[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
DRAFT ARCIC A11Yt~AL iLD1P~REUGE, ALASKA, COASAL LAU~j~ *A$ESSMENT omme iato it~t~heCongess f th nited States 2r~i~ttsJimpctstate-ment ~~~19 FRIENDS OF THE EARTH 530 7TH STREET. S.E., WASHINGTON, D.C. 20003 (202) 543-4312 CO:1IENTS AND TESTLMONY OF FRIENDS OF THE EARTH REGARDING THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR'S DRAFT ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT AND REPORT TO CONGRESS PRESENTED BY CYNTHIA E. WILSON EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF FRIENDS OF THE EARTH AT THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR WASHINGTON DC JANUARY 9, 1986 Committed to the preservation, restoration, and rational use of the ecosphere Testimony on Draft Coastal Plain Resource Assessment January 9, 1987 My name is Cynthia E. Wilson. I am the Executive Director of Friends of the Earth. By way of background, I was an Assistant to Interior Secretary Cecil D. Andrus during the Carter administration and coordinated all of the Department's work an the Alaska lands issue. The Arctic Wildlife Range was one of the areas which received an enormous amount of attention, and after careful consideration President Carter and Secretary Andrus recommended that the entire area be designated wilderness. Prior to that, during eight years as the Washington represent- ative of the National Audubon Society, I worked on the various Alaska related issues -- the TAPS pipeline, the proposals for the gas pipeline, and the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act -- which arose during that period. I have read the draft Coastal Plain Resource Assessment and frankly was not in the least surprised to find that full scale development is recommended despite the speculative nature of the information about potential oil and gas. Let me state our position clearly. Having read the information presented in the assessment, we remain opposed to development in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. The report attempts to minimize the potential impact of development on the Porcupine caribou herd by claiming that the TAPS pipeline project had "minimal impact on wildlife resour- ces," and projecting that experience to the Porcupine herd. As a matter of fact, displacement of the Central Arctic herd from traditional calving grounds as a result of oil development at Prudhoe has been well documented. (1) Most of the caribou who pose for pictures along the pipeline are bachelor bulls, whose behavior and requirements are quite different from cows with calves. Even if you accept the characterization of "minimal" impact-- which is subject to dispute--this a classic case of comparing apples and oranges. The fact is that the Porcupine herd is migratory, while the Central Arctic herd is not. The coastal plain in ANWR is relatively narrow and bounded by the Brooks Range on one side and the Beaufort Sea on the other. The concentration of caribou on the ANWR calving grounds is fourteen times greater than the concentration of caribou on the calving grounds of the Central Arctic herd. in a classic understatement, the report on page 112 states, "~Given the geography of the calving areas and the current densities (of the Porcupine herd) in those areas, the availability of suitable alternative habitats is not apparent.** Although the calving grounds are only a fraction of the herd's entire range, they are clearly the most crucial fraction. if this area is disrupted, the impacts could be severe. Calving grounds are selected because they offer a unique combination of conditions that favor survival. These include early snow melt, early growth of new plants, closeness to insect relief habitat and lack of predators. These conditions are not present in many parts of the Refuge. The 1002 report'does not show the complete calving grounds of the Porcupine herd, which includes the entire 1002 area. However, it does show the 'high use of the area between the Hulahula and Aichilik rivers. The places of concentrated calving activity vary from year to year and in some years, there arc~ no "concentrated" areas. During years when snowmelt is early, calving takes place north of the foothills, out onto the coastal plain. The conflicts with oil development in those years would be extreme. Since calf survival rates are higher when calving takes place north of the foothills (2), the impact of oil development on the caribou population would be higher in these years. This does not appear to have been considered in the 1002 report. Right after calving, the caribou cow's energy reserves are at their lowest.At the same time, millions of mosquitoes hatch out and become a severe problem. Their harassment drives small 11 ursrybands" of caribou cows with calves into huge aggregates in an attempt to escape. In some years, tens of thousands of cows with calves gather near the coast south of Camden Bay--one of the proposed drilling sites. To escape the insects, caribou move almost continually. Access to forage and habitat which provides relief from insects is crucial at this time, and insects contribute to the high death rate for calves. Research at Prudhoe Bay has demonstrated that large mosquito harassed groups of caribou do not readily cross beneath eleveated pipelines.(3) Disturbance from oil exploration and development activities would add stress at a point in the caribou-s life cycle when additional stress cannot be tolerated. We believe the proposal to lease the 1002 area, but delay work on the area described as "concentrated calving grounds" is simply a sop for public relations purposes. Once development begins in the Refuge, the impacts on the herd will likely be irreversible. Who will enforce the stipulations that are supposed to mitigate the impact -- where is the army of enforcement personnel which would be required and--just as important--once the oil companies have started work in the refuge, how will the interior department resist the pressure to lease the concentrated calving area? Given how little we really know despite the years of information gathering, it seems unlikely that any firm conclusions can be drawn in the few years it will take to develop the bulk of the coastal plain. In addition to the effects of the oil exploration and development on the wildlife rsources, we are concerned about the effects on traditional subsistence users dependent on the caribou. The indigenous people of Alaska and Canada have an ancient relationship with the caribou which is expressed by the Athabascan people as, "Every caribou has a bit of the human heart in him and every human has a bit of caribou heart."(4) Oil development would reduce access to subsistence areas used by the village of Kaktovik, including loss of hunting opportunities in approximately one half of the 1002 area. Closure of a 5-mile corridor on either side of roads, pipelines and developed areas was recommended in a workshop of caribou biologists sponsored by the Fish and Wildlfie Service. Further restricting the caribou's hunting season was also recommended. (5) I would also like to touch on one of the most glaring flaws in the 1002 report -- the use of a price per barrel of $33 and $40 in making calculations. Although we realize that by the time the Refuge could be developed, it is posible that prices will rise from today's $18 per barrel. But the fact that the viability of this proposal is premised on these prices shows the bias of this administration. Actually, when you look at the probability figures, and the industry's track record in predicting where giant fields will be found, you realize that the outcome is really a gamble. The Reagan administration has vetoed legislation which would set energy efficient standards for appliances and dismantled virtually every energy conservation program, and then has the gall to tell us that we need to open up America's premier wilderness area because of national security. Baloney. If the administration is serious about reducing dependence on foreign oil, then it would be seriously working to promote energy conservation--instead of dismantling the solar collectors on the White House roof with great fanfare. in the mid-seventies, we heard the same national security arguments when the energy industry attempted to stampede Congress into ramming a gas pipeline through the Arctic Wildlife Range. A coalition of environmental groups and leaders from the midwest managed to stem the hysteria and ultimately legislation was passed which set up a process for carefully selecting another route. But the irony is, ten years later that pipeline still hasn't been built and yet somehow we have managed to survive. I have had the exhilarating experience of flying over the Arctic Refuge and seeing the vast herds of caribou. It is a sight I will never forget, and one which I hope future generations will have the opportunity to enjoy. It makes absolutely no sense to tear up this wilderness area on the chance that it may contain economically recoverable quantities of oil--especially when according to the report (p.50) fields in East Texas and elsewhere still have greater reserves which would be far easier to extract. The American people are willing and able to practice conservation if our leaders show the way. Until alternative forms of energy are given more priority and an energy conservation program is in place, the only real reason to open the Arctic Refuge is greed. References: 1. Dau, J.R. and Cameron, R.D., 1985, "Effects of a road system on caribou distribution during calving: 4th International reindeer/caribou symposium," Whitehorse, YT, 1985. 2. Mauer,F. J. and others,1983 in Garner, G. W.and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1982 update report, baseline study of fish, wildlife and their habitats, U.S. FWS. 3. Curatolo,J.A. and Murphy, S. M., 1983, Caribou responses to the pipeline/road complex in the Kuparak oil field, Alaska, 1982. 4. Slobodin, R., 1981, "Kutchin," in North American Handbook: Smithsonian Institution. 5. Report of the Caribou Impact Analysis Workshop, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, November 19-20, 1985, U. S.FWS, Fairbanks, 1986. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR DRAFT ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Report and recommendation to the Congress of the United States and legislative environmental impact statement NOVEMBER 1986 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Land Management ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Draft Legislative Environmental Impact Statement, November 1986 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In December 1980, the Congress passed the Alaska recoverable oil at $40 per barrel is used (1984 dollars). National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA)-- These bepefits would be manifested in jobs, lower balance- landmark legislation setting aside more than 100 million of-trade deficits, and increased tax revenues to all levels of acres of Federal lands in Alaska in conservation system government. units (that is, parks, refuges, and so on). Prior to ANILCA, the Arctic National Wildlife Range occupied 8.9 million acres These oil resources are likely to be found in the 26 of northeastern Alaska. ANILCA enlarged the unit to 17.9 identified subsurface structures scattered across the coastal million acres and changed its name to the Arctic National plain, and each represents an opportunity for a significant Wildlife Refuge. oil discovery. Additionally, other areas within the coastal plain have excellent potential for containing hydrocarbon Of special interest to the Congress during its accumulations in stratigraphic traps and other structures ANILCA debates was the coastal plain of the Arctic Refuge. that cannot be defined with currently available geologic Not only was the area prized for its outstanding wildlife data. values, it was also suspected of having the most outstanding oil and gas potential of any unexplored A range of options exists for the future management onshore area in the country. The Congress created of the 1002 area. In light of the information obtained, the section 1002 of ANILCA to develop information about entire coastal plain, or portions thereof, have the resource wildlife and energy values of the 1.5-million acres Arctic potential for a successful oil and gas leasing program. Or, Refuge coastal plain ("1002 area"). Section 1002 required to acquire more definitive data, an exploration program further study of the area's fish and wildlife resources, and obtaining additional seismic surveys and drilling offstructure limited exploration of its oil and gas potential. A report to exploratory wells in selected areas could be authorized by the Congress on the results of these studies and the Congress. On the other hand, the Congress could recommendations by the Secretary of the Interior for future take no further legislative action and the 1002 area would management of the coastal plain area were also required. be managed as an integral part of the entire refuge under the direction of its comprehensive conservation plan. In the years since ANILCA was passed, the U.S. Finally, the Congress could designate the area as a Fish and Wildlife Service conducted a series of biological wilderness addition to the refuge's current 9 million studies of the area's fish and wildlife resources and their wilderness acres. habitats. During the same period, the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Geological Survey, and exploration On the basis of the analysis presented, and in crews from private industry conducted surface geologic consideration of this country's need for domestic sources studies. Approximately 1,300 gravity readings and more than of oil and gas, the Department proposes that the Congress 1,300 line miles of seismic data were acquired by industry, authorize the Secretary to lease the entire 1002 area for oil under special-use permits issued by the Fish and Wildlife and gas exploration and development. An area of Service. approximately 242,000 acres in the southeast part of the 1002 area is used as a core calving area by the Porcupine The Department's analysis of the geologic studies caribou herd. To afford protection to this special area, the and surveys predicts a 95-percent chance of the 1002 area Department would want to structure a leasing program that containing more than 4.8 billion barrels of oil and 11.5 offered this area last for leasing. This would permit trillion cubic feet of gas in-place. There is a 5-percent experience obtained from development in the rest of the chance that the area contains more than 29.4 billion barrels 1002 area to be applied in developing mitigation for of oil and 64.5 trillion cubic feet of gas in-place. The activities in the calving area. The Congress would also be average of the range of in-place estimates yields a mean asked to grant authority to the Department to impose any estimate of 13.8 billion barrels of oil and 31.3 trillion cubic restrictions necessary to ensure that unnecessary adverse feet of gas in-place. The area is clearly the most effects are avoided and to require compensation in the outstanding oil and gas frontier remaining in the United event of significant unavoidable losses of habitat quality. States, and could contribute substantially to our domestic energy supplies. Moreover, development of 3.2 BB of Section 1002 also required an assessment of recoverable oil resources could yield Net National Economic potential environmental consequences if oil and gas Benefits from $79.4 billion, based on an oil price of $33 per development occurred in the 1002 area. To facilitate this barrel, to more than $325 billion, if a more optimistic assessment, scenarios were developed using the mean economic and resource assumption of 9.2 BB of estimated recoverable oil and gas resource figures for the ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 1 area, considering prospects that would be economically THE 1002 AREA recoverable under a most likely situation. Using these scenarios, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined The 1.55-million-acre 1002 area, part of the tundra- possible environmental consequences. covered Arctic Coastal Plain Province, is located in the remote northernmost part of the Arctic Refuge. It is The assessment predicted environmental bounded on the east by the Aichilik River, on the west by consequences of developing the entire 1002 area to be the Canning and Staines Rivers, to the north by the some long-term effects on the area's water resources, on Beaufort Sea, and to the south by township lines through caribou from the Porcupine herd, and on muskoxen. The the foothills of the Brooks Range. The 1002 area presence of infrastructure supporting oil and gas constitutes about 75 percent of the total coastal plain of development and a pipeline to transport the oil to the near the refuge; the rest is east of the Aichilik River to the by Prudhoe Bay area would eliminate the wilderness Canadian border, and is part of the refuge's designated character of the 1002 area. Most adverse effects would be wilderness area. minimized or eliminated through carefully applied mitigation, using the lessons learned and technology acquired from Its arctic marine climate has extremely cold winters development at Prudhoe Bay and from construction of the and short, cool summers. Summer temperatures average Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS). The evidence about 400F; in the winter temperatures drop well below generated during the 18 years of exploration and 0�F, with wind-chill factors to minus 800F. Persistent winds development at Prudhoe Bay indicates minimal impact on blow throughout the year. Precipitation over the 1002 area wildlife resources. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that is light but frequent, with summer drizzle and light winter development can proceed on the coastal plain and generate snows. Regardless of season, clear days on the coastal similar minimal effects. plain are uncommon. Fog and stratus clouds prevail during the summer. In the winter, fog and blowing snow reduce Highlights of the report to the Congress, prepared by visibility. The sun is continuously above the horizon from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in cooperation with the mid-May to the end of July, and continuously below the Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Geological horizon from the end of November to mid-January. Survey, follow. 167� 158� 1490 1400 0 100 MILES rea illustrated [ M D0 : 100 KILOMETERS bALASKA\ ARCTIC OCEAN 7200 - Chuke/ h, iOFoRT SEA 2 ARCTIC REFUGE EHoson ASSESSMENT f8~ ~r~~ ~ A/ ~Bay Prudhoe Bay 7- _-,-~--~"~'"'~/~Island "lsland NATIONAL PETROLEUM a ) s% I_ ~. / I RESERVE IN ALASKA . ' : _ Chukchi sea X E TV-- N lo R ff H 2 / WILDLIFE REFUGE in 6ao _ : - -n - - -o-t - 2 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Freezeup begins by mid-September, and the ground The brief spring, summer, and fall seasons, however, find in'the 1002 area remains frozen until June. Snowfall is the area host to large numbers of mammals and birds greatest from September through November, and again in which use the coastal plain for important parts of their January. Numerous measurements indicated that average annual life cycles. snow accumulations were 12 inches in 1984 and 9 inches CARIBOU in 1985. The almost-continuous winds redistribute the snow, filling valleys and swales, but leaving ridgetops bare. Caribou of the Porcupine and Central Arctic herds Drifts along stream cutbanks can be as high as 20 feet. are the most numerous large mammals using the 1002 area. Rivers are fed by melting snow in the foothills and do not begin to flow until mid-May. Only a few large lakes occur The Porcupine caribou herd, named for the Porcupine and most of these are so shallow they freeze to bottom in River in Canada where they winter, is the larger of the two winter. A few shallow thaw lakes are found near the coast, herds that use the refuge. The Porcupine herd is currently east of the Canning River delta, estimated by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game at 180,000 animals. Each year the herd returns to its The entire 1002 area is underlain by continuous traditional calving grounds between the Babbage River in permafrost except for a small area near the warm Canada and the Canning River in Alaska. Although Sadlerochit Spring which flows year round. The upper layer distribution on the calving grounds varies from year-to-year, of the surface of the ground that freezes and thaws most calving usually takes place in the area between the annually is called the "active layer." Hulahula River and the Canadian border. Certain areas appear to be