[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]









                                      N 1'.)
                                I N L,


                                S 111

              options for Minimizing
           Environmental Impacts of
         Freshwater Spill Response
















            NATIONAL -OCEANIC C@7- ATM-0-SPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
                   HAZARDOUS MATERIALS RE ONSE
                          (Z,'- ASSESSMENT DIVISION
       TD424. 3
       .0684
       1994         AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE


                             SEPTEMBER1994









                      Options for Minimizing
                   Environmental impacts of
                  Freshwater Spill Response
















                                                    Vroperty of CSC Library


                                            US Department Of Commerce
                                            NOAA r--, .-., --r-7@CCO Center Library
                                            223d             Avenue
                                            Charleston, SC 29405-2413


                 NATIONAL OCEANIC e-- ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
                        HAZARDOUS MATERIALS RESPONSE
                              C-:-, ASSESSMENT DIVISION


                        AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE


                              SEPTEMBER 1994











                                                               CONTENTS

                                                                                                                            PAGE
                    Abstract         .........................................................................................     vii
                    Acknowledgments                      .....................................................................     vii
                    1.0      introduction        .....................................................................................I
                             1.1      Scope and Purpose               ................................................................1
                             1.2      Background         .............................................................................2
                             1.3      organization of Guidelines               ......................................................3
                             1.4      Sensitivity of Environments and Habitats                      ................................4
                             i.s      impact of Response methods in the Absence of oil                              ...............5
                             1.6      Classification of Oil Response methods                     ...................................7
                             1.7      Assumptions Used in the Discussion of Methods                             ...................7
                             1.8      Classification of Oil Types             .......................................................9

                    2.0      Summary of Response methods and Habitats                                    ......................... 13

                    3.0      Spill Response Methods for Specific inland Habitats                                  ...............  23
                             3.1      introduction       ........................................................................... 23

                             3.2 Open water              ........................................................................... 24
                                           Habitat Description           ................I .......................................... 24
                                           Sensitivity     ........................................................................ 24
                                           Response methods              .......................................................... 26
                             3.3 Large Rivers             .......................................................................... 28
                                           Habitat Description           ........................................................... 28
                                           Sensitivity     ........................................................................ 28
                                           Response Methods              .......................................................... 31
                             3.4 Small Lakes and Ponds                    ......................................................... 34
                                           Habitat Description           ........................................................... 34
                                           Sensitivity     ...........................................................................4
                                           Response Methods              .......................................................... 37
                             3.5      Small Rivers and Streams                ..................................................... 40
                                           Habitat Description           ........................................................... 40
                                           Sensitivity     ........................................................................ 4,0
                                           Response Methods              .......................................................... 43










                     contents, cont                   . ......................................................................           PAGE

                                3.6 Bedrock Habitats                    .....................................................................  16
                                               Habitat Description              ..........................................................     46
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      46
                                               Response methods                 ..........................................................     49
                                3.7       Manmade Structures                  .............................................................    52
                                               Habitat Description              ..........................................................     52
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      52
                                               Response methods                 ............................................................   55
                                3.8       Sand Habitats          .........................................................................     58
                                               Habitat Description              ..........................................................     58
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      58
                                               Response Methods                 ..........................................................     61
                                3.9       mixed Sand and Gravel Habitats                         ...........................................   64
                                               Habitat Description              ..........................................................     64
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      64
                                               Response Methods                 ..........................................................     67
                                3. 10 Gravel Habitats                .....................................................................     70
                                               Habitat Description              ..........................................................     70
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      70
                                               Response methods                 ..........................................................     73
                                3.11 vegetated Shoreline Habitats                          ................................................    76
                                               Habitat Description              ...  ......................................................    76
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      76
                                               Response Methods                 ..............  ...........................................    79
                                3.12 Mud Habitats                .........................................................................     82
                                               Habitat Description              ..........................................................     82
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      82
                                               Response Methods                 ..........................................................     85
                                3.13 Wetland Habitats                  ...................................................................     @m
                                               Habitat Description              ..........................................................     88
                                               Sensitivity       ........................................................................      88
                                               Response Methods                 ..........................................................     91









                     Contents, cont                  .......................................................................          PAGE

                     4.0 Spill Response Methods                            ..............................................................  95
                                      Physical Response Methods                   ......................................................   95
                                      1     Natural Recovery             ................................................................  96
                                      2     Booming       .....................................................  I ....................... 97
                                      3     Skimming          ...........................................................................  98
                                      4     Barriers/Berms           ....................................................................  98
                                      5     Physical Herding            .................................................................  99
                                      6     manual Oil ReMoVal/Cleaning                      ...........................................  I oo
                                      7     Mechanical Oil Removal                   ...................................................  101

                                      8     Sorbents       ...........................................................................    102

                                      9     Vacuum         ............................................................................   102

                                      10    Debris Removal              ...............................................................   103
                                      1 1   Sediment Reworking                 ........................................................   104
                                      12    vegetation Removal                .........................................................   105
                                      13    In-Situ Burning          ..................................................................   105
                                      14    Flooding        ...........................................................................   106
                                      15    Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                         ..................................  107
                                      16    High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                        ..................................  jo8
                                      17    Low-Pressure, HOt-Water Flushing                        ....................................  log
                                      18    High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                        ...................................  110
                                      19    Steam Cleaning             ................................................................   11,
                                      20    Sand Blasting          ....................................................................   III


                                      Chemical Response methods
                                      21    Dispersants          ......................................................................   112
                                      22    Emulsion-Treating Agents                    ................................................  113
                                      23    Visco-Elastic Agents             .... I....................................................   114
                                      24    Herding Agents             ................................................................   115
                                      25    Solidiflers                                                                                   115
                                      26    Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment                        .....................................  116
                                      27    Shoreline Cleaning Agents                  ................................................   117










                     Contents, cont                  . .....................................................................         PAGE

                                    Biological Response methods
                                    28 Nutrient Enrichment                    .........................................................  118
                                    29 Natural microbe Seeding                       ..................................................  119


                    5.o        Special Considerations                    ..............................................................  121
                               5.1       Public Health Concerns                 .......................................................  121
                               5.2       Conditions Under Which Oil Might Sink in Fresh Water                                     ....... 122
                               5.3       oil Behavior in Ice Conditions                   .............................................. 123

                               5.4       Permafrost         ..........................................................................   124
                               5.5       Firefighting Foam              ...............................................................  125


                               Appendices
                               A         Oil Spill Response Technology Bibliography                               ....................... A- I
                               B         Grain-size Scale           .................................................................... B-1









                                                                              TABLES
                                                                                                                                                  PAGE

                           I     Primary freshwater environments and habitats Included in t
                                 his guide ... ...........................................................................................                3

                           2     Correlation of the shoreline habitats discussed in this guide with t
                                 he Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) shoreline rankings for
                                 the Great Lakes               ....................................................................................       4

                           3     Relative impact of response methods In the absence of oil                                               .................6

                           4     The four types of oil used in this guide and their characteristics                                             ........  11

                           5     Key to ESI codes                ................................................................................         14

                           6     Gasoline Products: Summary of relative environmental impact
                                 from response methods for spills in water environments                                              ..................   15

                           7     Gasoline Products: Summary of relative environmental impact
                                 from response methods for spills in shoreline habitats                                          ......................   16

                           8     Diesel-like oils: Summary of relative environmental impact from
                                 response methods for spills In water environments                                          ..........................    17

                           9     Diesel-like oils: Summary of relative environmental impact from
                                 response methods for spills in shoreline habitats                                      ..............................    18

                       10        Medium Oils: Summary of relative environmental impact from
                                 response methods for spills in water environments                                          ..........................    19

                       I I       Medium Oils: Summary of relative environmental impact from
                                 response methods for spills in shoreline habitats                                      ..............................    20

                       12        Heavy Oils: Summary of relative environmental impact from r
                                 esponse methods for spills in water environments                                          ...........................    21

                       13        Heavy oils: Summary of relative environmental Impact from
                                 response methods for spills in shoreline habitats                                      ..............................    22

                       14        Relative environmental Impact from response methods for
                                 open water environments                         ..................................................................       25

                       15        Relative environmental impact from response methods for large
                                 river environments                 .............................................................................         30

                       16        Relative environmental Impact from response methods for small
                                 lake and pond environments                         .............................................................         36








                                                                  TABLES, cont.
                                                                                                                                       PAGE

                        17       Relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                 sniall river and stream environments                        ................................................. 42


                        18       Relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                 bedrock habitats            ................................................................................. 48

                        19       Relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                 manmade structures                 .......................................................................... 54

                        20       Relative environmental impact from response methods for sand
                                 habitats      ............................................................................................... 60

                        21       Relative environmental impact from response methods for mixed
                                 sand and gravel habitats                ..................................................................... 66

                        22       Relative environmental impact from response methods for gravel
                                 habitats      ............................................................................................... 72

                        23       Relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                 vegetated shoreline habitats                  ............................................................... 78

                        24       Relative environmental impact from response methods for mud
                                 habitats      ............................................................................................... 84

                        25       Relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                 wetland habitats            ................................................................................. 90































                        Vi









               ABSTRACT



               Selecting appropriate protection, response, and cleanup techniques, both before and
               following an oil spill, affects the ultimate environmental impact and cost resulting from
               a spill. The American Petroleum Institute (API) and the National Oceanic and
               Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) jointly developed this guide as a tool for
               contingency planners and field responders to identify response techniques that have
               minimal ecological impacts and also minimize the impact of the oil. The guide provides
               information on 29 response methods and classifies their relative environmental impact
               for combinations of four oil types and twelve freshwater environments and habitats.
               Spill topics of special concern in freshwater settings are also discussed, including public
               health, conditions under which oil might sink in freshwater, oil behavior in ice
               conditions, permafrost, and use of firefighting foams.


               ACKNOWLEDGMENTS



               API's Wand Spills Work Group began this project in 1991 with the Workshop on the
               Environmental Effects of Response Technologies for Inland Waters that was jointly
               sponsored by the Spill Control Association of America. Initial technical support was
               provided by Woodward Clyde Consultants whose team was led by Dr. Edward Owens.
               Completion of this document was made possible by financial and technical support from
               the NOAA Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division (HAZMAT) and
               their contract, Dr. Jacqueline Michel of Research Planning, Inc.

               This document has been reviewed by spill response professionals, including contractors,
               industry, consultants, and government whose efforts are appreciated. API and NOAA
               wish to acknowledge the additional contributions made by David Bell (BP America) and
               Dr. Ron Goodman (Imperial Oil Resources, Ltd.). The successful completion of this
               project is due in large part to the energy, leadership, and perseverance of David Fritz
               (Amoco Oil), Lt Kenneth Barton (NOAA), Jay Rodstein (formerly of NOAA), and Alexis
               Steen (API).







                                                                                                      Vii








                1.0 INTRODUCTION



                1. 1 SCOPE AND PURPOSE

                Selecting appropriate oil spill protection, recovery, and cleanup techniques, before and
                following an oil spill, is a critical element affecting the ultimate environmental impact
                and cost resulting from a spill. It is important to identify techniques that in themselves
                have minimal intrinsic ecological impact and are also effective in reducing the impact of
                the oil. Furthermore, these response techniques should be considered before a spill, so
                that little time needs to be spent preparing for the response during a spill.

               'The American Petroleum Institute (API) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                Administration (NOAA) jointly developed this guide as a too] to help contingency
                planners and field responders evaluate response techniques and choose those that will
                most effectively prevent or minimize adverse ecological impact. Information is
                provided to help select response techniques for specific combinations of habitat and oil
                types. Each technique is evaluated individually for a specific habitat; however, during
                spill response more than one technique may be used at the same time on one or more
                habitats.

                The discussions in this guide reflect primarily the assessment of the environmental
                impac of the response methods. This guide also recognized that the selected techniques
                should be effective. They must remove a significant amount of oil from the
                environment or prevent or reduce oil impact, and they must have acceptable impact on
                the habitat as compared to leaving the oil alone (natural recovery). Prolonged use of an
                inefficient technique may be more ecologically detrimental than short-term use of a
                potentially more intrusive approach (e.g., frequent entry into a marsh to replace sorbents
                rather than vacuuming pooled oil).

                Reducing the overall ecological impact of a spill event is the primary concern of this
                guide, and it is applicable for inland, freshwater environments and habitats only. This
                guide does not address land-only, chemical, or marine spills. It also does not discuss
                legal or regulatory issues; safety considerations; or guidance on planning, organizing,
                and conducting a spill response effort. The manual may be customized for specific
                geographic areas to address special priorities and concerns.

                Specific spill conditions will often dictate the response techniques used, and selection
                always involves tradeoffs. For example, a potentially ecologically damaging, but efficient,









                cleanup technique could be used to meet site-specific response goals. Also, techniques
                may be used early in response simply because they can be implemented immediately,
                rather than waiting until ones with lower impact can be mobilized. A method that has a
                significant short-term ecological impact, such as in-situ burning, may actually produce
                the lowest long-term ecological impact because it removes the oil quickly.



                1.2 BACKGROUND

                Oil spills into inland waters differ from coastal or marine spills from several
                perspectives. For instance, inland spills are usually in freshwater habitats. Inland spills
                are also more frequent than marine spills, and they often involve smaller volumes of
                oil. Refined product spills are more common in freshwater, while crude oil spills
                comprise the majority of marine spills. Inland spills have a much higher potential to
                contaminate water supplies (surface as well as groundwater), to affect areas of
                concentrated populations, and to impact manmade structures and human activities. In
                coastal and marine environments, wave and tidal action are important mechanisms for
                dispersion and transport of oil and in removing oil from shorelines. These mechanisms
                are less important in freshwater habitats, where currents and floods are more important
                factors.

                The knowledge base for response to oil spills reflects the disparity of information
                available between marine spill response and freshwater response. The lack of literature
                and guidelines for inland spill response prompted several efforts to improve this
                shortcoming. Preparation of this guide began with a workshop sponsored by API on
                Inland Oil Spills, conducted in Dearborn, Michigan, November 19-21, 1991. The
                objective of the workshop was to bring together the oil spill response community
                experienced and/or responsible for responding to freshwater crude oil or petroleum
                product spills, and to develop strategies through consensus for dealing with spills in
                different freshwater environments and shoreline habitats. The information from that
                workshop was the basis for development of this guide. However, the final guidelines
                presented here are based on the educated and experienced opinions of oil spill experts in
                industry and government.








                2










                1.3 ORGANIZATION OF GUIDELINES

                The guide identifies response methods for twelve primary freshwater habitats (Table 1),
                which represent various waterways and shoreline types. Each habitat is treated
                separately in the guide, although the spill responder will be confronted with a variety of
                habitats.


                Table 1.  Primary freshwater environments and habitats included in this guide.

                Water Environments                          Shoreline Habitats
                   Open Water                               Bedrock
                   Large Rivers                             Manmade Structures
                   Small Lakes and Ponds                    Sand
                   Small Rivers and Streams                 Mixed Sand and Gravel
                                                            Gravel
                                                            Vegetated Shorelines
                                                            Mud
                                                            Wetlands


                Section 2 of the guide includes:
                       Response method summary matrices for the four primary water environments
                       and eight shoreline habitats for four general oil types.
                Section 3, arranged by water environment and shoreline habitat, contains:
                   ï¿½ A detailed description of the environment or habitat; and
                   ï¿½ Matrices of response methods in terms of recommended use for each of the four
                       general oil types.
                Section 4 of the guide contains detailed descriptions of the response methods listed in
                the matrices. The following headings are used:
                   ï¿½   Objective;
                   ï¿½   Description;
                   ï¿½   Applicable habitats;
                   ï¿½   When to use;
                   ï¿½   Biological constraints; and
                   ï¿½   Environmental impact.
                Section 5 discusses the following special issues of concern in freshwater settings:
                   ï¿½   Public health concerns;
                   ï¿½   Conditions under which oil might sink;
                   ï¿½   Oil behavior under ice conditions;
                   ï¿½   Oil behavior and response in permafrost habitats; and
                   ï¿½   Firefighting foam.


                                                                                                            3










                    1.4 SENSITIVITY OF ENVIRONMENTS AND HABITATS

                    Habitat sensitivity is a function of several factors, including degree of exposure to
                    natural removal processes, biological productivity and ability to recover following oil
                    exposure, human use of the habitat, and ease of oil removal. These factors are used to
                    rank the overall sensitivity of shoreline habitats to spilled oil as part of the
                    Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI). This guide focuses on one element of
                    environmental sensitivity, namely the sensitivity of habitats to impacts resulting from
                    oil removal. ESI shorelines are grouped according to the oil removal considerations
                    used in this guide. The correlation between the shoreline habitat groupings in this
                    guide and the shoreline rankings in the ESI atlases published for the U.S. Great Lakesis
                    shown in Table 2, the summary tables, and Chapter 3. It should be noted that some
                    groupings include both low and high sensitivity habitats, particularly where both
                    sheltered and exposed habitats are grouped, such as bedrock and manmade structures.


                    Table 2.   Correlation of the shoreline habitats discussed in this guide with the Environmental
                               Sensitivity Index (ESI) shoreline rankings for the Great Lakes.

                    Shoreline Habitats                      ESI Ranking and Description

                       Bedrock                              ESI = 1A        Exposed Rocky Cliffs
                                                            ES1 = 2         Shelving Bedrock Shores
                                                            ESI = 8A        Sheltered Rocky Shores

                       Manmade Structures                   ESI = 1B        Exposed Solid Seawalls
                                                            ES1 = 6B        Riprap Structures
                                                            ESI = 8B        Sheltered Solid Manmade Structures


                       Sand                                 ES1 = 4         Sand Beaches


                       Mixed Sand and Gravel                ESI = 3         Eroding Scarps in Unconsolidated Sediment
                                                            ESI = 5         Mixed Sand and Gravel Beaches


                       Gravel                               ESI = 6A        Gravel Beaches

                       Vegetated Shorelines                 ESI = 9A        Sheltered Low Vegetated Banks/Bluffs

                       Mud                                  ESI = 9B        Sheltered Sand/Mud Flats

                       Wetlands                             ESI = 10A       Fringing Marshes
                                                            ESI = 10B       Extensive Marshes



                    4









               The differences in oil behavior, persistence, and need for cleanup between sheltered and
               exposed sites are addressed in the discussion of these habitats.

               Sensitivity issues of special concern to inland areas include strong seasonal variations in
               biological productivity and exposure to physical processes, urban areas with extensive
               manmade structures along the shoreline, and populated areas that are very near
               shorelines and bodies of water when human-health concerns can dominate cleanup
               issues. Important seasonal considerations include presence of ice in winter; variations in
               water level, which greatly influence habitats likely to be exposed to oil, flooding of
               stranded oil, and natural removal rates; sensitivity of vegetation to direct oiling impact;
               and use of habitats by migratory birds.



               1.5 IMPACT OF RESPONSE METHODS IN THE ABSENCE
                      OF OIL

               The following criteria were used to evaluate the relative impact of each technique in the
               absence of oil, primarily due to physical disturbances of mechanical methods and toxic
               impacts from chemical and biological methods. The results are shown in Table 3.
               Impacts from use of individual products and equipment types vary. The information
               provided to evaluate impacts in the absence of oil addresses generic characteristics of the
               response techniques and does not consider those variations. Additional information on
               environmental impacts is provided in the discussions of each technique in Section 4.

                      ï¿½   Low       Physical damage to the substrate and vegetation is minimal. Toxic
                          impact is likely to be of limited areal extent and short duration.
                          Restabilization or repopulation of the habitat is likely within six months.

                      ï¿½   ModeratePhysical damage to the substrate and vegetation may occur, with
                          increased erosion potential in sedimentary habitats. Toxic impact is such that
                          restabilization or repopulation of the habitat may take six to twelve months.

                      ï¿½   High      Physical damage to the substrate and vegetation is expected. Erosion
                          potential may be high for the technique. The ecosystem may be adversely
                          affected. Restabilization or repopulation of the habitat may take more than
                          twelve months.

               Those techniques that are clearly ineffective or inapplicable for a habitat are indicated
               with a dash (-)..For cases where there is insufficient information to evaluate impact in
               the absence of oil, an "I" is used.



                                                                                                           5











                  Table 3. Relative impact of response methods in the absence of oil.

                                                                             WATER ENVIRONMENT                                                         SHORELINE HABITAT
                                      Response                       Open         small        'Large         Small                        Man-              Vegetated Sandond
                                       Method                        Water LakeslPonds         Rivers     RiverslStrearns      Bedrock     Made Sand          Shores        Grovel      Grovel Mud Wetlands
                  PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS


                     Booming                                             L            L            L              L


                                                                                                                                                                                                     Mum
                     Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                         L            H            L              M                 L         L        L          H            M                     H         H


                     Sorbents                                            L            L            L              L                           L        L          L            L            L        M         M


                     Debris Removal                                                   L            L              L                 L         L        L          L            L            L        M         M


                     Vegetation Removal                                  L            H            M              H                                               H                                            H

                     Flooding                                                                                                       L         L        L          L            M            L        L         L
                                                                                                                                                            K-@:Zn n`7X:,-:.,:.,, M@

                     High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                                                             L         L        H          H            H            H        H         H

                     High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                                                              M         L        H          H            H            H        H         H
                                                                                                                                                                                                        .... . ........ .
                                                                                                                    . . . .. .....                                                                      ....... .
                                                                  V                   5            _7
                                                           9@  M0            [email protected]    aw 1"', 8:1
                  RENOWN
                                                                                                                                       MEN
                     Sand Blasting                                                                                                  H         M

                     Dispersants                                         L            H            L              H

                     Visco-Elastic Agents                                L            M            L              L

                     Solidifiers                                         L            L            L              L                 L         L        M          M            M            L        M         M


                     Shoreline Cleaners                                                                                             M         L        M          I            M            M        M         I

                                                                                                                                                       . . ... . . . . .
                                                                                                                                a
                     Nutrient Enrichment                                 L            M            L              L                 L         L        L          L            L            L        L         L



                  L = Low; M = Moderate; H           High; I    Incomplete Information;            Not applicable for this environment or habitat.










                 1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF OIL RESPONSE METHODS

                 The classifications developed for this guide compare the relative environmental impact
                 of specific response methods for a given environment or habitat and oil type. It should
                 be noted that the methods were compared among themselves, and no one method was
                 used as a standard. The relative effectiveness of a response technique's ability to protect a
                 habitat or remove oil is not explicitly considered. Relative effectiveness is only
                 incorporated into the classification where less effective methods could result in longer
                 application and thus greater ecological impacts, or leave higher oil residues in the
                 habitat.

                 The classification categories are defined as follows:

                         A  May cause the least adverse habitat impact

                         B  May cause some adverse habitat impact

                         *  May cause significant adverse habitat impact

                         *  May cause the most adverse habitat impact

                         I  Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be
                            evaluated at this time

                 Those techniques that are clearly ineffective (e.g., herding agents on heavy oils) or
                 inapplicable for an oil type or habitat (e.g., sand blasting of mud habitats) are indicated
                 with a dash (-).



                 1.7 ASSUMPTIONS USED IN THE DISCUSSION OF
                         METHODS

                 This guide was prepared with several assumptions:

                         Proper Applieation of Metbods
                         It is assumed that methods will be properly applied by trained personnel. For
                         example, if booms are recommended, these guidelines assume that the booms
                         will be effectively located and correctly deployed. Improper application of almost
                         any technique can render it ineffective or cause additional damage. For general
                         guidance on application, see the publications listed in Appendix A. In cases
                         where instruction for using a protection or cleanup method may be habitat-
                         specific, see Section 4.



                                                                                                                  7










                      Evaluation of Relative Imp"t of Methods
                      Each method was evaluated independently for each habitat. In an actual
                      response, however, the methods cannot be evaluated in isolation from each
                      other. Specific spill conditions will often dictate the need for different techniques
                      for the same water environment or shoreline habitat. For example, a high degree
                      of oiling or low exposure to natural removal processes may require a more
                      intrusive technique to accelerate recovery in specific areas. The sensitivity of
                      adjacent habitats may lead to the decision not to use an appropriate method
                      because of the likelihood of secondary impact caused by cleanup of nearby sites.
                      Finally, from an operational perspective, it may be necessary to use available
                      methods early during a spill, rather than waiting for equipment or materials to
                      arrive or teams to be trained in use of a less damaging technique.


                      Relative Effeetiveness of Methods
                      The relative effectiveness of response methods to protect habitats and remove oil
                      is a key consideration when selecting from various response methods. Although
                      this guide attempts to consider only the environmental impact, effectiveness was
                      incorporated into the discussion of methods in three ways.

                      First, those methods thought to be totally ineffective or inapplicable for an
                      environment or habitat were not even listed in the habitat-specific matrices. For
                      example, barrier/berms are not listed on the open-water matrices, and
                      mechanical removal is not listed on the bedrock matrices.

