Oil and gas program cumulative effects

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Outer Continental Shelf OCS Report
MMS 88-0005

Oil and Gas Program:
\7
Iku'l-tulative Effects

TD1 95
.P4037
1988 U.S. Department of the Interior
C.1 Minerals Management Service

OCS Report
Outer Continental Shelf MMS-88-0005

Oil and Gas Program:
Cumulative Effects

Edited by:
William Van Horn
Archie Melancon
John Sun

00
W-4

ce-
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U.S. Department of the Interior LIBRARY
Minerals Management Service NOAA/CCEB September 1988
1990 HOBSON AVE.
CHAS- SC 2.9408-2623

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ................................................ i-1

Provisions of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act .... i-I
Definition of Cumulative Effects ....................... i-I
Program Summary ........................................ i-I
Conclusion .... o ............................... o ........ i-2

CHAPTER I. SUMMARY or THE OIL AND GAS PROGRAM .............. I-1

A. Atlantic Region .................................... I-I
B. Gulf of Mexico Region .............................. 1-10
C. Pacific Region ..................................... 1-16
D. Alaska Region ...................................... 1-23
E. Effects on the Nation's Economy .................... 1-31

CHAPTER II. ADMINISTRATION OF THE OCS OIL AND GAS PROGRAM .. II-1

A. The MMS Regulatory Program ......................... II-I
B. Orders, Stipulations, Notices, and Conditions of
Approval ........................................... 11-2
C. Offshore Inspection and Compliance Program ......... 11-2
D. Environmental Studies Program ... o .................. 11-3
E. Coordination with Federal Agencies, State Agencies,
and Local Governments .............................. 11-7

CHAPTER 111. ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPLORATION,
DEVELOPMENT, AND PRODUCTION ................... III-1

A. Geological and Geophysical Investigations .......... III-1
B. Exploration .................. o ..................... 111-3
C. Devlopment and Production .......................... 111-5

CHAPTER IV. POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OCS OIL AND GAS ACTIVITIES IV-1

A. Fate of Oil in the Marine Environment .............. IV-1
B. Oil Spills ........ o ................................ IV-8
C. Manmade Structures ................................. IV-14
D. Vessel Traffic ..................................... IV-20
E. Noise and Other Disturbances ....................... IV-21
F. Effluents and Discharges ........................... IV-31
G. Impacts on the Socioeconomic Environment ........... IV-60
H. Impacts of the Physical Environment-on 011-and Gas
Operations ........................................... IV-71

CHAPTER V. OBSERVED EFFECTS OF THE OIL AND GAS PROGRAM ..... V-1

A. Alaska Region ...................................... V-1

1. Physical Environment ........................... V-1

a. Water Quality .............................. V-1
b. Air Quality ................................ V-2

2. Biological Environment ........... ............. V-2

a. Lower Trophic Organisms .................... V-2
b. Fish Resources ............................. V-3
c. Endangered or Threatened Species ........... V-4
d. Marine Mammals ............................. V-5
e. Coastal and Marine Birds ................... V-6

3. Socioeconomic Environment ...................... V-6

a. Employment and Demographic Conditions ...... V-6
b. Coastal Land Uses .......................... V-7
c. Commercial Fisheries ....................... V-7
d. Recreation and Tourism ..................... V-8
e. Archaeological Resources ................... V-8
f. Military Use Areas ......................... V-9
g. Subsistence ................................ V-9

B. Atlantic Region .................................... V-10

1. Physical Environment ........................... V-10

a. Water Quality .............................. V-10
b., Air Quality ................................ V-11

2. Biological Environment ......................... V-11

a. Lower Trophic Organisms .................... V-11
b. Fish Resources ............................. V-12
c. Endangered or Threatened Species ........... V-12
d. Marine Mammals ............................. V-13
e. Coastal and Marine Birds ................... V-13

3. Socioeconomic Environment ...................... V-14

a. Employment and Demographic Conditions ...... V-14
b. Coastal Land Uses .......................... V-14
c. Commercial Fisheries ....................... V-15
d. Recreation and Tourism ..................... V-15
e. Archaeological Resources .................... V-16
f. Military Use Areas ......................... V-16

C. Gulf of Mexico Region .............................. V-17

1. Physical Environment ........................... V-17

a. Water Quality ............................... V-17
b. Air Quality ................................. V-20

2. Biological Environment .......................... V-22

a. Lower Trophic Organisms ...................... V-22
b. Fish Resources .............................. V-24
c. Endangered or Threatened Species ............ V-24
d. Marine Mammals .............................. V-26
e. Coastal and Marine Birds .................... V-26
f. Wetlands .................................... V-27

3. Socioeconomic Environment ....................... V-28

a. Employment and Demographic Conditions ....... V-28
b. Coastal Land Uses ........................... V-28
c. Commercial Fisheries ........................ V-30
d. Recreation and Tourism ...................... V-31
e. Archaeological Resources .................... V-34
f. Military Use Areas .......................... V-35

D. Pacific Region .......................................... V-36

1. Physical Environment ............................ V-36

a. Water Quality ............................... V-36
b. Air Quality ................................. V-38

2. Biological Environment .......................... V-40

a. Lower Trophic Organisms ..................... V-40
b. Fish Resources .............................. V-42
c. Endangered or Threatened Species ............ V-43
d. Marine Mammals .............................. V-45
e. Coastal and Marine Birds .................... V-46

3. Socioeconomic Environment ....................... V-47

a. Employment and Demographic Conditions ....... V-47
b. Coastal Land Uses ........................... V-47
c. Commercial Fisheries ........................ V-48
d. Recreation and Tourism ...................... V-52
e. Archaeological Resources .................... V-53
f. Military Use Areas .......................... V-53

CHAPTER VI. PERSPECTIVES .................................... VI-1
A. Water Quality ....................................... VI-1
B. Air Quality ......................................... VI-4
C. Marine Mammals and Endangered Turtles ............... VI-5
D. Birds ............................................... VI-6
E. Fish ................................................ VI-6
F. Bottom Disturbance .................................. VI-8
G. Beach Debris ........................................ VI-8
H. Benefits ............................................ VI-10

CHAPTER VII. ABBREVIATIONS USED ........................... VII-1

CHAPTER VIII. SELECTED REFERENCES ......................... VIII-1

CHAPTER IX. CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION ................... IX-I

FIGURES

I-1. Outer Continental Shelf Plan -4 ng Areas, Current Program,
July 1987 ............................................. 1-2
1-2. Numbers of Permits Issued for Geological and Geophysical
Exploration ............................................. 1-4
1-3. Miles of Offshore Seismic Data Collected by Industry .... 1-5
1-4. Atlantic Region Planning Areas - Numbers of Exploration
Wells Drilled ........................................... 1-6
1-5. North Atlantic Planning Area - Location2of Exploration and
COST Wells ............................................... 1-7
1-6. Mid-Atlantic Planning Area - Location of Exploration and
COST Wells .............................................. 1-8
1-7. South.Atlantic Planning Area - Location of Exploration and
COST Wells .............................................. 1-9
1-8. Gulf of Mexico Region PLanning Areas - Exploration Wells I-11
1-9. Gulf of Mexico Region Planning Areas - Development and
Production Wells ........................................ 1-12
I-10. Eastern Gulf of Mexico Region Planning Area - Location
of Exploration Drilling ................................ 1-13
I-11. Central Gulf of Mexico Region Planning Area - Producing
Leases ................................................. 1-14
1-12. Western Gulf of Mexico Region Planning Area - Producing
Leases ................................................. 1-15
1-13. Pacific Region - Exploration Wells ..................... 1-17
1-14. Pacific Region - Development and Production Wells ...... 1-18
1-15. Southern California Planning Area - Location of
Production Platforms ................................... 1-19
1-16. Central California Planning Area - Location of
Exploration Wells ...................................... 1-21
1-17. Northern California Planning Area - Location of
Exploration Wells ...................................... 1-22
1-18. Washington-Oregon Planning Area - Location of
Exploration Wells ...................................... 1-24

5 5

I-19. Alaska Rgion Planning Area - Location of Exploration
Wells ............................................ I-25
I-20. Gulf of Alaska Planning Area - Location of Exploration
Wells .............................................. I-26
1-21. Cook Inlet Planning Area - Location of Exploration
Wells ........................................... I-27
1-22. Norton Basin Planning Area - Location of Exploration
Wells ......................................... I-28
1-23. St. Georg Basin Planning Area - Location of Exploration
Wells .......................................... I-29
1-24. Navarin Basin Planning Area - Location of Exploration
Wells .................................................. I-30
1-25. Beaufort Sea Planning Area - Location of Exploration
Wells ........................................... I-32
1-26. Reven from OCS Minerals Leases ..................... I-33

II-1. Total Environmental Studies Expenditures by OCS
Region ............................................... II-4
II-2. Total Study Expenditures by Topic .................... II-5

IV-1. Oil Spill Weathering and, Transport Processes ............ IV-2
IV-2. Relative Importance of Processes Affecting Oil ........ IV-2

TABLES

I-1. Annual Revenues from OCS Mineral Leases.............................. I-34
I-2. Federal Offshore Crude Oil and Condensate Production................. I-36
I-3. Federal Offshore Natural Gas Production.............................. I-37

II-1. Annual Environmental Study Expenditures by Region................... II-6

IV-1. Number and Volume of Spills Reported................................ IV-8
IV-2. Composition of Typical Generic Muds................................. IV-34
IV-3. Metal Composition of Drilling Muds Tested by EPA
Program............................................................. IV-36
IV-4. Comparison of Estimated Trace Metals Concentrations
in Drilling Muds ...................................... IV-40
IV-5. Significance Levels Above Which Best Available Control
Technology is Required ................................ IV-53
IV-6. Typical Annual Air Emissions for Exploration and
Development Activities ................................ IV-56
IV-7. Typical Annual Air Emissions for Oil and Gas
Production Activities, Pipeline Scenario .............. IV-57
IV-8. Typical Annual Air Emissions for Oil' and Gas
Production Activities, Tanker Scenario .................. IV-58
V-1. Estimated Emissions From Exploration Activities and
Oil Spills, 1986 ...................................... V-2
V-2. Estimated Emissions From Direct and Support
Activities, Gulf of Mexico, 1986 ................................ V-21
V-3. Estimated Emissions From Direct and Support
Activities, Pacific, 1986 ............................................. V-39

INTRODUCTION

Provisions of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

The principal purpose of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)
(43 U.S.C. 1331-1356) is to make the mineral resources of the OCS
available for exploration and orderly development, subject to
environmental safeguards. More detailed mandates for protection of
the environment are contained in the OCSLA Amendments of 1978 (43
U.S.C. 1801-1886). The Amendments provide for extensive coordination
and consultation with affected States and local governments (Section
19); require environmental studies in each OCS area before leasing
(Section 201); require a study of safety and health regulations
(Section 21); establish an oil-spill pollution fund (Title III); and
establish a. fisherman's contingency fund (Title IV). The purpose of
this fund is to compensate fishermen for damage or loss associated
with oil and gas exploration, development, or production.

Definition of Cumulative Effects

Section 20(e) of the Amendments instructs the Secretary of the
Department of the Interior (DOI) to submit to the Congress annually an
assessment of the cumulative effects of the activities conducted under
the OCSLA on the human, marine, and coastal environments. This report
has been prepared to fulfill this Section 20(e) requirement. It is
not an environmental analysis prepared to comply with requirements of
the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). NEPA analyses, such as
lease sale environmental impact statements prepared by the DOI, do
consider potential/projected effects and include other non-OCS-related
activities in the definition of cumulative effects. The 20(e)
requirement is for a yearly analysis of the effects which are known to
have occurred as a result of the OCS Oil and Gas Program. Because
this is the first cumulative report on the program, the DOI has done a
retrospective assessment back to 1954 considering the effect of 33
years of OCS oil and gas activity. Therefore, for the purpose of this
report, "cumulative effects" are defined as the total identifiable
long-term effects that are attributable to activities authorized under
the OCSLA which are in evidence at this point in time and can be
quantified or evaluated.

Program Summary
The environmental record for drilling on the OCS is impressive. Of
the 7.5 billion barrels (bbl) of oil produced through 1986, it is
estimated that only about 350,000 bbl (.005 percent) were spilled.
In the past decade only 31,000 bbl, or 0.0009 percent of the total
3,480,657,000 bbl, of crude oil and condensate produced have been
spilled. Through 1986, over 24,000 wells were drilled, yet only I
blowout that resulted in significant amounts of oil reaching shore has
occurred--the Santa Barbara, California, blowout in 1969. Today there

i-I

are no apparent adverse cumulative effects from this blowout. A
similar incident from U.S. operations on the OCS is not judged likely
to occur again because steps taken since 1969 provide more stringent
regulatory requirements to promote safe and pollution-free operations.
There are inherent difficulties in defining and identifying cumulative
effects occurring as a result of activities of the OCS Program. These
range from the difficulty in documenting effects due to the extreme
variability of the natural environment to the inability to isolate the
effects of OCS Program activities from the many other factors that
effect both the natural and manmade environments. In this cumulative
analysis, we have only considered those identifiable long-term impacts
that can be quantified or evaluated. Other less quantifiable, or less
easily evaluated, effects however, may have occurred and, therefore,
would contribute to the overall cumulative effect. What is most
important is that the OCS Program is managed to ensure that
significant adverse cumulative, as well as adverse individual, impacts
rarely occur. Once a significant adverse impact to a resource or
activity has been identified as a result of an OCS activity, immediate
measures are taken to reduce the severity and duration of the impact
and the likelihood of the impact reoccurring. Also, the operating
procedures or regulations under which that OCS activity is conducted
are reexamined with the intent of developing or instituting additional
mitigation. A current example is the concern with the potential
effects of platform removal on sea turtles. Once DOI identifies a
potentially significant impact from OCS activities on other resources
or activities, procedures are amended, and further evaluation studies
are begun to understand better the extent of potential impacts and
methods to reduce them.

Another reason cumulative effects are difficult to identify is that
many potential conflicts are resolved before any oil and gas
activities'occur. Examples are the agreements with the Department of
Defense on joint use of military operating areas. These agreements
are enforced through lease stipulations requiring that the relevant
military authority is notified before drilling or other activities
occur. Other conflicts between seismic vessels and fishing boats have
merited special review to minimize impacts. Special lease sale
stipulations for Sales 73 and 80 reduced the potential for air quality
impacts before any activities took place. Land-use conflicts are
generally avoided or resolved because of compliance with local and
State controls over siting, involving zoning considerations.

Conclusion

Although temporary and localized impacts have occurred, with the
exception of loss of wetlands in Louisiana (see page V-26), the
present regulatory system has prevented identifiable significant
adverse cumulative impacts on the human, marine, and coastal
environments from the OCS Program. When an unforseen problem
surfaces, procedures are reassessed, and additional mitigation is
implemented to protect special sensitive resources.

i-2

1. SUMMARY OF THE OCS OIL AND GAS PROGRAM

This section of the report summarizes exploration, development, and
production activities. The Minerals Management Service (MMS) divides
the OCS into four Regions: Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific, and
Alaska. The section is organized by Region, with each planning area
being discussed separately except in Alaska where multiple planning
areas are combined into three geographic subregions (Gulf of Alaska,
Bering Sea, and Arctic). The locations of all current planning areas
during the 1982-87 five-year program are shown in figure I-1.

A. Atlantic Region

More detailed information relating to the OCS Program can be found in
Atlantic Summary /Index, January - June 1986, MMS 86-0071 (J.D. Wiese,
1986). Figures 1-2 and 1-3 summarize the levels of geological and
geophysical (G&G) exploration activities in the Atlantic Region.
1. North Atlantic Planning Area

Activities through 1986

To date, nne OCS lease sale has been held in the North Atlantic
Planning Area in 1979. There were 8 exploratory wells drilled on the
63 tracts leased, none of which resulted in commercial discoveries
(figures 1-4 and 1-5). Two Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test
(COST) wells were also drilled in the planning area. There is no
current drilling activity.

2. Mid-Atlantic Planning Area

Activities through 1986
There have been five lease sales in the Mid-Atlantic Planning Area
since 1976. Exploratory drilling commenced in 1978. There have been
32 exploratory wells and 2 COST wells drilled in this planning area
(figures 1-4 and I-Q. Although five wells yielded shows of natural
gas and one yielded show of oil, there have been no commercial
discoveries. There is no,,current drilling activity.
3. South Atlantic Planning Area

Activities through 1986
To date, there have been four lease sales held in the South Atlantic
Planning Area since 1978. In addition to a preliminary COST well, six
exploratory wells have been drilled (figures 1-4 and 1-7). All wells
were reported dry. There is no current drilling activity.

I-1

'A
161

Figure I-1. Outer Continental Sheif Planning Areas, current programs July 1987.
Indicates planning areas where leasing sales have occurred.

1-2

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OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF BEAUFO T SEA
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PLANNING AREAS a

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Figure 1-5. North Atlantic Planning Area - location of exploration and
COST wells.

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US. DEPARTWENT OF THE INTERIOR
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B. Gulf of Mexico Region
The 1938 discovery of the Creole field, 1 1/2 miles (mi) from the
Louisiana coast, marked the beginning of offshore oil and gas
@activities in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM). Figures 1-2 and 1-3 summarize
the levels of G&G exploration activities in the GOM Region.
Figures 1-8 and 1-9 show the numbers of exploration and production
wells drilled by year in each of the three planning areas. More
detailed information relating to the OCS Program can be found in
Gulf of Mexico Summary Report/Index (November 1984 - June 1986),
MMS 86-0084 (S. P. Risotto and J. H. Collins, 1986).
1. fastern Gulf of Mexico Planning Area

Activities through 1986
To date, the eastern GOM is the only planning area in the Gulf of
Mexico without commercial discoveries. There have been 6 lease sales
in the planning area and 34 wells drilled. No commercial wells have
been drilled yet in the eastern GOM. Figure 1-10 shows leases on
which exploratory drilling has occurred.

2. Central Gulf of Mexico Planning Area

Activities through 1986
To date, there have been 43 sales held in the central GOM. The
central GOM is the most active area in the entire OCS, having had
20,796 boreholes drilled. The combined total number of platforms
installed, together with those in the western GOM, stands at 3,425,
of which 680 are manned platforms. Figure I-11 shows the areas of
current production.
Between 1974 and 1983, an average of 230 G&G exploration permits were
issued annually for work in the central GOM. Within the GOM Region,
industry has shown the greatest interest in central GOM leases.

3. Western Gulf of Mexico Planning Area

Activities through 1986

To date, in the western GOM, 26 lease sales have been held, and
3,081 boreholes have been drilled. This is the second most active
area in the entire OCS. The combined total number of platforms
installed, together with those in the central GOM stands at 3,425,
of which 680 are manned platforms. Figure 1-12 shows the areas of
current production.
Between 1974 and 1983, an average of 108 G&G exploration permits were
issued annually for activity in the western GOM.

I-10

171
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EXPLORATION WELLS DRILLED
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C. Pacific Region

Figures 1-2 and 1-3 summarize the levels of G&G exploration activities
in the Pacific Region. Figures 1-13 and 1-14 show,the numbers of
exploration and development and production wells drilled by year.
More detailed information relating to the OCS Program can be found
in Pacific Summary ReVort/Index, (November 1984 - February 1986,
MMS 86-0060 (S. P. Risotto and R. W. Rudolph, 1986).

1. Southern California Planning Area

Activities through 1986

Oil and gas exploration and development offshore California began in
1896 in State waters from wells drilled from a pier in Santa Barbara
County. Since 1966, nine lease sales have been held in Federal waters
in what is now the Southern California Planning Area, which
encompasses all currently leased and producing areas within the
Pacific Region. A total of 317 exploratory wells (including 2 COST
wells) and 601 development wells have been drilled as of December 31,
1986, in the Pacific Region. As of December 1987, 20 platforms have
been installed (figure 1-15). Detailed historical aspects of OCS oil
and gas development are reviewed and summarized in the Pacific Summary
Report/Index (November 1984 - February 198U, MMS 86-0060 (Risotto and
Rudolph, 1986).

Through 1986, OCS production from the Southern California Planning
Area has amounted to 369 million bbl of oil and 243 billion cubic feet
(ft 3) of natural gas.

2. Central California Planning Area

Activities through 1986

Activities in the Central California Planning Area began in 1963 when
the first Federal OCS oil and gas lease sale offshore California
resulted in the acceptance of bids for 24 tracts near the San
Francisco area. Twelve exploratory wells were drilled (figure 1-16),
but no development occurred. All leases were relinquished by 1968.

3. Northern California Planning Area

Activities through 1986

One lease sale has been held in the Northern California Planning Area.
Seventeen blocks were leased in the Eureka area and 10 in the Point
Arena area during that 1963 lease sale. A total of seven exploratory
wells were drilled (figure 1-17), with three wells in the Point Arena
area encountering sediments containing shows of oil. However, all
leases expired during 1968 without any production taking place, as no
commercial quantities of oil and gas were found (oil prices were about
$2 to $3 per barrel in 1968).

1-16

Exploratory Wells Drilled
Pacific Region Planning Areas

Number

Total Wells Drilled 319

0
40
L

20 - - -
Lim)
>
7@
M
0
co 10

I
M 0
1963 1968 1973 1978 1983
0
Calendar Year

0
Z771
I L - wl@

Washington/Oregon Northern/Central Cal Southern Cal
M

Data reflect the March, 1985 changes
in the boundary between Central and
Southern California Planning Areas.
I I

121
Fl-
OQ
M Development Wells Drilled
Pacific Region Planning Areas*

Number
0 0

0 Fj Total Wells Drilled 648

0 @O
0 M
OQ
4 H
M 0
F@ :$ 80

00
60 -

FJ-
0
OQ 40 -

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M 1968 1973 1978 1983

0
"0
Calendar Year

rT
Northern/Central Cal + Wash i ngton/0 regon + = Southern Cal

Data reflect the March, 1985 changes + No Wells Drilled
in the boundary between Central and
Southern California Planning Areas.

Figure 1-15. Southern California Planning Area location
of production platforms.

1-19

LOS ANGELES CO.

LONG
PALOS BEACH ORANGECO.
*VERDES

THREE GEOGRAPHICAL
MILE LINE HUNTINGT N
BEACH

Figure 1-15 (continued). Southern California Planning Area location
of production platforms.

1-20

BODEGA BAY
0
0

0
F

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H.
0

CRESCENT
ITY

00
m 0
Pi 00
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PTAREN
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4. Washington-Oregon Area

Activities through 1986
The second Pacific OCS lease sale, which was held in 1964, covered
what is now known as the Washington-Oregon Planning Area. One hundred
and one leases were issued as a result of that sale, and 12
exploratory wells (4 off Washington, 8 off Oregon) were drilled
(figure 1-18). Three wells off Oregon and 2 wells off Washington had
shows of oil and/or gas. No development occurred, and all leases were
relinquished by 1969.

D. Alaska Region

There are 15 planning areas in the Alaska Region. For ease of presen-
tation, these have been combined into three geographic subregions:
Gulf of Alaska, Bering Sea, and Arctic. Figures 1-2 and 1-3 summarize
the levels of G&G exploration activities in the Alaska Region. Figure
1-19 shows the numbers of exploration wells drilled by year and
planning area. More detailed information relating to the OCS Program
can be found in Alaska Summary Report/Index (January 1986 - December
19861, MMS 87-0011 (D. L. Slitor and J. D. Wiese, 1987).
1. Gulf of Alaska Subregion (Gulf of Alaska, Cook Inlet, Kodiak,
Shumagin) Planning Areas

Activities through 1986
Six lease sales have been held in the Gulf of Alaska Subregion
beginning in 1976. There have been 320 permits for G&G surveys
issued. Twenty-five exploratory wells and 8 COST wells have been
drilled in the subregion. The locations of exploration wells are
shown in figures 1-20 and 1-21. There have been no commercial
discoveries. All of the leases have either expired or been
relinquished, so there is no current drilling activity.
2. Bering Sea Subregion (Norton Basin, St. George-Basin,
Navarin Basin, North Aleutian Basin) Planning Areas

Activities through 1986
To date, three lease sales have been held in the Bering Sea Subregion.
Drilling has occurred in three Bering Sea Planning Areas, with
24 exploratory wells and 6 COST wells drilled. The locations of
exploration wells are shown in Figures 1-22, 1-23, and 1-24. To date,
no commercial discoveries have been announced. There have been 296
permits issued for G&G surveys in this subregion.

1-23

CAPE
FLATT RY

ABERDEZN
0
WASK

STOR11A
00
TILLAMOOK

LINCOLN CITY
00 ORE.
00 0 FLORENCE

COOS BAY

GOLD BEACH

CAU

Figure 1-18. Washington-Oregon Planning Area location of exploration
wells.

1-24

Exploratory Wells Drilled
m
Alaska Reeion Plannima Art-a-q
PaR

NUMBER

Total Wells Drilled 66

10
0

> 4-
P1

2
xf!@ / I / I 2@
m 0
X
10 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986
0
YEAR

0
Gulf of AK Cook Inlet St. George
m
H Norton Basin Beaufort Sea Navarin Basin

F' NCHORAGE

0 E
@VA z
<
ED c

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0
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0

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F-
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NCHORAGE

0
0 0
0 G)
0 0D
0 0

GULF
GD 0 OF
ALASKA

0 Exploration Wells

COST Well.

Figure 1-21. Cook Inlet Planning Area location of exploration wells.

1-27

CA
WALES

m 2
>4 0

0 0
H 0 0
03
rt w NOME
P. 9)
0 CA
b
00
m
@-J F@ 0

.0
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H ST. LAWRENCE 0
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Fl
0

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ST. "004a
ISLAND 00
0 Cb
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0 0

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ISLAND co
0 CO
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ISLAND

0 Exploration Wells

COST Wells

Figure 1-23. St. George Basin Plann*ng Area location of exploration wells.

1-29

Exploration Wells

COST Wells

0 0
0 0 0

Figure 1-24. Navarin Basin Planning Apea - location of'exploration
wells.

1-30

3. Arctic Subregion (Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, and Hope Basin)
Planning Areas

Activities through 1986

There have been three sales in the Arctic Subregion since 1979, all in
the Beaufort Sea. There have been 17 exploratory wells drilled in the
Arctic Subregion through 1986, all in the Beaufort Sea (figure 1-25).
Five of these have discovered marginally economic quantities of oil.
However, no development and production plans have been received to
date. There have been 322 permits issued for G&G surveys in the
subregion. All of the G&G permits issued in 1986 for Federal waters
off Alaska were in this subregion. The number of such permits issued
declined by over 350 percent from 1985 to 1986.

E. Effects on the Nation's Economy

1. OCS Sales and Production

From the program's inception in 1954 to the end of Fiscal Year (FY)
1986, 91 OCS lease sales have been held. Of these, 85 were oil and
gas lease sales, including 2 reoffering sales. In addition, there
were two salt sales, three sulfur sales, and one phosphate sale. The
total bonus of nearly $53 billion and royalties of nearly $31 billion
were paid by industry for all leased tracts from 1954 through FY 1986
(table 1-1 and figure 1-26). About 7 1/2 billion bbl of crude oil and
condensate and 74 trillion ft3 of natural gas (tables 1-2 and 1-3)
were produced from the OCS between 1954 and the end of FY 1986.

2. Balance of Payments

In general, production of oil on the OCS substitutes for the highest
cost direct alternative source of oil, foreign imports. These
impacts, which have amounted to as much as 38 percent of the Nation's
oil needs, constitute a drain of U.S. dollars into foreign treasuries.
In 1986 alone, the U.S. imported about $24 billion worth of crude oil.
Lacking OCS production, the Nation would be forced to pay out an
amount equivalent to the value of the oil produced on the OCS, or rely
on other forms of energy production. This would be difficult since
alternatives sources have proven difficult to develop. Nuclear energy
development has come to a standstill because of high costs and public
.opposition. Coal mining has also been beset by air pollution
concerns, while solar and wind energy generation are still minor local
sources. The OCS and onshore oil and gas production, however,
continue to satisfy a meaningful portion (for 1987, approximately
12 percent of domestic oil production and 26 percent of domestic gas
production) of the Nation's energy needs and help reduce the balance
of payments. Finally, exportation of drill rigs, platforms, service
vessels, technical and drilling equipment, and expert labor (developed
because of our extensive experience on the OCS) all result in a flow
of foreign currencies into the United States, further helping reduce
the balance of payments deficit.

1-31

rip

(D bd
X M

0 I-h
H 0
(b pi
rt rt
H
0 cn
0 m

m
H F@
F-A 0)
co ri

Fj
0
09 GD 0
BARR6W
00 GD8
0
0
F@ WAINVVRK3HT 0
0
0
rt PRUDHOE
H
0 BAY
0

m Annual Revenues

to 1-% d"I C'l X If I T
jirom uu@!) minerai Leases

Billions
m $7
BONUSES
m
W
............................................ ROYALTIES
$6 . ......................................... ............................................................................................................

$5 ..................................................................................................................... ....................... .................................

.............. ...............................
m 84 . ...................................................... ........................................................... . .. . .................... Total Bonuses
$53.4 Billion
$3 . ................................................................................................................ ............................. ................ .... .......................
m Total Royalties
W
m $33.1 Billion
$2 . .................................................................................. ......... .. ...........
....... ........................ ..........................
I L

$ 1 . ................................ .................................................... .............. ............................. ...................................... .......................

So
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Year

Table I-1
Annual Revenues.from OCS Mineral Leases
(rounded off to the nearest thousand)
Year Rents Rovalities'($) Bonuses ($)

1954 1,360,000 2,749,000 140,969,000

1955 3,4061000 5,140,000 180,529,000

1956 4,006,000 7,629,000 ---

1957 3,270,000 11,391,000 ---

1958 2,421,000 17,424,000 ---

1959 2,286,000 26,540,000 89,747,000

1960 3,603,000 36,808,000 282,717,000

1961 3,074,000 46,734,000 ---

1962 8 412,000 65,255,000 489,481,000

1963 8,435,000 75,374,000 12,807,000

1964 9,799,000 86,535,000 95,874,000

1965 8,731,000 99,656,000 33,740,000

1966 6,869,000 132,850,000 209,200,000

1967 6,209,000 153,432,000 510,110,000

1968 8,231,000 196,491,000 1,346,487,000

1969 8,313,000 235,682,000 111,661,000

1970 8,609,000 276,522,000 945,065,000

1971 7,742,000 3401635,000 96,305,000

1972 7,985,000 353,582,000 2,251,348,000

1973 8,949,000 389,736,000 3,082,463,000

1974 13,533,000. 536,019,000 5,022,861,000

1975 17,522,000 594,725,000 1,088,133-,000

1976 23,371,000 680,393,000 2,242,898,000

1-34

Table I-1 - (Continued)
Annual Revenues from OCS Mineral Leases
(rounded off to the nearest thousand)

Year Rents ($) Royalities (S) Bonuses

1977 19,830,000 890,470,000 1,568,565,000
1978 21,513,000 1,139,198,000 1,767,042,000
1979 20,287,000 1,512,018,000 5,078,862,000
1980 19,062,000 2,132,529,000 4,204,640,000
1981 21,731,000 3,287,279,000 6,651,253,000
1982 20,055,000 3,814,872,000 3,987,490,000
1983 32,463,000 3,454,318,000 5,748,716,000
1984 35,608,000 3,914,725,000 4,037,050,000
1985 61,383,000 3,612,783,000 1,488,027,000
1986 58,135,000 2,559,661,000 187,095,000
1987* 68,529,000 2,372,563,000 497,247,000
Totals 558,585,000 33,062,685,000 53,376,638,000

Sources: Mineral Revenues--The 1986 Report on Receipts from Federal and
Indian Leases, USDOI, MMS.

Federal Offshore Statistisc--MMS 87-0008, 1985.
*Preliminary Figures

1-35

Table 1-2
Federal offshore crude oil and cond *ensate production
(thousands of barrels)

Total Percent of U.S.
Year OCS Total Population Gulf of Mexico Pacific

1954 3,342 0.14 3,342
1955 6,705 0.27 6,705
1956 11,015 0.42 11,015
1957 16,070 0.61 16,070
1958 24,769 1.01 24,769
1959 35,698 1.39 35,698
1960 49,666 1.93 49,666
1961 64,330 2.45 64,330
1962 89,737 3.35 89,737
1963 104,579 3.80 104,579
1964 122,500 4.40 122,500
1965 144,969 5-.09 .144,969
1966 188,714 6.23 188,714
1967 221,862 6,90
1968 268,996 8.08 266,936 2,060
1969 312,860 9.28. 102,919 9,941
1970 360,646 10.25 335,658 24,988
1971 418,549 12.12 387,445 31,104
1972 411,886 11.92 389,324 22,562
1973 394,730 11.74.. 375,815 18,915
1974 360,590 11.26 343,817 16,777
1975 330,237 10.80 314,932 15,305
1976 316,920 10.65 302,941 13,979
1977 303,948 10.10 291,680 12,268
1978 292,265 9.20 280,179 12,086
1979 285,566 9.15 274,605 10,961
1980 277,389 8.84 267,190. 10,199
1981 289,765 9.26 270,160 19,605
1982 321,211 10.18 292,777 28,434
1983 348,331 10.98 317,$04, 30,527
1984 370,239 11.42 339,985 30,254
1985 389, 324 12.01 359,543 29,781
1986 389,276 12.30 359,988 29,228
1987* 366,138 12.07 322,581 33,577

Source: Federal Offshore Statistics: 1985; OCS Report MMS 87-0008
*Preliminary Figures

1-36

Table 1-3
Federal offshore natural gas production
(millions of cubic feet)

Year OCS Total Production Gulf of Mexico Pacific

1954 56,325 0.64 56,325
1955 81,279 0.86 81,279
1956 82,893 0.82 82,893
1957 82,574 0.77 82,574
1958 127,693 1.16 127,693
1959 207,156 1.78 207,156
1960 273,034 2.14 273,034
1961 318,280 2.40 318,280
1962 451,953 3.26 451,953
1963 564,353 3.85 564,353
1964 621,731 4.02 621,731
1965 645,589 4.03 645,589
1966 1,007,447 5.86 1,007,447
1967 1,187,216 6.53 1,187,216
1968 1,524,178 7.89 1,524,378 800
1969 1,954,487 9.44 1,949,641 4,846
1970 2,418,677 11.03 2,406,448 12,229
1971 2,777,043 12.55 2,761,372 15,671
1972 3,038,555 13.09 3,028,521 10,034
1973 3,211,588 14.18 3,204,301 7,287
1974 :3,514,724 16.27 3,509,150 5,574
1975 3,458,693 17.20 3,454,741 3,952
1976 3,595,924 18.02 3,592,449 3,475
1977 :3,737,747 18.67 3,734,457 3,290
1978 4,385,061 21.95 4,381,589 3,472
1979 4,672,979 22.83 4,670,112 2,867
1980 4,641,457 23.10 4,638,350 3,107
1981 4,849,537 24.03 4,836,771 12,766
1982 4,679,511 25.27 4,661,760 17,751
1983 4,040,734 24.02 4,024,710 16,024
1984 4,537,841 25.09 4,510,034 27,807
1985 4,000,975 23.26 3,951,811 49,164
1986. 3,948,892 23.59 3,906,203 42,689
1987* 4,425,755 25.81 4,384,769 40,986

Source: Federal Offshore Statistics: 1985; OCS Report MMS 87-0008
*Preliminary Figures

1-37

3. Employment
The production of OCS oil and gas has been a major source of
employment and revenues in the GOM Region since 1954, particularly in
Louisiana. Approximately 130,000 jobs depend directly or indirectly
on the OCS Program-110,000 associated with activity from offshore
Louisiana and 20,000 from offshore Texas. Virtually every urban area
in coastal Texas and'Louisiana owes part of its economic base to the
offshore petroleum industry. In Louisiana, taxes paid by energy
companies account for 40 percent of the State's revenues (DOI, MMS,
1985).

In the Pacific Region, offshore oil and gas production has come
exclusively from the Southern California Planning Area. In southern
California, the infrastructure is concentrated in the Santa Barbara
and Long Beach areas. Approximately 40,000 to 60,000 jobs depend
directly or indirectly on the OCS Program.

4. National Security

Production on the OCS tends to substitute for imports. The resulting
reduction in imports has several significant consequences for national
security.

As imports decline, especially from hostile and unstable regions of
the Middle East, the potential damages caused by a supply disruption
are reduced. At the same time, the likelihood of such a disruption
being used as a political weapon against the United States is reduced
as well.

These conclusions emerge because of the importance of OCS production
in domestic energy markets. From 1978 to 1984, production of oil on
the OCS averaged about 3 million bbl of oil equivalent (includes gas
converted to BTU equivalent of oil) per day, whereas imports of
petroleum products averaged 6 million bbl per day. Thus, without the
contributions of OCS production to domestic consumption, imports could
have been about 50 percent higher.

With imports from the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
members averaging about 2 million bbl a day over the past 7 years, it
can be shown that every 4 bbl of oil produced annually on the OCS
could reduce the size of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR)
inventory by I bbl. Accordingly, without Federal offshore production,
the comparable target level of the SPR would have been 750 million
bbl, representing the inventory level necessary to achieve the same
level of supply protection as actually resulted with OCS production.
The President authorized a 750-million-barrel-size reserve in 1986.
The potential savings generated in acquisition, maintenance, and
interest charges were substantial, especially with the plunge in Gil
prices in late 1985 and most of 1986.

1-38

To the extent that OCS oil and gas contribute to a stable energy
supply for the Nation, this oil and gas also contribute to the
protection of the country from serious environmental consequences of
large oil spills from foreign tankers. The OCS production reduces the
likelihood of the United States becoming involved in armed conflicts
over oil and gas resources. Additionally, it prevents emergency
shortages during which environmental laws and considerations might, by
necessity,, be abandoned.

1-39

11. ADMINISTRATION OF THE OCS OIL AND GAS PROGRAM

A. 'rhe MMS Regulatory Program
The MMS administers the provisions of the OCSLA, as amended, through
regulations found at Title 30 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Parts 250-260. The regulations govern oil and gas leasing operations
on the OCS. In addition to regulating the conduct of operations on
the OCS, they provide for public participation in the leasing process,
including the review by and coordination with State governments,
consideration of State coastal zone management (CZM) programs,
solicitation of information from the public concerning proposed lease
sales through a Call for Information and Nominations, and comments on
environmental impact statements (EIS's). In addition, the regulations
provide for royalty payments and consultation with appropriate Federal
and State agencies to develop measures to mitigate adverse effects on
the environment.

Regulations under 30 CFR Part 251 contain the requirements for G&G
exploration for mineral resources on the OCS by persons not holding
leases. Part 251 applies not only to G&G exploration but to
scientific research as well. The purpose of these regulations is to
prescribe (1) when a permit or the filing of a notice is required to
conduct G&G exploration on the OCS and (2) operating procedures for
conducting exploration, as well as requirements for disclosing data
and information, conditions for reimbursing permittees for certain
costs, and other conditions under which exploration shall be
conducted.,

The regulations also require industry to submit to MMS an exploration
plan, which includes measures to,protect the environment. The MMS
reviews the plan, analyzes the environmental effects, and determines
appropriate mitigation before approving the plan.
Additionally, regulations require industry to submit a development and
production plan before development can occur. The MMS approves the
plan, if appropriate, taking into account environmental, technical,
and economic considerations. Many other elements of leasing
operations; are covered in the MMS regulations, which reflect the
mandates of the OCSLA, as amended.
Other Agencies, in addition to DOI, regulate specific aspects of OCS
operations. For example, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) regUlates waste discharges; the U.S. Department of
Transportation regulates occupational safety and health, the reporting
and containment of oil spills, and the design of certain pipelines and
mobile offshore drilling units; and the Department of the Army Corps
of Engineers (COE) regulates the placement of structures in navigable
waters. Affected States with approved CZM programs review exploration
and development and production plans for consistency with their
coastal management plans.

II-1

B. Stipulations, Notices, and Conditions of Approval

1. Stipulations
Special stipulations are often included in OCS oil and gas leases in
response to concerns of MMS, coastal States, fishing groups, Federal
Agencies, and others. For example, the stipulations may require
biological surveys of sensitive seafloor habitats, special
environmental training for operational personnel, special
waste-discharge procedures, archaeological resource reports to
determine potentially historic or prehistoric sites, and special
operating procedures near military bases or their zones of activity.
Lease stipulations are legally binding contractual provisions.

2. Notices to Lessees and Operators
Notices to Lessees and Operators (NTL's) are used to notify operators
within a particular OCS Region quickly about changes in MMS
administrative practices or procedures for complying with rules,
regulations, and lease stipulations. The NTL's clarify requirements
on lessees that are already established.

3. Conditions of Approval
Conditions of approval are often attached to approved permits such as
applications for permit to drill (APD's). These conditions range from
administrative matters, such as the required frequency of reports, to
technical or environmental conditions, such as requirements for the
disposal of drilling mud. In all cases, they are specific conditions
that amplify or explain a requirement in the regulations, OCS Orders,
or lease stipulations.
C. Offshore Inspection and Compliance Program
The OCSLA authorizes the MMS to inspect oil and gas operations. The
OCSLA requires that the MMS schedule onsite inspections at least once
each year of each facility on the OCS that is subject to any
environmental or safety regulation. This annual inspection includes
all safety equipment designed to prevent blowouts, fires, spillages,
or other major accidents. The OCSLA also requires that MMS conduct
periodic inspections without advance notice to the operators of such
facilities to assure compliance with environmental and safety
regulations. The MMS performs these inspections using a checklist
called the National Potential Incident of Noncompliance (PINC)
list. The PINC list is a compilation of yes/no questions derived from
all the safety and environmental requirements of the regulations and
OCS Orders. The PINC list is divided into sections for drilling,
production, environmental, production measurement, general, hydrogen
sulfide, subfreezing, pipeline, and site security requirements.

11-2

Upon detection of a viclation, the MMS issues an Incident of
Noncompliance (INC) to the operator and uses one of two enforcement
actions depending on the severity of the violation. If the violation
is not severe or threatening, a warning INC is issued. The warning
INC must be corrected within a certain amount of time. For violations
that threaten the safety of the facility or protection of the
environment, a shut-in INC is issued. The shut-in may be for a single
component, a portion of the facility, or the entire facility. The
violation must be corrected before the operator is allowed to continue
the operation in question.

D. Environmental Studies Program
The OCS Environmental Studies Program (ESP) of MMS was initiated in
1973 to support DOI's oil and gas program. The objective of the
program is to obtain information needed for the prediction,
assessment, and management of impacts on the OCS and the nearshore
area that may be affected. Since the program's inception in FY 1973
through FY 1987, more than $448 million has been spent through the ESP
on studies (figure II-I). The studies are designed to:
(1) Provide information on the status of the environment upon
which the prediction of the impacts of OCS oil and gas development may
be based.

(2) Provide information on the ways and extent that OCS
development can potentially impact the human, marine, biological, and
coastal areas.

(3) Ensure that information already available or being collected
under the program is in a form that can be used in making decisions
associated with a specific leasing action or with the longer term OCS
mineral management responsibilities.
(4) Provide a basis for future monitoring of the OCS operations.
The purpose of the ESP is to ensure that the environmental information
on which decisions are based is the most definitive that can be
assembled at the time.
Figure 11-2 summarizes expenditures by topic area since the inception
of the program in FY 1973 through FY 1986. Table II-I summarizes
expenditures by OCS Region through time.

11-3

Distribution of Total Environmental
M
Study Expenditures. 1973-1987.
In Millions

0
Ct Studies managed by
0)
H headquarters personnel
M
Alaska
$214.96
0

rt
r-
CL
FL.
M
.................
..........

Headquarters
..............
..................
$17.59
.....................
.......................
.......................
........................
........................
....................
Atlantic
M
$91.05 Pacif ic
$59.62

Gulf of Mexico
$65.39
M
OQ
F4
0
Total Expenditure: $448.61 Million

Total Studv EXDenditure
By Topic
(1973 to 1986)

0
rt

Baseline

Air Quality $3.63

Biology

rt Endangered Species
$35.21
M
v Fates and Effects $32.97

S
'I 'N'T"T
0 Geology
$6

Phys. Oceanography
$96.37
Social/Economics $20.28
Other $12.86 Total Study Budget = $425.66 million
P$@, 4-1 1 1 1 1 1 1@
$0 $20 $40 $60 $80 $100 $120 $140
Dollars (in millions)

Table II-1

Annual Environmental Study Expenditures by Region (millions)

Fiscal
Year Atlantic Gulf of Mexico Pacific Alaska HQ*

1973 0 0 0 0 0.37

19,74 0 1.21 0.12 0 0.06

1975 2.88 5.72 4.58 9.97 0.92

1976 1338 4.40 6.44 28.97 2.01

1977 9.35 7.57 4.86 21.56 1.48

1078 11.71 5.60 1.18 20.69 1.73

1979 5.14 2.86 4.64 18.11 0.55

1980 8.33 7.17 3.49 25.28 0.45

1981 9.24 4.84 3.15 19.63 0.65

1982 7.84 3.88 3.81 14.19 1.24

1983 7.84 5.48 5.20 13.18 1.86

1984 5.17 4.00 5.09 13.12 1.40

1985 5. 37 4.17 3.85 11.38 1.52

1986 2.51 2.96 7.90 10.34 1.69

*Headquarters - Washington Office

11-6

E. Coordination with Federal Agencies, State Agencies, and local
13overnments

Coordination with other governmental agencies at all levels occurs
both formally and informally. Formal mechanisms exist through
compliance with the many laws that govern the OCS. Leasing and
operation activities on the OCS are also subject to the requirements
of some 31) Federal laws administered by numerous Federal Departments
and Agencies. Among them are the following:

National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, which established
requirements for preparing environmental assessments and EIS's for
major Federal actions that could significantly affect the quality of
the human environment.

Endangered Species Act of 1973, which requires that Federal
Agencies ensure that their actions are not likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of any threatened or endangered species.
Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, which provides for
protection of marine mammals.

Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA), which provides for State
review of exploration plans and development and production plans that
affect the land and water uses of the coastal zone. The Act requires
consistency of Federal activities with federally approved CZM plans.
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, (commonly known as the Clean
Water Act), which requires that pollutants generated by OCS operations
and discharged into waters comply with the limitations and
restrictions that are included in an applicable National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit.
Ports and Waterways Safety Act, which protects navigational
safety.
Deepvater Port Act of 1974, which delegates to the Secretary of
Transportation the regulation of ports and terminals handling oil for
transportation.

Nati)nal Historic Preservation Act, which requires the
preservation of historic properties. To comply with the Act, the MMS
has developed a program to protect archaeological resources on the OCS
such as historic shipwrecks.
In addition, many sections of the OCSLA require coordination with
affected States. The MMS has issued regulations (30 CFR 250.57) to
ensure that emissions from OCS facilities do not significantly affect
the onshore air quality of any State. Section 8(g) requires
coordination between DOI and coastal States whenever a leasing
proposal includes lands within 3 mi of State waters. Section 18
requires significant participation of affected States, Federal

11-7

Agencies, and the public during the development of a 5-year leasing
program. Section 19 provides the framework for coordination and
consultation with affected States and local governments for each
proposed lease sale. Section 26 requires the Secretary of the
Interior to provide the affected States with indexes and summaries of
data to aid them in planning for the onshore impacts of OCS oil and
gas activities. Other coordination mechanisms have been developed
through the adoption of Memoranda of Understanding or Agreement with
Federal Agencies and States.

The OCS Advisory Board was established in 1975 to provide a formal
mechanism for the DOI to receive advice and recommendations from, and
to provide a forum for, coastal States, various Federal Agencies, and
public and private-sector representatives affected by or interested in
minerals development of the OCS. The following three groups comprise
the OCS Advisory Board: (1) the OCS Policy Committee, (2) the
Regional Technical Working Groups (RTWG's), and (3) the Scientific
Committee. This three-part structure provides for specialized
consideration of the policy, technical, and scientific aspects of the
OCS Program.

