Oil spill training handbook

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

IN-

Training

Handbook,,,

Of CON

TD
427
.P4
B87
'98, 14TAL IP?*

Written By: Donald Burton, Jr. - Chief Field Inspector

Brian D. Coss - Senior Field Inspector

with assistance from:

Charles J. Zieminski - Air Pollution Control Engineer

Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection
Hazardous Materials Management Unit
Oil & Chemical Spill Section

OIL SPILL TRAINTNG COURSE-HAN12BOOK

Introduction

The State of Connecticut,, Department of Environmental Protection's

Oil and Chemical Spill Unit received 1,,326 spill reports for Fiscal

yearl981-1982, which represents an increase of 33% over the previous

year, and nearly twice the number of incidents reported in Fiscal

79-80.

A spill, as defined by State Statutes is the uncontrolled loss or

intentional discharge of any solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical or

petroleum products regardless of quantity. Quite simply stated, if it

is escaping from the container or system by which it was supposed to be

contained it would be classified a spill. Also included are fires

(industrial, commercial, or agricultural)f train wrecks, truck wrecks,

marine vessel accidentst and incidents where the threat of a spill is

great or imminent.

Basically, spills occur in very few environmental settings but,

depending on the material, combinations of materials, wind, tides, or

the presence of incendiary situation, clean-up techniques vary widely.

Spills usually occur in four possible sett ings which are:

1) Large rivers, harbors or open or coastal areas.

2) Small streams and ditches.

3) Storm drains, sanitary sewers and septic sewers.

4) Surface and subsurface spills.

If we include gaseous releases or releases of liquified gases which

readily volatilize, a fifth scenario can be added. The methods of

handling spills and/or leaks vary considerably from case to case, and

when incidents consist of a combination of settings, containment and

clean-up techniques become combined as well.

In our discussions in this course and manual, we will try to advise

the student in the basic techniques used to contain spills; safety

precautions which would be followed by first responders, and the basic

equipment used in containing various kin ds of incidents.

Naturally, no single text can cover all contingencies or even

attempt to and some students may develop their own techniques superior

to those givenin this manual. With the wide variety of conditions

which can be encountered, containment and clean-up techniques will

vary,, and in some cases, techniques will have to be developed at the

time of the incident.

This text is designed only as a guide. Conditions at the time of

the incident will dictate the course of action which will bring the

situation under control in a timely fashion and to a successful

conclusion.

Tools of thg Trad.Q

1. "Boom" or floating containment barrier.

Boom is designed with a buoyant or pliable flat surface affixed to

the floating collar. To hold the boom in the proper attitude, which is

perpendicular to the surface, ballast must, be used. Ballast can

consist of a series of lead washers affixed to the bottom of the skirt,

chain, cable, brass weights, almost any high density material which

will hold the skirt down.

(2)

oom

Aiv-dr-acwww
Fvlc@ ose A I
'PdrfyAo64r/A C4.oOrq C.Ov4r1,rIA4

8)< Irer

13 A LLq .5r

71'."d' A*03r

dA-.'7e-D

4;,4
T

4446@'

The most common types of boom are made of f oam f loatation covered

with a reinforced plastic fabric which also makes up the skirt

material. Ballast may be affixed to the skirt directly or enveloped at

the skirt base.

Boom can be used to contain floating contaminants in many ways. In

some instancesp the source may be surrounded; in other cases boom can

be used to contain contaminants along a shoreline, or to deflect or

"pump" contaminants to an area where they may be easily removed.

It should be noted, that since boom is made of synthetic materials,

and is most often used to contain fue ls, some organic solvents will

attack it and in some cases dissolve the structurej, thereby rendering

it useless.

2. Sorbent Boom, commonly referred to as sausage, is another type of

containment barrier, with a special added feature, it also adsorbs the

floating liquid.

Sausage is comprised mainly of two components; a porous outer shell

containing floating particulate absorbent materials. Since this type

of boom has no skirt at all, it cannot be used to deflect or pump the

floating material and is useful only under the most quiescent

conditions, usually backed up by free floating particulate absorbent.

You will find this material used in areas where wind and wave

action have essentially no impact on the spilled material.

Because the sorbent is exposed only to the cross section of

floating product which it intersects, the absorption rate is very

slow.(See Diagram)

(3)

Although most types of sausage repel water and adsorb the floating

oils, some brands do adsorb water causing them to sink and create more

problems than they solve. This should be of primary concern in

selection of the product.

3. Floating sorbent materials - These materials are floating,, water

repellent, oil absorbent materials used to physically pick up small

quantities of oils from waterways. To be ef f ective, they must be used

only in confined areas such as behind (upstream of) a boom, sausage or

other containment device. The materials range from sophisticated man

made materials to ground up corn cobs. The man made fibers have

superior absorbent characteristics, are slightly more expensive, and do

not attract rodents, an important fact to consider if storage is in a

building for human habitation.

Floating sorbent materials are available in several different

forms. Free floating small particulate is available in 20 pound bags

and a good rule of thumb is that two pounds can usually absorb 1+

gallons of oil, depending on viscosity.

This material is also available in 18" x 18" square pads, 24" x 24'1

pads and 48" x 100 foot rolls or blankets. Larger sizes are also

available,, but not generally used except under unusual circumstances

(mud, snow, etc.) These pads and rolls are also available with a

strong synthetic inner liner, so they may be wrung out and reused.

