Live Wildlife


























                            13-1








Marine Mammal Notice
(Developed by NOAA in 1989 during the Exxon Valdez oil spill.)


To reduce stress caused by unnecessary disturbance to marine mammal haulouts and
improve the changes for wildlife survival, an aircraft advisory is issued for coastal
areas affected by the spill. These advisories request that pilots stay at least one-half
mile offshore and 1000 feet above ground level from areas of wildlife concentrations
and critical habitats. These areas are shown on maps and distributed to pilots. The
most critical areas to avoid are: (list critical areas).

No person, except an authorized government official, will approach, molest, or take
a seal or sea lion, regardless of whether the animal is oiled, distressed, lethargic, or
abandoned. This reminder is necessitated by the widespread activities of oil spill
cleanup personnel in areas where seals and sea lions are giving birth to pups.
Although casual and distant human/marine mammal interactions may not always
be avoidable, they are, to varying degrees, harmful to the animal. The following
explanation and guidance with respect to seal pups is offered in the interest of
avoiding law violations and minimizing human-induced mortality among marine
mammals.

Live seal pups are to be left undisturbed, whether or not they have oil on them. A pup
not accompanied by an adult and/or appearing emaciated may not be abandoned.
Females commaonly leave their pups alone for extended periods during foraging trips.
Newborn and young pups appear emaciated before acquiring fat through nursing. It is
not possible to distinguish between a normal pup and one that is truly distressed. In the
presence of humans, female seals may only approach their pups at night to nurse them,
making determination of abandonment difficult to establish. True abandonment is
unlikely, barring death or serious injury to the mother.

Pup deaths will greatly increase if oiled animals are picked up and subjected to the stress
of handling, transport, and rehabilitation centers. Unlike sea otters and birds, external
oiling does not adversely affect a seal's heat conservation ability or indicate a need for
human assistance. Persons finding seals, sea lions, whales, or porpoises that appear to be
in distress should contact NOAA Fisheries. Do not touch or closely approach these
animals.





                                         B-2








Collection of Eagle Feathers and Marine Mammal Parts
In response to inquiries about collecting eagle feathers and marine mammal parts by
personnel involved in cleanup activities during a spill, the laws and regulations
dealing with the collection and possession of such materials are summarized below.
Collection of Eagle Feathers: The Eagle Act (Public Law 95-616, 92 Stat. 3114, 16 U.S.
Code 668) prohibits the collection and possession of any eagle parts, including
feathers.

Collection of Marine Mammal Parts: The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972
(Public Law 92-522, 88 State. 1027, 95 Stat. 979, 16 USC 1372) generally prohibits the
collection and possession of any marine mammal parts. Under 50 CFR 18.26, the
collection of certain dead marine mammal parts is allowed, as follows:


       a Any bones, teeth or ivory of any (non-endangered) dead marine mammal
          may be collected from a beach or from land within 1/4 of a mile of the
          ocean. The term "ocean' includes bays and estuaries.
       b  Marine mammal parts so collected may be retained if registered within 30
          days with an agent of the National Marine Fisheries Service, or an agent
          of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
       C  Registration shall include (1) the name of the owner, (2) a description of
          the article to be registered, and (3) the date and location of collection.
          Items so collected and registered must be retained in the ownership of the
          collector. The sale of such items is prohibited.




















                                        B-3








Protection of Cultural Resources
Shoreline cleanup operations have the potential for damaging important
archaeological and cultural resources. Authorized shoreline cleanup procedures
may uncover undiscovered archaeological features or artifacts. To assist in their
identification, drawings of the types of artifacts that might be found in the intertidal
zone and along the shoreline by cleanup crews are included. Cleanup personnel
should be aware of the policy that anyone found vandalizing or appropriating
cultural materials will be subject to full prosecution under the Archaeol ogical
Resources Protection Act. If response personnel find any cultural resources (fossils,
archaeological or historical artifacts), the following steps should be taken
immediately:


            ILeave the cultural materials in place at the site of discovery and mark
              with flagging tape.
          2 Stop cleanup activities in the surrounding area.
          3 Inform a designated state representative.






