The Policy Committee of the board advises the Secretary of the
Interior and other officers of the DOI, through the Director of the
MMS, in the performance of its responsibilities under the OCSLA,
including all aspects of leasing, exploration, development,
production, and protection of the OCS resources. The Policy Committee
represents a public forum wherein parties, both public and private,
that are affected by OCS oil and gas activities may discuss policy
issues with the responsible DOI officials.

The RTWG's advise the Director of the MMS, through the Regional
Directors, on technical matters of regional concern regarding prelease
and postlease activities. The roles of the RTWG's range from
providing p-ublic participation opportunities for discussing technical
issues and multiple-use concerns regarding offshore mineral activities
to providing for technical review of the various MMS OCS Program
documents and recommending future environmental studies.

Finally, the Scientific Committee advises the Director of the MMS on
the feasibility, appropriateness, and scientific value of MMS's
Environmental Studies Program. The committee reviews the information
produced by the program and may recommend changes in the program's
scope, direction, or emphasis. The membership of the Scientific
Committee reflects a balance of scientific and technical disciplines
considered important to the management of the ESP.

11-8

III. ACTIVITIES ASSOCIATED WITH EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND
PRODUCTION

A. geological and Geophysical Investigations

The MMS, under the authority of 30 CFR Part 251, issues permits for
reconnaissance for mineral resources and scientific research on the
OCS. These activities include geophysical investigations (magnetic,
gravity, electrical, sidescan sonar, and seismic surveys) and
geological investigations (bottom sampling, coring, and test drilling
operations). During FY 1986, the MMS acquired 48,681 line miles of
geophysical data, down 32 percent from FY 1985. There were a total of
205 G&G permits issued in FY 1986, with 19 for Alaska, 4 for Atlantic,
166 for the GOM, and 16 for the Pacific.

1. Geological Surveying

Surveys to measure the earth's gravity field are conducted aboard
ships to obtain a conception of gross geological features of the solid
earth beneath the sea bottom of the OCS (e.g., the presence of large
sedimentary basins and a measurement of the average density of a rock
formation). Similarly, aerial surveys to measure the earth's magnetic
field are conducted to detect anomalies that may reveal geological
features of economic or other interest. These two survey methods
provide information on how physical properties of the earth's upper
crust vary vertically and laterally beneath large areas of the OCS.
The seismic reflection method involves creating seismic waves and
measuring the travel time of the waves reflected from differing rock
types. It is by far the most common geophysical survey method
employed for mapping geological structures on the OCS. Although
seismic surveys generally do not provide information on earth
properties to as great a depth as gravity.and magnetic field surveys,
they do provide more detailed information on the distribution of
geological boundaries at depth and a better resolved image of the
subsurface.

In a typical seismic survey on the OCS, an array of seismic sources
(sound wave generators) are towed behind a ship at a controlled depth.
A streamer 'consisting of a cable and arrays of pressure-sensitive
hydrophones grouped along the length of the cable is towed further
behind the ship. The hydrophone streamer is typically 2 to 3 mi in
length. Seismic waves generated by the energy sources reflect off the
seafloor and at varying depths below the seafloor to the sea surface
where they are detected by the hydrophones. Electrical signals
generated by hydrophones are then transmitted to the survey ship where
total travel times and other properties, such as amplitude and phase,
of the seismic signals are recorded on magnetic tape.
After initial field data processing aboard ship and more extensive
processing on shore, these recordings are displayed in the form of
vertical cross sections. These seismic sections are then interpreted

111-1

to identify structural features that may act as potential hydrocarbon
traps, such as sediments that are arched, folded, faulted, or intruded
by igneous rocks or by plastic-like sediments such as salt. Seismic
sections are also used to identify stratigraphic,traps as potential
reservoirs. For example, an area can be identified where oil and gas
are kept in place due to a change in the grain sizes of sediments or
where a porous rock containing hydrocarbons thins out horizontally
between layers of impermeable rock to block the route of fluids.

Travel times of the seismic waves are converted to depths to
reflecting horizons by multiplying the travel time by the velocity of
the seismic waves in the rocks. Thus, seismic sections can also
provide information on the thickness of the various strata of
sediments and the depth to drill to prospective locations in the
subbottom.

In the early years of offshore exploration, seismic waves were
generated by explosive charges detonated in the water column. Because
of the hazards of explosives to the seismic ship, crew, and marine
life, new equipment and methods evolved over the years to eliminate
the need for dynamite or similar explosives in virtually all cases.
Tests of the more modern seismic sources have shown little or no
effect on marine-life, the water column, or the sea bottom.

Other geophysical methods used on the OCS include electric surveys,
which measure natural and artificially induced electric fields, and
sidescan sonar, which maps the seafloor locating physiographic
features (such as sand waves, rock outcrops, and mud slides) and
manmade features (such as pipelines, shipwrecks, ordnance, and
cables).

2. Geological Sampling and COST Wells

To gather physical samples, which can be analyzed to assess the
likelihood of oil and gas, or other bottom data useful for engineering
and geological purposes, several methods may be employed. These
methods are divided into three types: seafloor sampling, core and
shallow drilling operations, and deep stratigraphic drilling
operations.

a. Seafloor Sampling

Seafloor sampling uses devices such as a grab, drag, or dart to
acquire a small sample of bottom sediments. Bottom samples provide
information necessary to determine engineering properties and basic
scientific information on the bottom sediments.

b. Core and Shallow Drilling Ogerations

Core and shallow drilling operations are conducted to obtain
information such as the lithology and geological age of the sediments,
engineering properties, and stratigraphic correlations. Core and

111-2

shallow test drilling can penetrate no more than 50 ft of consolidated
rock or a. total of 300 ft into the sea bottom, pursuant to 30 CFR
Part 251.

c. Deep Stratigraphic Drilling Operations

Deep stratigraphic drilling operations, using either rotary or core
drills, are those that penetrate more than 50 ft of c 'onsolidated rock
or more than 300 ft into unconsolidated sediments. These holes are
drilled on unleased lands to obtain regional geologic information as
opposed to other wells that are drilled on leased lands to find oil
and gas. (Deep stratigraphic tests are also known as COST wells.) A
geological permit for mineral exploration or scientific research must
be obtained from the appropriate MMS Region before conducting
geological surveys on the OCS. A drilling permit is required for COST
wells, in addition to a geologic permit for mineral exploration or
scientific research.

B. Exploration

1. The Exploration Process

The lessee begins the exploratory phase of lease operations based on
judgments; about the hydrocarbon potential of the lease, the
availability of rigs, and various commercial factors. As an initial
step, the! lessee conducts preliminary activities such as geological,
geophysical, cultural, and biological surveys, which provide data
necessary to develop a comprehensive exploration plan and an
environmental report. The lessee then submits the exploration plan
and environmental report to the MMS for approval. The exploration
plan describes the proposed exploratory activities in detail including
oil-spill contingency plans. The environmental report contains
additional information pertaining to support facilities and activities
and environmental aspects of the proposed operations. These documents
form the basis of an environmental analysis, which the MMS performs as
part of its review procedure.

Concurrent with MMS's technical and environmental review, the
exploration plan and environmental report are forwarded for review to
other Federal Agencies, Governors of all affected States, and other
State agencies. The State review includes coastal zone consistency
review pursuant to the CZMA. In addition, the exploration plan and
environmental report are made available for public review and comment.
Although the MMS approves an exploration plan, actual drilling cannot
begin until the lessee has submitted and received approval of an APD
which is required for each well drilled. The APD includes extensive
detail about the drilling program, with an emphasis on operational
safety and pollution prevention. It is not approved until State
concurrence with the coastal zone consistency certification is
received (or conclusively presumed).

111-3

The objective of the exploration phase is to discover oil or gas in
commercial quantities. To accomplish this, the lessee will drill one
or more wells from drilling units that can be categorized as
(1) mobile (floating) units such as drillships, semisubmersibles, and
drilling barges, and (2) bottom-founded units that are floated to the
drill site but rest on the seafloor during drilling operations.
Drilling units in the latter category are jack-ups and submersibles.
In arctic regions, wells are often drilled from gravel or ice islands
or specially designed units, such as the concrete island and the
mobile arctic caisson. A well generally will take from I to 6 months
to drill. Once the lessee knows the results, the well will be plugged
and the drilling equipment moved to a new site.

2. Eig Emplacement and Artificial Islands

Exploratory operations usually involve the use of drilling rigs,
support vessels, and helicopters. These operations are typically of
short duration--generally 4 months or less per site. Three types of
drilling rigs are generally used for exploration in ice-free waters:
jack-up rigs, semisubmersible rigs, and drillships. In areas subject
to heavy sea ice, such as in the Beaufort Sea off Alaska, artificial
islands are sometimes constructed to furnish a stable platform for
drilling.

a. Jack-Up Rigs

The typical jack-up rig is towed by boat to the drilling site with the
legs of the rig retracted--that is, extending upward out of the water.
When the rig is positioned over the drill site, the legs are jacked
down to the seafloor, and the deck is elevated above the water level
to escape wave action.

b. Semisubmersible Ri_gs

The semisubmersible rig is towed (some are self-powered) to the site
and then partially submerged to create a stable platform. The rig is
moored with lines and anchors, which may extend out a mile or slightly
more in some cases. A small number of these rigs have dynamic
positioning capabilities and do not require anchors.

c. Drillships

A drillship is a self-propelled vessel with a hole through the hull
for drilling operations. It is usually moored in place by anchors,
although, especially in deep water, drillships hold their position
over the drilling site by using a system of motor-driven propellers
called thrusters (i.e., a dynamically positioned drillship).
Operation in ice usually requires the assistance of ice-breaking
support vessels.

111-4

d. Artificial Islands

Several artificial islands have been constructed as bases for
exploratory drilling operations offshore Alaska. Usually these
islands have been constructed of sand and gravel, which are
transported over ice in the winter. The material is then dumped at
the desired location to form an artificial island. During ice-free
periods, -islands can be constructed by dredging material from the sea
bottom and delivering it to the site by barge or, if the dredge is
working nearby, by pipeline. A recent improvement in the island
building -technique involves the use of a caisson into which the sand
and gravel are pumped. This improvement leads to considerable savings
in material and less disturbance in the area where the gravel is
collected. Islands composed of ice and sunken barges have also been
used in shallow water.

e. Movable Units for Use in the Arctic

Another type of drilling platform is referred to as a Mobile Arctic
Drilling Unit. These are ice-strengthened mobile units that can be
moved from location to location. An example is the Concrete Island
Drilling System.

Drilling

Regardless of the type of drilling rig that is used, the drilling
methods are similar. A drilling derrick is located on the vessel,
rig, or island. A drill bit is attached to hollow drill pipe and
rotated by an engine (or, in some cases, an electric motor). The
rotation of the drill bit fractures the subsurface rock into chips
(cuttings). As the drilling progresses, drilling fluids are
circulated through the drill pipe and bit to remove cuttings from the
bottom of the hole, to lubricate the drill string, to provide .
hydrostatic pressure to prevent the flow-of formation fluids into
the well bore, and to support and seal the sides of the well.
Although in some cases drilling muds and cuttings are barged ashore,
in most cases they are discharged directly from the drilling rig into
the water under NPDES permits. As the well progresses, the sides of
the hole are supported by installing steel casing. Blowout preventers
are attached to the casing to close off the well in an emergency
situation, such as an unexpected change in well pressure.
C. Development and Production

I. The Development and Production Process

When an oil or gas reservoir has been discovered and its extent
determined through delineation drilling, the lessee may begin the
development and production phase of operations. A development and
production plan, including an oil-spill contingency plan and an
environmental report, is prepared by the lessee and forwarded by the
MMS to all affected States, State coastal agencies, and interested

111-5

Federal Agencies for review. The review process is similar to that
for the exploration plan. An environmental assessment is then
prepared. If the MMS determines that the approval of the development
plan would constitute.a major Federal action that would significantly
affect the quality of the human environment, an EIS is prepared.
Under the OCSLA, at least one production plan in each frontier area
must be declared a major Federal action and an EIS prepared. Actual
drilling cannot begin until the development and production plan has
been approved. There also must be an approved APD for each proposed
well. State concurrence for the coastal zone consistency
certification--which is submitted by lessees for their development and
production plans--must either be obtained or conclusively presumed.
Development and production entail installation of a platform or other
production system. In addition, onshore support facilities must be
constructed if they do not already exist. The oil and gas produced
offshore are separated and moved to shore for final processing. Gas
is transported by pipelines, whereas crude oil is moved by pipeline,
barge, or tanker to shore facilities. All platform and artificial
island installations, pipelines, and platform facilities, require MMS
approval.
A production platform may accommodate from I to almost 100 production
and injection wells and will remain in place for the life of the
reservoir or field, which could be over 30 years.

During the productive life of a field, the lessee conducts well
workover or repair operations to maintain a high production level.
Such operations usually require MMS approval. Throughout the drilling
and production phases, the MMS inspects the operations to assure
compliance with regulations. This inspection further assures
operational safety and pollution prevention. Also, MMS requires
drilling personnel involved with well control to attend training given
at MMS-certified schools.

The MMS also grants suspensions of production; sets maximum rates of
production; estimates reserves; approves unit, pooling, and drilling
agreements, when applicable; and approves applications for permission
to install pipelines both on and off a lease.

When a field can no longer be economically produced and the lease
expires, the lessee, with MMS approval, must plug and abandon all
wells and remove all equipment from the lease, including the platform
and any subsea devices.

2. Platform Emplacement
Offshore development and production activities are usually carried out
from fixed-leg platforms that form an above-water, stable working
area. Platforms consist of a deck (or decks) where drilling,
production, and other activities occur, supported by legs and cross
members that are driven into the sea bottom. Platform legs are

111-6

normally constructed onshore, barged to the final location, and sunk
into position. Pilings are driven through the legs to secure the
base, then the upper working structure is welded on. Some platforms
in deeper waters may require stabilizing because of their heights; for
example, in one case, anchors were driven into the seabed and
connected to the platform by cables.

3. Drilling

Once a platform is installed, several wells are drilled from a single
platform to develop the surrounding area. On the OCS, as many as 67
wells have been drilled from a single platform; however, the average
number is slightly more than 4. This average is highly influenced by
the smaller number of wells per platform in the GOM. The average
number of wells drilled per platform is 40 in the Pacific Region. The
drilling procedures are similar to those discussed above in the
section on exploration.

4. Discharge of Production Formation Water
Petroleum reservoirs often have water associated with the produced oil
and gas that are brought to the surface. The amount of this produced
water depends on the method of production, field characteristics, and
location. As oil and gas production from a reservoir declines, most
wells produce increasing amounts of water. The age of the production
field, therefore, can impact the quantity of water generated.

5. Pipeline Construction

There are several types of vessels used for offshore pipelaying
operations. The most common is the pipelaying barge on which the pipe
sections are welded together and laid in a continuous string from the
center or side of the barge. Newer variations to the pipelaying barge
include semisubmersible vessels, ship-shaped vessels, and reel barges
(which use, reels of pipe rather than welded, straight sections).
Barges are, anchored to hold them on site. The barge winches itself
forward allowing the pipestring to slide off the barge and sink to the
seafloor. Periodically, the anchors must be reset as the pipeline
advances.

The pipelines are usually placed in trenches to protect them from the
forces of currents and wave action in shallow water and to minimize
impacts on fish trawling activities in trawling areas. In the surf
and beach zone, pipelines are usually pulled into a prepared trench
and covered to restore the area to its original configuration.
Pipelines coming ashore and crossing wetlands use specialized
technologies that include the single ditch, double ditch, and
flotation canal methods.

111-7

6. Platform Removal

At the end of their useful life, platforms are removed, and the
surrounding seafloor is cleared of obstructions. Current technology
available for platform removal includes bulk explosives, shaped
explosive charges, mechanical cutters, and underwater arc cutters.
The use of bulk explosive charges has been the most common procedure
(about 90 percent). With this method, the pilings of the platform are
blown off below the seafloor, and the platform is loaded on barges for
transportation away from the site.

111-8

IV. POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF OCS OIL AND GAS ACTIVITIES

The possible impacts discussed in this chapter are considered
potential -impacts and are based on research; experience,in offshore
oil and gas technology; and, in some cases, knowledge derived from
actual events. It is important to note that many of these impacts
have not occurred as a result of the OCS oil and gas program, but the
descriptions of the effects are described to assist the reader in
understanding perceptions about offshore activities.

A. Fate of Oil in the Marine Environment

The nature of impacts from oil spills in the marine environment
depends largely on the nature and proportion of the oil's chemical
components (e.g., hydrocarbons present) and on the changes in this
composition as the oil weathers. Weathering ("aging") processes, in
turn, largely depend on oceanographic and meteorologic conditions at
the time of the spill (and after the spill).

Petroleum hydrocarbons include three major components: the alkanes,
or aliphatic hydrocarbons, consisting of the fully saturated normal
alkanes (paraffins) and branched alkanes; the cycloalkanes, or
saturated ring structures, also called cycloparaffins or napthenes;
and the aromatic compounds containing one or more benzene rings
connected as fused rings (e.g., napthalene) or lined rings (e.g.,
biphenyl) (National Academy of Science (NAS), 1985). Crude oils from
different sources can differ appreciably in percentage composition of
the various hydrocarbon fractions. Consequently, the possibilities
for combined chemical types are enormous, resulting in extremely
complex Mixtures of varying toxicity.

Nonhydrocarbon components of oil, which include compounds containing
sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and trace metals, generally range from 0 to
15 percent. Trace metals are present in very small concentrations in
the parts per million (ppm) range, with nickel and vanadium usually
found in the largest proportion, and cobalt, mercury, iron, and
manganese present in smaller amounts (Connell and Miller, 1980).

Weathering involves a number of physical and biochemical processes,
which change the chemistry and reduce the concentration of oil in the
environment. These processes include evaporation, dissolution,
dispersion, emulsification, sedimentation, photo-oxidation, and
biodegradation. Any or all of these processes can be expected to
affect any spilled oil. Eventually, a tarlike residue will be left,
which will break up into tar lumps or tar balls. Types of weathering
processes -and transport pathways of spilled oil at sea are depicted in
figure IV-1; their relative importance is shown in figure IV-2.

IV-1

E v a por a (-on

Photo-oxidalion

or
hi Im 2
OIL Sl.l.---K SU FA on watWr

Tarballs
0

Water in oil
ulsion

oil in water
emulsion
60
0
Pariicles (sorption)

Mixing and $111`118CO 2
return

C2.- 'I.:
-0
C@o "".0 Ir
SEDIM NT
0

Figure IV-1. Schematic representation of weathering processes and transport
paths of spilled oil at sea, adapted from Clark and MacLeod, 1977

(Boehm, 1982).

TIME (Newts)
0 too 103 10'

8
READING AND
:1
I FTING

EVAPORATION

DISSOLUTION

EMULSIFICATION

PHOTO-OXIDATION
EDIME:TATIO:
:IODEO ADATI k D11111-

TANDALL
FORMATION

Figure IV-2. Relative importance of various processes affecting oil. Line
length is the probable time span of a process; line width is the relative
magnitude of the process. Composite figure, from figures in Koons and
Wheeler (1977) and Wheeler (1978) presented in Lee (1980) and Mackay et al.

(1983).

JV-2

After the discharge of oil into water, a surface slick forms because
of the low solubility of most oil components. Currents, waves, and
winds then actto spread the oil slick into thin films (Lee, 1980).
The extent of spreading also depends greatly on the physical and
chemical nature of the particular oil (NAS, 1985).
Evaporation of the more toxic and volatile, lower-molecular-weight
hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene, toluene) from the surface film would
begin immediately after oil is spilled. The amount of oil that would
evaporate depends on the extent of spreading, temperature, wind speed,
solar radiation, and composition of the oil. Within a few days,
evaporation could remove up to about 50 percent of the oil, depending
on environmental conditions (e.g., rough seas would tend to increase
evaporation rates) (NAS, 1985). For the IXTOC I blowout offshore
Mexico, oil evaporated immediately after escaping from the well,
resulting in a nearly equivalent loss of saturated and aromatic
hydrocarbons (Boehm et al., 1981; Golob and McShea, 1981). After the
North Sea Ekofisk Bravo blowout, 35 to 40 percent of the lighter
hydrocarbon components of the oil evaporated immediately. After
12 hours, 50 percent had evaporated, and after 15 days, 68 percent had
evaporated (Haegh and Rossemyr, 1980). Similarly, after the Amoco
Cadiz spill off the coast of Brittany, France, evaporation was an
important weathering process for all the low-boiling components of the
oil, including aliphatic and aromatic compounds (Jordan and Payne,
1980). Also, Martec (1984) estimated that 75 percent of the
condensate emitted during the Uniacke G-72 incident (offshore Sable
Island, Canada), which consisted of gas and gas concentrate from an
above-surface blowout, evaporated during the first 24 hours of the
incident.

Dissolution of the low-molecular-weight, more toxic, and soluble
hydrocarbons would occur simultaneously following a spill. However,
since only, about I to 5 percent of spilled oil generally goes into
solution, evaporative processes would still predominate in the removal
of hydrocarbon components from seawater. The rate of dissolution for
the various hydro-carbon components would depend on complex
interactions between properties inherent in the oil and environmental
factors (e.g., turbulence, salinity, temperature). Generally,
dissolution would be a significant process only within the first
several hour's after a spill.
The ultimate loss from the spilled oil by evaporation and dissolution
for the IXTOC I, Uniacke G-72, and Bravo blowouts was close to
70 percent; components up to n-C14 were not detected. Although
components up to n-C22 were relatively reduced, some of this loss may
have been a result of photochemical and microbial degradation (Haegh
and Rossemyr, 1980).
In addition to dissolution, the mechanisms that may also act to
incorporate spilled oil into the water column include dispersion,
sinking, and sedimentation.

IV-3

The agitation of oil slicks by wave act,ion and the action of the surf
supply the energy to form small droplets of stable emulsions from
5 micrometers to several millimeters in size. Such droplets are then
pushed into the water column and dispersed. Dispersion of a surface
slick is an important process in determining the lifetime of the
slick. The formation of droplets increases the surface area of the
oil, thereby increasing the rates of physical, chemical, and
biological processes affecting the weathering of the oil.
The insoluble heavier hydrocarbon components of spilled crude oil can
disperse to form oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions. Oil-in-water
emulsions can be rapidly dispersed by currents to undergo enhanced
microbial degradation provided by the oil's increased surface area.
After the IXTOC I spill, oil dispersed into such droplets in the water
column to a depth of 12 meters (m) (Golob and McShea, 1981).

Water-in-oil emulsions, also known as "mousse," are more coherent and
weather slowly because of the relatively small proportion of water and
the limited supply of oxygen necessary for microbial degradation
(Connell and Miller, 1980; NAS, 1985). This stable emulsion, which
forms from within a few hours to a few days after an oil spill, floats
on the water surface and eventually can be carried ashore by wind and
waves. If there is strong, turbulent mixing, it could be driven into
the water column.

Water-in-oil emulsions are likely to cause biological harm in the form
of physical (mechanical) effects, while oil-in-water emulsions may
cause chemical (toxic) effects. Oil in dispersed droplets exhibits
slightly less toxicity than the water-soluble fraction. Consequently,
although high-molecular-weight aromatics are least degraded in oil and
show high toxicity in laboratory tests, the relative toxicity of the
lower boiling aromatics may be more important because of their
solubility in water.
Shortly after contacting the sea surface, oil from both the IXTOC I
and Bravo blowouts formed viscous emulsions of approximately 70
percent water and 30 percent oil, similar to the emulsion formed
following the Amoco Cadiz spill (Golob and McShea, 1981; Haegh and
Rossemyr, 1980). Weathering of the latter oil mass was accelerated by
the formation of a sheen in the surface microlayer of the mass, which
then underwent a greater degree of evaporation and/or photo-oxidation
than the underlying mass. However, oil injected into the water
column remained there for significant periods of time (Boehm et al.,
1981). Whether the oil remains entrained in the water column depends
on droplet size, buoyancy of the oil, and water column hydrography.
Oil spilled at or near the water surface would generally tend to
remain in the surface layers of the water column. However, whole oil
in the form of mousse or tar could become heavier than the surrounding
water and sink until encountering a density or thermal boundary strong
enough to inhibit penetration (Walter and'Proni, 1980).

IV-4

Under the circumstances of a subsurface release of oil, as may occur
from a pipeline rupture or an undersea well blowout, a subsurface oil
plume may form. Fiest and Boehm (1980) and Walter and Proni (1980)
examined the characteristics of the IXTOC I blowout occurring at an
approximate depth of 48 m (157 ft). They determined that a
significant quantity of the oil released by the subsurface plume
formed oil droplets suspended in a mixed layer at a depth of 5-20 m.
The subsurface petroleum hydrocarbons, representing approximately
3 percent of the introduced oil, were trans- ported by ocean currents
(Boehm and Fiest, 1982). An oceanic frontal system may have acted as
a barrier to the lateral transport of the oil plume and may also have
acted as a conduit for the subsurface movement of oil along the
frontal axis. Within 5 kilometers (km) of the wellhead, the
subsurface plume was made up of oil droplets greater than 0.45 microns
and had petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations greater than 600 parts
per billion (ppb). Such whole oil was found at concentrations greater
than 20 ppb at 20-meter depths within 25 km of the well (Fiest and
Boehm, 1980). Although there appeared to be other, unidentified
processes controlling the movement of the surface slick, the
subsurface plume was, for the most part, aligned with the surface
slick.

Water samples taken from the IXTOC I subsurface plume were
considerably enriched in light aromatic hydrocarbons relative to other
aromatic components, presumably due to the presence of considerable
quantities of soluble, solubilized, or colloidal material in the
water. The fact that the subsurface oil could be characterized by a
different chemistry and weathering regime implies that the subsurface
oil was a "fresh" oil plume which had remained subsurface since its
discharge and in which evaporative loss of aromatics was greatly
decreased (Fiest and Boehm, 1980). Of particular importance is the
fact that increased concentrations of some of the more toxic
components appeared in the water column. The concentrations of
individual hydrocarbons in the dissolved fraction (0.01-3 ppb),
measured in the study by Fiest and Boehm (1980) on oil in the water
column following the IXTOC I blowout, appeared to lie below the toxic
range, even in the acute impact zone. However, the total
concentration of waterborne, low-molecular-weight aromatics (alkyl
benzenes and naphthalene compounds) in water fell in the 0.5-500 ppb
range, and concentrations of total waterborne oil dispersions were in
the 100-10,000 ppb range.
Absorption processes are characterized by oil associating with
particulate material in the water column. For example, in the case of
the IXTOC I blowout, in several instances, particulate-bound oil was
found where surface slicks were not readily apparent (Payne et al.,
1980). To explain this occurrence, it was hypothesized that once oil
had been absorbed onto particulates, it was then subject to subsurface
horizontal and vertical transport and could be transported a
considerable distance before settling to the bottom. Payne et al.
(1980) reviewed the literature and found that particulate/oil

IV-5

interactions are dominant processes in the ultimate disposition of
petroleum.
Sedimentation processes within shallow areas could remove dispersed
oil from the water column to the bottom by absorption into clays,
fine-suspended sediments, or organic materials. Sedimentation would
not be an important process in most open-ocean areas since these areas
have relatively low concentrations of suspended particulates and
dynamic oceanographic forces prevail. However, in coastal or other
shallow areas where concentrations of suspended material are high,
sedimentation would quickly remove dispersed oil. In addition,
zooplankton fecal pellets have been found to transport ingested oil
droplets to the bottom sediments (Geyer, 1980). Lee (1980) mentions
that "The bottom sediments are the ultimate sinks for undegr-aded oil."
However, just as sedimentation may remove oil from the water column,
sediment resuspension (6.g., during a storm in shallow water) may, in
turn, reintroduce the oil into the water column to some degree.
The processes discussed thus far distribute oil spilled within the
marine environment into different phases (i.e., air or water) but do
not actually degrade the oil. Degradation is accomplished primarily
by photo-oxidation and microbial degradation.
Photo-oxidation involves energy from sunlight in the presence of
oxygen transforming hydrocarbons into oxygenated compounds (e.g.,
carboxylic acids, benzoic acid, alcohols, ketones, phenols).
Photo-oxidation would produce highly soluble end products in the water
column below the slick. Some end products, however, have been found in
the laboratory to be more toxic than the original products, and some
(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) have been found to be carcinogenic
agents. Larson (1977), however, found that although fuel oil was
photo-oxidized and produced toxic materials in the water phase,
comparable tests on crude oil showed no photo-oxidation, presumably
because of natural inhibitors in the oil (Lloyd, Shell Offshore Inc.,
personal communication, December 10, 1982). The production of toxic
products as a'result of photo-oxidation in the natural marine
environment has not, as yet, been reported.

Because of the time needed for the initiation of microbial degradation
of oil slicks, which generally have short lifetimes, it is assumed
that microbial degradation is less important than other processes in
removing an oil slick. However, once the oil is dispersed into fine
droplets or particles in the water or deposited on sediment, microbial
degradation becomes important (Lee, 1980). Microbial processes would
transform hydrocarbons to more soluble oxidized products. Eventually,
those compounds would be completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and
water. However, following the IXTOC I spill, biodegradation was
nearly inoperative in the open ocean. The primary reason appeared to
be related to the low concentrations of nutrients in the underlying
water (Atwood and Ferguson, 1982). In comparison, microbial
degradation played an important role in the weathering of oil spilled
during the Amoco Cadiz incident (Gundlach et al., 1983).

IV-6

Finally, after evaporation and dissolution and after emulsification,
photo-oxidation and microbial degradation act on an oil slick, the
viscous residue remaining in the water would form tar lumps or balls
in the water column. Tar balls generally contain higher molecular
weight hydrocarbons and oxygenated sulfur-containing compounds (e.g.,
asphaltene.s). As much as 0 percent of a crude oil spill could remain
as such a residue. Since tar balls resist microbial degradation,
their lifetime could be several months to years (Geyer, 1980).
Oil from the IXTOC I spill persists as tar reefs along the Texas
coast. It has been estimated that 5 to 10 percent of the petroleum
hydrocarbons existing as pelagic tar in the eastern GOM originated
from IXTOC I. At least 50 percent of this pelagic tar is thought to
have originated from the operational discharge of crude,oil tanker
washings (Oil Spill Intelligence Report, vol. VI, no. 24, June 24,
1983).

B. Oil Spills
Table IV-1 lists the number and volume of oil spills as a result of
oil and gas operations on the OCS. The primary source of data is the
OCS Events File of the MMS. Operators conducting oil and gas
operations are required to report information regarding oil spills to
the MMS through their respective OCS Region.

IV-7

Table IV-1
Number and volume of spills reported to the Minerals Management
Service each year for the OCS, by Region, 1966-1986, in barrels.

Spills >1- 50 bbl Spills 51-1000 bbl Spills of >1000 bbl
Year Number Volume Number volume Number Volume
Gulf of Mexico
1967 1 65 1 160,638
1968 1 85 6,000
1969 2 100 5 855 2 10,032
1970 8 171 3 723 2 83,000
1971 267 1,331 7 1,110 0 0
1972 204 899 1 100 0 0
1973 178 856 2 334 3 21,935
1974 80 530 5 590 2 23,333
1975 109 495 2 266 0 0
1976 66 307 3 796 1 4,000
1977 71 462 3 620 0 0
1978 79 389 3 1,139 0 0
1979 114 654 3 546 1 1,500
1980 50 296 8 1,170 1 1,456
1981 65 365 4 328 1 5,10.0
1982 70 332 3 842 0 0
1983 91 613 9 1,939 0 0
1984 59 280 1 100 0 .0
1985 66 419 5 1,194 .0 0
1986 51 331 1 5 2 0 0
Alaska"''
1985 1 -- -- -- -- --
Atlantic
1978 1 2
1983 2 24 -- -- --
Pacific
1969 -- -- 1 900 1 10,000**
1972 0 10,325
1973 0 1,825
1974 0 1,460
1975 0 1,460
1976 1 2 0 1,458
1977 1 4 0 1,458
1978 -- -- 0 1,456
1979 1 2 0 1,456
1980 2 7 0 1,456
1981 10 75 0 1,456
1982 1 3 0 1,456
1983 4 25 0 912
1984 3 36 0 730
1985 3 9 0 365
1986 3 12 0 365

Data taken from the MMS OCS Events File as of 10/8/87.
Note: Spilled oil consists of processed, nonprocessed, unidentified
oil and condensate. Those years where no spills were reported are not
shown.

** Column shows initial spill for the Santa Barbara blowout of Platform
A of 10,000 bbl for the first 10 days (January 1969) and the continual
subsurface seepage. The 1972 figure includes seepage between 2/7/69 and
12/31/72.

IV-8

Data on oi'l spills of I bbl (42 gallons) or less have not been
included in this discussion for two main reasons: (1) It is not
likely that such small spills will significantly impact the
environment, and (2)lIt is difficult to determine the real volume of
such small spills. Generally, spills of 1 bbl or less have run about
1,000 per year in the most active Region, the GOM. The long-term
chronic effect of such spills may not be insignificant, but, to the
present, data related to this concern are not conclusive (NRC, 1985).
Chronic spills of this type are practically nonexistent in other
Regions due mainly to limited OCS activity.

The Santa Barbara blowout of Platform A in January 1969 attracted much
media attention. This was a subsurface blowout with seepage estimates
of 10,000 to 71,500 bbl for the first 10 days. Seepage has continued,
as indicated in table IV-1, with seepage declining to a current
estimate of approximately 365 bbl per year. It has been, therefore, a
continuous subsurface spill that is currently decreasing.
The Allan Hancock Foundation at the University of Southern California
performed a'series of yearlong studies to examine the effects of the
Santa Barbara Platform A blowout on various trophic levels and
habitats of the Santa Barbara Channel. All of the major areas of
concern were studied. These included primary productivity,
zooplankton, benthic fauna, sandy beaches, intertidal areas,
fisheries, cetaceans, pinnipeds, seabirds, and the general ecology
(Straughan, Dale, ed., 1971).
Significant mortality was suffered by bird populations (estimated at
slightly over 3,600 by the California Department of Fish and Game),
the intertidal barnacle Chthamalus fissus, the marine grass
PhyllosDadix torreyi, and the alga Hesperophycus harveyanus.
Documented mortality suffered by other species or inhabitants could be
attributed to other sources or to a combination of oil and other
impacts. As of November 1970, less than 2 years after the initial
spill, most intertidal areas appeared to have returned to a normal
population status. The only sublethal effect was the reduction in
breeding by the barnacle Pollicipes polymerus in localized areas.

1. Impacts of Oil Spills on the Coastal Environment
An oil spill that reaches shore will impact the coastline. Rocky
shores may be coated with oil that will smother or otherwise damage
much of the intertidal community. Recovery from this damage should
begin within a year, especially in areas of moderate to high tidal
activity. Sandy beaches may become coated with oil, and oil may
penetrate and become lodged beneath the surface. Depending on the
amount of oil, this coating would result in a loss of recreational use
until the spill had been cleaned up. In cases of heavy contamination,
beaches can usually be cleaned with heavy equipment such as
earthmovers. Recovery time depends greatly on the intensity of wave
action and grain size of the beach and, in some cases, the amount of
sand removed (by bulldozer or other means) from a beach during the

IV-9

cleanup process. In estuaries, some floating oil will encounter
suspended particulate matter and sink to the bottom. Exposed
intertidal areas may become coated with oil. Vegetation in wetlands
may become coated with oil and killed if oiling is severe.
Persistence of oil in estuaries and wetlands varies from a single
season to many years, the latter especially in a cold climate.
2. Impacts of Oil Spills on Water Quality
Water quality is altered and degraded by oil spills through the
increase of, primarily, petroleum hydrocarbons (alkanes, cycloalkanes,
and aromatic compounds) and their various transformation/degradation
products. The extent of impact from a spill depends on the behavior
and fate of oil in the water column (e.g., movement of oil and rate
and nature of weathering) which, in turn, depend on oceanographic and
meteorological conditions at the time. The impacts of the spilled oil
also depend on the types of organisms and habitats affected.
The fate and effects of spilled oil from OCS/dperations have been
reviewed recently by NAS (1985) and Boesch and Rabalais (1985).
Instances where spilled oil was extensi,vely distributed throughout the
water column (e.g., the IXTOC I wellhead blowout, a non-United StatE!S
operation) and where it persisted in the water in high concentrations
for months (e.g., Amoco Cadiz tanker grounding) have been noted (Boehm
and Fiest, 1982; Teal and Howarth, 1984). However, no extensive and
long-lasting impacts on water quality specifically resulting from
United States OCS oil and gas operations have been identified.
3. Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Biota
Short-term effects resulting in biological loss occur from an oil
spill by direct kill through coating and asphyxiation; by contact
potsoning or incorporation of water-soluble carcinogenic or mutagenic
components of the oil; or by destruction of the generally more
sensitive juvenile forms of organisms or of the food source of higher
trophic species; and by modification of habitats, delaying or
preventing recolonization (Blumer, 1971).
4. Impacts of Oil Spills on Lower Trophic Organisms
Lower trophic organisms considered in this assessment include
phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthic invertebrates. Potential
impacts of spilled oil on phytoplankton, as summarized by NAS (1985),
include direct mortality, depression of photosynthesis, and inhibition
of growth. At low concentrations of oil, however, phytoplankton
growth may be enhanced (Gordon and Prouse, 1973). This enhancement
most likely is the phytoplankton's response to low levels of a
pollutant that triggers an increase in the rate of reproduction. To
date, there.have been no reports of mass toxicity to phytoplankton in
the marine environment caused by spilled oil or chronic oil input
(NAS, 1985). Effects of oil on zooplankton include direct mortality
due to lethal toxicity or physical coating, abnormal development of

IV-10

fish embryos, lowered feeding and reproductive rates, and abnormal
metabolic rates (NAS, 1985). Such effects, however, are not
significant on a population or community level in the open waters of
the OCS where the zooplankton quickly recover because of their wide
distribution and rapid regeneration rates (NAS, 1985). Potential
impacts of' oil on benthic invertebrates include mortality due to
smothering, lethal toxic effects, and sublethal toxic effects such as
altered metabolism, feeding, and reproductive rates (NAS, 1985).
Intertidal and shallow subtidal invertebrates, especially those in
low-energy environments such as lagoons, marshes, and estuaries, are
more vulnerable to potential oil-spill impacts due to elevated oil
concentrations likely to be encountered in these environments
following an oil spill (NAS, 1985). There is evidence that benthic
invertebrate populations may be perturbed by spilled oil for several
years (Elmigren et al., 1983; and Gilfillan and Vandermeulen, 1978).
Although some researchers have speculated that arctic or polar species
may be more sensitive to petroleum hydrocarbons than temperate
species, there is no evidence that such differences exist (NAS, 1985).
Polar organisms demonstrate the same variability in sensitivity to
petroleum hydrocarbons, over the same concentration range, as
organisms from other latitudes (Percy, 1981).

5. Impacts of Oil Spills on Birds

Birds that spend much time on the sea surface (e.g., shearwaters,
cormorants, seaducks, and alcids) are especially vulnerable to oil
spills (King and Sanger, 1979). Mortality results primarily from
hypothermia (excessive heat loss), as oil mats the plumage destroying
the thermal barrier. Direct contact by birds with oil of appreciable
amounts is usually fatal. Information on mortalities of birds
resulting from 12 separate oil-spill incidents (none are OCS related)
is summarized in Oil in the Sea (NAS, 1985, p. 433).
Abnormalities in bird reproductivity, physiology, and behavior
resulting from ingestion of oil (Hartung and Hunt, 1966; Stickel and
Dieter, 1979; Ainley et al., 1981; Holmes, 1984; Peakall et al., 1981;
and Gorsline and Holmes, 1982) potentially could have substantial
adverse effects on egg production in seabird and waterfowl
populations. In addition, transfer of oil from adults to eggs results
in reduced hatchability, increased incidence of deformities, and
reduced growth rates in young (Grau et al., 1977; Albers, 1978; and
Szaro et al., 1978). Holmes et al. (1978) have shown that stress from
ingested oil can be additive to ordinary environmental stress
(e.g., low temperature). Presumably, the effects of oiling would be
also more severe when birds are in environmental stress (e.g.,
insufficient food supply) or physiological stress (e.g., molting).

6. Imgacts of Oil Spills on Fish
Adult pelagic fish are, for the most part, able to avoid spilled,
floating oil in open-water areas by swimming away from the affected

IV-11

region. However, other stages of thefish life cycle are more
susceptible to acute biological loss. Fish eggs and larvae are
vulnerable to oil damage in the open-water environment as they float
along. Teal and Howarth (1984) have reported fishkillt, mortality of
fish eggs and larvae, spawning inhabition, slower growth rates, and
declines in fish catches in areas of major oil spills. Spills
reaching nearshore bays, and spawning or breeding grounds, could have
serious detrimental effects (NAS, 1985). In 1987, a tanker spill in
Cook Inlet (not OCS related) caused a shut down of a large portion of
the salmon fishing district. Additionally, large amounts of oil
tainted salmon were destroyed by the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation. However, there is no evidence that
commercially important fish stocks have been significantly affected by
spills or chronic oil pollution. The effects may be masked by natural
fluctuations in popula tions and our present crude stock assessment
methods (NAS, 1985).
According to Evans and Rice (1974), the impacts on fishery resources
from oil pollution are (1) killing organisms through coating and
asphyxiation; (2) killing organisms through contact poisoning;
(3) killing organisms through exposure to water soluble toxic
components of oil at some distance in space and time from the
accident; (4) destroying the generally more sensitive juvenile
organisms; (5) destroying sources of food and shelter;
(6) incorporating sublethal amounts of oil and oil products into
organisms (resulting in reduced resistance to infection and other
stresses); (7) incorporating carcinogenic and potentially mutagenic
chemicals into marine organisms; and (8) introducing low-level effects
that may interrupt any of numerous behavioral stimuli (such as prey
location, predator avoidance, mate location, other sexual stimuli, and
homing behavior) necessary for the propagation of the species and for
those species higher in the marine food web.
The NAS (1985) has published a complete review and synthesis of
information on the input, fates, and effects of oil in the marine
environment. Summary information is also available in the review
paper by Anderson et al. (1986) and the report edited by Boesch and
Rabalais (1985). The MMS has conducted a number of relevant studies
on this topic including laboratory and field experiments, literature
reviews and syntheses, and numerical modeling studies.
The damage from an oil spill will 'depend on a number of factors,
including (1) amount of oil spilled; (2) how much weathering the oil
experiences before contacting fish, larvae, or eggs; (3) the depth at
which the various life stages are found, since the concentrations and
composition of oil decrease rapidly with depth; (4) how large an area
is affected; and (5) the toxicity of the oil (refined products are
generally more toxic).

IV-12

7. Impacts of Oil Spills on Turtles

Offshore oil spills could seriously affect sea turtles, especially
juveniles. Sea turtles must come to the surface to breathe and could
contact floating oil. Some evidence indicates that sea turtles,
especially juveniles, are transported by passive drift and are
associated with density shear lines and sargassum weed. This
association could prolong their exposure to a large oil slick
transported in a similar manner. Sea turtles, especially juveniles,
will snap at or attempt to swallow any object of appropriate size,
such as tar balls. Ingestion of tar balls has been recorded and could
result in mortality. The volatile, soluble, and tar fractions of an
oil spill could affect the lungs of sea turtles, reducing ventilation
and reducing time for feeding. Ingestion of oil could affect the
gastrointestinal tract by reducing absorption. Oil coating of head
and eyes could affect the orbital salt glands', which may upset many
physiological processes. Oil *spills contacting a turtle nesting beach
during egg incubation or hatching periods could cause significant
turtle mortality (Fritts and McGhee, 1981).

8. Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Mammals

Direct contact with spilled oil may cause mortality in some marine
mammals and have no apparent long-term effect on others, depending on
such factors as species, age, and physiological status of the animal.
Sea otters, fur seals, and newly born seal pups are likely to suffer
direct mortality from oiling through loss of fur water-repellency and
subsequent loss of insulative capacity resulting in hypothermia. Of
the above species, sea otters are probably the most sensitive to
oiling because they rely almost entirely on their fur for insulation,
whereas fur seals and other pinniped pups possess some subdermal fat
layers, depending on age and physiological status (Ling, 1974, and
Kooyman et al., 1976). However, Kooyman et al. (1976) also report
that oiling of northern fur seals reduces their ability to
thermoregulate by as much as 50 percent, and such physiological stress
can often lead to death. Adult harbor, ribbon, and spotted seals and
walrus are likely to suffer some temporary adverse effects such as eye
and skin irritation, with possible infection. Such effects may
increase physiological stress and perhaps contribute to the death of
some individuals (Geraci and Smith, 1976; Geraci and St. Aubin, 1979).
Deaths attributable to oiling are likely to occur during periods of
natural stress; for example, during molting, times of fasting, food
scarcity, and disease infestations.
Contact with oil spills could interfere with the olfactory sense in
marine mammals. Hydrocarbons in the water column or in the sediments
could affect possible chemoreception in marine mammals. Oiling of
pinniped fur may mask olfactory recognition of young pups by nursing
females. The sense of smell has been reported to be important in
harbor seal mother-pup bonds (Renouf et al., 1983) and is probably
important in other seals. Benthic feeders, such as,walrus, may rely

IV-13

on chemoreception for locating food. Contamination of bottom
sediments may interfere with prey identification in contaminated
habitats.

Oil ingestion by marine mammals through grooming, nursing, or
consumption of contaminated prey could have pathological effects,
depending on the species and physiological state of the animal.
Although research indicates that ringed seals, and probably other
pinnipeds, rapidly absorb oil in body fluids and tissues, ingestion of
relatively large quantities of oil for a short period of time showed
no apparent acute organ damage (Geraci and Smith, 1976). However,
with longer periods of ingestion, accumulation could increase.
Ingestion of large amounts of oil may have serious acute effects, as
demonstrated with polar bears. Englehardt (1981) reported the deaths
of two polar bears due to renal failure and dysfunction of red blood
cell production after the bears were heavily coated with crude oil
and, subsequently, ingested large amounts of oil while grooming.

9. Impacts of Oil Spills on Whales

Observed or projected effects of oil on endangered whales based on
laboratory research and/or conjecture (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1985;
Goodale et al., 1981; and Gruber, 1981) are (1) a mild deleterious but
reversible effect on the skin; (2) possible eye irritation, which
would be reversible unless exposure was prolonged; (3) possible
short-term baleen fouling with possible feeding reduction for 1 or
2 days; (4) possible blowhole fouling and death due to respiratory
stress for very young animals in heavy oil; and (5) temporary food
reduction or contamination, and oil ingestion. Potential but unlikely
effects include (1) possible mortality due to respiratory stress;
(2) possible mortality to young or already stressed animals
immediately after a spill, due to ingestion of oil or
inhalation of vapors; and (3) possible mortality due to stress if
individuals are already stressed. Mortality due to an oil spill has
not been verified for any cetacean.

C. Manmade Structures

1. Onshore Manmade Structures

Onshore manmade structures refer to shore and landing facilities or
structures that are needed to support OCS-related oil and gas
activities. There could be a need for the following types of onshore
structures or facilities.

(1) Oil and gas treating facilities,

(2) Crude oil storage tanks,
(3) Supply and crew boat bases,
(4) Onshore oil and gas pipelines,

IV-14

(5) Temporary support bases for onshore and
offshore pipeline installation activities, and

(6) Airports (existing) for helicopter support
activities.