favored by pregnant cows for calving. During Vegetation and Terrain Types the last 14 years, a 2.1-million-acre area has been identified by biologists as a concentrated calving area. Of this, Despite its barren and desolate appearance, the 1002 934,000 acres, or 44 percent of the area, is within the 1002 area actually consists of a variety of tundra vegetation and area. In 1985, 82 percent of the pregnant cows in the landform types. Porcupine caribou herd used the 1002 area for calving. Foothills cover about 45 percent of the 1002 area. The Central Arctic caribou herd uses a range entirely These areas are rich in mosses and lichens, important north of the Continental Divide, from the Itkillik and Colville components of the tundra vegetation. Barren deltas and Rivers on the west to the Sadlerochit River on the east. braided river channels of the river flood plains make up as The TAPS, Dalton Highway, and Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk much as 25 percent of the area. Gently rolling, hilly coastal oil fields all lie within this herd's range. Despite this, the plains cover 22 percent of the 1002 area. Here numerous herd has been increasing, and in 1985 numbered about slightly elevated ridges and depressions cover the 12,000 to 14,000 animals. Cows tend to calve in an area landscape. Vegetation includes sedges, mosses, lichens on or near the Canning and Staines River deltas; calving and prostrate shrubs in well-drained areas. Tussock tundra activity has been concentrated near the lower Kuparuk River occurs frequently in this hilly terrain, and its vegetative and Canning River delta. Most years as many as 1,000 complement includes cottongrass, dwarf willows, and females calve on the Canning River delta within the 1002 birches. Flat thaw-lake plains comprise only about 3 area, with some scattered calving as far east as the percent of the 1002 area, and contain unusual surface Sadlerochit River. features called polygons, a ground pattern similar in appearance to rice paddies. Polygons are caused by After calving in late May and early June, when huge seasonal thawing and freezing of the active layer in wetter swarms of mosquitoes emerge, caribou from both herds areas. Vegetation in the thaw-lake plains is dominated by cluster in large aggregations and travel to coastal habitats aquatic and wet tundra species. Virtually the entire 1002 for relief from insect harassment on points, river deltas and area can be classified as wetland. mudflats. Some groups may move to higher elevations in the southern mountains for relief. Sadlerochit Spring is one of the largest perennial springs on the Alaskan North Slope. Located in the In early July most of the Porcupine caribou move foothills in the southern part of the 1002 area, the spring east and south, and vacate the 1002 area by mid-July, and its surrounding area of approximately 4,000 acres has heading for their wintering grounds in Canada and in the been nominated as a National Natural Landmark. The southern Brooks Range. Occasionally, remnant groups may spring is unique owing to its large warm water discharge winter in the northern mountains and foothills. In late which maintains an open channel for nearly 5 miles summer and fall, caribou of the Central Arctic herd are downstream during the coldest part of the year. found scattered across the coastal plain south of Camden Bay, in the foothills north of the Sadlerochit Mountains, and Fish and Wildlife Species in uplands south of the Sadlerochit Mountains where they winter. During most winters scattered groups of caribou of Except for muskoxen and denning or burrowing the Central Arctic herd range throughout the 1002 area animals such as polar bears and arctic ground squirrels, west of the Katakturuk River and the adjacent uplands to the harsh winters drive most species from the 1002 area. the south. ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 3 OTHER MAMMALS /Six species are considered permanent residents--rock and willow ptarmigan, snowy owl, common raven, gyrfalcon, and Muskoxen were exterminated from the North Slope by American dipper, which winters in the warmer area around the late 1800's by hunters. The animal's instinctive defense the Sadlerochit Spring. The lagoon systems are important of forming a circle of bulls surrounding cows and calves, feeding areas for oldsquaw, eider, scoter, and other ducks; although effective against predators, makes them especially loons, phalaropes, terns, gulls, jaegers and black guillemots. vulnerable to hunters. In 1969 and 1970, 69 muskoxen Raptors nesting in the area include rough-legged hawks, were reintroduced to the Arctic Refuge to establish an golden eagles, gyrfalcons, snowy owls, short-eared owls, indigenous population. High productivity and low natural and threatened arctic peregrine falcons. mortality caused this population to expand rapidly. In 1985, the refuge population was estimated at 476 animals. Tundra swans are common breeding birds of the Muskoxen move with seasonal changes in vegetation and thaw-lake plains. As many as 150 nests and 400-500 adult snow cover. In summer and fall they frequent major swans have been counted on the 1002 area during annual drainages to feed on willows and forbs. In winter and surveys. Black brant and Canada, greater white-fronted, spring many animals move to the uplands where snow and lesser snow geese regularly use the 1002 area. cover is light and tussock sedges readily available. Canada geese and black brant breed there each year. Part of the Banks Island, Canada, population of lesser snow Polar bears roam the pack ice of the Arctic Ocean geese use the 1002 area as a staging area for their annual throughout most of the year. Some females move to fall migration. At their maximum, as many as 325,000 snow coastal areas and inland during October and November to geese have been counted on the area. seek suitable maternity den sites. Pregnant polar bears and, later, their cubs probably spend more time on the Erect riparian willow stands support a diversity of 1002 area than other segments of the population. At least perching birds such as hoary redpolls and white-crowned, 15 dens have been located in the 1002 area; 5 dens have American tree and savannah sparrows. Snow buntings are been found on ice near the 1002 area. found on coastal bluffs. Lapland longspurs are the most abundant species, and nest in all tundra types. Brown bears use the 1002 area seasonally. At their time of greatest abundance on the area, about 108 bears FISH are found on the coastal plain. The bears appear in late May and remain through June and July to prey on caribou, Fish in the Arctic survive because of extreme ground squirrels and rodents. Food habits change with the adaptations to a harsh environment. Relatively few species seasons--spring finds a combination of meat and vegetation occur in the marine, estuarine, and fresh-water environments in their diets, and mid -to late summer, almost all berries of the 1002 area. Arctic char, arctic cisco, arctic flounder, and vegetation. Although the bears breed while on the arctic cod, boreal smelt, and fourhorn sculpin have been 1002 area, they leave in September and October for den reported offshore of the 1002 area. The nearshore waters sites in the foothills and mountains. are important spawning and overwintering areas. Arctic char, arctic grayling, arctic cisco, arctic flounder, fourhorn Other predators using the 1002 area include wolves, sculpin, least cisco, round whitefish, broad whitefish, wolverines, and arctic foxes. There are very few wolves ninespine stickleback, chum salmon, and burbot have been and wolverines on the 1002 area. Arctic fox populations reported in the Canning River system. Other streams that tend to fluctuate according to the abundance of the small support fish populations include the Tamayariak, rodents on which they prey. Sadlerochit, Hulahula, Akutoktak, Okpilak, and Aichilik Rivers, and Itkilyariak Creek. The remaining streams in the Ringed and bearded seals, and, occasionally, spotted 1002 area apparently do not support major fish populations, seals occur along the coast of the Beaufort Sea. The most probably because they freeze to bottom or otherwise endangered bowhead and gray whale, as well as beluga fail to provide suitable overwintering habitat. whale, migrate through waters north of the 1002 area. KAKTOVIK AND ITS INUPIAT VILLAGERS Other mammals using the 1002 area include small numbers of moose and Dall sheep, which are near the The village of Kaktovik, located on Barter Island on northern limits of their range, and large numbers of arctic the Beaufort seacoast, is the only village within the ground squirrels and other rodents. Although these boundaries of the Arctic Refuge. Nearly 90 percent of its animals are of lesser importance, they indicate the biological 200 residents are Native Inupiat Eskimo, who have strong diversity of the area. cultural links to lands in and adjacent to the 1002 area. BIRDS Barter Island was an important trading center for centuries. Canadian Inuit people met on the island to trade The majority of bird species using the coastal plain with Barrow area residents; inland people came down from are migratory, and occur in large numbers from May to the mountains to trade. Barter Island was an important September. A total of 108 species have been recorded. stop for commercial whalers during the 1890's and later, 4 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT but it was not until 1923 that a permanent settlement was Exploration offshore in the Beaufort Sea began in the established as.a trading post, which served as an mid-1970's. In 1978, the Endicott field was discovered near exchange point for furs and was the beginning of the the Sagavanirktok River delta; it is scheduled to begin village of Kakto~vik. pro6duction in 1987. The joint State-Federal Lease Sale BF in 1979 increased the pace of offshore exploration. Federal Kaktovik has survived as a community because of Lease Sale 71 in 1980 resulted in two discoveries. strong family and cultural ties, ties to the land, and Exploration began in the summer of 1985 on Federal Sale economic opportunity for both jobs and subsistence. 