                      Second, those methods that were clearly ineffective or inapplicable for a specific
                      oil type within a habitat matrix were designated with a dash (-). Examples
                      include using solidifiers on heavy oils in open water and emulsion-treating
                      agents on gasoline products.

                      Third, those methods that are feasible, but likely to leave a significant amount of
                      oil at the end of treatment, are given a lower classification. Often this change in
                      effectiveness is associated with oil type, e.g., low-pressure, cold-water flushing is
                      given a lower classification for heavy oil than medium oil because of its lower
                      efficiency at oil removal. Similarly, methods such as manual and mechanical oil
                      removal and sediment reworking that would have little effect on gasoline, which
                      tends to evaporate quickly, are given lower classifications because the impact of
                      the methods are not balanced by benefits from removing the oil.



              8









                      Restrictions for Using Response Methods
                      Restrictions related to safety, weather, spill size, or regulatory constraints cover a
                      wide spectrum of scenarios. It is thus impractical to discuss every possible
                      situation or combination of factors in a set of guidelines. Some of this
                      information, if appropriate, is included in the discussion under each habitat
                      (Section 3) or in the descriptions of each method (Section 4). Many other
                      considerations can come into play, such as worker safety and aesthetic, social, and
                      economic impacts. Specific safety issues dealing with responding to gasoline spills
                      are reflected in the tables. It should be noted that using chemical methods will
                      require approvals from state and/or Federal regulatory agencies.



               1.8 CLASSIFICATION OF OIL TYPES

               Inland oil spills can involve a wide range of crude oils and refined products. The type of
               oil spilled is a key consideration in developing response and cleanup strategies. Oil
               properties important in characterizing oil types include:

                      Flash point Highly volatile oils, which evaporate rapidly after a release, may
                      pose significant fire risks to responders. Often, the safest option is to allow the
                      product to evaporate. Evaporation is an important mechanism for removing the
                      spill from the water or shore because it lessens the need for cleanup and concern
                      for associated impacts. Highly volatile oils completely evaporate in one to two
                      days.

                      Specijle gravitylAPI gravity Oils with a specific gravity greater than 1.00 (API
                      gravity of less than 10) will sink in freshwater. However, those with a specific
                      gravity of 0.95 or higher (API gravity less than 17.5) are also at risk of sinking once
                      they become mixed with suspended sediments. When these oils have stranded
                      on a shoreline, sediment incorporated from the shoreline can cause sinking if it
                      is eroded from the shoreline.

                      Viscosity Viscosity controls both the rate that oil spreads on water and its likely
                      depth of penetration into the substrate once on shore. Low-viscosity oils spread
                      rapidly into thin sheens, increasing the surface area and making recovery
                      difficult. They readily penetrate into sediments and debris. Viscous oils can be so
                      thick that they do not spread, particularly when spilled on cold water. They are
                      more likely to coat rather than penetrate shorelines.



                                                                                                        9









                       Emulsion formation Under certain conditions, oil slicks will form a water-in -
                       oil emulsion often called "chocolate mousse." This material can contain up to 80
                       percent water and can be many orders of magnitude more viscous than the
                       spilled oil. There is no simple qualitative measure of the tendency to form
                       emulsions. Emulsions are stabilized by natural or added surfactants, or
                       compounds that act like surfactants, in the spilled oil. Gasoline does not
                       emulsify, while diesel can quickly emulsify. Many crude oils can form stable
                       emulsions. When an emulsion is formed, the oil changes in appearance and
                       viscosity, becoming much more difficult to address from a spill-response
                       perspective: the fluid is more viscous and hard to pump, and the volume has
                       increased by a factor of four to five.

                       Adhesion The ease with which spilled oil can be physically removed from
                       surfaces, usually by water flushing or vacuum, is an important factor in planning
                       cleanup operations. The range of response methods needed for shoreline cleanup
                       will depend largely on whether stranded oil adheres to substrate and response
                       equipment. However, adhesion is a poorly defined parameter that is difficult to
                       predict.

               We use an oil classification scheme based on these properties to define four categories of
               oil. Characteristics of the four general types are provided below (Table 4), along with
               representative oils. Weathering tends to change the physical and chemical properties of
               oil, usually making it more viscous and cleanup techniques less effective. Methods used
               during the initial response should be re-evaluated as time elapses and as the oil changes
               in character. To some extent, this re-evaluation may be achieved by using the four tables
               for oil types in sequence, thus simulating the weathering process. Extremely heavy oils
               or those that are solid at ambient temperatures, such as asphalt, are not addressed below
               but are discussed as a special consideration in Section 5.













               10









                 Table 4.    The four types of oil used in this guide and their characteristics.

                 Gasoline Products
                         Very volatile and highly flammable (flash point near 100OF/400C)
                     0   High evaporation rates
                     0   Narrow cut fraction with no residues
                     0   Low viscosity; spread rapidly to a thin sheen
                     0   Specific gravity less than 0.80
                     0   High acute toxicity to biota
                     0   Do not emulsify
                     0   Will penetrate substrate; nonadhesive


                 Diesel-like Products and Light Crude Oils (No. 2 fuel oil, jet fuels, kerosene, West Texas crude,
                 Alberta crude)
                     0   Moderately volatile (flash point varies 100-150OF/40-650C)
                     0   Refined products can evaporate to no residue
                     0   Crude oils do have a residue after evaporation is completed
                     0   Low- to moderate viscosity; spread rapidly into thin slicks
                     0   Specific gravity of 0.80-0.85; API gravity of 35-45
                     0   Moderate to high acute toxicity to biota; product-specific toxicity related to type and
                         concentration of aromatic compounds
                     0   Can form stable emulsions
                     0   Tend to penetrate substrate; fresh spills are not adhesive
                         Stranded light crudes tend to smother organisms

                 Medium-grade Crude Oils and Intermediate Products (North Slope crude, South Louisiana crude, No.
                 4 fuel oil, IFO 180, lube oils)
                     0   Moderately volatile (flash point higher than 1250F/500C)
                     0   Up to one-third will evaporate in the first 24 hours
                         Moderate to high viscosity
                     0   Specific gravity of 0.85-0.95; API gravity of 17.5-35
                     0   Variable acute toxicity, depending on amount of light fraction
                     0   Can form stable emulsions
                     0   Variable substrate penetration and adhesion
                     0   Stranded oil tends to smother organisms

                 Heavy Crude Oils and Residual Products (Venezuela crude, San Joaquin Valley crude, Bunker C'
                 No. 6 fuel oil)
                     0   Slightly volatile (flash point greater than 150OF/650C)
                     0   Very little product loss by evaporation
                     0   Very viscous to semisolid; may become less viscous when warmed
                     0   Specific gravity of 0.95-1.00; AN gravity of 10-17.5
                     0   Low acute toxicity relative to other oil types
                     0   Can form stable emulsions
                     0   Little penetration of substrate likely, but can be highly adhesive
                     0   Stranded oil tends to smother organisms










               2.0 SUMMARY OF RESPONSE METHODS AND HABITATS

               Tables 6 through 13 provide overviews of the physical, chemical, and biological response
               methods for four different oil types as applied to all water environments and shoreline
               habitats. Detailed information regarding specific habitats is provided in Section 3. Users
               of this guide should consult the matrices and summaries in Section 3 for descriptions of
               assumptions and circumstances applicable to the various methods. We encourage you to
               refer to Section 4 for more information on each response method. Also, the references
               listed in Appendix A can provide valuable, detailed information on specific topics or
               applications.

               It is important to note that the classifications primarily reflect the likely relative
               environmental impact resulting from properly implementing a response method
               within each habitat. However, when there are overriding effectiveness or safety issues
               associated with a specific oil type or habitat, these methods have been classified as "not
               applicable" and are denoted with a dash (-) on the matrices. In the case of response to
               gasoline-type spills, many methods have been classified as "not applicable" because of
               the fire hazard to the responders. Although responders have used many of these
               methods at gasoline spills to protect resources or clean up the spill, discussion of the
               spill-specific circumstances that made their use possible are beyond the scope of this
               document.

               Natural recovery is included in the tables since natural processes can be adequate, on
               their own, to remediate impact from an oil spill. It also presents no added environ-
               mental stress due to human spill response activities. Therefore, natural recovery is often
               classified as having the least adverse habitat impact in the summary tables.

               Since there is little information regarding the environmental impact of in-situ burning,
               chemical treatment, and biodegradation enhancement in freshwater habitats, the
               evaluation and discussion are based on the best available knowledge on how they work
               and any past use. In most cases this knowledge results from past experience with marine
               spills. Where there is too little information to evaluate a technique (e.g., chemical
               shoreline pretreatment), an "I", for insufficient information, is used in the tables.

               Spill response techniques described in this guide for inland water habitats include
               protection, recovery, and cleanup methods. The main objective of protection is keeping
               oil out of a habitat, or reducing the amount of oil that enters. Recovery consists of
               removal of floating oil from the water surface. Cleanup consists of removal of stranded
               oil. Frequently, these methods may be used for several response phases, such as


                                                                                                          13








                 deploying boom for protection or for containing oil washed off a river bank during
                 cleanup.


                 Table 5.    Key to ESI codes used in Tables 7, 9, 11, and 13.

                     ESI No.     Shoreline pe

                     1B          Exposed solid seawalls

                     3           Eroding scarps in unconsolidated sediments

                     5           Mixed sand and gravel beaches

                     6B          Rim structures
                     8A          Sheltered rocky shores

                     9A          Sheltered vegetated low banks/bluffs

                     10A         Freshwater marshes (herbaceous vegetation)


























                 14









                        Table 6. GASOLINE PRODUCTS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response methods
                                     for spills in water environments.

                                                                                                               WATER ENVIRONMENT
                                                            Response                                       Open         Large              Smo//                       Sma//
                                                              Method                                      Water        Rivers          LakeslPonds               RiverslStreams

                        PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS

                                                                                                                                                                          A
                                                           ........... .
                                                                                                               X@          A                  A,
                                  Booming - Containment
                                                                       ...........
                                                                                                                                              A
                                                           P-WEX
                                                 Mi'M d1b,                                                     A
                                             N: nn@
                                                                             ........ ... .. .. . .....
                                  Skimming                                                                                                                                A


                                  Physical Herding                                                             B           B                  C                           B
                                                                   'x . ...... . ..
                                                 @Itr         tent.
                                  Mechanical Oil Removal

                                  so
                                  rbenb

                                  Vacuum

                                  Juh  fls.@
                                  bib        R   Oval
                                  Sediment Reworking

                                             10
                                  In-Situ Burning                                                                                             B                           C

                                             .. ........

                                  Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                                             ... ..... ...
                        ... .......                                                                                                                                       . ..... . . .


                                  Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                                                           t 0W      F1  h'
                                  Steam Cleaning
                                    41181 W

                        CHEMICAL RESPONSE METHODS
                                                           .................... ......... ... ......
                                                               .. ..... ..... .
                                                                                                                           V
                                  J          n
                                  Emulsion Treating Agents
                                  "Scoke a       A
                                  Herding Agents                                                               D           D                  B                           D
                                                                                                                           D

                                  Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment



                        BIOLOGICAL RESPONSE METHODS

                                  u r en         rich 'i   t
                                                           M.
                                  Natural Microbe Seeding

                        Th   f, it
                                             'M                                           t@rva   lve@e I
                                             :1 . 1,te It$',                                     t       hy toninentallimpad of e-4ch tes Ow'In'                 @16.
                                                                                                                                                    'p
                        for the specific environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                       caulst'%.%tht']     4WOM01-Aw 4           1M
                                                           .... ............... ....
                        ,::A, R%'M                         a...d       h'bt t       Patt
                                   yo@               ........ ..
                         B        May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                             zri ...
                                  M
                         D        May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                                                   . .......... .. .                                                                till A-10
                                  nso        penfl                  Am      4,        _0                                     W      t              t'
                                                                               v me,                 _f t        t  dd                b                      h   AMC,
                                                                                         iyena_            c.:me                Ad
                                                                                                                                                ye
                                  Not applicable for this oil type.









                         Table 7. GASOLINE PRODUCTS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                      spills in shoreline habitats.

                                                                                                                            SHORELINE HABITAT
                                                  Response                                            Man-            Vegetated       Sandand
                                                    Method                           Bedrock          Mode    Sand      Shores          Gravel       Gravel        Mud Wetlands
                         PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS                                     1,2,8-         1,8     3,4          9               5            6          7.9        10


                                                                                                                                                          . .... . .
                              Booming

                                                                                                                                 M
                                                                            ..... .......
                              Barriers/Berms
                                                                            . ..........
                                                                         ... . .... .. . . ....                           . . .. . .. 4,,,.@[email protected]@.,,,.',.,,.,..@.@@,..@
                                                                        ...... ........ .. . . . . . .
                                                                                                                      n........ . . ..  . . . . ..... ...

                                                                                                                                                                          . . . . .. . . .
                              Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                                     D            D              D             D          D          D
                                                                                                          ... . ............ . . ..
                                                                                                          . . ......                                          @0
                                                                                                          . .. . . .
                                                                                                          .... ...... . .                          . . .. . ....
                                                                                                                                                                              ly
                                                                                                                                                                      .. .......
                                                                                                          .............              . . . ...
                                                                                                          . .. .....
                                                                                                                                                                       N@t
                                                                                 ... ..........
                                                                                                      . . ... ......
                                                                                                          .. ......
                                                                                                      .........
                                                                               . ........ ............ .. ............
                                                                                                                                     .. ..................
                              Sorbents                                                  B             B                                                            B          C

                                                                                                                     . .. .. . . . ...
                                                                                      ... .. .. ...
                                acqu
                                      M

                              Debris Removal
                                                                           . ........
                                                                                                          _g
                                  NO'                                    5@
                                      in    60    kf

                              Vegetation Removal                                                                           D                                                  D
                                                                                ............ .... . . ....

                                                            ------ .... .
                                                                                                                                    . .. .....
                                         @umin
                                                    . ............
                              Flooding                                                  B             B       B            B              A             A          B          B
                                                                                                      .... .. . ........
                                                                                                                 . ..... .... .. ...
                                                COW
                                                                                                                                                                                 xO--@
                              q*W9 @xwuh'                   aer.,
                                                                                                              ... ............. ...........
                              High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                        B             B       D           D               C             C          D          D

                                                    ......  ....
                                                                U    I
                                    P           H     w     f",                                                           U%,,,"
                                                   t;vuw
                         V. . . .. .-,
                                                                                                          ... . . ..
                              High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                               D           D               D             D          D          D
                                eamb
                              Sand Blasting
                                                                                                                    X@
                                WIRMAMW
                         CHEM CALIRESMgt
                                                                                                                                                                           . ..... ....
                              Dispersants


                              Viisco-Elastic Agents
                                                                           ......... . .... . .

                                                       . . .. . . . ...
                                                       .......... .
                                               M" 1@
                              Solidifiers                                                             B                                                            D          D
                                                                                                          . ..... ..
                                                            6 a0me
                              Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                                            w_,- -,---.,.-, - @@-,,X,K@,,.::@@. I - . @ @@ I@ 1.11, 11 .11    .. ", . ,-          @ --e-,-,.,  . .. . ...
                                            . . . .. ... ..
                                                                                        . .. ..... . ..
                                                                                  .. .... . .. ..
                                        '155                                      .. .. .. .                                . .. .
                                                                                  .........
                                                                                  . .. ... ....
                              Nutrient Enrichment

                                                                                                                                           . .. ... ..
                                                                                                                    .... ....
                              N      1- 1 MI,


                                                                                                                         .. ........
                                                                                                                                                                   ........... . .
                                                                                            .. .. ... . .. . .. ..I
                         lh                                                    e re a ive environmental impact ot each response method tor the specific environment
                         or habitat tor each oil type, using the tollowing detinitions:
                                            . . .......... ...... .. ...............
                                                                                                                       . .... ...... .. . . ..... . ..

                         B    May cause some adverse habitat impact
                                                                                                      . . . . .. ....
                                ayl.",                      a      'h                   ... . .. .. . . .
                                                 ., irl     "::- '-w-.- 11--, @ @- ", @ @ " @_,       . ....... . .. ...
                                 .... ... ... ."flil    t,                '4                 . . . ............ .... . .. .
                                                                                            ..... .. ...... ............. .....
                                                                                            ...... ....... . . .... ....
                         D    May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                                                                                          . ..... .... ....... ...
                                                                                                                                    uA  e
                                                                                                          thod'-         t         I  t
                              Not applicable for this oil type.


                 16









                       Table 8. DIESEL-LIKE OILS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                       spills in water environments.

                                                                                                              WATER ENVIRONMENT
                                                             Response                                     Open           Large             Smol/                       Sma//
                                                             Method                                       Water         Rivers         LakeslPonds               RiverslStreams

                       PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS

                                       W ,!1*Cq"ry                                                           A              A
                                             .......... .. . ........ .. .... ..                                                   . .... .. ...
                               Booming                                                                       A              A                   A                        A

                            .... .. . .. ....
                                                                                                                          ::A                   A%
                               Barriers/Berms                                                                                                                            A

                                                                                                                                                                         .8
                               Ph            H 0q.;
                                             ... .... ...
                               Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                                                                      C                        C
                                                   .. .. .... . ..... .                                                                  ............
                       ii@iii,@,il@ fth            Of -t        I

                               Sorbents                                                                      B              B                   A                        A

                                       M
                                                                                                             A              A

                               Debris Removal                                                                               B                   B                        B

                                       men
                               Vegetation Removal                                                            B              B                   B                        B
                                             ..... ................................ .
                               n                                                                             A
                                                             ..........                        . ......
                               Flooding

                               .. . ..... .. . ...... ....
                                                             a er:       U
                                       P
                               High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                                                   Xii
                                                                         U
                                       iiftsur       0,
                               High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                                                                             ..... .......
                                       ..........
                                       0'
                                             MONO!!,
                                             .... .. . .....
                               Sand Blasting
                       C-REMICALAESMONSFIME1HODS'
                               Dispersants                                                                   B              C                   D                        D
                                                   t            h
                               E'.. Sion, T(ta In        I Ag rk
                                       .. ..... .. .Q 0.
                               Visco-Elastic Agents                                                          B              B                   B                        B
                                       if,:  X'i:::
                                             a t
                               Solidifiers                                                                   B              B                   B                        B

                                       . ...... .. .
                                       "A
                                             SlWett      046-:           6f
                               Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                       Ato                         6N$cMETHO1)s_

                               Nutrient Enrichment



                                                                                    -0,    @ro atj
                                                                                                                                                  !"n
                                                                         t.,o M,P                   e eqy. iro
                                                                                                                  jenta i
                                                                us       Flpi@r
                                                                                         4        v                                             rie
                                                                   ............
                       for the specific environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                                   U'Utiadvei'S"t', h    bita,
                         B     May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                                                                                                                                               ..........
                                                         ,an i-a erse:@   a  r
                                                             t           h b tat         dtv.
                        D=     May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                                                                                     f th                   Id     f4i                        h'
                                                                                                                                                I at    a        v
                         I ikit 'i .1        t 10        6                            a n ss.b i:                                      el
                                                                                    @e Ive e                             to                               11 .
                                                                                                                            U @, no::l                 i::@ _11"! 11:1
                                                                                                                                         V-2 U     t tt S
                       -2      Not applicable for this oil type.


                                                                                                                                                                                                       17








                       Table 9. DIESEL-LIKE OILS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response methods for spills in
                                  shoreline habitats.

                                                                                                            SHORELINE HABITAT
                                             Response                                Man-             Vegetated    Sondand
                                              Method                     Bedrock     Made    Sand      Shores        Grovel     Grovel Mud Wetlands
                       PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS                           1,2,8-     1.8      3,4          9          5           6         7,9      10


                            Booming

                       0
                            Barriers/Berms


                            Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                     B         A        B            B          B           B         D        D


                            Sorbents                                        A         A        A            A          A           A         A        A



                            Debris Removal                                  A         A        A            B          A           A         B        B


                            Vegetation Removal                                                              B                                         C


                            Flooding                                        A         A        A            A          A           A         A        A


                            High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing              B         A        D            C          C           B         D        D


                            High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing               D         B        D            D          D           D         D        D


                            Sand Blasting                                   D         C
                                                                                                                                             NEW
                            Dispersants


                            Viisco-Elastic Agents


                            Solidifiers                                     B         B        B            D                                D        D


                            Shoreline Cleaning Agents                                 B        -            I                                D        I


                            Nutrient Enrichment                             C         C        B            B          B           B         I        I





                       The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific environment or


                       A = May cause the least adverse habitat impact.


                       C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.


                        I = Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                       xi


                  18









                   Table 10. MEDIUM OILS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                       spills in water environments.

                                                                                                  WATER ENVIRONMENT
                                                    Response                                 Open        Large             Smal/                    Sma//
                                                     Method                                  Water       Rivers        LokeslPonds-           RiverslStreams

                   PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS

                                                                                                  B
                                                                                                                                                        C
                                       I R
                                       Vra
                          Booming                                                                 A          A                  A                       A

                            . .. .. .. .. .. .
                                       mfnao].:                                                   k          A
                                                                                                                                                           . ...........
                          Barriers/Berms                                                                                                                A
                            Y Icat 0 Win
                          Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                                        B                  C                       C
                                                                                                                                C
                            9c,        toll       oval
                                       ardea
                                                                                                             B

                          Sorbents                                                                B          B                  A                       A

                                                                                                  A          A                  A

                          Debris Removal                                                                     B                  B                       B
                                       t4twork"
                                       oon,,,
                          Vegetation Removal                                                      B          B                  B                       B
                                                                                                  A          B
                        0, n           iturBurnin
                          Flooding

                                                                 Ing
                            ow;-ftesspit          W t     Flu fi
                          High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing

                                       r sureil
                                       es
                          High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing

                            -aw esn@
                          Sand Blasting
                   CHSMICAU            ESPONSEUETHODS
                          Dispersants                                                             B          C                  D                       D
                            Tu                                                                    B          B                  I                       t
                                       11510n7re ting Ats
                                                    en,
                          Visco-Elastic Agents                                                    B          B                  B                       B
                                                                                                  B          D
                                       9'@
                          Solidifiers                                                             B          B                  B                       B
                                                                                                                                                              ........... .
                          . .... . . .....
                                       i    dre ine, k.1
                                                      tMatmen
                          Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                                            ONSE%@METHOIDS.

                          Nutrient Enrichment                                                     I




                                                                                  .. .... ... . .                                                   . .. ............
                   Tht      fowi@      r      I           ,W                                                                    resportse. me
                                            99pe    fe", S JoEcomoare thg, relatl                            impatt oF@Wh:                     WA
                   for the specific environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                       .... ....... . . . .. ......... . . . . .. . . ... ....... .. ....                              . ........... .... . .
                    A     M            &414w""                  @1
                                                              A,  tat'._
                                                                .. .... ........
                    B     May cause some adverse habitat impact.


                    D     May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                                           M                       t          e T"t       could: pdT@i  t,evaj4#t,,   4
                                                                 t
                          Not          a,p..0"Ii1c,able' r'thi

                                                                                                                                                                                  19









                 Table 11. MEDIUM OILS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response
                             methods for spills in shoreline habitats.


                                                                                                SHORELINE HABITAT
                                     Response                             Man-             Vegetated   Sand and
                                      Method                    Bedrock   Made     Sand     Shores      Gravel    Gravel       Mud Wetlands
                 PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS                       1,2.8*     1,8     3,4         9          5          6        7,9     10


                      Booming


                      Barriers/Berms


                      Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                   B       B       A           B          A          B        C       C


                      Sorbents                                      A       A       A           B          A          A        A       A
                      'V

                      Debris Removal                                A       A       A           B          A          A        B       B


                      Vegetation Removal                                                        B                                      C


                                                      . . . . ...
                                                          .... . . . . .
                      Flooding                                      B       B       A           A          A          A        A       A
                                                                                                                               C.,
                      High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing            B       A       D           C          C          B        D       D
                M

                      High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing             C       B       D           D          D          D        D       D
                                        .... . ....        ....... .
                                                       ... .... ...
                                                                                                                      D@
                                                      . . . . . ....
                                 n
                   ... .. .        ..
                      Sand Blasting                                 D       C
                ZH
                      Dispersants


                      Visco-Elastic Agents


                      Solidifiers                                   B       B       B           D          B          B        C       D
                                                                                                        . . .... ..


                      Shoreline Cleaning Agents                     B       B       B           I          B          B        D       I

                                                                                 . ... . . .
                                                        . . . . . . . .
                                                     .... ...... ..... ........... . ... . .
                                                        ...... . . ... . .
                                         law                        _. ... .
                                                            . ........ .
                                                                      . . . . . . . . .
                                                                                                                L
                                                     ... ..... ... ... ...
                      Nutrient Enrichment                           C       C       B           B          B          B        I       I
                                                                    . . . . . ... . .. .. .. ..
                                                                       . . . . .....





                                                                                                                                    . . ... ... ..
                                                                                        of      h response metho or   e speci  ici ironmeni




                 C    May cause significant adverse habitat impact.