Most of these facilities already exist in OCS-related oil and gas
producing areas.

Direct, impact-producing agents resulting from these onshore manmade
structures include space-use conflicts, air emissions, and temporary
beach disturbance.

2. Offshore Manmade Structures

Significant impact-producing agents related to manmade structures are
described below.

a. Exploratory Activity--Short-term Presence

Exploratory operations usually involve the use of a drilling rig,
support vessels (crew, supply, or tug boats), and helicopters. These
operations are typically short term, lasting approximately 4 months
per well, per site.

Generally, three types of drilling rigs are used for exploratory
operations: jack-up rigs, semisubmersible rigs, and drillships.
A typical jack-up rig may be about 200 ft (61 meters) long, and it is
towed onto the drilling site by tug boats. The legs are jacked down to
the ocean bottom. The rig remains floating until the legs are
properly placed on the bottom, and the rig deck is elevated about 30
ft above -the water level. Thp primary power onboard the rig is
furnished by several diesel generators.
A typical semisubmersible drilling unit is a self-propelled 290-foot
(90-meter) drilling rig. The primary equipment on the rig includes
eight 30,000-pound (13,500-kilogram) anchors, two 50-ton cranes, and a
160-foot (49-meter) derrick. Propulsion for the vessel is furnished
by twin propellers, each typically driven by six 850-horsepower
electric motors.

A typical drillship is a self-propelled, 459-foot (140-meter) vessel.
The vessel is moored with an eight-point wire-line system using eight
30,000-pound (13,600-kilogram) anchors, or it can be dynamically
positioned with thrusters. Each anchor is marked by a welded steel
cylindrical anchor buoy, 10.5 ft long and 8 ft in diameter. A
142-foot derrick is situated in the center of the vessel with two
nearby working cranes.

IV-15

Direct, impact-producing agents of exploratory operations are as
follows: (1) vessel anchorage, (2) drilling process, (3) discharges,
(4) noise, and (5) vessel presence.
Vessel anchorage would affect the organisms inhabiting the ocean
bottom, particularly in rocky and mud-clay bottom areas. As anchors
are lowered onto the substrate, epifauna, epiflora, and infauna would
be crushed either by the anchor itself or by the anchor chains. When
the anchors are removed, they are sometimes dragged toward the
drillship, crushing organisms along the way. However the standard
method of retrieval is for work,or tug boats to pick up the anchors
and carry them back to the drill vessel. Anchors have also caused mud
mounds, trenches, or scars. Anchors could also affect archaeological
resources such as historic shipwrecks or aboriginal sites. The
likelihood of such impacts are reduced, however, by MMS requirements
for archaeological surveys.
The drilling process itself is a direct, impact-producing agent. A
typical well is begun with the drilling or jetting with seawater of a
surface hole (usually 30 to 36 inches (in) in diameter) to a depth of
100 to 350 ft. The materials (drill cuttings) that result from these
first several hundred feet are discharged directly to the ocean
bottom. Subsequent cuttings are returned to the drill vessel and
discharged from there. Structural casing is then cemented to the
bottom surface. Progressive sections of the hole are drilled with
progressively smaller drill bits. Thus, the actual volume of cuttings
that is discharged steadily decreases with increasing well depth.
Other discharges to the bottom and water column include drill muds and
formation water.
Discharges to the air result from the mechanical operation (diesel
engines) of the drilling process. These discharges include sulfur
dioxide nitrous oxides and particulates.
Activity on and around drilling equipment generates noise both above
and below the water surface. Beneath the water, noise can carry for
long distances, possibly masking natural communication sounds between
animals and possibly preventing some' species from using large areas
around offshore operations.
Another direct, impact-producing agent of exploratory operations is
the presence of the drilling rig itself. However, this activity is
only temporary in nature (generally, duration is less than 4 months)
during exploratory operations.
Commercial fishing (trawling) is temporarily displaced at any site
occupied by a drilling rig. Generally, the spatial reduction of
fishing depends upon the water depth of the wells and is about twice
the area taken by the drilling rig or is within the boundary of the
anchor scope radius. Thus, one typical rig could preclude fishing
from an area of up to 500 acres.

IV-16

Vessel presence could result in navigational hazards -to@other vessels
under certain adverse conditions. These adverse conditions include
periods of high sea state and periods of reduced visibility (e.g.,
during fog, rain). Exploratory operations must comply with applicable
MMS operating orders and all U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) safety,
navigation, and notification requirements.
b. Development Activity--Platform and Subsea Pipelines

(1) Installation Operation--Short-term Presence

(a) Platforms
Platform installation operations usually involve the use of barges,
crew boats, supply boats, tug boats, helicopters, and the platform
itself. Platforms are generally fabricated at onshore platform
fabrication yards and transported to the offshore site by barge for
installation. Platform jackets are launched from a launch barge and
lowered to the ocean bottom by controlled flooding. Steel pilings are
driven to the desired depth through the jacket legs. The platform is
,leveled, grouted, and welded in place to each of the piles. Platform
installation generally requires a few weeks, and the total offshore
construction time is about 6 months.

Direct, impact-producing agents that are associated with platform
installation operations are vessel anchorage, vessel presence, and air
emissions from barges, cranes, etc. These impact-producing agents are
similar to those associated with exploratory operations.

(b) Subsea Pipeline
Installation activities usually involve the use of an installation
barge and support vessel (crew, supply, or tug boats). These
operations are short term and usually last less than 10 days. The
time would vary, depending on the length of pipeline to be installed
and weather conditions.

A number of different methods are presently available to install
offshore pipelines. Pipelines are initially prepared for installation
either at an offshore pipeline lay-site on a pipeline lay barge or at
an offshore facility, then towed to the lay-site by a reel barge,
surface tow, or bottom tow method.

Direct, impact-producing agents that are associated with subsea
pipeline installation operations include impacts from vessel anchorage
and vessel presence, similar to those associated with exploratory
operations. A major difference is as follows: exploratory operations
take place at a stationary location (e.g., the well site); the
installation activities of subsea pipelines take place over a much
greater distance (i.e., the pipeline route). Thus, the potential
impacts -from vessel anchorage (e.g., anchor scars) or vessel presence
would be distributed over a much greater area but for shorter periods

IV-17

of time at any specific location. Pipeline burial operations,
abandoned buoys, air emissions, and blasting in rocky areas are also
short-term, direct impact-producing agents.
(2) Long-term Presence of Offshore Structures---
Platforms Pipelines, Single Anchor Leg Moorings,
Subsea Wellheads, Gravel Causeways

The previous section concentrated on short-term activities:
exploratory, installation, and/or construction operations. This
section describes the long-term OCS-related oil and gas activities
(i.e., lasting for periods of 20 to 40 years). These long-term
activities involve the actual presence of structures and their
associated discharges and emissions. Impacts to the offshore
structures could result in an oil spill. Once installed, offshore
platforms become a quasi-permanent feature of the OCS area.
The visual impact of offshore oil and gas drilling rigs and platforms
is determined by the actual size of the offshore facilities, the
elevation of the observer, the distance from shore to the offshore
facility, and atmospheric conditions. On perfectly clear days, the
curvature of the Earth will obstruct the lower portion of offshore
facilities from coastal observers. The farther offshore the facility
is located, the more the curvature of the Earth will reduce the
visible portion of the base of the offshore facility. The highest
point on offshore facilities is the light atop the drilling mast.
About 260 ft is usual maximum height on offshore facilities, and 300
ft is an estimate for the maximum height of any offshore facility.
The curvature of the Earth obstructs the view of even the top of the
drilling mast 300 ft above the water line when the facility is located
26 mi from the shore. However, if the coastal observer has an
elevation of 400 ft above the shoreline (e.g., the top floor of
a high-rise hotel or condominium), the maximum distance that the light
atop a 300-foot drilling mast could theoretically be seen is 49 mi
from the shore. Thus, on a perfectly clear night it may be possible
to see the light atop the drilling mast when the offshore facility is
located 26 mi offshore for an observer at sea level or 49 mi for an
observer atop a high-rise complex.
The apparent size of offshore facilities is, perhaps, a more important
factor in determining the visual impacts of offshore facilities.
Apparent size is the comparison of how big the offshore facility
appears next to objects held in the hand. Even a large offshore
facility located, for example, 2.8 mi from shore has an apparent size
of about one half inch--the size of a dime. Another example which
could be used is Platform Harvest, located approximately 10 mi
offshore and standing about 266 ft above the water line. The apparent
size of this platform at arms length is less than one eighth of an
inch.
Platform presence could also cause navigational hazards to other
vessels under certain adverse weather conditions. These adverse

IV-18

conditions; include periods of high sea state and periods of reduced
visibility (e.g., during fog, rain). On the other hand, platform
presence could provide a benefit for safe navigation by serving as a
navigational aid.
Commercial trawling space will be displaced at any site occupied by a
platform. Platforms may occupy up to 7 acres; however, the average
platform occupies about I acre. This space would not be available for
trawling, but would be available for other types of commercial fishing
(e.g., snapper fishing) and for sport fishing.
The platform itself may serve as an artificial reef, attracting a
community of attached organisms and those that would use it as
shelter, as well as those that would feed on the attracted organisms.
In the GOM, extensive use of oil and gas structures is made by scuba
divers and recreational fishermen.
The long-term presence of an unburied subsea pipeline on the ocean
bottom could conflict with commercial trawling operations. The MMS
requires, however, that pipelines be compat-ible with fishing
operations. Invertebrates and macrophytes; (seaweeds) will settle onto
this new substrate rapidly following the platform's installation.
These organisms develop quickly and serve as an attractive food source
for offshore fish populations.
All natural gas produced on the OCS is considered interstate and,
thus, comes under the purview of the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission (FERC). To build a pipeline to transport OCS-produced
natural gas, a Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity from
FERC must The obtained. In its application to FERC, the pipeline
company mus;t show how the construction and operation of its proposed
facility will conform to State and local laws, permit requirements,
and policies. According to FERC's guidelines, the construction and
maintenance of facilities authorized by certificates granted under
Section (7)(c) of the,Natural Gas-Act should be undertaken in a manner
that will minimize adverse effects on scenic, historic, wildlife, and
recreational values. These guidelines also recognize that the
construction of pipeline facilities are compatible with existing State
and regional land development plans. The FERC may hold public
hearings on a proposed right-of-way before granting its approval.
Gas pipelines are generally buried to prevent damage from anchors and
fishing gear (in the Pacific Region pipelines are only buried through
the surf-zone because of a higher potential for earthquake activity).
Trenching s;oft soil, such as the sands in the north Atlantic, to a
depth of approximately 2 m disturbs the sediments up to about 9 m on
either side of the pipeline. Based on calculations in Gowen et al.
(1980), up to 21,700 M3 of2sand per kilometer of buried pipeline would
be displaced, and 19,000 m of sediment surface area per kilometer of
pipeline would be directly disturbed.

IV-19

The construction of gravel causeways, if necessary, could adversely
affect regional populations of anadromous fish. Studies of the
Prudhoe Bay causeway showed that deflection of the longshore current
offshore was instrumental in altering temperature and salinity around
the causeway. With the prevailing northeast winds, temperatures on
the west side would be 2 to 4 degrees cooler, while salinities would
increase by 10 parts per thousand (ppt) (Bendock, 1979). Although
these differences are well within the range of fluctuations frequently
observed in the area (Craig and Haldorson, 1981), the consistent
tendency for these differences might affect fish.
Currently, the extent of cumulative causeway effects is not well
known. Recent studies by Fechhelm and Gallaway (1983) have shown that
at least one important anadromous species, Arctic cisco, exhibits a
definite temperature preference which relates positively to its
distribution along the coastline. By modeling movements and
distribution of Arctic cisco relative to changes in temperature and
salinity around the Prudhoe Bay causeway, Neill et al. (1982)
estimated that fish density would be reduced slightly (about
7 percent) in the area of less preferable conditions (lower
temperatures and higher salinities). Additionally, these
causeway-induced changes could pose migration and movement "barriers"
to those species that require less saline conditions (e.g., broad and
humpback whitefish).

D. Vessel Traffic

1. Oil Tankers

With the exception of oil produced from Platform Hondo (offshore
California) and minor barging in the GOM, almost all oil and
condensate produced on the OCS is brought to shore by pipelines. Any
tankers transporting OCS-produced crude oil must conform with all
standards established for such vessels, pursuant to the Port and
Tanker Safety Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-474). Only U.S. flag vessels,
which are regulated by the USCG, can be used to transport OCS crude
oil. In the Santa Barbara Channel, Exxon has transferred over
28 million bbl of oil from the offshore storage and treatment facility
(Platform Hondo) to tankers with only a 1-gallon spill occurring
during transfer operations. Tankers (U.S. flag vessels) carrying
Alaskan North Slope crude to the west, east, and gulf coasts have also
shown an excellent record. The spill rate for tankers is 1.3 large
spills (greater than or equal to 1,000 bbl) per billion bbl
transported. Problems associated with tankers usually involve
carriers of imported crude oil or refined (generally more toxic)
petroleum products.
To reduce problems of heavy traffic, Traffic Separation Schemes
(TSS's) and Precautionary Areas have been established for many of the
major ports. Although there are no formal restrictions concerning the
placement of structures within TSS's, International Maritime
Consultative Organization guidance recommends that lanes remain free

IV-20

of obstructions. The USCG does not usually approve siting structures
within traffic lanes or within a 500-meter buffer zone on either side
of both the inbound and outbound lanes. Alternatively, traffic lanes
can be temporarily sh-ifted or suspended to permit exploratory drilling
in areas that would otherwise be prohibited.

2. Supply and Crew Boats

Supply and crew boats are used to service offshore vessels and
structures. Supply boats typically transport drilling equipment,
cement, drill muds, oil-contaminated muds, cuttings or formation
water, food, and.other supplies to and from the platform or drill
site. Supply boats require harbor or port facilities such as docks,
berthing space, and staging areas (for the storage and loading of
equipment and supplies). Crew boats typically transport drilling
personnel to and from the platform or drill site. Unlike supply
boats, crew boats only require docking and berthing facilities at
harbors or ports. Helicopters generally transport personnel to rigs
or platforms distant from shore.

Direct, impact-producing agents that are associated with supply and
crew boats follow. These are explained below.

(1) Additional marine traffic
(2) Support facility requirements
(3) Crew and supply boat engines (air emissions)

Impacts associated with additional marine traffic include the
increased possibility of vessel-to-vessel and vessel-to-structure
incidents. These incidents could lead to oil spills, loss of lives,
and loss of equipment. In certain locations, wakes from boats
contribute to bank erosion. Impacts that are associated with support
facility requirements include space-use conflicts between the oil
industry and other industries (e.g., commercial fishing). Impacts
that are associated with crew and supply boat engines are air
emissions (fumes and exhaust) that could potentially degrade the
ambient air quality.

E. Noise and Other Disturbances

1. Noise from OCS-related Activities

a. Impacts on the Human Environment

Noise resulting from OCS oil and gas development is associated with
the operation of offshore platforms, drilling rigs, seismic surveying,
petroleum transfer facilities, onshore processing plants, pump
stations, aircraft, and vessels. In addition, construction equipment
used during the installation of the facilities emit various levels of
noise. The degree of noise impact depends upon the emitted sound
level and the proximity of the source to schools, hospitals,
residences, and recreation areas.

IV-21

Machinery noise sources found on drilling and production platforms
are, generally, similar to those of onshore operations. Special,
noise-attenuated devices are sometimes used on offshore platforms to
protect workers in their living quarters. Compressors and diesel
engines are typically the loudest equipment on platforms emitting
about 90 decibels (dB) at a distance of 15 m (50 ft). By comparison,
a diesel truck under full load also emits about 90 dB at 15 m.
Although other sounds such as banging of pipes may be more intense,
they are of short duration. Platform noise can potentially degrade
the underwater acoustic environment; it may also adversely affect
naval activities in certain areas. Gales (1981) indicated that in
light seas the subsea surface noise propagated by a platform could be
detected up to 100 mi away.
In a quiet sea with light wind conditions, normal offshore platform
operations would be inaudible beyond about 2 mi (assuming ambient
background noise level of 40 dB and attenuation due to sound wave
spreading only). In rough seas and weather conditions, the offshore
facility would be inaudible beyond about one eighth of a mile
.(assuming 10-decibel background).
b. Impacts on the Biological Environment
The response of animals to acoustic stimuli has generally shown
variance in behavioral and physiological effects, depending on species
studied, characteristics of the stimuli (i.e., amplitude, frequency,
pulsed or nonpulsed), season, ambient noise, previous exposure of the
animal, physiological or reproductive state of the animal, and other
factors.

Possible adverse effects from loud sounds include (1) auditory
discomfort due to loudness and/or pressure changes, (2) possible
hearing loss, (3) the potential masking of sounds that might be used
in intraspecies communications, and (4) behavioral responses resulting
in avoidance of an area.

Shock waves associated with seismic airguns would not immediately be
harmful to marine animals (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1980), although noise
may affect behavior.
The Acoustical Society of America (1980) has estimated maximum source
levels at 230-250 dB relative to 1 micropascal at 1 m for various
types of activities associated with seismic exploration. These are
classified as the highest sound pressure levels associated with
offshore oil and gas explorations--the pulses are of short duration
(generally less than 1 second) and are generated intermittently for
relatively short survey periods (of*about a few months) in any given
area (Gales, 1982). Seismic surveys also may be interrupted for a
period of several hours or days.
Received-noise levels are less than produced levels, and the rate of
decay depends on bottom absorption ability, the type of spreading

IV-22

(cylindrical or spherical), and other physical factors. Even with the
maximum pressure levels estimated for seismic arrays at the sound
source (230-250 dB), the sound pressure level is expected to be under
200 dB at distances beyond 100 yards (yd) (Gales, 1982).
It seems unlikely to expect adverse responses to very high-pressure-
noise disturbances in animals that are adapted to life in the sea,
where pressure changes, on the order of many atmospheres in magnitude,
are routinely experienced in ocean margin earthquakes (Northrop, 1972)
or in diving. Also, some cetaceans routinely breach or jump free of
the surface and return with a diving splash that creates a sudden
large increase in pressure.

(1) Coastal and Marine Birds
Human activities associated with OCS exploration and development,
especially air and vessel traffic near nesting waterfowl and seabirds,
could reduce productivity of some species and may cause abandonment of
important nesting, feeding, and staging areas. Effects studies in the
arctic indicate that the arctic tern, black brant, and common eider
all show lower nesting success in disturbed areas (Gollup et al.,
1974). Schweinsberg (1974) reported that snow geese were particularly
sensitive to aircraft disturbance during premigratory staging. The
responses of birds to human disturbances vary greatly. These
responses depend on the species; the physiological or reproductive
state of the birds; distance from the disturbance; type, intensity,
duration of the disturbance; and many other factors. Waterfowl
nesting on deltas and islands may also be disturbed by aircraft and
vessel traffic, and some disturbance of molting and staging birds can
occur. In recent years, repeated aircraft flights (not related to OCS
activities) near several colonies in the Bering Sea region may have
been one factor contributing to fewer nesting attempts and reduced
reproductive success (Biderman and Drury, 1978; Hunt et al., 1978).
However, effects studies by Ward and Sharp (1974) and Gollup et al.
(1974) indicate that long-term displacement or abandonment of
important molting and feeding areas due to occasional aircraft
disturbance is unlikely.
In offshore areas, helicopter and vessel traffic to drill rigs or
platforms would constitute the most important source of disturbance
affecting marine birds. Onshore activities, air traffic, human
presence,, and activities associated with construction and operation of
support facilities near seabird colonies and waterfowl and shorebird
staging and nesting areas can significantly disrupt breeding
activities and preparation for migration. Nesting birds may be
subjected to increased predation pressure from gulls and foxes whose
populations may increase if supplementary food (garbage) becomes
available at onshore support facilities. Construction and operation
of onshore facilities may encroach upon wildlife habitat causing
nearby breeding areas to be abandoned during such activities.
Low-flying aircraft, especially helicopters, can frighten large
numbers of cliff-nesting birds (e.g., murres) from the nesting ledges,

IV-23

resulting in eggs and/or young falling to the rocks below. Those not
displaced from the ledges by adults are left exposed to the elements
and predators (Hunt, 1976; Hunt et al., 1978; Jones and Petersen,
1979). Disturbance of birds in important feeding, staging, and
overwintering areas can cause excessive expenditure of energy and
displacement to less favorable habitats during critical periods in the
annual cycle.
In Alaska's Beaufort Sea, artificial gravel islands are used for
exploration and production activities. Birds could be temporarily
displaced (1 year near island and dredge sites as well as at
terrestrial gravel storage sites) during construction activities.
Displacement could occur because of noise disturbance and temporary
disruption or removal of food sources near island and dredging sites.
In some cases, gravel islands would provide additional shoreline
habitat and may attract some bird species by providing shelter on the
leeward side of the islands. However, human presence may limit bird
use of the island, and bird attraction to gravel islands may increase
the chances of their direct contact with oil spills. Disturbance of
birds from dredging and island construction would normally be short
term, and disruption of food sources would be local and temporary.

(2) Marine Mammals

Underwater noise may disturb or alarm the mammals and cause them to
flee the sound sources. Intense noise could damage the hearing of
marine mammals or cause them other physical or physiological harm
(Geraci and St. Aubin, 1980; Hill, 1978). Frequent and/or intense
noise that causes a flight or avoidance response in marine mammals
could permanently displace animals from important habitat areas.

Sources of airborne and waterborne noise include drilling operations,
pipeline laying, geophysical surveying, aircraft, support vessels,
offshore construction, dredging, and other offshore operations. These
noises may disturb marine mammals within a few kilometers of these
sources; however, marine mammals may detect and respond to underwater
noises from some sources at greater distances.

The presence of sea lion, elephant seal, sea otter, and cetacean
populations near human and industrial activity and marine-Vessel
traffic along the California coast, as well as the presence of sea
lions and seal and beluga whales near commercial fishing traffic in
Bristol Bay and Cook Inlet in Alaska, strongly suggests that some
marine mammals have adjusted to human development activities with no
apparent adverse effects. However, some species of marine mammals,
such as fur seals, are probably more sensitive to human presence and
disturbance, particularly during the nursing and breeding seasons.
The presence of sea otter populations near human and industrial
activity and marine-vessel traffic along the California coast strongly
suggests that this species has adjusted to most human development
activities with no apparent adverse effects. Playback recordings of
industrial noise and actual seismic sounds from airguns had no

IV-24

apparent effect on California sea otters (Riedman, 1984). Sensitive
species may adjust to human presence and industrial noise to a certain
degree, with a portion of the population remaining in industrial
areas. Noise and disturbance could conceivably exceed the tolerance
level of sensitive species and eventually displace them from
development areas; however, such permanent displacement has not been
demonstrated.

A task force report on Geophysical Operations (1982), submitted to the
Executive Officer of the California State Lands Commission, determined
that no evidence was found to suggest that airguns and other
nonexplosive acoustic sources cause injury to marine mammals,
including gray whales. As stated in the task force report, the
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) believes that "sufficient
information is available in the literature to conclude that
geophysical exploration does not result in physical harm or mortality
of marine mammals in the vicinity of operations." The task force
report has determined that geophysical exploration off the California
coast does not constitute "harassment" of migrating gray whales, as
defined under the Endangered Species Act. The NMFS determination also
may apply in parts of Alaska, since gray whales, when in the North
Aleutian Basin, are migrating. Current knowledge of cumulative
effects on endangered whales is too limited, however, to permit
definitive generalizations; there may be a presently unknown
threshold, beyond which cumulative effects could be significant.

(a) Pinnipeds
Offshore -activities that may disturb pinnipeds involve mainly airborne
or underwater noise and human presence. Major sources of
mobile-airborne noise disturbance are low-flying aircraft and
high-speed motorboats, as well as other high-frequency, high-pitched
sounds. Low-flying aircraft are known to panic hauled-out seals. If
such disturbance occurs at pinniped rookeries during the pupping
season, pup mortality would increase significantly, and pupping
success would be reduced (Johnson, 1977). Disturbed adult seals are
likely to crush pups when they stampede into the water, and nursing
females are likely to abandon their pups during the first 3 weeks of
nursing if disturbance separates the mothers and pups. Stampedes into
the water also can injure the young. Repeated disturbances may lead
to abandonment of traditional breeding or hauling areas in favor of
less suitable sites (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1980). If seals and sea
lions'are frequently disturbed during the molting period at haul-out
areas, the successful regrowth of skin and hair cells may be retarded.
The physiological stress on seals and sea lions would, thus, increase
during an already stressful period.
Information concerning responses of marine mammals other than
cetaceans to seismic and vessel noise is primarily speculative. The
principal evidence is provided by Burns and Kelly (1982), who found no
significant difference in ringed seal density along seismic control
transects. Other information (Alaska Dept. of Fish and Game, 1981;

IV-25

Dome Petroleum, 1982) suggests that while seismic and vessel no'
ise
might temporarily affect hearing, mask vocalizations or sound used to
locate prey or predators, or result in temporary displacement, effects
on regional population are likely to be minor or negligible.

(b) Cetaceans
Noise, including seismic exploration, may be the most likely byproduct
of normal OCS industrial activities to affect whales (Fraker et al.,
1981). Although little information is currently available on the
sounds perceived by large whales (absolute hearing thresholds in
baleen whales have not been measured), it is generally assumed that
most animals can hear sounds similar to those that they produce
(Gales, 1982). Fraker et al. (1981) indicates that bowhead whales are
known to produce sounds at 175 to 185 dB relative to 1 micropascal at
I m and that right whales can produce sounds at 172 to 187 dB relative
to 1 micropascal at 1 m. Therefore, it is assumed that whales are
able to perceive normal sounds associated with OCS activities.
Concern has been expressed by some cetacean researchers that, if the
sound source is close enough and the intensity is loud enough,
disturbance and displacement of whales, and perhaps some physical
impairment of cetacean hearing, could occur (Braham et al., 1982).
The degree of behavioral response by endangered whales to sounds
associated with oil and gas exploration and development has been
investigated for several species. Potential acoustic responses may
result from several noise sources such as drilling platforms,
drillships, semisubmersibles, and air and vessel traffic. The levels
of effect on endangered species may range from very low to moderate,
depending on the species and the population's well-being.
Acoustical studies and observations at offshore oil and gas platforms
in Cook Inlet, Alaska, and Santa Barbara, California (Gales, 1982);
indicated that platform noise was unlikely to interfere with cetacean
echolocation and was expected to interfere with certain other acoustic
communication signals only within close proximity of the platform.
Observations indicated that whales either ignored or easily avoided
platforms, without an appreciable change in behavior.
The level of seismic activity associated with a lease sale area would
most likely depend upon the number of exploratory and or delineation
wells and production platforms installed., Whales exposed to drilling
platform, helicopter, and production platform stimuli also showed
avoidance responses in which migration routes were deflected away from
the source of the playback stimulus (Malme et al., 1983, 1984).
Eighty percent of the time, avoidance to these prerecorded sounds was
noted at a transmitted sound level of 130 dB. Fifty percent of the
time, avoidance by migrating gray whales to playbacks of drillship
noise was noted at 1,100 m. -Other recorded sounds showed similar
avoidance only at distances less than 100 m.

IV-26

Short-term responses of whales to acoustical disturbances that have
been demonstrated include flight and startle response; vacating of an
area; deflecting of migration routes; and changes in swimming, diving,
and respiration characteristics. Fraker et al. (1978) reported the
startle response and flight of beluga whales 2,400 m from barges and
boats that were traveling through an area of whale concentration.
Underwater noise also may interfere with or mask reception of some
marine mammal low-frequency communication signals or may interfere
with reception of other environmental sounds used by marine mammals
for navigation (Terhune, 1981).
Aircraft-noise disturbance of cetaceans from flyovers generally is
transient, with events not lasting more than a few seconds (Stewart et
al., 1983). Such brief disturbances are not likely to pose any
serious consequences to nonendangered cetaceans.
Degrees of theoretical and observed response range from those so
subtle that statistical analysis is necessary to determine whether or
not a change has occurred to total abandonment of an area for several
years, and return only when historic ambient noise levels are
restored. There are many areas where industrial noise has been
present for several years. Whales have continued to use these areas,
to some degree, during their migration cycle. If accoustical
disturbances persist in critical areas, long-term effects may result.
Long-term effects may include permanent abandonment of some habitats,
physical damage to the whale's auditory system, and changes in some
portion or timing of their migratory cycle. Areas where long-term
effects may be most likely to develop are in habitats where ambient
noise levels do not presently include high levels)of industrial noises
(e.g., summer feeding areas, overwintering areas) or where many whales
use a small area intensively (e.g.,-Unimak Pass, Bering Strait).
Habituation may be possible if increases in industrial noise levels
proceed at a very slow rate (20 to 40 years).
Bowheads whales, which summer in the Beaufort Sea and winter in the
northern Bering Sea, seem more sensitive to aircraft than are other
species of whales, but sensitivity to aircraft varies with season,
whale activity, and water depth (Richardson et al., 1983). Bowheads
engaged in socializing appear less sensitive to aircraft than are
bowheads engaged in other activities. Reactions to the observation
aircraft were conspicuous when the craft was below 457 m above sea
level, occasional at 457 m, and seldom at 610 m.
Reactions to boats were stronger than to any other type of stimuli.
Experiments with bowheads indicate that they react strongly to close
approaching vessels of any size. Reactions began when boats were as
far away as 4 km; by 2 km, travel away from the approaching vessel was
more pronounced. An industry-sponsored study showed apparent
avoidance by bowheads to drillship operations in the Beaufort Sea
during their fall migration. Other behaviors consisted of changes in
surfacing and respiration patterns and increased spacing within
grouped whales. However, the flight response did not persist for long

IV-27

after the boat had moved away. The scattering of grouped bowheads
continued longer than the flight reaction, which indicated that some
degree of social disruption occurred.

Bowheads have been observed at 4 to 20 km from drillships in the
Canadian Beaufort Sea. The whales' activities appeared to be
characteristic of undisturbed whales, although a few exceptions
occurred. Playback experiments showed that some bowheads reacted,
although not strongly, to drillship noise at intensities similar to
those that would be found several kilometers from a real drillship.

Humpback whales generally winter in warmer waters offshore Hawaii,
California, and further south, and many summer in waters of
southeastern Alaska, the Gulf of Alaska, and south of the Aleutian
Islands. Some summer in the Bering Sea, and a comparatively few
summer in the Chukchi Sea and even as far north as the western
Beaufort Sea. Humpbacks are sometimes thought to be more sensitive to
noise and other disturbance,factors than other endangered whales. The
NMFS biological opinion for Sale 55, Gulf of Alaska (Leitzell, 1979),
concluded that "Uncontrolled increases of vessel traffic, particularly
of erratically traveling charter or pleasure craft, probably have
altered the behavior of humpback whales in Glacier Bay, Alaska, and
thus may be implicated in their departure from the Bay the past two
years." However, other factors also may have affected humpback use
of the bay. Baker et al. (1982) and Miles and Malme (1983) indicated
that humpback whales in Glacier Bay showed markedly different
behaviors in response to approaching boats. Most frequently observed
was an increase in breaching behavior as the boats got closer to the
whales. Evidence of humpback sensitivity to disturbance has been
reported in their wintering grounds (mostly in the Hawaiian
Islands--see above) (Norris and Reeves, 1978). However, Payne (1978)
listed numerous instances of apparent insensitivity of humpback whales
to noise. Feeding humpback whales studied in the fall of 1984 in
southeast Alaska (Malme et al. 1985) showed little or no short-term
avoidance to industrial sounds at the sound levels received (up to
172 dB). This behavior may indicate a general insensitivity to oil
industry noise by humpbacks, or it may indicate that feeding whales
will tolerate more acoustic disturbance than migrating ones.

Gray whales summer mainly in the Bering Sea, although some summer also
in the Chukchi Sea and even in the Beaufort Sea. In the eastern
Pacific, they move south in winter to breed and calve mainly in
Mexican lagoons. Their migration has been studied, and experiments
have been conducted using both a single airgun and an airgun array
(Malme et al., 1983, 1984). Whales began to show avoidance to seismic
noise at average pulse-pressure levels of 160 to 164 dB relative to 1
micro Pascal at 1 m. They generally demonstrated a 0.5 probability of
avoidance to seismic operations only at received sound levels above
170 dB relative to I micro Pascal at 1 m. The 170 dB corresponded to
a distance of about 400 m from a single airgun and 2.5 km from the
40-gun array. The distances between the airgun-array vessel and whale

IV-28

groups which showed responses, obvious at the time of observation,
were consistency on the order of 2 km.

Reactions of cow-calf pairs were tested separately. No responses by
these maternal pairs (April-May experiments) were noted during line
runs of seismic airgun arrays at distances of 5 to 83 km. When a
moving array of larger airguns was turned on suddenly within 1 km of
these pairs, responses were dramatic. The whale groups were seen
changing direction, exhibiting confused swimming, moving inshore into
the surf zone, and milling about for varying lengths of time--often
followed by rapid swimming to avoid the source area. On four
occasions, whales were observed moving into the surf zone and within
the sound shadow of a nearshore rock or outcropping. Such a dramatic
effect was believed to represent a "startle response," rather than a
typical response to increasing sound levels. The distance at which
these groups resumed normal migration ranged between 3.6 and 4.5 km.
Fraker et al. (1981) observed a group of seven bowheads within 13 km
of a seismic exploration vessel, and they showed no obvious
disturbance of behavior. Their surface time, intervals between blows,
and blows per surfacing were normal. The sound level at the whale's
location was stated to be at least 135 dB relative to I micropascal,
and possibly as high as 146 dB. On eight occasions in 1980 to 1982,
Richardson et al. (1983) observed bowhead behavior in the Canadian
Beaufort 'Sea in the presence of noise from seismic operations. The
source level was 150 dB, and the received noise levels at 6 to 8 km
were,approximately 141 to 150 dB, respectively. There was no clear
evidence 'that these whales attempted to move away from the seismic
ships. The bowheads generally continued to produce their usual types
of calls -in the presence of distant seismic sounds, and they did not
swim away from seismic vessels operating 6 km or more away. Reeves
and Liungblad (1983) observed bowheads on 14 geophysical-monitoring-
survey flights in the Alaskan Beaufort Sea. Whales seen as little as
9 km from active geophysical operations were not observed to vacate
the area or to display avoidance behavior. Observations of bowheads,
6 to 99 km away from active seismic vessels, showed them engaged in
normal activities (received levels 158 dB relative to 1 micropascal).
Specific behavior in the presence and absence of seismic noise varijes;
however, the above data suggest that bowhead whales (and possibly
right whales) are generally tolerant of geophysical seismic noise, at
least at ranges of 6 to 8 km, but show avoidance behaviors at ranges
of less than 5 km.

Effects from seismic activity have not been directly tested for the
blue, sei, or fin whales, although it is anticipated that reactions
would be similar to those of gray and bowhead whales. Fin whales feed
in the upper portions of the water column and, therefore, may be
exposed more frequently to seismic noises than whales that feed deeper
in the water column.

IV-29

Although the effects of geophysical seismic activities and oil spills
have not been observed for right whales, the knowledge gained from
observing bowhead whales can be extrapolated to effects on the right
whale, since right whales are the closest living relatives of bowhead
whales. The right whale's appearance and behavioral repertoire are
very similar to those of the bowhead whale (Wursig, personal
communication). The similarities in behavior between the bowheads and
right whales have been described by researchers familiar with both
species (Wursig et al., 1982).
Sperm whales, which typically occur in deep oceanic waters and at
Continental Shelf breaks in temperate but also colder climates, use
their acoustical system, which generally operates at high frequencies
(1-100 kilohertz), to echolocate and communicate. Because they
operate at high-frequencies of shorter wavelengths, the acoustical
receiving and transmitting system of sperm whales tends to be
directional and is capable-of discriminating against unwanted sounds.
It does not appear that any serious interference with their
communication is likely, especially since the more powerful
geophysical seismic noises are produced at low frequencies. Sperm
whales have been observed in day-long proximity (200-3,000 yd) to an
operational drillship, indicating a lack of aversion to drilling
sounds (Tony Ladino, MMS, personal communication).
Additionally, the MMS has established, through permit conditions and
NTL's, guidelines and standards to detect whales and prohibit or limit
seismic operations when endangered whales may be adversely affected by
seismic noise. The MMS may also order operations to cease when
adverse effects occur. Through these measures and the observed
spatial limits of the observed effects, it is not likely that seismic
surveys will inhibit successful whale migrations or significantly
disrupt feeding, mating, and other essential whale activities.

2. Dredging
Dredging may be used to prepare foundations for production platforms
and may be used for trenching and burial of subsea pipelines.
Pipeline installation would involve the greater overall volumes of
dredged materials.
High turbidity plumes would extend about 1 km downcurrent of dredging
sites. At this distance, turbidity levels have returned to the upper
range of ambient concentrations. Effects from dredging would occur
approximately in a 1-kilometer radius in the vicinity of the dredging
and would occur only during periods of actual dredging for pipeline
and platform emplacement.
Experience with dredging or dumping operations shows that the
concentration of suspended sediments decreases to background levels
with time (2-3 hours) and distance downstream (1-3 km) from the
discharge. In the dredging operations associated with artificial
island construction and harbor improvement in the Canadian Beaufort

IV-30

Sea, the turbidity plumes tended to disappear shortly after operations
ceased and generally were not spatially extensive (Passah, 1982); sand
was the pre-dominate material moved.

The sites, duration, and amount of turbidity depend on the grain-size
composition of the discharge, turbulence in the water column, and
current regime. However, the turbidity would not be expected to
extend further than a 3-kilometer radius about the construction site
2
of the gravel island, or about 28 km

The short-term, site-specific increases in turbidity expected from
dredging and island construction may not adversely affect endangered
whales or habitats. The amount of sediments introduced into the water
column by dredging operations associated with artificial island and
causeway construction would be less than the amount that enters
naturally during spring breakup (in Alaska) or when storms resuspend
bottom sediments (Lowry and Frost, 1984).

Dredging activities and gravel deposition during island construction
could affect marine mammals through noise and disturbance, habitat
alterations, and changes in availability of food sources. Based on
theoretical work (Fraker et al., 1978), noise and disturbance from
dredging, island and causeway construction, and support traffic could
displace marine mammals within 2 to 3 km of the activity site during
operations. Dredging and gravel deposition could temporarily disrupt
or remove prey species within several kilometers downstream of the
dredging site and near the island construction site. Observations of
bowheads from 1980 to 1983 near island construction and active dredges
indicate they occasionally tolerate noise levels associated with these
activities (Richardson et al., 1983).

A long-terra change in species composition or abundance of benthic prey
for whales could occur in localized areas as a result of dredging and
artificial island construction if substrate characteristics or depth
regime were substantially altered. Should these changes occur,
however, they would likely be confined to a very small area in
comparison to available feeding habitat. It is unlikely that
long-term changes in sea-ice deformation (in Alaska), currents, water
regime, sediment transport, and productivity, or whale migration would
result from petroleum industry habitat alteration.

F. Effluents and Discharges

1. Water Ouality

a. Offshore Oil and Gas Industry Activities

Under normal offshore operations, varying degrees of water quality
degradation could occur as a result of oil and gas exploration and
development activities.

IV-31

Potential water quality degradation factors include the resuspension
of bottom sediments through exploration and development activities and
pipeline construction; the discharge of drill cuttings and muds; the
discharge of formation waters or produced waters; sanitary and
domestic wastes; excess cement; cooling water; desalinization brine;
the discharge of deck drainage; and operational discharges from
support vessels. Discharges of hydrocarbons may also occur due to
accidental spills or blowouts.

Wastes from these activities are varied and may be transformed
physically, chemically, or biologically when introduced to the marine
environment. These contaminants may be dissolved and form new
substances or be mixed vertically and horizontally in the water column
by small-scale motions or large-scale currents. They also may be
incorporated into the bottom sediments or be recycled by these same
processes. These transformations will govern a contaminant's
transport through the water column. The method of delivery to the
environment as well as the intrinsic chemical properties of each
source will influence a contaminant's distribution through the
water column and its toxicity to marine organisms. The biological
effects may involve individual organisms or whole eposystems, with
long-term effects occurring, such as changes in reproductive habits or
genetic makeup of species.
Because of the complexity of these contaminant movements and
behaviors, several parameters are needed to determine the extent of
their impact. Specification of point sources, the type of the
contaminant, rate of release, frequency of disposal, and geographical
location of disposal are parameters essential in determining the
extent of impact on water quality in any given area. Also important
are the areas affected, the duration of impact, and the period of time
required for recovery.

(1) Resuspension of Sediments
Impacts resulting from the resuspension of bottom sediments may
include increased water turbidities and mobilization of pollutants in
the water column. These effects may be a result of increased dredging
activities in areas containing sediments with high concentrations of
pollutants. The magnitude and extent of any turbidity increases will
depend on the hydrographic parameters of the area, duration of the
activity, and composition of bottom materials. Dredging may be used
to prepare foundations for production platforms and may be used for
trenching and burial of subsea pipelines. Pipeline installation would
involve the greater overall volumes of dredged materials. Dredging
activities in nearshore waters may result in resuspension of settled
pollutants, toxic heavy metals, and pesticides, if present. The toxic
effects of some of these pollutants could be long lasting in confined
areas, depending on the quantities disturbed, local hydrographic
effects, and the biota of the immediate area.

IV-32

Pipeline burial could also resuspend toxic metals, pesticides, or
other organic or inorganic compounds if a sludge or chemical waste
dumpsite were traversed. However, pipeline routing emphasizes
avoidance of such areas.

(2) Drill Cuttings and uds
Drill cuttings are composed of rock fragments obtained as a result of
the drill bit cutting through solid rock. To remove the drill
cuttings, drilling mud (fluid) from the mud system (mud tanks) is
circulated down the hole (well) through Lhe drill pipe. Drilling mud
passes out through the drilling bit nozzle, picks up drill cuttings,
and returns to the surface between the drill pipe and walls of the
borehole and/or casing. At the surface, drill cuttings are physically
separated from the mud by screening and washing techniques. After the
drill cuttings and drilling mud are separated, the drill cuttings may
be discharged to the ocean or barged ashore, and the mud is returned
to the mud tank for recirculation down the hole. Drilling mud that
adheres to drill cuttings is discharged to the ocean or barged ashore.
Additionally, mud is discharged to the ocean or barged ashore when
excess mud is generated by (1) adding solids or water to adjust the
mud properties, (2) changing mud types, and (3) dumping at the
conclusion of drilling unless it can be used in a subsequent well
(Sheen "Technical Subcommittee, 1976).
Removal of drill cuttings from the hole is only one function of
drilling mud. To obtain satisfactory results in the completion of any
well, drilling muds have a variety of functions. These include
controlling subsurface pressures, cooling and lubricating the bit and
drill pipe, preventing the walls from caving, and preventing clogging
of the formation penetrated. The amounts of discharges of cuttings
vary but may range from 3,000 to 6,000 bbl over the life of the well
(National Research Council, 1983).
There is a great diversity of drill hole characteristics and a variety
of purposes for which drilling mud is employed. As a result, mud
characteristics vary greatly. The ranges in concentration of major
components present in drilling mud are given in table IV-2 for muds
tested tinder the EPA guidelines. The concentrations of trace metals
in whole muds (not used or diluted) are given in table IV-3 for the
EPA-tested muds. Discharges of drilling mud must comply with
requirements found under 30 CFR Part 250 dnd the NPDES permitting
procedures. These requirements restrict the discharge of any drilling
mud containing oil. The EPA permits require that if any oil-base mud
is used, the mud cannot be released to the ocean, and cuttings must be
cleaned or barged to shore for disposal. Some permits also restrict
the discharges of water-based muds based on toxicity test results.

IV-33

Table IV-2 Composition of typical generic muds
Component Maximum Allowable Concentration
(pounds per barrel)

1. Seawater/Freshwater/Potassium/
Polymar Mud
KCI 50
Starch 12
Cellulose Polymar 5
Xanthan Gum Polymar 2
Drilled Solids 100
Caustic 3
Barite 575
Seawater or Freshwater As needed

2. Lignosulfonate Mud
Bentonite 50
Lignosulfonate, Chrome or Ferrochrome 15
Lignited Untreated or Chrome-treated 10
Caustic 5
Lime 2
Barite 575
Drilled Solids 100
Soda Ash/Sodium Bicarbonate 2
Cellulose Polymar 5
Seawater or Freshwater As needed

3. Lime Mud
Lime 20
Bentonite 50
Lignosulfonate, Chrome or Ferrochrome 15
Lignite, Untreated or Chrome-treated 10
Caustic 5
Barite 575
Drilled Solids 100
Soda Ash/Sodium Bicarbonate 2
Seawater or Freshwater As needed

IV-34

Table IV-2 Composition of typical generic muds - Continued

Component Maximum Allowable Concentration
(pounds per barrel)

4. Nondispersed Mud
Bentonite 50
Acrylic Polymar 2

Lime 2
Barite 180
Drilled Solids 70
Seawater or Freshwater As needed

5. Spud Mud
Lime 2
Bentonite 50
Caustic 2
Barite 50
Soda Ash/Sodium Bicarbonate 2
Seawater As needed

Seawater/Freshwater Gel Mud
Lime 2
Bentonite 50
Caustic 3
Barite 50
Drilled Solids 100
Soda Ash/Sodium Bicarbonate 2
Cellulose Polymar 2
Seawater or Freshwater As needed

SOURCE: Environmental Protection Agency
Discharge Permit No. AKG285000

IV-35

Table IV-3 Metals composition of drilling muds tested by EPA program

Metal Concentration (ppm-whole mud)

Arsenic 1to 3
Barium 2,800 to 141,000
Cadmium <1
Chromium 2to 265 (see 1)
Copper 2to 26
Lead 1to 24
Mercury <1 (see 2)
Nickel
1, to 8
Vanadium 6to 35
Zinc 12 to 181

(1) A Mobile Bay mud had 5,960 ppm Cr
(2) An arctic mud had 2.8 ppm Hg

SOURCE: Adapted from ERCO, Inc., 1980.

IV-36

Based on the dispersion and/or dilution model developed by Brandsma et
al. (1980) (as cited by Neff, 1985), the discharge of drilling muds
and cuttings from a submerged pipe can be viewed as going through
three distinct phases. These phases are convective descent of the jet
of material, dynamic collapse, and passive diffusion. In the first
phase, low density particles are entrained and bend toward the
direction of current flow. Larger or denser solids descend until they
hit the bottom, whereas light particles and solubles undergo dynamic
collapse when the plume encounters a level of neutral density.
Dilution by passive diffusion and convective mixing of the lighter
plume (containing less than 10 percent of the solids) continues as the
remaining 90 percent of the solids settles to the bottom. Dilution of
drilling fluids to low concentrations is very rapid, usually within
1,000-2,000 m downcurrent of the discharge pipe and within 2-3 hours
of discharge (ECOMAR, 1978, 1983; Ayers et al., 1980a, 1980b; Ray and
Meek, 1980; Houghton, 1980; Northern Technical Services, 1983).
Typically, suspended solid concentrations are reduced to 1,000 ppm
within 2 minutes of discharge and below 10 ppm within 1 hour (Neff,
1985). Dilutions of 1,000-fold or more are generally encountered
within 1 to 3 m of discharge. Localized turbidity associated with the
muds and cuttings plume will reduce light penetration and, therefore,
photosynthesis by phytoplankton.

Solids may accumulate on the bottom beneath the discharge plume and
bury sessile benthic organisms. They may also cause changes in
sediment characteristics and, subsequently, result in changes in the
benthic community. Acute toxicity from the drilling muds and cuttings
is not expected because of rapid mixing and because drilling fluids
generally have low toxicity (Neff, 1985). Chronic or sublethal
effects may include bioaccumulation of metals by some organisms.
Investigations by Neff (1988) however, reach the conclusion that
metals associated with drilling mud are virtually nonavailable for
biaccumulation by marine organism.