                                        B-4








Instruction for the Disposition of Dead and Live Wildlife
(Derived from the Wildlife Protection Guidelines, Alaska RRT 1991)

Deadl Animals
         ICollect all dead animals (except whale and other large forms), including
          scavenged carcasses, to discourage further scavenging in oiled areas.
       2 Wear gloves when handling dead animals.
       3 Use a shovel or spade to uncover and remove carcasses partially covered
          by sand, wood, or other debris.
       4 Place carcasses in double plastic garbage bags. Place all animals from one
          beach in one bag, if possible. Close securely with masking tape.
       5 Complete an animal collection form or provide the following
          information:
          ï¿½ beach name or location where carcasses were recovered
          * date
          * name and address of collector
          ï¿½ species, age, and sex of collected animals .
          If any of this information is not available or questionable, this fact should
          be recorded so that additional examinations of the animals can be
          conducted.
       6 Place the form or list in a ziplock baggie and place the baggie outside the
          first garbage bag but inside the second. Bring the dead animals to a
          designated recovery site

Live Animals
Authorization for animal rescue must be given by the appropriate State or Federal
agency prior to the rescue and rehabilitation of oiled wildlife. Long-handled nets,
rags, or towels are recommended for capturing live, oiled birds. Wear gloves to keep
from getting oiled. Do not wash oiled birds. It is more important to keep them
warm. Place them in a covered cardboard box. It is okay to keep more than one bird
and multiple species in the same box. Do not attempt to give birds fluids; they
should be taken to a rehabilitation center as soon as possible. For live birds, the
following information should be reported:

  c~beach name or location where          c&  date and name and address of
   animal was recovered                      collector







ca- species, age, and sex of collected     ca- condition of the animal
   animals


Do not attempt capture of live sea otters without prior authorization from the
appropriate agency. Inexperienced people can cause otters additional injuries. In
addition, otters may bite and cause infections. A bite from an otter may result in
inflammation of the joints and inability to bend one's fingers. Live, oiled otters are
to be reported to the designated agency contact for the spill.









































                                         B-6








Appendix C


NOAA Scientific Support

Coordinators

For more information about developing and applying shoreline countermeasures,
contact the appropriate NOAA Scientific Support Coordinator for your.area.

District                       Address                            Phone
I
Stephen Lehmann                NOAA SSC HAZMAT                     (w) 617-223-8016
                             First CG District (mer)            (fax) 617-439-0468
                             408 Atlantic Avenue
                             Boston, MA 02110

I /5                           NOAA SSC HAZMAT                     (w) 212-668-6428
Ed Levine                      Building 100, Box 2                 (fax) 212-668-6370
                             Governors Island
                             New York, NY 10004-5000

219                            NOAA SSC HAZMAT                     (w) 216-522-7760
Ken Barton                     c/o USCG Marine Safety Division  (fax) 216-522-7759
                             AJC Federal Building
                             1240 E. Ninth Street
                             Cleveland, OH 44199

5                              NOAA SSC HAZMAT                     (w) 804-898-2320
Gary Ott                       USCG RTC Yorktown (t-mer)          (fax) 804-898-2296
                             Yorktown, VA 23690-5000

7                              NOAA SSC HAZMAT                     (w) 305-530-7931
Brad Benggio                   Miami Federal Build Rm 1119         (fax)305-530-7932
                             51 S.W. First Ave, PO Box 83
                             Miami, FL 33130

8                              NOAA SSC HAZMAT                    (w) 504-589-6901
Mike Barnhill                  Cdr Eighth CG District (m-ssc)    (fax)504-589-4999
                             Hale Boggs Federal Bldg
                             500 Camp Street
                             New Orleans, LA 70130-3396

I I                            NOAA SSC HAZMAT                    (w) 310-980-4107
Jim Morris                     501 West Ocean Blvd. Rm 5110    (fax) 310-980-4109
                             Long Beach, CA 90802

 13114                         NOAA/HAZMAT                         (w) 206-526-6829
Sharon Christopherson          7600 Sand Point Way N.E.            (fax) 206-526-6329
                             Seattle, WA 98115-0070
                                          C-1








District                      Address                           Phone
I 7                          NOAA SSC HAZMAT                   (w) 907-271-3593
John Whitney                  Peterson Towers Bldg              (fax) 907-271-3139
                             510 L Street, Ste#100
                             Anchorage, AK 99501

















































                                          C-2








Glossary


Aerobic
Able to live or grow only where air or free oxygen is present.


Anaerobic
Able to live and grow where there is no air or free oxygen.

Annual
A plant that lives only one year or season.

Aromatic
Organic compounds containing any of a series of benzene ring compounds. They are
unsaturated organic ring compounds with low to high boiling points. The lighter
components are generally acutely toxic to aquatic life.

Ben thos
The plants and animals that live in and on the bottom of a water body.

Berm
A wedge-shaped sediment mass built up along the shoreline by wave action. Sand berms
typically have a relatively steep seaward face (beach face) and a gently sloping surface
(berm top). A sharp crest (berm crest) usually separates the two oppositely sloping planar
surfaces on top of the berm. Berms on sand beaches are eroded away during storms, thus a
berm may not be present if the beach is visited shortly after a storm. On gravel beaches,
however, steep and high storm berms are activated and refurbished during storms.