                  I   Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                                                                                                                       YEE,
                                                                                                     . .... S.0"?

                     20









                   Table 12. HEAVY OILS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response methods for
                                  spills in water environments.


                                                                                             WATER ENVIRONMENT
                                                  Response                                Open        Large          Smal/                    Sma//
                                                   Method                                Water        Rivers      LakeslPonds           RiverslStreams

                   PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS

                                                                                                                                                 C:_
                         Booming                                                            A          A                 A                       A
                                                                                            A          A                 A
                                                                                                                                                 A_`
                         Barriers/Berms                                                                                                          A

                            y
                                   H   di                                                              B
                             s'lcal. ter " Ing:
                         Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                        B          B                 B                       B
                     .. .. ........      ...... .... ... .....
                         M h         1.0 1.111
                         Natc.. anica    1, t
                                                ova

                         Sorbents                                                           B          B                 A                       A
                                                                                                                                                   .. . ......... .
                                                                                            A          A,

                         Debris Removal                                                                B                 B                       B

                                    Reworkin
                         Vegetation Removal                                                 B          B                 B                       B
                                                                                            A          B                 8
                         lnSft. Surfflng.@.
                         Flooding
                                                                                                                                         A
                         Lo- pret         Col&@t' Flush!
                            W@     Mure,                         ng
                         High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                                  ..... . . . .....
                    @:,:'.,Lbw-press rej H t W t 0 h
                                                    er us Ing
                         High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                         Sum Cleaning
                         Sand Blasting
                   CHEMICAL RESPONSE METHODS
                         Dispersants
                         Emulsionlreating.Agtnts                                                       B                 1                       1,
                         Visco-Elastic Agents                                                                                                    -
                         Herding      61111ts':
                         Solidifiers

                            hemicall  hore toe, Yetreatment:
                         Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                   91.0"C&RESPONStIMETHODS
                         Nutrient Enrichment

                                     14cr . ... ..


                                                                                                                        ...  . .... ... . ...
                                                 re us,     a to                                                       C
                   The f It           tt    i''        Im t      more: the telot Ve eaviro"mentall. I ni     ctofe h
                                                                                                           Pa        a    r"poh5e Met
                   for the specific environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                                     ...... .....
                      we avcattwt Ceti                  erfi, taffm act',,
                                                           01i t      P
                              cause so  m e adv erse habi tat impact.
                         M
                   44,*@@   aTcau    @ip   fil   t a             ftat4mpa&
                    D    May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                         nsu.   glen .      rm 164@Ampiic                  Iveness: 0 thecmethod 0611& not@ be eva uate            1his.. 1me.::.--'
                              ff,  _t 11W      Atfl              t or effictI        f
                                                                              .. ...... ....
                         Not applicable for this oil type.


                                                                                                                                                                         21









                           Table 13. HEAVY OILS: Summary of relative environmental impact from response methods for spills
                                              in shoreline habitats.


                                                                                                                                           SHORELINE HABITAT
                                                         Response                                             Man-                   Vegetated        Sand and
                                                          Method                                              Bedrock Made    Sand    Shores            Gravel              Gravel  Mud Wetlands
                           PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHODS                                                          1,2,8'          1,8 3,4      9                 5              6           7,9         10


                                  Booming


                                  Barriers/Berms


                                  Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                                 A               AA           B                 A              A           C           C


                                  Sorbents                                                                    B               BB           B                 B              B           B           A


                                                                                                              ...........
                           1 711
                                  Debris Removal                                                              A               AA           B                 A              A           B           B


                                  Vegetation Removal                                                                                       B                                                        C


                                  Flooding                                                                    C               CB           B                 C              C           A           B

                                                                                                                                                                            MR@
                                  High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                          B               BD           D                 C              B           D           D


                                  High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                           C               BD           D                 D              D           D           D


                                  Sand Blasting                                                               D               C
                           Pit J,
                                  Dispersants
                                                                                                                                                                 MOW
                                  Visco-Elastic Agents
                                                                                                              .. . . ....... . .. .. . . . . ........ .
                                                                                                              . . .... . .__ . . ... ..... . .. . ........ .
                                                                                                              .... ... .. . ... .. .. . .. ... ....
                                                                                                              n. . . ... .. 'n ...... ... . . . . ........ .. .
                                                                                                              ...... .. ......... ..... ........... ...............
                                                                                                              . . .......... . .-. . . ........... . . . ......... . ....... .
                                                                                                              .. . .....
                                                                                                              ..... . . . . ...... . .. .. ......... ..... . .. ... .. . .....
                                                                                                              __M .. ... .. ....... . .
                                                 en
                                                                                                              . . .. . .... .... . ...... .. . .....
                                                                                                              ..... . . . .. ......... . .
                                                                                                              ........ . . . . . . . . .. .. .. ..... .. .... ...........
                                                                                                              . . . ....... ... . ... ....... . .
                                                                                                              . . .... .... ... . . ... _ -, . ..... . .
                                                                                                              ....... . ... ..... . . ....... .. ......... . . .. . .. .
                                                                                                              .. ... ... ...... ._x __ ___
                                                                                                              ......... .......... .. . . ... . .......... .
                                                                                                              . ........ ..... . . .... . .......... . .
                                                                                                              ... ..... . .
                                  Solidifiers


                                  Shoreline Cleaning Agents                                                   B               BB           I                 B              B           D           I
                                                                                                                              ....... ...
                                                                                                              .... . . ...
                                                                                                              ...... . .. ........
                                                                                                              ...... . . ..... .. ... .... .. . . .... ...... .....
                                                                                                              . . .. ..... ... .. .. . ...... .. . .. ... . . . .
                                                                                                              _x ... . .. ... ....... ..
                                                                                                                              ... . .. . ..... . .......
                                                                                                                              ........ . ._'. __ __
                                                                                                                              ....... ....
                                                                                                                                           .......... . .
                                                                                                                                           .. .. .. ..... .
                                                                                                                                           . . . ...... .. . ......
                                                                                                              . .. ......... .. . . ........... . . .. . . .. .... . .. .... .. .. ... .. . . . . . . . . . ............
                                                                                                              .. . . . ........... . . ........ . ......... . .____ @% ........ . .. .. . .. .. .. .... . . . . .
                                                                                                                              .. . ...... . .                 ....... ..  X__ . . ..... .. . . .... ..... e@
                                                                                                              .......... .. .. . .. .......... ........ .          .... . . . . . .. . ..... ....
                                                                                                              ...... ..... . ... .                 ... .........            ......... . .
                                                                                                                                                                            ..... . . .. . . . . ..
                                                                                                              _s . .. .... xm . .. ..... . . . .... .. . . . . .... .... . .. . . .
                                                                                                              z. . .. ....... . . . . .. .                      ........ . . .
                                                                                                                                    ........ . ... ........ .               z. . . . .. .... ...
                                                                                                                              ...... .. ..... ......... __ . ...... .. . .......... . . . ........
                                  Nutrient Enrichment                                                         D               DC           B                 C              C           I           I


                           T!'f!'20

                            A     May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                                                                                                                                                                           . . . . . . .. .... .

                            C - May cause significant adverse habitat impact.

                              I - Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.


                    22










                3.0 SPILL RESPONSE METHODS FOR SPECIFIC INLAND
                       HABITATS

                3.1 INTRODUCTION

                Oil spill protection, recovery, and cleanup methods are described in the following
                sections for four water environments and eight shoreline habitats. Each section is
                organized in the following format:

                       ï¿½ Description of the environment or habitat;

                       ï¿½ Matrices of response methods for four oil types; and

                       ï¿½ Short summaries of the key issues considered for each response method.

                The inland habitats are presented in order of their sensitivity, from least to most
                sensitive to oil spill impact, first for water environments, then for shoreline habitats.
                Accordingly, water environments begin with large rivers and end with small lakes and
                ponds. Shoreline habitats begin with bedrock and end with wetlands.

                Response methods in each matrix are listed in order, generally beginning with those
                that cause the least adverse habitat impact, to those that can cause the most adverse
                habitat impact. Methods for which insufficient information is available for some
                habitats are listed last. Methods that are not applicable for all four oil types are excluded
                from the tables.

                The use of water environments and shoreline habitats generally reflects the distinction
                between oil on a water body versus oil that is stranded at the land-water interface.
                Water-based activities consist mostly of containment, protection, and collection
                methods while onshore response includes protection, recovery, and cleanup. A large
                spill will likely affect a wide range of habitats and require use of many different
                methods. However, large spills can be divided into a series of small spills for developing
                site-specific response strategies. Often, more than one response method can be used with
                minimal habitat impacts. Spill conditions may dictate selecting a specific method, or
                combination of methods, over other possible methods.

                We encourage you to refer to Section 4 for more information on each response method.
                Also, the references listed in Appendix A can provide valuable, detailed information on
                specific topics or applications.






                                                                                                       23










               13.2 OPEN WATER

               I i(iNtat Description

               Open-water environments exist in large water bodies, such as the Great Lakes, Lake
               Champlain, and Lake Mead. These large water bodies have ocean-like wave and current
               conditions; however, lake currents are generally weak (less than one knot). Local
               weather conditions commonly cause sudden changes in sea state. Suspended sediment
               loads are highly variable, both spatially and over time. River mouths are particularly
               problematic areas, with high suspended sediment and debris loads, shallow zones, and
               manmade structures, which create complex water circulation patterns.

               Thermal stratification with an upper, warm layer over cool, denser water is a common
               feature of large lakes during the warmer months. In most temperate lakes, stratification
               ends in the autumn when surface cooling combines with water mixing from high
               winds. Ice formation is a common characteristic of interior and northern lakes in winter
               months. Although all inland waters are surrounded by land, response operations for
               open-water environments are water-based; that is, protection and recovery equipment
               must be deployed from vessels.



               Sensitivitg
               Open waters are considered to have low to medium sensitivity to oil spill impact
               because physical removal rates are high, water-column concentrations of oil can be
               rapidly diluted, and most organisms are mobile enough to     move out of the area affected
               by the spill. Enclosed and protected areas of large lakes are more sensitive than offshore
               and nearshore waters because of slower dilution rates. Oil spills can affect -fish in the
               water column, with the early life stages at greatest risk. Also, many birds (waterfowl,
               raptors, gulls, terns, and diving birds) feed and rest on the water, and therefore are
               highly vulnerable. Human use of affected areas may be restricted for a period of time,
               potentially limiting access for navigation, transportation, water intakes, or recreational
               activities during the spill.

               Free-floating flora or mats can occur in sheltered bays of nutrient-rich lakes. Such mats
               may be particularly susceptible to oil because of their location in bays where oil may
               accumulate. Moreover, the plants are at the water surface (where the oil is) and without
               underground roots to regenerate after being oiled.




               24









                Table 14. Relative environmental impact from response methods for OPEN WATER environ-
                             ments.
                                                                                          Gasoline Diesel- Medium Heavy
                                 Response Method                                          Products Like Oils           Oils         Oils
                                 Booming - Deflection/Exclusion                                 A           A             A            A
                                 Booming - Containment                                                      A             A            A
                                 SkimmingNacuum                                                             A             A            A
                                 in-Situ Burning                                                            A             A            A
                                 Natural Recovery                                               A           A             B            B
                                 Physical Herding                                               B           B             B            B
                                 Sorbents                                                                   B             B            B
                                 Vegetation Removal                                                         B             B            B
                                 Emulsion Treating Agents                                                   B             B            B
                                 Visco-Elastic Agents/Solidifiers                                           B             B
                                 Dispersants                                                    D           B             B
                                 Herding Agents                                                 D           B             B
                                 Manual Oil RemovaXleaning                                                                             B
                                 Mechanical Oil Removal                                                                                B
                                 Nutrient Enrichment                                                                      I            I
                                 Natural Microbe Seeding                                                                  I            I


                The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                      A = May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                      B = May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                      C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                      D = May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                       I =Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                         =Not applicable for this oil type.





















                                                                                                                                                   25










               RESPONSE METHODS: OPEN WATER ENVIRONMENTS


               Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

               Booming

                  ï¿½ Most effective in low-wave conditions and slow currents
                  ï¿½ Safety concerns limit the containment of gasoline spills; however, booms can be
                     used to exclude or deflect the spill away from sensitive resources


               SkimminglVacuum
                  ï¿½ Effectiveness limited by current velocities and widely spread, thin sheens
                  ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety.concerns


               In-.Situ Burning
                  ï¿½  Most appropriate in offshore, rather than nearshore, areas
                  ï¿½  More difficult to ignite emulsified and heavy oils and sustain the bum
                  ï¿½  Safety issues for workers, vessels, and aircraft must be addressed
                  ï¿½  Not applicable to gasoline spills due to safety concerns and containment
                     difficulties


               Natural Recouery
                     Low impact except for medium- to heavy-category oils, which are persistent and
                     would eventually strand on shorelines

               Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

               Physical Herding
                  ï¿½ May be needed under calm conditions to move oil toward recovery devices
                  ï¿½ Water spray onto gasoline likely to mix the product into the water column


               Sorbents
                  ï¿½ Not a stand-alone technique except for very small spills
                  ï¿½ Inhibit the evaporation of gasoline spills


               Vegetation Remoual
                     May be appropriate if oil is trapped in floating vegetation





               26









              Emulsion-7'reating Agents
                     Not applicable to oils that do not form emulsions, such as gasoline


              Visco-Elastic Agents/Solidifiers
                 0   Not appropriate to gasoline spills because of safety concerns during application
                     and inhibition of evaporation
                 0   The recovery of treated oil must be considered
                 0   Most are not very effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the
                     product to mix into the oil


              Dispersants
                 0 Inhibit the evaporation of gasoline spills
                 0 Use requires comparing the impact of dispersed versus undispersed oil
                 0 Not effective on heavy or weathered oils


              Herding Agents

                 * Most effective under calm conditions
                 0 Not applicable to heavy oils because oil must be fluid
                 0 Inhibit the evaporation of gasoline spills


              Manual Oil ReMouallCleaning and Mechanical Oil Remoual
                 ï¿½ Effective only when heavy oils have solidified into large masses
                 ï¿½ Complete removal of heavy oil is rarely achieved

              Insuffleient information

              Nutrient Enrichment and Natural Microbe Seeding
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline and diesel-like oils because they rapidly evaporate
                 ï¿½ There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness for other oil types,
                     particularly for open-water applications in freshwater













                                                                                                27










                 3.3 LARGE RIVERS

                 HuNtat Description

                 Large rivers have varying salinities, meandering channels, and high flow rates (currents
                 usually greater than one knot). These rivers are not necessarily navigable to large
                 vessels. If they are, the environment can include associated locks, dams, pools, and other
                 manmade structures. Examples of large rivers include the Mississippi River and its
                 major tributaries, the Hudson River, the Delaware River, and the Columbia River.
                 Water levels vary seasonally, with potential for reversal of water flow up tributaries and
                 into backwater lakes during high water. Floodplains are common characteristics of large
                 rivers. Floods generate high suspended sediment and debris loads. In northern regions,
                 ice covers the surface in winter. River banks or bars are discussed in the sections on
                 shore habitats (Sections 3.6 to 3.13), and backwater lakes are discussed in Section 3.4.



                 Sensitivity

                 Large rivers have medium sensitivity to oil spill impact because, even though they have
                 high natural removal rates, they also have extensive biological and human use.
                 Biological resources of concern include concentrations of migratory waterfowl and
                 shorebirds, fish, and endangered mussel beds. Under flood conditions, river floodplains
                 contain highly sensitive areas that are important habitats for many valuable species.
                 Floating vegetation is present in areas of low flow. Recreational use of rivers is very
                 high, and many are major transportation corridors. Drinking, industrial, and cooling
                 water intakes are quite vulnerable to oil spills in this environment because of turbulent
                 mixing, and they often shut down when slicks are present.

                 High currents, eddies, mid-river bars, ice formation, and flooding may complicate
                 response measures in this habitat. Water flow across weirs and dams is of special
                 concern because it is often turbulent and likely to emulsify oil slicks as they pass over
                 these structures. Emulsified oil has a density close to water; it can readily suspend
                 beneath the surface and remain in the water column as it moves through a series of
                 locks and dams. Also, oil can adsorb onto sediment particles, which then settle out in
                 quiet backwaters, potentially contaminating these habitats.







                 28











                                                       LARG E R I VE R









                                                                      9961    h:






                        .Yi
                                                                                               N
                                             Scour Channel

                                                                                .......... .


                                                                       Floodl Water Level___@

                                                                                                                slou h
                                                                     @Normml Water Level    -4;11
                                                                   y
                                           Sand,
                                                                           X,                                                      u
                                           Oravell
                                                                                                               mu'i
                                                                                                   Gi

                                                                                                       Stan I Ing Water

                                                         Flowing Water
                                                                                                                           Flood
                                                                                                                            Plain
                         ,o   Flood Plain                                    Channel
































                                                                                                                                               29










                             Table 15. Relative environmental impact from response methods for LARGE RIVER environments.

                                                                                                              Gasoline 		Diesel- 	Medium 	Heavy
                                             Response Method                                                  Products 		Like Oils    Oils       Oils
                                             Booming - Deflection/Exclusion                                        A            A            A              A
                                             Booming - Containment                                                 -            A            A              A
                                             Skimming/Vacuum                                                       -            A            A              A
                                             Natural Recovery                                                      A            A            B              C
                                             Physical Herding                                                      B            B            B              B
                                             Sorbents                                                              -            B            B              B
                                             In-Situ Burning                                                       -            B            B              B
                                             Emulsion Treating Agents                                              -            B            B              B
                                             Vegetation Removal                                                    -            B            B              B
                                             Debris Removal                                                        -            B            B              B                                                                                                                                B            B
                                             Visco-Elastic Agents/Solidifiers							 -    	  B            B		      B										  			
                                             Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                           -            -            B              B
                                             Mechanical Oil Removal                                                -            -            B              B
                                             Dispersants                                                           D            C            C              -
                                             Herding Agents                                                        D            D            D              -
                                             Nutrient Enrichment									 -		  -            I		      I
                                             Natural Microbe Seeding       							 -	 	  -		   I              I                                                                    I


                            The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                            environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                  A = May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                  B = May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                  C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                  D = May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                  I =Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                "-" =Not applicable for this oil type.






















                       30
 









              RESPONSE METHODS: LARGE RIVER ENVIRONMENTS


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Boorning
                 ï¿½ Used primarily for diverting slicks towards collection points in low-current areas
                 ï¿½ Safety concerns limit the containment of gasoline spills; however, booms can be
                    used to exclude or deflect the spill away from sensitive resources


              SkirnminglVacuum
                    Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety concerns


              Some Adverse Habitat ImPaet

              Natural Recouery
                 ï¿½ For small gasoline and diesel-like spills, evaporation and natural dispersion
                    would rapidly remove surface slicks
                 ï¿½ For all other types and sizes of spills, oil recovery and/or protection of sensitive
                    resources should be attempted


              Phgsi(,a] Herding
                 ï¿½ May be needed to flush oil trapped in debris, eddies, etc. toward recovery devices
                 ï¿½ Water spray onto gasoline spills will likely enhance mixing of the product into
                    the water column


              Sorlx,nts
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety concerns and inhibition of
                    evaporation
                 ï¿½ May not be practical for large rivers because oil will spread and drift rapidly
                 ï¿½ Overuse results in excess waste generation


              In-.Situ Burning
                 ï¿½ May not be practical in rivers because oil will spread rapidly
                 ï¿½ Containment and maintenance of minimum thickness for burning (1-3
                    millimeters) is difficult in fast currents


              Etnulsion-Treating Agents
                    Not applicable for gasoline products, which do not emulsify


                                                                                               31









               Vegetation Removal
                    ï¿½ May be considered where oil is trapped in floating vegetation along shore and in
                      eddies
                    ï¿½ Removal of oiled vegetation may be required to prevent secondary oiling of
                      wildlife or chronic sheening


               Debris Removal
                      River debris can trap persistent oils, causing chronic sheening and exposure of
                      aquatic resources


               Visco-Elastic AgentslSolidifiers
                    0 Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety concerns during application and
                      inhibition of evaporation
                    0 Recovery of treated oil may be difficult
                    0 May not be practical in rivers because oil will spread and drift rapidly
                    o Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                      into the oil


               Manual oil RemouallCleaning
                    e Concentrations of heavy oils that have hardened into solid or semi-solid masses
                      can be manually picked up, from boat or shore
                    0 Hand tools can be used to pick up small accumulations of oiled debris
                    * Operations conducted from boats minimize potential for habitat disruption by
                      trampling onshore


               Mechanical Oil Removal
                    0 May be needed to recover large amounts of oil/oily debris trapped in booms or
                      along shore
                    0 Equipment can be operated from barges with less impact; shore-based operations
                      are likely to cause localized disruption of shoreline habitat

               Probable Adverse Habitat ImPaet

               Disr)ersants
                    0 Inhibit the evaporation of gasoline spills
                    0 Not effective on heavy or weathered oils
                    0 For large spills, limited dilution of dispersed oil in rivers likely to raise toxicity

                      concerns
                    * Impacts on water intakes downstream would have to be evaluated



               32








             Most Adverse Habitat Impaet

             Herding Agents
                 ï¿½ High currents make proper application difficult and carry product away
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to heavy oils because oil must be fluid

             Insuffleient Information

             Nutrient Enrichment and Natural Microbe Seeding
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline and diesel-like oil spills because they rapidly evaporate
                 ï¿½ There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness for other oil types,
                    particularly for applications in rivers



































                                                                                              33










                3.4 SMALL LAKES AND PONDS

                Habitat Description

                Lakes and ponds are standing bodies of water of variable size and water depth. Waves
                and currents are generally very low, although the water surface can become choppy.
                Water levels can fluctuate widely over time, particularly on manmade lakes. Smaller
                ponds can completely freeze over in winter. The bottom sediments close to shore can be
                soft and muddy, and the surrounding land can include wet meadows and marshes.
                Floating vegetation can be common.

                The rate of water exchange is highly variable within this group, ranging from days to
                years. These water bodies can include sections of a river with low flow rates (e.g., behind
                diversion dams) or that are somewhat isolated from regular flow (e.g., backwater lakes
                or oxbow lakes). Isolated water bodies, such as kettle lakes, are unique members of this
                category because they have no surface water outflow, and therefore have very low
                flushing rates. In shallow water, boat operations would be limited and most response
                operations would be conducted from shore.



                Sensitiuity

                Small lakes and ponds have medium to high sensitivity to oil spill impact because of
                low physical removal rates, limited dilution and flushing of oil mixed into the water
                column, and high biological and human use. They provide valuable habitat for
                migrating and nesting birds and mammals, and support important fisheries. Small lakes
                can be the focus of local recreational activities. Associated wetlands have higher
                sensitivities and are discussed in Section 3.13.

                Wind will control the distribution of slicks, holding the oil against a lee shore or
                spreading it along shore and into catchment areas. Wind shifts can completely change
                the location of slicks, contaminating previously clean areas. Thus, early protection of
                sensitive areas is important. The inlet and outlet are key areas for focusing protection
                efforts. Oil impacts on floating vegetation depend to a large degree on dose, with possible
                elimination of plants at high doses. Section 5 addresses sinking oils and response under
                ice conditions.









                34











                             SMALL LAKES                                PONDS


















                                                     Flood Water Level
                                       - - - - - - - - - - - - -
                                                     Normal Water Level

                                                                                             Muddy
                                                                                             Sand
                        Organic Mud !'4:.    1
                                                                                 Ore  I




                                                          anIcu


                    Water,                                                                   Water-
                    logged I                 I                                               logged
                               Submerged              Open Water              Submerged
























                                                                                                        35









                         Table 16. Relative environmental impact from response methods for SMALL LAKE and
                                   POND environments.


                                                                                       Gasoline 	Diesel- 	Medium 	Heavy
                                        Response Method                                Products 	Like 	   	 Oils       Oils                                        
                                        Booming - Containment                              A            A           A          A
                                        Skimming/Vacuum                                    -            A           A          A
                                        Sorbents                                           -            A           A          A
                                        Natural Recovery                                   A            B           C           C
                                        In-Situ Burning                                    B            B           B           B
                                        Herding Agents                                     B            B           B           B                                                                                                        B
                                        Debris Removal                                     -            B           B           B
                                        Vegetation Removal                                 -            B           B           B
                                        Physical Herding                                   C            B           B           B
                                        Visco-Elastic Agents/Solidifiers                   -            B           B           -
                                        Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                        -            C           C           B
                                        Mechanical Oil Removal                             -            C           C           C
                                        Dispersants                                        D            D           D           -               
                                        Emulsion Treating Agents                           -            I           I           I
                                        Nutrient Enrichment                                -            I           I           I
                                        Natural Microbe Seeding                            -            I           I           I     


                         The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the
                         specific environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                              A = May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                              B = May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                              C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                              D = May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                              I =Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness could not be evaluated at this time.
                            "-" =Not applicable for this oil type.






