Several closed cell foam products are also available, but are quite

bulky to store, transport, deploy and most important, to retrieve. On

occasion, however, foam pads are used to soak up floating oils, wrung

out and reused with fairly good results, especially with light oils and

fuels.

(4)

It must be noted that the floating adsorbents are almost useless

when dealing with heavy residual oils and should not be used. Several

products introduced recently for the purpose of universal absorption of

all hazardous materials spills generally do not work well as surface

adsorbents because they often absorb water and sink. They may then

release whatever oils or water soluble materials they have trapped from

below the water surface, thereby creating another problem for clean-up

crews,

4. Filter fences are usually employed in quiet areas of streams or

along calm river coves to contain or prevent oils from entering the

waterway. The fence is constructed perpendicular or diagonal to the

current, utilizing fence posts and common construction cloth (1/2 inch

mesh screening) tied to the upstream side of the post. Howeverr for

purposes of this course, the recommended method of fence construction

will be perpendicular to streambed .

Behind this fence is placed well shaken hay or, more commonly,,

sausage boom. Several bags of loose particulate absorbent material are

then placed in the waterway some distance upstream and allowed to drift

into position behind the sausage.

The effectiveness of a filter fence in containing oil depends upon

the location in which the fence is placed. Naturally, the device

should be as close to the spill source as possible. The area chosen

should be the downstream end of a pool area which allows 11 to 21 depth

of water behind the fence. This allows maximum contact time between

the sorbents and oil and minimizes the effects of flow surge on the

fence.(Keep the fence in a readily accessible location, i.e. diagonally

allowing oil to collect at the shoreline).

(5)

A filter fence is most effective in minor spill situations, but

large fences (almost filter dams) have been employed in major spills.

5. Vacuum tank truck - This is a tank vehicle equipped with a vacuum

pump, which is used to remove contaminants from the ground or water

surface. Hoses attached to the truck are used to actually vacuum up

the spilled liquid. The vacuum eliminates the problem of losing pump

prime as is the case with gearr diaphragm, or other types of pumps. An

oil/water mix can be loaded onto this truckr allowed to settle and then

be dewatered, permitting oil recovery operations to continue

immediatley after dewatering. When the truck is full of clean oil, the

load is transferred to a conventional tanker for transportation to a

storage site.

Vacuum trucks work exceptionally well when removing or transferring

a wide variety of products. However, there are several instances when

they should not be used: 1) When extremely volatile solvents are

involved in an incidentr the vapor pressure inside a vacuum tank can be

low enough to cause these liquids to boil, leading to an extremely

hazardous situation resulting in a fire or explosion. 2) The second

case involves liquified gases under pressure or cryogenic gases. Never

attempt to transfer a load of liquified gases under any circumstances

unless specialized equipment designed for this purpose is used, and
per@onnel with special training are directing the operations.

6. Skimmers - These are devices primarily used with vacuum equipment

to maximize the amount of floating oil removed from the water by

reducing the amount of water sucked up along with the oil.

(6)

Attached to the end of a vacuum hose, the skimmer floats a weir or dam

just below the oil/water interface, allowing the oil to accumulate in a

sump, to be vacuumed into the truck tank. Many types and shapes of

skimmers are available but the reasons they function as they do are

generally the same.(illustration D)

7. Hydro-laser or high pressure washers are used to remove oils from

hard-to-get-at areas, porous areas, or to remove heavy residual oils

from rocks and hard-to-clean areas. These pressure washers develop

1000 psi to 15,000 psi nozzle pressures and can be extremely dangerous

to use. Pressures are great enough to actually cause the outer faces

of rock to be removed.

These toolsf along with an assortment of hand tools and pumps, are

probably the basic spill clean-up tools. Combinations of the above

tools whether land-borne or water-borne are f or the most part made up

of these basic pieces of equipment.

(7)

mom M.M

rrh
gr

sump

47.*

CHAPTER 1

ORen Water - (Large Rivers, Harbors, Long Island Sound)

Oil containment boom is a floating mechanical barrier designed to

contain and redirect floating oil or chemicals to a suitable clean-up

location. At the same time, the boom allows water to pass freely

underneath it. The combined action of water and air currents causes

the boom to effectively skim the spilled material and concentrate it

for later removal. The configurations shown here are only a small

fraction of those available, but demonstrate the most common. forms in

use,

When an open water spill occursf as from a bulk vessel, the primary

use of the boom is to encircle the leaking vessel. This entails

completely surrounding the vessel and joining the ends of the boom,,

allowing sufficient distance from the hull to permit the oil to be

accumulated, while not allowing the product to be entrained under the

boom or washing over the top of it. This may require the use of a deep

skirted boom, anchors, and buoys and should be attempted only during

calm periods. In situations involving highly flammable cargos

(gasoline, solventsr etc) . caution should be exercised due 'to the

safety risk to personnel involved. Sufficient time has to be allowed

to perform this operation, as hundreds of feet of boom must be

delivered to a site, deployed,, and towed to the spill area. Two or

more boats will be employed in this activity as well, with at

(8)

least two people per boat. 'Deployment tactics are shown in example #1,

but should not be interpreted as the only mechanism possible.

Example (I A) illustrates one mechanism for encircling a leaking

vessel taking advantage of the wind, assuming there is no tide or

current. If a tide change or current were present,, these would also

have to be taken into consideration when determining the approach and

encirclement route, if encirclement is indeed possible.