Because of dilution, dispersion, and settling, the drilling discharges
(muds and cuttings) and their associated elevated levels of suspended
solids and trace metals generally have limited impact on ambient water
quality beyond the immediate vicinity of the discharge. The fate of
these discharges in a particular area is greatly influenced by water
currents and depth. The lighter particulate and soluble discharge
components associated with the upper or visible plume are generally
dispersed or diluted to ambient levels within approximately 200 to
2,000 m of the discharge. The heavier drilling discharge materials
tend to settle out in the general vicinity of the drilling rig.
However, in water deeper than approximately 80 m, the settling of some
of these heavier materials within the main or lower plume may be
temporarily delayed when encountering neutral buoyancy conditions
within the water column (National Research Council, 1983).

An EPA study suggests that despite decreased water circulation under
ice cover, dilution of drilling-mud discharges at 300 m from the
source would be roughly 100-fold greater than in open water (Jones and

IV-37

Stokes Associates, Inc., 1983). The greater dilution is at least
partially attributable to the greater sedimentation of drilling mud
very close to the discharge point with the lesser turbulence and lower
water velocities that occur under ice cover.
Dissolved oxygen, pH, salinity, and temperature would be affected only
in the immediate vicinity (within less than 40 m) of the discharge.
These discharges are during the drilling period and normally last for
less than 1 hour.
Temperature and pH may rise slightly, while oxygen concentrations and
.salinity may decrease. Beyond the immediate area of discharge, the
parameters that would be affected by drilling discharges are the
levels of suspended solids and light transmittance (EG&G, 1982; Ayers
Ot al., 1980a; Ray and Meek, 1980).
Trace metal dilution-rates, as measured by suspended solids
concentrations, have been shown to be similar to that of whole muds.
Comparing the estimated concentrations of trace metals in drilling
muds after 10,000-fold dilution (100 m downcurrent from the discharge
point) with EPA criteria for saltwater aquatic life shows all
estimated metal concentrations being below the EPA criteria levels,
thus within "safe" levels (table IV-4). Light transmittance values
reach background levels at a slightly greater distance from-the
discharge than do suspended solids because of colloidal particles
(Ayers et al., 1980b).
The distance that the solids from dr.illing muds become dispersed and
their concentration in bottom sediments depend on the quantities
discharged, hydrographic conditions during and after the discharge,
and the height of the discharge pipe above the bottom. In some cases,
piles of drilling cuttings may be several meters high and 100-200 m in
diameter around the base of the platform. In nondepositional
environments with relatively strong currents, the solids may be
dispersed or resuspended from their depositional sites and eventually
may settle in low energy areas (National Research Council, 1983).
(3) Discharges of Formation Water
Formation water (i.e., produced water) is recovered along with oil
during petroleum production. Formation water is derived from water
trapped within pore spaces of the sediments at the time the sediments
were deposited. In some cases, produced water may contain seawater or
other surface water which has been injected into the formation to
maintain reservoir pressure, as well as formation water. During
compaction of the sediments, a portion of the water may be displaced.
The displaced water is associated with migrating oil and gas.
After oil is separated from formation water, the formation water may
be disposed of by injection'into disposal wells (wells drilled for the
purpose of storing formation water), discharged into the marine
environment, or disposed of by using a combination of these two

IV-38

methods. Rejection of produced water, however, is an expensive option
and not always technically feasible.

During initial oil production, formation'water volumes will represent
a small fraction (less than I percent) of the total fluid extracted
from the well, with oil composing almost the entire amount of fluid.
As the reservoir is depleted, the ratio of formation water to oil
increases to as much as 10 to 1. The most common chemical
constituents found in formation waters are iron, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, bicarbonate, sulphates, and chloride. In addition, formation
waters contain entrained oil or petroleum hydrocarbons and measurable
trace metal concentrations. Relative to ambient water, formation
water has (1) increased organic salts, (2) increased temperature,
(3) decreased dissolved oxygen, and (4) increased trace metals.

However, formation waters discharged during production tend to undergo
dispersion similar to that described for fine particulate and liquid
drilling discharges. They are rapidly diluted and dispersed in the
large volume of receiving water.

Because of the relatively high density and low-oxygen content of
formation waters, if large volumes are discharged near the ocean
bottom in deeper areas where turbulence is not strong, high density
flows of low-oxygen water could result. If discharged near the
surface, however, they would rapidly disperse in the water column
within a few hundred meters and, thereby, have no substantial effect
on ambient water quality.

The trace metal concentrations in discharged formation waters ate
generally reduced to background levels within a few hundred meters of
discharge, depending on hydrographic conditions. For example, a
comparison of the estimated concentrations of trace metals in typical
California formation waters after 1,000-fold dilution (500 m from the
discharge point) with EPA 24-hour water quality criteria showed all
trace metals falling below EPA criteria "safe" levels. (See table
IV-4.)

IV-39

Table IV-4 Comparison of estimated trace metals concentrations in
drilling muds, following 10,000-fold dilution,-with EPA water quality
criteria for seawater aquatic life (Federal Register, November 28,
1980).

Estimated
Concentration (ppm)
at 100 m
Downcurrent and
Mud Concentration EPA Criteria and 10,000-Fold
Trace Metal PPM Value (ppm) Dilution

Arsenic 3 0.5 0.0003

Barium 141,000 N/A 14.1

Cadmium <1 0.05 0.0001

Chromium 227 10.3 0.02
Copper 11.3 0.02 0.001

Lead 9 0.66 0.0009

Mercury 1 0.003 0.0001

Nickel 8 0.140 0.0008

Vanadium 35 N/A 0.0035

Zinc 181 0.170 0.0181

Source:, EPA, 1981 NPDES.Permit Determinations (Georges Bank/Atlantic
Ocean), Region I.

IV-40

Studies done on water produced from GOM oil fields, in some cases,
have shown radionuclide levels of up to four levels of magnitude
higher than found in open-ocean surface waters. These higher
concentrations probably reflect upward migration of solutions
containing radionuclides from areas deeper in the Earth's crust.
Despite these higher levels in formation water as compared to open
seawater, there seemed to be no apparent human health or environmental
health contamination problem because of the rapid dilution of these
formation waters when discharged offshore.
After discharge to the sea, formation water is rapidly mixed and
diluted. Although formation waters have low dissolved oxygen and pH
and high salinity relative to the.receiving waters, these parameters
do not pose a hazard to organisms in the water column because of rapid
mixing. Low-molecular-weight aromatic hydrocarbons and some metals in
produced waters are potentially toxic when present in sufficient
concentrations. However, more than 88 percent of the 54 bioassays
performed to date (Neff, 1985) suggest that the effects of formation
waters are minimal. Laboratory studies on potential sublethal or
chronic effects of formation waters on marine organisms have not been
reported. Field studies have shown the potential for bioaccumulation
of petroleum hydrocarbons from formation waters. However, while they
are bioavailable they are not persistent in animal tissue and are not
biomagnified in the food web (Neff, 1988).

(4) Sewage
Domestic waters (from sinks, showers, laundries, and galleys) and
sanitary (sewage) wastes (from toilets'and urinals) are discharged
from drilling rigs and platforms. The discharge of treated sanitary
and domes-tic wastes would increase levels of suspended solids,
nutrients, chlorine, and biological oxygen demand (BOD) in a small
area near the point of discharge. The discharge is regulated by
Environmental Protection Agency NDPES regulations, for example,
regarding floating solids and residual chlorine content. Some
residual chlorine may be present in discharged waters following
treatment. However, due to evaporation and conversion to other
chemical forms when combined with seawater, it would be quickly
diluted.

(5) Hydrocarbon Discharges
Oil Spills: Hydrocarbons may be discharged into the marine
environment as a result of accidental spills. The volume of oil that
enters the marine environment will depend on the type of accident and
is difficult to predict. Once the oil enters the ocean, a variety of
physical, chemical, and biological processes act to disperse the oil
slick, such as spreading, evaporation of the more volatile
constituents, dissolution into the water column, emulsification of
small droplets, agglomeration sinking, microbial modification,
photochemical modification, and biological ingestion and excretion.
The rates at which the oil is removed from the ocean will depend on

IV-41

water temperature, current movements which may spread dissolution,
wind speed which may aid evaporation, and physical mixing by wind
waves.

A large oil spill at the water surface may result from a platform
accident.(e.g., platform blowout) or leakage from a tanker accident.
Subsurface spills could occur from pipeline failure or a wellhead
blowout. Most of the oil from a subsurface spill would likely rise to
the surface and would weather and behave similarly to a surface spill.
However, some of the subsurface oil may also get dispersed within the
water column, as-in the case of the IXTOC I seafloor blowout (Fiest
and Boehm, 1980). Depending on the density stratification of the
water column and on temperature and salinity gradients, a subsurface
plume may form.
Formation waters: Hydrocarbons are present in formation waters as
small droplets or in dissolved form. The EPA requires that before
discharge, formation waters be treated such that the concentration of
oil does not exceed 72 milligrams per liter (mg/1) (ppm) for any 1 day
nor exceed an average monthly concentration of 48 mg/l (40 CFR
Part 435).

Gas Line Break or Leakage: A gas pipeline leak or break is not
regarded as posing a substantial threat to water quality. The natural
gas released would result in an increased level of light-molecular-
weight hydrocarbons (C-2 to C-5), which would likely rise quickly to
the surface and be released to the atmosphere. However, some
localized disturbance of sediment may'temporarily increase water
column turbidity. Additionally, higher molecular weight hydrocarbons,
commonly associated with deposits of natural gas, may also be released
into the water column.

Deck Drainage:, Deck drainage includes all effluents resulting from
platform washings; deck washings; and runoff from curbs, gutters, and
drains including drip pans and work areas. Constituents of concern in
effluents are oil and grease. The NPDES permit regulations specify
there should be "no discharge of free oil" in deck drainage that would
cause a film, sheen, or discoloration on the surface of the water or
cause a sludge or emulsion to be deposited beneath the surface of the
water (40 CFR Part 435). In compliance with this requirement,
contaminated deck drainage is collected by a separate drainage system
and treated for solids removal and oil and water separation. The oil
is then held for onshore disposal.

(6) Ocean Dumging and Incineration-at-sea
Ocean dumping of waste materials includes, or has included in the
past, municipal sewage sludge, low-level radioactive wastes, and
industrial wastes. However, on the basis of volume, dredging related
to shipping is the largest single source of material that is dumped in
the ocean. During 1979, more than 72 million yd 3 of dredged material
were deposited in the marine environment (COE, 1980). The total

IV-42

constituted nearly eight times the combined tonnage of industrial
wastes, sewage sludge, construction debris, and other waste material
disposed o'f during 1979 (COE, 1980). Dredging of new channels And
maintenance dredging of existing channels are required to provide safe
and efficient navigation conditions for commercial and recreational
marine transportation. Channel dredging generates significant amounts
of dredged material consisting of the sediment and water mixture
excavated from areas dredged. These materials are dumped at
designated dredge spoil dumpsites, used as replacement materials for
beaches, or used inland for reclamation projects. Compared with other
materials that are disposed of in the ocean, most of the dredged
material excavated in the United States is innocuous. In many
instances, they contain no harmful pollutants and, in most of the
remaining cases, contain only trace levels of contaminants. The
primary concern associated with disposal of the relatively innocuous
materials centers around the direct physical effects of disposal.
These physical effects include burial of organisms, increased levels
of suspended sediments, reduction in photo-synthesis, and accretion of
disposed material (COE, 1978). However, dredged material taken from
highly polluted areas is usually contaminated with harmful chemical
constituents such as heavy metals, synthetic organics, oil, and
grease. Open-ocean disposal of these materials poses the threat of
acute or chronic toxic effects on marine organisms and potential
contamination of human food resources. Much research has been
conducted to describe the effects of dredged material disposal in the
marine environment and to evaluate disposal options that may be
preferable to ocean dumping.

b. Nearshore/Onshore Oil and Gas Industry Activities
Oil and gas industry activities and other onshore and coastal
activities contribute to point source and nonpoint source pollution
and, thereby, affect nearshore water quality.
Substantial amounts of oil and hazardous material enter the marine
environment through spillage during loading and unloading operations
in ports and harbors, pipeline leakage, equipment failures, and spills
from land vehicles and storage facilities onshore. It should be
pointed out however, that less than 2 percent of the oil entering the
marine environment results from offshore production (NAS, 1985). Oil
contained in urban and river runoff (spent oil and grease that wash
from the streets and sewers of cities) is a major contributor to the
oil content Of the oceans. About 39 percent of the total annual oil
pollution added to the seas is a result of accidental discharges from
oil transportation (by tankers, pipelines, and barges) (NAS, 1985):
The remainder enters from coastal facilities, industrial and municipal
waste discharges, land runoff, natural seeps, and OCS-related
activities.

Ocean outfalls of industrial wastes and those associated with oil and
gas industry activities are regulated by the EPA through NPDES
permits. Pollutants that may be associated with various industrial

IV-43

effluents include synthetic organic compounds, heavy metals,
oxygen-consuming materials, suspended solids, and nutrients.
The-construction and operation of onshore facilities supporting
OCS-related activities may affect local onshore water quality by
increasing the number of point and nonpoint pollution sources.
Increases of nonpoint waste sources to site runoff may contribute
particulate matter, heavy metals, petroleum products, and chemicals to
local streams, estuaries, and bays, causing temporary elevations in
turbidity and pollutant levels. During site preparation, the
vegetation is cleared from the area, and the topsoil is compacted by
the constant movement of heavy machinery. These, in turn, alter the
retention.properties of the soil and increase erosion and runoff from
the site. By controlling the erosion generated within the
construction site boundaries, several of the adverse impacts can be
localized, and thus offsite impacts on water bodies can be prevented.
Land clearing and associated development change the natural process of
storm-water runoff. The volume and rate of runoff increase as the
natural vegetation is modified.
Increases of point source discharges may also contribute to effluent
discharges of domestic wastewater, cooling and boiler water, process
water, and, in marine terminal areas, the discharge of ballast and
bilge water. The following discussion on wastewater discharged to
surface waters by OCS-related support facilities is largely based on
the New England River Basin Commission (NERBC) (1976).
Wastewater effluents from OCS-related support facilities are commonly
discharged to surface' waters after treatment. Although the degree of
environmental damage, if any, will be related directly to the toxic
nature of the discharge'and the biota present in the receiving waters,
certain characteristics of the discharge zone are important. These
characteristics include the size of the effective mixing zone
(dilution factor) or the ratio of discharge volume to receiving
volume; the flushing rate or residence time (estuaries characteristi-
cally have a slow flushing rate); and the physical-chemical
characteristics of the receiving waters (e.g., marine waters have a
higher buffering capacity than fresh or estuarine waters).
Domestic wastewater from support facilities will be collected and
delivered to a municipal treatment plant or will receive secondary
treatment in an onsite package treatment plant that includes
chlorination before discharge to the receiving waters. These
receiving waters may also contain high-organic carbon concentrations
and organic chlorine compounds (e.g., chloroform and chloramines).
These can be highly toxic to certain aquatic organisms. The discharge
of properly treated sewage wastewater into urban harbors is not
expected to measurably degrade the receiving waters.
Point source discharges are subject to treatment by municipal and
industria'I facilities in compliance with Federal and State discharge
permit requirements. The NPDES permits are issued on a regional and a

IV-44

facility-by-facility basis, limiting the quantities of contaminants in
and the temperature of each facility's effluent. The NPDES limits
reflect a site-by-site analysis of flushing rates and mixing zones of
the receiving water and the ability of indigenous populations to
tolerate higher temperature and pollutant concentrations.

2
0
. Effects on Marine Life (Effluents)
The effects on marine life by materials other than petroleum
hydrocarbons, discussed in Chapter IV, Section A, that are discharged
into the ocean are discussed in this subsection. Resuspended bottom
sediments, drilling muds and cuttings, formation water, and discharged
wastewater may all have impacts on marine biota. The effects on
marine life from resuspended sediments resulting from pipeline laying
or platform placement would primarily be through turbidity or
smothering effects. These mechanisms of impact are believed to be the
principal ones for drilling muds and cuttings; therefore, research
conclusions regarding the effects of fluids and cuttings are
applicable to sediment perturbations.

a. Resuspended Bottom Sediments
Bottomsediments are put in suspension during the emplacement of
platforms. and associated reentry collars, blowout preventers, and
pipelines. Impacts associated with the resuspension of bottom
sediments are due to increased turbidity and the release of pollutants
from the sediments into the water column.

Suspended solids may significantly decrease light penetration in
water, thereby decreasing photosynthesis in aquatic plants. These
solids may, also cause abrasive injuries, clog gills in fish, and
smother eggs and larvae on the bottom. They may provide additional
substrates, for bacterial decay, leading to oxygen depletion in the
lower water column. Alternately, they may contain nutrients that
increase growth rates of endemic plant and animal populations.
The magnitude and extent to which sediment is put into suspension
depend on the sediment type and grain size, water currents, and the
duration of the activity. The anchoring of support vessels and the
installation of subsea equipment will be short term, involve turbidity
increases for a few days, and be limited to several tens of meters.
Pipeline burial will involve much larger volumes of sediment over
periods of' several weeks and, thus, involve much larger volumes of
resuspended sediment.

Sessile organisms within several meters of the activity could be
buried. Turbidity increases would tend to decrease photosynthesis
initially and later result in a decrease in phytoplankton productivity
in shallow sunlit depths. However, turbi'dity increases will have
virtually no effect on phytoplankton at depths below 100 m. In
shallow depths, phytoplankton growth might ultimately be stimulated as

IV-45

nutrients in the resuspended sediments become available and as the
turbidity plume disperses.
Plankton exposed to discharge and sediment plumes will be temporarily
affected. Benthic communities are likely to change as a result of
altered sediment parameters (i.e., grain size) or burial by sediments
or muds and cuttings solids. Acute mortality of marine organisms from
platform discharges or sediment resuspension is not expected because
of relative low toxicity, rapid mixing, and dilution of all
discharges. Some marine organisms are expected to incorporate some
metals and hydrocarbons into their tissues, which may result in subtle
reproductive, metabolic, and biochemical changes of unknown
significance.
Turbidity plumes might temporarily disrupt the normal behavior
(e.g., swimming and feeding) of zooplankton and fish in the area.
Fish might avoid areas of high turbidity but soon return to feed on,
and be attracted to, benthic animals exposed by the sediment turnover.
The release of existing pollutants (e.g., metals and pesticides) back
into the water column as a result of sediment resuspension may occur
in areas where coastal and offshore sediments have elevated levels of
pollutants.
The extent of negative impacts on benthic species from platform
settling and anchoring will vary depending on the type of platform and
on the number of wells drilled. Effects could be compounded because
of the proximity of the holes to each other or reduced by the use of a
common dumpsite. Other factors that could modify impacts include
accumulated depth of disposed muds, dispersal of muds through time by
currents, and recolonization of deposition areas over an extended
drilling period. Groundfish and benthic crustaceans and mollusks are
most susceptible to these impacts. Very low impacts are expected
because of the localized nature of the activity.
Pipelines may disturb soft bottoms for an area 20 m wide along their
axis. Anchors may also disturb soft bottoms by being dropped and
pulled along the bottom when pipelines are being layed. The
disturbance will not be continuous from pipeline to anchor, but will
occur at a horizontal distance of three to seven times the depth of
the anchor. Trenches and mounds, which-apparently can remain for over
a year in certain soft bottoms, can result from this activity. In
bottoms consisting of coarser sediments, like sand, the mounds and
trenches probably do not remain as long. Assuming the composition of
the bottom sediments remains the same after the pipeline or anchor
disturbance, impacts on the soft bottom communities would be short
term.
Pipelines traversing hard bottoms would cause disturbances of the same
dimensions given above for soft bottoms. Attached organisms could be
crushed by the pipelines or anchors, and repopulation may have to
originate primarily from larval settlement. The time required for the

IV-46

community -to recover to its original population structure (species
distribution and size and age distribution within the species),could
range from I year for kelp to approximately 10 years for mussels.
b. Drilling Muds and Cuttings
Drilling muds and cuttings are discharged into the ocean as described
in Chapter III, Sections B and C. The fate and effects of fluids have
been discussed at length in the Symposium on Research on Environmental
Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and Cuttings (Courtesy Associates,
1980), Dames and Moore (1980), Neff (1981), Petrazzullo (1981), NAS
(1983), and in the Panel Report on Assessment of Fates and Effects of
Drilling Fluids and Cuttings in the Marine Environment. Direct
impacts of drilling fluids and cuttings are due to smothering or
toxicity of mud components. Experiments by Shinn et al. (1974)
indicate short-term (acute) toxicity of approximately 500 ppm for the
hard corals Montastrea annularis and Agaricia agaricites. The
research indicated hard corals could survive short-term impacts within
6 m of a discharge site. However, other research (Hudson and Robbin,
1980; Thompson and Bright, 1980; Kune and Biggs, 1980) showed
sublethal -impacts could be very damaging to corals within an estimated
distance of 3 m from the discharge.
Chronic or sublethal effects of drilling muds have been examined on at
least 40 species of marine animals (Neff, 1985). Some species, such
as reef corals, lobster larvae, and scallop embryos and larvae, showed
sublethal responses to drilling muds at concentrations that were two
orders of magnitude below the acutely lethal concentrations. Neff,
(1985) concluded that organisms in the water column (i.e., plankton)
will never be exposed to drilling muds long enough to show even
sublethal effects because rates of dilution of drilling muds are so
rapid. However, recruitment of larvae exposed to sediments with high
concentrations of drilling muds was reduced in laboratory (microcosm)
experiments, suggesting that adverse impacts on benthic organisms in
the immediate vicinity of the platform may occur because of the slight
toxicity of' deposited drilling muds. Bioaccumulation of barium and
chromium and a slight accumulation of copper, cadmium, and lead from
drilling muds have been reported. Deposition of drilling mud solids
may cause changes in sediment texture or simple burial of organisms
beneath the, platform, and result in very localized high impacts.
Drilling muds and cuttings contain toxic components including trace
metals, biocides, and petroleum hydrocarbons in varying compositions
and con-centrations. Bacteriocides in drilling fluids can be quite
toxic, having LC50'values of less than I ppm. Toxicity bioassays for
marine organisms exposed in situ to drilling muds and cuttings show
relatively high LC5. levels (the lethal concentration at which 50
percent of the organism tested survives when exposed to the test
solution for a given period, commonly 96 hours). Salmonids had LC 's
ranging from 4,000 to 190,000 ppm, and shrimp showed an LC of 1,&
ppm (B.C. Research, 1976; Dames and Moore, 1978). Other 1%50 values
for species in the Lower Cook Inlet COST well study including

IV-47

amphipods, mysids, isopods, and brine shrimp larvae ranged from 500 to
2,000 ppm (Dames and Moore, 1978).

The toxicity of drilling mud has been debated among groups concerned
with OCS-related impacts. The present data, although having
shortcomings in several cases, indicate that muds have low toxicity
when compared to petroleum hydrocarbons, trace metals in wastewater,
or industrial wastes. This conclusion is based primarily on
short-term, 96-hour static bioassays of used drilling muds and
drilling mud components. The most commonly used water-based drilling
muds (offshore discharge of oil-based muds is prohibited) are
classified as "slightly toxic" (based on the whole, undiluted mud) to
"practically nontoxic" according to aquatic toxicity grades used by
the international scientific community (Jones et al., 1986). Eight
generic offshore mud systems with commonly used additives were tested
at EPA's Gulf Breeze (Florida) laboratory. Using a 9:1 dilution (to
simulate dilution of the mud system as it is discharged into the
receiving water) of the suspended particulate phase, researchers found
that the most toxic system had a LC50 of 27,000 ppm (using mysid
shrimp as a test organism), whereas all the remainder systems were
less toxic (Duke, 1984). The general NPDES discharge permit for the
GOM requires that drilling fluids meet a LC of 50,000 ppm.
Exceptions to this limit have been granted ry, EPA, on a case-by-case
basis, for muds used in special drilling situations. Research has
also included a number of sublethal and long-term (106-day)
experiments with a number of invertebrates, crustaceans, annelids,
mollusks). The sublethal and long-term study data tend to support the
conclusion of low toxicity of muds, but some data indicate
interference with growth in oysters and pecten clams at concentrations
of 100 ppm. Differences in results among studies are probably due, in
large part, to the differences in the methods of testing rather than
differences in the toxicity of muds. There currently is no standard
method for long-term testing of exposure of marine organisms to
drilling muds.

It should be pointed out that any toxicity associated with drilling
muds and cuttings (as opposed to their physical effects by possible
smothering) is most likely attributable to the presence of diesel fuel
used in mud as a lubricity agent. Trace metals in water-based muds
may present some toxicity to marine organisms, but generally it seems
that toxicity values are low (high ppm or ppt required to elicit toxic
effects). Many organisms, making use of a class of proteins called
metallothioneins, are able to bind up trace heavy metals allowing
organisms to accumulate what would otherwise be stressful levels of
metals. As in the case of shellfish, water quality changes may not
kill the organism but may contaminate it so that it cannot be a.safe
food source for humans. Tainting of the flavor may also occur, making
it undesirable for human consumption. These metals may also exhibit a
toxic effect to consuming organisms higher in the food chain due to
biomagnification (NERBC, 1976).

IV-48

Since the magnitudes of the potential impacts are directly related to
the concentrations of the muds and cuttings, factors that will
increase dispersion are important impact-reducing determinants. The
most important of these would be the magnitude and direction of
currents within the water column and the water depth.

Approximately 90 percent of the releases of drilling muds and cuttings
are transported toward the seafloor in the primary discharge plume.
The remaining 10 percent, which are typically the lighter or smaller
particles, form a surface plume that usually dissipates within 1,000 m
of the discharge site. If the 90 percent that settle toward the ocean
bottom encounter a pycnocline (zone of rapid density changes), a
secondary plume may form. It is expected that this would occur in
deeper water where a well-established thermocline may be present. The
drilling cuttings would settle directly to the bottom in the vicinity
of the we'll. However, the extent of dispersion would depend on water
depth and water current velocity. Decreases in primary or secondary
production from the elevated turbidity are expected to be minimal
because of the localized and temporary nature of the discharge
effects. It is estimated that any decrease in productivity is short
term, localized, and indistinguishable from naturally occurring
spatial or temporal variability.
The degree of impact of these discharges on benthic and demersal
species depends greatly on local environmental conditions (e.g., water
depths, currents, wave regime, and substrate) and on the nature and
volume of the discharges including cutting sizes, discharge depth, and
discharge rate.

Localized impacts on benthos from drilling muds and cuttings will be
evident during the initial drilling when the involved fluids and ft2
solids are ejected at the sediment suifface. Approximately 8,000
(744 M2) pier well are expected to be covered by up to 1 m of drilling
discharges. Impacts that result from drilling fluid discharges are
extremely localized. They can include smothering of organisms around
the borehole and some distance downcurrent depending on the
hydrodynamics of the area, localized change of sediment granulometry,
increase in body burdens of barium in local benthic invertebrates,
interruption of filter-feeding patterns because of elevated levels of
suspended particulates, and increased sedimentation rate around the
well from routine or bulk discharges. The latter is highly variable
depending on discharges, water depth, and current regime.
In the case of production platforms, the communities within sediment
bottoms probably will recolonize after a period of time; however, the
colonizing species may not be those organisms characteristic of the
surrounding areas. Recolonization will come from within the buried
sediments and from outside by larval settlement. Impacts from
drilling muds and cuttings are of shorter duration than those from
permanent platforms and are probably of less consequence. However,
the impact's occur for at least as long as wells are drilled from the
platform, or for about 6 to 8 years.

IV-49

A significant interference with ecological relationships of the sea
bottom ecosystem will occur in approximately-a 1-kilometer radius
around the platform for a period of less than 2 years. Due to burial
effects, abundance levels of macrobenthos are temporarily reduced in
the vicinity of the wellsite, and there is usually an accompanying
increase in megabenthos abundance levels (NRC 1983). However, since
impacts will probably remain localized, the impact on the generally
soft bottom outside the affected area will be short term, lasting less
than 1 year, with insignificant interferences with ecological
relationships.
The potential impacts on plankton resulting from the release of muds
and cuttings into the environment include the following: (1)
increased turbidity causing decreased primary production because of
reduced light levels, (2) increased particulate levels causing
interference with or damage to filter-feeding apparatus, and (3) acute
or chronic toxic effects from the constituents of the drilling muds.

c. Formation Water

Formation water may affect both water quality and marine life. The
primary concern regarding biological effects of formation water
centers on the trace metal content, hydrocarbon content, and oxygen
demand (amount of dissolved oxygen removed from the ocean by chemical
action) of this discharge.
Acute toxicity of formation water was investigated by Zein-Eldin and
Keney (1978) and Rose and Ward (1981). The earlier study reported
96-hour LC50values for juvenile white shrimp of 1,750-6,000 ppm
formation water and a second set of data showing 96-hour LC50. values
greater than 100-,000 ppm. The first set of val-ues were obtained using
formation water treated with two biocides, whereas the second data set
was obtained from untreated formation water. The lowest 96-hour LC50
values obtained by Rose and Ward were 7,000-8,000 ppm formation water
for larval brown shrimp. This formation water had a high BOD relative
to the conditions around the real discharge in the Buccaneer Oil Field
(Gulf of Mexico). It seems, therefore, that acute toxicity of
formation water may be associat'ed principally with removal of oxygen
from seawater or indirectly by biocides added to waters before
discharge.
The long-term sublethal effects of formation water are unknown (beyond
the lack of obvious effects in historical producing areas such as the
Gulf of Mexico) although the sublethal effects of trace metals on
organisms are known for a variety of metals and marine organisms
(e.g., Reish et al., 1976; Oshida, 1977). Galloway et al. (1980),
studying the effects of formation water on the fouling community on
platforms in the Buccaneer Oil Field and the associated reef and
demersal fishes, found reduced biomass and production levels
restricted to 1 m vertically and 10 m horizontally in the fouling
community on the platform. Galloway found elevated alkane
levels in sheepheads collected near the platforms but less than normal

IV-50

histopathological anomalies (fish were "healthier" near the
platforms). Crested blennies around the platforms showed results
similar Ito the sheepshead; spadefish showed no evidence of petroleum
or trace metal contamination attributable to Buccaneer Oil Field
operations; and red snapper showed gill deformities in 62 percent of
the fish collected. EPA (1985), in considering a declining catch-
versus-effort in the fisheries industry in the GOM, notes that,
although not definitive, the evidence raises an environmental concern
with respect to discharges from oil and gas platforms. Other causes,
such as overfishing, may also account for the decline in catch-
versus-effort. However, more work is needed to understand the
population dynamics of the red snapper and to determine if the
correlation between red snapper gill abnormalities and formation water
discharge is real.

d. Discharge Wastewater
Wastewater effluents from OCS-related facilities produce a wide range
of responses in the receiving waters. Environmental responses
produced will depend upon the quantity and kind of pollutants
discharged or spilled. Heavy metals (such as zinc or copper),
although often essential or nontoxic to organisms in very low
concentrations, become toxic in higher con-centrations. Even if the
concentration of a heavy metal in the water is not toxic, it may
accumulate in tissue with ultimately lethal effects.
Ammonia can alter the pH of water, thus harming pH-sensitive
organisms. Antifouling substances, which are added to cooling water
to kill algae and bacteria, have similar effects on the organisms
present. Suspended solids significantly decrease light penetration
into the water, thus decreasing photosynthesis in aquatic plants.
They also cause abrasive injuries, clog gills in fish, and smother
eggs and larvae by blanketing the bottom. Suspended solids that
settle on the bottom provide additional substrates for bacterial
decay, leading to oxygen depletion of the bottom waters. Thermal
discharges can alter the chemical nature of receiving waters in
many ways. Solubility of dissolved oxygen, toxicity of heavy metals,
and metabolic rates of aquatic-organisms are affected by changes in
water temperatures.

The environmental impacts assoc-tated with oil and heavy metal
pollution in the marine envirbnment include both toxic and sublethal
responses. Juvenile forms of many species of marine fauna are
particularly sensitive, and an age class may be totally eliminated by
a specific dosage of oil or some heavy metal. Sublethal physiological
alterations include depression of growth and photosynthesis in marine
flora.

:3. Air Ouality

This section describes the most commonly emitted air pollutants
associated with typical OCS activities. IIncluded are nitrogen oxide

IV-51

(NO @, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur oxide (SO total suspended
particulates (TSP), and volatile organic compounds (VOC), all of which
are regulated by Federal and State agencies to prevent adverse effects
of human health and welfare. Ozone is not emitted directly by any
source, but is formed in a photochemical reaction in the atmospheric
involving primarily VOC and NO,.
Nitrogen oxide consists of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO . Nitrous oxide and N are formed through the combination of
2) 02.
oxygen and nitrogen in the air during combustion processes, and the
rate of formation increases greatly with combustion temperature.
Nitrogen dioxide is formed in the free atmosphere by the oxidation of
NO.
Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete combustion. It is mainly a
problem in areas having a high concentration of vehicle traffic.
Carbon monoxide is a serious health threat to humans when present in
sufficient concentrations due to its preferential adsorption by blood
hemoglobin.
Sulfur oxide is formed by the combustion of fuels containing sulfur.
Emissions are usually in the form of sulfur dioxide (S02)' Sulfur
dioxide in the atmosphere can go through a series of chemical
transformations, which may result in the formation of sulfuric acid
droplets and sulfate particles. Entrainment of SO or sulfate
particles into storm clouds may contribute significantly to reduced pH
levels in precipitation (acid rain).
Total suspended particulate emissions are from combustion processes
and sources that are associated with construction activities. Most
particulates are less than 10 microns in diameter. However, all
particulates 10 microns and less in size can cause adverse health
effects and may also contribute to a degradation in visibility.
Fugitive sources of VOC emissions are crude oil storage and transfer
operations, processing of hydrocarbon compounds, and incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels.
Facilities used for the exploration, development, and production of
oil and gas in OCS waters are subject to DOI air quality regulations
(30 CFR 250.57). Examples of facilities include exploratory drilling
vessels and production platforms. During production, multiple -
installations or devices-are considered to be a single facility if
they are directly related to the production of oil or gas at a single
site. Any vessel used to transfer production or to support an OCS
facility is considered part of the facility while it is physically
attached to the facility. Crew boats, supply boats, and tankers while
in transit to or from OCS facilities are not regulated by the DOI air
quality regulations; however, in the Pacific Region, idling emissions
from support vessels at the offshore facility are regulated by the DOI
air quality regulations.. Additionally, pile driver barges or other
construction-related vessels are included while at platform.

I IV-52

The air quality regulations designed by DOI specify emission'exemption
levels. If a source exceeds the exemption level, air quality modeling
is required to determine whether the emission would significantly
affect onshore air quality. The highest annual total amount of
emissions; from the facility for each air pollutant is compared to an
emission exemption amount. This exemption level is based on distance
from shore. Exemption levels are established for CO, NO , SO2., TSP,
and VOC. Current and planned facilities with projected xemissions
below these levels are exempt from further regulatory requirements,
unless the facility, in combination with other facilities in the area,
would significantly affect the air quality of an onshore area (30 CFR
250.57-1(j)). The exemption level for CO is E = 3,400 D raised to the
2/3 power, where E is the emission exemption amount expressed in tons
per year and D is the distance of the proposed facility from the
closest onshore area of a State in statute miles. For TSP, NOXt S021
and VOC, the exemption level is E = 33.3 D. The exemption levels
apply to any offshore installation and related storage and processing
facilities.

For any facility with projected emissions above the exemption levels
for any pollutant other than VOC, an approved air quality model must
be used to determine whether projected emissions from the facility
would significantly affect air quality impacts onshore. If such
projected emissions are above the DOI significance levels
(table IV-5), the applicant would be required to apply Best Available
Control Technology (BACT), an emission limitation based on maximum
degree of' reduction considering energy, environmental, and economic
impacts.

Table IV-5
Signficance Levels (ug/%) Above Which
Best Available Control Technology Is Required

Air Pollutant Average Time (Hours)
Annual 24 3 1

S02 ........ 1 5........ 25 ........
TSP ........ 1 5......... ........ ........
N02 ........ I ........ ........ ........ ........
CO ........ ........ ........ 500 ........ 2,000

Any source with VOC emissions above the exemption level is considered
to significantly affect the air quality of an onshore area for VOC and
emission reductions would be required through the application of BACT
(CFR 250.57-1(g)(3)).

IV-53

If projected emissions from an OCS facility, except a temporary one,
significantly affect onshore air quality of a nonattainment area
(designated region in,which*pollutant concentrations in ambient air do
not meet National AmbientAir Quality Standards [NAAQS]), the
emissions shall be "fully reduced." This term means that the lessee's
net emissions increase must be reduced to zero. This reduction shall
be done through BACT and the application of additional emission
controls or through the acquisition of offshore or onshore offsets
(CFR 250.57-1(g)(1) and 250.57-1(g)(3)).
Onshore facilities are not under the jurisdiction of MMS. These
facilities are regulated by the local air pollution control district
(APCD). The EPA and the State regulatory agency are responsible for
assuring that the APCD's implement a program that adequately addresses
all provisions required by the Clean Air Act (CAA).
Impacts from offshore oil and gas development on onshore air quality
depend on many factors including distance of the activity from shore,
production rate, type of equipment used, mode of transport of crude
oil, proximity to other oil and gas development activities, and degree
of existing onshore air quality degradation. Tables IV-6 through
IV-8.present emission rates typically associated with various OCS
operations offshore California. The technical assumptions made in
these calculations are described in detail in Pacific OCS Technical
Paper No. 83-3 (FSI, 1983).
The type and relative amounts of air pollutants generated by offshore
operations vary according to phase of activity. There are basically
three phases: the exploration phase, development phase, and
production phase. A more detailed discussion of emission sources
associated with each phase is presented in Pacific OCS Technical Paper
No. 83-8 (FSI, 1983). The various emission sources are described
below.
Sources of offshore air emissions during the drilling of exploratory
wells include diesel-fired engines that power the drilling units and
engines that power the tug boats, crew boats, and supply boats.
Pollutants primarily consist of NOX, with smaller amounts of CO, VOC,
and TSP. The development phase consists of platform installation,
pipeline construction, and drilling of developmental wells. During
the installation of a platform, air emissions are associated with
derrick barges, tugboats, and cranes.
Pipeline installation results in similar types of emissions, but total
amounts are much lower since they occur over a much shorter period of
time. The drilling of development wells is initially performed by
diesel engines; however, once production starts, natural gas turbines
or reciprocating engines are used. The largest contribution to air
emissions during development consists of NOX, whereas emissions of CO,
VOC, SO , and TSP are considerably smaller. However, NOX emissions
are redxuced substantially once the diesel engines are replaced by

IV-54

natural gas turbines or reciprocating engines. Table IV-6 lists
typical emission rates associated with exploration and development
activities.

Onshore emission sources during the exploration phase would consist of
vehicles transporting personnel and materials and support vessels
operating in port.- During the construction phase, typical onshore
activities are construction of gas processing facilities and pipeline
systems. Onshore emission sources during the production phase would
consist of crude oil storage facilities, pipeline systems, gas
processing plants, and refineries.
During oil and gas production, the primary source of emissions is from
natural gas turbines or reciprocating engines that provide power for
oil pumping, water injection, and gas compression. The emissions
consist primarily of NO,lwith lesser amounts of CO, VOC, TSP, and SO 2-
Other sources of air po utants include leakage of hydrocarbon vapors
from ofl-water separators, pump and compressor seals, valves, and
storage tanks. Flaring may take place periodically to burn off excess
gas, resulting in some emissions of S02 and NO If the gas produced
is high in hydrogen sulfide (H2S), the gas woul@ have to pass through
a desulfurization unit. Table IV-7 shows offshore emissions from
production facilities in the case where oil is shipped to shore via
pipeline.
If barges or tankers are used to transport crude oil to shore,
emissions of VOC result from tanker loading operations. Emissions of
so 2, NOX, and TSP from the ship's engines occur during loading
operations, tanker transit, and tanker operations in port. Emission-s
of VOC also occur during unloading and ballasting operations in port.
Table 1%1-8 lists typical emissions from production activities in the
case where oil is transported to shore via tanker.

IV-55

Table IV-6
Typical annual air emissions for exploration and development activities

Activity Pollutant Emissions,(tons/years) Notes
VOC NOX sox CO TSP
Exploratory Drilling 28.0 175.6 14.0 34.0 14.5 NOX emission values for
power generation from
Radian (1982). All
other emission values
obtained from FSI
(1983). Assumes four
10,000-foot explor-
atory wells drilled,
about 90 days for each
well. Includes
emissions from support
vessels at site and
during transit.

Platform Installation 8.5 192.0 13.0 34.4 10.7 Emission values from FSI
(1983). Includes
emissions from support
vessels.

Pipeline Installation 1.8 31.6 2.1 6.1 2.0 Emission val ues from FSI
(1983). 'Includes
emissions from support
vessels.

Development Drilling 7.9 106.2 4.6 40.4 5.1 Emission values from FSI
(1983). Assumes eight
10,000-foot wells
drilled per year.
Includes emissions from
support vessels.

Table IV-7
Typical annual air emissions for exploration and development activities

Pollutant Emissions (tons/years) Notes
voc NOX sox CO TSP

Offshore Platform 25.7 99.0 0.7 69.3 5.5 Emission values'from FSI
(1983). Assumes 12,000
barrels/day of oil and
16 million ft3/day of
.%ks..prq uced.
Support Vessels 0.9 42.4 2.9 6.4 1.9 Emission values.from FSI
(1983).'- Assumes one
crew boat trip/2 days
and one supply boat
trip/2 days. Includes
emissions during transit
for a 50-mile round
trip.

Onshore Gas Processing 13.6 39.8 21.0 4.8 3.5 Emission values from
@Dames and Moore (1982).
Assumes 60 million
ft3/day of gas.

Table IV-8
Typical annual air emissions for oil and gas production activities, tanker scenario

Pollutant, Emissions (tons/years) Notes
VOC NOX sox CO TSP

Offshore Platform 23.9 87.0 0.6 60.5 4.9 Emission values from FSI
(1983). Assumes 12,000
barrels/day of oil and
16 million ft3/day of
gas produced.

Offshore Storage 158.3 2.2 10.2 0.5 1.2 Emission values from FSI
(1983). Assumes 42
tanker trips/year.

Co Support Vessels 0.9 42.4 2.9 6.4 1.9 Emission values from FSI
(1983). Assumes one
crew boat trip/2 days
and one supply boat
trip/2 days. Includes
emissions during transit
for a 50-mile round
trip.

Tanker Transit 1.1 25.7 91.6 1.8 5.9 Emission values from FSI
(1983). Assumes 42
tanker trips/year, 600-
mile round trip.

Tanker in Port 11.6 4.6 6.4 0.6 0.7 Emission values from FSI
(1983).
Onshore Gas Processing 13.6 39.8 21.0 4.8 3.5 Emission values from
Dames and Moore (1982).

a. Accidents

Accidental emissions include those associated with oil spills and
blowouts with or without fires. These events would be very rare;
however, the associated emissions to the atmosphere would be great.
For an oil spill, the hourly emission rate of VOC per 1,000 bbl of oil
spilled would be 28.5 tons for the first hour and 14.5 tons for the
second hour (FSI, 1983). A blowout of 1,000 bbl/day of oil and I
million ft3/day of gas would result in emissions in the amount of
2,000 pounds/hour (lb/hr) of hydrocarbons and 33 lb/hr of H 2S. A
blowout of the same size accompanied by a fire would reduce
hydrocarbon emission to 670 lb/hr, but emissions resulting from
combustion would include 46 lb/hr of NOX, 417 lb/hr of SOXI 670 lb/hr
of CO, and 140 lb/hr of TSP (FSI, 1983).
If an oil spill is ignited immediately after spillage, the burn can
combust the lighter fraction of crude oil that otherwise would
evaporate. This lighter fraction constitutes approximately 33 to
67 percent of the total volume. On the other hand, incomplete
combustion injects oily soot and minor quantities of other pollutants
into the air.

b. Mitigation

Air emissions from OCS exploratory, development, and production
activities may be mitigated through a number of different emission
control measures. Nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines used
for exploratory and development drilling can be reduced by fuel
injection timing retard and/or by intake air cooling (the particular
technique depending upon the make and model of the engine). Fugitive
hydrocarbon emissions from exploratory drilling may be reduced by
piping vapors to a flare,system for incineration. Sulfur dioxide
emissions from diesel engines on the platform and from support vessels
may be reduced by requiring the operator to burn low-sulfur diesel
fuel. Sulfur dioxide emissions from flaring during drill stem testing
may be reduced by removing excess H 2S from the gas stream by a slurry
system.

Nitrogen oxide emissions from gas-fired turbines used to drive
electrical generators, gas compressors, and water injection pumps can
be mitigated by injecting water into the combustion chamber of the
turbine. Nitrogen oxide emissions from process heaters, glycol
regenerators and amine regenerators can be reduced by using electric
heaters (with power supplied through subsea cables), by using low NOX
burners, or by using waste heat recovery from turbines or diesel
engines. Nitrogen oxide emissions from diesel engines may be reduced
by turbocharging, with intercooling, or by fuel injection timing
retard. Engines that have a precombustion chamber can have lower NOX
emissions by combustion chamber design. If the emission controls
above do not reduce impacts satisfactorily, power may be supplied by

IV-59

onshore generated electricity using subsea power cables. However, the
use of subsea cables may not be feasible at large distances from
shore.

Fugitive VOC emissions can be reduced by using valves, seals, and
other components that are designed to result in low gas leakage.
Further reduction is assured by requiring the operator to conduct a
rigorous maintenance and inspection program. Fugitive emissions from
storage and transfer of fuel can be reduced by using balance lines.

In the case where crude oil is transported by tanker, use of a vapor
balance line during tanker loading operations would eliminate most of
the fugitive VOC emissions. Other possible measures include the use
of a submerged fill pipe during tanker loading, or vapor-freeing empty
cargo tanks while the tanker is in transit at sea. Use of tankers
with segregated ballast would eliminate most VOC emissions when the
tanker takes on ballast after unloading crude oil in port.

Sulfur dioxide emissions from gas-fired engines and heaters can be
reduced by treating the gas before burning by removing H2S. This
treatment is accomplished by a slurry system that interacts chemically
with the H S to remove it. Amine regeneration has been used
successfuliy on platforms in the Pacific Region. The acid gas
resulting from this process must be treated by a slurry mixture or a
sulfur recovery system.

None of the emission control measures discussed above would eliminate
all emissions. If emission controls are not sufficient to prevent
significant deterioration of onshore air quality, the operator is
required to obtain offshore or onshore emission offsets.

G. Impacts on the Socioeconomic Environment
1. Impacts on Employment and Demographic Conditions
Oil and gas exploration, development, and production activities on the
OCS, as well as service and processing facilities onshore and
offshore, may result in changes in the socioeconomic characteristics
of the coastal region. The degree to which an area is affected by
economic change depends primarily on the size and nature of the
activities and the area's economic base. The important socioeconomic
indicators are current levels of employment and income, the
availability of housing and public services, and the existing oil and
gas infrastructure.
The regional economic effect involves an initial impact and a
secondary impact. The initial impact is defined as an initial change
in final demand for a set of industries, whereas the secondary impact
results in changes to all economic sectors from the initial impact.
Estimates of income, population, and housing are based on total or new
resident employment using gross region or industry specific ratios,

IV-60

such as the average payroll per employee, population-employment ratio,
or average housing units per population. Direc employment
projections are based on the activities represe ed in the following
list of parameters.