                     36
 









             RESPONSE METHODS: SMALL LAKE AND POND
             ENVIRONMENTS


             Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

             Booming
                ï¿½ Use containment booms to keep oil from spreading
                ï¿½ Safety concerns limit the containment of gasoline spills; however, booms can be
                    used to exclude or deflect the spill away from sensitive resources


             SkimminglVocuum
                ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety concerns
                ï¿½ Land-based operations need site-specific restrictions and monitoring to minimize
                    physical destruction


             Sorbents
                ï¿½ Overuse results in excess waste generation
                ï¿½ Inhibit the evaporation of gasoline spills


             Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

             Noturul Recouery
                    Low impact for light oils but may have significant impact for medium crudes and
                    heavier fuel oils because they persist and affect shoreline habitats


             In-Situ Burning
                ï¿½ Less environmental impact in winter when snow and ice provide some
                    protection, plants are dormant, and fewer animals are present
                ï¿½ Safety concerns limit containment of gasoline, but may be safely used with
                    natural containment, such as gasoline trapped in ice


             Herding Agents
                ï¿½ Most effective under calm conditions
                ï¿½ Should be coupled with recovery when used to protect sensitive habitats
                ï¿½ Not effective on heavy oils because oil must be fluid






                                                                                            37











              Dehris Removal
                  ï¿½ Debris may be associated with nests or living areas (e.g., beaver lodges), so impacts
                     on resident animal habitat may need consideration
                  ï¿½ Operate from small boats to minimize substrate disruption


              Vegetation Removal
                  ï¿½ If oil is trapped in floating vegetation, may be only way to recover the oil in the
                     absence of water currents
                  ï¿½ May be appropriate to prevent secondary oiling of wildlife


              Physical Herding

                     Care should be taken not to drive oil into the water column or sediment


              Visco-Elastic AgentslSolidifiers
                  ï¿½  Visco-elastic agents, by improving overall oil recovery from the water surface,
                     reduce secondary shoreline oiling
                  ï¿½  Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety concerns during application and
                     inhibition of evaporation
                  ï¿½  Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                     into the oil


              Probable Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Manual Oil RemouallCleaning
                  ï¿½ Inherent inefficiency of manual removal of fluid oils would require large crews
                     or repeated entries, resulting in disruption to substrate and wildlife
                  ï¿½ Not applicable for gasoline spills because of safety concerns


              Mectianical Oil Removal

                     May be needed where oil has heavily contaminated bottom sediments
                     May require very intrusive recovery techniques

              Most Adverse Habitat ImPaets

              DispersOn ts
                  ï¿½  Inhibit the evaporation of gasoline spills
                  ï¿½  Shallow water depths and I o*w dilution rates may result in high aquatic toxicity
                     from oil/dispersant mixtures




              38








              insuffleient Information

              Emulsion-Treating Agents
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to oils that do not form emulsions, such as gasoline
                 ï¿½ Insufficient toxicity data to evaluate environmental impact of shallow freshwater
                    environment use


              Nutrient Enrichment and Natural Microbe Seeding
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                 ï¿½ There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness for other oil types
                 ï¿½ There are special concerns about nutrient overloading in small, restricted water
                    bodies
















































                                                                                               39










                3.5 SMALL RIVERS AND STREAMS

                HaNtat Description

                Small rivers and streams are characterized by shallow water (generally 1-2 meters) and
                narrow channels. Water flow can be highly variable, both throughout the seasons and
                with distance downstream. This grouping includes a wide range of waterbodies, from
                fast-flowing streams with low falls and numerous rapids over bedrock and gravel, to
                slow-moving bayous bordered by low muddy banks and fringed with vegetation.
                Sections of the channel may be choked with log jams and debris, and mid-channel bars
                and islands can divide water flow into multiple channels. Both boat and vehicular
                access can be very limited; often the only access will be at bridge crossings. Ice may
                further complicate response measures in this habitat.



                Sensitiuity

                Small rivers and streams have medium to high sensitivity to oil spill impact. Oil spills
                may have more of an impact on small rivers and streams than on large rivers due to a
                variety of conditions, such as lower flow conditions, lower dilution rates, lower overall
                energy, and greater range of natural habitats. Fish spawn in streams and the tributaries
                of larger rivers; thus, the most sensitive, early life stages can be present. Fringing
                wetlands and adjacent floodplains are closely connected to small rivers and streams, and
                they are areas of high biological use and low natural removal rates.

                Slicks usually contaminate both banks, and non-viscous oils are readily mixed into the
                entire water column in shallow streams, potentially exposing both aquatic and benthic
                organisms to oil. Initial weathering rates may be slower because spreading and
                evaporation are restricted in narrow channels And heavy vegetation cover. Fish kills are
                possible for spills ranging from gasoline to medium crude oils. Many different kinds of
                mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians use the stream bank habitats, and there can be
                localized high mortality rates of these animals. Spills can cause closure of water intakes
                for drinking water, irrigation, or industrial use along small rivers. A more aggressive
                response may be appropriate to prevent contamination Of downstream habitat,
                particularly if water intakes, populated areas, or special habitat resources are present.







                40











                                 5MALL RIVER5                                                  5TREAMS















                                           y". _V





                                                                           Flood We or Lev I


                                   Sand, Gravel

                                                                                                                          `7
                                                                          Normal  Water Level                        and

                                                                                           Sand,
                                                                 Sand,                                 m d
                                                                Gravel                    Gravel



                                          -Flood Plain                 10      Channel                     Flood Plain




































                                                                                                                                             41









                              Table 17. Relative environmental impact from response methods for SMALL RIVER and STREAM
                                            environments.
                                                                                                                Gasoline Diesel- Medium Heavy
                                              Response Method                                                  Products Like Oils           Oils         Oils
                                              860minq - Deflection/Exclusion                                        A             A             A            A
                                              Skimming                                                              A             A             A            A
                                              Booming -Containment                                                                A             A            A
                                              Vacuum                                                                              A             A            A
                                              Sorbents                                                                            A             A            A
                                              Barriers/Berms                                                        B             A             A            A
                                              Physical Herding                                                      B             B             B            B
                                              Natural Recovery                                                      A             B             C            C
                                              Debris, Removal                                                                     B             B            B
                                              Visco-Elastic Agents/Solidifiers                                      B             B             B
                                              Vegetation Removal                                                                  B             B            B
                                              In-Situ Burning                                                       C             B             B            B
                                              Manual Oil RemovaVCleaning                                                          C             C            B
                                              Mechanical Oil Removal                                                              C             C            C
                                              Dispersants                                                           D             D             D
                                              Herding Agents                                                        D             D             D
                                              Emulsion Treating Agents                                                            I             I            I
                                              Nutrient Enrichment                                                                 I             I            I
                                              Natural Microbe Seeding                                                             I             I            I


                             The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                             environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                   A=  May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                   13= May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                   C=  May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                   D=  May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                     I= Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                       Not applicable for this oil type.



















                        42









              RESPONSE METHODS: SMALL RIVER AND STREAM
              ENVIRONMENTS


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Booming
                 ï¿½ Used primarily to divert slicks towards collection points in low-current areas
                 ï¿½ Safety concerns limit the containment of gasoline spills; however, booms can
                    exclude or deflect the spill away from sensitive resources
                 ï¿½ Expect low effectiveness with fast currents, shallow water, and steep banks


              SkimminglVacuum
                    To protect public health and downstream resources where spreading is limited,
                    recovery of large gasoline spills could be attempted with firefighting foam to
                    suppress vapors and respiratory protection for workers


              Sorbents
                 ï¿½ Deploy in booms to recover sheens in low-current areas and along shore
                 ï¿½ Trampling of stream bank and bed habitats during deployment and recovery of
                    sorbents can disrupt strearnside vegetation and drive oil into the sediment
                 ï¿½ Overuse results in excess waste generation


              BarrierslBerms
                 ï¿½  Potential for physical disruption and sediment contamination in immediate area
                    of the barrier/berm
                 ï¿½  If all or most of the flow is diverted, may need to monitor water requirements to
                    habitats downstream of the barrier to mitigate potential impacts
                 ï¿½  Safety concerns limit actions at gasoline spills, although berms built ahead of the
                    slick could be used to exclude oil from sensitive areas, such as side channels


              Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Physical Herding
                 ï¿½ May be only means to flush oil trapped in log jams, beaver dams, behind rocks,
                    and in vegetation/ debris along banks to downstream collection areas
                 ï¿½ Spraying of gasoline spills can mix the oil into the water column






                                                                                               43








              Natural Recovery
                  ï¿½ For small gasoline and diesel-like oil spills, evaporation and natural dispersion
                     would rapidly remove surface slicks
                  ï¿½ For all other types and sizes of spills, recovery of free or pooled oil and/or
                     protection of sensitive resources should be attempted


              Debris Removal
                     Will release trapped oil and speed natural flushing rates


              Visco-Elastic AgentslSolidifiers
                  ï¿½  Visco-elastic agents may speed recovery of contained oil when time is critical
                  ï¿½  Solidifiers may immobilize even gasoline spills, preventing their transport
                     downstream and further impact
                  ï¿½  Ineffective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product.to mix into
                     the oil


              Vegetation Removal
                  ï¿½ May be needed to remove oil trapped in floating and fringing vegetation
                  ï¿½ Remove oiled vegetation to prevent chronic sheening in sensitive areas or
                     secondary oiling of wildlife
                  ï¿½ Monitor crews to minimize physical disturbance, which can be severe


              in-Situ Burning
                  ï¿½  May be difficult to protect stream-side vegetation
                  ï¿½  Safety concerns limit containment of gasoline, but may be safely used if natural
                     containment is present
                  ï¿½  Less impact in winter when snow/ice provide some protection, plants are
                     dormant, and fewer animals are present
                  ï¿½  May not be practical in fast flowing streams where containment and maintenance
                     of minimum slick thickness (1-3 millimeters) may be difficult

              Probable. Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Manual Oil RernovallCleaning
                  ï¿½ Viable for heavy oils that have solidified versus fluid oils that have spread
                  ï¿½ Stream bank disruption likely from movement of work crews






              44










              Mechanical Oil Remoual

                    Only consider when large amounts of solidified oil have accumulated in the
                    stream channel and need to be removed quickly

              Most Adverse Habitat Impact

              Dispersan ts
                    Enhanced mixing of oil into the water column with restricted dilution will
                    increase acute toxicity to aquatic organisms


              I lerdit ig Agents
                 0 Toxicity concerns when early life stages are present
                 0 May not be practical due to fast currents and rough water surface
                 * Oil must be fluid, so not appropriate to heavy oils

              insuffleient Information

              Emulsion-Treating Agents
                 ï¿½ Insufficient toxicity data to evaluate environmental impact of shallow freshwater
                    environment use
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to oils that do not form emulsions, such as gasoline


              Nutrient Enrichment and Natural Microbe Seeding
                 ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                 ï¿½ There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness, particularly for
                    applications in small rivers and streams


















                                                                                                45








               3.6 BEDROCK HABITATS (ESI = 1 A, 2, 8A)

               flabitut DeSCription

               This shoreline type is characterized by an impermeable rocky substrate. The rock surface
               can be highly irregular, with numerous cracks and crevices. The slope of the shoreline
               varies from vertical rocky cliffs to shelving bedrock shores where flat or gently dipping
               rock layers have been cut by waves into wide platforms. Bedrock habitats are exposed to
               wide ranges in wave energy; headlands in the Great Lakes and other large lakes are the
               most exposed and bedrock shorelines in sheltered  takes are the least exposed. There can
               be a thin veneer of sand and gravel sediments on the rock platforms, although storm
               waves will strip these sediments off exposed shorelines. Boulder-sized debris can
               accumulate at the base of exposed rocky cliffs.



               Sensitivity

               Bedrock shoreline habitats have a range of sensitivities to oil spills, depending upon
               their degree of exposure to natural removal processes. They have few attached
               organisms and plants, and rocky shore productivity is typically low. However, they may
               provide shelter to fish and nesting sites for birds which can be present in large numbers
               in nearshore waters.

               In exposed settings, oil may be partially held offshore by wave reflection off steep cliffs
               and platforms. Any oil that is deposited will be rapidly removed from exposed faces,
               although oil persistence on any specific shoreline segment is related to the incoming
               wave energy during, and shortly after, a spill. The most resistant oil would occur as a
               patchy band at or above the high water line, or deposited in any surface sediments.

               In sheltered settings, oil will readily adhere to the rough rocky surface, forming a distinct
               band along the water line. Cracks and crevices will be sites of oil pooling and persistence.
               Oil will also penetrate and persist in any surface sediments. Medium to heavy oils can be
               very sticky and form thick black bands, while lighter oils are more readily removed by
               wave action, evaporation, and response efforts.









               46









                                                          BEPROC                    K



                                                                              Sh elving Rock            Submerged
                                                                                                         Rock Ledge
                                                            U
















                              soil-,

                                                     Rock Cliff
                                                                            a@a                           Large Waves
                                        Bedrock





                             Zone of Normal
                                 Water Level                                             Deep Water
                                     Change
                                                         Submerged
                                 Land                       Zone

























                                                                                                                                 47









                              Table 18. Relative environmental impact from response methods for BEDROCK habitats (ESI=1A,
                                        2, 8A).

                                                                                             Gasoline      Diesel-	 Medium	  Heavy
                                               Response Method                               Products      Like Oils      Oils         Oils
                                               Natural Recovery                                 A            A             A            B
                                               Debris Romoval						-		 A	         A            A
                                               Sorbents                                         B            A             A            B
                                               Flooding                                         B            A             B            C
                                               Low-Pressure,Cold-Water Flushing                 B            A             A            C
                                               High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing               B            B             B            B
                                               Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                      -            B             B            B
                                               Vacuum                                           -            B             B            B
                                               In-Situ Burning                                  -            B             B            B                                                                                   B             B            B
                                               Shoreline Cleaning Agents                        -            -             B            B                                                    B            B
                                               Solidifiers                                      -            B             B            - 
                                               Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                 -            C             B            B
                                               Nutrient Enrichment                              -            C             C            D
                                               High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                -            D             C            C
                                               Steam. Cleaning                                  -            D             D            D  
                                               Sand Blasting                                    -            D             D            D
                                               Natural Microbe Seeding                          -            I             I            I
                                               Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment                  -            I             I            I 


                              The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the
                              specific environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                    A =May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                    B = May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                    C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                    D = May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                    I =Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                  "-" =Not applicable for this oil type.



















                        48
 









              RESPONSE METHODS: BEDROCK HABITATS


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Natural Recouerg
                 ï¿½ Sheltered bedrock may need cleanup because of slow natural removal rates
                 ï¿½ Cleanup of larger spills may be needed because of the amount of oil present
                 ï¿½ Heavy oils may persist on all but the most exposed shores


              Debris Remoual
                    Degree of oiling that warrants debris removal and disposal depends on human
                    and sensitive resource use of the site


              Sorbents

                 ï¿½ Overuse generates excess waste
                 ï¿½ Physical removal rates of heavy oils will be slow, so less oil will be mobilized for
                    recovery by sorbents

              Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Flooding and Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing

                 ï¿½ Most effective on fresh, fluid oils
                 ï¿½ Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                    environment
                 ï¿½ Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              I ligh-1 @Iressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                    Primarily applicable to medium-crude oils while still fresh and liquid
                    Can be effective in removing oil from crevices and pockets of sediment on
                    bedrock


              Manual Oil RemouallCleaning
                 ï¿½ Expect significant residues of diesel and medium oils with only manual removal
                    because of their fluidity and difficulty of manual pickup
                 ï¿½ Useful for heavy oils in patches or crevices


              Vacuum

                    Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety concerns



                                                                                              49









              In-Situ Burning
                  ï¿½ Can effectively remove heavy oil accumulations
                  ï¿½ Concerns about air pollution, thermal impact on biota, and physical nature of the
                     residue


              Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                  ï¿½ May be only technique to remove sticky oils without hot-water, high-pressure
                     washing
                  ï¿½ Individual products vary in their toxicity and recoverability of the treated oil


              Solidifiers
                  ï¿½ Prevent the oil from being washed back into the water and are most appropriate
                     for heavy accumulations of pooled oil on shelving bedrock
                  ï¿½ Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                     into the oil


              Low-Pressure, Hot Water Flushing
                  ï¿½ Any organisms in the application area would be adversely affected by hot water
                  ï¿½ Most effective on heavy crudes where heat would make oil more fluid

              Probable Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Nutrient Enrichment
                  ï¿½  Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                  ï¿½  Concerns about nutrient overloading in poorly flushed areas or where nutrient
                     toxicity, especially ammonia, might be significant
                  ï¿½  Potentially effective for lighter oils that leave thin residues; less effective for
                     thick, weathered oil residues


              High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                  o Will likely kill any attached organisms; use is appropriate in limited areas only
                     when oil removal is needed for aesthetic reasons


              Most Adverse Habitat ImPaet

              Steam Cleaning And Sand Blasting
                  ï¿½ Highly intrusive techniques that will kill any organisms present
                  ï¿½ Use only for aesthetic reasons in very limited areas




              50








             Insufficient Information

             Nattiral Microbe Seechno
                    There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness


              Chernical Shoreline Pretreatment
                    There is insufficient information on available products, their effectiveness, or
                    impact








               3.7 MANMADE STRUCTURES (ES1 = I B, 6B, 8B)

               Habitat Description

               Manmade structures include vertical shore protection structures such as seawalls, piers,
               and bulkheads, as well as riprap revetments and groins, breakwaters, and jetties. Vertical
               structures can be constructed of concrete, wood, and corrugated metal. They usually
               extend below the water surface, although seawalls can have beaches or riprap in front of
               them. Riprap revetments are constructed of boulder-sized pieces of rock, rubble, or
               formed concrete pieces (e.g., tetrapods), placed parallel to the shoreline for shore
               protection. Riprap groins are oriented perpendicular to shore to trap sediment; jetties are
               designed to protect and maintain channels; and breakwaters are offshore structures
               constructed to protect an area from wave attack. Riprap, structures have very large void
               spaces and are permeable, while seawalls and bulkheads have impermeable, solid
               substrates. These structures are very common along developed shores, particularly in
               harbors, marinas, and residential areas. The range in degree of exposure to waves and
               currents varies widely, from very low in dead-end canals, to very high on offshore
               breakwaters. Boat wakes can generate wave energy in otherwise sheltered areas.



               Sensitiuity

               Manmade structures have a range of sensitivities to oil spills, depending on the degree
               of exposure to natural removal processes. Biological communities and use are sparse.
               Often, there are sources of pollutants or habitat degradation nearby, such as urban
               runoff, chronic small oil spills in marinas, poor water quality, and limited water
               circulation. More intrusive cleanup techniques are often conducted due to their lower
               biological use, higher public demand for oil removal for aesthetic reasons, and need to
               minimize human exposure to oil in populated areas. It is acknowledged that manmade
               structures can vary in permeability, cohesion, and mobility and, in turn, how they are
               affected by oiling. In this document, however, manmade structures have been grouped
               together so that the higher de gree of cleanup often required can be adequately addressed.

               Vertical structures are generally impermeable to oil penetration, but oil can heavily coat
               rough surfaces, forming a band at the water line. During storms, oil can splash over the,
               top and contaminate terrestrial habitats. Riprap poses significant cleanup problems
               because of large void spaces between the riprap and heavy accumulations of debris. Large
               amounts of oil can become trapped in the riprap, where it is difficult to remove and a
               potential source of sheening.


               52










                                               MANMADE STRUCTURE5




                                       w  111'. M A i@









                                                                         -Band, Gravel




                                           4 Rl  RD







                                                                         -I."f

                                                                            r'..d. 6raval

                                  Wave       Zone of Normal
                                ;Splash   Water Level Change
                                                                                                   Submerged Zone



























                                                                                                                                                                53









                            Table 19. Relative environmental impact from response methods for MANMADE structures
                                      (ESI = 1 B, 6B, 813).
                                                                                                             Gasoline     Diesel-		 Medium 	    Heavy
                                            Response Method                                                  Products     Like Oils          Oils         Oils
                                            Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning							     -		A			A		A		                                                   
                                            Debris Removal									     -            A			A		A		
                                            High-Pressure,Cold-Water Flushing                                    B            A                 A           B
							  Sorbents										     B            A                 A           B
							  Vacuum             								     -            B                 A           A
							  Natural Recovery 								     A	      A                 B           B
						  	  Flooding										     B		A			A           C	
							  Low-Pressure,Cold-Water Flushing						     B		A			A		C
							  Low-Pressure,Hot-Water Flushing						     -		B			B		B
							  High-Pressure,Hot-Water Flushing						     -		B			B		B
							  Shoreline Cleaning Agents							     -		B			B		B
							  Solidifiers									     B		B			B		-
							  In-Situ Burning									     -		B			B		-
							  Nutrient Enrichment								     -		C			C		D
							  Steam Cleaning									     -		C			C		C
							  Sand Blasting 									     -		C			C		C
							  Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment						     -		I			I		I
							  Natural Microbe Seeding							     -		I			I		I

				
					The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
					environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
						A=May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
						B=May cause some adverse habitat impact.
						C=May cause significatn adverse habitat impact.
						D=May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
						I=Insufficient information-impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time
					    "-"=Not applicable for this oil type.
			







			



	


		54
																																					    		        	                      		
                                                                                     
 









              RESPONSE METHODS: MANMADE STRUCTURES


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Manual oil RemouallCleaning and Debris Rernoual
                  0 Effective for removing debris and small, persistent pockets of oil


              I-ligh-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                  ï¿½  Effective for removing sticky oils from solid surfaces and flushing pooled oil
                     from riprap crevices, even for gasoline in populated areas
                  ï¿½  May flush oiled sediments (if present) into nearshore bottom habitats
                  ï¿½  Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                     environment
                  ï¿½  Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              Sorben ts
                  ï¿½  Use along riprap structures to recover residual sheening oil after other cleanup
                     methods have been conducted, even for gasoline
                  ï¿½  Physical removal rates of heavy oils will be slow, so less oil will be mobilized for
                     recovery by sorbents
                  ï¿½  Overuse results in excess waste generation


              Vacuum
                  ï¿½ Early use of vacuum on pooled oil in crevices can increase the oil recovery rate
                     and minimize oil losses during flushing
                  ï¿½ Can only remove thick oil from accessible areas, so high residual oil likely


              Natural Recouerg
                  ï¿½ Most effective for lighter oils and more exposed settings
                  ï¿½ Heavier oils may necessitate removing persistent residues

              Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Flooding
                  ï¿½  Not applicable to seawalls; on riprap, only effective when the oil is fluid
                  ï¿½  May be used on riprap in developed areas, even for gasoline spills, where pockets
                     of the spilled product pose human health concerns
                  ï¿½  Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                     environment




                                                                                                55









                     Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                     Only effective when the oil is fluid
                     Directed water spray can help remove trapped oil, even for gasoline
                     Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                     environment
                     Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              Lotv-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing and High-Pressure, Hot-Water
              Flushing
                  ï¿½  Assumes that there are no biological communities in or immediately downslope
                     from treatment area
                  ï¿½  High water temperatures are often needed to liquefy heavy oils
                  ï¿½  High water pressures are often needed to remove weathered oils from solid
                     substrates and riprap


              Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                     Individual products vary in their toxicity and ability to recover the treated oil


              Solidifiers
                  ï¿½ Appropriate to recover and control chronic sheening, even for gasoline
                  ï¿½ Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                     into the oil


              In-Situ Burning
                  ï¿½ Thick oil likely to occur as isolated pockets that are difficult to access and bum
                  ï¿½ There will be concerns about air pollution and physical nature of the residue
                  ï¿½ Public safety issues for burning in developed areas will be of special concern

              Probable Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Nutrient Enrichment
                  ï¿½  Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                  ï¿½  Concerns about nutrient overloading in poorly flushed areas or where nutrient
                     toxicity, especially ammonia, might be significant
                  ï¿½  Potentially effective for lighter oils that leave thin residues; less effective for
                     thick, weathered oil residues




              56









              Steam Cleaning and Sand Blasting
                 0 Used when removing persistent oil is required for aesthetic reasons

              Insuffleient Information

              Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment
                    There is insufficient information on available products, their effectiveness, and
                    impact


              Natural Microbe Seeding
                    There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness, particularly for
                    applications on manmade structures



































                                                                                              57









               3.8 SAND HABITATS (ESI = 4)

               Hobitat Description

               Sand habitats have a substrate composed of sediments that are predominantly finer than
               2 millimeters but greater than silt or clay-sized material (see Appendix B for grain sizes).
               The shoreline may consist of well-sorted sands of one principal size, or of poorly sorted
               mixtures of muddy sand, gravelly sand, or a combination of these two. When the
               sediments are fine-grained sand, beaches may be wide and flat; where the sediments are
               coarse-grained sand, they usually are steeper and narrower. Sandy shorelines may be
               naturally eroding, accreting, or stable, and groins or breakwaters may be placed to trap
               sand and maintain some beaches. Exposed sand beaches can undergo rapid erosional or
               depositional changes during storms. In developed areas, sand beaches can be artificially
               created by man and are commonly used for recreation. Sand bars and banks along rivers
               are also included in this habitat.