Once the vessel is surrounded by boom, the boom must be kept away

from the hull to allow a corral area. where oil volume can be contained

for retrieval.(Example 1 B) This is accomplished by attaching one end

of a line (preferably floating polyethylene) to the clevis located at

the aluminum joints where two sections of boom are connected; the other

end of the line attached to a buoy. This line should be no shorter

than 101 to allow flexing of the boom and not longer than 151 to

prevent over-flexing and collapsing. The buoy is then attached with a

second line to an anchor. This technique compensates for wave action,

allowing the boom to float freely yet holdi ng it in a predetermined

attitude with respect to the vessel. Although other techniques are

used, this method has proven to be most effective in open water

situations.(Example I Q

So far we have discussed isolated sources in open water, that is,

not attached to land or in close proximity thereto. But what if the

source is from land or perhaps a vessel attached to a docking facility?

(9)

AJ Z>

11,01,-IZ e 7,4 C M

AtOCROP.

4011leez4AfaWW" C C4 AY14Tfi-- C-V'7- 10 l'Clr04CIZIC

c-aeezwr CWAJ Agpe 7Wl'e6A-1 AP4OjlOW7A46-.d-
J-7

4A/

......................

CUD

O&A ----------
AV
A4.*AIIA4uA4

13uoy

OMMA)

3:)AAJirOAr,W
991 11&

How do our techniques differ from the offshore scenario? We will

attempt to demonstrate in this section, techniques which can be used to

contain oil in these situations.

Imagine a tanker tied up at a dock at an oil terminal in one of the

harbors in this state. The date is December 24, Christmas Eve. The

weather is cold and windy. One of the deck hands notices oil on the

water adjacent to the hull. Boom is deployed since the vessel is

offloading #6 fuel oil,, a heavyr black,, residual oil. The boom used
was a shallow skirt boom, but thought to be'sufficient to contain the

amount of oil noted on the water.

A marine inspection diver is contacted to inspect the hull for

damage. The first inspection report indicated a crack in the hull

about 6 to 8 inches long approximately 1/4 inch in width in one of the

port tanks.

It was decided to offload this tank immediately. During the next

hour while the fractured compartment was being pumped, the boom was

monitored and the quantity of oil was found to be increasing. A later

inspection found the crack, due to flexing, had increased in size to 8

feet in length and 8 to 10" in width, discharging oil in large spurts.

Over 8FOOO gallons had been lost and the small boom could not contain

it. Thick black oil washed over the boom and into the rocky shore

covering over a mile of shoreline. The weather turned windy with 4

foot seas and the temperature dropped to below zero. The clean-up,

needless to say, became of long duration, a tedious j ob involving the

use of

(10)

thousands of feet of boom and thousands of man hours to accomplish.

How could this have been prevented or minimized? The selection of

the proper type of boom at the outset would most probably have

minimized the spread and made for more successful (positive)

containment. The use of shallow skirted boom in calm waters is fine,

but never depend on such a device to contain petroleum especially where

tidal or weather changes are a factor.

one factor we didn't discuss in depth is the effects of tides.

Tides can create havoc in oil spill cl,ean-up; changing the directions

of flow, raising boom too high in the water, or leaving boom high and

dry on shore on an outgoing tide, essentially ineffective. Incoming

tides can also totally negate a containment scheme which had been very

effective at low or slack tides.

Compensation for tidal action is accomplished by allowing slack in

anchor lines and tie-off lines for boom, and positioning boom so that

one section catches oil on an outgoing tide,-and a second catches it on

an incoming tide. When establishing a "deflection-and-pump boom,"

consider the deflection angle wh ich will accomplish the desired goal on

an out-going tide regardless of the tide situation.

Some oil terminals have devices known as tide risers, built into

their seawalls which allow boom lines to be tied off to cleats which

rise and fall with the tide. The seal between the boom and headwall

remains relatively tight regardless of tide.

Al
"or

OIL
Co.
00 '000
00 00

WA,

nH, SAA IT-14
HAMOOR,

7 7D

I es
cc;vzr

,OA'3Z

(,CL CAI @\4

Once the oil is contained it must be removed, and removal is

accomplished in many ways.

In instances where a large area is involvedr a vessel designed for

skimming is employed. The concept of a weir just below the oil/water

interface can be employed as previously discussed, but is attached to,

or an integral part of the bow of the vessel. Extensions, either rigid

or is flexible, are attached to the weir opening to guide more oil into

the skimmer thus improving efficency. The skimmed oil retained in the

skimmer sump is removed either by direct pumping to onboard storage

tanks, or removed by means of an endless belt to which the oil

adheres. The belt picks up the oil from the sump (or directly from the

water at the vessel's bow in some cases) and a squeegee (sometimes

referred to as a doctor blade ) scrapes the oil from the belt directly

into a storage tank. The belt then returns to the oil supply and the

process continues.

Other removal methods allow a skimming vessel to be directly

attached to a containment boom for removing oil. A skimmer, as

previously described, is often placed inside the boom to remove oil

also. This operation would have to be carried out adjacent to

shoreline access, because of the necessity of a vacuum tank truck to

pump the contained oil. When the heavy oils have been removed, the

light residual sheen can be further reduced by using sorbent pads

and/or blanket materials.