87. State lease sales within the 3-nautical-mile limit along Participation in subsistence activities is a major aspect of the coast of the 1002 area in Camden Bay have been Kaktovik residents' life. Approximately 68 percent of-- scheduled for 1987, and near Demarcation Point for 1988. Kaktovik's present subsistence land use is within the Arctic Refuge, including the entire 1002 area. Kaktovik residents depend primarily on caribou, Dall sheep, bowhead whales, fish, waterfowl, and other birds. Seals, polar bears, Section 1002(a) of ANILCA authnrized oil and gas furbearers, and small game are secondar bears exploration on the 1002 area in a manner that avoided and moose are taken occasionally. A few residents harvest significant adverse effects to fish and wildlife and other berries, wild rhubarb, and roots, resources. Exploration included surface geological and geophysical exploration, but not exploratory drilling. The Changes in the economy have changed the living favorable geology of the 1002 area, which lies between patterns of Kaktovik residents. The Inupiat traditionally have areas where significant oil discoveries have been made, had a subsistence economy. However, increasing contact was confirmed by recent surface geology studies and with other cultures has changed the nature of their seismic surveys. economic system. Since 1890 economic activity has vacillated from whaling, to trapping, reindeer herding, and During the summers of 1983-85, exploration crews constiuction of the Distant Early Warning (DEW Line) from 15 companies visited the 1002 area by helicopter, system on Barter Island. Kaktovik residents have relocated The crews made field observations and measurements, and their village three times since 1947. The current village was collected rock samples that were analyzed for age and established in 1964, and was incorporated as a second- geochemistry (hydrocarbon-generation potential) and class city in 1972. porosity and permeability (potential reservoir characteristics). Approximately 1,300 gravity readings along a 1x2-mile grid Economic activity in the area has recently increased covering the 1002 area were collected by a helicopter- in response to the passage of the Alaska Native Claims supported gravity survey during the late summer of 1983. Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1971, to oil and gas Seismic operations, permitted during two winter seasons in development in the Prudhoe Bay area, to the capital 1983-84 and 1984-85, acquired more than 1,300 line miles of improvement program of the North Slope Borough, and to seismic data. The seismic program provided the detailed the KIC/ASRC exploratory well drilled on Native land. subsurface data on the area's oil and gas potential. Kaktovik Inupiat Corporation (KIC), the village profit corporation formed as a result of ANCSA, operates a village The U.S. Geological Survey and Bureau of Land store, selling fuel oil, aviation fuel, and snowmachines.- Management analyzed these data in assessing the Kaktovik residents are also shareholders in the Arctic Slope hydrocarbon potential of the area. The results indicate that Regional Corporation (ASRC), the regional profit corporation the 1002 area has the geologic elements necessary for organized under ANCSA. hydrocarbon formation and entrapment. Sedimentary rocks in the area include organic source rocks necessary to produce oil, and thick sequences of reservoir rock where hydrocarbons can accumulate. Equally as important, the OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL OF area appears to have favorable geologic structures for THE 1002 AREA trapping and holding hydrocarbons, such as the Marsh Creek anticline in the western portion of the 1002 area. A high potential for significant discoveries of oil and gas in the 1002 area has long been recognized. Explorers The U.S. Geological Survey and Bureau of Land at the turn of the century found oil seeps and oil-stained Management made, based on their analyses, estimates of sands on this part of the Arctic coastal plain. the potential volumes of oil and gas in-place and likely to be economically recoverable. Although the geologic Oil and gas exploration in the Arctic began in 1944 indications and seismic interpretations are extremely on the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska. Exploration by oil encouraging, only exploratory drilling can confirm the companies on Federal and State lands east of the Colville presence of oil. The estimates contain a high degree of River in the 1960's culminated in 1968 in the discovery of uncertainty as reflected in the methods and assumptions the Prudhoe Bay oil field, the largest in North America. In used by each agency. In-place and recoverable figures are 1982 the adjacent Kuparuk River field came on line, and the presented as ranges of probability from the 5-percent Milne Point field was productive by 1985. probability level to the 95-percent probability level. ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 5 There is a 95-percent chance the 1002 area contains production would coincide with the time at which more than 4.8 billion barrels of oil and 11.5 trillion cubic production might begin in the 1002 area. Therefore, it was feet of gas in-place. There is a 5-percent chance the area assumed that TAPS would have the capacity to transport contains more than 29.4 billion barrels of oil and 64.5 trillion- dil fromi the 1002 area. cubic feet of gas in-place. The average of the range of in- place estimates yields a mean estimate of 13.8 billion The development scenarios depicted typical barrels of oil and 31.3 trillion cubic feet of gas in-place. infrastructures in three areas for full development of the 1002 area, and in two areas if the Porcupine caribou core Total recovery of oil and gas in-place is impossible. calving area was not leased. To estimate the amount of in-place resources thaftmay be recoverable, technological and economic conditions were ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES applied to in-place resource estimates for the area. This OF OIL DEVELOPMENT ON THE 1002 AREA resulted in an estimated 95-percent chance of 0.6 billion barrels of oil recoverable, a 5-percent chance of 9.2 billion Biologists from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service barrels of oil recoverable, and an average conditional assessed potential effects of each alternative: A--Full economically recoverable resource estimate of 3.2 billion leasing of the 1002 area: B--Leasing limited to a portion of barrels of oil. the 1002 area; C--Further oil and gas exploration; D--No further Congressional action; and E--Wildemess designation. The Department did not include gas in its recoverable calculations as it was determined that the gas resources Altematives-D and E would result in no adverse were unlikely to be economic at any point in the 30-year impacts on the fish and wildlife resources of the 1002 or period considered in the report. on its wilderness value; however, they would preclude further exploration to determine the real hydrocarbon The onshore basins in the United States that hold potential of the 1002 area and production of any the greatest potential for very large discoveries have already economically recoverable resources. been explored, except for the 1002 area. Although there are some very attractive offshore areas yet to be explored, Short-term activities associated with further the 1002 area is particularly promising because it contains exploration. such as exploratory wells, of the 1002 area will extensions of other producing trends; wells on adjacent lead to generally short-term displacement and disturbance properties show highly favorable evidence of petroleum of fish and wildlife resources and Native subsistence users. deposits. These evidences, combined with the 26 structural There wUill probably be little or no residual or long-term traps mapped or inferred for the area, indicate that the effect on wildlife populations. Wilderness attributes of the 1002 area is currently the unexplored area in the U.S. with area will be affected for a longer period of time. the greatest potential of containing giant (100 million barrels or more), or supergiant (500 million barrels or more) fields. Long-term losses in fish and wildlife resources, subsistence uses, and wilderness values would be the DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION inevitable consequences of a long-term commitment to oil OF OIL FROM THE 1002 AREA and gas development, production, and transportation. If producing fields were discovered, petroleum operations Generic scenarios were,devised for the exploration, would last for 30-90 years. Oil and gas discovery will lead development, production, and transportation of economic to industrial development. There will be pressure to use quantities of oil from the 26 potential oil prospects located this area as a base to service exploration and development throughout the 1002 area. Gas production was not on the outer continental shelf, or to intertie with projected considered. oil and gas development in the Canadian Arctic. An oil development infrastructure in the 1002 area would be an These scenarios were used for assessing impetus to develop State lands between the Canning River environmental consequences. In assessing development and the TAPS. Infrastructure in the 1002 area would serve requirements, it became apparent that the water and gravel potential offshore or other fields, adding to the long-term necessary for construction and development are in very industrial commitment. � limited supply on the 1002 area. Oil and gas development will result in widespread, An inland pipeline, roughly bisecting the 1002 area from east to west, was selected for transporting oil to long-term changes in wildlife habitats, wilderness Prudhoe Bay to connect with the existing TAPS. This environment, and Native community activities. C hanges pipeline would be elevated across most of the area to could include displacement and reduction in the size of the pipeline would be elevated across most of the area to Porcupine caribou herd. The amount of reduction and its protect the permafrost. The distance from the easternmost development in the 1002 area to TAPS Pump Station 1 long-term significance for herd viability is highly speculative. would be about 150 miles, includina the 50 miles of State Geography apparently limits the availability of suitable of Alaska land between the western boundary of the 1002 alternative calving or insect-relief habitats for the herd. area and Pump Station 