               S(,'t]Sjtjujty

               Sand habitats have low to medium sensitivity to oil spills. They generally do not have
               sizable biological communities except where the habitat tends to be protected and
               consists of poorly sorted muddy sediments. Thus, ecological effects are likely to be of
               limited extent because of the low natural biological productivity. In developed areas,
               sand beaches are considered sensitive because of their high recreational use.

               During small spills, oil will concentrate in a band along the swash line. Maximum
               penetration into fine-grained sand will be less than 15 centimeters; penetration in coarse
               sand can reach 25 centimeters or greater. Clean sand can bury oiled layers quickly,
               creating more difficult cleanup issues. On heavily used recreational beaches, extensive
               cleanup is usually required to remove as much of the oil as possible. When large
               amounts of sediment must be removed, it may be necessary to replace these sediments
               with clean material. Traffic on sand can push oil deeper.











               58











                                                                      5 A N P


                                       C









                                                  Berm  'lop

                            SZOI
                            Swaoh                                                    Large Waves
                             Line


















                                                                                                                              Near-
                                                                                                                              shore
                                       Zone of Normal                                                                          Dar
                                         Water Level                                    Sul7merged Zone
                                            Change



























                                                                                                                                            59








                            Table 20.    Relative environmental impact from response methods for SAND habitats (ESI = 4).

                                                                                                             Gasoline Diesel- Medium Heavy
                                            Response Method                                                  Products Like Oils           Oils         Oils
                                            Ddbris-Remdval'                                                                      A           A            A
                                            Natural Recovery                                                      A              A           B            B
                                            Flooding                                                              B              A           A            B
                                            Sorbents                                                                             A           A            B
                                            Manual'011 Removal/Cleaning                                           D              B           A            A
                                            Mechanical Oil Removal                                                D              B           B            A
                                            Low-Pressure, ColdwWater Flushing                                     B              B           B            B
                                            Vacuum                                                                               B           B            B
                                            Sediment Reworking,                                                   D              B           B            B
                                            Nutrient Enrichment                                                                  B           B            C
                                            Shoreline Cleaning Agents                                                                        B            B
                                            Solidifiers                                                                          B           B
                                            In.-Situ Burning,                                                                                B            B
                                            Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                      D              C           C            B
                                            'High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                   D              D           D            D
                                            High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                     D              D           D            D
                                            Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment
                                            Natural Microbe Seeding                                                              I           I            I


                           The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                           environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                 A = May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                 B-= May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                 C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                 D = May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                 I = Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                    =Not applicable for this oil type.




















                     60









              RESPONSE METHODS: SAND HABITATS


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Debris Remoual
                     Degree of oiling that warrants debris removal and disposal depends on use by
                     humans and sensitive resources


              Natural Recouerg
                 o Lower impact for small spills, lighter oil types, and remote areas


              Floo(ling
                 ï¿½   Only effective when the oil is fluid and on the sand surface, rather than
                     penetrated or buried
                 ï¿½   Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                     environment
                 ï¿½   Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              Sorbents
                 0   Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                     Physical removal rates of heavy oils will be slow, so less oil will be mobilized for
                     recovery by sorbents
                     Overuse results in excess waste generation

              Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Manual Oil RernouallCleaning
                 ï¿½   Minimizes sediment removal and problems of erosion and waste disposal
                 ï¿½   Effective when oil is mostly on the surface, not buried beneath clean sand
                 ï¿½   Gasoline tends to quickly evaporate; therefore habitat disruption, worker safety
                     concerns, and waste generated by manual cleanup are not balanced by benefits in
                     removing oil


              Mechanical Oil Rernoual

                 ï¿½ Tends to remove large amounts of clean sand with the oiled sand
                 ï¿½ Use on high-use beaches where rapid removal of oil is required and where long
                     stretches of shoreline are heavily oiled





                                                                                               61









                      Gasoline tends to quickly evaporate; therefore habitat disruption, worker safety
                      concerns, and waste generated from mechanical cleanup are not balanced by
                      benefits in removing oil


               Lotv-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                   ï¿½ Only effective when the oil is fluid and adheres loosely to the sediments
                   ï¿½ Optimize pressure to minimize the amount of sand washed downslope


               Vacuum
                   ï¿½ Early use of vacuum on pooled, liquid oil can prevent deeper penetration
                   ï¿½ Will minimize amount of sorbent waste when used with flushing efforts
                   ï¿½ Can vacuum heavy, non-sticky oil from sand substrates completely, but slowly


               Sediment Reworking
                   ï¿½  Appropriate for lightly oiled and stained sediments, to speed removal rates, and
                      as a final step to polish recreational beaches
                   ï¿½  Because gasoline tends to quickly evaporate, habitat disruption, worker safety
                      concerns, and waste generated from sediment reworking are not balanced by
                      benefits in removing oil


               Nutrient Enrichment

                   ï¿½ Potentially effective for lighter oils that leave thin residues; less effective for
                      thick, weathered oil residues
                   ï¿½ May be concern about nutrient overloading in poorly flushed areas
                   ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate


               Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                   ï¿½ May be only technique to remove viscous oils without removing sediment
                   ï¿½ Individual products vary in their toxicity and ability to recover the treated oil


               Solidifiers
                   ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                   ï¿½  Early use may prevent pooled oil from penetrating deeper
                   ï¿½  Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                      into the oil









               62










             In-Situ Burning
                 ï¿½  Can effectively remove pooled surface oil accumulations
                 ï¿½  Concerns about air pollution, physical nature of the residue, and thermal impact
                    on biota
                 ï¿½  May have to dig trenches to accumulate oil in pools
                 ï¿½  Lighter oils will penetrate the sand, leaving insufficient surface concentrations to
                    burn


             Probable Adverse Habitat Impaet

             Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                 ï¿½ May be needed to soften and lift sticky oil off the sand surface
                 ï¿½ Any organisms present will be adversely affected by hot water

             Most Adverse Habitat Impaet

             I ligh-Pressure, Cold-Woter Flushing And High-pressure, Hot-Water
             Flushing
                 0 High-pressure water jets will fluidize sand-sized sediments, erode the beach, and
                    wash the oiled sediment into nearshore habitats


             Insuffleient information

             chemical Shoreline Pretreatment
                 o More information needed on available products, their effectiveness, and impact


             Natural Microbe Seeding
                    There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness in freshwater
                    habitats





















                                                                                               63








            3.9 MIXED SAND AND GRAVEL HABITATS (ES1 = 3, 5)

            HaNtat Description

            Mixed sand and gravel habitats are characterized by a substrate that is composed
            predominantly of a mixture of sand- to cobble-sized sediments (see Appendix B for grain
            sizes). These habitats may vary from a well-sorted cobble layer overlying finer-grained
            (sand-sized) sediments to mixtures of sand, pebble, and cobble. Typically, well-sorted
            beaches are exposed to some wave or current action that separates and transports finer-
            grained sediments; however, the sediment distribution does not necessarily indicate the
            energy at a particular shoreline. On depositional beaches multiple berms can be formed
            at the different water levels generated during storms. In glaciated areas, the gravel
            component can include very large boulders. Natural replenishment rates are very slow
            for gravel, compared to sand. Mixed sand and gravel habitats occur as beaches along the
            Great Lakes and as point bars along rivers and streams.



            .sensitiuity

            Mixed sand and gravel habitats have medium sensitivity to oil spills. Biological
            communitIies are very sparse because of sediment mobility, desiccation, and low organic
            matter. Most invertebrates living in this habitat are deep burrowers, such as some
            oligochaete worms and insect larvae. Characteristic insects are mayflies, stoneflies,
            caddisflies, and midges, although mayflies and stoneflies are scarce or absent where silt
            is present. The nearshore habitat is used by fish for spawning and protects fry and larvae.
            There are also limited numbers of birds and mammals.

            Viscous oils reaching these habitats may not penetrate into the sediments because the
            pore spaces between sediments are filled with sand. Therefore, deep oil penetration and
            long-term persistence are lower than on gravel substrates. However, oil can still occur at
            depths below those of annual reworking, particularly if the oil is deposited high on the
            beach out of the reach of normal wave activity or is rapidly buried. Erosion can be a
            concern when large quantities of sediment are physically removed. In more sheltered
            areas, asphalt pavements can form if heavy surface oil deposits are not removed. Once
            formed, these pavements are very stable and can persist for years.







            64











                                 MIXED SAND and GRAVEL






                                                                                        '41








                                      Sand Berm





                                                            mail Cusps                               zn_
                            Scarp
                                                                t           Small Waves

                              and
                                             m Grave



                                                            Gravel

                                                                                     Sand, Gravel



                           Zone of       Zone of Normal
                        :-.6-Storm         Water Level    10 4                   Submerged Zone
                             'U4
                                             Change



























                                                                                                                            65








                                 Table 21. Relative environmental impact from response methods for MIXED SAND and GRAVEL
                                                habitats (ESI = 3, 5).
                                                                                                                           Gasoline Diesel- Medium Heavy
                                                   Response Method                                                        Products Like Oils              Oils          Oils
                                                             Removal                                                                            A             A             A
                                                   Flooding                                                                     A               A             A             C
                                                   Natural Recovervy                                                            A               A             B             B
                                                   Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                            B               A             A             B
                                                       rb
                                                   So     ents                                                                                  A             A             B
                                                   Vacuum                                                                                       B             B             B
                                                   Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                                  D               B             A             A
                                                   Sediment Reworking                                                           D               B             B             B
                                                   MechanicalOlf Removal                                                        D               C             8             B
                                                   Shoreline Cleaning Agents                                                                                  B             B
                                                   Nutrient Enrichment                                                                          B             B             C
                                                   In-Situ Burning                                                                                            B             B
                                                   SolidifiOrs                                                                                                B
                                                   High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                           C               C             C             C
                                                   Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                             D               C             C             B
                                                   High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                            D               D             D             D
                                                   Steam Cleaning
                                                                                                                                                D             D             D
                                                   Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment                                                              I             I             I
                                                   Natural Microbe Seeding                                                                      I             I


                                 The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                                 environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                       A = May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                       B = May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                       C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                       D = May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                        I =Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                          =Not applicable for this oil type.



















                          66










              RESPONSE METHODS: MIXED SAND AND GRAVEL
              HABITATS


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              1_)ebris Rernoual
                    Degree of oiling that warrants debris removal and disposal depends on amount
                    of use by humans and sensitive resources


              Flooding
                 ï¿½ Most effective when the oil is fluid and adheres loosely to the sediments
                 ï¿½ Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                    environment


              Natural Recouffg
                 0 Least impact for small spills, lighter oil types, and remote areas


              Low-1-1ressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                 ï¿½  Most effective when the oil is fluid and adheres loosely to the sediments
                 ï¿½  Excessive pressures can cause erosion
                 ï¿½  Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                    environment
                 ï¿½  Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              Sorbents

                 ï¿½ Overuse generates excess waste
                 ï¿½ Useful for recovering sheens, even for gasoline spills
                 ï¿½ Physical removal rates of heavy oils will be slow, so less oil will be mobilized for
                    recovery by sorbents

              Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Vacuum
                 0 Early use of vacuum on pooled, liquid oil can prevent deeper penetration


              Manual Oil RemouallCleaning
                    Gasoline tends to evaporate quickly; therefore manual cleanup causes habitat
                    disruption, worker safety concerns, and generates waste with no benefits due to
                    removing oil


                                                                                              67









                   ï¿½ Minimizes sediment removal and problems of erosion and waste disposal
                   ï¿½ Preferable when oil is mostly on the surface, not deeply penetrated or buried


              Se(Jiment wworking
                   ï¿½  Use to break up heavy surface oil or expose persistent subsurface oil deposits,
                      particularly where sediment removal will cause erosion
                   ï¿½  Use where there is sufficient exposure to waves to rework the sediments into
                      their original profile and distribution
                   ï¿½  Gasoline tends to evaporate quickly; therefore sediment reworking causes habitat
                      disruption, worker safety concerns, and generates waste with no benefits due to
                      removing oil


              Mechanical Oil Remoual

                   ï¿½  Tends to remove large amounts of sediment with the oil
                   ï¿½  Applicable for heavier oil types, which are difficult to remove otherwise
                   ï¿½  Gasoline tends to evaporate quickly; therefore mechanical cleanup causes habitat
                      disruption, worker safety concerns, and generates waste with no benefits from
                      removing oil


              Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                      May be only technique to remove viscous oils without removing sediment
                      Individual products vary in their toxicity and ability to recover the treated oil


              Nutrient Enrichment
                   ï¿½  Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                   ï¿½  Potentially effective for lighter oils that leave thin residues; less effective for
                      thick, weathered oil residues
                   ï¿½  Most applicable as a secondary technique after gross oil removal
                   ï¿½  Concerns about nutrient overloading in poorly flushed areas


              In-Situ Burning
                   ï¿½  Can effectively remove pooled surface oil accumulations
                   ï¿½  Concerns about air pollution, physical nature of the residue, and thermal impact
                      on biota
                   ï¿½  May have to dig trenches to accumulate oil in pools
                   ï¿½  Lighter oils will not remain on the sediment surface


              Solidifiers
                   0 Early use may prevent pooled oil from penetrating deeper


              68









                  0  Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                  0  May be useful in recovering sheens when deployed as booms and pillows
                  0  Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                     into the oil
                  0  Could use for lighter oils with correct product and situation

              Probable Adverse Habitat Impaet

              I ligh-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                  ï¿½ High-pressure water jets will flush oiled sediments into nearshore habitats
                  ï¿½ Excessive pressures can cause erosion if large amounts of sand are present


              Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                  ï¿½ Any organisms present will be affected by hot water
                  ï¿½ Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats

              Most Adverse Habitat Impaet

              I iigh-1 'ressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                  0 Will flush oiled sand into nearshore zone and affect any organisms present


              Steut n Cleaning
                  ï¿½ Highly intrusive technique; will kill any organisms present
                  ï¿½ Potential for released oil to penetrate deeper into the sediments

              Insuffleient Information

              C'hemical Shoreline Pretreatment
                     Need more information on available products, their effectiveness, and impact


              Natural Microl)e Seeding
                     There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness in freshwater
                     habitats














                                                                                                  69









               3. 10 GRAVEL HABITATS (ESI = 6A)

               I laf)jtat T)escription

               Gravel habitats are characterized by a substrate that is composed predominantly of
               gravel-sized sediments. By definition (see the grain-size chart in Appendix B), gravel
               includes sediments ranging in size from granules (greater than 2 millimeters) to
               boulders (greater than 256 millimeters). The sand fraction on the surface is usually less
               than ten percent, although the sand content can increase to 20 percent with depth. These
               sediments are highly permeable because there are few sand-sized sediments to fill the
               pore spaces between the individual gravel particles. Gravel substrates may also have low
               bearing capacity and, consequently, may not support vehicular traffic. Typically, well-
               sorted beaches are exposed to some wave or current action that reworks the sediments
               and removes the finer-grained sedim  ents. However, the sediment distribution does not
               necessarily indicate the energy setting at a particular shoreline; sheltered beaches can still
               have a large gravel source. In glaciated areas, the gravel can include very large boulders.
               On depositional beaches, zones of pure pebbles or cobbles can form into multiple berms
               at the different water levels generated during storms. Gravel shorelines tend to be
               steeper than those composed of sand or mud. Natural replenishment rates are very slow
               for gravel compared to sand. Gravel habitats occur as beaches along the Great Lakes and
               as bars along rivers and streams.



               sensitiuity

               Gravel habitats have medium sensitivity to oil spills. Biological communities are very
               sparse because of sediment mobility, desiccation, and low organic matter. Characteristic
               insects are mayflies, stoneflies, caddisflies, and midges, all with larvae living among the
               sediments. Flatworms, leeches, and crustaceans may be found on the gravel undersides.
               The nearshore habitat is used by fish for spawning and provides protection for fry and
               larvae.

               Gravel habitats are ranked higher in sensitivity than sand and gravel habitats because
               deep penetration of stranded oil into the permeable substrate is likely. Oil can penetrate
               to depths below those of annual reworking, resulting in long-term persistence of the oil.
               The slow replenishment rate makes removing oiled gravel highly undesirable. Also,
               formation of persistent asphalt pavements is likely where there is high accumulation of
               persistent oils.



               70











                                                                                           R A V E L


                                                                                 )-i r


                                                                        A._@A
                                                                                                                                                        Doulders
                                                                                               Storm Derm             Small FeWes





                                                            10

                                    J1






                                                                         43
                                                    0






                                                  pebbles                        0


                                                                           arse Gra e       I



                                                                                                                        5and, Gravel
                                             Zone of Usual
                                 Land          Water Level          I CoMAe / 13oulder
                                          --*- Change               :-*-Platform                                      Submerged Zone -
                                             (IncluglIne stormo)    :(usually under water)






















                                                                                                                                                                                   71








                                    Table 22. Relative environmental impact from response methods for mixed sand'and gravel
                                                         habitats (ESI = 3, 5).
                                                                                                                                               Gasoline         Diesel-          Medium           Heavy
                                                         Response Method                                                                       Products         Like Oils             Oils             Oils


                                                         Flooding                                                                                    A                A               A                C
                                                                                                                                                                                                        . ... . .... . ..


                                                         Debris Removal                                                                                               A               A                A
                                                                                                                                                                      A
                                                                                                                                                                                            . .. .     ....
                                                                                                                                                                                                . . . ...... .
                                                         Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                                                 D                B               A                A

                                                                                                                                                                                              . . ...... .
                                                         Sediment Reworking                                                                          D                B               -B               .13

                                                                                                                                                                                                . . . . . . . . . . .
                                                         Shoreline Cleaning Agents                                                                                                    B                B


                                                         Nutrient Enrichment                                                                                          B               B                C



                                                         Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                                            D                C               C                B
                                                                                                                                                                                            . ........ ..C
                                                         High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                                           D                D               D                D
                                                                                                                                       . . ....... ...... .
                                                                           n
                                                         Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment




                                                                                                                                                                ..... . ... ....
                                                                                                                                                                                                 . ....... ..... . .
                                                                                                                                               M060o        t    h          Me._me                "tit
                                                                                                                                                                          ...........
                                   specific environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                                                           tadv-         h     t t
                                   B=           May cause some adverse habitat impact.


                                   D            May cause the most adverse haNtat impact.
                                                                                                                                                                                  tt i      t. . . .. ..
                                                                                                                                  me o z@Wu            no              U9              : S:@,
                                                                                                                                                                          4"
                                                                                                                              h         thi'ik       Id
                                                Not applicable for this oil type.





















                            72










             RESPONSE METHODS: GRAVEL HABITATS


             Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

             Debris Rernoual

                    Degree of oiling that warrants debris removal and disposal depends on use by
                    humans and sensitive resources

                                             I
             LoW-Ilressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                 ï¿½ Only effective when the oil is fluid and loosely adheres to the sediments
                 ï¿½ Usually used in conjunction with vacuum and sorbents
                 ï¿½ Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                    environment


             Flooding
                 ï¿½ Only effective when the oil is fluid and adheres loosely to the sediments
                 ï¿½ Usually used with various flushing techniques
                 ï¿½ Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                    environment


             Natural Recouerg
                 0 Least impact for small spills, lighter oil types, remote areas, and eroding areas


             Sc)rhents

                 ï¿½ Overuse generates excess waste
                 ï¿½ Useful for recovering sheens, even for gasoline spills
                 ï¿½ Physical removal rates of heavy oils will be slow, so less oil will be mobilized for
                    recovery by sorbents


             Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

             Vacuum

                    Early use of vacuum on pooled, liquid oil can prevent deeper penetration


             I ligh-1 Ire,,3sure, Cold-Water Flushing
                 ï¿½ High-pressure water jet is likely to flush finer sediments into nearshore
                    submerged habitats
                 ï¿½ Very viscous oils will require extremely high pressure to mobilize them


                                                                                              73











               Nutrient Enrichment

                   0  Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                   0  Concerns about nutrient overloading in poorly flushed areas or where nutrient
                      toxicity, especially ammonia, might be significant
                   0  Potentially effective for lighter oils that leave thin residues; less effective for
                      thick, weathered oil residues


               Manual Oil RemouallCleaning
                   ï¿½  Gasoline tends to quickly evaporate; therefore manual cleanup causes habitat
                      disruption, worker safety concerns, and generates waste with no benefits from
                      removing oil .
                   ï¿½  Minimizes sediment removal and problems of erosion and waste disposal
                   ï¿½  Deep penetration of oil in porous gravel reduces effectiveness


               Sediment Reworking
                   ï¿½  Used where gravel removal is not feasible because of erosion concerns
                   ï¿½  Sufficient exposure to waves is required to rework the sediments into their
                      original profile and distribution
                   ï¿½  Gasoline tends to evaporate quickly; therefore sediment reworking causes habitat
                      disruption, worker safety concerns, and generates waste with no benefits from
                      removing oil


               Stioreline Cleaning Agents
                   ï¿½ May be only technique to remove viscous oils without removing sediment or
                      using hot-water flushing
                   ï¿½  Individual products vary in their toxicity and ability to recover the treated oil


               In-Situ Burning
                   ï¿½  Can effectively remove pooled surface oil accumulations
                   ï¿½  May have to dig trenches to accumulate oil in pools
                   ï¿½  Lighter oils will not remain on the sediment surface
                   ï¿½  Concerns about air pollution, physical nature of the residue, and thermal impact
                      on biota


               Solidifiers
                   ï¿½ Early use may prevent pooled oil from penetrating deeper
                   ï¿½ Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                      into the oil
                   ï¿½ May be useful in recovering sheens when deployed as booms and pillows


               74








             Probable Adverse Habitat impact

             Low-11'ressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                 ï¿½ May be needed to flush viscous or deeply penetrated oil
                 ï¿½ Any organisms present will be adversely affected by hot water


             Mechanical Oil Remouul
                 ï¿½ Likely to remove large amounts of gravel with the oil
                 ï¿½ Foot and vehicular traffic on gravel could mix oil deeper into the sediments

             Most Adverse Habitat Impact

             I ligh-1 Iressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                 ï¿½ High-pressure water jets are likely to flush oiled sediments into nearshore
                    submerged habitats
                 ï¿½ Any organisms present will be adversely affected by hot water and high pressure


             Steam Cleaning
                 ï¿½ Highly intrusive technique; will kill any organisms present
                 ï¿½ Potential for released oil to penetrate deeper into the porous sediments

             Insufficient Information

             Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment
                 0 Need more information on available products, their effectiveness, and impact


             Natural Microbe Seeding
                    There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness in freshwater
                    habitats




















                                                                                             75









                .3.        VEGETATED SHORELINE HABITATS (ESI = 9A)

                I luNtut 1_)escription

                Vegetated shoreline habitats consist of the non-wetland vegetated banks that are
                common features of river systems and lakes. Bank slopes may be gentle or steep, and the
                vegetation consists of grasses, bushes, or trees common to the adjacent terrestrial
                habitats. The substrate is not water-saturated and can range from clay to gravel. The
                banks may flood seasonally and are exposed to relatively high-energy removal processes,
                at least periodically. Along undeveloped shorelines, there can be leafy litter and woody
                debris trapped among the vegetation. In developed areas, yards and gardens may abut
                the lake or river.




                Sensitiuity
                Vegetated shoreline habitats are considered to have medium to high sensitivity to oil
                spills. They are not particularly important habitats for sensitive animals and plants,
                although many animals use vegetated banks for drinking, washing food, crossing bodies
                of water, and feeding.

                Bank plants oiled during a flood period could be susceptible, especially if the flood
                rapidly subsides, allowing oil to penetrate into bank sediments and to contact root
                systems. Small plants, particularly annuals, are likely to be most damaged. Stranded oil
                could remain in the habitat until another flood reaches the same level and provides a
                mechanism for natural flushing. On steep banks, the oil is likely to form a band, or
                multiple bands, at the waterline. On gentle banks, there is a greater potential for oil to
                accumulate in pools, penetrate the substrate, and coat large areas of vegetation, thus
                raising the issue of shoreline cleanup. In developed urban and suburban areas, human
                use and aesthetics would be the main reasons for cleanup.













                76











                                            VEGETATED RIVERBAN K5










                                                       k4,;
                               Aa,                                                        .......... . ..
                                      IN




                                                                                                        7z: -

                                                                                              S
                                                                       Floo4  Water Level

                                                                         r m,
                                                                            at Water  Level
                                         sand,
                                        Gravel                                                        ... am
                                                                                                          ravel
                                                                                                                       ..... . ....


                                                                   sanj




                                   Flood                                                                                               Flood
                                                 .0                             Channel                                      VA @rq-
                                   Plain                                                                                               Plain




































                                                                                                                                                            77








                            Table 23. Relative environmental impact from response methods for VEGETATED SHORELINE
                                        habitats (ESI = 9A).