Finallyr one last aspect has to be addressed before an incident is

considered closed; the disposal of contaminated materials, debrisr

(12)

possible sand 'or stone, and of materials used to clean equipment. This

aspect can be more time consuming than the entire clean-up. People

have a tendency to overlook disposal so long as the clean-up

progresses, and when clean-up is complete they consider the whole job

to be complete. Disposal is someone else's problem. This can be a

very difficult and expensive proposition and should be handled

concurrently with the clean-up. The State of Connecticut treats each

incident individually and attempts to co-operate with local authorities

to dispose of debris in an environmentally safe manner, which is best

determined at the time of the incident. Sampling and analysis,

temporary staging or even pre-treatment may be required before final

disposal.

Local landfills, incinerators, and treatment facilities are given

first consideration. If none of these is suited, nearby facilities are

scrutinized. If ultimately there are no facilities for disposal

located within the state, facilities located out of state are

considered. This usually means a secure hazardous waste landfill, and

can increase overall costs dramatically.

At any rate,, in severe cases where hundreds of cubic yards of

debris are involved, disposal can create quite a problem. Fortunately,

as a potential first responder you will probably not become involved in

any large-scale debris disposal problems. However, your ability to

bring a spill under control quickly can have

(13)

a great affect on the quantity of material contaminated by the spill

and also on associated clean-up and disposal costs. Your preventative

actions may also make the clean-up much faster and more complete than

would otherwise be possible.

To conclude this chapter, let us review those factors which

influence the containment activities needed to bring an environmental

emergency to a safe conclusion.

1) Type of product

2) Weather factors

3) Time of year

4) Time of day

5) Tidal and current influence

6) Equipment readily available

7) Resources to be protected

8) Access for removal

9) Disposal of debris

(14)

CHAPTER II

Small Riyers, Strgams and Ditchgs

Most of the spills reported occur either into or in close proximity

to the smaller waterways, located throughout the state. While the

majority of the spills discussed previously consisted of fuel oils or

motor fuel, spills encountered in the smaller waterways can be almost

any oilf fuell chemical, or other materials. The primary sources will

be vehicular accidents or discharges f rom industrial, commercial,, and

governmental facilities. Less common sources might include industrial

and commerical fires or explosions, or possibly agricultural

accidents. Problems arise in containment not only because a spill has

occurred, or because of a part icular characteristic of the waterway but

also because of the nature of the material involved.

When we are dealing with relatively safe fuel oils (#1, #2, #4, or

#6 oils) r the containment is pretty straightforward. The two primary

tools which are employed to contain spills on the smaller waterways are

the filter fence, as described in Chapter 1 or the boom, also

discussed.

A small dimension boom ("mini boom") available in 501 lengths has

been designed and made available to the co-op to control this type of

spill. The floatation collar has been reduced to 4" diameterr and the

ballasted skirt shortened to 6". This reduces the bulk and weight,

permitting the boom to be easily. deployed by 1 or 2 people.

The shortened mini skirt allows this boom to be deployed in

relatively shallow waters in a minimum amount of time. Deployment of

"miniboom" can be accomplished in much shorter time than that required

to construct a filter fence, and a boom can be set at various angles to

facilitate easy removal of the floating product. Changing the angle of

the miniboom after deployment is also a simple matter, by simply

setting one end of the boom free from its anchor point, and allowing it

to drift with the current, then re-anchoring when the desired angle is

achieved. You can imagine the difficulty which would be encountered in

changing the angle of a filter fence. Mini-boom can also be backed up

with sorbents, creating a filtering device of sorts, but this practice

may not be advisable for large spills or in strong currents.

Vacuum equipment, skimmers, and hand tools may also be required to

complete the clean-up.

To retrace the footsteps we made in Chapter 1, as far as

containment of petro leum products is concernedp let us review the basic

steps in using these techniques.

When deploying boom, whether it be the standard 12"-18" type or the

mini boom, it is alway s wise to anchor the upstream end first. This

can be performed by simply tieing the end of the anchor line to any

available tree, boulder, or by driving a pipe stake into the ground and

tieing the line off to it. This establishes a firm swing point or

fulcrum from which the boom can be deployed. The boom can then be f ed

out and, when sufficient boom has been deployed, the downstream end can

be anchored in the same fashion.

(16)

qq
14, 4,e- A!5@je_,_f

If a narrow waterway is to be boomed, it is also wise to have a

person on either bank, with the trailing line in the control of the

downstream person. In a wide stream booming situation where a boom is

deployed parallel to a shoreline, it is still advisable to use two or

more people to deploy the boom. One is the upstream person, at the

first anchor pointr and the second as a downstream person. A third man

should*observe the first two and provide assistance as needed. Where a

strong current is encountered, three or four people may be required to

tie off the'trailing or downstream segment.

We must also be aware that the effectiveness of a boom decreases

greatly when the current is in excess of 2 knots. This is the case with

any boom available on the market today regardless of size or structure.

In establishing an open mouth or funnel booming arrangement a boat

will be needed. This can be an extremely dangerous operation

especially during cold seasons -or in a strong currentr and unless

trained personnel are available, should not be attempted. Diagonal or

even perpendicular booming will suffice until such time as trained

clean-up crews arrive on site. The thrust of this manual is not to

involve fire, police, public works departments or other local response

people in the actual clean-up, just the initial containment.