1. Declines in Prudhoe Bay oil Mitigation measures can minimize some adverse effects to 6 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 1460 1450 2440 1430 ~~~ornon~~~~~~~~AI F EAUFORT SEA btaflG '~~~~~~~~~~~. w'k~~~~Ha~oi I~~~~~~~1 P F (I5 - I- / '33 /~~~~~~~~~~~x-Pr 30 Su/k lutal for[~~~/~S ~ \ I61 ~ ~ } I1 I jiI sa 3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3 1461 ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ 14 5 1 24 1 30 IE C Iv D EI I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Ir p~~~~~~~U-roaducio 3~~~~~~~ 0' acresm acespln Hyoteiclgeealzd eelpen f h 102aeaude ul eaig upe)orlmie leas~~~in (loe)iecnmcqantte 20 oil MILEdScvrd EPANATICRFGREOUREASSMNT the Porcupine caribou herd as well as to other wildlife As imports have increased, the U.S. has become species, wilderness characteristics, and subsistence uses. vulnerable to the actions of oil-exporting countries. Because �domestic production supplants imports, benefits accrue not Industrial development could profoundly affect the only frori savings that result when domestic oil costs are Native culture. Although it may provide jobs for villagers lower than imported oil costs, but also from the reduction from Kaktovik, it will hasten changes from a life style based in economic vulnerability to disruptions of supply. on subsistence and community sharing and a dependence on the land to a society with a cash-based economy. Continyed dependence on imports for a substantial Increased education, employment, and health services portion of total U.S. oil consumption creates national would be positive benefits of this change in life stSte. security concerns. The potential for supply disruption limits flexibility in foreign security policy, including the ability to respond to threats to national security. The United States FOR DOMESTIC ENERGY SOURCES could potentially be drawn into dangerous political and military situations involving the exporting nations. The 1002 area's oil fields could be the largest domestic fields discovered since Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk River. Except for these, no U.S. field with reserves Another objective of leasing the 1002 area would be River. Except for these, no U.S. field with reserves exceeding I billion barrels of oil has been discovered since production of additional domestic sources of oil as o 1948. Today, Prudhoe Bay contributes approximately 20 means of achieving a more favorable balance of percent of domestic production, but production fro international trade. In 1984 the gross cost of importing Prudhoe Bay has peaked and a decline is expected by crude oil and refined petroleum products amounted to 1988. almost 50 percent of the trade deficit. Production from the 1002 area not only would reduce the need to import oil, but would reduce the amount of foreign exchange required to A leasing program on the 1002 area could contribute billions of barrels of additional oil reserves toward the pay for the imported oil. national need for domestic sources. Oil consumption in the U.S. has exceeded domestic production for more than 20 The economic benefits from producing oil on the Not only might discovery of a giant or supergiant 1002 area would include an increase in Net National years. Not only might discovery of a giant or supergiant Economic Benefits expected to accrue as bonuses, field significantly contribute to domestic reserves and production, it could do so at a relatively low average cost royalties, rental fees, taxes, and after-tax business profits. If per barrel because of economies of scale. the entire '1002 area were leased, these benefits could be almost $15 billion in discounted dollars. Lease production Oil from the 1002 area could also help achifeve would generate revenues to the public as lease bonus several national economic and security objectives. Since payments and rentals, royalties, Federal corporate income 1970 this Nation has been heavily dependent on taxes, severance tax payments to the State, aid State petroleum imports to meet domestic demand. Imports in corporate income taxes. 1985 were expected to supply about one-third of domestic oil needs. The most recent forecast by the Department of Energy indicates that U.S. dependence on oil will increase significantly by the end of the century due to declines in domestic reserves. 8 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Proposed Recommendation The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, comprising more reserves will occur in the older, traditional oil-producing than 19 million acres, is unique and one of the largest units areas of the western United States, Texas, the Gulf Coast, of the National Wildlife Refuge System. The coastal plain and the Midcontinent. The onshore basins in the U.S. with portion of the refuge contains a variety of habitats that the greatest potential for giant fields have already been support fish and wildlife species such as muskoxen, snow explored, with the exception of the 1002 area. On the 1002 geese, arctic char, and caribou of both Central Arctic and area and other frontier regions in Alaska and offshore, Porcupine herds. At the same time, the 1.5-million-acre prospects are better for substantial reserve additions. 1002 area of the coastal plain has been predicted to contain as much as 29 billion barrels of oil and 64 trillion, The U.S. oil demand predicted by the Department cubic feet of gas, making it the most outstanding oil and of Energy for the year 2005 is 16.5 million barrels per day. gas frontier area in North America. The Department of Energy further predicts that the U.S. will need to import 7.6 million barrels of foreign oil per day by Because of the enormous hydrocarbon potential of the year 2005. Since the 1960's, the U.S. domestic oil the 1002 area and its potential contribution to the vital need production has not been adequate to fully supply the for domestic sources of oil and gas, the Department of the economy's need for competitively priced oil production, and Interior recommends that the Congress enact legislation this Nation's increasing demand for petroleum and making the entire 1002 area of the Arctic Refuge available petroleum-based products continues to surpass our ability for oil and gas leasing, and authorize the Secretary of the to meet the demand domestically. As imports have Interior to impose necessary and appropriate measures to increased, the Nation has become vulnerable to the actions protect refuge resources and values and ensure of oil-exporting countriec and cartels such as OPEC. coordinated and efficient oil and gas activities. Despite its Production of oil from the 1002 area could reduce this remote location and hostile environment, the 1002 area is foreign dependence by almost 9 percent in the year 2005. the most attractive onshore petroleum exploration target in the United States today. Development of its potential oil In addition to reducing the dependence on foreign and gas resources could make a significant contribution to oil, contributions from the 1002 area would enhance the the economy and security of this Nation, and could be national security of the country, produce a more favorable done in an environmentally responsible manner based on balance of trade by saving $8.1 billion in the year 2005 on lessons leamrned at Prudhoe Bay, on the 1002 area, at the the cost of imported oil, and provide overall enhanced KIC/ASRC exploratory well, and elsewhere, economic benefits to the Nation. The contribution made by oil from the 1002 area could be expected to span over 30 Leasing the 1002 area of the Arctic Refuge coastal years from the start of production. Based on the mean plain would provide industry the opportunity to explore for recoverable value of 3.2 billion barrels, production of oil and develop what is believed to be the last onshore area from the 1002 area in the year 2005 could account for of significant 'oil and gas potential in the United States. almost 4 percent of the daily U.S. oil demand and nearly 8 The geology of the 1002 area indicates the potential for a percent of the daily U.S. production. The net national very substantial contribution to domestic oil reserves. Data economic benefits expected to accrue from oil production from nearby wells in the Prudhoe Bay area of Alaska and in on the 1002 area could approximate $14.6 billion (present the Canadian Beaufort Sea and Mackenzie delta, combined discounted value). The Federal leasing revenues from a with the promising seismic data gathered on the 1002 area, program on the 1002 area are expected to total $8.0 billion indicate extensions of producing trends and other geologic (present discounted value). The State of Alaska would conditions extremely favorable for discovery of one or more receive a share of that Federal revenue, and also it could giant (reserves exceeding 100 million barrels) or supergiant receive an estimated $3.6 billion in tax payments related to (reserves exceeding 500 million barrels) oil fields in the 1002 leasing. area. While our domestic oil supply picture has grown Alaska North Slope crude oil, particularly from darker, the production of oil from North America's largest oil Prudhoe Bay, now contributes almost 20 percent of field at Prudhoe Bay has taught us much about how to domestic production. But contributions from Prudhoe Bay protect environmental values. Even though the billions of have peaked and a decline is expected no later than 1988. barrels of oil reserves have been brought on line and the It has been estimated that shrinking American oil reserves infrastructure developed to bring that oil oil to U.S. markets, will plunge by 1990 to their lowest levels since shortly after the fish and wildlife resources of the Prudhoe Bay area World War II, based on current drilling rates. The decline remain extremely healthy. The Central Arctic caribou herd predicted from the 1985 reserve figure of 28.4 billion barrels has increased substantially during the period that of oil (BBO) is down to 25.1 BBO in 1990, and perhaps to development has occurred within the heart of its range. as low as 23.2 BBO in 1995. Most significant declines in ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 9 Estimated at about 3,000 animals in 1972, the herd now construction and operation of the 800-mile Trans-Alaska numbers more than 13,000. Similarly, important waterfowl Pipeline. Development