(1) Delineation and Exploratory Wells

(2) Development Wells

(3) Platforms

(4) Pipeline Landfalls

(5) Treating Facilities

(6) Marine Terminals and Storage Facilities
The level of socioeconomic impact of an area is measured by comparing
the base case to the new resident employment and demographic results.
Impact conclusions are based on the percent change from the base case
conditions resulting from activity.

2. Impacts on Coastal Land Use and Water Services

During the exploratory phase, temporary support bases (5-10 acres
each) may be needed. Due to the temporary nature of the exploratory
phase and the availability of existing ports, land-use impacts are
generally very low. Land-use impacts may occur if existing harbors
need to be expanded to accommodate a temporary support base. Because
of the competition for space in may of the smaller harbors, the
possibility exists that increased activity may displace former users
if a harbor cannot be expanded.
The construction phase may have variable land-use impacts depending
principally on the size of the community and the availability of
existing onshore oil and gas infrastructure. Land-use impacts may be
low in larger communities that have available industrial land and
adequate harbor facilities and that are already supported by existing
oil and gas infrastructure. Smaller coastal communities that are not
tied into the existing oil and gas infrastructure may need to devote
land use to supporting pipelines, pipeline installation and service
base, pumping stations, and gas processing and treatment plants.
Induced impacts may include the need to construct additional housing,
schools, water lines, sewer lines, and other community services to
support the increased population. Land-use impacts may be high in
small communities seeking to preserve tourism, fishing, and
agriculture as their economic base.

During pipeline installation, damage to an area about 20 m wide could
occur where the pipeline comes ashore. Recovery from this type of
disturbance should occur within 2 years, with no toxic residues left
in the area from the operation.

IV-61

The production and decommissioning phases are anticipated to have low
impacts on land usei@ Impacts are expected to be low during the
production phase due to the-lack of demand for additional land and the
slackening of economic growth because construction activity is
completed. During decommissioning, land-use impacts are expected to
be low due to the shutdown of onshore facilities no longer needed to
support offshore activities. Land no longer needed to support
offshore oil and gas activities, therefore, becomes available for
other uses, which lessens the need to develope additional land.
Smaller communities can be expected to experience a greater economic
downturn than the larger communities. On a percentage basis, smaller
communities will have more developed industrial, commercial, and
residential land become available for other uses than the larger
communities.

The availability of freshwater tends to be a limiting factor for
determining if a community can absorb additional population and
economic activity. Potential impacts resulting from shortages in
freshwater supplies would include rationing, building moratoriums,
displacement of some industry and commercial activities, overdrafting
groundwater supplies, saltwater intrusion, and/or the need for some
users to supply their own water. The availability of and 'access to
wastewater treatment facilities are not as critical as access to
freshwater. If wastewater treatment facilities are stressed, building
moratoriums may be instituted until additional capacity is
constructed. Periods of peak flow can also cause excess wastewater to
pass untreated through the system and be dumped into the ocean. This
dumping can result in the degradation of water quality around the
sewer outfalls.

3. Impacts on Recreation and Tourism
Oil spills, offshore structures, and pipelines can potentially affect
recreational resources. Although use:of,recreational areas fluctuates
dramatically with weather conditions, the trend is for a growth in use
over time due mainly to,population increases and increases in
discretionary time and money. It is important to note that an impact
on any of the recreational resources would affect the local economic
conditions and could affect the other recreational resources in the
area by both translocation of the recreationists and by making the
resources less desirable.
A key factor in the levelW impact on coastal recreation resources is
the time of year the accident occurs. Although the summer is
generally the peak season for.coastal recreation and tourism, a spring
beaching occurrence could potentially have even more serious impacts
than a summer spill. Springtime planning for the popular summer
vacation could be heavily influenced by adverse publicity associated
with a particular beaching occurrence, causing-recreation activities
to shift to alternative areas,.

IV-62

Many recreation or tourism operators are small, marginally profitable
enterprises. The loss of most or all of a summer season's income
could not only cause the obvious loss of jobs and income, but also may
undermine -the viability of the enterprises for succeeding summer
seasons. Moreover, people who vacation and/or periodically recreate
in an alternative locale during that summer season may prefer the new
locale and avoid the affected locale in subsequent years, even though
the area was once again suitable for use. On the other hand, with a
spill being localized, and given the tendency of people to select
nearby, similarly situated areas as an alternative (if available), the
net loss of participation on a regional and even county basis might be
only marginal. Such effects were observed after the 1969 Santa
Barbara Channel oil spill.

The peak summer tourist season would undoubtedly be disrupted in the
event of a major oil spill, at least for the duration of spill
beaching and cleanup operations. If a beach is relatively accessible,
cleanup can be accomplished in a matter of days through the mechanical
removal of oil-soaked sand. Efforts to replenish the sand, if
necessary, could take an extended period of time.

A spill during the fall or winter season would not result in as@
significant an impact on coastal recreation and tourism because of
seasonal reduction in demand. Additionally, an oil-beaching
occurrence during this time of year would not significantly impact the
following summer season's activity, assuming timely and effective
cleanup activities as well as sufficient positive publicity of these
activities.

Numerous actual oil spills have occurred that present the opportunity
to examine and evaluate the impacts of a spill in a given situation
with variables identified. These case studies, though not predictive
of future oil spills, do provide illustrations of the nature and
extent of -impacts on various resources. Summaries of various
historical spill studies are provided below, especially as they relate
to the recreation and tourism industry.
The world's largest accidental oil spill, Mexico's IXTOC 1, contacted
coastal areas of Texas. The economic effects of the spill were
examined in an MMS-funded study (Restrepo and Associates, 1982). This
study found that total tourism and recreation losses were about $6.5
million, primarily in the communities of South Padre-Island, Port
Isabel, and Port Aransas. The losses were not distributed equally in
the affected areas; rather, they were absorbed by a mall number of
businesses close to the water's edge in the recreation-oriented areas.
There is evidence that the recreation business loss at the water's.
edge was offset with additional recreation-related spending elsewhere
in the area. Interviews with persons associated with waterfront
busi-nesses in the affected area indicated that losses occurred only in
1979; these losses did not continue for 1980 and 1981.

IV-63

Studies of the January-February 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill indicated
similar impacts (Mead and Sorensen, 1970). Short-term trade diversion
occurred as a result of the spill, depressing the motel and restaurant
business near,the ocean in favor of the neighboring Goleta area.
Overall tourist activity in the county, however, was not significantly
affected-by the spill, and, as a result, no social costs could be
determined. Similarly, no measurable permanent damage to tourism
occurred as a result of the IXTOC I spill offshore Mexico.

The wreck of the Amoco Cadiz in March of 1978 affected about 400 km
(about Z50 mi) of the Brittany coast of France. Studies by the U.S.
Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric'
Administration (DOC, NOAA, 1983), indicated that economic losses to
the tourist industry in the area totaled between $28 million and $60
million. Nonmarket-valued social costs associated with recreation in
the area were estimated to be $13 million to $82 million.

Other spills have had little or no effect on local travel industries.
The Argo Merchant that ran aground and sank approximately 29 mi
sou6east of Nantucket Island, Massachusetts (unrelated to OCS
activity), resulted in no measurable losses to the tourist industry.
No oil actually came ashore as a result of this spill. Tourist trade
after the spill was as good as or better than the previous season
(DOC, NOAA, 1977).
During the first 6 months of the United States' involvement in World
War 11, the waters within 50 mi of the U.S. Atlantic coast experienced
the destruction of numerous merchant vessels and cargo ships by German
U-boats. This destruction included the spillage of roughly 3.5 millon
bbl of oil--the equivalent of 20 Argo Merchants, almost 1 per week for
6 months. Although the vast majority of this oil made its way out to
sea and dissipated, significant amounts did contact the coastline.
Although the exact impact of these World War II sinkings on the
tourist and recreation industry has not been quanti-fied, it can be
stated with some certainty that, at least locally and in the short
term, significant adverse economic impacts were experienced,
especially on the New Jersey shore. However, available documentation
(Campbell et al., 1977) indicates that the overall effects of the oil
spills were "negligible," and the regional economy "survived with
little difficulty.'"
Title III of the OCSLA, as amended, established an Offshore Oil Spill
Pollution Fund. Through this fund, persons who sustain an economic
loss as a consequence of oil pollution arising from OCS activities can
be compensated. The regulations that implement this appear at 33 CFR
Parts 135 and 136 and are administered by the USCG. Part 136 of the
regulations sets forth the claims procedures. Thus, if OCS activities
were to result in an oil spill that reached shore, owners-and users of
areas important for coastal recreation and tourism would be entitled
to apply for compensation through this fund.

IV-64

Recent concern has been expressed about the problem of trash and
debris on shorefront recreational beaches. Some local governments of
coastal Texas share this concern, as noted from newspaper reports. A
special report on beach litter prepared by the State of Texas surmised
that 75-90 percent of all the litter on coastal beaches comes from the
marine environment. Because of predominant water current regimes,
south Texas beaches are being impacted by debris,and chemical drums
from merchant marine, fishing, and oil and gas activities originating
from the western GOM, the central GOM, and Mexican waters. The USCG,
under provisions of the Superfund program, is tasked with removal,
analysis, and disposal of potentially hazardous materials. Analysis
of the contents of approximately 300 drums washed up on Texas beaches
between December 1984 and October 1985 showed over 50 percent
contained materials classed as hazardous, and many contained materials
associated with oil and gas drilling operations. No deaths or
injuries by beach users stemming from these drums have been recorded,
but the potential for such incidence is considered high.

Approximately one-fourth (140 mi) of the Texas shorefront is composed
of major recreational beaches. Tourism may be adversely affected by
beach debris. Although oil and gas trash and debris are a part of
this problem, its effect on visitation trends, recreational use, and
enjoyment of Texas beaches is poorly understood.

The level of impact to recreational resources caused by an offshore
platform is; mainly visual and depends upon the distance of the
platform from ,the shore and the recreational resources that are on the
stretch of coast adjacent to the platform's site. The farther
offshore a platform is located the lower the level of impact that will
occur to the onshore resources. On the other hand there are positive
effects of these structures. They form artificial reefs which attract
fish and sport fishermen; they also serve as navigational aids and a
haven for vessels in distress.

Pipelines, particularly pipeline landfalls, have the potential for
adversely affecting the coastal recreation activities. Recreational
beaches have previously been used for landfalls of pipelines. For
example, in 1967, Transco constructed a natural gas pipeline
connecting New Jersey and Long Island with the eastern landfall at
Long Beach, New York. Long Beach is a sandy, heavily used,
recreational beach on the southern shore of Long Island, about 15 mi
from Manhattan. Installation of the pipeline at Long Beach occurred
during September, so that there would be no conflict with peak summer
recreational use of the area. The beach restoration was completed by
the end of November, and the beach was available for recreational use
the following summer. ' The landfall remains virtually unchanged and
indistinguishable from its surroundings (NERBC, 1981).

Recreational beaches in other parts of the country have also been used
as pipeline landfall sites. A pipeline landfall'and beach crossing at
Padre Island National Seashore in Texas removed 1,200 to 1,500 linear
ft of shoreline from public beach use for approximately 2 to 3 weeks

IV-65

during the peak season. This construction phase disrupted access to
heavily used areas and required detour routes. Two other pipeline
landfalls, also constructed during peak season, did not present
problems because of low usage levels in the affected areas. Burial of
the pipeline in nearshore waters tended to attract sport fishermen.
Most predictable adverse effects, such as disruption of public access
or impacts on visual amenities, are temporary and associated with the
construction phase. As long as construction is timed for an off-peak
season for recreational use, and the site is restored to its previous
condition, there should be little conflict between the landfall or
right-of-way of the pipeline and the potential or actual recreational
use of the land. Future pipeline landfalls may use directional
drilling technology, further reducing the onshore impacts of pipeline
construction.

4. Impacts on Archaeological Resources

Archaeological resources are prehistoric pertaining to the period of
time before written records) and historic pertaining to the period of
time for which written records exist) districts, sites, buildings,
structures, or objects.

Prehistoric resources occur on the OCS as a result of the late
Wisconsin ice-age lowering of sea level. This lowering of sea level
exposed millions of acres of former seafloor, which were subsequently
occupied by plants, animals, and then man. Prehistoric sites on
today's OCS occur on similar landforms drowned stream canyons,
ancient estuaries and lagoons, sediment-filled bays and islands), as
sites of a comparable age are found on land. These relict landforms
occur shoreward of the 18,000 years before present shoreline.

Historic resources on the OCS, the majority of which are shipwrecks
though sunken aircraft do occur, are due to various factors such as
warfare, weather, and obstructions natural or manmade).
Archaeological resources occur on the seafloor and are buried in the
seabed; thus, activities that disturb the seabed could alter or
destroy these resources.

a . Geological Sampling
Geological sampling that takes place from anchored vessels may cause
impacts as a result of anchors or anchor chains being dragged across
prehistoric or historic resources.

b. Seismic Surveys

Seismic surveys, both prelease and postlease, may result in beneficial
as well as negative impacts on prehistoric and historic resources.
Identification of potential resources will aid in their management as
well as provide important research information. The negative aspects
are 1) if these resources are located, it could lead to their

IV-66

unauthorized exploitation; (2) if explosives are used, the emitted
shockwaves could damage fragile historic resources, such as wooden
hulled ships; and (3) if deep-tow instruments are employed, the
tow-chain or tow-sleds could be dragged through surface prehistoric
and historic resources.

c. Exploration and Development and Production Rig
@eplacement
Impacts from rig emplacement will vary according to the type of rig
used.,

(1) Semisubmersible
Semisubmersible impacts are due to the positioning anchors (8-
10 anchors ranging from 10,000-45,000 lb) and occasional dragging
across and cutting into the seafloor and seabed. The zone of impacts
from anchors is calculated by applying the ratio of 8:1 (feet of chain
required to water depth).

(2) Jack-Up

(a) Independent Leg
Impacts from this type of rig are from the leg supports (3-6 legs
ranging in size from 4-10 ft in diameter), which may penetrate the
seafloor for approximately 40 ft.

M Mat Supported
Impacts from this type of rig are from the steel mat (15,000-25,000
ft ) that supports the rig legs. The penetration of the seafloor by
the mat is approximately 5 ft.

(3) Submersible
Impacts are similar to those of jack-up rigs (see Section c(2) above).
(4) Prodution Platform
Impacts from production platforms vary. The area of impact is based
on the size and number of piles used to support the jacket, and the
size and number of piles depend on the composition and thickness of
unconsolidated sediments at the seafloor.

(5) Artificial Islands
Impacts from gravel islands are equivalent to the size of the island,
which can vary from 79,000 to 434,700 ft2' the latter proposed for the
Beaufort Sea.

IV-67

In addition to considering the direct impacts of exploration and
development and production activities, it is essential to assess
indirect impacts from related activities such as supply boat or barge
anchoring patterns and the potential for modern ferrous debris being
accidentally deposited on the seafloor. The latter material may mask
the magnetic signature of an historic shipwreck.

d. Pipeline Construction

Impacts on archaeological resources due to pipeline construction may
be caused by several sources. When burial of a pipeline is required,
the excavation of the trench may cause the impact. The anchors of the
pipeline lay-barge may be the impacting agents (see Section c(l)
above). Another impact is from the accidental loss of modern ferrous
debris (see above).

e. Oil Spills

Impacts from oil spills on archaeological resources at the land-water
interface occur when the hydrocarbons permeate the cell structure of
organic material found in sites. Organic material is used in
carbon-14 dating of sites.

The major component of the MMS archaeological resource protection
program is based on the avoidance of potential resources. Avoidance
may involve the partial redesign or relocation of a project to
minimize the possibility of impacts on an archaeological resource.
Avoidance can involve protection arrangements that preserve the
resource in situ.

5. Impacts on Marine Vessel Traffic

Structures such as platforms could pose either a positive or negative
impact to marine-traffic. In a study conducted by the Transportation
Systems Center, it was determined that 78 percent of all tanker vessel
casualties in U.S. waters involving rammings, collisions, and
groundings occurred at night or during periods of reduced visibility
(DOC, 1981). While reduced visibility has the potential of increasing
the number of collisions between vessels and offshore structures,
platforms provide a benefit for safe navigation due to navigational
aids that are mandated by the USCG.

For example, the vessel traffic lanes have been extended in Southern
California as a result of the installation of oil platforms in the
Santa Maria Basin, as they provide additional navigational aids
(lights, horns, radar, etc.). The DOC (1981) conducted a
computer-simulated study of vessel movements around offshore
structures in the Santa Barbara Channel. When structures were placed
(simulation) near the border of a traffic lane, vessel operators often
performed evasive actions that increased the risk of collision with
other vessels. The risk was increased when structures were located on
opposite sides of the traffic lane so as to form a "gated"

IV-68

configuration. The need for such evasive maneuvers was considerably
decreased by the placement of structures outside the USCG-designated
500-meter buffer zone, and when no permanent or temporary structures
were placed within 1,000 m of the boundary of the traffic lane for 2
mi on either side of the structure bordering the lane (DOC, 1981).
6. Impacts on Military Uses
Portions of the water and air space of the oil and gas planning areas
are used for various military operations essential to training,
readiness, and support of national defense and security interests.
These operations include training and testing activities such as
submarine operations, gunnery practice, sea trials, radar tracking,
warship maneuvers, and general operations. These activities normally
take place in Fleet Operating Areas specially designated for such
purposes that are under the control of the Department of Defense
(DOD). These operating areas were established for training surface,
submarine, and air units in addition to providing designated zones for
testing explosives, aircraft, and ships.
While Fleet Operating Areas have no legal status, they are normally
established in areas with superjacent airspace designated as a warning
area. A warning area includes airspace of defined dimensions outside
of U.S. territorial waters in which a hazard to aircraft exists.
Drilling and production activities taking place in certain locations
could interfere with military operations.
Structures such as platforms can have negative impacts on military
activities when located in military operating or training areas. The
physical structure of the platform presents an obstruction to
submarine or surface ships and low flying aircraft. Aircraft carrier
operations, for instance, require long unobstructed stretches of ocean
where carriers may steer a steady course upwind while launching or
recovering aircraft. Platforms or drill ship operations also severely
,restrict the firing of live ammunition in the vicinity. The presence
of oil field workers may also cause the relocation of testing or
operations having a classified nature. Finally, acoustical and
electronic emissions from seismic operations, service vessels and
helicopters, and platforms or drill ships can interfere with naval
operations in nearby waters. Conflicts that may arise because of the
differing requirements for mineral exploration and development, along
with defense-related activities, are discussed. Mutually agreeable
solutions are reached as early as possible in the planning process
according to a Memorandum of Agreement between DOI and DOD. Most of
these conflicts have traditionally been mitigated through coordination
between the! lessee and the appropriate military authority. In certain
instances, prelease stipulations have been attached to leases within
military operating areas.

IV-69

7. Impacts on Subsistence Use Patterns
Impacts on subsistence resources could occur at two levels of
severity: (1) lower level effects, which alter the normal
distribution patterns of subsistence species, thereby possibly making
them more difficult and expensive to harvest (a more likely
occurrence), and (2) higher level effects, which reduce the population
of subsistence species directly or reduce the number of those fit for
human consumption for a specific period of time, either of which would
reduce or eliminate desired harvest levels (a less likely occurrence).
One characteristic of subsistence activities that may affect the level
of effects is their high degree of seasonality. If a disturbance
occurs immediately before or during a limited subsistence harvesting
period, the effect on subsistence could be exacerbated. If a
disturbance occurs outside of the limited harvesting period, the,
effect could be reduced.

Although subsistence harvesting relies on more nearshore resources and
is more diversified than commercial harvesting, the overlapping
subsistence and commercial resources can experience similar types of
effects. Due to the interrelationships between commercial fishing and
subsistence activities, such as using cash income from commercial
fishing to purchase supplies or equipment to support subsistence,
adverse effects on commercial resources can also indirectly affect
subsistence.

Interference with subsistence activities consists of limiting or
excluding access to certain areas; noise that causes game to flee or
become wary; fouling or damaging of gear or equipment; increased
probability of vessel collisions; reduced catch due to oil spills
during fishing season or whale hunting season; and competition for
services, materials, and equipment. Subsistence activities generally
concentrate in near;hore areas, such as beaches, lagoons, and
wetlands, which tends to reduce the probability or degree of adverse
effeFts because many of the OCS activitj-es occur farther offshore.
Exceptions to this occur in areas where walrus are taken far from
shore (such as St. Lawrence Island). Construction and siting of
onshore facilities may affect subsistence harvesting of terrestrial
resources. This may become particularly important if a major facility
such as a pipeline is constructed. Possible benefits to subsistence
activities include more commercial amenities in port communities and
increased safety due to improved communication, increased air-sea
rescue capabilities, and better access to harvest areas.
The socioeconomic effects deal with the number of new residents,
workers living in enclaves, commuters expected in an area, and many of
the possible effects that may result. New residents and enclave
residents could be considered as possible competitors with the
existing residents, either directly by participating in subsistence
activities themselves or indirectly through sport hunting and fishing.
Improved access to harvest areas for both local and nonlocal people
may- also increase subsistence and sport harvest competition. The

IV-70

results of added pressure on subsistence resources, such as shorter
seasons, catch limitations, and reduction of close-in, easily
accessible resources, could increase and induce additional hardship on
long-term subsistence users. Impacts on subsistence felt in one
planning area may spread into adjacent planning areas if the affected
users travel beyond their traditional-use areas in search of better
harvest opportunities.

Reduced or lost subsistence resources, particularly those that are
heavily relied upon or are relatively inexpensive to harvest, will
require replacement by other subsistence resources or by scarce cash
(usually opportunities to earn cash in rural areas are very limited).
In general, subsistence resources and uses nearest air and/or marine
support bases, pipeline landfalls, terminal sites, and tanker routes
will be the most susceptible to adverse effects.

H. Impacts on the Physical Environment on Oil and Gas Operations

Various conditions exist in nature that can be hazardous to oil and
gas operations. If they are foreseen, special engineering procedures
may allow operations to continue safely. In reviewing exploration and
development and production plans (30 CFR 250.34), the MMS reviews,
among other things, seismic records, geochemical information,
oceanographic conditions, and meteorology to ensure as completely as
possible that operations can be carried out safely. If special
engineering procedures do not exist to control the situation
adequately, the operations need to be moved to a different location or
suspended until the state-of-the-art engineering allows exploitation
of the resources under the adverse conditions. It is important that
the adverse conditions be foreseen as the results could be pollution,
damage, loss of equipment, or even loss of life.

L. Geologic Hazards
,Geologic hazards are any existing or potential geologic features or
processes that could inhibit the exploration and development of oil
and gas resources. Most geologic hazards are potential rather than
actual and continuous threats.

a. Seafloor Instability

Various conditions can result in sediment mass wasting, with some of
the conditions being hazardous themselves. The basic criterion is
known as the "angle of slide," which is a combination of the slope and
the consolidation of the sediments. Sediments at angles less than 0.5
degrees have been known to fail in the GOM because of their
underconsollidation. Sediments can be stable at angles of nearly 90
degrees if well consolidated or lithified, as evidenced by a
pinnacle-like structure found in the North Atlantic.
Seismic activity, overloading, cyclic loading, and migrating shallow
gas can drastically reduce the necessary angle of slide for given
sediments and even cause liquefaction in horizontal sediments.

IV-71

Currents in submarine canyons can undercut the canyon walls, and
uplift associated with diapirs can oversteepen the slope allowing
sediments to slump, slide, or generate turbidity currents.

Other types of seafloor instability, which are not as dangerous to
drilling operations as mass wasting, include buried channels and
sediment transport by currents. Buried channels are formed from lag
deposits and other material filling erosional features cut into the
seafloor by marine currents, mass wasting, or during subaerial
exposure. They could cause a bottom-mounted structure that straddled
the boundary between the buried channel and the surrounding sediments
to topple because of load-bearing contrasts. Similarly, sediment
transport, such as mobile sand waves and scour, could remove support
from under part of a bottom-mounted structure again causing toppling.

b. Seismic Activityand Shallow-Faults

Seismic activity is prevalent along the entire Pacific coast. The
earthquakes occurring along this coastal arc are caused by the
physical interaction between crustal plates. -Numerous earthquakes
ranging in magnitude from four to eight have been recorded during this
century. The potential hazards associated with these magnitudes are
ground motion, fault displacement, surface warping, seismic sea waves,
ground failure, and consolidation of sediments. Any of these could
cause the failure of a platform structure or a pipeline.

The potential for damage from ground motion is the greatest in areas
underlain by thick accumulations of saturated, unconsolidated
sediments. Sediments can be weakened, and other hazards as discussed
under Seafloor Instability can be generated.

Large earthquakes can also produce wide areas of surface warping or
deformation. 'Subsidence can also result from consolidation and/or
lateral spreading of sediments. This type of hazard can lead to
extensive flooding along coastal areas, damage'to drilling equipment
or platforms, and severing of pipelines.

Faults are considered to be active where they offset young (<11,000
years) sediments in regions of continuous sedimentation, where they
offset the seafloor, or where they have a historic record of
earthquike activity.

The presence of these faults can be quite hazardous to offshore
drilling programs and bottom-founded oil facilities. Any movement
along the features, such as that generated by an earthquake, could
threaten the drill stem or could affect the stability of surficial
sediments. Displacement of sediments could also occur. Slumps and
turbidity currents could be triggered on the Continental Slope,
causing the failure of pipelines. Perhaps more importantly, these
faults can act as conduits if overpressured gas is encountered,
allowing a blowout to bypass the oil rig or platform. This situation

IV-72

can make it extremely hard to regain control and can result in
seafloor cratering, the loss of the rig, and spilled oil.

Seismic sea waves and seiches can be generated by sudden tectonic
displacement of the seafloor or by large landslides triggered by
seismic activity. In open water and in greater depths, seismic sea
waves generally have no effect. In lesser depths, especially along
identified coastlines and within enclosed bodies of water, they become
a potential danger to any onshore or shallow-water factlities such as
production platforms.

c. Vulcanism

The major threat from active volcanoes along the Pacific Loast and
Alaska is the direct blast. However, other potential hazards that are
related to this type of event and are also destructive are nuee
.ardente (incandescent cloud of gas and volcanic ash), mud flows, lava
flows, bomb and ash fallout, seismic sea waves, and seiches.

d. Shallow Gas

Dissolved or undissolved gas either dispersed or in pockets can be a
serious hazard to platforms, supports, pipelines, and subsea
installations. Gas-charged sediment can contribute to low shear
strength or promote liquefaction. Storm surges or seismic shaking,
coupled with an upward release of gas, could trigger slides and
subsidence. Their identification is important to any drilling program
because of the danger of ignition or blowout. Shallow gas may weaken
shallow geologic formations providing avenues of escape for high
pressure fluids and gas from deeper formations.

e. Permafrost

Potential hazards associated with the presence of permafrost (in
Alaska) include thaw subsidence and frost heave. Thawing produces
undesired plasticity in the sediment, causing differential subsidence
of the surface or lateral flow because of reduced bearing strength.
This could cause differential settling of platform foundations,
onshore service or processing facilities, and pipelines.

Fine-grained soils are more susceptible to frost heave than are
coarse-grained soils. Thaw subsidence or frost heave may result in
the uneven settling or uplifting of the foundations of structures, and
this could endanger the operation that the structure was designed to
perform.

Natural gas hydrates have been encountered in boreholes drilled not
only in the arctic offshore and onshore environments, but also in
holes drilled in the seafloor in many other areas throughout the world
in recent years. Thus, the amount of experience associated with

IV-73

drilling,through hydrate layers is increasing. To date, no adverse
effects have occurred on the OCS as a result of encounters with gas
hydrates.

f. Karst

Karst features are widespread but noncontiguous in distribution on the
westFlorida platform from the Florida Middle Ground to the Florida
Keys and on the Blake Plateau. Surface expression of the karst is
evidenced in some areas; Whereas in other locales, subsurface karst is
inferred from seismic anomalies. The karst consists of concentrations
of dolines (sinkholes) formed by either solution of surface limestone
or by collapse of underlying solution caverns and, in some areas, a
rough barren topography of deep furrows or channels that reflect
surface solution along joint patterns. Collapse of solution caverns
beneath bottom-founded drill rigs or platforms, or the blowout of
unsupported drill' casing on;production lines, is the major hazard from
karst.

2. Physical Oceanography

Adverse-physical oceanographic conditions are usually linked to
meteorologi,cal conditions in some way. Oceanographic conditions can
vary from occasionally to constantly adverse and from potential to
continuous threats to operations.

a. Waves and Storm Surge

Adverse-conditions from waves, with the exception of the seismic sea
waves (discussed under Geologic Hazards above), result from storms at
sea. Summer and early fall in the GOM and the Atlantic offer
possibilities that tropical storms may affect the area through
characteristically high waves (7-12 m) and storm surge. The Pacific
area can occasionally be affected. Conditions appear to be harshest
in the North Atlantic where tropical storms may result in wind speeds
as high as 100 knots and wave.heights greater than 40 ft.
Hurricane is the term used for a tropical storm with wind speeds over
63 knots. They vary considerably in Intensity, track patterns, and
behavior. Damage results from high winds and, particularly in the
coastal areas, storm surge or tide, which is an abnormally high rise
in the water level. Maximum surge height at any location depends on
many factors including bottom topography, coastline configuration, and
storm intensity. Storm surges and tides have reached 7,m (23 ft)
above normal in the GOM. A recent example of a structure's failure to
withstand severe storms is when oil island Esther in State of
California waters was destroyed by high waves during high tide and a
large storm surge. The reason for the failure is being investigated.
Annual hurricane threats have been an important consideration to the
petroleum industry since offshore operations began. Industry
activities are ruled by the daily presence of the potential for such a

IV-74

phenomenon to occur. Though little or no damage may be incurred
during such an event, evacuation and shutdown costs to industry can be
costly.

Winter storm systems also cause high winds and waves. Waves from
winter storms have been known to exceed 18 m (60 ft) in the North
Atlantic due to the large amount of unobstructed, open water
available. Physical oceanographic forces due to waves are believed to
pose no threat to the physical integrity of drilling rigs or
production platforms. Oil and gas structures are engineered to
withstand 100-year expected storm waves. However, design of a
structure does not seem to be the only determinant of its safety. The
Ocean Ranger (floating) exploration rig, largest in the world and
considered by many unsinkable, capsized during a storm on February 15,
1982, while operating offshore Canada. Designed to withstand winds up
to 100 knots and waves of approximately 100 ft in height, it capsized
in conditions well within its design capabilities: 90-knot winds and
waves approximately 50 ft high. It was reported (Wall Street Journal,
May 4, 19,82) that, in addition to design faults, a broken porthole in
the vessel during the storm combined with unpracticed evacuation
procedures doomed the rig and its 83 crew members. Under wave
conditions just described and considering the present level of cleanup
technology, oil-spill cleanup would not be possible. Storms and the
associated waves may halt some activities on rigs and platforms
because of danger to personnel transfer from shore boats or the danger
and spill hazards involved in offloading oil from platforms to tankers
(if this method of transportation is selected). This danger is only
expected 'to occur in seas of 3 m or greater.

b. Currents

Physical oceanographic forces due to currents are believed to pose no
threat to the physical integrity of drilling rigs or production
platforms, as oil and gas structures are engineered to withstand the
maximum expected currents. Bottom currents are not expected to affect
the transportation of oil and gas by pipeline. There has been
concern, in the past, about the effects of the high-speed currents
circulating around Georges Bank on drilling rigs operating in the
area. However, no adverse effects have been noted from drilling
operations that have already taken place. In the South Atlantic, the
greatest concern appears to be extreme high-speed currents associated
with the Gulf Stream. These currents may create difficulties for
drilling irigs in terms of maintaining correct position over the
wellhole; bending of the drill string may also occur in response to
high-speed currents.

c. Sea Ice an Vessel Icin

Sea ice is the most constraining factor to the offshore development of
petroleum hydrocarbon resources in arctic areas. The forces exerted
by the sea ice depend upon such factors as the movement rate,
strength, thickness, and type. With so many variables, an analysis of

IV-75

the mechanical behavior of the ice is complex. The constraints on oil
and gas activities imposed by sea ice conditions have brought about
technological advances and innovations since the beginning of
hydrocarbon resource development in the arctic. Wells have been
successfully drilled and completed from different types of drilling
units in a variety of northern marine environments. Extreme winter
temperatures and wind chill factors may also create problems in terms
of ice Accretion and superstructure icing. The formation of ice on
superstructures is a complex process that depends on sea conditions,
type of offshore drilling platform, atmospheric conditions, and ship
size and behavior. Offshore oil exploration and production depend on
moderately sized vessels for logistic and rescue support.
Historically, sea spray icing in polar and occasionally North Atlantic
seas has plagued vessels and has, in extreme cases, resulted in
capsizing both fishing boats and moderately sized ships, with total
loss of ship and crew.

3. Meteorology

Most of the adverse conditions created by meteorology have been
described under the oceanography section. However, the winds
associated with tropical storms, hurricanes, and northeasters can also
cause delays in operation and possibly damage to offshore facilities.

Hurricane Camille, the most severe hurricane in recent Gulf history,
attained top winds estimated at 324 km/hr with barometric pressure in
her eye as low as 68 centimeters (26.6 in) of mercury. These storms
occur mainly in the summer and fall months., They would disrupt
construction and movement of crew or supply boats and helicopters.
However, these conditions seldom persist for more than 2 or 3 days.

Restricted visibilities from fog could occasionally hinder the
movement of helicopters, crew boats, and supply vessels. However,
dense fog would seldom be expected to last long enough to cause
significant delays in OCS operations.

Surface winds play a critical role in determining the movement of
spilled oil and other pollutants in the marine environment,
pArticularly.at the surface. Wind-driven waves may be among the most
serious weather-induced problems affecting offshore development.

IV-76

V. OBSERVED EFFECTS OF THE OCS OIL AND GAS PROGRAM

A. Alaska Region

1. Physical Environment

a. Water Ouality

(1) Effects of Geological Sampling

Water quality is altered and degraded in several ways during
geological sampling activities. Bottom sampling and shallow coring
cause sediment suspension and associated increase in turbidity. Deep
stratigraphic testing, being similar to rotary drilling of exploratory
wells, results in the additional discharge of drill muds and cuttings
and the associated increase in levels of suspended solids and trace
metals in the receiving water.

Effects on water quality resulting from bottom sampling and coring
activities are limited to the immediate area of operation (DOI, U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS), 1976). Because of dilution, dispersion, and
settling, the effects of drill muds and cuttings on water quality are
limited to the immediate vicinity of the discharge and generally not
detectable beyond 2,000 m from the discharge (NAS, 1983; Houghton et
al., 1980; Ayers et al., 1980a, b).

Geological sampling activities in the Alaska Region have been limited.
Approximately 97 geological sampling permits have been issued over the
period of 1969-1985, and 14 deep stratigraphic tests (COST wells) have
been completed. Results of studies conducted in the Ala-ska Region
(Houghton et al., 1980; ECOMAR, 1983; Jones and Stokes, 1983; and
Tetra Tech, 1984) indicate that the effects of drill muds and cuttings
discharges on water quality have been temporary, limited in spatial
extent, and not accumulative.

In conclusion, no cumulative effects on water quality as a result of
geological sampling have been identified.

(2) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings
Since 1975, approximately 500,000 bbl of muds (undiluted) and 200,000
bbl of cuttings (undiluted) have been discharged in the Alaska Region
as a result of drilling 80 wells (including 14 COST wells). These
wells and, in turn, the resultant discharges have been relatively
widely distributed over eight planning areas. Results of studies
conducted in the Alaska Region (Houghton et al., 1980; ECOMAR, 1983;
Jones and Stokes, 1983; Tetra Tech, 1984) indicate that the effects of
drilling muds and cuttings discharges on water quality have been
temporary, limited in spatial extent, and not accumulative.

V-1

In conclusion, no cumulative,effects on water quality as a result of
the discharge of muds and cuttings have been identified.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

There has been no oil and gas production from the Alaska OCS. One
spill of 2 bbl occurred in the Norton Basin Planning Area in 1985.
There have been no cumulative effects of OCS-related oil spills in the
Alaska Planning Areas.

b. Air Quality

Table V-1 summarizes the emissions from exploration activities and oil
spills that occurred in 1986. Exploration activities consisted of six
wells, three drilled from drillships and three drilled from gravel
islands. During 1986 no oil spills occurred.

Table V-1
Estimated emissions from exploration activities and oil spills, 1986

Pollutant Emissions (Tons)
Activity NOX TSP VOC so2 CO

Exploration 445 92 15 41 80

Oil Spills

Because of the low level of emissions and the physical distance
between exploration sites, the annual average onshore effects from
these activities for NOX were less than 1 microgram per cubic meter
(ug/W) -

2. Biological Environment

a. Lower Trophic Organisms

(1) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

Approximately 500,000 bbl of muds and 200,000 bbl of cuttings have
been discharged by exploratory and COST wells throughout all the
Alaska Planning Areas. The effects of drilling muds and cuttings on
benthic communities were studied in the Beaufort Sea by Northern
Technical Services (1981) and in Lower Cook Inlet by Lees and Houghton
(1980). No significant harmful effects were attributed to the
drilling discharges. No long-term effects of the discharge of
drilling muds and cuttings have been reported.

V-2

(2) Effects of Oil Spills

Only one small spill of 2 bbl has resulted from OCS activities in the
Alaska Planning Areas. An international project that was co-sponsored
by the MMS investigated the effects of experimental releases of crude
oil and chemical-dispersed oil in the Canadian Arctic off Baffin
Island. Sergy (1986) summarized the results of this study and
concluded -that no significant mortality on benthic organisms occurred
as a result of the controlled oil releases. In addition, no
significant changes in benthic community structures were detected.
Sublethal behavioral and physiological effects on a few species of
benthic invertebrates were observed (Mageau and Englehardt, 1984). No
impacts of oil spills on lower trophic organisms have been recorded.

b. fish Resources

(1) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings
Since 1975, some 80 wells (including 14 COST wells) have been drilled
on the Alaska OCS. An estimated 500,000 bbl of muds and 200,000 bbl
of cuttings have been discharged. These discharges have been
relatively widely distributed over eight planning areas.
Neff (1987') states that any effects from these discharges can be
expected to occur in the benthic community. He summarizes the results
of a number of field and laboratory studies on this subject and
concludes the following:
In offshore oil and gas fields that have been in production
for several years, impacts attributable to drilling fluid and
cuttings discharges are difficult to identify, except immediately
adjacent to platforms where a cuttings pile was formed and has
persisted. This is despite the fact most of the production
platforms monitored had drilled multiple wells and had discharged
very large volumes of drilling fluids and cuttings. The exception
to this generalization is the instance where oil-based drilling
fluids were used to develop the field and large amounts of
oil-contaminated cuttings were discharged.
It should be pointed out, however, that the discharge of oil-based
muds is now generally prohibited on the OCS. Occasionally, special
permission has been granted by the EPA to discharge muds containing
oil, for example, when such lubricant is needed to free a stuck drill
pipe. It is not expected that there would be any long-term cumulative
effects on fisheries from the discharge of non-oil-based drilling
fluids in high-energy offshore areas, and none have been observed.

(2) Effects of Oil Spills
Only one spill of 2 bbl has occurred as a result of OCS oil and gas
activities. This spill has had no cumulative effect on fisheries
resources.

V-3

c. Endangered or Threatened Species

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying

Whales' responses to seismic noise are behavioral and short term, and
they occur almost totally at distances less than 5 km from operating
seismic vessels and disappear rapidly when operations cease
(Ljungblad, et al. 1985).

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

The short duration and localized nature of endangered whales' flight
and lesser behavioral responses to vessel traffic, as wel-1 as their
observed tolerance to continuing vessel noise, have negligible lasting
impacts on the comparatively few animals that may be affected.
Similarly, the even shorter duration effects due to aircraft (which
normally fly straight-line courses between origin and destination)
limit those effects to seconds.

Noise from these moving sound sources is highly unlikely to disrupt or
even significantly affect migration or other essential whale
activities. Available information indicates that effects of noise
from exploratory drilling would be minor, localized, and not likely to
adversely affect many whales or their migration. In addition, the MMS
operational guidelines and standards, mentioned relative to seismic
surveys, apply to vessel and aircraft traffic as well and minimize or
eliminate the adverse effects of these activities on the whales.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

The lack of a maj-or OCS activity-related oil spill since the 1969
spill in the Santa Barbara Channel has precluded field observations of
any resultant effects on endangered whales. No oil-related mortality
or observed effects on endangered whales resulted from the 1969 Santa
Barbara spill, which occurred while the entire eastern Pacific gray
whale population was on its annual northward migration (Brownell,
1971).

The MMS cannot guarantee that an OCS activity-related spill will never
occur, but the calculated risk of a spill during Alaskan oil and gas
exploration contacting at least one bowhead is less than I percent for
proposed lease sales in the Beaufort, Chukchi, and Bering (Navarin
Basin) areas (MMS unpublished summary analysis, November 1986). Also,
the likelihood of an endangered whale remaining long in an oil spill
is low, and the OCS operators' oil-spill containment and cleanup
contingency plans required by MMS must be adequate to ensure minimal
effect of spilled oil on endangered whales and other sensitive
wildlife and their ecosystems. Other such wildlife includes
threatened Arctic and endangered American peregrine falcons, which
might be indirectly affected by spilled oil if they were to feed on
oil-fouled prey. In view of the temporary, nonlethal observed effects
of oil on whales, the low risk of whales and birds being exposed to

V-4

spilled oil, and the measures required to minimize such exposure, it
is unlikely that spilled oil will preclude successful whale migrations
or significantly disrupt feeding, mating, and other essential whale
and bird activities.

d. Marine Mammals

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying
Effects of seismic surveying are discussed above in Chapter IV,
Section E.I.b(2). Although avoidance reactions have been observed, no
known significant impacts to marine mammals have been documented. The
localized displacement of ringed seals near over-ice seismic surveys
or shorefast ice is not significant in terms of total population
numbers and distribution (Burns and Kelly, 1982).

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

The reactions of beluga whales to vessel and aircraft noise are short
lived and local. Their reactions to noise from operating oil rigs in
Cook Inlet and from simulation experiments elsewhere in Alaska are
also localized and short lived, especially when sound levels remain
constant.

Support Vessels seldom, if ever, can operate in or near shorefast ice
in the winter and early spring and are, therefore, unlikely to disturb
ringed seals during their less mobile denning periods spent
preferentially in this habitat. Fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters,
likewise, are unlikely to affect ringed seals unless the aircraft are
flying very low, circling or repeatedly overflying a lair locality, or
landing on the ice. Seal displacement due to aircraft and humans
(except Perhaps by Natives hunting these animals) is less frequent and
less significant than displacement caused by over-ice seismic surveys.
The same is true for seal displacement due to artificial island
construction and associated ice roads (Green and Johnson, 1983).
No effects of support vessel or drilling noise are documented for fur
seals, walruses, or polar bears, although low-flying aircraft may
disturb hauled-out seals and walruses and cause short-term flight
responses in polar bears. Oil development may also cause female bears
to try denning in less than optimal locations or to break out of dens
sooner than normal, thereby potentially reducing cub survivorship
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980). Sea otters in Alaska are not
likely to respond to noise from support vessels, aircraft, or drilling
operations (Riedman, 1984), and the risk of their colliding with the
propellers of support vessels is minimized or eliminated by MMS
operational guidelines and standards.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills
Potential impacts of oi-l---spil-Is-are discussed in Chapter IV,
Section-B. Only one oil spill of 2 bbl has occurred as a result of

V-5

OCS oil and gas activities. This small amount of oil had no effects
on marine mammals.

e. Coastal and Marine Birds

Several million birds representing about 150 species--including
seabirds, waterfowl, shorebirds, passerines, and raptors--are found
seasonally on or near the Alaskan OCS (Sowls et al., 1976). Most of
these birds migrate to Alaska to nest in the coastal wetlands. The
OCS is important for their feeding and staging. One of the primary
effects from OCS activities on marine and coastal birds could result
from oil pollution.

Substantial direct oil contact alone usually is fatal or, in addition
to indirect effects, causes substantial bird mortality. Oiling of
birds causes death from hypothermia, shock, or drowning. Oil
ingestion through preening of oiled feathers significantly reduces
reproduction in some birds and causes various pathological conditions
(Hansen, 1981).
Major references pertaining to the potential effects of oil on birds
in Alaska include the following: Hansen (1981), The Relative
Sensitivity of Seabird Populations in Alaska to Oil Pollution! King
and Sanger (1979), Oil Vulnerability Index for Marine Oriented Birds;
Hartung and Hunt (1966), Toxicity of Some Oils to Waterfowl; and Ford,
Wiens, Heinemann, and Hunt (1982), Modeling the Sensitivity of
Colonially Breeding Marine Birds to Oil Perturbation: Murre and
Kittiwake Populations on the Pribilof Islands, Bering Sea.

There have been about 60 exploratory wells drilled on the Alaskan OCS,
but no development or production activities have taken place. There
are no documented cumulative effects to marine and coastal birds from
oil spills in the Alaska Region that can be directly attributed to OCS
activities.

3. Socioeconomic Environment

a. Employment and Demographic Conditions

Towns and villages in many of the Alaskan OCS subregions have
experienced some effects of OCS activiiies. These effects, however,
have been either short term or minimal. Warehouses, docks, and
airfields have been used by offshore operators, but these facilities
were generally in-place and originally constructed for fishing,
onshore oil production, or other industrial uses. In some cases such
facilities have been improved--for example, airport facilities at
Prudhoe Bay, the Pribilof Islands, and Yakutat. Further limiting the
effects of OCS activities is the fact that the OCS oil and gas
development process has proceeded only as far as the exploratory
phase. In this phase, most employment results from prelease
evaluation and surveys and the drilling of exploratory wells.
Although both these activities are labor intensive, employment effects

V-6

have been.limited due to the lack of development. Also, the
demographic effects are minimal because of the establishment of
enclaves for the oil workers, such as the one at Yakutat for Gulf of
Alaska exploration. More severe impacts are occurring because of the
downturn in oil and gas activity in Alaska rather than the existence
of it. Alaskan residents, including Alaskan Natives, depend on the
cash economy created by the jobs associated either directly or
indirectly with the oil industry.

b. Coastal Land Uses

The OCS activities in Alaska to date consist of seismic surveying and
the drilling of COST wells and exploratory wells. These wells/
activities have been supported onshore by a number of facilities, some
of which were expansions or alterations of facilities originally used
for other purposes. Exploratory drilling in the Gulf of Alaska was
supported from a facility developed at Yakutat. The community's
desire to minimize all impacts resulted in the development of an
enclave for the oil and gas workers. In the Bering Sea Subregion,
several communities have experienced some activity to support the
drilling of exploratory wells. These include Nome, Cold Bay, Dutch
Harbor, Captain's Bay near Unalaska, and St. Paul. Offshore
exploration in the Arctic Subregion Beaufort Sea area has been
supported from facilities at the Prudhoe Bay enclave developed to
support onshore production.

The attitudes of local communities toward growth and oil- and
gas-related activities, as well as the existing infrastructure, play a
major role in the location of support facilities. There were some
cumulative impacts from alterations of land or changes in land use to
construct facilities needed onshore to support exploration offshore
Alaska. The nature of this impact must be determined considering the
fact that facilities would not have been sited in communities not
wanting them. Some communities welcome oil- and gas-related
facilities based on their desire to have additional employment
opportunities for their residents or an interest in upgrading an
'airstrip or port facilities.

c. Commercial Fisheries

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying
There has been only one documented report of damage to fishing gear
from a seismic vessel in this Region. In the spring of 1983, a vessel
on lease to an oil company was claimed to have damaged several crab
pots off Kodiak. The company reimbursed the claimant for damages.
The Oil/Fisheries Group of Alaska compiles and periodically updates
the publication, Geophysical Operations in Fishing Areas of Alaska.
The aim of the group is to improve communications and avoid conflicts
between industries.