                                                                                                            Gasoline Diesel- Medium Heavy
                                            Response Method                                                 Products Like Oils          Oils         Oils
                                            Natural Recovery                                                     A             A           B           B
                                            Flooding                                                             B             A           A           B
                                            Low-pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                    B             A           A           B
                                            Sorbents                                                                           A           B           B
                                            Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                          D             B           B           B
                                            Debris Removal                                                                     B           B           B
                                            vacuum                                                                             B           B           B
                                            Vegetation Removal                                                   D             B           B           B
                                            Nutrient Enrichment                                                                B           B           B
                                            In-Situ Burning                                                                    B           B           B
                                            High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                   D             C           C           D
                                            Mechanical Oil Removal                                               D             C           C           C
                                            Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                     D             D           D           D
                                            High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                    D             D           D           D
                                            Sediment Reworking                                                   D             D           D           D
                                            Solidifiers                                                          -             D           D
                                            Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment                                      -             I           I           I
                                            Shoreline Cleaners                                                   -             I           I           I
                                            Natural Microbe Seeding                                              -             I           I           I


                            The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                            environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                 A =  May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                 B =  May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                 C =  May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                 D =  May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                  I = Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                    = Not applicable for this oil type.

















                      78










           RESPONSE METHODS: VEGETATED SHORELINE
           I IABITATS


           Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

           Natural Recouerg
              ï¿½ Low impact for small or moderate-size spills and lighter oils
              ï¿½ More impact for large spills of medium- or high-viscosity oils


           Floodin(I
              ï¿½ Operationally difficult and marginally effective for steep banks
              ï¿½ Appropriate for gentle banks where persistent oil has pooled, assuming that the
                released oil can be directed towards recovery devices or sorbents
              ï¿½ Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                environment
              ï¿½ Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


           Low-11'ressure, Cold-Water Flushing
              0 Effective for washing oil stranded on the banks into the water for recovery
              0 Vegetation cover minimizes the potential for sediment erosion from flushing
              0 Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                environment
              0 Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats

           Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

           Sorhcnts

              ï¿½ Useful fo r recovering sheens, even for gasoline spills
              ï¿½ Physical removal rates of medium and heavy oils will be slow, so less oil will be
                mobilized for recovery by sorbents
              ï¿½ Overuse generates excess waste


           Manual Oil ReMouuilCleaning
              0 Some mixing of oil into the substrate and trampling of vegetation is unavoidable
                with foot traffic in oiled areas
              0 Gasoline tends to quickly evaporate; therefore habitat disruption, worker safety
                concerns, and waste generated by manual cleanup are not balanced by benefits in
                removing oil




                                                                             79










               Debris Remoual
                   ï¿½ Degree of oiling that warrants debris removal and disposal depends on use by
                      humans and sensitive resources
                   ï¿½ Minimal concerns where substrate is firm or work is conducted from boats



               vacuum
                   ï¿½ Potential damage where substrate will not support vehicular traffic
                   ï¿½ Most effective where access is good and substrate can support vehicles
                   ï¿½ Only useful when oil is pooled


               Vegetation Remoual
                   ï¿½ Usually not necessary to reduce oil impact on vegetation
                   ï¿½ May be required in areas used by sensitive animals


               Nutrient Enrichment
                   ï¿½ Applicable where nutrients are a limiting factor for oil degradation
                   ï¿½ More effective after gross oil removal is completed
                   ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate


               In-.Situ Burning
                   ï¿½ May be the least physically damaging means of oil removal from the banks
                   ï¿½ Least impact for grassy areas versus banks covered with trees and shrubs

               Probable Adverse Habitat ImPaet

               High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                   ï¿½ High-pressure water spray will disturb plants and erode sediments
                   ï¿½ Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residu-al oil in the
                     environment
                   ï¿½ Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


               Mechanical Oil Remoual
                     Excessive physical disruption likely from use of equipment

               Most Adverse Habitat ImPaet

               Lou;-I-Ire-,;sure, Hot-Water Flushing
                   0 Hot water could kill plants and potentially erode and degrade habitat



               80









              I ligh-rlre-ssure, Hot-Water Flushing
                     Combination of high pressure and hot water poses high risk of sediment and
                     vegetation loss


              Sediment Reworking
                  0 Will result in extensive habitat disruption


              Solidifiers
                  ï¿½  Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                  ï¿½  Application of loose particulates may impede removal of oil mixed with, and
                     adhered to, vegetation, litter, and debris
                  ï¿½  May be useful in recovering sheens when deployed as booms and pillows
                  ï¿½  Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                     into the oil or penetrate netting or fabric encasing the loose particulates

              Insuffleient Information

              Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment
                     There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness in freshwater
                     vegetation


              Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                  ï¿½ More information needed on available products, their effectiveness, and impact
                     of use on vegetated bank habitats
                  ï¿½ Individual products vary in their toxicity and ability to recover the treated oil


              Natural Microbe Seeding
                     There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness in freshwater
                     vegetated shorelines














                                                                                                  81









                3.12 MUD HABITATS (ESI = 9B)

                H(ibitat Description

                Mud habitats are characterized by a substrate composed predominantly of silt and clay
                sediments, although they may be mixed with varying amounts of sand or gravel (see
                Appendix B for grain-size chart). The sediments are mostly water saturated and have
                low bearing strength. In general, mud shorelines have a low gradient, although some
                steep banks also may consist of mud. The mud habitats generally are low energy and
                sheltered from wave action and high currents. Adjacent nearshore areas are usually
                shallow with muddy sediments. These fine-grained habitats often are associated with
                wetlands; Section 3.13 discusses habitats where aquatic vegetation dominates. Bare or
                sparsely vegetated mud substrates are rare along Great Lake shorelines. However, they
                commonly occur along river floodplains and lake bottoms, where they can be exposed
                during seasonal low water levels.



                Sensitivitg

                Mud habitats are highly sensitive to oil spills and subsequent response activities.
                Shoreline sediments are likely to be rich in organic matter and support an abundance of
                infauna. Muddy habitats are important feeding grounds for birds and rearing areas for
                fish.

                Oil will not penetrate muddy sediments because of their low permeability and high
                water content, except through decaying root and stem holes or animal burrows. There
                can be high concentrations and pools of oil on the surface. Natural removal rates can be
                very slow, chronically exposing sensitive resources to the oil. The low bearing capacity of
                these shorelines means that response actions can easily leave long-lasting imprints,
                cause significant erosion, and mix the oil deeper into the sediments. When subsurface
                sediments are contaminated, oil will weather slowly and may persist for years. Response
                methods may be hampered by limited access, wide areas of shallow water, fringing
                vegetation, and soft substrate.










                82












                                                                    M U D





                                                 f
                                                                                   VY/















                                           .... . .......




                                                    Mud Flat       - - ----




                                                                              -77,
                                                      Mud                                                   Shallow Water


                                                    Mud Flat                                             Mud




                                                                                          1
                                      Zone of Normal Water Level Change                10 ;-.4    Sul@merged Zone         01




















                                                                                                                                    83








                            Table 24. Relative environmental impact from response methods for MUD habitats (ESI = 913).

                                                                                                             Gasoline Diesel- Medium Heavy
                                            Response Method                                                  Products Like Oils           Oils         Oils
                                            Natural Recovery                                                       A            A            A            B
                                            Flooding                                                               B            A            A            A
                                            Sorbents                                                               B            A            A            B
                                            Debris Removal                                                                      B            B            B
                                            vacuum                                                                              G            B            B
                                            In-Situ Burning                                                        C            C            C            C
                                            Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                      D            C            C            C
                                            Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                            D            D            C            C
                                            Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                       D            D            C            C
                                            Solidifiers                                                            D            D            C
                                            Mechanical Oil Removal                                                 D            D            D            D
                                            High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                     D            D            D            D
                                            High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                      D            D            D            D
                                            Sediment Reworking                                                     D            D            D            D
                                            Shoreline Cleaning Agents                                                           D            D            D
                                            Natural Microbe Seeding                                                             I            I            I
                                            Nutrient Enrichment                                                                 I            I            I
                                            Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment                                        I            I            I            I


                           The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                           environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                 A = May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                 B = May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                 C = May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                 D = May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                  I =Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                    =Not applicable for this oil type.




















                      84










              RE'SPONSE METHODS: MUD HABITATS


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Natural Recoverg
                 ï¿½ Least impact for small spills and lighter oils, to prevent disruptions associated
                     with cleanup efforts
                 ï¿½ For large spills or heavy oils, expect long-term persistence in low-energy settings


              17loo(lino

                 ï¿½ Effective only for fresh, fluid oils
                 ï¿½ Local topography may limit the ability to control where the water and released oil
                     flow and effectiveness of recovery
                 ï¿½ Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              Sorho i ks
                 ï¿½ Useful as long as the oil is mobilized and recovered by the sorbent
                 ï¿½ Overuse generates excess waste
                 ï¿½ Careful placement and recovery is necessary to minimize substrate disruption

              Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

              lwhris Vernoval
                 ï¿½ Degree of oiling that warrants debris removal and disposal depends on use by
                     sensitive resources
                 ï¿½ Extensive disruption of soft substrate likely


              Vwuutn
                 0   Not applicable to gasoline spills because of safety concerns
                 0   Use to remove oil pooled on the surface
                 0   Avoid digging trenches to collect oil because they can introduce oil deeper into
                     the sediment
                 0   Disruption of soft substrates can be limited by placing boards on the surface and
                     controlling access routes

              Probable Adverse Habitat Impaet

              In-Situ Buming
                     Heat may impact biological productivity of habitat, especially where there is no
                     standing water to act as a heat sink on top of the mud


                                                                                                85









               Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                  9   Mud is readily suspended if substrate is not firm
                  0   Not effective for higher-viscosity oils that will not move with low pressure
                  0   Local topography may limit the ability to control where the water and released oil
                      flow and effectiveness of recovery
                  0   Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


               Manual Oil RemouallCleaning
                  9 Use where persistent oil occurs in moderate to heavy amounts, or where
                      sensitive resources must be protected
                  * Response crews may trample soft substrates, mix oil deeper into the sediments,
                      and contaminate clean areas


               Low-11'ressure, Hot-Water Flushing
                      Physical and thermal impacts to habitat likely

               Most Adverse Habitat Impaet

               Solidifiers
                  ï¿½ High likelihood of disruption and mixing of oil deeper into the substrate during
                      application and retrieval
                  ï¿½ Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                      into the oil


               Mechanical Oil Rernoual

                  ï¿½ Soft substrate will not support vehicular traffic
                  ï¿½ Will probably cause extensive physical habitat disruption


               High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing and High-Pressure, Hot-Woter
               Flushing
                  0 High-pressure water will cause extensive sediment suspension and erosion
                  0 Potential for burial of oiled sediments and transport of oil to adjacent areas


               Sediment fieworking
                  ï¿½ Will extensively disrupt physical habitat
                  ï¿½ Increases oil penetration, burial, and persistence





               86









             Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                ï¿½ Current products are designed for use with high-pressure flushing; since used
                    with flushing, water pressure needs to be considered
                ï¿½ Individual products vary in their toxicity and ability to recover the treated oil

             Insufficient Information

             Natural Microbe Seeding and Nutrient Enrichment
                ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                ï¿½ There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness in mud habitats


             (:hemical Shoreline Pretreatment
                    There is insufficient information about direct toxicity of the products,
                    disturbances resulting from application and retrieval, effectiveness, and net
                    benefit









































                                                                                                 87









                3.13 WETLAND HABITATS (ESI = I OA, I OB)

                Habitat Description

                Wetlands are characterized by water, unique soils that differ from adjacent upland areas,
                and vegetation adapted to wet conditions. Wetlands include a range of habitats such as
                marshes, bogs, bottomland hardwood forests, fens, playas, prairie potholes, and swamps.
                Substrate, vegetation, hydrology, seasonality, and biological use of inland wetlands are
                highly variable, making characterization difficult. The surfaces of wetlands usually have
                a low gradient and vegetated areas are typically at or under the water level. There can be
                distinct channels or drainages with flowing water, except at the exposed outer fringe;
                however, natural physical processes are minimal. Water levels may vary seasonally, and
                the wetland may be simply a zone of water-saturated soils during the dry season. Where
                mud habitats dominate the wetland, refer to Section 3.12 for a discussion of applicable
                response methods.



                Sensitiuity

                Wetlands are highly sensitive to oil spills, The biological diversity in these habitats is
                significant and they provide critical habitat for many types of animals and plants. Oil
                spills affect both the habitat (vegetation and sediments) and the organisms that directly
                and indirectly rely on the habitat. Surprisingly little is known about oil impact on
                freshwater plants, although there are likely differences between robust perennials with
                substantial underground systems and cycles of winter die-back, and annuals that lack
                underground nutrient reserves. Detritus-based food webs are fundamentally important
                in wetlands; oil could possibly affect these by slowing decomposition rates of plant
                material.

                Wetlands support populations of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, with
                many species reliant upon wetlands for their reproduction and early life stages when
                they are most sensitive to oil. Many endangered animals and plants occur only in
                wetlands, and spills in such areas would be of particular conservation concern.
                Migratory waterbirds depend heavily on wetlands as summer breeding locations,
                migration stopovers, and winter habitats. The threat of direct oiling of animals using the
                wetland often drives efforts to remove the oil. If oil and/or cleanup efforts causes a loss
                of the more sensitive plants or modifies the ecosystem structure, then feeding and
                breeding of dependent wildlife may be affected.



                88











                                                                        W E T L A N P 5



                                                                                                                    swamp




                                                                                             0


                                               Marsh
                                            RI                     s
                                   iq
                                                        3


                                                                                                  Flood Water Level


                                                                                                              or Level
                                                                                                 Normal Wat
                                                                                                                                           11      J >,-
                                        A

                                                       0                                                                                 Organic.
                                            I            r03nIc
                                                                    .. ... ......
                                                                                                                                      Muddy5and
                                                     MU










                                 Water-
                                 logged
                                                             Submerged                                Open Channel            io :--*Submerged -.P-

























                                                                                                                                                                    89









                             Table 25. Relative environmental impact from response methods for WETLAND habitats (ESI                                       10A,
                                           1 OB).
                                                                                                               Gasoline Diesel- Medium Heavy
                                              Response Method                                                 Products Like Oils           Oils          Oils
                                              Natural Recovery                                                      A           A            A             B'
                                              Sorbents                                                              C           A            A             A
                                              flooding                                                              B           A            A             B
                                              Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                     B           A            A             B
                                            An.situBurning                                                          B           B            B             B
                                              Vacuum                                                                            B            B             B
                                              Debris Removal                                                                    B            B             B
                                              Vegetation Removal                                                    D           C            C             C
                                              Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                                           D           D            C             C
                                              High+ressure, Cold-Water Flushing                                     D           D            D             D
                                              Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                      D           D            D             D
                                              High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing                                     D           D            D             D
                                              Mechanical Oil Removal                                                D           D            D             D
                                              Sediment Reworking                                                    b           D            D             D
                                              Solidifiers                                                           D           D            D
                                              Shoreline Cleaning Agents
                                              Nutrient Enrichment
                                              Natural Microbe Seeding
                                              Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment


                             The following categories are used to compare the relative environmental impact of each response method for the specific
                             environment or habitat for each oil type, using the following definitions:
                                  A =  May cause the least adverse habitat impact.
                                  B =  May cause some adverse habitat impact.
                                  C =  May cause significant adverse habitat impact.
                                  D =  May cause the most adverse habitat impact.
                                   I = Insufficient Information - impact or effectiveness of the method could not be evaluated at this time.
                                     = Not applicable for this oil type.

















                       90










              I-IES13ONSE METHODS: WETLAND HABITATS


              Least Adverse Habitat Impaet

              Natural wwovery
                 ï¿½ Least impact for small to moderate spills and lighter oils; avoids damage often
                    associated with cleanup activities
                 ï¿½ Some cleanup may be warranted where large numbers of animals are likely to
                    become oiled during wetland use


              Sorl)ents
                 ï¿½ Care is necessary during placement and recovery to minimize disturbance of
                    substrate and vegetation
                 ï¿½ Overuse generates excess waste



                 ï¿½  Erosion of substrate and vegetation may be a problem
                 ï¿½  Can be used selectively to remove localized heavy oiling
                 ï¿½  Can be difficult to direct water and oil flow towards recovery devices
                 ï¿½  Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                    environment
                 ï¿½  Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats


              I-ow-1-Yessure, Cold-Woter Flushin. g
                 ï¿½ If water pressures are too high, the substrate and vegetation may be disturbed
                 ï¿½ Use on heavy oils is likely to leave large amounts of residual oil in the
                    environment
                 ï¿½ Use on gasoline spills may transport the oil to more sensitive habitats

              Some Adverse Habitat Impaet

              lr)-,Situ Buming
                 0 May be one of the  least physically damaging means of heavy oil removal
                 0 Presence of a water layer on marsh surface can protect roots
                 0 Time of year (vegetation growth stage) is important consideration
                 0 May be appropriate for gasoline spills trapped in ice


              Wwuurn

                 0 Can be effective in removal of pooled oil from the marsh surface



                                                                                               91









                     Trampling of vegetation and substrate can be limited by placing boards on the
                     surface and limiting traffic


              1)(,I)ris I?ernoual
                     The removal of heavily oiled and mobile debris may reduce the tracking of oil
                     off-site and contamination of wildlife


              Probable Adverse Habitat Impaet

              vegetation ReMoual
                  ï¿½  Used to prevent oiling of sensitive animals using the wetland
                  ï¿½  Most appropriate for oils that form a thick, sticky coating on the vegetation, such
                     as medium and heavy oils
                  ï¿½  May delay recovery of the vegetation due to both oil impact and physical
                     destruction by cleanup crews
                  ï¿½  Trampling of vegetation may be reduced by controlling access routes, using
                     boards placed on surface, or conducting operations from boats


              Manual Oil RemouallCleaning
                  ï¿½ Used where persistent oil occurs in heavy amounts and where sensitive
                     resources using the wetlands are likely to be oiled
                  ï¿½ Response crews may trample roots and mix oil deeper into the sediments

              Most Adverse Habitat Impaet

              High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                     High-pressure spray will disrupt sediments, root systems, and animals


              Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing and High-Pressure, Hot-Water
              Flushit)(I
                     Hot water will likely kill the vegetation


              Mechanical Oil Rernoual
                  ï¿½  Using vehicles in soft substrate will probably cause extensive physical disruption
                  ï¿½  Can completely alter the marsh substrate, hydrology, and vegetation patterns for
                     many years
                  ï¿½  Use in heavily oiled wetlands when all other techniques have failed and there is
                     an overriding reason for oil removal




              92









              Sedir-nent Reworking
                  0 No benefit from mixing oil deeper into fine-grained and organic soils


              Solidifiers
                  ï¿½  Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                  ï¿½  Use likely to increase adherence to vegetation and slow weathering/ removal
                     rates of residual oil
                  ï¿½  Not effective on heavy oils, which are too viscous to allow the product to mix
                     into the oil


              Insuffleient Information

              Sliorchne Cleaning Agents
                  0 More information needed on available products, their effectiveness, and impact
                     of use on vegetated bank habitats
                  * Individual products vary in their toxicity and recoverability of the treated oil


              Nutrient Enrichment and Natural Microbe Seeding
                  ï¿½ Not applicable to gasoline spills because they rapidly evaporate
                  ï¿½ Concerns include eutrophication and acute toxicity, particularly from ammonia,
                     because of shallow waters and low mixing rates
                  ï¿½ There is insufficient information on impact and effectiveness in wetlands


              clietnical Shoreline Pretreatment
                     There is insufficient information about product toxicity, disturbances resulting
                     from application and retrieval, effectiveness, and net benefit


















                                                                                                   93










                4.0 SPILL RESPONSE METHODS

                This section describes methods previously categorized for use during response to oil
                spills in inland environments and habitats. The methods are used in the protection,
                recovery, and cleanup phases of a response. The main objective of protection is to keep
                oil out of a habitat or to reduce the amount that enters. Recovery consists of removing
                floating oil from the water surface. The cleanup phase consists of removing stranded oil
                from shoreline habitats via physical, chemical, and enhanced biological means. In most
                spill response situations, protection and oil recovery are the immediate goals.
                Combinations of protection, recovery, and cleanup methods are commonly used though
                these guidelines treat each method separately.

                The following section includes a summary of the objective in using the method, a
                general description of the method, applicable habitat types, conditions under which the
                methods should be used, biological constraints commonly applied to the use of the
                method to protect sensitive resources, and the environmental effects expected from the
                proper use of the method. Some of the methods listed require special authorization for
                use during a spill; the appropriate agency must be contacted about the need for special
                approvals. We encourage you to refer to the references listed in Appendix A for further
                information.



                I 'hysh:aJ Response Methods

                     1  Natural Recovery                           11  Sediment Reworking

                     2  Booming                                    12  Vegetation Removal
                     3  Skimming                                   13  In-Situ Burning

                     4  Barrier/Berm                               14  Flooding

                     5  Physical Herding                           15  Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                     6  Manual Oil Removal/Cleaning                16  High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing
                     7  Mechanical Oil Removal                     17  Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing

                     8  Sorbents                                   18  High-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing

                     9  Vacuum                                     19  Steam Cleaning

                     10 Debris Removal                             2D  Sand Blasting




                                                                                                                95










               Chemical Response Methods

                  21 Dispersants;                         25 Solidifiers

                  22 Emulsion Treating Agents             26 Chemical Shoreline Pretreatment

                  23 Visco-Elastic Agents                 27 Shoreline Cleaning Agents

                  24 Herding Agents



               Biological Response Methods

                  28 Nutrient Enrichment

                  29 Natural Microbial Seeding


               .1. Natural Reeovery

               objective

               No attempt to remove any stranded oil in order to minimize impact to the
               environment, or because there is no proven effective method for cleanup.

               Description

               No action is taken, although monitoring of the incident continues.

               Applicable Habitat Types

               Can be used on all habitat types.

               When to Use

               On remote or inaccessible habitats, when natural removal rates are very fast (e.g., the
               evaporation of gasoline), when the degree of oiling is light, or when cleanup actions will
               do more harm than natural removal.

               Biological Constraints

               This method may be inappropriate for areas where high numbers of mobile animals
               (birds, terrestrial mammals) or endangered species use the body of water or shoreline.

               Environrnentol Effects

               Same as from the oil alone.





               96









              2. Booming

              ()I)j(-(:ti[)e

              To control the movement of floating oil by containment, diversion, deflection, or
              exclusion.

              l)(,Scrij)tjori

              Placement of a device (boom) on the water that forms a barrier to floating oil.
              Containment is deploying a boom to hold the oil until it can be removed. Deflection is
              moving oil away from sensitive areas. Diversion is moving oil toward recovery sites
              that have slower flow, better access, etc. Exclusion is placing boom to prevent oil from
              reaching sensitive areas. The ultimate goal is to recover the oil.

              Ap[Aicable I lubitat -I'gpes

              Can be used on all water environments. Booms begin to fail by entrainment when the
              effective current or towing speed exceeds 0.7 knots perpendicular to the boom.

              WIwn to Use

              Nearly all types of response to spills on water involve deploying boom to assist in the
              recovery of floating oil. Booms must be properly deployed and maintained, including
              removing accumulated debris. Containment booming of gasoline spills is usually not
              attempted, because of both fire and inhalation hazards to responders. However, when
              public health is at risk, booming of gasoline can be attempted with use of foam and
              extreme safety procedures. Deflection or exclusion booming of sensitive areas to prevent
              exposure to oil, including gasoline, can be an important protection action.

              Biolo(jicol Cor)straints

              Placement and maintenance of anchoring points should not cause excessive physical
              disruption. Boom must be maintained so that it does not trap oil improperly and cause
              more damage. Traffic to/from boom sites should not disturb wildlife.

              1--'nuirorim(,ntol Eff('Os

              Minimal if surface disturbance by cleanup work force traffic is controlled.









                                                                                                       97








                I Skimming

                Objectiue

                To recover floating oil from the water surface.

                Description

                Mechanized equipment is placed at the oil/water interface. There are five different types
                of skimmers: weir, suction, centrifugal, submersion, and oleophilic. They may operate
                independently from shore, be mounted on vessels, or be completely self-propelled. All
                require collection and concentration of floating oil at the skimmer, usually using booms.
                Large amounts of water are often collected and must be handled. Adequate storage of
                recovered oil/water mixture must be available.

                Apr-)Ijcable Habitat Types

                Can be used on all water environments. Waves, currents, and debris reduce skimmer

                efficiencies.


                Wt)en to Use

                When sufficient amounts of floating oil can be contained. Skimming of gasoline spills is
                usually not feasible, because of both fire and inhalation hazards to responders. However,
                when public health is at risk, skimming of gasoline can be attempted using foam and
                extreme safety procedures.

                Biological Constraints

                Traffic to/from skimming sites should not disturb wildlife.

                Enuironmental Effects

                Minimal if surface disturbance by cleanup work force traffic is controlled.