would proceed with the goal of no species continue to successfully nest and rear their broods net loss of habitat quality, and unnecessary adverse effects within the developed area. Although circumstances within would not be allowed to occur. the 1002 area may be somewhat different, the evidence derived from the Prudhoe Bay experience leads one to be Therefore, if the Congress authorizes leasing of the quite optimistic about the ability to explore for and develop 1002 area, the program would be designed by the the hydrocarbon potential of the 1002 area without Department to permit leasing first what the Department significant deleterious effects on the unit's wildlife resources. considers the more prospective areas. In this way, additional exploration, including off-structure test wells and Clearly, an area of such high natural resource value delineation drilling, could get underway to determine the should be afforded special protection and steps must be location and size of any oil and gas reserves on the taken to conserve the fish and wildlife and their habitats on coastal plain. Although preliminary data indicate excellent the 1002 area. Therefore, the Department recommends that oil and gas potential in the southeastern corner of the 1002 the Congress enact specific legislation that will provide the area, leasing would be phased so the "core calving" area Department of the Interior with sufficient authority to control of the PCH would be last to be explored or developed. the development of oil and gas resources in the 1002 area This phased leasing would allow time to study the effects by imposing appropriate mitigation measures. Those of oil and gas development and transportation on other aspects of the opening legislation dealing with the elements parts of the 1002 area, and to evaluate the types and of the leasing program itself should be patterned after the degree of impacts on snow geese that stage in the core act authorizing leasing of the National Petroleum Reserve- calving area and on the PCH. These studies would be Alaska, and should address other appropriate matters such used to develop any additional mitigation measures as unitization, drainage, and suspension, as well as necessary to avoid or reduce impacts, and to determine incorporate the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 to the extent compensation required in the event of significant that it would not be inconsistent with this special unavoidable losses of habitat quality. legislation. Provisions should include the authority to issue regulations that ensure environmental integrity in all oil and Authority for administering the leasing program gas operations in the area. This special legislation should should be vested in the Department, to be exercised grant the Secretary of the Interior maximum authority to through the FWS and Bureau of Land Management (BLM). structure a leasing program that permits the exploration, As the agency with direct jurisdiction over these lands, the development, and production of these oil and gas FWS must be delegated primary responsibility for overseeing resources in a manner that results in no unnecessary all aspects of oil and gas exploration, development, and adverse effects on the refuge's fish and wildlife and their production within Arctic Refuge boundaries that could affect habitats and avoids unnecessary duplication of oil and gas surface resources and values. BLM would use its expertise activities. Further, such a program must ensure that any in mineral leasing and development to assist FWS in unavoidable habitat losses are fully compensated. administering the leasing program. Competitive lease sales would be held in accordance with a timetable established Because the area has not been fully explored by by BLM, after consultation with FWS regarding using exploratory drilling, it cannot be precisely determined environmental considerations. Development of the leases where or how much development is likely to occur in the must be designed to avoid or minimize disturbance to 1002 area. To assess anticipated impacts, the Fish and wildlife and other surface resources; produce oil and gas in Wildlife Service (FWS) biologists based their analysis on the most orderly, efficient, and economical manner; and development scenarios using the mean estimated maximize the contribution of the 1002 area's oil and gas recoverable resource figures for prospects in the 1002 area production to the national need for additional domestic considered economical under the most likely scenario. If sources of energy. the entire 1002 area were leased and subsequently developed, the assessment predicts that there may be In accordance with the August 9, 1983, agreement some long-term, widespread effects on the area's water between Arctic Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC) and the resources, the Porcupine caribou herd (PCH), muskoxen, Department, "no leasing or other development leading to and the wilderness values of the area, for at least as long production of oil and gas from ASRC lands shall be as oil and gas development activities influence the area. undertaken until Congress authorizes such activities on Overall, however, most adverse environmental effects would Refuge lands within the coastal plain or on ASRC lands, or be minimized or eliminated through mitigation based on the both." Adoption of this recommendation by the Congress, vast amount of information and technology acquired during even without specific reference to the ASRC lands, would the development of the Prudhoe Bay area and from open those lands to the production of oil and gas. 10 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR DRAFT ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Report and recommendation to the Congress of the United States and legislative environmental impact statement property of CSC Library U.S. DEPARTMFNT Or COMMERCE NOAA COA?'t S' ,,.ENTER / 'r', - .l 22. -~ t- S o' AVENUE - .'405-2413 NOVEMBER 1986 ~~- ~ In accordance with Section 1002 of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act Prepared by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service _ Ad in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey . -.o . and the Bureau of Land Management /+ � ~ DRAFT ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Report and recommendation to the Congress of the United States and legislative environmental impact statement November 1986 Copies are available from: Noreen Clough Clayton Hardy Division of Refuge Management Division of Planning U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 18th & C Streets, N.W., Room 2343 1011 E. Tudor Road Washington, [D.C. 20240 Anchorage, Alaska 99503 Copies can also be seen at: Anchorage Public Libraries Arctic Village Community Library Fairbanks Public Libraries Kenai Community Library Juneau Public Libraries North Slope Borough School Library Arctic Slope Regional Corporation Library COVER PHOTOGRAPH A typical view southward across the coastal plain toward the foothills and the Brooks Range. United States Department of the Interior ~~' ~~~~ OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY WASHINGTON, D.C. 20240 November 1986 Dear Reader: This resource assessment of the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, has been prepared to fulfill the requirements of Section 1002(h) of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act. A legislative environmental impact state- ment has been integrated into the report to satisfy the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act. The report culminates more than 5 years of biological baseline studies, surface geological studies, and two seasons of seismic exploration surveys. The analyses of the data represent the exhaustive efforts of more than 50 scientists of the Department of the Interior. Section 1002(h)(6) asks for a recommendation as to whether or not the coastal plain should be opened for oil and gas activity. To assist in making this recommendation, the report analyzes a range of alternatives for management of the Arctic Refuge coastal plain., leasing the entire area for oil and gas development; leasing a limited area; permitting additional exploration, to include exploratory wells; taking no action regarding oil and gas activity but including the area in the comprehensive conserva- tion planning process for the entire refuge; or designating the coastal plain as wilderness. The potential environmental consequences of implementing these alternatives are also examined. Based on the analyses presented, on the national need for domestic sources of oil and gas, and on the ability of industry to minimize damage as learned from oil and gas activities elsewhere in the Alaskan Arctic, I am proposing full leasing of the p ~~~coastal plain. To afford the special protection necessary to conserve the high natural resource values of the coastal plain, the recommendation asks for authority to impose restrictions to ensure environmental integrity during oil and gas operations. Develop- ment must result in no unnecessary adverse effects, and unavoidable habitat losses should be fully compensated. Your views and opinions on this draft report are solicited to assist the Secretary in making his final decision. Comments will be responded to and included as a part of the final report to the Congress. Please send your written comments to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Attn: Division of Refuge Management, 2343 Main Interior Bldg., 18th and C Sts., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20240. The Secretary of the Interior will make the final recommendation, but the ultimate decision for the management of the Arctic Refuge coastal plain is for the Congress to make. Sincerely yours, WILLIAM P. HORN Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Draft legislative environmental impact statement, 1986 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE REPORT Members of Interaaencv Advisorv Work Group Noreen CLOUGH, FWS, IAWG leader Clayton HARDY, FWS, IAWG Regional co-leader Fish and Wildlife Service: U.S. Geological Survey Bureau of Land Management: Glenn W. ELISON Max C. BREWER James E. CALLAHAN Emil T. HEUER, Jr. Oswald GIRARD Arian H. KOHL Dudley D. RICE Robert O. SCHROTT Jules V. TILESTON Priscilla C. PATTON, BLM, Geologist, Report Editor Ann Coe CHRISTIANSEN, USGS, Geologist, Report Editor CHAPTER I. PURPOSE AND NEED FOR THIS REPORT Clayton HARDY FWS Program analyst Anchorage, AK Emil T. HEUER FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK CHAPTER II. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT Michael J. AMARAL FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Steven C. AMSTRUP FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Alan W. BRACKNEY FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Max C BREWER USGS Geologist/geophysicist Anchorage, AK Charles E. DIETERS FWS Archeologist Anchorage, AK Glenn W. ELISON FWS Arctic Refuge Manager/Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Nancy A. FELIX FWS Botanist Fairbanks, AK Douglas J. FRUGE FWS Zoologist Fairbanks, AK Gerald W. GARNER FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Donald P. GARRETT FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Libby HALPIN FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Clayton HARDY FWS Program analyst Anchorage, AK Emil T. HEUER, Jr. FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK William L. KIRK FWS Botanist Anchorage, AK Danial J. LaPLANT FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Robert R. REEDY FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK William H. MATTICE FWS Realty specialist Anchorage, AK Frances J. MAUER FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Russell M. OATES FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Larry W. PANK FWS Research biologist Fairbanks, AK Ann G. RAPPOPORT FWS Wildlife biologist/Assessment leader Anchorage, AK Gerald REID FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Patricia E. REYNOLDS FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Scott L. SCHLIEBE FWS Biologist Anchorage, AK Jules V. TILESTON BLM Resource Specialist Anchorage, AK Gregory J. WEILER FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Robin L. WEST FWS Fisheries biologist Fairbanks, AK V CHAPTER III. ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE 1002 AREA Donald E. ANDERS USGS Chemist Denver, CO Arthur C. BANET, Jr. BLM Geologist Anchorage, AK Robert J. BASCLE BLM Geologist Anchorage, AK Kenneth J. BIRD USGS Geologist Menlo Park, CA Gary W. BROUGHAM BLM Geophysicist Anchorage, AK Terry R. BRUNS USGS Geophysicist Menlo Park, CA James E. CALLAHAN BLM Geologist Anchorage, AK Robert A. CROVELLI USGS Mathematical statistician Denver, CO Raymond C. CULOTTA USGS Seismic data processor Memlo Park, CA Kimberly I. CUNNINGHAM USGS Geologist Denver, CO Theodore A. DAWS USGS Chemist Denver, CO David A. DINTER USGS Geophysicist Menlo Park, CA Gordon L. DOLTON USGS Geologist Denver, CO Michael A. FISHER USGS Geophysicist Menlo Park, CA Richard L. FOLAND BLM Geophysicist Anchorage, AK Donald L. GAUTIER USGS Geologist Denver, CO Arthur GRANTZ USGS Geologist Menlo Park, CA Sarah B. GRISCOM USGS Geologist Menlo Park, CA William S. HAUSER BLM Petroleum engineer Anchorage, AK John S. KELLEY USGS Geologist Menlo Park, CA Douglas J. LALLA BLM Geophysicist Anchorage, AK Leslie B. MAGOON USGS Geologist Menlo Park, CA Michael L. MENGE USGS Geologist Anchorage, AK C. M. MOLENAAR USGS Geologist Denver, CO Stephen L. ROBBINS USGS Geophysicist Denver, CO Alan A. ROBERTS USGS Chemist Denver, CO Charles N. THRELKELD USGS Physical science technician Denver, CO Phillip V. WOODWARD USGS Physical science technician Menlo Park, CA John S. YOUNG * BLM Mineral economist Anchorage, AK CHAPTER IV. DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE Perry G. FRANCIS BLM General engineer Anchorage, AK William S. HAUSER BLM Petroleum engineer Anchorage, AK CHAPTER V. ALTERNATIVES Glenn W. ELISON FWS Arctic Refuge Manager/Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Oswald GIRARD USGS Geologist Reston, VA Emil T. HEUER, Jr. FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Robert O. SCHROTT BLM Supervisory geologist Washington, DC Jules V. TILESTON BLM Resource specialist Anchorage, AK Vl CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES Max C. BREWER USGS Geologist/Geophysicist Anchorage, AK Glenn W. ELISON FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Clayton HARDY FWS Program analyst Anchorage, AK David E. McGILLIVARY FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Ann G. RAPPOPORT FWS Wildlife biologist/Assessment leader Anchorage, AK Gerald REID FWS Wildlife biologist Anchorage, AK Patricia E. REYNOLDS FWS Wildlife biologist Fairbanks, AK Jules V. TILESTON BLM Resource specialist Anchorage, AK Robin L. WEST FWS Fisheries biologist Fairbanks, AK CHAPTER VII. OIL AND GAS--NATIONAL NEED FOR DOMESTIC SOURCES AND THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION Max TAVES BLM Petroleum engineer Washington, DC Daniel H. WEDDERBURN BLM Economist Washington, DC John S. YOUNG * BLM Mineral economist Anchorage, AK CARTOGRAPHY: USGS, Denver Units A and B of the Thematic Mapping Section, National Mapping Division, Rocky Mountain Area, U.S. Geological Survey CLERICAL SUPPORT: FWS, Anchoraqe Karen Edwards, Tauline Peppers FWS, Denver Retah Bailey, Lynne Dickinson, Margaret Grenvik, Sharon Rose, Barbara Smith, Vicki Tilden * Current location--Cheyenne, WY VII ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................. 1 CHAPTER II. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT--Continued Biological environment--Continued The 1002 area ........................................2 Terrestrial and fresh-water environments--Continued Vegetation and terrain types . ....................................... 3 Sadlerochit Spring Special Area ................................... 26 Fish and wildlife species . ..................................... . 3 Coastal and marne environment............................. 27 Caribou ........................................Fish and wildlife resources ........................................ 27 Other mammals . .............................................................3 Terrestrial mammals ....................................................... 27 Birds,,4 Caribou .27 Birds ........................................Caribou ........................................ 427 Fish.A MuskoxM . . 29 Fish ........................................Muskoxen .......................................... 29 Moose .......................................................................... 30 Kaktovik and its Inupiat villagers ........................................ 430 Oil and gas potential of the 1002 area .............................4 Dall sheep ................................................................... 31 Development and transportation of oil from Wolves.................................. 31 the 1002 area....................................6 Arctic foxes.................................................................. 31 Environmental consequences of oil development Wolverines .31 on the 1002 area ........................................................................ 32 The contribution to U.S. needs for domestic Arctic ground squirrels and other rodents.............. 32 enysources .................................Marine mammals ............................................................ 33 energy sources .................................................................. 8ar bears.................................................................. 33 Polar bears ........................................ 33 CHAPTERS1. PURPOSE AND NEED FOR Seals and whales ....................................................... 34 THIS REPORT .................................. . Birds ........................... . 34 Swans, geese, and ducks ........................................ 34 Introduction............................9 ................................................Seabirds and shorebirds ........................................... 35 Legislative history ........................................9.................................... 36 Program description and implementation .......................... 10 Ptarmigan ........................................ 36 Baseline study of fish and wildlife resources ............... 11 Passerines ........................................ 36 Oil and gas exploration programs . ................................. 11Fish ......................................................................... 36 Report preparation .......................................prp t .11 Threatened and endangered species .......................... 38 Standard for environment protection .................................. 12 Bowhead and gray whales ....................................... 38 References cited ......................................... 13 Arctic peregri an ............................................... 38 Socioeconomic environment................................................ 38 CHAPTER II. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT..... 15 Population.............................. 38 Existing land use ..................................... 39 Physical geography and processes .................................. 15 Subsistence use..................................... 39 Physical geography........................................................... 15 Land status..................................................................... 42 Climate ........................................17 Native allotments............................................................ 43 Permafrost............................................................... 18 Industrial use .................................................................. 43 Soils and other materials........................................ 20 Government and military use ..................................... 43 Water resources .........................................21 State and local political and economic systems.......... 43 Erosion and mass movement ........................................ 22 Publi.............................. 44 Seismicity.............................. 22 Archeology.............................. 45 Air quality ........................................23 Recreation........................................ .45 Noise ............................. .......................................... 23 Wilderness and esthetics .................. . .45.......................... 45 Biological environment.................................................................... 23 References cited for Physical geography Terrestrial and fresh-water environments ........................ 