V-7

No significant cumulative effects from seismic activities on
commercial fishing have been documented in the Alaska Region.

(2) Effects of Exploration Rigs

Potential effects of exploration rig emplacement on commercial fishing
include the exclusion of boats and gear from the vicinity of these
structures. It is estimated that an average exploration rig would
preclude fishing vessels from about 1.03 mi2 of area, including a
safety buffer zone around the rig (Centaur Associates, 1984a).

There are no reports of problems to commercial fishing from
exploratory rigs in this Region, and no cumulative effects have been
identified.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

No major oil spills have occurred as a result of OCS operations; thus,
there have been no impacts on commercial fisheries.

d. Recreation and Tourism

Onshore recreational resources (fishing, hunting, hiking, sightseeing)
are abundant. There are, however, few locations that provide access
and transportation services to wild rivers and scenic landscapes.
Some tourists visit such places as Lake Clark, Lake Iliamna, Cold Bay,
Bethel, St. Paul, St. George, Barrow, and Prudhoe Bay.

Potential impacts to recreation and tourism may result from activities
that increase population in an area and consequently increase
competition for game animals and fish and decrease the opportunity for
solitude. Property values may increase in areas of increased
population. The visual qualities of an area may be changed if onshore
or offshore structures are built.

The local economies and recreation of Nome have been studied.
Exploration has not required significant or permanent increases in
population, and no development and production has been proposed. No
reports of impacts to recreation or tourism have been received.

In conclusion, there have been no discernible impacts on recreation
and tourism related to OCS activities, and no cumulative impacts
related to OCS activities have been identified.

e. Archaeological Resources

In the effort to minimize impacts to archaeological resources in the
Alaska Region, the MMS (and its predecessors the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM) and USGS) funded five studies:

1. Bering Land Bridge Cultural Resource Study, Final Report-,

V-8

2. Western Gulf of Alaska Cultural Resource-Study, Final Report;

3. Beaufort Sea Cultural Resource Study, Final ReRort;

4. Lower Cook Inlet Cultural Resource Study, Final Report; and
5. Alaskan Outer Continental Shelf Cultural Resource Compendium,
Final Rnort.

These studies attempt, through the use of predictive models, to
identify areas of the OCS where there is a high probability of
archaeological resources. In these areas of high probability the
lessee is required, through lease stipulation, to conduct a
tract-specific archaeological resource survey. These studies are
updated fc)r each lease sale. The updates include analysis and
synthesis of data--archaeological, geological and geophysical--
generated since the preparation of the original study (or the last
update). If a potential archaeological resource is located, a
mitigation plan is developed. To date, nine archaeological surveys
have been conducted in the Region.
There have been no reports of impacts to archaeological resources from
OCS activities, and no cumulative impacts related to OCS activities
have been identified.

f. Military Use Areas

There are no military use areas offshore Alaska where leasing has
taken place.

g. Subsistence

Subsistence is a system of production and consumption based on the
harvest of naturally occurring renewable resources. The resources are
used for diet, clothing, tools, social exchange, and links with the
cash economy.

Potential impacts on subsistence life styles may result from increased
population introducing new styles to an area or from impacts on the
plant or animal resources harvested for subsistence use. Impacts on
resources may result from oil spills, noise, causeways, pipelines,
drilling platforms, roads, and other onshore and offshore activities.
Impacts cc)uld change the distribution of the resources so that some
resources may become unavailable for subsistence use for some period
of time.

There have been no reports of impacts to subsistence systems from OCS
activities. Various studies to evaluate subsistence systems have been
performed. Principal among these are Veltre and Veltre, 1981;
Fienup-Ric)rdan, 1983; Little and Robbins, 1984; Luton, 1985; and
Burch, 1985.

V-9

In Alaska, effects on subsistence have been related to State onshore
and nearshore development of oil and gas on the North Slope. Effects
have included changes in hunting patterns and timing to accommodate
employment and cash incomes. These changes have occurred in some
North Slope communities. At Nuiqsut and possibly Kaktovik, the areas
hunted have been changed due to the location of onshore facilities.
There has been one report from Kaktovik of vessel traffic interfering
with the whale harvest during the fall of 1985.

In conclusion, there have been no discernible impacts on subsistence
systems related to OCS activities, and no cumulative impacts related
to OCS activities have been identified.

B. Atlantic Region

1. Physical Environment

a. Water Ouality

(1) Effects of Geological Sampling

Effects on water quality resulting from bottom sampling and coring
activities are limited to the immediate area of operation (DOI, USGS,
1976). Because of dilution, dispersion, and settling, the impacts of
drill muds and cuttings on water quality are limited to the immediate
vicinity of the discharge and generally not detectable beyond 2,000 m
from the discharge (NAS, 1983; Houghton et al., 1980; Ayers et al.,
1980 a, b).

Geological sampling activities in the Atlantic Region have been very
limited. Only approximately 20 geological sampling permits have been
issued over the period of 1970-1985, and 5 deep stratigraphic test
wells have been completed. Results of studies conducted in the
Atlantic Region (ENDECO, 1976; Ayers et al., 1980a; Houghton et al.,
1980; and Bothner et al., 1983, 1985) indicate, or strongly suggest,
that the effects of drill muds discharges on water quality have been
temporary, limited in spatial extent, and not accumulative.

In conclusion, no cumulative effects on water quality as a result of
geological sampling have been identified.

V-10

(2) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

Since 1976, approximately 1 million bbl of muds and 260,000 bbl of
cuttings have been discharged in the Atlantic Region as a result of
drilling 51 wells. The majority (about 68 percent) of the drilling
activity and, in turn, discharge of muds and cuttings occurred in the
Mid-Atlantic Region. Results of studies conducted in the Atlantic
(ENDECO, 1976; Ayres et al., 1980a; Houghton et al., 1980; EG&G, 1982,
and Bothner et al., 1983, 1985) indicate that the effects of drill
muds and cuttings discharges on water quality have been temporary,
limited in spatial extent, and not accumulative.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

There has been no oil and gas production in the Atlantic Region.
Since 1976, there have been three spills totaling 26 bbls as a result
of OCS activities. No cumulative effects on water quality as a result
of this small amount of oil have been identified.

b. Air Ouality

In the Atlantic OCS Region, 51 exploratory and COST wells were drilled
from 1976 to 1984 and none since then.

Because of the distance between exploration sites and the distance of
the activities from land, the MMS estimates that the annual average
onshore impacts from exploration activities were less than 1 ug/;?-
(i.e. below the significance level established by 30 CFR 250.57-1).

2. Biological Environment

a. Lower Trophic Organisms

(1) Effect of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

Approximately 1 million bbl of muds and 260,000 bbl of cuttings have
been discharged by 51 exploratory and COST wells throughout all the,
Atlantic Planning Areas. The effects of drilling muds and cuttings on
benthic communities were studied in the Mid-Atlantic by Mariani et al.
(1980) and in the North Atlantic (Georges Bank) by Battelle New
England Research Laboratory and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
(1985). No significant harmful effects were attributed to the
drilling discharges. No long-range impacts of discharges have been
reported.

(2) Effects of Oil Spills

Only three small spills totaling 26 bbls have occurred as a result of
OCS activities throughout the three Atlantic Planning Areas. Any
effects of this small amount of oil have long since abated, and no
short- or long-term effects have been reported.

V-11

b. Fish Resources

(1) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

Since 1976, an estimated 1 million bbl of muds and 260,000 bbl of
cuttings have been discharged in the Atlantic Region as a result of
drilling 51 wells.

Neff (1985) states that any effects from these discharges can be
expected to occur in the benthic community. He summarizes the results
of a number of field and laboratory studies on this subject and
concludes the following:

In offshore oil and gas fields that have been in production
for several years, impacts attributable to drilling fluid and
cuttings discharges are difficult to identify, except immediately
adjacent to platforms where a cuttings pile was formed and has
persisted. This is despite the fact most of the production
platforms monitored had drilled multiple wells and had discharged
very large volumes of drilling fluids and cuttings. The exception
to this generalization is the instance where oil-based drilling
fluids were used to develop the field and large amounts of
oil-contaminated cuttings were discharged.

For further details, consult this article. Additionally, two
MMS-funded studies (Blake et al., 1985 and Maciolek et al., 1986)
detected no noticeable long-term effects from the discharge of muds
and cuttings on fisheries resources.

It is not expected that there would be any long-term cumulative
effects on fisheries from the discharge of non-oil-based drilling
fluids (the discharge of oil-based muds is prohibited on the OCS) in
high-energy offshore areas.

(2) Effects of Oil Spills

As a result of OCS oil and gas activities, three small spills totaling
26 bbls have been recorded in the Atlantic Region. Any possible
impacts of these spills have long since dissipated.

c. Endangered or Threatened Species

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying

The effects of seismic surveying on endangered whales were discussed
above in Chapter IV, Section E.I.b. Approximately 300,000 line miles
of seismic data have been run in the Atlantic Region. There has been
no known disruption to whale feeding, migration, mating, and other
whale activities.

V-12

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

General responses of threatened whales to support vessel traffic is
discussed above in Chapter IV, Section D. There has been limited
exploration in the Atlantic Region (5 COST wells and 46 exploratory
wells). No impacts from associated support traffic are known.
Neither (lid observation aircraft flying at altitudes as low as 50 m
adversely affect feeding right whales in the Atlantic (Watkins and
Schevill,, 1979).

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

The effects of oil spills on endangered whales were discussed above in
Chapter IV, Section B.9. Three small spills totaling 26 bbls have
occurred in the Atlantic Region as a result of OCS activities. No
impacts on endangered whales resulting from these spills were
observed.

d. Marine Mammals

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying
The potential effects of seismic surveying are discussed in Chapter
IV, Sect-ion E. Approximately 300,000 line miles of seismic surveys
have been run in the Atlantic Region. No significant impacts have
been observed.

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic
Five COST wells, 46 exploratory wells, and no development and
production wells have been drilled in the Atlantic Region. There is
no indication of any adverse impacts on marine mammals related to
vessel traffic in support of these operations.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

Three small spills totaling 26 bbls have occurred as a result of OCS
operations. No effects on marine mammals have been reported.

e. Coastal and Marine Birds

Numerous species of marine and coastal birds are found along the
coastal areas and on the Atlantic OCS. The region is used as a
feeding area, migratory route, breeding area, and an overwintering
area.

A potential impact from OCS activities on marine and coastal birds
could result from oil pollution. Oiling of birds causes death from
hypothermia, shock, or drowning. Oil ingestion reduces reproduction
in some birds and causes various pathological conditions in all bird
species tested.

V-13

Principal references pertaining to the impacts of oil on birds in the
Atlantic Region include the fol'lowing: Biderman and Drury (1980), The
Effects of the Low Levels of Oil on Aquatic Birds; Clapp et al.
(1983), Marin'e Birds of the Southeastern United States and Gulf of
Mexico; Olsen (1984), Effects of Contaminated Sediment on Fish and
Wildlife: Review and Annotated Bibliography; Holmes and Cronshaw
(1977), Biological Effects of Petroleum on Marine Birds; Hartung
(1967), Energy Metabolism in Oil-Covered Ducks; and Croxall (1977),
The Effects of Oil on Seabirds.

There have been 5 COST wells and 46 exploratory wells drilled on the
Atlantic OCS, but no development or production activities have taken
place. There are no documented short-term or cumulative impacts on
marine and coastal birds from oil spills in the Atlantic Region that
can be attributed to OCS activities.

3. Socioeconomic Environment

.a. Employment and Demographic Conditions

The OCS activities in the Atlantic to date consist of seismic.
surveying and the drilling of 5 COST wells and 46 exploratory wells.
In the North Atlantic, 2 COST wells were drilled in 1976-77, and 8
exploratory wells were drilled during 1981-82. In the Mid-Atlantic, I
COST well was drilled in 1975-76 and 1 in 1978-79, and 32 exploratory
wells between 1978 and 1984. In the South Atlantic, 1 COST well was
drilled in 1977 and 6 exploratory wells during 1979-80. To support
these activities, very few workers were required onshore, so that the
hiring of a few office workers or laborers locally would have had
negligible effects on local employment. In addition, the demographic
effects would be negligible because the offshore workers were mostly
experienced workers from the Gulf Coast who traveled to the Region to
work a 14-day on, 14-day off shift. They wo*uld return to their homes
outside the Region during their time off. Any effects to employment
ceased when exploratory drilling ceased. There are no cumulative
effects on employment or demographic conditions in the Atlantic Region
from OCS activities.

b. Coastal Land Uses

The only onshore facilities needed to date to support OCS activities
in the Atlantic have been support bases for supply vessels and
helicopters. Onshore support was provided from three coastal
locations. A former Navy base at Qqonset Point/Davisville, Rhode
Island, was used for the North and Mid-Atlantic. Facilities at
Savannah and Brunswick, Georgia, were used for the South Atlantic.
Helicopter support for the Mid-Atlantic was provided from the Cape May
County, New Jersey, airport. In all cases, existing facilities with
adequate capacity were used for OCS activities in the Atlantic.
Therefore, there were no impacts on coastal land uses at the time of
use, and there are no cumulative effects to report.

V-14

c. Commercial Fisheries

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying

There have been no official claims to the Fishermens Compensation Fund
for damage to fishing gear resulting from seismic work. However,
reports of damage to gear have been made to the MMS District Office.
In these cases, when the company was at fault, the company made direct
compensation to the fishermen. Overall impacts have been minor.

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

There have been no reports of impacts on commercial fishing activities
by support vessel traffic in the Atlantic Region.

(3) Exploration Rig Emplacement
There were 46 exploration wells drilled in the Atlantic Region, and no
drilling has occurred since 1984. There have been no reports of
impacts on commercial fishing activities from exploration rigs in the
Atlantic Region.

(4) Effects of Offshore Use Conflicts

Centaur Associates (1981) conducted an extensive assessment of
space-use conflicts between the fishing and oil and gas industries on
the OCS in the Atlantic planning area. The potential impacts include
exclusion from fishing areas, vessel traffic and gear conflicts,
vessel and gear damage, short- and long-term damage to fish stocks and
their marketability. No impacts on the commercial fishing industry
have been reported.

(5) Effects of Oil Spills

No major oil spills have occurred, and no impacts on commercial
fishing have been reported.

I d. Recreation and Tourism

Coastal recreational activities popular in the Atlantic include
swimming, scuba diving, windsurfing, sunbathing, beach hiking,
boating, fishing, hunting waterfowl, birdwatching, and whale watching.
Participation in all of these activities is high. Major State and
Federal parks, wildlife refuges, and recreation areas cover large
expanses of the coastline and many barrier islands. Tourism is a
major component of local economies, estimated in billions of dollars
and millions of people. Potential impacts on recreation and tourism
may result from activities that cause land-use competition, visual
effects, and oil-spill impacts.
No new onshore facilities or pipelines have been built to support
offshore exploration and, because there is no production, no pipelines

V-15

have been constructed. Offshore rigs and ships were temporarily in
the Region and were not visible from shore. No oil spills have
affected the-shore.

In conclusion, there have been no discernible impacts on recreation
and tourism related to OCS activities, and no cumul.ative impacts
related to OCS'activities have been identified.

e. Archaeological Resources

In the effort to minimize impacts to archaeological resources in the
Atlantic Region, the MMS (and its predecessors BLM and USGS) funded
two studies:

1. Summary and Analysis of Cultural Resource Information on the
Continental Shelf from Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras, and

2. A Cultural Resource Survey of the Continental Shelf from Cape
Hatteras to Key West.

These studies attempt, through the use of predictive models, to
identify areas of the OCS where there is a high probability for the
occurrence of archaeological resources. In these areas of high
probability, the lessee is required, through lease stipulation, to
conduct a tract-specific archaeological resource survey. These
studies are updated for each lease sale. The updates include analysis
and synthesis of data--archaeological, geological, and geophysical--
generated since the preparation of the original study (or the last
update). If a potential archaeological resource is located, a
mitigation plan is developed. To date, no archaeological surveys have
been conducted in the Region.

There have been no reports of impacts on archaeological resources from
OCS activities, and no cumulative impacts related to OCS activities
have been identified.

f. Military Use Areas

Portions of the water and air space of the Atlantic OCS and adjacent
shoreline are used for military operations essential to training,
readiness, and support of national defense and security interests.
These operations include training and testing activities such as
submarine operations, gunnery practice, sea trials, radar tracking,
warship maneuvers, and general military operations. These activities
usually take place in areas specifically designated for such purposes
under the control of the DOD. These areas include the Boston
Operating Area; Air Force Warning Area W-506; Narragansett Bay Area;
Operating Areas of the U.S. Fleet offshore-Norfolk, Virginia; Warning
Areas of Cherry Point, Charleston, and Jacksonville; and the Eastern
Space and Missile Center at Cape Canaveral. The National Aeronautics
and Space Administration operates from the Wallops Island Flight
Centerand the John F. Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral.

V-16

Potential conflicts in military use areas concern interference of
military and commercial emissions of electomagnetic signals, falling
debris from rocket and missile launches, ship and aircraft traffic,
and collisions.

These potential conflicts have been mitigated through cooperation
between the lessee and the appropriate military authority. In certain
instances prelease stipulations have been attached to leases within
military, operating areas. No conflicts have been reported.

In conclusion, there have been no conflicts or impacts in military use
areas related to OCS activities, and no cumulative impacts related to
OCS activities have been identified.

C. Gulf of Mexico Region

1. Physical Environment

a. Water Quality

(1) Effects of Geological Sampling

Water quality is altered and degraded in several ways during
geological sampling activities. Bottom sampling and shallow coring
cause sediment suspension and associated increase in turbidity. Deep
stratigraphic testing, being similar to rotary drilling of exploratory
wells, results in the additional discharge of drill muds and cuttings
and the associated increases in levels of suspended solids and trace
metals in the receiving water.

Effects on water quality resulting from bottom sampling and coring
activities are limited to the immediate area of operation (DOI, USGS,
1976). Because of dilution, dispersion, and settling, the impacts of
drill Muds and cuttings on water quality are limited to the immediate
vicinity of the discharge and are generally not detected beyond 2,000
m from the discharge source (NAS, 1983; Houghton et al., 1980; Ayers
et al., 1980a, b).

Geological sampling activities in the GOM Region have been limited.
Approximately 80 geological sampling permits have been issued over the
period of 1970-1985, and two deep stratigraphic tests (COST wells)
have been completed. Results of studies conducted in the GOM Region
(Ward et al., 1979; Ayers et al., 1980b; Middleditch, 1981; and
Bedinger, 1981) indicate that the effects of drill muds and cuttings
discharges on water quality have been temporary, limited in spatial
extent, and not accumulative.

In conclusion, no cumulative effects on water quality as a result of
geological sampling have been identified.

V-17

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

Water quality is degraded by support vessel traffic primarily through
the introduction of petroleum hydrocarbons from fuel spillage and by
the discharge of treated sewage.

Fuel spillages from support vessels are generally chronic and
unintentional discharges associated with craft refueling. Richardson
et al. (1975) estimate that each fueling of a pleasure craft at a
recreational marina results in the spillage of one fluid ounce of
gasoline or diesel fuel. Discharge of sewage from support vessels is
through the use of marine sanitation devices. In both cases, fuel and
sewage discharges, water quality may be threatened only in highly
populated, confined harbors and anchorages with a large amount of
marine traffic. The contribution of these discharges from OCS support
vessels appears to have been limited, such that the effects (e.g.,
increase in suspended sediment) on water quality have been local and
temporary, lasting 2-6 months concurrent with activity.

(3) Effects of Platform and Rig Emplacement and
Removal

A general assessment of the effects on water quality from these
activities can be determined from the impacts described for two OCS
platforms in the Santa Maria Basin off California (Arthur D. Little,
1985). During the installation of offshore platforms, sediment
disturbance and suspension result from pile-driving and anchoring and
from dredging when foundations for production platforms are prepared.
Sanitary (chlorinated) sewage, containing conventional pollutants such
as BOD, is discharged from workboats. During platform and/or rig
removal, the same materials (suspended solids and treated sewage) are
released, but in lesser amounts. Impacts to water quality are local
and temporary, usually several months or less in duration.

Currently in the northern GOM, there are about 3,400 oil and gas
offshore platforms and other structures on the Federal OCS.
Historically, about 30 platforms have been removed annually. No
cumulative effects on water quality from the erection and removal of
these and other structures in the GOM have been documented.

(4) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

The MMS estimates that since 1954, approximately 108 million bbl of
muds and 76 million bbl of cuttings have been generated and discharged
in the GOM as a result of drilling 23,793 oil and gas wells and 105
sulfur wells. Over the 32-year OCS Program, it is estimated that a
yearly average of approximately 3.4 million bbl of muds and 2.4
million bbl of cuttings have been discharged in the GOM, primarily in
the Central GOM Planning Area off Louisiana. Results of studies
conducted in the GOM Region (Ward et al., 1979; Ayers et al., 1980b;
Middleditch, 1981; and Bedinger, 1981; NAS, 1983) indicate, or
strongly suggest, that the effects of drill muds and cuttings

V-18

discharges on water quality have been temporary, limited in spatial
extent, and not accumulative.

In conclusion, cumulative impacts on water quality resulting from the
discharge of muds and cuttings have not been demonstrated. Such
impacts, if they exist, are of a minor and temporary nature. Impacts
on wetlands, are discussed in Chapter V, Section C.2.f.

(5) Effects of Construction of Onshore Facilities
The procedu@es and environmental impacts related to OCS onshore
facility construction have been reviewed in NERBC (1976). Land
clearing and earth movement during construction have been identified
as promoting nonpoint surface runoff containing elevated levels of
suspended solids (organic and inorganic) and possibly heavy metals.
This runoff may affect nearby streams and rivers; however, these
effects are limited by erosion and runoff control procedures employed
during construction. Adverse impacts on water quality are temporary
and localized.

For the GOM Region, no cumulative impacts on water quality resulting
from OCS construction of onshore facilities have been identified.

(6) Effects of Discharge of Produced Formation Water
Approximately 6 billion bbl of produced water have been generated from
OCS activities in the GOM since 1954 (MMS estimate). Within an area
south of Timbalier Bay, Louisiana, which historically has had the
highest concentration of oil and gas activity, the produced water
discharge has been estimated at 0.5 to greater than 1.5 million
gallons per square mile per year (DOC, NOAA, 1985). In April 1982, an
unpublished report entitled "The Discharge of Water Pollutants from
Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Activities in the GOM Region"
by Gianessi and Arnold (NOAA) estimated that for a representative
year, approximately 685,000 bbl of produced waters were discharged.
Approximately one-half of this amount was piped to onshore locations
where it was treated and subsequently discharged to onshore waters.
The monitoring studies conducted at the Buccaneer Gas and Oil Field
(Middleditch, 1981) showed the rapid dilution of produced water in
offshore waters of the GOM. The studies by Mackin (1971) and others
suggested the existence of more extensive impacts on water quality
from long-term discharges in shallow coastal areas (typically, depths
of 2-3 meters). Neff (in Boesch et al., 1985) concludes that, based
on several large investigations, few impacts occur in deeper waters of
the Gulf of Mexico or off Southern California.
In conclusion, minor overall cumulative impacts on water quality are
likely to have resulted from the discharge of produced water. These
long-term impacts are poorly defined at this time and are probably
limited to shallow-water receiving areas and, in offshore areas, to
the immediate vicinity of continuous produced water discharge points
(platforms).

V-19

(7) Effects of Pipeline Construction

As of June 1986, approximately 16,000 mi of pipeline have been
permitted (right-of-way granted) on the OCS in this Region, primarily
off Louisiana. Between 80 and 90 percent of these lines are estimated
to lie in water depths shallower than 200 ft and, therefore,3require
burial below the seafloor. On the basis that 2,300-6,000 yd of
sediment are displaced per mile of pipeline buried, it is estimated
that up to 85 million yd3of sediment have been displaced from
pipeline burial in the GOM. Only short-term, localized effects on
water quality are known to have resulted from these activities.

In conclusion, no cumulative effects on water quality as a result of
pipeline construction have been identified offshore. Impacts of
pipeline construction in wetlands are discussed under Wetlands
(page V-26).

(8) Effects of Oil Spills

.Over the period of 1976 through 1985, approximately 27,000 bbl of oil
were spilled in the GOM from the approximately 9,300 oil spills
reported from OCS oil and gas operations in the Gulf. Only 4 of these
spills were over 1,000 bbl, but these. accounted for roughly half of
the total volume spilled during this time period (Cotton, 1986).

Investigations into the ecological effects of petroleum production in
the central GOM (Ward et al., 1979; Bedinger and Kirby, 1981) and the
comprehensive reviews of short- and long-term effects of offshore oil
and gas development (Boesch and Rabalais, 1985; NAS, 1985) have not
indicated a cumulative effect on water quality. Although some
residual hydrocarbon accumulation was suggested with reference to
sediment contamination, neither the oil releases from large spills
(acute, episodic events) nor the numerous chronic discharges were
demonstrated as being accumulative.

In conclusion, no cumulative effects on water quality as a result of
oil spills have been identified.

b. Air Oualitv

Table V-2 summarizes the emissions from all direct and support
activities for oil and gas operations in the GOM during 1986.

V-20

Table V-2

Estimated Emissions from Direct and Support Activities,
Gulf of Mexico. 1986")

Pollutant Emissions (Tons)
Activity NOX TSP VOC S02 CO

Vessel Traffic 64,468 6447 1805 7736 5619

Platform Installation
(165 platforms) and
Removal (78 platforms) 122 12 3 15 32

Pipeline Construction 1,263 126 35 152 328
505 miles)

Oil Spills (413 barrels) -- -- 28 -- --

Exploration Drilling 1,915 191 56 226 455
(263 wells)

Development/Production Drilling
(370 wells) 2,694 270 78 318 710

Production from 1,211 emitting
platforms (2) 102,935 509 56,541 745 21,679
(1) These estimates are based on samples taken at older, more
pollution prone platforms.

(2) Out of 3,425 production platforms.

The MMS is conducting two air quality studies related to the
cumulative impacts of the OCS oil and gas activities in selected study
areas in the Gulf of Mexico. The first study will assess the impacts
on onshore concentrations of the inert pollutants from OCS facilities
in three study areas off Louisiana. Work is being completed on the
data collection phase of this study. Once the appropriate data are
developed, a modeling analysis will be conducted.

The second study involves evaluating data resources in onshore and
offshore areas to assess the onshore impacts on photochemical
pollutant concentrations from OCS facilities. The data requirements
for this modeling analysis include extensive air quality
meteorological and source emissions data.

V-21

In the GOM there are a total of 3,425 platforms producing oil and gas,
of which there are 1,211 platforms containing sources that emit air
pollutants. These platforms are distributed over an area of 30,000
Mi2 off Texas and Louisiana. The total NO and VOC emissions from
these platforms were 11.1 percent and 7.1, xercent, respectively, of
p I
the total onshore emissions in the coastal' parishes and counties in
Texas and Louisiana.

Of the 1,211 platforms, 1,039 platforms are adjacent to Louisiana and
emit 22 percent and 16 percent, respectively, of the onshore NO and
VOC emissions from the coastal parishes. The remaining 172 Platforms
are adjacent to Texas (i.e., more than 10 miles from shore) and emit 3
percent and,'1.5 percent, respectivelyj of the onshore NOX and VOC
emissions from the Texas coastal counties.

In 1977, EPA designated the following Louisiana.coastal parishes
(i.e, more than 3 miles from shore) as nonattainment areas for ozone:
St. Bernard, Orleans, Jefferson, Lafourche, St. Charles, St. Mary, and
Lafayette. The MMS has learned that the Louisiana Department of
Environmental Quality is proposing to redesignate these coastal
parishes as attainment areas for ozone and the remaining criteria
pollutants (personal communication from Gus von Bondungen).

If OCS sources were contributing to onshore exceedances of the NAAQS,
exceedanc'es would be experienced in these coastal parishes. The MMS
believes the proposed redesignation of the coastal parishes as
attainment is an indication that the OCS is not causing or
contributing to the exceedance of any of the NAAQS. As noted, MMS
will continue its air quality modeling studies to verify this
assumption.

2. Biological Environment

a. Lower Trophic Organisms

(1) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

Since 1954, approximately 108 million bbl of muds and 76 million bbl
of cuttings .(MMS estimate) have been produced,throughout all the GOM
Planning Areas. The effects of drilling muds and cuttings on benthic
communities were studied in the central GOM (Bedingpr, 1981; Ward, et
al.,'1979). No significant effects were attributed to the drilling
discharges.. Sediment samples collected further than 500 m from
production-platforms showed no evidence of barium or sodium
montmorillonite (principal drilling fluid materials), indicating that
long-term accumulation of drilling discharge material had not occurred
(Beding9r, 19-81)., A study conducted in the GOM by the Offshore
Operators Committee showed that alternatives in oceanwater quality
are highlylocalized and of short duration even during high rate, high
volume" discharges (Ayres, et al. 1980b). No long-term effects of
discharges have been demonstrated.

Vr22

(2) Effects of Discharge of Produced Formation Water
Approximately 6 billion bbl of produced waters have been generated
from OCS activities in the GOM since 1954. One field study in the GOM
investigated the environmental effects of produced formation water
discharge in the Buccaneer Field. This study showed that produced
water discharges exert chronic effects on benthic organisms near
production platforms (Middleditch, 1981). The generally elevated
levels of' hydrocarbons and other chemicals in sediments over wide
areas in the GOM hamper efforts to delineate the actual areal extent
of such effects (EPA, 1985). Middleditch (1984), in an assessment of
the ecological effects of produced water discharge from offshore oil
and gas platforms, concluded that any effects would probably be minor
and limited to a small area.

In conclusion, although water column and benthic organisms in areas
surrounding production platforms have been negatively impacted by
discharged produced formation water, the areal extent of such impacts
is minimized by dilution and mixing in the offshore environment.

(3) Effects of Pipeline Construction
As of June 1986, approximately 16,000 mi of pipeline have been
permitted (rights-of-way granted) on the OCS in the GOM. Since 1979,
construction has averaged about 600 mi per year. It has been
estimated that for every mile of pipeline constructed, 6 acres of sea
bottom are disturbed. In the immediate vicinity of the pipeline
construction, some lower trophic organisms will be disturbed or
destroyed. Although no specific studies have been conducted to
quantify these impacts, they are thought to be highly localized and
rapid recovery would be expected. No long-term impacts have been
identified.

(4) Effects of Oil Spills
In the 10-year period of 1976 through 1986, four spills of more than
1,000 bbl of oil were attributed to OCS activities in the GOM Planning
Areas. The total volume spilled by these four incidents was
approximately 12,000 bbl. An investigation of petroleum production
platforms in the central GOM concluded that although long-term
hydrocarbon contamination occurred in the immediate vicinity of the
platforms, no significant biological effects were apparent (Bedinger,
1981). The amount of oil spilled in the GOM is small. Given the
natural processes that degrade petroleum and thereby reduce the
toxicity, no cumulative impacts on lower trophic organisms would be
expected.

V-23

b. Fish Resources

(1) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

Since 1954, an estimated 108 million bbl of muds and 76 million bbl of
cuttings have been generated as a result of drilling over 23,000 oil
and gas wells and 105 sulfur wells. The National Research Council
(1983) concludes that most water-based muds (the discharge of
oil-based muds into marine waters is prohibited) used in the United
States "have low acute and chronic toxicition to marine organisms" and
that "the bioaccumulation from drilling fluids . . . is observed to be
small in the field." Although some effects on fisheries resources may
occur in the immediate vicinity of the discharge, these are
transitory, and long-term effects have not been identified.

(2) Effects of Produced Formation Waters

Approximately 6 billion bbl of produced water have been generated from
OCS oil and gas activities since 1954. Gallaway (1981) concluded that
produced waters were only slightly toxic, and direct effects occur
only in the area within a few meters of the outfall. No documented
impacts to fisheries resources have been reported in the GOM.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

In the 10-year period, 1976 to 1985, only four spills of more than
1,000 bbl of oil were attributable to OCS oil and gas activities.
The volume spilled over this 10-year period totaled approximately
12,000 bbl. The biological effects of petroleum have been extensively
studied. An ecological investigation of petroleum production
platforms in the central GOM concluded that, although long-term
contamination of the area by hydrocarbons had occurred, no significant
biological effects were apparent (Bedinger, 1981). The NAS (1985)
concluded that "there is no clear indication so far that commercially
important fish stocks have been severely disrupted by either chronic
or catastrophic oiling of their environment." There is no evidence in
the GOM to indicate that fisheries resources have been depleted by
OCS-related oil spills.

c. Endangered or Threatened Species

(1) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

The West Indian manatee inhabits the rivers, bays, and estuaries of
the eastern GOM from Cedar Key, Florida, south to Key West. Manatees
are vulnerable to boat collisions. No collisions related to OCS
activities are known, and the limited amount of exploration activity
that has occurred in the eastern GOM has made the possibility of
impact unlikely.

V-24

(2) Effects of Platform Removal

Platforms and other structures, such as well jackets and caissons, are
most efficiently and economically removed by using explosive charges.
In the G13M Region, five species of sea turtles, all of which are
protected under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), may be found in the
vicinity of OCS platforms and structures. This presents the
possibility that individuals of an endangered or threatened species
may be killed or injured during a platform or structure removal. No
direct observations of sea turtle injuries or fatalities resulting
from the removal of OCS structures by explosives are available.
However, indirect evidence from stranding records have indicated that
some turtles may have been killed as a result of explosive blasts;
most likely from structure removals in State territorial waters. The
MMS is currently consulting with NMFS under Section 7 of the ESA, on a
removal-by-removal basis, to assure that protected sea turtle species
suffer no adverse effects as a result of explosive structure removals
in the GOM. Typical measures which are presently taken to protect sea
turtle species include: pre-blast diver surveys; aerial and surface-
observer surveys by NMFS personnel; staggering of the individual
charges to minimize cumulative blast effects; and post-blast surveys
for injured individuals. No sea turtles are known to have been
adversely affected by recent structure removals performed under the
consultation process. In addition to mitigating the potential impacts
on sea turtles for ongoing removal activities, MMS and NMFS are
investigating procedures to determine the overall potential risk to
sea turtles species from structure removals on the OCS, and to
minimize any potential effects on these species.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills
Oil spills contacting a turtle nesting beach during egg incubation or
hatching periods would cause significant turtle mortality. Sea
turtles, especially juveniles, snap at or attempt to swallow any
object of appropriate size, such as tar balls. Ingestion of tar balls
has been recorded and could result in turtle mortality. The volatile,
soluble, and tar fractions of an oil spill could affect the lungs of
sea turtles reducing ventilation and reducing time for feeding.
Ingestion of oil could affect the gastrointestinal tract. Oil coating
the head and eyes could affect the orbital salt glands that may affect
many physiological processes. No damage to sea turtles as a result of
oil spills from OCS oil and gas activities has been documented.
Brown pelicans are susceptible to oil spills because they dive for
fish, and their feathers could become coated with oil. No damage to
brown pelicans from oil and gas activities has been documented.

V-25

d. Marine Mammals

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying

The potential effects of seismic surveying are discussed in Chapter
IV, Section E. Approximately 365,000 line miles of seismic surveys
related to OCS oil and gas activities have been permitted by the MMS
in the GOM. No significant impacts on marine mammals have been
reported.

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

There exists a potential for collision between marine mammals and OCS
oil- and gas-related support vessels. The OCS-related vessel traffic
is estimated to be 3 percent of the total traffic in the central GOM
and lesser amounts in the western and eastern Gulf. The level of
OCS-related collisions with marine mammals is unknown; no injuries or
mortalities have been reported.

(3) Effects of Platform Removal

Over the period 1976-1985, an average of 40 platforms per year have
been removed from the OCS in the GOM. The usual method of removal
involves the use of explosives to sever the legs of the platform below
the seafloor. Recently, concern has been raised over possible effects
to porpoises from the use of explosives. The MMS is funding research
to better understand the potential problem and is working with NMFS to
ensure that the requirements of the Marine Mammal Protection Act are
not violated. Under current procedures, the MMS enters into a formal
Section 7 consultation pursuant to the ESA with NMFS for each platform
removal action.

(4) Effects of Oil Spills

The potential impacts of oil spills on marine mammals is discussed in
Chapter IV, Section B. No injury or mortality to marine mammals from
OCS oil- and gas-related oil spills have been observed.

e. Coastal and Marine Birds

,Numerous species of coastal and marine birds use the coastal and
offshore areas of GOM. Approximately 5-9 million migratory waterfowl
overwinter in the Gulf coastal wetlands.

An adverse impact could occur if marine and coastal birds contacted
oil. Such contact could result in matting plumage that can reduce
flying and swimming abilities, loss of buoyancy, hypothermia, shock,
and reduced reproduction (Hunt, 1985; Nero and Associates, 1983; and
Clark, 1984).

Major references pertaining to the potential impacts from oil on birds
in the GOM include the following: Clap, Morgan-Jacobs, and Banks

V-26

(1982), Marine Birds of the Southeastern U.S. and Gulf of Mexico; King
and Sager (1979), Oil Vulnerability Index for Marine Oriented Birds;
Holmes (1984), Petroleum Pollutants in the Marine Environment and
their Possible Effects on Seabirds; Avery et al. (1980), Ajin
Mortality at Man-Made Structures, An Annotated Bibliography; and
Albers (1978), The Effects of Petroleum on Different Stages of
Incubation in Birds Eggs.

There are no documented cumulative impacts to marine and coastal birds
from oil spills in the GOM Region that can be attributed to OCS
activities.

f. Wetlands

The loss of the Nation's wetland resources in Louisiana has been
occurring at the rapid rate of I percent annually (approximately
50 Mi2/yr, or 32,000 acres/year in Louisiana). The wetlands are an
important environmental value because of their great productivity and
diversity, ecological importance as nursery and rookery grounds,
fishing interest, critical habitat for threatened and endangered
species, status as the largest fur-producing area for North America,
hydrologic utility in terms of flood control, contribution to improved
water quality, and flow stabilization for streams and rivers. Wetland
loss is the result of a combination of manmade and natural factors,
including sedimentation rates, submergence, canalization, as well as
secondary effects such as salt water intrusion and soil waterlogging.
Important factors contributing to the creation of open water and the
loss of wetland areas are the combined impact of sediment deprivation
due to construction of dams and reservoirs along the upper tributaries
of the Mississippi River, channelization of the lower Mississippi for
flood control and navigation, State and OCS oil and gas activities
such as access canals and the withdrawal of resources, and natural
submergence of as high as 9 to 13 millimeters/yr due to eustatic sea
level rise and geologic subsidence.
The OCS activities do not directly impact the wetland areas along the
coast other than for specific construction of navigation canals for
transport of OCS oil or gas, or pipeline rights-of-way transporting
oil or gas from the OCS to onshore areas. The MMS has funded a study
(Turner et al., 1988) through Louisiana State University to
investigate the factors and processes that contribute to wetlands loss
in Louisiana. The study evaluated the relative importance of the
causative factors that contribute to wetlands loss and the involvement
of OCS-related activities. The study estimated that the total direct
impacts of OCS oil and gas activities from 1955 to 1978 resulted in
4-5 percent of the total loss of wetlands in Louisiana. Sixteen
percent of wetland loss in Louisiana is reported to be due to direct
impacts from State and OCS spoil banks, navigational channels,
pipeline canaLs, and facilities. The direct impacts from OCS pipeline
and navigational channels are as much as 32 percent of the total 16
percent net increase in spoil and canal area. The majority of wetland
use is by onshore and coastal State and local interests.

V-27

The MMS funded study also estimated indirect impacts to the wetlands.
As stated in the report, OCS development accounted for an estimated 5-
18 percent of all indirect impacts or 4-13 percent of the total
wetland loss. Combining the direct and indirect impacts, OCS
development accounted for 8-17 percent of all wetland loss. Land use
changes and oil and gas canals and spoilbanks (OCS and non-OCS)
accounted for 13 percent and 30-59 percent, respectively, of the total
wetland losses.

Besides the stated GOM study, the MMS has funded studies to understand
the effects of aircraft overflights on wetland geese in Alaska and to
perform baseline studies in lagoonal areas in California. One ongoing
study in the GOM Region is titled "Importance of OCS Activities on
Sensitive Coastal Habitats", funded through Coastal Environments,
Incorporated. This study is designed to evaluate OCS pipeline
crossings on barrier islands and associated wetlands along the Gulf
Coast. Beginning in FY 1988, the GOM Region is sponsoring a 2-year
study on "Mitigation of Wetland Impacts Due to OCS Oil and Gas
Activities.". In this new study, a variety of marsh management
techniques will be evaluated as tools for reducing wetlands loss.

These mitigation measures include the use of new techniques such as
backfilling, double ditching, and plugging of canal entrances in order
to encourage revegetation of the canal. Most of the deleterious
effects on the wetlands that are evident today in the GOM Region are
the result of early development before the use of these more
environmentally sound methods. The new study will reevaluate these
techniques and possibly propose other ones.

Current trends, as suggested by studies presently underway by the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, indicate that rates of wetland loss are
increasing in localized areas. Proper mitigation of OCS oil and gas
activities, such as pipeline backfilling, double ditching, and others,
are reported to reduce impacts on sensitive wetlands from pipelines to
negligible levels. In conclusion, the cumlative impacts from OCS
activities to the wetland areas around the GOM are small relative to
the total wetland loss problem.

3. Socioeconomic Environment

a. Employment and Demographic Conditions

The oil and gas industry, of which OCS activities are a significant
part, is a major source of employment and revenues in the States of
Louisiana and Texas. Anything that affects the oil and gas industry
can have drastic effects on employment within these States and
significantly affect both the private and public sector of local and
regional economies. It is estimated that OCS-related activities
account for approximately 190,000 jobs, with an annual payroll of over
$4 billion.

V-28

The employment impact of OCS activities can be addressed in three
distinct categories: direct, indirect or secondary, and induced.
Direct employment associated with the oil and gas extraction industry
consists of those workers involved in oil and gas exploration
activities and production operations, including geophysical surveys,
exploratory and development drilling, and well operations and
maintenance. Contract field services, such as acidizing, cementing,
mud services, well logging, and perforations, are also included in the
direct employment category. These activities are covered under the
U.S. Government's Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Code 13 -
Oil and Gas Extraction. It is estimated that employment in this
category is approximately 24,000, with an annual payroll of over $850
million.

Indirect or secondary oil and gas employment includes workers in the
refining, oil field machinery and equipment manufacturing, pipeline
transportation, gas production and distribution, and wholesaling of
petroleum and petroleum products industries. These activities are
covered under SIC Codes 29, 3533, 46, 492, and 517. It is estimated
that employment in this category is approximately 120,000, with an
annual payroll of over $3 billion.

The direct and indirect employment discussed above creates additional
employment not related to OCS activities. This type of employment is
referred to as induced employment because jobs in this category are
induced or supported by expenditures of direct and indirect workers.
Products and services in this category are sought by all workers and
households regardless of occupation. Based on MMS analysis for
proposed Federal OCS oil and gas lease sales, it is estimated that one
job in the induced employment category is created for every three
direct and indirect jobs. Based on this, it is estimated that
approximately 48,000 jobs in the consumer goods and service sector of
the area exist because of OCS activities.

b. Coastal Land Uses

The infrastructure for oil and gas production in the GOM is the most
developed in the world. It includes oil refineries, petrochemical and
gas processing plants, supply bases for offshore services, platform
construction yards, pipeline yards, and other industry-related
installations. This infrastructure is highly concentrated in the
coastal areas of Louisiana and eastern Texas, and to a lesser extent
along the southern half of the Texas Gulf coast and east of Louisiana
as far as Mobile, Alabama. Because of this existing infrastructure,
most recent onshore support or processing needs resulting from
offshore activities are accommodated without new construction. Of
course, -the construction of the existing facilities altered coastal
land uses. Although there would have been of necessity, some
cumulative impacts on coastal land use, no facility could be
constructed without receiving many approvals at the Federal, State,
and local levels. See also the sections on wetlands and recreation
for cumulative impacts to coastal land uses in these categories.

V-29

c. Commercial Fisheries

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying

There have been no reports of impacts to commercial fishing operations
from seismic surveying in the GOM Region.

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

There have been no reports of impacts to commercial fishing activities
from support vessel traffic in the GOM Region.

(3) Effects of Platform and Rig Emglacement and
Removal

As of January 7, 1987, the MMS Gulf of Mexico Regional Office reported
that there were 3,821 active "structures" (including production
platforms and pumping stations) in the GOM. A production platform
could exclude vessels from an area of about 0.26 Mi2 (Centaur Assoc.,
1984a). If all these structures were production platforms, commercial
fishing vessels could potentially be excluded from about 993 Mi2 Of
space.

One documented report of a fish kill as a result of platform removal
by explosives has been recorded by the GOM Regional Office. This
incident took place in July 1986 in the West Cameron Area offshore of
Louisiana (Stechmann, 1986). No quantitative data on this kill are
available. The species involved were red snapper, amberjack,
spadefish, and jacks.

A number of studies have documented the enhancement of fisheries by
artificial reefs (offshore platforms, in this case). Much of this
information is summarized in a report by Ditton and Auyong (1984).
This report attempted to summarize use patterns of offshore platforms
by fishermen in the GOM. Recreational fishermen were the main users;
however, commercial fisheries for snapper in the Bay and Cameron
regions and for snapper, croaker, and trout in the Delta region were
reported.

There is no well-documented evidence to show any cumulative effect on
commercial fishing, either positive or negative, by platform
emplacement or removal. However, there are strong indications that
offshore platforms have increased the carrying capacity of the
environment in the GOM, enhancing some fisheries.

(4) Effects of Offshore Use Conflicts

Potential effects of offshore use conflicts on commercial and
recreational fishing include exclusion from fishing areas, vessel
traffic and gear conflicts, vessel and gear damage, and short- and
long-term damage to fish stocks and their marketability.

V-30

There have been a number of claims by commercial fishermen under Title
IV of the OCSLA Amendments. The Fishermen's Contingency Fund has
verified and paid out the following claims for vessel and gear damage
due to oil and gas industry activities in this Region:

Year Number of Claims Dollar Amount

19133 22 128,621
19134 115 474,057
19135 112 614,536
19136 135 843,727

Information before 1983 is not available.

(5) Effects of Pipeline Construction

It has been estimated that spatial loss from pipeline construction
could be up to 0.5 mi' per mile of pipeline (Centaur Assoc., 1984b).
Boesch and Robillard (1985) estimate that over 15,625 mi have been
emplaced in the GOM. Spatial loss from actual construction is
temporary.

Boesch and Robillard (1985) reviewed the potential effects on coastal
habitats from oil and gas activities. In this report, pipelines are
said to The one of the causes of long-term damage to wetlands. Many
commercial fish species in the GOM depend on wetlands during one or
more stages of their life cycle.

In conclusion, no'direct cumulative effects to commercial fishing from
pipeline construction have been documented. The loss of coastal
wetlands that provide critical habitat for many species of fish and
shellfish is a potential problem.