(17)

If neither miniboom nor sorbent materials are avilable to the

first responders several other options are suggested below:

1) A log laid across a stream and backed up by loose leaves will

create a containment area, buying time until clean-up crews arrive and

retaining the surface materials, while allowing the water to flow

unobstructed.

2) Conversion sleeve skirt material and fittings are available to

adapt an old section of fire hose into an inflatable section of

containment boom. The -sleeve skirt is attached over the outside of the

hose while fittings reduce the size of the coupling sufficiently to

adapt to conventional air fittings. The hose is then inflated with air

to create the floating collar. This conversion allows departments with

small budgets to avail themselves of boom at a very minimal cost.

3) Foam rubber from an old mattress which has been cut into strips

and tied end to end provides a plausible sorbent boom which can be

wrung out and reused. The strips should be at least as wide as the

original pad was thick to provide sufficient cross sectional area to be

effective.

4) Sand can be used to dike very small streams or drainage ditches,

weather permitting. When using sand to contain a chemical spill,

remember to always use unsalted sand. The salt added to sand f or use

in the winter -season may create problems by reacting with the spilled

material, a variable which we would rather not have occur.

(18)

REMEMBER: WHEN A MAJOR SPILL OCCURSt WE ARE ONLY TRYING TO CONTAIN

THE SPILL (TEMPORARILY) o, UNTIL PROFESSIONAL CLEAN-UP CONTRACTORS ARRIVE

ON SITE.

For smaller spills, or persistent nuisance discharges, sorbent

material may be all that is required to eliminate pollution of the

environment. These materials, in addition to hundreds of feet of

containment boomp are now available through the Co-op.

(19)

CHAPTER III

Containment in Stgrm Dr 4 Sanitary Sewer Systems

Each year, hundred of spills are reported involving storm or

sanitary sewers, with storm drainage being one of the primary routes

allowing spilled materials to enter waterways. Whether the spill

originates from a motor vehicle accident or a land based fixed

facilityr it seems that there is always a catch basin, floor drain,

footing drain, or other drain handy. Most fire departments

historically flushed any spilled materials into the nearest drain and

that was the end of the problem. out of sight, out of mind.

Today, however,.more and more fire departments are discovering that

out of sight is not out of mind, but rather, out of control. By

flushing flammable materials into catch basins and storm sewers, we

create an environment in which trapped fumes are allowed to collect.

Suddenly, someone in a passing car, possibly many blocks away tosses a

lit cigarette out the window. This ignition source ignites these

trapped vapors and we have an explosion. One cup of gasoline

completely vaporized in a confined area has as much explosive energy as

nine sticks of dynamite. If a small quantity of material is to be

flushed, use enough water to thoroughly flush the entire system. Water

is cheap when compared to the damage created by an explosion. A

cigarette needn't be considered the only source of ignition, What about

(20)

the f aulty automobile ignition system or a simple static electricity

discharge? If floor drains are connected to the system, ignition

sources become limitless when venting to basements occurs. Boilers,,

furnaces, household appliances, ad infinitum, become sources of

ignition over which we have no or little control. A flammable vapor

explosion can cause loss of life and severe property damage. The same

is true of sanitary sewers although flushing materials to sanitary

sewers in most communities is almost impossible, since there are very
few open access points in the outdoors..
More common in sanitary sewers is the seepage or infiltration of

flammable liquids from buried storage tanks (gasoline and some solvents

for example). We recall the repeated evacuation of a large section of

the city of New Irritain in 197 4 due to gasoline seepage to the sanitary

sewer system. The gasoline fumes vented into basements via untrapped

basement floor drains. Similar situations have occurred in New London

and Bristol, Connecticut, with results in Bristol earlier this year

being quite devastating. A residential building exploded because of

the build-up of *gasoline fumes venting into the building along an

unauthorized sump discharge pipe and then up through cracks in the

foundation. The source of ignition, was a simple spark created when

the thermostat on the first floor called for heat. A secondary

explosion apparently occurred when the boiler fired, sending a fireball

up the chimney. Luckily, nobody was injured. Why? The house was vacant

at the time, one of the very few in a residential neighborhood of

several hun dred homes, any of which could have been potentially

affected.

(21)

How do we, as emergency response personnel,, handle this type of

incident? Obviously we can't use boom in a pipe. In most cases, access

is too restricted to even attempt to use sorbent materials.

Let us first look at some of the tools available to us;

A) Most municipal sewer plants have inflatable sewer plugs, used to

slow or stop the flow in sections of sewer pipes while construction or

maintenance are performed downstream. These plugs can also be used for

other purposes to inhibit the flow of contaminants in - storm drains

providing the flow is not so great as to cause overflowing, of course.

The proper size plug is merely inserted into the pipe and inflated with

air, This type of blockage or flow reduction should be initiated only

on the downstream side of a manhole or catch basin to facilitate

product removal.

B) If sewer plugs are not readily available, as in most rural

areas, clean sand can be used to f ill a catch basin, thus stopping or

greatly restricting the flow. This course of action should be

attempted at least one catch basin downstream from the visible flow of

contaminant. The sand can be easily removed from a storm drain

utilizing a vacuum device called a Vac-All or Vactor.