                4. BarrierslBerms



                To prevent entry of oil into a sensitive area or to divert oil to a collection area.

                Descrij-)tion

                A physical barrier is placed across an area to prevent moving oil from passing. Barriers
                can consist of earthen berms, filter fences, air bubble barriers, or trenches. When it is




                98









              necessary for water to pass, because of water volume or downstream needs, underflow
              dams (for low flow rates) or overflow dams are used.

              Applicable 11abitat -1-ypes

              In streams and dry valleys, where the width and depth of the area to be closed off are
              relatively small. Also, at the mouths of small creeks along lake shorelines, to prevent oil
              from being blown upstream.

              When to Use

              When the flow of oil threatens sensitive habitats. If the barrier does not fail, it is the
              most effective strategy to exclude oil from an area.

              Biological Constraints

              Place barriers away from sensitive areas, such as spawning sites. Downstream water
              requirements should be monitored to prevent dewatering of sensitive areas.

              Enuironmentol Ef
                                  ,fects

              May disrupt or contaminate sediments along banks or in channel. Dewatering or poor
              water quality downstream may affect aquatic organisms.


              5. Physieal Herding

              01)jective

              To free oil trapped in debris or vegetation on water; to direct the movement of floating
              oil towards containment and recovery devices; or to push oil away from sensitive areas.

              I)escription

              Water or air streams and propeller wash generate a current to dislodge trapped oil and
              herd the released oil to containment and recovery area. May mix oil with water to form
              emulsified oil.

              Aj)j)1jca1)1e I-labitot 'Fypes

              In lakes and ponds where there are little or no currents, along rivers and streams where
              the channel or banks are accessible, and in and around manmade structures such as
              wharves and piers.






                                                                                                  99











             When to Use

             In low-current or stagnant waterbodies, to herd oil in booms towards recovery devices.
             Along rivers and streams, when mobile. oil has penetrated vegetated banks or
             accumulated in log jams or other debris, water spray and prop wash can mobilize the oil
             to flow downstream to collection points.

             Biological Constraints

             None.

             Enuironmental Effects

             May generate high levels of suspended sediments and mix them with the oil, resulting
             in deposition of contaminated sediments in benthic habitats.


             6. Manual 00 RemovaLlCleaning

             Objectiue

             To remove surface oil with hand tools and manual labor.

             Description

             Removal of surface oil by manual means (hands, rakes, shovels, buckets, rags, sorbent
             pads, etc.) and placing in containers. No mechanized equipment is used.

             Applicable Habitat Tgpes

             Can be used on all habitat types.

             When to Use

             Light to moderate oiling conditions for stranded oil, or heavy oils on water that have
             formed semi-solid to solid masses that can be picked up manually.

             Biological Constraints

             Foot traffic over sensitive areas (wetlands, floating vegetation, etc.) needs to be restricted
             or prevented. There may be periods when access should be avoided, such as during bird
             nesting.

             Environmental Effects

             Minimal if surface disturbance by crew movement and waste generation is controlled.




             100










               7. Neebanical oil Removal

               objeoiw,

               Removal of oil from water surface, bottom sediments, and shorelines with heavy
               equipment.

               I)escril)fion

               Oil and oiled sediments are collected and removed using backhoes, dredges, graders,
               bulldozers, draglines, etc. On land, the oiled material is pushed into piles and
               transported offsite for treatment/disposal. On water, the equipment is operated from
               shore or barges to recover large amounts of heavy or solidified oil.

               Ar)I)Iicable Habitat 'I-ypes

               On land, possible wherever there are surface sediments accessible to heavy equipment.
               On water, used in lakes, rivers, etc., where oil accumulates.

               When to Use

               When large amounts of oiled materials have to be collected and removed. Along
               shorelines, care should be taken to remove sediments only to the depth of oil
               penetration, which can be difficult with heavy equipment. Should be used carefully
               where excessive sediment removal may erode the beach. Will need special permission
               to use in areas with known cultural resources.

               13iologicul Constraints

               Heavy equipment may be restricted in sensitive habitats (e.g., wetlands, soft substrate) or
               areas containing endangered plants and animals.

               Enuironmental Ef
                                   fiects

               The equipment is heavy, with many support personnel required. May be detrimental if
               excessive sediments are removed without replacement. All organisms in the sediments
               will be affected, although the need to remove the oil may make this response method
               the best overall alternative. Runoff from exposed oil and fine-grained oily sediments
               can affect adjacent bodies of water.









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                8. Sorbents

                01)jective

                To remove floating oil by adsorption onto oleophilic material placed in water or at the
                waterline.


                Description

                Sorbent material is placed on the water surface, allowing it to absorb oil as it is released
                by natural processes. Forms include sausage boom, rolls, sweeps, pads, and snares.
                Efficacy depends on the capacity of the particular sorbent, energy available for liffing oil
                off the substrate, and stickiness of the oil. Recovery of all sorbent material is mandatory.

                Applicable Habitat 'I-ypes

                Can be used on any habitat or environment type.

                When to Use

                When the stranded oil is mobile and transport of oil is expected on or off the site. The
                oil must be viscous and thick enough to be released by the substrate and absorbed by the
                sorbent. Often used as a secondary treatment method after gross oil removal and in
                sensitive areas where access is restricted.

                Biological Constraints

                Access for deploying and retrieving sorbents should not affect soft or sensitive habitats
                or wildlife. Sorbent use should be monitored to prevent overuse and generating large
                volumes of waste.

                Enuirorimcntal Effects

                Physical disturbance of habitat during deployment and retrieval. When the sorbents are
                no longer effective, oil may remain in critical habitats during sensitive periods.



                9. Vaenum

                objectjue

                To remove free oil pooled on the substrate or from the water in sheltered areas.

                Description

                A vacuum unit with a suction head recovers free oil. The equipment can range from
                small, portable units that fill individual 55-gallon drums to large supersuckers that are


                102









               truck-mounted and can lift large rocks. Can be used with booms and flushing systems to
               move the oil toward the suction head. Removal rates from substrates can be extremely
               slow.

               Applicable Habitat 1-gpes

               Any accessible habitat type. May be mounted on barges for water-based operations, on
               trucks backed to the recovery area, or hand-carried to remote sites.

               when to Use

               When free, liquid o11 is stranded on the substrate (usually in depressions), trapped in
               vegetation and is readily accessible, or concentrated on the water surface. Often used
               instead of skimmers for floating oil recovery. Usually requires shoreline access points.
               Used in recovery of gasoline spills only with special precautions such as: applying foam
               to suppress vapors, testing for flammable vapor, locating the vacuum truck a safe
               distance from spill, and venting the pump discharge safely.

               Biological Constraints

               Special restrictions should be identified for areas where foot traffic and equipment
               operation should be limited, such as soft substrates. Operations in wetlands need to be
               very closely monitored, with a site-specific list of restrictions.

               IL"nuironmental Effects

               Minimal if foot and vehicular traffic is controlled and minimal substrate is removed.



               10. Debris Renmal

               objectiue

               To remove contaminated debris from the shoreline or water surface.

               I)escription

               Manual or mechanical removal of debris from the shore or water surface. Can include
               cutting up and removal of oiled logs.

               Applicable Habitat 'Fypes

               Can be used on any habitat or environment type where safe access is allowed.

               Mien to U,,;e





                                                                                                       103









                When driftwood and debris are heavily contaminated and provide a potential source of
                chronic oil release, an aesthetic problem, a source of contamination for other organisms
                in the area, or skimmer clogging problems.

                Biological Constraints

                Disturbance to adjacent areas should be minimized. Foot traffic over sensitive areas
                (wetlands, spawning grounds) needs to be restricted. May be periods when access should
                be restricted (spawning periods, large numbers of migratory waterbirds).

                Enuironmental Effects

                Physical disruption of substrate, especially when equipment must be deployed to recover
                a large quantity of debris.


                11. Sediment Reworking

                objectiue

                To rework oiled sediments to break up the oil deposits, increase its surface area, and mix
                deep subsurface oil layers, which will expose the oil to natural removai processes and
                enhance the rate of oil degradation.

                I-)escription

                The oiled sediments are roto-tilled, dis.ked, or otherwise mechanically mixed using
                heavy equipment. Along lake shores, oiled sediments may also be pushed lower on the
                shore to enhance natural cleanup from reworking by wave activity. The process may be
                aided with high-volume flushing of grdvel.

                Applicable Habitat Tgpes

                On any sedimentary substrate that can support heavy equipment.

                Wlien to Use

                On sand to gravel beaches with subsurface oil, where sediment removal is not feasible
                (due to erosion concerns or disposal problems). Also where surface oil deposits have
                started to form pavements or crusts. Appropriate for sites where the oil is stranded
                above the normal water level.









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           13iolo(fical Constrairits

           Avoid use on shores near water intakes, fish-spawning areas, or near bird-nesting or
           concentration areas because of the potential for release of oil and oiled sediments into
           adjacent bodies of water.



           Enuironmental Effects

           Due to the mixing of oil into sediments, this method could further expose organisms
           that live below the original layer of oil. Repeated mixing over time could delay re-
           establishing organisms. Runoff from treated sites could contaminate downslope areas.


           12. Vegetation Rval

           01)jectiue

           To cut and remove oiled vegetation to prevent oiling of wildlife or chronic oil releases.

           Description

           Manual cutting of oiled rooted vegetation using weed eaters. Cut vegetation is raked up.
           Floating vegetation is removed either manually or mechanically.

           Applicable Hobitot Types

           Wetlands composed of emergent, herbaceous vegetation and floating aquatic vegetation.

           When to Use

           When the risk of oiled vegetation contaminating wildlife is greater than the value of
           the vegetation that is to be cut, and there is no less destructive method that removes or
           reduces the risk to acceptable levels.

           Biological Constraints

           Operations must be strictly monitored to minimize the degree of root destruction and
           mixing of oil deeper into the sediments. Access in bird-nesting areas should be restricted
           during nesting seasons.

           Enuirorimental Effects

           Vegetation removal will destroy habitat for many animals. Cut areas will have reduced
           plant growth. Along exposed sections of shoreline, the vegetation may not regrow,
           eroding and destroying the habitat. Trampled areas will recover much more slowly.


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                 13. In-Situ Burning

                 objectiue

                 To remove oil from the water surface or habitat by burning.

                 Description

                 Oil floating on the water surface is collected into slicks at least 2-3 millimeters thick and
                 ignited. The oil can be contained in fire resistant booms, or by natural barriers such as ice
                 or the shore. On land, oil in the habitat is burned, usually when it is on a combustible
                 substrate such as vegetation, logs, and other debris. Oil can be burned off non-flarnmable
                 substrates using a bum promoter. On sedimentary substrates, it may be necessary to dig.
                 trenches for oil to accumulate in pools thick enough to bum efficiently. Heavy and
                 emulsified oils are harder to ignite and sustain an efficient bum, but are still burnable.

                 Applicable Habitat Tgpes

                 On any habitat type except dry muddy substrates where heat may impact the biological
                 productivity of the habitat.

                 When to Use

                 On floating slicks, early in the spill event when the oil can kept thick enough (2-3
                 millimeters). On land, where there is heavy oil in sites not amenable or accessible to
                 physical removal and it is important to immobilize the stranded oil quickly. In wetlands
                 and mud habitats, a water layer minimizes impacts to sediments and roots. Many
                 potential applications for spills in ice.

                 Biologicai Constraints

                 Large volumes of smoke are generated, and its effect on nesting birds and populated
                 areas should be evaluated.

                 Enuironmental Effects

                 Temperature and air quality effects are likely to be localized and short-lived.
                 Toxicological impact from burn residues have not been evaluated. There are few studies
                 on the relative effects of burning oiled wetlands compared to other techniques or
                 natural recovery, but the limited data indicate little impact of burning relative to natural
                 recovery when the soils are saturated.






                 106










              14. Flooding

              Objective

              To wash oil stranded on the land surface to the water's edge for collection.

              Description

              A perforated header pipe or hose is placed above the oiled shore or bank. Ambient water
              is pumped through the header pipe at low pressures and flows downslope to the water.
              On porous sediments, water flows through the substrate, pushing loose oil ahead of it
              (or floats oil to the water's surface) then transports the oil down the slope for pickup.
              Flow is maintained to remove the majority of free oil. Oil is trapped by booms and is
              recovered by skimmers or other suitable equipment.

              Applicable Habitat Types

              All habitat types.

              When to USe

              In heavily oiled areas when the oil is still fluid and loosely adheres to the substrate, and
              where oil has penetrated into gravel sediments. This method is frequently used with
              other washing techniques (low- or high-pressure, cold water).

              Biological Constraints

              Not appropriate where nearshore sediments contain rich biological communities.

            Environmental Effects

              Habitat may be physically disturbed by foot traffic during operations and smothered by
              sediments washed down the slope. Oiled sediment may be transported to shallow
              nearshore areas, contaminating them and burying benthic organisms.



              15. Low-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing

            Objective

              To remove liquid oil that has adhered to the substrate or manmade structures, pooled
              on the surface, or become trapped in vegetation.
           Description

           107






                                                                                                      107









                Ambient water is sprayed at low pressures (<50 psi), usually from hand-held hoses, to
                lift oil from the substrate and direct it to the water's edge for pickup. Can be used with a
                flooding system to prevent released oil from re-adhering to the substrate.

                Applicable Habitat Tgpes
                On heavily oiled substrates, riprap, and seawalls where the oil is still liquid. In wetlands
                and along vegetated banks where free oil is trapped in vegetation.

                When to Use

                Where free, liquid oil is stranded onshore or floating in very shallow areas.

                13iological Constraints

                Not appropriate where nearshore sediments contain rich biological communities. May
                need to restrict use so that the oil/water effluent does not drain across sensitive habitats.
                Use from boats will prevent foot traffic in soft substrates and vegetation. Released oil
                must be recovered to prevent further oiling of adjacent areas.

                Enuironmental Effects

                If containment methods are not sufficient, contamination may be flushed into
                downstream areas. Some trampling of substrate and vegetation is unavoidable.


                16. High-Pressure, Cold-Water Flushing

                Objectiue

                To remove oil that has adhered to hard substrates or manmade structures.

                Description

                Similar to low-pressure flushing except that water pressure is 100-1,000 psi. High-
                pressure spray will more effectively remove sticky or viscous oils. If water volumes are
                low, sorbents are placed directly below the treatment area to recover oil.

                Applicable Habitat Tgpes

                Bedrock, manmade structures, and gravel habitats.

                When tc) Use

                When low-pressure flushing is not effective at removing adhered oil, which must be
                removed to prevent continued oil release or for aesthetic reasons. When a directed
                water jet can remove oil from hard-to-reach sites.


                108











              Biological Constraints

               May need to restrict flushing so that the oil/water effluent does not drain across
               sensitive habitats. Released oil must be recovered to prevent further oiling of adjacent

               areas.


               Environmental Effects

               May drive oil deeper into the substrate if water jet is improperly applied. If containment
               methods are not sufficient, contamination may be flushed into downstream areas. Some
               trampling of substrate and vegetation is unavoidable.


               17. Low-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing

                 Objective

               To remove non-liquid oil that has adhered to the substrate or manmade structures, or
               pooled on the surface.

             Description

               Hot water (90'F up to 170'F) is sprayed with hoses at low pressures (<50 psi) to liquefy
               and lift oil from the substrate and direct it to the water's edge for pickup. Used with
               flooding to prevent released oil from re-adhering to the substrate.

               Applicable Habitat Types

               On heavily oiled bedrock, sand to gravel substrates, and manmade structures.

               When to Use

               Where heavy, but relatively fresh oil is stranded onshore. The strategy is to heat the oil
               to above its pour point, so it will flow. Less effective on sticky oils.

               Biological Constraints

               Avoid wetlands or nearshore sediments with rich biological communities. Use should
               be restricted so that the hot oil/water effluent does not contact sensitive habitats. Boat
               use will prevent foot traffic in soft substrates and vegetation. Released oil must be
               recovered to prevent further oiling of adjacent areas.







                                                                                                      109
                   109








               Environmental Effects

               Hot water'can kill all organisms in direct contact. If containment methods are not
               sufficient, contamination may be flushed into downstream areas. Some trampling of
               substrate and vegetation is unavoidable during the response.


               I& Higb-Pressure, Hot-Water Flushing

               objectiue

               To mobilize weathered and viscous oil adhered to surfaces.

               Description

               Hot water (90'F up to 170'F) is sprayed with hand wands at pressures greater than 100
               psi. Used without water flooding, this procedure requires immediate use of vacuum or
               sorbents to recover the oil/water runoff. When used with a flooding system, the oil is
               flushed to the water surface for collection by skimmers or sorbents.

               Applicable Habitat Types

               Gravel habitats, bedrock, and manmade structures.

               When to Use

               When oil has weathered to the point that even warm water at low pressure no longer
               effectively removes oil, to prevent continued release of oil. To remove viscous oil from
               manmade structures for aesthetic reasons.

               Biological Constraints

               Use should be restricted so that the oil/water effluent does not drain across sensitive
               habitats (damage can result from exposure to oil, oiled sediments, and hot water).
               Released oil must be recovered to prevent further oiling of adjacent areas.

               Enuironrnental Effects

               All attached organisms and plants in the direct spray zone will be removed or killed,
               even when used properly. Oiled sediment may be transported to shallow nearshore
               areas, contaminating them and burying benthic organisms.







               110









              19. Steam Cleaning

              Objective

              To remove heavy residual oil from solid substrates.

              Description

              Steam or very hot water (170 F to 212 F) is sprayed with hand wands at high pressure.
              Water volumes are very low compared to flushing methods.

              Applicable Habitat Types

              Manmade structures such as seawalls and riprap.

              When to Use

              When heavy oil residue remaining on a shoreline needs to be cleaned for aesthetic
              reasons, and when hot-water wash is not effective.

             Biological Constraints

              Not to be used in areas of soft substrate, vegetation, or high biological abundance directly
              on or below the structure.

              Environmental Effects

              Complete destruction of all organisms in the spray zone. Difficult to recover all released
              oil.



              20. Sand Blasting

              Objective

              To remove heavy residual oil from solid substrates.

              Description

              Use of sandblasting equipment to remove oil from the substrate. May include recovery
              of used (oiled) sand in some cases.

             Applicable Habitat Types

              Manmade structures such as seawalls and riprap.
  

         111










                When to Use

                When heavy oil residue is remaining on the shoreline, which needs to be cleaned for
                aesthetic reasons, and even steam cleaning is not effective.

                Biological Constraints

                Not to be used in areas of soft substrate, vegetation, or high biological abundance directly
                below or adjacent to the structures.

                Enuironmental Effects

                Complete destruction of all organisms in the blast zone. Possible smothering of
                downstream organisms with sand. When the used sand is not recovered, introduces
                oiled sediments into the adjacent habitat.



                21. Dispersants

                Objectiue

                To remove floating oil from the water surface and disperse it into the water column, to
                reduce impact to sensitive shoreline habitats and animals that use the water surface.

                Description

                Specially formulated products containing surface-active agents are sprayed at
                concentrations of about 5 percent by volume of the oil onto. the slicks by aircraft or from
                boats. The products can be applied undiluted or mixed with water. The dispersants;
                reduce the oil/water surficial tension and decrease the energy needed for the slick to
                break into small particles and mix into the water column. Some turbulence is needed to
                mix the dispersant into the oil and to mix the treated oil into the water.

                Applicable Habitat Tgpes

                Open water and large rivers with sufficient depth and volume for mixing and dilution.

                When to Use

                When the impact of the floating oil has been determined to be greater than the impact of
                mixing of oil into the water column.

                Biological Constraints

                Use in shallow water could affect benthic resources. The potential impact of dispersed oil
                on water intakes should be thoroughly considered prior to use.


                112











             Environmental Effects

              May increase effects on water-column organisms, particularly plankton and larval fish.
              Dispersion will only be partially effective, so some water surface impact will still Occur.


              22. Emulsion-Treating Agents

              Objective

              To break or destabilize emulsified oil into separate oil and water phases. Can also be
              used to prevent emulsion formation.

              Description

              Emulsion-treating agents are surfactants that are applied to emulsified oil at low
              concentrations (0.1-2 percent). They can be injected into skimmer reservoirs to break the
              emulsion to separate excess water from recovered oil. They also can be sprayed (similar
              to dispersants) directly onto slicks to break or prevent emulsions.

              Applicable Habitat Types

              On all water environments where emulsified oil is present.

          When to Use

              For recovered oil, where storage capacities are very limited, to separate the oil and water
              so that the water can be treated and discharged. On floating slicks, where emulsified oil
              can reduce skimmer efficiency.

             Biological Constraints

              There is insufficient information to evaluate at this time.

            Environmental Effects

              Because this is a new application approach, there are very few data available to evaluate
              environmental effects. Effective dosages are one to two orders of magnitude lower than
              dispersants. Environmental concerns regarding application to slicks are: how treatment
              might adversely change the physical or chemical properties of the oil; whether the oil
              will be more readily dispersed; and how the treated oil will behave upon contact with
              birds, mammals, and shorelines.







                                                                                                    113
              113







                 23. Viseo-Elastie Agents

                 objectiue

                 To impart visco-elastic properties to floating oil and increase skimming rates.

                 Description

                 Chemical agent is applied as a liquid spray or a slurry onto the oil in the proper dosage.
                 Some mixing is required and is usually provided by the water spray during application.
                 Treated oil is rendered visco-elastic, but still fluid, gelatinous, or semi-solid; there is no
                 chemical change in the oil. The primary purpose is to increase the efficiency in skimmer
                 removal rates while minimizing amount of water. Increases the recovery by drum
                 skimmers, but can clog weir-type skimmers.

                 Applicable Habitat Tgpes

                 On all water environments where oil can be contained for recovery with skimmers. Not
                 for use near wetlands or debris because of an increase in adhesive behavior of the treated

                 oil.


                 Wheri to Use

                 When recovery efficiency of skimmers needs to be increased. Must be used with
                 booming or other physical containment. Not for use on heavy oils, which are already
                 highly viscous.

                 Biological Constraints

                 Not suitable for vegetated shores or where there is extensive debris mixed in the oil.
                 Should be avoided when birds or other wildlife that may be more adversely affected by
                 the treated oil cannot be kept away from the treated oil.

                 Enuironmental Ef
                                        fects

                 May enhance the smothering effect of oil on organisms. Therefore, the treatment should
                 be considered only where recovery of the treated oil is likely.











                 114









               24. Herding Agents



               To collect or herd oil into a smaller area and thicker slick in order to increase recovery.
               Also can be used to herd oil away from sensitive areas or used inside containment
               booms when it is necessary to move the boom.

               1)e.Scrjr)tion

               Chemical agents, which are insoluble surfactants and have a high spreading pressure,
               are applied in small quantities (1-2 gallons per lineal mile) to the clean water
               surrounding the edge of a fresh oil slick. They contain the oil, prevent spreading, but do
               not hold the spill in place. Hand-held, vessel-mounted, or aircraft systems can be used.
               Must be applied early in spill, when oil is still fluid.

               AI)I)hcalk, I luNtat 'I'gjx@,;

               On all stillwater environments.


               Wiwi) to [Is(,

               Potential use for collection and protection. For collection, used to push slicks out from
               under docks and piers where it has become trapped, or in harbors, where the equipment
               is readily accessible for use early in the spill. For protection in low-current areas, use to
               push slicks away from sensitive resources such as wetlands. Not effective in fast
               currents, rough seas, or rainfall.

               Hiolo(fical (:otistrair)ts

               Not suitable for use in very shallow water or fish-spawning areas.

               I"twiromm,Wal Efftwts

               Direct acute toxicity to surface layer organisms possible, though available products vary
               greatly in their aquatic toxicity.



               25. SolidUlers



               To change the physical state of spilled oil from a liquid to a solid to reduce impact of oil
               to shorelines.






                                                                                                      115









               Description

               Chemical agents (polymers) are applied to oil at rates of 10-45 percent, solidifying the oil
               in minutes to hours. Various broadcast systems, such as leaf blowers, water cannons, or
               fire suppression sys tems, can be modified to apply the product over large areas. Can be
               applied to both floating and stranded oil.

               Applicable Habitat Types

               All water environments, bedrock, sediments, and martmade structures.

               When to Use

               When immobilization of the oil is desired, to prevent refloating from a shoreline,
               penetration into the substrate, or further spreading. However, the oil may not fully
               solidify unless the product is well mixed with the oil, and may result in a mix of solid
               and untreated oil. Generally not used on spills of heavy oil because the product cannot
               be readily mixed into viscous oils.

               Biological Constraints

               Must be able to recover all treated material.

               Environmental Effects

               Available products are insoluble and have very low aquatic toxicity. Unrecovered
               solidified oil may have longer impact because of slow weathering rates. Physical
               disturbance is likely during application and recovery.



               26. Cbemieal Sboreline Pretreatment

               Objectiue

               To prevent oil from adhering to or penetrating the substrate.