(6) Effects of Oil Spills
These effects are discussed under Chapter IV, Section B.6, Impacts of
Oil Spills on Fish.

d. Recreation and Tourism

Coastal recreational activities popular in the GOM include swimming,
scuba diving, windsurfing, sunbathing, beach hiking, boating, fishing,
hunting waterfowl, and birdwatching. Participation in all of these
activities is high. Major State and Federal parks, wildlife refuges,
and recreation areas cover large expanses of the coastline and many
barrier islands. Tourism is a major component of local economies,
regionally estimated in billions of dollars and millions of people.
Potential impacts to recreation and tourism may result from activities
that cause visual effects, land-use conflicts, and oil-spill impacts.
The emplacement of platforms can adversely affect the aesthetic nature
of the coastline when constructed close enough to shore to be seen and

V-31

to obscure a relatively large portion of the natural environment
(Nassauer et al., 1982).

The GOM contains the largest concentration of offshore platforms.
Approximately 230 large platforms are located in State and Federal
waters in sight of the coast of Louisiana, and an additional 46 are
located within view of the Texas coast. In addition, 19 clusters
consisting of numerous small platforms, many within sight of each
other, are found in view of the Louisiana coast, while 2 such clusters
are found off Texas. Approximately half of these structures are in
Federal waters. The remaining Gulf Coastal States have not had
extensive development off their coasts.

Two studies have been performed to examine the impact of the sight of
platforms from the coast (University of Illinois, Urbana, 1982;
Dornbush, 1987). The University of Illinois study showed that
visitors most disliked nearby facil'it,ies that obstructed the view of
the natural environment and facilities or structures at any distance
and that were not neat and clean. There have been no data collected
to indicate that the residents, businesses, or visitors to the coastal
areas of the GOM are adversely affected by the sight of offshore
structures. The presence of such large numbers of structures
offshore, combined with the presence of onshore facilities and
numerous pipeline and navigation canals, has changed the character of
the central and western Gulf Coast, but the contribution of the OCS to
that change has not been determined.

Some of the trash which is washed up on the beach, especially in Texas
and Louisiana, comes from OCS oil and gas activities. The proportions
that are related to oil and gas activities and to other activities,
e.g. shipping, military Activ*iti0s,-fishing, and boating, are not
known with certainty. A report prepared by the Center for
Environmental Education (1987), however, estimates that 10 to 15
percent comes from offshore oil and gas operations and that through
the efforts of the Texas General Land Office, the MMS, and the oil and
gas operators themselves, that percentage is being rapidly reduced.
The oil and gas industry, through the Offshore Operators Committee,
have mounted an intensive campaign to eliminate trash generated by
their operations and also operations carried out by subcontractors.
In addition, the MMS regulations (30 CFR 250.40) prohibit the
discharge of trash and other solid waste materials associated with OCS
operations.

More than 4,000 platforms in State and Federal waters, over 1,000 of
which are navigationally marked and have lighted structures, serve as
navigational aids and even.refuges in storms. For a long time
recreational, fishermen have been attracted to these platforms.
,Platforms, although manmade, act in the same manner as a reef in the
ocean, attracting numerous species of fish, many of which are of
interest to recreational and even commercial fishermen (Witzing,
1984). Most recreational fishing and scuba diving take place within
20 mi of shore, and up to 70 percent of all types of fishing takes

V-32

place around oil and gas platforms (Ditton and Auyong, 1984). The
construction of large numbers of platforms near the coast of Louisiana
and Texas has led to a substantial growth in recreational fishing with
substantial benefits to Gulf Coast States near enough to the platforms
to take advantage of the fishing opportunities provided.

Since the platforms nearest the coast were generally emplaced
earliest, up to 30 years ago, some of them are now being removed.
Removal of those platforms will reduce the number available for
recreational fishing, thereby reducing the beneficial cumulative
impact on that activity.

The placement of rigs and platforms near the coastline in the central
and western GOM coastal areas has contributed to the high level of
impact on the aesthetic nature of the region, but the contribution of
OCS rigs and platforms to that impact is unknown. The placement of
platforms near the coast has resulted in a high beneficial impact to
recreational fishing and diving. The construction of refineries,
pumping stations, service bases, and construction yards can adversely
affect the aesthetic nature of a coastal area when they are
constructed outside of urbanized or industrialized areas and change
the nature of a relatively large part of the local natural environment
(University of Illinois, Urbana, 1982).

The production of offshore equipment for the OCS and foreign oil and
gas fields, the transportation of OCS oil and gas along with imported
oil, and -the refining and processing of OCS and imported oil and gas
have been responsible for major changes in the character of Gulf Coast
industrial cities, towns and villages, and some formerly natural
areas. The contribution of the OCS to this growth and alteration of
the aesthetic aspect of the area is unknown. In some areas (Morgan
City, Louisiana, for example), the nature of the town has changed from
a small, rail, agriculture- and fishing-oriented town to one of the
major oil industry construction bases in the country. Whether such
changes are viewed as an undesirable degradation of the aesthetic
character of the area, or merely as an adjunct to normal urbanization
and industrialization, is speculative.

The impacts of construction of onshore facilities, when combined with
canal construction; onshore oil and gas operations; and the sight of
offshore platforms, have changed the character of large sections of
the central and western Gulf Coast. However, the contribution of the
OCS to this change is unknown.

Over 400 pipelines have crossed the beaches, but the number of
pipelines built in the coastal marshes is not known. Over 40,000
wells have been completed onshore in coastal Louisiana, most of which
have pipelines connecting them to other lines, wells, refineries, or
pumping stations. Almost all pipelines are buried. On beach areas
and coastal plains, rehabilitation efforts are usually successful in
removing most of the visible effects of the pipeline construction. In
coastal marshes and swamps, pipeline channels remain long after

V-33

construction and 'Often contribute to further change in the remainder
of the area (Turner, Constanza, and Scaife, 1982). The central GOM
coastal area, mostly in Louisiana, is'crisscrossed with many pipeline
channels resulting from onshore, State.offshore, and OCS oil and gas
activities. These channels and nearby areas are altered because of
the presence of the channels and canals and have thoroughly altered
the aesthetic nature of the swamps and marshes, in some cases almost
completely changing their natural and visual aspects. Pipeline i
construction has greatly affected the aesthetic nature of the coastal
areas of the central GOM, but the contribution of the OCS activity to
that impact is unknown.

Oil spills reaching coastal recreational areas affect aesthetics and
recreation by coating beaches and making them unpleasant; this results
in reduced economic intake for local recreation-oriented businesses.
The loss is usually immediate but does not extend beyond the removal
of the oil and fouled coastal materials (Restrepo, 1982).

In order for cumulative effects on recreation or aesthetics in a
recreation area to accrue from oil spills, more than one spill would
have to occur and affect the same area before the effects of the first
spill had-dissipated. This situation has never occurred. Cumulative
impacts could also occur if a large enough number of oil spills
contacted various recreation areas along a coastline and affected the
recreation industry along the entire coastline. This has not occurred
either; therefore, there have been no cumulative impacts from oil
spills.

In conclusion, there have been cumulative impacts on recreation and
tourism related to OCS activities, but the level of these impacts
cannot be separated from onshore oil-and gas impacts, impacts from
activities in State waters, and impacts'from other industrial growth.

e. Archaeological Resources

In the effort to minimize impacts to Archaeological resources in the
GOM Region, four studies were funded:

1. Cultural Resources Evaluation of the Northern Gulf of Me@ico
Continental Shelf,

2. Sedimentary Studies of Prehistoric Archaeolog,ical Sites,

3. Prehistoric Site Evaluation on the Northern Gulf of Mexico
Outer Continental Shelf: Ground Truth Testing of the
Predictive Model and,

4. An Archaeological Investigation to Reevaluation Cultural
Resource Management Zone I in the Gulf of Mexico and to
Provide an Interpretive Framework for the Analysis of
Magnetometer Data.

V-34

These studies attempt, through the use of predictive models, to
identify areas of the OCS where there is a high probability for the
occurrence of archaeological resources. In these areas of high
probability, the lessee is required, through lease stipulation, to
conduct a tract-specific archaeological resource survey. These
studies are updated for each lease sale. The updates include analysis
and synthesis of data--archaeological, geological, and geophysical--
generated since the preparation of the original study (or the last
update). If a potential archaeological resource is located, a
mitigation plan is developed. To date, 1,998 archaeological surveys
have been conducted in the Region.

Because of mitigation and avoidance of potential sites, there have
been no reports of impacts to archaeological resources from OCS
activities, and no cumulative impacts related to OCS activities have
been identified.

f. Military Use Areas

The GOM is divided into 12 Warning Areas. The water and air space are
used for many activities including live firing aerial gunnery,
trailing wire antenna activity, flares and chaff drop tests, B-52
G-model low-level flights, carrier maneuvers, carrier pilot training,
and optics and sound testing.

Potential conflicts in military use areas concern interference of
military and commercial emissions of electromagnetic signals, falling
debris, ship and aircraft traffic, and collisions between rigs or
vessels. Commercial fishermen and recreational boaters also use these
same areas.

These potential conflicts have been mitigated through cooperation
between the lessee and the appropriate military authority. In certain
instances, prelease stipulations have been attached to leases within
military operating areas.

While no direct conflicts (collisions with platforms, damages to
militar, or oil and gas equipment, etc.) have been reported, areais
formerl, available for unrestricted military maneuvers have been
greatly reduced through the slow expansion of areas occupied by
platforms in the central and western parts of the Gulf. Some areas
currently designated by DOD for training or operations which are
underlaid by oil and gas resources have-been subjected to leasing,
exploratory activity, and platform construction. In the western part
of the Gulf, the northern portions of the areas W-228 and W-602 have
been the sites of considerable exploration and platform construction,
slightly reducing the military's unrestricted use of those areas. In
the eastern portion of the Gulf, extensive oil and gas operations have
not taken place in designated operating and training areas. Leasing
has taken place, however, and the DOD, unable to determine when plans
of development will be filed by lessees, must take into account in

V-35

their planning process that some parts of operating or training areas
may have to be withdrawn from unrestricted use.

In conclusion, although there have been no direct conflicts with
military use in the GOM, the area available for military activity has
been restricted.

D. Pacific Region

1. Physical Environment

a. Water Ouality

(1) Effects of Geological Sampling
Water quality is altered and degraded in several ways during
geological sampling activities. Bottom sampling and shallow coring
cause sediment suspension and associated increase in turbidity. Deep
stratigraphic testing, being similar to rotary drilling of exploratory
.wells, results in the additional discharge of small amounts of drill
muds and cuttings and the associated increase in levels of suspended
solids and trace metals in the receiving water.
.Effects on water quality resulting from bottom sampling and coring
activities are limited to the immediate area of operation (DOI, USGS,
1976). Because of dilution, dispersion, and settling, the impacts of
drill muds and cuttings on water quality are limited to the immediate
vicinity of the discharge and are generally not detectable beyond
2,000 m from the discharge (NAS, 1983; Houghton et al., 1980; and
Ayers et al., 1980a, b).

Geological sampling activities in the Pacific Region have been
limited. Approximately 70 geological sampling permits have been
issued over the period of 1963-1985, and 2 deep stratigraphic tests
(COST wells) have been completed. Results of the Tanner Bank study
(ECOMAR, 1978) off California and the State-sponsored NPDES permit
monitoring indicate, or strongly suggest, that the effects of drill
muds and cuttings discharges on water quality have been temporary,
limited in spatial extent, and not accumulative.

In conclusion, although temporary and localized effects have occurred,
no significant cumulative effects on water quality as a result of
geological sampling have been identified.

(2) Effects of Discharges of Muds and Cuttings

Since 1963, approximately 2.9 million bbl of muds and 1.4 million bbl
of cuttings have been discharged in the Pacific Region as a result of
drilling 917 wells. Over 95 percent of the drilling activity and, in
turn, discharge of muds and cuttings occurred in the Southern
California Planning Area (primarily the Santa Barbara Channel).
Results of the Tanner Bank study (ECOMAR, 1978) off California and the

V-36

State-sponsored NPDES permit monitoring indicate, or strongly suggest,
that the effects of drill muds and cuttings discharges on water
quality have been temporary, limited in spatial extent, and not
accumulative.

In conclusion, although temporary and localized effects have occurred,
no significant cumulative effects on water quality as a result of
discharge of muds and cuttings have been identified.

(3) Effects of Construction of Onshore Facilities

The procedures and environmental impacts related to OCS onshore
facility construction have been reviewed in NERBC (1976). Land
clearing and earth movement during construction have been identified
as promoting surface runoff containing elevated levels of suspended
solids (organic and inorganic) and possibly heavy metals. This runoff
may affect nearby streams and rivers; however, these effects are
limited by erosion and runoff control procedures employed during
construction. Adverse impacts on water quality are temporary and
localized.

The impacts on ground and surface water quality from onshore
construction in the Pacific Region have been addressed in various
environmental impact statements or reports (e.g., Arthur D. Little,
1985; URS, 1986) in response to Federal and State requirements.
Although potential for significant impacts as a result of the use and
operation of gas facilities has been identified, these impacts have
been mitigated by the use of desalination plants and other
conservation methods.

In conclusion, no significant cumulative impacts have been identified.

(4) Effects of Discharge of Produced Formation Water
An estimated 105 million bbl of formation water have been discharged
to date from OCS activities in the Pacific Region. This volume was
discharged into the Santa Barbara Channel and offshore Los Angeles/
Long Beach Harbors at an approximate average rate of 7 milliort b4l per
year since 1968. Long-term localized or areawide impacts from
formation water discharges have not been studied in the Pacific
Region. However, it is believed that rapid dilution of discharged
produced water in offshore waters, similar to that noted in the Gulf
of Mexico studies (Middleditch, 1981), has been occurring. Thus,
beyond the immediate mixing area of the discharge, no long-term
impacts oin water quality are believed to have occurred.
In conclusion, only minor and localized impacts on water quality are
likely to have resulted from the discharge of produced water. These
poorly defined impacts are limited to the immediate vicinity of
continuous produced water discharge points (i.e., platforms).

V-37

(5) Effects of Pipeline Construction

A total of 164 mi of OCS pipelines have been constructed in the
Pacific Region through December 1986. Pipelines are not buried (with
one exception, described below) in this region to reduce the danger of
rupture during earthquakes., The amount of turbidity created during
pipeline construction is, therefore, limited. The only burial along
the course occurs when the pipeline traverses the approximate 20-foot
depth contour line, through the intertidal zone, and onshore. The
suspended sediment associated with the pipeline construction is
limited and settles rapidly.
In conclusion, temporary and localizId impacts on water quality have
occurred. No significant cumulative impacts to water quality have
been identified.

(6) Effects of Oil @Dills

Since 1970, less than 200 bbl of oil have been spilled in the Pacific
Region as a result of OCS oil and gas operations (MMS OCS Events
File). Little information on water quality impact is available with
reference to the Santa Barbara Platform A oil spill, which initially
released 10,000 to 70,000 bbl of oil. The period of blowout lasted 10
days. However, the results of the Amberg et al. (1973) study of
intertidal organisms indirectly suggest that there was no significant,
continued impact on water quality from this spill. In this study, 10
rocky intertidal beaches in southern California, which were initially
surveyed for 12 months following the 1969 Santa Barbara spill, were
reinvestigated in 1972. Seepage of oil from Platform A is presently
continuing at a rate of approximately 360 bbl per year. This rate
constitutes a minor portion of the natural seepage that is estimated
to be about 40-670 bbl per day from the Santa Barbara Channel.

In conclusion, no significant cumulative impacts on water quality
resulting from oil spills have been identified.

b. Air Ouality

(1) Effects of Activities

Table V-3 summarizes the emissions from all direct and support
activities for oil and gas operations in the Pacific Region during
1986. Based on in-house MMS modeling analyses, the onshore impacts
from individual facilities and cumylatively from several facilities in
a common area was less than I ug/m for the inert pollutants. At the
present time, an inert pollutant air quality model is being developed
to calculate onshore impacts from mobile sources on the OCS.

Air emissions from OCS oil and gas operations are also being monitored
by the Santa Barbara County Air Pollution District in implementing its
Air Quality Attainment Plan. Emissions data for 1986 are not yet

V-38

available. These data, when complete, will be considered in
subsequent annual updates of this report.

Table V-3
Estimated Emissions from Direct and Support Activities, Pacific, 1986

Pollutant Emissions (Tons)
Activity NOX TSP VOCI S02 Co

Vessel Traffic 2 703 71 20 43 183
Pipeline Construction (36 miles )3 90 9 2 11 23

.Exploration Drilling (3 wells) 86 4 2 4 9

Development/Production
(15 production and 2
processing facilities) 649 21 1,0694 228 143

Oil Spills (9 barrels from
activities and 365 barrels
from site of 1969 Santa
Barbara spill) 27

1. Does not include fugitive hydrocarbon emissions.

2. MMS estimates of air emissions for crew and supply boats to and
from Pacific OCS platforms--December 1, 1987.

3. Assumes 250 bbls of fuel oil per mile and based on emission
factors from table 3.4-1, Compilation of Air Pollution Emission
Factors, EPA, 1985.

4. Total hydrocarbon emissions - a small percentage of this is VOC.
I
The Joint Interagency Modeling study (JIMS), a cooperative air quality
study for the Santa Barbara Channel area, assessed the future
cumulative impacts of emissions from OCS activities (including support
vessel travel) on onshore ozone concentrations in Santa Barbara and
Ventura Counties. Three distinct meteorological scenarios, using
detailed site-specific data, were studied. The analyses included all
the existing facilities included in table V-3 and several proposed or
planned for installation and operation in 1990 and 1995. For
meteorological scenarios similar to the three analyzed by JIMS, it is
established that the maximum onshore impacts from existing (1985) OCS
operating facilities have been less than 1 part per hundred million,
jor ozone. This estimation is based on the results of JIMS, the lower
number of existing operations (as compared to the number analyzed by
JIMS), and the locations of these operations.

V-39

(2) Effects of Oil Spills
In FY 1986 in the Pacific Region, three small oil spills amounting to
a total of,9 bbl of oil occurred. In addition, an estimated 365 bbl
of oil seeped from the site of the 1969 Santa Barbara blowout that
year. This seepage resulted in air emissions of 26.5 tons of VOC.

2. Biological Environment

a. Lower Trophic Organisms

(1) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings
Since 1963, approximately 2.9 million bbl of muds and 1.4 million bbl
of cuttings have been produced throughout all Pacific Planning Areas.'
The effects of drilling muds and cuttings on benthic communities were
studied on Tanner Bank off southern California by ECOMAR (1978) and in
State waters off California by Nekton, Inc. (1984). No significant
harmful effects were attributed to the drilling discharges from these
exploratory.operations. To the present, no studies have been
conducted that have monitored the long-term effects of muds and
cuttings discharges from development and production facilities,
although a long-term monitoring program, funded by MMS, is currently
being conducted in the Santa Maria Basin that will address long-term
effects.

The field studies to date have shown that impacts are temporary and
localized, and no significant long-term adverse effects on lower
trophic organisms by the discharge of muds and cuttings have been
identified. Long-term studies are in progress, and new information
will be added to subsequent reports as it becomes available.
(2) Effects of Discharge of Produced Formation Water
No field studies in the Pacific Region have been cond-ucted on effects
of formation water discharges on marine organisms. One field study in
the Gulf of Mexico investigated the environmental effects of produced
formation water discharges in the Buccaneer Field. This study showed
that produced water discharges exert chronic effects on benthic
organisms near production platforms (Middleditch, 1981). The
generally elevated levels of hydrocarbons and other chemicals in
sediments over wide areas in the GOM hamper efforts to delineate the
actual areal extent of such effects (EPA, 1985). Middleditch (1984),
in an assessment of the ecological effects of produced water
discharges from offshore oil and gas platforms, concluded that any
effects would probably be minor and limited to a small area.
In conclusion, although water column and benthic organisms in areas
surrounding production platforms have been impacted negatively by
discharged produced formation water, the areal extent of such impacts
is localized and minimized by dilution and mixing in the offshore
environment. No significant cumulative effects have been identified.

V-40

Long-term studies are in progress and new information will be added to
subsequent: reports as it becomes available.

(3) Effects of Pigeline Construction
No specific studies have been conducted in the Pacific Region to
quantify the impacts of pipeline construction,on lower trophic
organisms. However, this issue is addressed in every development EIS
where Pipelines are a part of the development plan. In the Pacific
Region, pipelines are not buried due to the greater susceptibility of
buried pipelines to potential damage from earthquakes. This factor
limits the amount of sediment disruption resulting from pipeline
construction activities, thus limiting the mechanical damage to the
benthos and turbidity effects in the water column. In the Pacific
Region, the total length of all pipelines (offshore) attributed to OCS
development is 164 mi as of December 1986. No toxic materials are
involved in pipeline construction, and the burial and turbidity
impacts are limited in extent. Localized impacts to hard (rocky)
substrate habitats and communities occurred due to pipeline anchoring
activities, associated with Platform Harvest.

In conclusion, localized impacts on lower trophic organisms have
resulted from pipeline construction. No significant cumulative
effects have been identified, however.

(4) Effects of Oil Spills

Between 19,63 and 1986, over 601 development wells and over 317
exploratory wells were drilled on the Pacific OCS. The only major
spill attributable to OCS development in the Pacific Region is the
blowout of' Platform A in the Santa Barbara Channel in 1969. The
effects of' this spill on the various trophic levels and habitats of
the Santa Barbara Channel were studied intensively, and the results of
the studies were compiled by Straughan (1971). There was no
conclusive evidence of any major effect caused by the Santa Barbara
spill on the phytoplankton. Oil dispersants used in cleanup were
shown to reduce phytoplankton's productivity. The recovery period
from this effect depended on the currents and rate of dilution, as
well as on the type and quantity of dispersants used (Oguri and ,
Kanter, 1971). The study of the oil-spill effects on zooplankton was
hampered by the lack of prespill comparative data. Consequently, no
effect of the spill on the zooplankton was demonstrated or refuted.
Inference from the phytoplankton study indicated that the zooplankton
would not have suffered a major decline in population or species
diversity (McGinnis, 1971).
An attempt was made to determine effects of the spill on benthic
invertebrates through comparison of postspill samples with results
from the earlier "State Study" conducted by the Allen Hancock
Foundation. A marked decline in benthic standing crop was observed,
especially in the echiurid worm Listriolobis pelodes, which forms
dense beds on the seafloor only off the Santa Barbara coast. This

V-41

decline, however, was not attributed directly to the spilled oil.
Fauchald (1971) proposed several causes for the differences observed
in benthic standing crop. These included heavy rainfall in the winter
of 1969, drilling on the L. pelodes beds, the spilled oil, and an
increase of sewage discharge. No significant effects on sandy beach
intertidal invertebrates were attributed to the oil spill.

Trask (1971) concluded that variations in intertidal fauna were
correlated more with natural removal and deposition of sand than with
the amount of oil in the sand. Instances of smothering of rocky
intertidal invertebrate species were observed on mainland and island
shores. Since no predisturbance data were available, it was not
possible to estimate the extent of damage accurately (Nicholson and
Cimberg, 1971). Although quantitative studies were not conducted,
observations of the rocky intertidal species 2 years after the spill
indicated that communities had returned to "normal" conditions.

In conclusion, although temporary and localized impacts have occurred,
no cumulative effects related to OCS activities on the Pacific OCS
have been identified for lower trophic organisms.

b. Fish Resources

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying

This topic is discussed below under Commercial Fishing. There is some
preliminary indication that seismic surveys may affect the integrity
of rockfish aggregations reducing the catch-per-unit effort (see
Chapter V, Section D.3.c). This possible effect is being further
studied. The MMS is currently participating in a study, together with
the fishing, oil, and seismic industries, and other Federal and State
agencies, to determine the effects of airgun sounds on eggs and larvae
of the northern anchovy. This study is being funded by the American
Petroleum Institute and the State of California. Results of this
study are not yet available. Also, a Dungeness crab study is now
underway under the direction of the California Department of Fish and
Game. Larvae have been exposed to an airgun array under field
conditions in Puget Sound. Funding for this study is not all from the
OCS program. Other contributors are the Federal Government of Canada,
the province of British Columbia, the Western Oil and Gas Association,
the State of California (major source), the National Coastal Resources
Institute, and individual oil companies. Actual significant change to
the resource has not been identified.

(2) Effects of Discharge of Muds and Cuttings

Since 1963, an estimated 2.9 million bbl of muds and 1.4 million bbl
of cuttings have been generated by drilling in the Pacific Region.
Extensive research has been conducted on the effects of drilling muds
and cuttings. The NRC (1983) concluded that "based on laboratory and
field studies to date, most water-based drilling fluids . . . have low
acute and chronic toxicities to marine organisms." There is no

V-42

indication that fish resources have incurred significant adverse
effects from the discharge of drilling muds and cuttings in the
Pacific Region.

(3) Effects of Discharge of Produced Formation Water

An estimated 105 million bbl of formation water have been discharged
to date from OCS activities in the Pacific Region. Gallaway (1981)
conducted studies, offshore Texas in the Buccaneer Gas and Oil Field
between 1976 and 1980, of the chemical nature and environmental
effects of produced water discharge. He concluded that produced
waters were only slightly toxic and that direct effects occur only in
the area within a few meters of the discharge. Given the rapid
dilution of the produced water and similarity in composition to normal
marine waters, the effects of the discharge of formation water would
be expected to be limited. No significant cumulative effects to
fisheries resources have been documented.

(4) Effects of Oil Spills
One major spill occurred in the Pacific Region in the Santa Barbara
Channel in 1969. It has been estimated that a total of 10,000-70,000
bbl of oil were lost from the initial blowout and subsequent seepage
(see table IM). No effects on fish populations were noted by the
California Department of Fish and Game. A temporary reduction in fish
catches after February 1969 was due more to the difficulties
associated with fishing in oily water than to oil-related fish kills
(Straughan, 1971). Ebeling et al. (1971) also found no noticeable
effects on fish in the Santa Barbara Channel after the spill. The NAS
(1985) concluded that "a direct impact on fishery stocks has not been
observed." No significant damage to fisheries resources has been
documented in the Pacific Region.

c. Endangered or Threatened Species

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying
The effects of seismic surveying are discussed in detail above in
Chapter IV, Section E. Gray whales and possibly humpback whales'are
sometimes present in offshore California. Studies funded by MMS
(Malme et al., 1984) found that there was a likelihood that migrating
gray whales would deflect their swimming paths if within 2.5 km of an
operating airgun array. There has been no known significant effect on
essential whale activities such as migration, mating, and feeding.
Observations of sea otters during the above experiment demonstrated no
observable response.
In conclusion, temporary shifts in swimming paths of gray whales have
been observed; no significant cumulative effects, however, have been
identified.

V-43

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

Studies funded by the MMS (Malme et al., 1984) found that migrating
gray whales deflected their course in the presence of the research
vessel and in response to low-flying-helicopter noise. There have
been no reported collisions (i.e. physical contact) between marine
support vessels and any threatened or endangered species in this
Region (Dana Seagers, NMFS, personal communication).

Helicopters will cause brown pelicans and California least terns to
disperse temporarily from their roosts if the helicopter path passed
low over them. This disturbance is temporary, and the birds typically
return to their original spot once the disturbance has passed. There
is some speculation that repeated disturbances will cause the birds to
abandon a favored roost, but this has not been documented.

In conclusion, temporary and localized disturbances have occurred; no
significant cumulative effects, however, have been identified.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

Brownell (1971) provides a discussion about seven whales and four
dolphins that were reported dead on California beaches after the start
of the Santa Barbara oil spill. Although newspaper reports speculated
that the above whales had died as a result of the spill, Brownell was
unable to find evidence to support these conclusions. Although oil
was found in one of the dead whales' mouth and on the baleen plates,
none was found in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.
Brownell concluded that the amount of oil on this whale could be
considered normal for a dead animal that floated at sea for some time
before stranding. Based on a review of available information
(including an analysis of tissues from other stranded whales and
dolphins that was unable to detect the presence of crude oil) and a
review of historic records, Brownell concluded that the number of gray
whale strandings in 1969 did not differ significantly from that of
previous years. This conclusion is significant since the entire
northward migration of gray whales passed through (or westward around)
the Santa Barbara Channel while it was contaminated in 1969.

Brown pelicans were among birds killed by the 1969 Santa Barbara
spill, and the Point Reyes Bird Observatory reported in 1985 two
pelican deaths associated with the January 1984 Puerto Rican oil spill
(not OCS related). No OCS oil-spill-related mortality has been
documented for peregrine falcons or California least terns. Neither
are any Guadalupe fur seals known to have been oiled.

In conclusion, significant impacts to endangered and threatened
species from oil spills have not been identified.

V44

d. Marine Mammals

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying

Potential impacts of seismic surveying are discussed in Chapter IV,
Section E. No damage to marine mammals has been documented.

(2) Effects of Support Vessel Traffic

There have been no reported collisions (i.e. physical contact) between
marine support vessel traffic and any marine mammals in this Region
(Dana Seagers, NMFS, personal communication). Marine mammals
(primarily the California sea lion) are frequently observed hauling
out on mooring buoys off platforms. These animals do not appear to be
disturbed by aircraft or vessel traffic to and from the platform.
Comparably, harbor seals that customarily haul out at the base of a
pier used by support vessels in Carpenteria have apparently habituated
to crew boat and support vessel activity, although they now haul out
primarily at night.

In conclusion, there are no significant cumulative impacts to marine
mammals from support vessel traffic.

(3) Effects of Oil Spills

The potential impacts from oil spills are discussed in Chapter IV,
Section B. Over 100 elephant seal pups were coated with oil, sand,
and detritus when crude oil from the Santa Barbara oil spill washed up
.on a rookery at San Miguel Island (Le Boeuf, 1971). In a review of
the effects of the spill on this species, Dr. Le Boeuf reported that
few sick animals were noticed by other investigators (Simpson and
Gilmartin), and no petroleum was detected in either the tissue of two
dead seals examined (one of which was not coated with external oil) or
the blood taken from live animals. Given that 90 percent of the pups
had been weaned prior to the spill and were no longer suckling, Dr. Le
Boeuf ascertained that most of the animals were unlikely to have
i.ngested oil. Based on his own observations, which included the
tagging of 58 weaned pups and 5 yearlings which had at least 75
percent of their bodies coated with oil, Dr. Le Boeuf concluded that
. . . the crude oil which coated many weaned elephant seals at San
Miguel in March and April 1969, had no significant immediate nor
long-term (1-15 months later) deleterious effect on their health."

Three dead sea lions were also reported by the California D epartment
of Fish and Game following the Santa Barbara spill (Brownell and Le
Boeuf, 1971). No autopsies were performed, and no attempt was made to
link these deaths with the crude oil spill.

The MMS is not aware of other reports of injuries or mortalities to
marine mammals as a result of OCS oil and gas activities.

V-45

e. Coastal and Marine Birds

The coastline of California contains a large and varied population of
marine and coastal birds. There are about 30 significant species
whose population varies as a result of migrations, nesting events, and
appearance of winter and summer residents.

A detrimental impact to marine and coastal birds would occur if
contact is made with oil. Direct contact with oil could result in
matting of plumage, that can reduce flying and swimming abilities;
loss of buoyancy, which can cause exhaustion resulting in drowning;
loss of insulation, which can cause loss of body heat; and increased
physiological stresses and reproductive failures due to ingestion or
accumulation of toxic petroleum hydrocarbons (Hunt, 1985; Nero and
Associates, 1983; and Clark, 1984). Long-term or sublethal effects of
oil include delayed and depressed egg laying, reduced hatching, and
reduced growth rate due to poor nutrient uptake (Hunt, 1985).

There has been only one "actual" (or documented) impact to birds from
oil spills in the Pacific Region that is directly attributed to OCS
activities--the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill. During this spill, a
total of 3,686 birds were recovered dead due to oiling. There were no
estimates made of the birds that may have perished on the open water
and failed to drift ashore, although their number was probably high.
Most of the dead birds recovered were loons and grebes. Cormorants
and pelicans were the second most common found dead. Shorebirds
appeared to be the least affected by the spilled oil.

Principal investigations pertaining to the impacts on birds from the
Santa Barbara oil spill include the following: Drinkwater, Leonard,
and Black (1971), Santa Barbara's Oiled Birds, Biological and
Oceanographical Survey of the Santa Barbara Channel Oil Spill 1969-
1970; and Straughan (1971), Oil Pollution and Sea Birds, Biological
and Oceanographical Survey of the Santa Barbara Channel Oil Spill
1969-1970.

Surveys conducted following this single large spill in 1969 (Santa
Barbara) indicated that bird numbers in the affected area remained
relatively stable despite the oil spill. Most birds found during
these postspill surveys appeared to avoid oil-contaminated areas and
were found either in flight, on the shoreline, or resting in open
spaces of water that appeared to be free of all oil.

In conclusion, temporary impacts to marine and coastal birds have
occurred as a result of oil spills. However, no significant
cumulative effects are apparent.

V-46

3. Socioeconomic Environment

a. Employment and Demographic Conditions

The Central and Northern California and Washington-Oregon Planning
Areas experienced limited exploration in the 1960's. There were 12
exploratory wells drilled off central California, 7 off northern
California, and 12 off Washington-Oregon. To support exploration,
very few workers are needed onshore, so exploration activities have
had minimal effect on local employment or demographic conditions.
There are no cumulative effects on employment and demographic
conditions from these activities at this time.

The southern California area is a producing region. The MMS funded a
study by Centaur Associates on the Cumulative Socioeconomic Impacts of
Oil and Gas Development in the Santa Barbara Channel Region: A Case
Study. This study (Centaur, 1984) concluded that from 1960 to 1983
Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties underwent significant economic and
demographic growth. "Oil and gas development played a relatively
small role in that growth, and, in the absence of oil and gas
development, the growth in the two counties would have been very
similar. Federal oil and gas activity was shown to have a slightly
greater impact than State oil and gas activity, although neither can
be construed as a dominant force in the development of Santa Barbara
and Ventura counties" (p. 19). Thus, there are limited positive
cumulative effects on local employment in the Southern California
Planning Areas.

To ensure that demographic effects do not stress the local
infrastructure, the counties of Santa Barbara, Ventura, and San Luis
Obispo have joined together in the development and application of a
socioeconomic monitoring and mitigation program. Applicants for
permits for major oil and gas and pipeline projects are required to
participate in this program. The intent of the program is to verify
the information and impacts identified in the Environmental Impact
Report/EIS process and to monitor them over time. Through this
process, the counties visualize being able to require compensation
needed to offset potential adverse impacts on the local economy as
they occur.

In summary, MMS studies indicate that actual cumulative impacts on the
local economy are minimal and positive. Additional monitoring as a.
part of the local permitting process continues to refine this
information.

b. Coastal Land Uses

Although there was limited exploration in the Central and Northern
California and Washington-Oregon Planning Areas during the 1960's,
there is no offshore activity in those areas at this time. There are
no cumulative effects on coastal land use in these planning areas from
OCS activities.

V-47

The Southern California Planning Area is a producing region, and many
OCS facilities are sited there. These facilities include supply
bases, pipelines, marine terminals, and oil and gas processing plants.
Kaiser Steel operates two platform fabrication facilities in Napa and
Fontana and two assembly yards in Oakland and Vallejo for platforms
used offshore southern California. All facilities that are
constructed,onshore to support or process offshore production must
comply with Federal, State, and local regulations, land-use plans,
policies, and controls in order to obtain approvals. Therefore, these
facilities comply with numerous requirements designed to mitigate
significant environmental impacts. Where impacts cannot be directly
mitigated, the local jurisdiction has required offset measures, such-
as t'he purchase of comparable lands for parks and recreational use.
Thus, no adverse cumulative impacts on coastal land use from OCS
:activities in the Pacific Region have occurred to date.

c. Commercial Fisheries

(1) Effects of Seismic Surveying
Early accounts from commercial fishermen had indicated that acoustic
signals produced by actively working geophysical vessels elicit a
fr@ight response in some commerical fish species causing them to
disperse and, thus, reduce their catches. A preliminary study on this
issue performed by Greeneridge Sciences, Inc. (1985), suggested that
acoustic seismic surveys may affect the degree of aggregation of
rockfishes (Scorpaenidae) and the catch per unit effort (CPUE) for the
fishery. A more recent study by Battelle and BBN (1987) demonstrated
that both the CPUE and catch value of rockfish harvested by hook and
line were substantially reduced in an area (about 50 percent) by the
acoustic signals from a single seismic airgun. Generally, behavioral
observations indicated that rockfish species did not exhibit a startle
response at sound levels below 200 dB relative to 1 micropascal at I m
and did not exhibit an alarm response below 180 dB (relative to
I micropascal at 1 m). However, rockfish reactions to airgun noises
varied appreciably with species. For some species, such as olive and
black rockfish, the startle response (a protective mechanism and not
necessarily negative) was at a sound level between 200 and 250 dB
relative to 1 micropascal at 1 m. However, no startle'response was
indicated for the vermillion rockfish at the highest sound level
tested (207 dB relative to I micropascil at 1 m). For those species
that did demonstrate a startle or alarm response, the individuals
returned to their pre-sound behavioral patterns within minutes after
the noise was terminated. The authors of the study suggested that
some subtle changes in behavior may become evident at about 161 dB
relative to 1 micropascal at I m, but that the observations provided
evidence that rockfish may become habituated to the sound and
demonstrate no further response. Field experiments (Battelle and BBN,
1987) demonstrated that the harvest of rockfish by hook and line
decreased to approximately 50 percent of control levels during airgun
operations. The fish, however, were exposed to levels not experienced
(relative to length in time of exposure) during actual seismic

V-48

operations, and the recovery time was not evaluated. Based on the
available evidence, the number of fish in the area near seismic
operations could be reduced. This reduction would be most evident if
a number of vessels are concentrated in a relatively small area.
However, the effects, in addition to being proximate to the operation,
should be short-term and not affect the regional commercial fishery.

One specific claim from 1984 through 1986 has been submitted to the
Fisherman"s Contingency Fund in this region for damage to fishing gear
as a result of seismic activities. This resulted in a payment of
$9,000 to the commercial fisherman. Additional claims for gear
damaged by seismic activities have been submitted directly to
industry. However, because MMS was not involved, no documented
records indicating the extent of the claims are available.

In conclusion, some local and short-term effects but no significant
long-term impacts on commercial fisheries have been identified as a
result of seismic activities.

(2) Effects of Platform and Rig Emglacement and
Removal

One offshore storage and treatment facility and 20 operational OCS
platforms are currently (as of December 31, 1986) in place in the
Pacific Region. Each platform is estimated to exclude fishing
(primaril, trawls) from approximately 1 Mi2 surrounding the platform.
However, individual fisherman may increase this area by fishing
farther away and adding an additional safety buffer. The actual
amount of precluded area may be higher for some types of fishing such
as drift gill nets and less for others such as hook and line. The
following table estimates the total area lost to commercial fishing
based upon the areal exclusion of existing platforms and fishery
techniques.

AREA (SQUARE MILES) LOST
SPECIES TO COMMERICAL FISHING

Halibut 9
Ridgeback shrimp 9
Spot prawn/rockfish 2
Rockfish 3
Operations involved in installation or removal of platforms 2 may
exclude fishermen from a relatively larger area (about 3 mi ).
However, -these operations are of short duration (approximately 3 to
6 months) and not expected to substantially increase long-term
cumulative impacts to commercial fisheries.

In some areas, if platforms are located closely together, the area of
spatial exclusion may be greater than the sum of the area excluded by
each individual platform. This is especially true if there are
gathering lines interconnecting the platforms. Under this scenario,

V-49

the-trawl fishery loses the capability of fishing between the
platforms outside of the individual buffer zones. In addition, the
existence of debris from oil and gas operations may exclude additional
space or increase the operational hazards of the trawl fishery
Current assertions by commercial fishermen suggest that consid@rable
areas in the Santa Barbara Channel have been excluded from historical
trawl grounds because of platforms, pipelines, and debris. The area
with the highest'density of platform and pipelines occurs within the
eastern Santa Barbara Channel in an area of commercial trawling for
shrimp and halibut. Currently, there are no estimates available for
the economic loss to fishermen because of spatial exclusion.

Information on the potential beneficial aspects of platforms on
commercial or recreational fishing is limited. A recent study by MBC
(1987) indicated that some platforms are used by recreational
fishermen and'sport divers. In addition, ECOMAR Inc. has, since 1980,
harvested approximately 800 tons of mussels for the restaurant and
wholesale trade from six OCS platforms.

In conclusion, limited local impacts on commercial fisheries have
occurred in this Region as a result of platform and rig emplacement.

(3) Effects of Offshore Use Conflicts

There have been several claims filed by commercial fishermen under
Title IV of the OCSLA and Amendments. The Fishirmen's Contingency
Fund has reimbursed fishermen for gear and vessel damage as a result
of oil and gas industry activities in this Region for the following
amounts:

YEAR_CEYj NUMBER OF CLAIMS DOLLAR AMOUNT

1984 11 31,255
1985 4 8,258
1986 3 20,135

Information on damage before 1984 is not available.
Centaur Associates (1981) conducted an extensive assessment of
space-use conflicts between the fishing and oil and gas industries.
.The authors indicated that the impacts, although typically localized
and limited, included exclusion from fishing areas, vessel and gear
damage, and short- and long-term effects on fish stocks.
Based on spatial exclusion from known fishing areas, limited
insignificant cumulative impacts have occurred on the commercial
fishing industry.

(4) Effects of Pipeline Construction
Problems have been documented for the Grace-to-Hope and the Hillhouse-
to-Henry pipelines. The Grace-to-Hope pipeline was installed in 1980.

V-50

The pipelines are approximately 11.5 mi in length, and the
construction and anchoring corridor was approximately I mi wide.
Anchor scars and mud mounds were created by the lay barge along much
of the construction corridor. Soon after construction, trawl
fishermen complained they could not use the area for halibut and
ridgeback shrimp trawling due to mudding of their gear. In 1983,
experimental trawling indicated the area was passable by trawl gear.
Although no official estimates have been made, it appears that, in the
worst case, approximately 11-12 Mi2 were excluded from use by trawlers
(halibut and shrimp) for nearly 3 years. The loss of resource, in
poundage and value, from this incident is unknown (Centaur Assoc.,
1984b).

The Hillhouse-to-Henry pipeline was constructed in 1979-1980. The
existing pipeline is 2.5 mi in length. After its installation, trawl
fishermen (halibut/shrimp) complained of hanging their gear on the
wooden spacers used in construction. These spacers were located at
110-foot intervals along the entire pipeline length. An annual
inspection of the line in August 1982 indicated that wooden spacers
had disintegrated and that obstructions no longer existed. Although
there is no official estimate, in the worst case, approximately I-
2 Mi2 were excluded from trawl fishing for up to 2 years.
A number of MMS studies have examined the potential impacts of oil and
gas industry activities on commercial fishing (Centaur Assoc., 1981,
1983, 1984a, 1984b, 1985; E. R. Combs Inc., 1981, 1982; University of
Alaska, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c). It was estimated that spatial loss from
pipelines could be up to 0.5 Mi2 per mile of pipeline (Centaur Assoc.,
1984b). The Pacific Regional Office reports that there are currently
about 65 mi of pipeline right-of-way corridors occupied by oil, gas,
or produced water pipelines. Spatial preclusion from construction is
only temporary.
In conclusion, temporary impacts but no significant long-term
cumulative impacts to commercial fishing from pipeline construction
have.been documented in this Region.

(5) Effects of Oil Spills
A major oil spill occurred in this region in 1969 in the Santa Barbara
Channel. Reductions in fish catch were reported after the spill by
fishermen. However, Straughn (1971) reported that the reduced catches
were probably due to reduced fishing efforts in oil-contaminated
waters rather than to a loss of resource. The spill also interfered
with normal use of Santa Barbara Harbor. No estimate is available for
lost catch or lost fishing access during the Santa Barbara spill.
Long-term catch data for the Santa Barbara area (Straughn, 1971)
suggest that catches were reduced in February and March 1969 just
after the spill, but were higher than the previous 4-year average from
April through July 1969.

V-51

The Santa Barbara spill of 1969 is the only major oil spill resulting
from OCS oil and gas activities. See Chapter IV, B.6, for a
discussion of effects of oil spills on fish and shellfish.

d. Recreation and Tourism

Coastal recreational activities popular in the Pacific include
swimming, scuba diving, windsurfing, sunbathing, beach hiking, clam
digging, boating, fishing, hunting waterfowl, birdwatching, and whale
watching. Participation in all of these activities is high. Major
State and Federal parks, wildlife refuges, and recreation areas cover
large expanses of the coastline and many coastal islands. Tourism is
a major component of local economies, regionally, estimated in
billions of dollars and millions of people.

Potential effects to recreation and tourism may result from activities
that cause visual effects, land-use competition, and oil-spill
impacts. Two studies looked at recreation in the Pacific: (1)
Granville Corp., 1981, Inventory and Evaluation of California Coastal
Recreation and Aesthetic Resources, Pacific OCS Technical Paper No.
81-5.; and (2) Dornbusch and Co., 1987,Impacts of Outer Continental
Shelf (OCS) Development on Recreation and Tourism, 5 vols.

Up to 1986, 20 platforms have been installed within 5 to 15 mi of
the southern California coastline, and several onshore facilities have
been installed in the coastal zone. These platforms (primarily those
within 5 mi of the coast) can be seen from the scenic highways and
have altered the visual environment along the coast. Studies
conducted to date on tourism and recreation have not indicated changes
in usage, however, due to the presence of these platforms.

Oil spills may impact beaches making them unpleasant or unusable.
This results in reduced Pconomic intake for local recreation-oriented
businesses. The loss i.- dsually immediate but does not extend beyond
the removal of the oil (Restrepo, 1982). The Santa Barbara spill has
been estimated to have reduced beach attendance by approximately
774,000 visitor days in the 12 months following the spill at a cost of
$3.15 million. Tourism has not 6-@,-,.rpased in Santa Barbara and Ventura
Counties. Instead, there has been a marked increase in tourism (about
350 percent [Dornbusch 1987; Santa Barbara Chamber of Commerce, 1971])
in this area, which has the most intense offshore oil and gas activity
in the Pacific Region. The only recorded decrease in tourism occurred
during the oil shortage of 1974 and, to a lesser degree, in 1979.

In conclusion, there have been no 1 .,:ernible impacts on recreation
and tourism related to OCS activ-' @s, and no significant cumulative
impacts related to OCS activities Ihave been identified.

V-52

e. -Archaeological Resources
In the effort to minimize impacts to archaeological resources in the
Pacific Region, the MMS (and its predecessors BLM and USGS) funded two
studies:.

1. An Archaeol -ogical Literature Survey and Sensitivity Zone
Mpping of the Southern California Bight, and
2. California Outer Continental Shelf Archaeological Resource
Studi from Morro Bay to the Mexican Border.
These studies attempt, through the use of predictive models, to
identify area; of the OCS where there is a high probability of
archaeologica,' resources. In these areas of high proba@ility, the
lessee is reqidred, through a lease stipulation, to conduct a
lease-specifit archaeological resource survey. These studies are
updated for eich lease sale. The updates include analysis and
synthesis of cata--archaeological, geological and geophysical--
generated sinc@ the preparat-*on of the original study (or the last
update). If' a potential arc@aeological resource is identified, the
operator is re,juired to avoid the resource or conduct additional
studies to detirmine its significance.
To date, 36 arclaeological surveys have been conducted in the Region.
All operators t) date have chosen to avoid the potential resources
identified. Po@t-plots of the anchor locations reviewed by the MMS
confirm that thi, resources are not affected. Therefore, no cumulative
impacts related to OCS activities have been identified.

f. Military Use Areas

The Pacific coas-,al area contains several military use areas. In the
northwest, off Wtshington, Oregon, and northern California, extensive
use of the ocean is made for gunnery practice@ bombing, live firing,
and submarine trinsit lanes. In central California, flight training,
anti-submarine werfare training, and submarine transiting take place
along the coast, the Anchor Bay Military Operating Area being themost
important use area. The key military facilities involved include the
Western Space and Missile Center at Vandenberg Air Force Base, the
Pacific Missile Tast Center at Point Mugu, the Naval Shipboard
Electronic System; Evaluation Facility at Long Beach, the Marine Corps
at Camp Pendleton, Fleet Area Control anJ Surveillance Facility at San
Diego, and naval Facilities on San Clemeite Island and San Nicolas
Island. The water and air spaces are usad for many activities
including live firing aerial gunnery, trailing wire antenna activity,
missile testing, :arrier maneuvers, pilot training, transit lanes,
in-flight refueliig. and submarine testiig and training.
Potential conflicts in military use areas concern interference of
military and comnercial emissions of electromagnetic signals, falling
debris, ship and aircraft traffic, and collisions between rigs or

V-53

vessels. Commercial fishermen and recreational boaters also use these
same areas.