When a small spill into a catch basin occurs, usually less than 30

gallons in volumep sorbent pads can be used to soak up and remove the

oil or gasoline. Sorbents should not be left in sewer lines unless

(22)

9 s o;
wer

OU FA L- L-

Vo We 10e.&V CV,-r-,v 0;.4s1x13 c.,e ,ocr,4f ccr-,o'Cw'VZ4-7,

anchored or a blockage may result in the line when they become

saturated and sink. Sorbent pillows or booms are often better than

pads because they can be securely anchored with rope.

In dealing with storm drainage systemsy occasionally spills of

large volume are encountered, or spills of smaller quantities but

longer duration may occur. It may be neccessary to locate the terminus

or downstream discharge point of the storm drain system and take

appropriate action there. Storm drain systems usually discharge into a

waterway, drainage ditch, or pond, and quick deployment of containment

materials at these locations is critical to prevent contamination of

these water courses. In the case of a watercourse or pond, parallel

booming, or a filter fence constructed parallel to the shoreline and

cutting off the storm drain discharge channel may be most effective.

On the previous page you encountered two sketches showing incidents

into two drainage systems. In the first scenario, several case

questions are asked to which you may supply the answers. In scenarios

A,, B,, and C,, Basin #5 would be a fairly good choice to plug,, and in

scenario D, Basin #7 would be a good choice. Do your choices agree

with the manual? if not, why?

If you choose. a basin which allows enough working time, containment

should be satisfactory. An important point to remember is that you

must be sure there are no floor drains connected to the drain line from

adjacent housingr as venting to the basements can intensify. This is

especially

(23)

true when the pollutant is gasoline. If this should occur and vapors

begin to approach the Lower Explosive Limit(LEL), discontinue the block

immediately.

The discharge end of a storm drain consists of a headwall or open

pipe. However, in a sanitary sewer system, a multimillion dollar

sewage treatment plantf with its own inherent problems is connected to

the discharge end of the sewer pipe. often,, several pumps or lift

stations are located in the sanitary systems, with sumps which allow

spilled materials to accumulate and volatilize. But the most important

attachments to any sewer systems are the many occupied buildings which

discharge to it. Problems in the sewer system can cause basement

venting much the same as storm,drain vents.

Illegal industrial discharges and leaking underground storage tanks

provide the most common sources of sanitary sewer problems. The

discharge whether intentional or accidental, generally enters the

system through existing piping. liquids from buried petroleum storage

tanks may enter by seeping through the pipe joints from the outside.

Sewer pipes are joined using a neoprene gasket forced into a

bell-and-sleeve joint. This type of gasket is susceptible to attack by

gasoline and many solvents. The gasoline or solvents extract chemical

binders called plasticizers f rom the rubber, causing it to swell and

become very soft, pliable, and porous. Eventually the gasket no longer

seals the joint, and allows the gasoline to seep into the pipe. The

water and other wastes in the system are warm, causing the gasoline to

rapidly volatilize, f illing the pipe with explosive gasoline vapors.

These vapors immediately seek a means of escape and are carried along

on - air currents in the sewer much the same as the smoke f rom a

(24)

woodstove follows the stovepipe to the chimney, eventually escaping to

the atmosphere.

The "chimneys" in a sewer system may be manholes, floor drains, or

residential discharge connections. Since most toilet, sink and bathtub

connections are wet-trapped, the fumes cannot escape through these

pipes. Floor drains, however, are not usually trapped or, if they are,

the traps are dry,, allowing the vaporized gasoline to enter building

basements.

The basement gradually fills with the fumes until the lower explosive

limit (L.E.L.) is surpassed. We are now operating in the danger zone.

one spark and we have serious problems.

When a problem such as this manifests itself, it may be with a

violent incident. Either a 300 pound cast steel manhole cover blows

off,, pump houses or homes experience violent fires, or entire sewer

systems, plant included, go offline or are disabled.

First responders are urged to exercise extreme caution when

responding to these calls or in entering buildings effected by fume

build-up. Vapors can build to a level higher than the upper explosive

limit (U.E.L.), in effect, becoming too rich to ignite even if a source

is available. Some explosion meters or LEL meters will register zero

under these circumstances, falsely leading inexperienced personnel into

a fire trap. Venting a building will cause the vapors to dissipate to

an extent which lowers the concentration of fumes back into the

explosive range. When attempting to vent such a condition, all

ignition sources must be

(25)

extinguished and the source of fumes entering the building must be

plugged. Any nonporous medium can be used to secure floor drains

(rubber plugs,, water soaked rags, ready mix cement, sand,, etc). Once

the drain is secure and ignition sources nullified, rapid venting is

suggested to dissipate all vapors as quickly as possible.

In dealing with the problem of gasoline or other flammable liquids

in sewers, locating and removal of the source is of paramount

importance. Dealing with the situation as it exists in the sewerage

system or impacted buildings is comparable to treating the symptoms of

a disease while the disease itself rages unchecked. If we do not

remove the pressure of the liquid in the leaking system, the product

will continue to leak into the sewer, regardless of what we attempt to

do downstream.

Several quite simple methods can be employed to locate sources of

contamination in these situations.

Requesting assistance from the sewer, engineeringr or public works

departments to obtain detailed plans and profiles of the sewer system

is always a good first step, along with getting personnel from this

department on site.

Starting from the known location,, we can then start tracing the

problem back to its source. This can be done visually or with metering

devices used to detect the presence of hydrocarbons. Although tracing

the visible surface contamination is the best method to locate any

(26)

source, often contaminants are of insufficient quantities or the flow

is too turbid to permit visual observations.