Bioto
Animal and plant fife characterizing a given region. Flora and fauna, collectively.

Booms
Both containment and absorbent booms are used for the collection, deflection, and
containment of spreading oil. Containment booms are somewhat rigid structures extending
both above and below the water acting as barriers to surface oil. Primary containment
booms are usually deployed close to oiled shorelines to trap oil being flushed from beaches


                                           D-I







before it is collected. Secondary containment booms are deployed farther out to trap oil that
leaks past primary booms. Absorbent boom is used along the shore-water interface to
collect oil dislodged during treatment operations. It is important that sorbent boom be
changed once the sorbent capacity is reached. Great care should be taken to seal the shore
ends of booms so that no oil can get past. This is particularly difficult at rocky shorelines, or
areas strewn with boulders and cobbles. The use of sorbent pads or other materials, such as
"pomr poms," can be effective sealants.

Brackish
Intermediate in salinity (0.50 to 17.00 parts per thousand) between sea water and fresh
water.


Dispersant
Chemical agent used to disperse and suspend oil in water leading to enhanced dispersal and
biodegradation.


Emulsification
The process by which oil is mixed with water.


Erosion
The wearing away by action of water or wind on unprotected or exposed earth.


Estuary
Classic definition    A drowned river valley that has a significant influx of fresh water
and is affected by the tides. Most of the coastal water bodies in the mid-Atlantic region are
estuaries (e.g., Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay).

Evaporation
The conversion of a fluid-including hydrocarbons-to a gaseous state.


Fertilizer
A substance or agent that helps promote plant or seed growth.


Flushing
Use of a water stream to make oil flow to a desired location or recovery device.



                                            D-2








Habitat
The chemical, physical, and biological setting in which a plant or animal lives.


Intertidal
The part of the shoreline that lies between high-tide and low-tide water levels.


Lagoon
A shallow, linear, and usually oblong water body, located parallel with and connected to a
larger water body by one or more inlet channels.


Marsh fringe
The edge of the marsh adjacent to the water.


Mobile oil
Oil that can refloat when water is applied (as in high tide).

Mousse
A type of oil/water emulsion which can contain up to 70 percent water.


Non-persistent
Decomposed rapidly by environmental action.

Oleophilic
A material that has affinity for oil.


Penetration
Downward motion of oil into sediments from the surface driven by gravitational forces.


Perennial
Vegetation that continues to grow for several years.

Permeability
The degree to which fluids can flow through a substance. Measured in Darcys.
Permeability is not equal to porosity. High porosity of a material does not insure high
permeability. A substance cannot be permeable without having some degree of porosity.



                                           D-3








Pooled oil
Oil thickness exceeds one centimeter. This need not be uniform.


Porosity
The volume of void spaces in a sediment mass, measured in percent.


Riprap
(a) A layer of large, durable fragments of broken rock, specially selected and graded, and
thrown together irregularly or fitted together. Its purpose is to prevent erosion by waves or
currents and thereby preserve the shape of a surface, slope, or underlying structure. It is
used for irrigation channels, river-improvement works, and revetments for shore protection.


Recontamination
Contamination by oil of an area that was previously deaned.

Rhizome
A rootlike stem under or along the ground, ordinarily in a horizontal position, which
usually sends out roots from its lower surface and leafy shoots from its upper surface.

Skimmer
A mechanical device that removes an oil film from the water surface.


Oil skimmers collect oil spilled on, or released to, the water's surface. They come in a wide
range of shapes and sizes. Skimmers generally have a higher recovery rate than sorbents,
providing enough oil is present to justify the costs for its use. Skimmers are usually
equipped with storage space for collected oil. Oil is herded to a collection point along a
containment boom located close to shore yet in water of sufficient depth for the skimmer to
function. Two types of skimmers currently in use are described below. Other types of
skimmers are being tested for possible use at a later date.


     Band, or "rope," skimmers use an oleophilic material such as polypropylene. Oil is
     collected by a floating, continuous rotating band or 'rope" drawn through an oil slick
     or along the water's edge of a contaminated area. Adhered oil is wrung from the band
     by a squeeze roller and collected in an oil sump. These bands are used in either static
     (stationary) or dynamic (towed) modes. Bands can be torn by solids or skimmed
     debris. Efficiency is high in calm waters, poor in choppy waters and waves.