               Description

               Various types of film-forming agents or wetting agents are applied to habitats in advance
               of the oil to prevent oil adhesion and penetration. Application must occur just prior to
               stranding of the oil so tin-dng is critical. It should be noted that there are no products
               now being sold as shoreline pretreatment agents.

               Applicable Habitat Types

               Bedrock, sand and gravel habitats, and manmade structures.


               116











              Mier] to U'se

              When oil is projected to impact an applicable shoreline, particularly those that have
              high recreational or aesthetic value. However, lack of information on the availability,
              effects, and effectiveness of products greatly limits their use.

              13iolo(lical Cons train t,,3

              Unknown at this time but there are likely to be constraints based on product toxicity and
              persistence.

              [,-  -         tal Ef
                ,nuironryien        fects

              Unknown at this time since there are no commercially available products. There are
              concerns about toxicity and smothering since these products could be applied directly on
              clean substrates.



              2 7. Skoreline Cleaning Agents

              of)jeclive

              To increase the efficiency of oil removal from contaminated substrates.

              1)(,.,-;cri[)tion

              Special formulations are applied to the substrate, as a presoak and/or flushing solution,
              to soften or lift weathered or heavy oils to enhance flushing methods. The intent is to
              lower the water temperature and pressure required to mobilize the oil from the
              substrate during flushing.

              Applicable Habitat 'I'ypes

              On any habitat where water flooding and flushing procedures are applicable.

              WI)en to Use

              When the oil has weathered to the point where it cannot be removed using warm to hot
              water. This approach may be most applicable where flushing effectiveness decreases as
              the oil weathers.

              Biolooical Constraints

              The released oil should be recovered rather than dispersed into the water colurrm. Use
              may be restricted where suspended sediment concentrations are high, near wetlands,
              and near sensitive nearshore resources.




                                                                                                     117









                 Enuironniental Effects

                 If more oil is dispersed into the water column, there could be more oil sorbed onto
                 suspended sediments and transferred to nearshore habitats, particularly along sheltered
                 shorelines. The toxicity of shoreline cleaners is similar to the toxicity of dispersants.



                 2& Nutrient Enriebment

                 objectiue

                 To speed the rates of natural microbial degradation of oil by adding nutrients (generally
                 nitrogen and phosphorus).

                 Description

                 Nutrients are applied to the habitat in one of several methods: soluble inorganic
                 formulations, which are dissolved in water and applied as a spray, requiring frequent
                 applications; slow-release formulations, which are applied as a solid; and oleophilic
                 formulations, which adhere to the oil itself and are sprayed directly on the oiled areas.

                 Applicable Habitat Types

                 Could be used on any habitat type where safe access is allowed and nutrients are
                 deficient.


                 When to Use

                 On moderately to heavily oiled substrates, after other techniques have been used to
                 remove as much oil as possible; on lightly oiled shorelines where other techniques are
                 destructive or not effective; and where nutrients limit natural degradation. Most
                 effective on diesel-type and medium oils that do not have large amounts of high
                 molecular weight, slowly degrading components. Less effective where oil residues are
                 thick. Not considered for gasoline spills, which will be completely removed by
                 evaporation at faster timeframes than by microbial degradation.

                 Biological Constraints

                 Not suitable in shallow water or restricted waterbodies where nutrient overloading may
                 lead to eutrophication, or where toxicity of nutrients, particularly ammonia, is of
                 concern. Contact toxicity of oleophilic formulations may restrict areas of direct
                 application. Toxicity tests should be evaluated carefully, as other chemicals in the
                 product could be toxic to aquatic organisms.



                 118









              E'twironmental EffeUs

              Very little information is available on effects in freshwater.


              29. Natural Rierobe Seeding

              Objective

              To,speed the rates of n-dcrobial degradation of oil by adding live microbes with enhanced
              oil-degrading abilities.

              I)e,s(:rir)tion

              Formulations containing hydrocarbon-degrading microbes (usually with fertilizers) are
              added to the oiled area. The argument is made that indigenous microorganisms will be
              killed by the oil or will be slow to degrade the oil, so new microbial species need to be
              added to speed the process of biodegradation. Little information is currently available to
              show whether natural microbe seeding increases biodegradation more than nutrient
              enrichment alone.

              Ar)j)Ijcat)Ie Hubitut
              Could be used on any habitat type where safe access is allowed and additional microbes
              are needed.


              When to Use

              On moderate to heavily oiled substrates, after other techniques have been used to
              remove as much oil as possible; on lightly oiled shorelines where other techniques are
              destructive or not effective; and where existing microorganisms are not present or
              effective. Most effective on diesel-type and medium oils that do not have large amounts
              of high molecular weight, slowly degrading components. Less effective where oil
              residues are thick. Not considered for gasoline spills, which will evaporate faster than
              they would degrade.

              Hiolo(jiwl Constraints

              If product contains fertilizers, not suitable in shallow water or restricted bodies of water
              where nutrient overloading may lead to eutrophication, or where toxicity of nutrients,
              particularly ammonia, is of concern. Toxicity tests should be evaluated carefully, as other
              chemicals in the product could be toxic to aquatic organisms.




                                                                                                   119









                Enuironmental Effects

                Very little information is available on effects in freshwater.

















































               120










                5.0 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

                This section summarizes the following selected topics of special concern in freshwater
                habitats:

                        ï¿½   Public health concerns;

                        ï¿½   Conditions under which oil might sink;

                        ï¿½   Oil behavior in ice conditions;

                        ï¿½   Oil behavior and cleanup in permafrost; and

                        ï¿½   Firefighting foam.



                5.1 PUBLIC HEALTH CONCERNS

                The human-health concerns associated with oil spills entail risks to the public from
                exposure to the oil and to responders during cleanup activities. In freshwater areas, the
                risks of exposure of the public.are of special concern, because of the potential for
                contamination of public drinking water supplies and the proximity of populated areas to
                spill sites. Human-health risks from spilled oil occur along three potential pathways:
                ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation. Ingestion pathways include drinking
                contaminated water and eating tainted food (e.g., fish, birds, and mammals).

                Water intakes in relatively shallow lakes and rivers may be highly susceptible to
                contamination during oil spills. Response procedures may thus include temporarily
                closing the intakes, protectively booming the intake area, bringing on-line additional
                treatment equipment at the water-treatment plant, and/or monitoring water quality for
                the contaminants of concern. The low-molecular weight, aromatic compounds
                (benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, and xylene) are usually of greatest concern, because of
                their much higher water solubility, compared to the other compounds in oil. These four
                compounds usually represent 70-95 percent of the water-soluble fraction (typically about
                25-40 ppm) in crude oils. Water-treatment plants that have granular activated carbon
                filtration systems can remove low levels of oil contamination, especially the aromatic
                compounds, which can cause taste and odor problems at very low concentrations.

                The potential for direct contact of oil on skin is greatest during cleanup, and measures
                should be taken to keep the public away from all spill response operations. Inhalation of
                volatile compounds from spills of crude oil and light, refined products poses a risk to
                the public in adjacent areas. However, these risks are greatest with long-term exposure.


                                                                                                                121









                    Fire risks are mostly associated with volatile, refined products such as gasoline.
                    Response operations at these spills must be conducted with caution. Often, the best
                    response to spills of volatile products is to allow the product to evaporate, while
                    diverting the slicks away from populated areas and sensitive habitats.



                    5.2 CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH OIL MIGHT SINK IN
                            FRESH WATER

                    Most oil spills result in floating oil slicks. There are very specific conditions that can
                    cause an oil spill to sink rather than float in freshwater settings.

                    I   The oil has a specific gravity greater than 1.00 at the ambient

                        temperature.

                        Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a material to freshwater. Although
                        nearly all crude oils and most refined products have a specific gravity less than 1.00
                        and will therefore float, some of the residual refined products (e.g., very heavy fuel
                        oils, a'sphalt) are so heavy that their specific gravity is greater than 1.00. Spills of these
                        oils can sink immediately and flow along with the bottom currents or as droplets in
                        the water column. However, very small changes in water density can refloat sinking
                        oil. There have been several spills in the freshwater sections of a river where the oil
                        originally sank and moved along the bottom. However, at the fresh/salt mixing
                        zone, where the water density increased with salinity, some of the oil rose to the
                        surface. In other spills, oil has been reported to sink with very cold temperatures at
                        night, only to refloat after the water absorbs heat from the sun.

                    2   The oil has a specific gravity just under 1.00 but forms a very stable
                        emulsion.

                        Water-in-oil emulsions can contain up to 80 percent water, which increases the
                        specific gravity accordingly. Also, during the emulsification process, some sediment
                        can be incorporated into the emulsion, either from the suspended sediments in the
                        water mixed into the oil, or those adhered to the floating slick. Only a very small
                        amount of sediment is needed to sink oil. Usually residual refined products (e.g., No.
                        6 fuel oil, Bunker Q have a specific gravity of 0.99 or greater.







                    122









               3   -rhe oil comes ashore, picks up sediment, and then is eroded from the
                   shore.

                   Medium and heavy oils can adsorb to sediment when they strand, making the
                   mixture heavier than water. However, the oil/sediment mixture must be eroded
                   from the shoreline, usually by waves, which tend to break up the oil slicks. The oiled
                   sediment can be deposited in the nearshore zone, but as small tarballs or widely
                   scattered contaminated sediment, rather than a layer of sunken oil. In some
                   instances, the tarballs can stick to each other, forming a tar mat just offshore.

               4   -rhe. oil is a blend of light and heavy refined products, and the light
                   fraction is lost by evaporation.

                   Many intermediate fuel oils are actually mixtures of No. 2 and No. 6 oils. If the spill
                   conditions were such that the light oil component completely evaporated, and the
                   heavy oil was particularly heavy, the weathered oil might sink.



               5.3 OIL BEHAVIOR IN ICE CONDITIONS

               Several important differences in the behavior of spilled oil in ice conditions greatly
               reduce the effectiveness of response methods. For spills in water colder than the oil's
               pour point, the oil will quickly become viscous or tar-like. Even lighter, refined products
               can lose the ability to disperse and become non-coalescing, semi-solid, smooth, spherical
               particles that are difficult to recover. Weathering and loss by evaporation are slowed by
               low temperature, thickness of the slick, restriction of spreading, entrapment below the
               ice, and encapsulation in ice.

               When spilled on ice, oil may pool in depressions and cavities, or be transported across
               the ice by wind. In ice with a porous crystal structure, oil can penetrate the ice; diesel-like
               oils can penetrate freely and deeply, while heavy oils remain more on the surface. Oil on
               the ice surface can also be entrapped by growing ice. If a light cover of snow covers the
               oil on the ice, the increased absorption of solar radiation by the oil under the snow can
               result in daily melting and nightly re-freezing that can form an ice/oil/ice layer.

               Oil spills trapped beneath the ice will collect in the rough underside areas of the ice
               sheet. Entrapped oil will spread until it reaches an equilibrium thickness. The oil can
               become encapsulated within the growing ice sheet, where it will remain until spring
               thaw or when leads in the ice sheet form. During breakup, decaying ice increases in




                                                                                                           123









                 porosity and decreases in strength. Oil spilled under or sandwiched between this ice will
                 rise through the ice and collect on the ice surface.

                 For oil spilled under the ice, there are new infrared and imaging techniques available to
                 assist in location of thick oil pockets. Holes can be drilled in the ice at these collection
                 points, and the oil removed by vacuum. When the oil is encapsulated in the ice, there
                 are two options: remove the contaminated ice or delay recovering the oil until the
                 spring thaw. The largest logistical issue with contaminated ice is separating the oil from
                 large quantities of ice during the winter. In-situ burning and certain types of skimmers
                 have been shown to be effective for removing oil in broken ice.



                 5.4 PERMAFROST

                 In the polar regions of the world, where the average annual temperature is below O*C,
                 the soil freezes permanently and is known as "permafrost." Permafrost can range in
                 thickness from a few centimeters for recently frozen soil, to hundreds of meters thick for
                 old permafrost. In truly Arctic regions, all soils are in the form of permafrost; at its edges,
                 the permafrost may be discontinuous and depend upon the soil type. In the United
                 States, permafrost exists only in Alaska and at high altitudes in northern mountains.
                 For oil spills, the major areas of concern are the Alaskan North Slope and the Trans-
                 Alaskan pipeline route.

                 Ice is one of the most important components of permafrost. The continued existence of
                 the frozen soil depends strongly on the insulating properties of the surface soil. During
                 the summer months, the surface soil thaws, forming an active layer. The water in this
                 layer remains in place, since the frozen subsurface is not permeable. Disturbing this
                 surface-active layer (3-6 centimeters up to one meter in depth) can increase thawing of
                 the subsurface and will result in surface slumping. It can take years for this disturbance
                 to be healed.

                 The active layer of the permafrost supports a wide variety of specialized Arctic fauna and
                 flora. Disturbing plants in this layer could affect this habitat for decades. While the data
                 are limited, there is evidence that tundra plants are very sensitive to oil effects. This
                 vegetation, particularly moss and lichen, forms the principal food sources for many of
                 the animals in permafrost regions.

                 The sensitivity and issues of oil spill response in permafrost areas are similar to those
                 for wetlands. It is best to allow the spill to recover naturally unless large areas have been



                 124









               affected. Appropriate response methods for summer spills would include installing
               berms to prevent continued spread of the oil, vacuuming pooled oil, applying sorbents
               to recover pooled oil in areas of limited access, and manually removing heavily oiled
               soils. Nutrient addition may be considered following gross oil removal. During
               summer, foot traffic in the permafrost should be highly controlled; structures such as
               board walkways should be used when possible to minimize physical disturbance.
               Vehicle traffic should be prohibited. It may be necessary to build a gravel road to the spill
               site to provide adequate insulation to prevent thawing of the permafrost. In winter,
               vehicular transport over snow-covered permafrost can be conducted without concern of
               physical disruption, and conventional land-based response techniques can be used,
               including in-situ burning.



               5.5 FIREFIGHTING FOAM

               When responding to spills involving petroleum and refined fuels such as gasoline,
               firefighters often apply foam to suppress vapors and reduce the potential of fire. If the
               spilled material is already burning, foams are used to extinguish petroleum-liquid fires
               because they separate the burning liquid from the air, effectively smothering the fire.
               There are five basic types of foam commonly used:

                      1. Protein Foams consist of hydrolyzed proteins plus stabilizing additives and
                         inhibitors.

                      2. Fluoroprotein Foams (FP) are similar to protein foams but have a fluorinated
                         surfactant additive to improve the resistance to fuel entrainment. They
                         exclude air, and may form a thin film to suppress the evolution of fuel

                         vapors.

                      3. Aqueous Film-Forming Foams       AFFF) are synthetic foams made from
                         fluorocarbon surfactants with additional stabilizers. AFFFs also exclude air
                         and form thin aqueous films to suppress the evolution of vapors.

                      4. Film-Forming Fluoroprotein Foams (FFFP) are combinations of protein and
                         film-forming surfactants and combine the characteristics of AFFF and Fl?
                         foams.

                      5> Alcohol-Resistant Foams are specially formulated foams for application on
                         alcohols and water-miscible flammable liquids.




                                                                                                     125









                Each of these foams is created by mechanical action that fills the foam bubbles with air. A
                fourth type of foam, Multipurpose Foam Compounds, is being developed since many
                gasolines are required to contain alcohol or polar additives (such as methyl t-butyl ether)
                to decrease automobile emissions. These additives are water-soluble and reduce the
                effectiveness of conventional foams used on gasoline fires.

                There are two environmental concerns with using firefighting foams. First, although
                the acute aquatic toxicity of these products is believed to be low, it has not been fully
                evaluated. Toxicity should be evaluated in terms of the likely dose expected from
                normal application rates and possible synergistic effects when combined with petroleum
                oils. Second, these products may alter the physical properties of the treated oil. Since
                most firefighting foams contain surfactants, the rate of dispersion of the oil may be
                increased if improperly applied or mixed due to currents, storms, or boat traffic.

































                126










              APPENDIX A.

              APPLICABLE OIL SPILL RESPONSE TECHNOLOGY
              BIBLIOGRAPHY



              The following bibliography is not intended to be comprehensive, but instead provides a
              list of key references from which many other publications may be found dealing with
              spill response techniques, strategies, equipment, and effects.

              American Petroleum Institute. 1985. Oil Spill Response: Options for Minimizing
              Adverse Ecological Impacts. API Publ. No. 4398. Washington, D.C.: API. 84 pp.

              Amcrican Petroleum Institute. 1992. Petroleum in the Freshwater Environment, an
              Annotated Bibliography 1946-1983. API Publ. No. 4508. Washington, D.C.: API. 60 pp.

              American Petroleum Institute. 1993. Oil Spill Response in Freshwater Environments:
              Impacts on the Environment of Clean-up Practices. API Publ. No. 4567. Washington,
              D.C.: API. 58 pp.

              Bobra, M., P. Kawamura, M. Fingas, and D. Velicogna. 1987. Laboratory and mesoscale
              testing of Elastol and Brand M demoussifier: Proceedings of the 10th Arctic and Marine
              Oil Spill Programme Technical Seminar, June 9-11, 1987, Edmonton, Alberta, pp. 223-
              241.

              Breuel, A. 1981. Oil Spill Cleanup and Protection Techniques for Shorelines and
              Marshlands. Park Ridge, New Jersey: Noyes Data Corporation. 404 pp.
              Cairns, J., Jr. and A.L. Buikema, Jr., eds. 1984. Restoration of Habitats Impacted by Oil
              Spills. Boston: Butterworth Publishers, 182 pp.

              CONCAWE. 1980. Disposal Techniques for Spilt Oil. Report No. 9/80. Den Haag, The
              Netherlands: CONCAWE. 52 pp.

              CONCAWE. 1983. A Field Guide to Inland Oil Spill Clean-up Techniques. Report No.
              10/83. Den Haag, The Netherlands: CONCAWE. 104 pp.

              Environment Canada. 1976. A Bibliography on Freshwater Oil Spills. Publ. EE-21.
              Ottawa, Ontario: Research and Development Division, Environment Canada. 232 pp.
              Environment Canada. 1983. A Catalogue of Oil Spill Containment Barriers. Rept. No.
              EPS-3-EC-83-5. Ottawa, Ontario: Environmental Protection Service.





                                                                                                 A-1









               Environment Canada. 1992. Oilspill SCAT Manual for the Coastlines of British
               Columbia: Procedures for the assessment of oiled shorelines and cleanup options.
               Regional Program Report 92-03. Edmonton, Alberta: Technology Development Branch,
               Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada. 245 pp.

               Exxon Production Research Co. 1992. Oil Spill Response Field Manual. Houston: Exxon
               USA. 193 pp.

               Fingas, Mervin, Wayne S. Duval, and Gail Stevenson. 1979. The Basics of Oil Spill
               Cleanup with Particular Reference to Southern Canada. En 40-311/1978. Ottawa, Ontario:
               Environmental Emergency Branch, Environmental Protection Service, Environment
               Canada.

               Hayes, M.O., J. Michel, and B. Fichaut, 1991. Oiled gravel beaches: a special problem.
               Proceedings of the Specialty Conference on Oil Spills Management and Legislative
               Implications, American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 444-457.

               International Maritime Organization. 1982. IM01UNEP Guidelines on Oil Spill
               Dispersant Application and Environmental Considerations. IMO Special Publication.
               London: IMO.

               International Maritime Organization. 1988. Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II -
               Contingency Planning. IMO Publication No. 560. London: IMO. 48 pp.

               International Maritime Organization. 1988. IMO Manual on Oil Pollution, Section IV -
               Combating Oil Spills. IMO Publication No. 569 88.11E. London: IMO. 216 pp.

               International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation, Ltd. 1987. Response to. Marine Oil
               Spills. New York: State Mutual Books. 125 pp.

               Luchun, R.E. 1992. Open River Spills - Strategies and Tactics, A Primer. Proceedings of
               the Seminar on Physical Recovery of Oil Spills, RRT Region VI and Corpus Christi State
               University, Corpus Christi, Texas, Session VI, 20 pp.

               Michel, J., Miles 0. Hayes, Rebecca Hoff, Gary Shigenaka, and Debra Scholz. 1992.
               Introduction of Coastal Habitats and Biological Resources for Oil Spill Response. Report
               HMRAD 92-4. Seattle: Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division,
               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 384 pp.

               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1993. Shoreline Countermeasures
               Manual-National Template: Seattle: Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment
               Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 80 pp. plus appendices.



               A-2









               National Research Council, 1985. Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates and Effects. Washington,
               D.C.: National Academy Press. 601 pp.

               National Research Council. 1989. Using Oil Spill Dispersants on the Sea. Washington,
               D.C.: National Academy Press. 335 pp.

               Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment. 1993. Newfoundland Offshore Burn
               Experiment. Special Publication of the NOBE Steering Committee. Ottawa, Ontario:
               Environment Canada. 79 pp.

               Owens, E.H. 1982. Canadian Inland Waters: Coastal Environments and the Cleanup of
               Oil Spills: Report EPS 3-EC-82-3. Ottawa, Ontario: Environment Canada, 33 pp.

               Owens, E.H., M.A. Cramer, and D.E. Howes. 1992. British Columbia Marine Oil Spill
               Shoreline Protection and Cleanup Response Manual. Victoria, British Columbia:
               Environmental Emergencies Branch, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.

               Owens, E.H., J.R. Harper, W. Robson, and P.D. Boehm. 1987. Fate and persistence of
               crude oil stranded on a sheltered beach. Arctic 40, Supplement 1, pp. 109-123.

               Regional Response Team, Federal Region 111. 1992. Shoreline Countermeasure Manual
               Template. Portsmouth, Virginia: Fifth Coast Guard District. 84 pp. plus appendices.

               S.L. Ross Environmental Research Ltd. 1991. Selection Criteria and Laboratory
               Evaluation of Oil Spill Sorbents: Update IV. Environmental Protection Series Report
               EPS 3/SP/3. Ottawa, Ontario: Environment Canada. 68 pp.

               Shulze, R. 1991. World Catalog of Oil Spill Response Products. Baltimore: Port City Press.

               Shigenaka, G. and N. Barnea. 1993. Questions about In-situ Burning as an Open-Water
               Oil Spill Response Technique. Report HMRAD 93-3. Seattle: Hazardous Materials
               Response and Assessment Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
               Administration. 42 pp.

               Solsberg, L.B. and S.L. Ross. 1983. A Catalog of Oil Skimmers. Environmental Protection
               Series Report EPS 3-EP-83-1. Ottawa, Ontario: Environment Canada. 258 pp.

               Tramier, B. 1981. A Field Guide to Coastal Oil Spill Control and Clean-up Techniques.
               Report No. 9/81. Den Haag, The Netherlands: CONCAWE. 112 pp.

               U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1978. Protection, Cleanup and Restoration Of
               Salt Marshes Endangered by Oil Spills - A Procedural Manual. EPA-600/7-78-220.
               Cincinnati: Environmental Protection Agency. 161 pp.



                                                                                                    A-3









                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1979. Manual of Practice for Protection and
                Cleanup of Shorelines: EPA-600/7-79-187. Cincinnati: Office of Research and
                Development. Two volumes. 240 pp.

                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1982. Manual of Practice - Chemical Agents in
                Oil Spill Control. EPA-600/8-82-010. Cincinnati: Office of Research and Development.

                Walker, A.H., J. Michel, G. Canevari, J. Kucklick, D. Scholz, C.A. Benson, E. Overton,
                and B. Shane. 1993. Chemical Oil Spill Treating Agents: Herding Agents, Emulsion
                Treating Agents, Solidifiers, Elasticity Modifiers, Shoreline Cleaning Agents, Shoreline
                Pretreatment Agents, and Oxidation Agents. Washington, D.C.: Marine Spill Response
                Corporation Technical Report Series 93-015. 108 pp. plus appendices.

                Warren Spring Laboratory. 1982. Oil Spill Cleanup of the Coastline - A Technical
                Manual. London: Department of the Environment. 72 pp.
































                A-4










               AI'I'EINDIX B.

               (MAIN-SIZE S(ALE




                           Wentworth                                                  Grain
                               Scale                 Phi Units*                     Diameter
                        (Size Description)                                       d (millimeters)


                         Boulder                         -8                           256

                         Cobble                                                       76.2

                                                         -6                           64.0


                                                                                      19.0

                         Pebble                                                       4.76

                                                         -2                           4.0
                         Granule                         -1                           2.0
                               Very Coarse               0                            1.0
                                  Coarse
                                                         1                            0.5

                                 Medium                                               0.42
                      Sand
                                                         2                            0.25
                                   Fine
                                                         3                            0.125

                                Very Fine                                             0.074

                                                         4                            0.0625
                         Silt
                                                         8                            0.00391
                         Clay                            12                           0.00024
                         Colloid


                    -1092 d (mm)

               (From U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Center, Shore Protection Manual 1973)



                                                                                                      B-1











































































































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