If this is the caser then we must use the metering devices commonly

referred to as uexplosion meters". This method is the best second

choice only if metering can be accomplished at or very near the surface

of the flow in the sewer. Erroneous information due to the chimney

effect can be obtained by taking readings too near the top of the

manhole. Many times this chimney effect has led personnel to

inconclusive resultsr or worser to conclude that the wrong facility is

the source of the problem.

The last method which should be considered is reliance on the human

sense of smell. While human olfactory systems are very sensitive, they

are usually unreliable. Humans can detect (on the average)

concentrations of 2 parts per million of gasoline in air but this

ability varies widely between individuals. You can surely understand
why confusion over the source will arise if two or more 'people are

involved in the tracing activities, Outside sources will also provide

interference as will pyschosomatic sources (attitudes or emotions).

That is why this method should be used as a last resort only.

Things to rem.ember when dealing with this type of situation.

1) attempt to identify product if it is unknown, and

familiarize yourself with its characteristics.

2) exercise extreme caution when entering affected buildings or

when removing manhole covers or catch basin grates from their

seats.

3) check buildings adjacent to storm and sanitary sewers for

effects of spillage, making sure basements are not being

charged with vapors from chimney effect.

(27)

4) make sure metering devices are in proper working order, properly

calibrated, and are equipped with fresh? well-charged batteries.

5) prepare a section in your department's emergency operations plan

outlining the steps to be taken to contact local sewer, public

works, engineering departments and other authorities.

(28)

CHAPTER IV

SUrface and SUbsurface Land Spills

Almost all spillsy with the possible exception of deep water spills

from vessels, impact the ground in some manner. Whether the oil washes

onto a beach from an offshore spill, or seeps into the ground from a

leaking buried storage tankl, the ground is impacted to some degree.

Removal of contaminates from topsoil, while sometimes labor intensive

and tedious,, is usually pretty straight forward. In other words, we

can see when the job is complete.

Subsurface spills or spills which percolate to subsurface waters

present another problem altogether. It is impossible, or at least

impractical, to know in all cases what is actually happening

underground. Product losses which penetrate the ground surface from

surface spills and subsurface spills will dominate our discussions

here.

First of all, why worry at all about underground spills? How long

do contaminates persist in the soil? What can they hurt? These and

other questions crop up daily when dealing with this type of incident.

Residents in the State of Connecticut rely on groundwater supplies

for 60% of the potable water consumed daily. With such a valuable

resource in such inaccessible locations, if contamination threatens,

prompt remedial action has to be taken.

(29)

other problems which arise from ground contamination are:

1) seepage of fumes and/or product into basements

2) seepage of fumes and/or product into storm or sanitary sewers

3) seepage of product to surface water bodies

4) destruction of agricultural cropland or residential landscaping

plants including lawns

5) loss of property values from any of the above

Soil contamination problems arising from a catastrophic incident
such as a vehicular accident,, firej -large loss of gasoline from a
service station due to tank collapse etc. are recognizable at the time

they occur. But what about the slow constant loss from a buried tank;

or a transfer line from a home heating tank to the boiler, or from a

ho-le in the tank itself. These may not be recognized, may exist for a
long time and may show themselves in ways which make the source almost

undentifiable. In some cases, irreversible damage can occur, rendering

drinking water wells useless, and prohibiting the drilling of new

wells.

What do we do then, as f irst responders when thrust into this type

of situation? What actions can we take, for instance,, when we are

advised that gasoline is seeping through the basement wall at a large

shopping center?

Being methodical at this point, we first try to secure the building

and identify the product. If we determine that it is indeed

(30)

gasoline, and we know the characteristics, we take the primary remedial

actions necessary to bring the situation under control. With minor

quantities, or very light odor, we may choose to work very discretly to

locate the source.

To accomplish this, we first have to know why the gasoline chose

this location to manifest itselfr and how it got here. A major

infiltration, or a constant seepage of longer duration will course

require more immediate reactions. Evacuation of the facility may be in

order in severe cases. Electrical power may have to be partially or

completely shut off to eliminate ignition sources. In order to stop

the flow, the pressure behind the contaminant must be relieved and to

do this the source must be identified. Where a ser'ious problem exists,

we might obtain a back-hoe and excavate an area opposite the seepage on

the outside wall. This will relieve some of the pressure and we can

gain access to remove the gasoline prior to its entering the

building.This may help protect the building, but without source

identification, it is only a temporary expedient

Our friends at the sewer, public utilities, public works, and

engineering departments again can play a very important role in

determining where utilities are located. Often contaminates will flow

in the uncompadted bedding and fill surrounding sewer, water and power

lines.

If filling stations are located in close proximity to the area,

thorough inspection of their dispensing equipment can be rapidly done

by trained personnel. An inspection of the pumping mechanism located

(31)

in the base of the dispenser, and of as submersible pumps on top of

storage tanks may sometime turn up the sourceof the problem. If all

dispensers and pumps check out favorably, then a request for product

inventory records is made. A proper inventory will show sales vs.

storage quantities and should balance to within 1/2 of 1% daily.

If a suspect station is turned up in this manner, two courses of

action are open to us; the first, requiring an NFPA 329 TANK TIGHTNESS

TEST be performed on the storage facility; or the second, causing all

product to be removed from all tanks until such time as the station can

demonstrate that the tanks and piping are tight.