                                            D-4







     Belt skimmers use an oleophilic belt mounted on the front of a small vessel. The
     oleophilic belt pushes the floating oil below the waterline. Oil not adsorbed by the belt
     is collected into a holding area located behind the belt. Oil carried up the belt is
     recovered at the top of the system by a squeeze belt or scraper blade. It is then
     pumped into a storage container. These skimmers can not operate in shallow waters
     or tight areas.


Slurry
A suspension of particles in water.


Solubility
The amount or fraction of a substance (e.g., oil) that dissolves into the water column,
measured in ppm.

Solvent
A chemical agent that will dissolve oil.


Specific gravity
The measure of the density of a substance such as oil or sea water, usually determined at
20ï¿½C, compared to the density of pure water at 4ï¿½C. Thus, specific gravity varies slightly
with temperature.


Sorbent
All sorbent materials work on the same principles--oil adheres to the outside of the material
or sorbs into the material by capillary action. There are three basic types of sorbent
materials: mineral based, natural organic, and synthetic organic. Currently, only synthetic
organic sorbents are being used in the field in the form of booms, pads, and mops. Peat is
currently in the testing and demonstration phase.


Stain
Oil that is visibly present but cannot be scraped off with a fingernail.


Substrate
The substance, base, or nutrient on which, or the medium in which, an organism lives and
grows, or the surface to which a fixed organism is attached; e.g., soil, rocks, and water.



                                             D-5







Subtidal
That part of the coastal zone that lies below the lowest low-tide level, so that it is always
underwater.

Supratidal
Above the normal high-tide line.

Tarballs
Lumps of oil (<10 cm in diameter) weathered to a high density semisolid state.

Toxicity
The inherent potential or capacity of a material (e.g., oil) to cause adverse effects in a living
organism (Rand and Petrocelli, 1985).

Viscosity
Flow resistance; referring to internal friction of a substance (e.g., oil) that is a function of the
oil type and temperature.

Vacuum systems
Used to recover oil collected behind containment booms along the beach face and in the
water during shoreline flushing operations. Where equipment access allows, vacuums can
be used to remove pools of oil directly from shorelines and surfaces of heavily oiled. rocks.
Two vacuum systems currently in use are described below.

     The first system is classified as a vacuum device, but requires a high-velocity air
     stream, @ 150 mph, to draw oil, water, and debris into the unit's collection chamber.
     Due to the 6- to 12-inch diameter of the inlet hose, it rarely becomes dogged by debris.
     The inlet nozzle should always be placed slightly above (never below) the fluid's
     surface. The distance at which it is held above the fluid is critical to limit the amount
     of water intake. This system is suitable for picking up weathered oil, tar balls, and
     mousse from water or shorelines, and to vacuum oil from skimming vessels, boomed
     areas, or debris-laden sites. The primary advantage is its ability to pick up oil of any
     viscosity and, where necessary, lift fluid more than 30 feet. The system can pick up
     and decant simultaneously. The main disadvantages are that it usually picks up a
     high water/oil ratio, and can be difficult to repair in the field.



                                             D-6








     The second system, barge-mounted vacuum trucks, use high-suction pumps and a
     cylindrical chamber capable of sustaining very low internal pressure, i.e., minus 12 psi.
     Vacuum is created in the chamber, and a 3- to 4-inch diameter hose is usually placed
     slightly below the surface of a floating oil slick, allowing a mixture of water and oil to
     enter the collection chamber. The position of the open end of the vacuum hose is
     critical. If it is placed too far down into the oil slick, recovered fluid will be mostly
     water; if not deep enough, air will be sucked into the system, and much of the vacuum
     will be lost. The primary advantages of the vacuum truck system are: it can recover
     fluid of nearly any viscosity; it has, a rapid pickup rate of thick oil layers; and it can
     recover a wide variety of small debris. Primary disadvantages are its limited lift, no
     more than 20 to 30 feet, and the length of time required to reestablish a vacuum if air
     enters the hose. As with the other vacuum, this one also picks up a high water/oil
     ratio.


Weathering
Natural influences such as temperature, wind, and bacteria that alter the physical and
chemical properties of oil.


Weir
A vertical barrier placed just below the surface of the water so that a floating oil slick can
flow over the top.


Wetlands (as defined by the Annotated Code of Maryland Title 9)
State wetlands: Lands below the mean high-tide line affected by the regular rise of tide.
Private wetlands: Lands bordering on state tidal wetlands, below the mean tide line subject
to the effects of the regular rise and fall of tide. Lands able to support growth of wetland
vegetation.

Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually
at or near the surface, and is at least periodically saturated with or covered by water
(Cowardin et al. 1979).


Wrack
Accumulations of plant debris that is deposited at or above the high-tide line (e.g., Spartina
or seagrass debris).



                                             D-7








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                                            E-3