Potential direct conflicts have been mitigated to the satisfaction of
DOD and DOI in the past through cooperation between the lessee and the
appropriate military authority. In certain instances, prelease
stipulations have been attached to leases within military operating
areas. Only very small portions of operating area W-532 and the
Pacific Missile Test Center in southern California actually have
platforms within them which restrict free use in those areas by the
military. In both cases, the area containing oil and gas structures
is a very small portion of the operating areas. In various other *
military areas, only leasing has taken place, but no structures have
been built. In those areas, DOD must always take into account during
planning that areas in which military operations and training have
taken place freely in the past could be restricted by oil and gas
operations.

In conclusion, direct conflicts between DOD and MMS have been
resolved, and only a minor restriction of free use of the OCS by the
military has occurred.

V-54

V1. Perspectives

This chapter attempts toplace in-perspective the environmental
effects of OCS oil and gas activities relative to other activities
that take place on or near the OCS. The magnitudes and volumes of
effects described in Chapter V are merely absolutes that need to be
placed in some context so that the environmental implications of the
effects will be meaningful to the reader.
Too often the documents--EIS's, reports on activities, or public media
stories--related to the OCS Oil and Gas Leasing Program consider the
program in isolation from the rest of the activities that affect the
marine environment. This type of treatment could leave the erroneous
impression that OCS activities are the significant source of stress or
create the most severe stress to the environment. This is rarely the
case, as OCS activities are but one of many uses for the offshore
environment and its resources. Any negative effects of OCS oil and
gas activities must not be ignored or minimized, but it is important
to consider OCS impacts in the context of all the other natural and
human-induced factors that affect the offshore and nearshore
environment. Also, the positive impacts of OCS activities must be
considered.

A. Water Quality

The discharge of drilling fluids and cuttings from OCS oil and gas
operations has been of concern to the interested public and some
environmental and conservation groups for some time.. Both field and
laboratory studies have been conducted which examined the effects of
drilling muds and cuttings discharge from exploratory operations. The
results of these short-term studies showed no detectable acute or
sublethal effects on the environment (NAS, 1983; Neff, 1985).
Research is in progress on the long-term effects of drilling
discharges from developmental programs. This concern has arisen due
to the particulate matter as well as the metallic and chemical
constituents of drilling fluids. The particulate material in drilling
fluids is actually a clay mineral that is mined in various locatibns
around the United States. The clay is processed very little in its
journey -from mine to drilling platform so that, when it is
manufactured into a drilling fluid on the platform, it is still the
same basic, naturally occurring mineral as when it was extracted from
the earth. These minerals also occur in areas which are not mined
and, like all other exposed soils and rocks, are eroded and carried
down rivers and streams to the sea. Thus, the clays that form the
bulk of a drilling fluid discharge are also a component of the normal
outflow from rivers.

It may be instructive to compare the relative masses of drilling fluid
discharges to sediment discharges from rivers. It is estimated that
1.07 million tons of muds and 0.76 million tons of cuttings from OCS
operations are discharged into the GOM annually. By comparison, the

VI-1

Mississippi River discharges about 50 billion tons of sediments per
year. This annual iamount is about 900 times more than the amount GOM
Federal activity has contributed over 30 years. The California OCS
shows a similar situation. Between 1971 and December 1986, about
0.485 x 106 tons of drilling fluids have been discharged into the sea.
The Santa Clara River, located near the City of Ventura in the eastern
Santa Barbara Channel, discharges an estimated 3 x 106 tons of
sediment per year or about six times more sediment per year than the
15-year record of drilling discharges.
The metallic and chemical components of drilling,discharges form a
relatively small portion of the total, except for one or two
additives. One additive that may comprise a significant proportion is
barite or barium sulfate. This is used as a weighting agent which
allows the operator to add weight to the mud mixture without adding
very much volume. This is essential to well control in preventing
blowouts. The only metals of concern are barium and those which may
be termed impurities. Two metals in the impurity category are
regulated by the EPA in their NPDES permits--cadmium and mercury.
Others are innocuous or are of very low concentration and show no
environmental degradation.
There are several other sources of metal input into the ocean from
other human activities which add to the total loading in the
environment.' For example, the use of leaded gasoline creates lead
which eventually arrives in the sea from the atmosphere or from the
general runoff from rains. Also, many nonpoint discharge sources,
such as storm drains, contribute some metals to the oceans. These
sources are difficult or impossible to quantify. However, major
sewage discharges in southern California have been examined for their
metallic contributions to the environment. For example, the major
wastewater discharges in the Santa Barbara Channel added the following
estimated metals in metric tons in 1980: Silver, 0.814; Arsenic,
0.623; Cadmium, 0.575; Chromium, 1.198; Mercury, 0.038; and Lead, 0.53
(A. D. Little, 1985). In contrast, the estimated metric tonnage of
metals discharged from a developmental OCS program (2 platforms,
approximately 120 wells) over a 3- to 4-year drilling program is as
follows: Chromium, 0.044; Cadmium, less than 0.003; Lead, 0.030; and
Mercury, 0.001 (A. D. Little, 1985). The metal loading from just the
quantifiable source, the wastewater treatment plants, is one to two
orders of-magnitude greater than that contributed by a developmental
drilling program in the California OCS.
Barite occurs naturally in the environment. In southern California
coastal areas, it occurs in evaporite outcrops. Evaporites are
mixtures of minerals left from the evaporation of water in enclosed
basins. These form when the concentration of the elements changes as
the water decreases. Since the level of the seas and lakes has risen
and fallen over geologic time, these evaporite outcrops may presently
occur either beneath the surface of the sea or on dry land above sea
level in layered strata that may have since been bent and folded.
This is the case for some evaporite outcrops that exist in the Santa

VI-2

Monica Mountains and in the coastal range around the Santa Barbara
Channel. The total amount of barite discharged from a drilling
program may approach 140 metric tons above ambient levels (A. D.
Little, 1985). However, the concentration of this barite discharge,
once it arrives on the seafloor and is resuspended and moved about by
ocean currents, is less than the barite that is derived from the
erosion and deposition from natural sources.
Another source of concern is the accidental discharge of oil into the
marine environment. In January 1969, a blowout from an OCS platform
in the Santa Barbara Channel offshore California released 10,000 bbl
of heavy crude oil within 10 days. The immediate concern and most
visible impacts were noted for marine and avian fauna that came into
contact with the spill, even though the damage was not as severe as
was predicted. Once the immediate threat was over, concern shifted to
the possible long-term pollution effects of the spill. As noted in
Chapter V, the anticipated, long-term biological effects have not been
observed. The spill prompted a major overhaul of oil-spill
regulations and technologies in an effort to ensure against future
blowouts and other spills. The record strongly suggests that the
effort has succeeded exceptionally well. Since 1970, when the first
major regulatory and technological changes were made, oil and gas
operations on the OCS have spilled little oil, as shown below:

Spill Source SRilled Oil (1971-86)
Blowouts in California 0 bbl
California OCS operations (accidental crude oil spills) 100 bbl
Blowouts in rest of OCS 850 bbl
Continued seepage from 1969 blowout 21,000 bbl
To put these numbers into perspective we offer a comparison with the.
various other sources and amounts of spilled oil during the same
January 1, 1971, to December 31, 1986 period.

VI-3

(1971-1986)
Source of Discharged Oil into U.S. Waters Spilled Oil
California OCS operations (accidental crude oil spills) .100 bbl
OCS blowouts (none in California) 850 bbl

Providence, Rhode Island, motorists changing
crankcase oil and disposing improperly 4,800 bbl
California OCS operations (all causes)* 26,000 bbl

OCS operations throughout the United States
(accidental crude oil spills) 64,000 bbl
Tanker Alvenus (Venezuelan crude) 66,500 bbl
Tankers (crude oil and refined product) 2,000,000 bbl

Los Angeles's Hyperion Wastewater Treatment
Plant (includes oils and greases of various types
and origins) 2,100,000 bbl
Known California natural oil seeps 2,400,000 bbl

13 California wastewater treatment plants
(San Luis Obispo through San Diego) 5,000,000 bbl
Rivers emptying into Gulf of Mexico 25,000,000 bbl
spills; seepage from blowout site since 1969; discharges with
produced water.
Oil spilled from OCS operations was put into perspective in the NAS
volume on Oil in the Sea: Inputs, Fates, and Effects, published in
1985. The NAS concluded that offshore oil and gas production
contributes only 1.5 percent of the petroleum entering the marine
environment. Even taken in isolation, the amount of oil spilled as a
result of OCS activity must be compared to the 7.5 billion bbl of oil
and condensate and 77 trillion ft3 of gas produced from the OCS.

B. Air Ouality

Understanding the MMS air quality program requires some background
into the requirements of the OCSLA. Congress, in drafting the
language of the OCSLA, recognized that the emissions from the OCS
sources should be considered differently from onshore emissions as
regulated under the CAA. The reason for this difference is that the
public may be immediately exposed to emissions from onshore sources of
air pollution. Because of this, the CAA requires that emissions be
measured and controlled at their source.

VL-4

The OCSLA, however, recognizes that the public is not immediately
exposed to emissions from platforms located at least 3 mi offshore
and, in some cases, over 100 mi from shore. Because of this, OCSLA
requires that the MMS consider the impact OCS air emissions have on
onshore air quality. This regulatory approach acknowledges the
natural dilution of pollutants as they move downwind of their source.
Accordingly, for facilities whose projected emissions exceed a certain
threshold value (dependent upon distance from shore), MMS requires air
quality modeling to determine whether the facility would significantly
affect onshore air quality. If the facility is predicted to
significantly affect onshore air quality, emission controls are
required.

Air quality is of particular concern in southern California because of
the special meteorological conditions encountered there and problems
the onshore areas are experiencing in attaining the NAAQS. Attention
has been focused on the offshore oil and gas industry for this problem
because OCS emissions programs are administered separate and apart
from the onshore air quality programs. The evidence does not support
contentions that OCS activities are causing significant air quality
problems onshore.

In 1986, the DOI, EPA, and California Air Resources Board completed an
extensive joint air quality modeling study of the effects of present
and future OCS emissions on ozone levels in Santa Barbara and Ventura
Counties (ozone being the critical air quality issue in southern
California). For the days (selected for anticipated high impacts)
that air quality was modeled, the study found that the OCS sources did
not contribute to a violation of State or Federal air quality
standards for ozone. At most, OCS emissions increased onshore ozone
levels by 10 percent of the national standard in only one area.
Despite this, that area's ozone level still was below both the State
and Federal standards. Modeling results for inert pollutants are
similar, indicating that OCS emissions of these pollutants do not
exceed the significance levels established in MMS regulations.

C. Marine Mammals and Endangered Turtles
The potential effect of oil and gas operations on marine mammals is a
public concern. This topic must be addressed in great detail in EIS's
and frequently is the most heavily reviewed portion of the document.
The effects addressed are theoretical because no actual severe impacts
from oil and gas operations have yet been noted.
The offshore oil and gas industry is heavily regulated and carefully
watched in terms of its possible effects on marine mammals. If
endangered or threatened species migrate into an area of oil and gas
operations, those operations may have to be shut down. Also, in some
cases (e.g., in Alaska, during whale migrations) operations are
carefully monitored during certain seasons when the mammals are
present in the area.

VI-5

Marine mammals and endangered turtles are required to be treated with
far more sensitivity by the oil and gas industry than by traditional
maritime interests. Tuna fishermen, particularly those fishing under
foreign flags, inadvertently, yet, routinely net and destroy great
numbers of porpoise in order to capture the tuna that are usually in
the vicinity. Marine mammals such as seals or sea otters are
considered unwanted compeditors by some. fishermen who sometimes
retaliate. Whale watching vessels routinely cruise among whale pods
for the pleasure of the tourists on board. Vessels associated with
oil and gas operations, on the other hand, may actually be required to
avoid the vicinity of the animals or to even stop their engines if
whales are visible.
Fishermen inadvertently catch marine turtles in their nets where they
frequently drown. Efforts to enforce the use of turtle excluder
:devices by fishermen have met with stiff resistance. In contrast, the
@OCS oil and gas industry has been required by the MMS to drastically
altered how it removes old platforms to protect endangered turtles,
.fish, and marine mammals.
On the whole, the oil and gas industry is required to exercise far
m'ore care to prevent potential harm to marine mammals than other
industries using the Nation's coastal waters. Most of the harm
suffered by marine mammals and endangered turtles has come from
industries or activities other.than OCS oil and gas operations.

D. Birds
Following the Santa Barbara oil spill in 1969, slightly over 3,600
birds were recovered dead due to oiling. Undoubtedly, more birds
perished on the open water and failed to drift onshore. This is the
only documented incident of bird mortality directly related to OCS oil
and gas activities. Improved oil development technologies over the
last 17 years have substantially lessened the probability of an oil
spill from offshore activities. The oil and gas industry has funded
bird recovery programs, altered vessel and aircraft traffic, and
supported bird deoiling stations. As a comparison Heinonen (1985)
reports that fishermen's gill nets capture and drown 500,000 sea birds
each year.

E. Fish
Some commercial fishermen, especially in California, have objected to
the OCS Oil and Gas Program stating that OCS activities disperse fish,
making them more difficult to catch, and preclude fishing in the area
occupied by platforms and pipelines. These minor impacts should be
compared with the impacts of present commercial fishing practices on
fish resources.
As a result of fishing efforts, mortality of young and/or less
desirable species occurs in some U.S. fisheries. This problem is most
evident in those fisheries that rely on a bottom-tended methods

VI-76

(trawl, gill net, etc.) for harvesting the catch. However, other
methods, such as longlines, are also known to capture undersized
targeted individuals or individuals of a species that is not
economically marketable. In the trawl fisheries for the most common
species of groundfish (cod, haddock, hake, flounder, pollock, etc.),
this additional mortality is referred to as "by-catch" and contributes
to the incidental or discard mortality on a fishery stock.
Essentially, when a trawl is fished for a particular species or group
of species, much of the catch is comprised of undesirable, undersized,
or low-ma.rket-value species. In most instances, the undesirable and
low-market-value species are discarded overboard because the fisherman
is unable to market the fish or prefers to save space for more
economic species. Likewise, the smaller individuals for more
economically valuable species are discarded either because of U.S.
fishery management regulations, which prohibit their possession, or
because of an implicit size of acceptability imposed by the fish
processing industry. Regardless of the reason, the by-catch of these
species or individuals contributes to the total mortality on the
species stocks.

Although some of the more rugged species--such as the mollusks and
crustaceans--may survive the culling process, nearly all of the
commercially important finfish species do not. Much of their
mortality can be attributed to net trauma and the culling process used
when fish are landed. In general, the combination of all the factors
in capturing, boarding, and culling these individuals contributes to
the high mortality rate of discarded by-catch.
It is likely that the by-catch or discard mortalities are responsible
for the decline in some fish stocks. In the northeastern United
States, many of the skate stocks have declined concurrent with the
increased fishery effort for economically important groundfish.
Although -these species are designated as underutilized and are not
considered an economic species, skate inhabit the same locations as
cod, haddock, and flounder, which are heavily fished by the
northeastern trawl fisheries. An appreciable number of skates are
typically captured with each trawling effort.
It has been estimated that 300,000 metric tons of by-catch result from
shrimp trawling annually in the GOM (Gulf Coast Research Laboratory,
Ocean Springs, Miss), whereas, the average annual shrimp catch in the
GOM for the years 1981 through 1985 has been approximately 108,423
metric tons (NMFS, 1987). Much of this by-catch is dumped back into
the sea, although injured or dead. First year individuals of
estuarine-dependent species, such as croaker and spot, make up the
larger portion of the by-catch; their populations are severely
impacted by trawling activities. Juvenile reef fish, such as groupers
and snappers, make up a smaller portion of the by-catch but are also
severely impacted.

VI-7

In summary, the by-catch or discard mortality inherent in the fishing
industry is considered to be a serious problem and continues to affect
the level of fish stocks for many of the most important fish species
in the United States.

F. Bottom Disturbance

Each drillship, exploration rig, and platform placed on the OCS
disturbs some of the bottom directly beneath the structure and around
it where anchors are set to hold the vessel or structure in place.
There is always a danger that archaeological resources, such as
historic shipwrecks, may be damaged or that the anchoring or structure
placement will damage a biologically important community located on
the sea bottom. In order to prevent such occurrences, each major oil
and gas operation, including the placement of pipelines, must/be
preceded by a bottom survey designed to locate resources requiring
protection. Oil and gas operators are required to avoid any such
resources. This precaution, can be contrasted with the totally
uncontrolled anchoring practiced by thousands of ocean-going, fishing
and recreational vessels. Unless an area has been declared a national
marine sanctuary, any vessel\is free to anchor in almost any part of
U.S. coastal waters. The oniy vessels subject to control for the
protection of environmental ar' those engaged in oil and gas
elas are
operations. As an example, v sels engaged in oil and gas operations
around the Flower Garden Banks \of the western GOM are not allowed to
anchor on the coral encrusted tops of the banks. The coral
communities are monitored by MMS regularly to make sure that nearby
oil and gas operations are not affecting them. Much of man's
knowledge of the kinds of organisms found on that bank resulted from
research funded by MMS. Up until now, the only damage that has been
discovered has been serious damage ca@sed by anchor chains and anchors
from cargo and fishing vessels. In another instance, treasure hunters
destroyed large portions of another bank by dynamiting the coral under
the mistaken impression that a treasure vessel had been encrusted and
buried on the bank.

Although much attention is focused on protection of biological
communities on the sea bottom from oil and gas activities, far more
damage to bottom communities is caused by active fishing vessels that
employ bottom trawls, clam dredges, etc.

G. Beach Debris

In recent years, much attention has been paid to the amount of manmade
material found floating in the world's oceans and coming ashore--
particularly plastics. This has become a serious problem along the
beaches of the GOM, especially along the Texas coast. The DOI
recognizes that, with the large number of persons performing
day-to-day work and support functions on OCS oil and gas leases in the
Gulf, material will be lost accidentally or in emergency or storm
situations. Some material may be intentionally but illegally disposed
of overboard. Several years ago, studies in the Gulf suggested that

VI--8

the offshore oil and gas industry might be responsible for as much as
one-third of the debris that accumulated on Texas beaches. Padre
Island National Seashore on the south Texas coast was particularly
hard hit with assorted debris. Recent evidence however, indicates
that the situation is improving. Mr. Tony Amos, a Research Associate
at the University of Texas Marine Science Institute at Port Aransas,
has been regularly surveying the beach at Mustang Island, Texas, for
over 10 years. He has noted that items associated with offshore oil
and gas industry have definitely declined in the last year or two
(MMS, 1988, 88-0035, page 44).

In response to this problem, several groups have taken action to stem
the tide of marine debris in the Gulf. That group includes the Texas
General Land Office (TGLO) and the Center for Environmental Education,
who together have organized successful voluntary beach cleanups and
public awareness programs. In addition, the MMS has established and
is chairing the Take Pride Gulf-Wide Task Force. This consortium of
Federal, State, industry, and environmental organizations is dedicated
to finding ways to curtail marine debris at its source and is
emphasizing a voluntary, educational campaign to bring about change.
With the encouragement of MMS, the Offshore Operators Committee (OOC),
representing the offshore oil and gas industry, produced a videotape
illustrating the debris problem and the situations to which the
industry may be contributing. It has been distributed to and widely
used among OCC member companies as a training aid. The MMS has
written to over 100 geophysical companies who do business in the Gulf,
advised them of the debris problem, and asked for their support in
reducing the incidence of marine debris, including observance of a
11 nothing overboard" policy. The MMS GOM regional office has also
if adopted" it 1.3-mile stretch of beach in LaFourche parish, Louisiana,
and turned out 160 employees, family, and friends for a cleanup of
that beach on September 19, 1987. The oil and gas industry has
supported and participated in such cleanup efforts in Texas and
Louisiana and appears ready to do even more. These efforts reinforce
MMS regulations which require that the oil and gas industry refrain
from discharging nonpermitted materials into the ocean and requl're
that equipment and tools be indelibly marked with company
identification so that lost items can be traced to their source.

The expected implementation of Annex V of an international treaty
(MARPOL) would ban the dumping of plastics into the ocean and has the
potential to significantly reduce marine debris. To be effective, all
industries and users of the Gulf must change their waste disposal
practices including some that rest on centuries of tradition. The
U.S. ports will have to be prepared to handle volumes of trash that
will no longer be disposed of in the ocean; significant logistical,
economic, and enforcement questions will have to be resolved.

An October 1987 report submitted by the TGLO to the U.S. delegation to
the International Maritime Organization estimates that only 10-15
percent of the beach debris comes from offshore oil and gas operations
(both State and Federal). It further indicates that the combined

VI-9

efforts of the TGLO, MMS, and the offshore operators are rapidly
reducing that percentage.

The MMS will continue to work with the offshore oil and gas industry
operating in Federal waters to further its marine debris track record.
The task force will likewise continue to work with other Gulf
industries and user groups and expand its effort to promote marine
debris abatement in the GOM.

H. Benefits

Aside from the obvious benefits discussed in Chapter I of contributing
to our national defense and national economy and providing a direct
source of revenue to our treasury, there are numerous benefits of the
OCS Oil and Gas Program that are often overlooked.

OCS operations benefit communities within a short geographic range of
.drilling and production activities. Some of these benefits can be
categorized as improvements in onshore infrastructure. For example,
in Prudhoe Bay, two airfields able to accommodate Boeing 737 aircraft
have been built. Also, because of OCS activities, selfsufficient,
power generating stations have been built. Both of these types of
facilities are generally accessible to the surrounding communities.
In Nome, Alaska, OCS fire fighting capabilities augmented the local
staff and equipment during the period of exploratory drilling.
Furthermore, state-of-the-art sewage and waste treatment plants have
been built, which are available for use by the entire community. In
these places, as well as others, harbor and boat docks and medical
facilities are improved by the presence of OCS activities. Although
not an onshore facility, Mukluk Gravel Island has become a staging and
emergency base for native hunters and fishermen in Alaska. On a
smaller scale, oil companies find themselves contributing to the
support of local sports teams (DOI, MMS Alaska Regional Office, 1987).

Other identified benefits are the cooperative efforts of oil companies
with other commercial groups such as fishermen and whalers. The best
documented of these is the "Oil/Whalers Group" initiated by an oil
company to prevent conflict with the subsistence whaling activities of
the Inupiat Eskimos (Alaska Oil and Fishing Industries, 1984)
(Oil/Whalers Working Group, 1986). The whaling season is short (from
late August to early October) and, yet, important to the lifestyle of
two native villages. Oil companies felt it necessary to know the
whereabouts of the 30-40 whalers to minimize impact on their hunting.
Emphasizing that philosophy, several oil companies, along with a
geophysical survey company, outfitted some of the whale boats with
satellite navigation devices and radios. The whalers were trained to
use the equipment to pinpoint and communicate their exact location so
seismic or other similar OCS activities would not interfere with
native hunting during the whaling season.
The presence of the oil companies provides facilities for search and
rescue of parties in trouble, and companies have established networks

VI-10

that furnish that public service. Two recent incidents (1986) used
the radio and navigation equipment discussed above. In one case, a
whaler shot off his hand, but was medivaced by an oil company to an
Anchorage medical facility and was saved. In the second case, 19
whalers were stranded on a tiny island that became inundated by high
seas; these people were helicoptered to safety by an oil company.
A benefit, which is mandated by the National Contingency Plan, is that
each oil company must have equipment ready for cleanup of an oil
Spill. Companies network among each other and the USCG to clean up a
spill should it occur (Alaska Clean Seas (ACS), 1987) (Clean Gulf
Associates, 1987). Formal organizations have been developed in the
GOM (Clean Gulf Associates), in Alaska (ACS and Cook Inlet Response
Organization), and in the Pacific (Clean Seas, Clean Coastal Waters,
Clean Bay, and the Pacific Regional Strike Team). For example, ACS is
an oil-spill cooperative comprised of 14 oil companies. The
cooperative procures oil-spill equipment, trains members in cleanup
procedures, and researches oil-spill response technology. In 10 years
of operation, no large spills have occurred that have required an ACS
response; small spills can and have been handled by the company
responsible.
Another positive aspect of OCS oil and gas development is the expanded
acreage for attachment of marine populations provided by offshore rig
structures (Driessen, 1987). Populations of algae, anemones,
barnacles, mussels, and scallops increase when provided these
artificial reef structures. Commercially harvested mussels are taken
from some of the platforms offshore California. In turn, as these
newly formed ecosystems are established, fish (including commercial
and sport species such as bass, rockfish, barracuda, grouper,
mackerel, marlin, seatrout, and snapper) appear taking advantage of
the new habitat. These communities serve commercial and recreational
fishermen as well. In warmer waters, angelfish, blennyfish,
butterflyfish, and damselfish populate the area. Because of the
presence of these populations, the recreational aspect of the site is
enhanced for scuba diving.

Considering the intensive use of the coastal and offshore areas of the
United States, the OCS Oil and Gas Program contributes relatively
minimal negative impacts to the environment while it provides
significant benefits to the Nation's economy and defense.

VI-11

VII. ABBREVIATIONS USED

ACS Alaska Clean Seas

APCD Air Pollution Control District

APD Application for Permit to Drill

BACT Best Available Control Technology

bbl Barrel

BLM Bureau of Land Management

BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

CA Clean Air Act

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

Co Carbon Monoxide

COE Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers

COST Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test

CPUE Catch Per Unit Effort

CzM Coastal Zone Management

CZMA Coastal Zone Management Act

dB decibel

DOC Department of Commerce

DOD Department of Defense

DOI Department of the Interior

EIS Environmental Impact Statement

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

ESP Environmental Studies Program

FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commissigg

ft Feet

FY Fiscal Year

VII-I

G&G Geological and Geophysical

GOM Gulf of Mexico

H 2S Hydrogen Sulfide

in Inch

INC Incident of Noncompliance

JIMS Joint Interagency Modeling Study

km Kilometer

LNG Liquified Natural Gas

m Meter

mg/l Milligram Per Liter

mi Mile

MMS Minerals Management Service

NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standard

NAS National Academy of Science

NERBC New England River Basin Commission

NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service

NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

NOAA National Oceanic and Atomospheric Administration

NO Nitric Oxide

NOX Nitrogen Oxide
N02 Nitrogen Dioxide

NTL Notice to Lessees

OCS Outer Continental Shelf

OCSLA Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

00C Offshore Operators Committee

PINC Potential Incident of Noncompliance

VII-2

ppb Parts Per Billion

ppm Parts Per Million

ppt Parts Per Thousand

RTWG Regional Technical Working Group

sic Standard Industrial Classification

sox Sulfur Oxide
S02 Sulfur Dioxide

SPR Strategic Petroleum Reserve

TGLO Texas General Land Office

TSP Total Suspended Particulates

TSS Traffic Separation Schemes
ug/m, Microgram Per Cubic Meter

U.S.C. United States Code

USCG U.S. Coast Guard

USGS U.S. Geological Survey

VOC Volatile Organic Compounds

yd Yard

VII-3

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VIII-7

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VIII-9

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No. 83-1, Contract No. 14-12-0001-29190.

VIII-17

Mid-Atlantic Fisheries Management Council, 1982, Background
information on the tilefish fishery of the Atlantic fishery
conservation zone north of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina:
Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council, Room 2115 Federal
Building, 300 South.New St., Dover, DE 19901.

Middleditch, B. S., 1981, Environmental effects of offshore oil
production - Buccaneer Gas and Oil Field Study: New York and
London, Plenum Press, 446 p.

Middleditch, B. S., 1984, Ecological effects of produced water
discharge from offshore oil and gas production platforms, Report
to the American Petroleum Institute: Washington, D.C., 160 p.

Middleditch, B. S., and B. Basile, 1980, Alkanes in benthic organisms
from the Buccaneer Oil Field: Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol.,
24:945-952.

Miles, P. R., and C. I. Malme, 1983, The acoustic environment and
noise exposure of humpback whales in Glacier Bay, Alaska:
Technical memorandum no. 734, 81 p.

Moore, S. F., 1973, Towards a model of the effects of oil on marine
organisms, in Background information for ocean affairs board
workshop on inputs, fates, and effects of petroleum in the marine
environment, Airlie, VA, May 21-25, 1973: National Academy of
Sciences, p. 635-53.

Moore, S. F., R. L. Dwyer, and A. M. Katz, 1973, A preliminary
assessment of the environmental vulnerability of Machias Bay,
Maine, to oil supertankers, Report MITSG 73-6, 162 p., as cited
in Hyland, J. L. and E. D. Schneider, 1976, Petroleum .
Fydrocarbons and their effects on marine organisms, populations,
communities, and ecosystems, in Proc. symposium--sources,
effects, and sinks of hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment:
p. 463-506.

Nassauer, J. I., and M. K. Benner, 1982, Visual preferences for a
coastal landscape where oil and gas development exists: Urbana,
IL, Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Illinois.

National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 1975, Petroleum in the marine
environment--workshop on inputs, fates, and the effects of the
petroleum in the marine environment: Washington, D.C., National
Academy Press, 107 p.

National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 1983, Drilling discharges in the
marine environment, a report to the academy by the panel on
assessment of fates and effects of drilling fluids and cuttings
in the marine environment: Washington, D.C., National Academy
Press.

VIII-18

National Academy of Sciences (NAS), 1985, Oil in the sea--inputs,
fates, and effects: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press,
601 p.

National Research Council, 1983, Drilling discharges in the marine
environment: Washington, D.C., National Academy Press.

National Research Council, 1985, Oil in the sea--inputs, fates and
effects: Washington, D.C., National Academy Pre,ss.

Neff, J. M., 1981, Fate and biological effects of oil well drilling
fluids in the marine environment; a literature review, Final
technical report No. 15077 to the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency: Gulf Breeze, FL. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Environmental Research Laboratory.

Neff, J. M., 1987, Biological effects of drilling fluids, drill
cuttings and Produced Waters, in Boesch, D. F., and N. N.
Robalais (eds.) The long-term effects of offshore oil and gas
de-velopment--an assessment and research strategy: A Report to
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine
Pollution Program Office for the Interagency Committee on Ocean
Pollution, Research, Development and Monitoring, Louisiana
Universities Marine Consortium.
I
Neff, J. M., 1988, Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of chemicals
from oil well drilling and production wastes in marine food webs:
a review, Battelle Oceans Sciences for the American Petroleum
Institute.

Neff, J. M., 1988, Bioavailability of trace metals from drilling mud
barite to benthic marine animals paper presented at the 1988
international conference on drilling wastes, April 5-8, 1988,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Neff, J. M., and J. W. Anderson, 1981, Response of marine animals to
petroleum and specific petroleum hydrocarbons: New York, NY,
Applied Science Publishers, LTD, Halsted Press.

Nekton, Inc., 1984, An ecological study of discharged drilling fluids
on a hard bottom community in the western Santa Barbara Channel,
California, State Lease PRC-2725.1: Report to Tf@xaco USA, 77 p.
@J;
New England River Basins Commission (NERBC), 1976, F"I ctbook: Onshore
facilities related to offshore oil and gas development: Boston
MA.

New England River Basins Commission (NERBC), 1981, Pipeline landfalls:
a handbook of impact management techniques.

VIII-19

Nero & Associates, Inc., 1983, Seabird - Oil spill behavior study:
V. 2, Technical Report, U.S. Minerals Management Service Contract
#SBO-4082-80-C-SSO/AA851-CTO-70, Pacific Outer Continental Shelf
Office, Los Angeles, CA, xxp.

Nicholson, N. L., and R. L. Cimberg, 1971, The Santa Barbara oil
spills of '1969--a post-spill survey of rocky intertidal, in
Straughan, D., biological and oceanographical survey of the Santa
Barbara Channel oil spill, 1969-1970: Allan Hancock Foundation,
Univ. of Southern California, p. 325-400.

Norris, K. S., and R. R. Reeves, eds., 1978, Report on a workshop on
problems related to humpback whales in Hawaii: Prepa@ed for the
Marine Mammal Commission, report no. MMC-77/03.

Northern Technical Services, 1981, Beaufort Sea drilling effluent
disposal study, report to Sohio Alaska Petroleum Company:
Anchorage, AK. 329 p.

Northern Technical Services, 1983, Ocean-water drilli*ng effluent
disposal study, Tern Island, Beaufort Sea, Alaska: Report for
Shell Oil Co., Anchorage, AK. p. 87.

Northrup, J., 1972, T-phases in the great Alaska earthquake of 1964:
Oceanography and Coastal Engineering, Washington, D.C., National
Academy of Sciences.

Offshore Operators Committee, 1975, Environmental aspects of produced
waters from oil and gas extraction,operations in offshore and
coastal-waters, prepared by Sheen technical subcommittee: New
Orleans, LA, Offshore Operators Committee Publication.

Oguri, M. and R. Kanter, 1971, Primary productivity in the Santa
Barbara Channel, in Straughan, D., Biological and oceanographical
survey of the Santa Barbara Channel oil spill, 1969-1970: Allan
Hancock Foundation, Univ. of Southern California, p. 17-48.

Oil Spill Intelligence Report, Cutter Information Corp. Arlington, MA,
vol. VI, no. 24, June 24, 1983.

Oil/Whalers Working Group, 1986, Cooperative programs for the Beaufort
Sea: Shell Western E&P, Anchorage, Alaska, p. 79.

Olsen, L. A., 1984, Effects of contaminated sediment on fish and
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Oshida, P., 197*7, A safe level of hexavalent chromium for a marine
polychaete: Southern California coastal water research project,
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VI.II-20

Ottway, S. V., 1976, The comparative toxicities of crude oils, refined
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Payne, R., 1978, A note on harassment, Report on a workshop on
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Payne, J. R., G. S. Smith, P. J. Mankiewicz, R. F. Shokes, N. W.
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Key Biscayne, FL: Boulder, CO., U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National
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Petrazzuolo, G., 1981, Preliminary report; an environmental assessment
of drilling fluids and cuttings releases onto the outer
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Pratt, S. D., 1978, Interactions between petroleum and benthic fauna
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Ray, J. P., and R. P. Meek, 1980, Water column characterization of
drilling fluids dispersion from an offshore exploratory well on
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Reeves, R., and D. K. Ljungblad, 1983, Preliminary findings of bowhead
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Anchorage, AK.

VIII-21

Reiger, G., 1987, Ducks and Disaster: Field and Stream, v. 92, no.6,
p.14-19.

Reish, D. J., J. M. Martin, F. M. Plitz, J. L. Word, 1976, The effect
of heavy metals on laboratory populations of two polychates with
comparisons to the water quality conditions and standards in the
Southern California marine waters: Wat. Res., 10:299-302.

Renouf, D., J. Lawson, and L. Gaborko, 1983, Attachment between harbor
seal mothers and pups: Journal of Zoology (London), v. 199,
p. 179-187.

Restrepo & Associates. 1982. Ixtoc I oil spill economic impact
study: 3 vols, Prepared for the Bureau of Land Management under
Contract No. AA7851-CTO-65, El Paso, TX.

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sources and special sources: Washington, D.C., Arthur D. Little,
Inc., prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Richardson, W. J., ed., November 1983, Behavior, disturbance
responses and distribution of bowhead whales, balaena mysticetus,
in the eastern Beaufort Sea, 1982: Bryan, TX, LGL Ecological
Research Associates, Inc., Prepared for U.S. Department of the
Interior, Minerals Management Service, Reston, VA.

Riedman, Marianne L., 1984, Effects of sounds associated with
petroleum industry activities on the behavior of sea otters in
California; (Appendix D) in Investigations of the potential
effects of@underwater noise from petroleum industry activities on
migrating gray whale behavior; Phase II: January 1984 migration:
Cambridge, MA, Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.,.Report No. 5586 to
the Minerals Management Service.

Rose,.C. D., and T. J. Ward, 1981, Acute toxicity and aquatic hazard
associated with discharged formation water, in Middleditch, B.
J., (ed.), Environmental effects of offshore oil production, the
Buccaneer Gas and Oil Field Study: New York, NY, Plenum Press,
446 p.

Sanders, H. L., J. D. Grassle, G. R. Hampson, L. S. Morse, S.
Garner-Price and C. Jones, 1980, Anatomy of an oil spill--
long-term effects from the grounding of the barge Florida off
West Falmouth, Massachusetts: J. Marine Research, v. 38,
p. 265-380.

Santa Barbara Chamber of Commerce, 1968-1978, Visitor survey: Santa
Barbara County, CA.

Santa Barbara.Chamber of Commerce, 1971, The value of tourist and
visitors to the Santa Barbara area: 4.p.

VIII-22

Schweinsburg, E. E., 1974', Snow geese disturbance by aircraft on the
North Slope, September 1972: Arctic Gas, Biological Report
Series, v. 14, second edition, L.G.L. Ltd., Environmental
Research Associates; p. 275-278.

Sergy, G., 1986, The Baffin Island oil spill project: Environmental
Protection Service, Environment Canada, 26 p.

Shinn, E. A., 1974, Effects of oil field brine, drilling mud, cutting
and oil platforms on the offshore environment, in Estuarine
research conference, Dec. 2-4: University of Maryland.

Stechmann, T., 1986, Trip report to witness removal of Tenneco's Block
4931B Platform, West Cameron area, offshore Louisiana: U.S.
Government Memorandum, July 30, 1986.

Stewart, B. G., F. Y. Audrey, and W. E. Evans, 1983, Beluga whale
(Delphinaterus leucas responses to industrial noise in Nushagak
Bay, Alaska: Final Report by National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Adminis- tration/Minerals Management Service RU 629, Hubbs-Sea
Word Research Institute, Technical Report 83-161, 1958 - also
1982 Report No. 82714.

Stickle, L. F., and Dieter, M. P., 1979, Ecological and physiological
toxicological effects of petroleum in aquatic birds a summary of
research activities, FY 76 through FY 78: FWS/OBS-79/23,
Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Straughan, D. (ed.), 1971, Biological and oceanographic survey of the
Santa Barbara Channel oil spill, 1969-1970: Sea grant
publication no. 2, Allan Hancock Foundation, University of
Southern California.

Straughan, D. (ed.), 1971, Biological and oceanographic survey of the
Santa Barbara Channel oil spill 1969-1970: v. 1--Biology and
bacteriology, University of Southern California, Allan Hancock
Foundation.

Straughan, 1U., 1971, What has been the effect of the spill on the
ecology in the Santa Barbara Channel? in Straughan, D.,
Biological and oceanographical survey of the Santa Barbara
Channel oil spill, 1969-1970: University of Southern California,
Allan Hancock Foundation, p. 401-426.
Systems Applications Inc., 1978, Archaeological literature survey and
sensitivity zone mapping of the southern California bight area:
v. 1 and 2, Prepared for the Bureau of Land Management, Pacific
OCS Office, Los Angeles, CA (Contract No. AA550-CT7-32).

Systems Applications Inc., 1986, Application of the PARIS model for
1991) and 1995 in the California south central coast air basin,
report SYSAPP-85/064, April 1986.

VIII-23

Szaro, R. C., M. P. Dieter, G. H. Heinz, and J. F. Ferrall, 1978,
Effects of cronic ingestion of south Louisiana crude on mallard
ducklings: Environmental Research, v. 17, p. 426-436.

Taxon, 1983, See Michael et al., 1983.

Teal, J. M., and R. W. Howarth, 1984, Oil spill studies--A review of
ecological effects: Environmental Management, v. 8, no. 1,
p. 27-44.

Terhune, J. M., 1981, Influence of loud vessel noises on marine
mammal hearing and vocal communications, in Peterson, N.M., ed.,
The question of sound from icebreaker operation, Proceedings of a
Workshop, February 23-24, 1981, Toronto, Ontario, sponsored by:
Arctic Pilot Project, Petro-Canada.

Tetra Tech, 1984, Technical support document for regulating dilution
and deposition of drilling muds on the Outer Continental Shelf:
prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, 68
p. plus appendices.

Texas A&M University Research Foundation, 1983, Reefs and banks in the
northwestern Gulf of Mexico, their geological, biological and
physical dynamics: A final report to the Minerals Management
Service under Contract No. AA851-CT1-55.

Thompson, J. H., and T. J. Bright, 1980, Effects of an offshore
drilling fluid on selected corals, in Proc. symp. res.
environmental fate and effects of drilling fluids and cuttings,
January 21-24, 1980, Lake Buena Vista, FL: Washington, D.C.,
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Trask, T., 1971, A study of three sandy beaches in the Santa Barbara,
California, area, in Straughan, D., Biological and
oceanographical survey of the Santa Barbara Channel oil spill,
1969-1970: University of Southern California, Allan Hancock
Foundation, p. 159-178.

Turner, R. E., R. Costanza, and W. Scaife, 1982, Canal and wetland
erosion rates in coastal Louisiana, in Boesch, D. F., ed.,
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Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Biological
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Turner, S. C., C. B. Grimes, and K. W. Able, 1983, Growth, mortality,
and age/size structure of the fisheries for tilefish,
Lopholatilus Chamaelonticeps (sic), in the Middle
Atlantic-Southern New England Region: Fishery Bulletin, v. 81,
no. 4, p. 751-763.

VIII-24

Turner, R. Eugene, and Donald R. Cahoon, editors, 1988, Causes of
wetland loss in the coastal central gulf of Mexico, OCS Study-
MMS 87-0119.

URS Corporation, 1986, San Miguel project and northern Santa Maria
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Technical Report DS-78-22, Office, Chief of Engineers,
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U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, 1980, Ocean dumping
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Engineers, Water Resources Support Center, Dredging Division.
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, 1985,
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U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
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U.S. Department of Commerce, 1981, Santa Barbara Channel risk
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U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 1983, Assessing the social costs of oil
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Administration, 1985, Gulf of Mexico coastal and ocean zones
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survey and analysis of cultural resource information on the
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Institute of Conservation Archaeology, Peabody Museum, Contract
No. AA551-CT8-18.

VIII-25

U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, 1981,
A cultural resource survey of the continental shelf from Cape
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pursuant to geological and geophysical explorations of the OCS,
FES 76-23: 195 p.
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U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1986,
Alaska summary report index (January 1986-December 1986) 1987,
Slitor, D. E., and J. D. Wiese: 99 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1986,
Gulf of Mexico summary report index (November 1984-June 1986),
Risotto, S. P., and J. H. Collins: 102 p.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1986,
Pacific summary report index, Risotto, S. P., and J. H. Rudolph,
MMS 86-0060.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1987,
Alaska Regional Office, personal communication.

U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1987,
Federal offshore statistics: 1985, MMS 87-0008.

U.S. Department of t he Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1988,
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MMS 88-0035.

U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1977, Cultural
resource evaluation of the northern Gulf of Mexico continental
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1980, Fact sheet on ocean
dumping of radioactive waste materials: Prepared for House of
Representatives Subcommittee on Oceanography of the Committee on
Merchant Marine Fisheries (Nov. 20, 1980): p. 21.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1981, Final environmental impact
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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980, Administration of the Marine
Mammal Protection Act of 1972--April 1, 1979 to March 31, 1980:
Washington, D.C, Department of the Interior, 86 p. plus
appendices.

VIII726

University of Alaska, 1980a, Northern and western Gulf of Alaska
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Minerals Management Service, Technical Report No. 30.

University of Alaska, 1980b,,Lower Cook Inlet petroleum development
scenarios; commercial fishing industry analysis: Prepared under
Contract No. 14-12-0001-29002 for the Minerals Management
Service, Technical Report No. 44.

University of Alaska, 1980c, Western Alaska and Bering-Norton
petroleum development scenariq; commercial fishing industry
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Veltre, Douglas W., and Mary J. Veltre, 1981, A preliminary baseline
study of subsistence resource utilization in the Pribilof
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Game.

Walter, D. J., and J. R. Proni, 1980, Acoustic observations of
subsurface scattering during a cruise at the IXTOC 1 blowout in
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Researcher/Pierce IXTOC 1 Cruise, Key Biscayne, FL, June 9-10,
1980: Boulder, CO, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic
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investigation--effects of oil drilling and production in a
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1979.

Watkins, W. A., and W. E. Schevill, 1979, Aerial observation of
feeding behavior in four baleen whales, Eubalaena glacialis,
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special report: Houston, TX, Exxon Production'Research Co.

Witzig, J. F., 1984, Rig fishing in the Gulf of Mexico--1984 marine
recreational fishing results, in Proceedings, fourth annual Gulf
of Mexico information transfer meeting, New Orleans, LA, MMS
84-0026: p. 103-105.

VIII-27

Wong, C. K., F. R. Engelhardt, and J. B. Strickler, 1981, Survival and
fecundity of Dafina pglex on exposure to participate oil:
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicity, v. 26,
p. 606-612.

Wursig, B., W. W. Clark, E. M. Dorsey, M. A. Fraker, and R. S. Payne,
1982, Normal behavior of bowheads, in Behavior, disturbance
responses and feeding of bowhead whales, Balena mysticetus, in
the Beaufort Sea, 1980-81.

Zein-Eldin, A. P, P. M. Keney, 1978, Environmental assessment of an
active oil field in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico bioassays of
Buccaneer Oil Fields effluents with juvenile and adult penaeid
shrimp: Proj. Rept. for National Marine Fisheries Service,
Galveston, TX.

VIII-28

IX. CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION

Draft copies of this report were sent for review to the following agencies
and groups.

States Interest Groups

Alabama* Alaska Oil & Gas Association*
Alaska* American Petroleum Institute*
California*(1) Center for Environmental Education
Connecticut* Conservation Foundation
Delaware* Environmental Policy Institute
Florida Friends of the Earth
Georgia* Greenpeace, USA
Louisiana* National Audubon Society*
Maine National Ocean Industries Association
Maryland* National Resources Defense Council*
Massachusetts National Wildlife Federation
Mississippi Oceanic Society
New Hampshire Offshore Operators Committee*
New Jersey* Sierra Club
New York* Western Oil & Gas Association
North Carolina*
Oregon
Pennsylvania* Federal Agencies
Rhode Island
South Carolina Corps of Engineers*
Texas Department of Energy*
Virginia* Environmental Protection Agency*
Washington Fish and Wildlife Service*
Marine Mammal Commission
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration*
National Park Service*
U.S. Coast Guard

*Received comments
(1) Also received separate comments from the County of Santa Barbara

IX-1

ilk the Nation's principal conservation
-T-@LqjL9jY. the Department of the Interior
%t-@ responsibility for most of our nation-
1,6, owned public lands and natural
This includes fostering the
71 R use of our land and water re-
.jg!1jqj6 protecting our fish and wildlife,
eld:M40jille the environmental and cul-
MPFvalues of our national parks and
@*War= places, and providing for the
igWINIM of life through outdoor recrea-
imi. The Department assesses our en-
Viv and mineral resources and works
(t assure that their development is in the
@7M, interest of all our people. The De-
TOMB M @ also has a major responsibility
-ei American Indian reservation com-
1M iw@ and for people who live in Island
-7=cej&*@ under U.S. Administration.

T OF

sf,* ARM
ANAGS

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