These methods address the immediate crisis, but what about the

residual product in the groundl which may continue to cause problems

over a long period of time? How do we address this?

Once the initial crisis is resolved, and depending on several

factors,, we may require the owner of the tanks (the oil company or

other owner of the facility documented to be the source) to engage the

services of a hydrogeological consultant and/or clean-up contractor.

The consultant will evaluate the size of the area contaminated and

propose a method of retrieving the product from the groundwater.

Limiting factors would include the quantity of product lost, depth to

ledge, or the feasibility of recovering any of the product.

If quantities are sufficient, contamination is located, and

retrieval is deemed feasible,, then a recovery well is drilled, or in

some cases dug,- and a product collection system is installed. This

system creates an artificial depression in the ground water table by

(32)

removing large quantities of water, thereby drawing the gasoline into

this depression. As gasoline accumulates in the collection wellf it is

pumped to the surface storage tanks by specially designed pumps. In

the more elaborate systems when the tank becomes full, the pump shuts

off automatically until the product is removed, thus preventing an

overflow. Recovery rates of 50% are deemed successful, with the

highest recovery rates being about 75% of the total quantity lost.

This method would constitute a universal collection system for

almost all low densityr floatingr water insoluble products. When we

look at other products, such as agricultural chemicals, mineral acids,

alkalis, poisons, and a multitude of the materials which may

contaminate -groundwater supplies, treatment methods become somewhat

more sophisticated and tedious. Several collection systems may be

employed in series to reduce the impact of contaminants. The systems

are almost always custom-designed and constructed and are not normally

handled by emergency response personnel.

We would like to emphasize here that ground and groundwater

contamination by petroleum products or chemicals can be serious and

very long lived. While there are some actions which can be taken to

minimize the impact of a spill, a major incident will require a

substantial amount of time and money to correct. Even the most

extensive recovery operation will not recreate the quality of resources

which existed prior to the spill. Only time and nature may be able to

do that. Appropriate and timely actions, however,, may prevent tragic

well contaminations or the penetration of explosive vapors into

residential or non-residential buildings.

(33)

7a- &@wwg
se-

4ro e- OL C C rl OA.1

Ft- 0 AT)AJ47
Ojoa c- T'

jc
A/lz 0

It is of primary importance therefore to be able to rapidly

identify the type of product involved in a spill incident and to have a

knowledge of the properties of that product. Several publications have

been produced by government agencies and private organizations during

the past several years to assi st first responders in identifying

products.

The most thorough attempt at identifying chemical products in

transit is the program initiated by the U.S. Government, Department of

Transportation involving numbered placards affixed to transport

vehicles. The product contained in the vehicle is clearly identified

by a specific four-digit number corresponding to the product. Code

Numbers are cross-referenced in a publication entitled "Hazardous

Materials Emergency Respon se Guidebook". available from the

Superintendant of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,

Washington D.C. by ordering publication number DOT-P-5800.2. This same

manual is available in quantities from Labelmaster Inc., Chicago Ill.

and probably other printing houses as well.

While this volume is an excellent resource aid, problems inherent

in its format do exist. The single largest problem is the failure to

list the physical characteristics of the materials given. Information

on the materials is confined to broad-based generalizations regarding

evacuationr flammability, etc., but for specific information, one must

look elsewhere. This publication is designed only as a quick reference

to identify materials and to suggest actions to take in the event -of a

spill or other emergency,

For more detailed information, it is suggested that the National

(34)

Fire Protection Associationr Hazardous Materials Handbook be available.

This volume is available through the N.F.P.A.,Boston Mass., and is an

almost indispensable reference manual for product identification and a

description of its physical and chemical properties.

These two volumes provide an excellent basic reference library for

almost any fire, police, or emergency response unit.

We have discussed product identification and reference manuals, but

one further point must be stressed very strongly at this point.

UNTIL WE KNOW THE NATURE OF THE MATERIALF WE MUST TAKE ALL PRECAUTIONS

TO PROTECT OURSELVES, WHEN ESTABLISHING OUR APPROACH, ENTRYr AND RESCUE

OPERATIONS.

The average firefighter or line officer may never encounter a major

incident of the type described, but will undoubtedly encounter many

minor incidents requiring a few of the following basic skills to

handle.

1. Containment - By surrounding the source with speedy dry or a

sand dike, we can prevent the spre ad of contamination. For

fast immediate containment, build an earthdike. When the dike

is constructed, highly flammable materials can be foamed (high

expansion type) if necessary to miniimize chances of ignition.

2. Trenching - By creating a diversion ditch, we can direct

materials to a containment area. Again, foaming the surface of

flammable materials inhibits ignition if an area can't be

established away from potential ignition.sources. Unnecessary

foaming should be avoided, not only because the foam may be

wasted but also because it may contaminate virgin product and

thereby complicate clean-up and disposal problems.

(35)

Neutralizing - In some casesr the spilled material can be

neutralized and rendered harmless on the spot. This step

should be undertaken only under the direction of trained

personnel thoroughly familiar with the material involved.

These processes will cover most of the spills encountered during an

average year.

In conclusion, we would like to thank you for your participation in

this course. we hope that you will keep a copy of this manual handy

with other emergency reference materials and that you will find it a

useful guide not only to your activities in responding to spills, but

to other hazardous materials incidents as well.

(36)

3 6668 14109 2090 -