23 and processes............................................................. 46 I Vegetation. 23 Wetlands.25 CHAPTER III. ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND AEgetINGIONE ...................................................................... 2..... WTerraindps .................................. 25 G AS POTENTIAL AND PETROLEUM Terrain types u................................................................. GEOLOGY OF THE 1002 AREA 49 Foothills ...................................... 2549 River flood plains ...................................................... 25 Hilly coastal plains....................................................26....... Introduction49 tFlat thaw-lake plains ............................................. 49 Mountains ........................................26 Summary of methods........................................ 51 Petroleum geology................................................................ 51 CONTENTS IX p~~~~Sisadohrmtras.........................Gvrmn n iiayue.................... CHAPTER 111. ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND GAS CHAPTER IV. DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION POTENTIAL AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF INFRASTRUCTURE--Continued 4 THE 1002 AREA--Continued Transportation options for oil and gas production-- Petroleum geology--Continued Continued Sedimentary rocks ............................................................. 51 Pipelines--Continued Pre-Mississippian rocks (basement complex) ............ 51 Pipeline routing ............................................................... 84 Ellesmerian sequence .................................................... 54 Inland routes ............................................................... 84 Depositional history .................................................... 54 C oastal routes ............................................................ 85 Brookian sequence ........................................................ 57 Subsea marine routes ................................................ 85 Depositional history .................................................... 57 Tankers ............................................................................... 86 Structure ............................................................................. 58 Other transportation methods ........................................ 86 Petroleum geochemistry ................................................... 61 Natural gas transportation system............................... 86 Assessment of the oil and gas potential .......................... 62 References cited ................................................................... 87 In-place oil and gas resources ........................................ 62 Description of plays ....................................................... 63 CHAPTER V. ALTERNAT IVES ............................. 89 Topset play .................................................................. 63 Turbidite play ............................................................... 64 Alternative A--Full leasing of the 1002 area ...................... 89 Thomson-Kemik play .................................................. 64 Alternative B--Limited leasing of the 1002 area ................ 91 Undeformed Pre-Mississippian play ......................... 65 Alternative C--Further exploration ........................................ 92 Imbricate Fold Belt play ............................................. 65 Alternative D--No action ....................................................... 92 Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian play.............. 66 Alternative E--Wilderness designation ................................. 93 Undeformed Ellesmerian play .................................... 66 Reference cited ..................................................................... 94 Estimates as distributions ............................................. 67 Estimated in-place resources ....................................... 67 CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL Economically recoverable oil resources ......................... 68 CONSEQUENCES....................................................... 95 Methods .......................................................................... 68 PRESTO model inputs ................................................... 70 Introduction............................................................................ 95 Prospects ..................................................................... 70 D evelopi ng the assessment ............................................. 95 Zones ........................................................................... 70 Fish and Wildlife Service mitigation policy..................... 97 Volumetric parameters ................................................ 70 Assumptions ...................................................................... 98 Geologic risk ............................................................... 70 Alternative A--Full leasing ..................................................... 98 Economic inputs ......................................................... 71 Effects on physical geography and processes ............ 98 PRESTO analysis results ............................................... 72 Consequences of geological and geophysical Resources by block ....................................................... 72 exploration ..................................................................... 99 Natural gas economics ..................................................... 72 Consequences of exploratory drilling.......................... 99 References cited ................................................................... 73 Consequences of development drilling....................... 100 Consequences resulting from construction of CHAPTER IV. DEVELOPMENT AND roads, pipelines, and marine and production TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE...... 75 facilities .......................................................................... 101 Effects on biological environment ................................... 101 Introduction ............................................................................ 75 Vegetation, wetlands, and terrain types ...................... 102 Exploration, development, and production ........................ 75 Sadlerochit Spring Special Area................................... 104 Exploration .......................................................................... 75 Coastal and marine environment ................................. 105 Additional geological and geophysical exploration.... 75 Terrestrial mammals ....................................................... 105 Exploratory drilling .......................................................... 75 Caribou ........................................................................ 105 Development ....................................................................... 77 Muskoxen ....................................................................112 Production .......................................................................... 78 Moose .......................................................................... 114 Central production facility ............................................. 79 Dall sheep ................................................................... 114 Drilling pads and wells .................................................. 80 Wolves .......................................................................... 114 Airstrip ............................................................................. 81 Arctic foxes ..................................................................115 Field roads and pipelines ............................................. 81 Wolverines ................................................................... 115 Marine facility .................................................................. 81 B rown bears ................................................................ 116 Transportation options for oil and gas production .......... 82 Arctic ground squirrels and other rodents.............. 117 Pipelines ............................................................................. 82 M arine mammals ............................................................ 117 Surge and storage tanks .............................................. 83 Polar bears .................................................................. 117 Valves .............................................................................. 83 S eal s and whales ....................................................... 118 Communications ............................................................. 83 Birds ................................................................................ 119 Roads .............................................................................. 84 Sw ans, geese, and ducks ........................................ 120 Airfields for construction camps .................................. 84 Seabirds and shorebirds .......................................... 122 Construction camps for roads and pipelines ............ 84 Raptors ......................................................................... 123 Oil-spill contingency, including leak detection ............ 84 Ptarmigan ..................................................................... 124 X ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES- CHAPTER VI. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES-- Continued Continued Alternative A--Full leasing--Continued Alternative B--Limited leasing--Continued Effects on biological environment--Continued Summary of unavoidable impacts, Alternative B ........... 139 Birds--Continued Alternative C--Further exploration ........................................ 140 Passerines ................................................................... 124 Effects on physical geography and processes ............ 140 Fish ........................................ 125 Effects on biological environment ................................... 140 Threatened and endangered species .......................... 126 Vegetation, wetlands, and terrain types ................ 140 Bowhead and gray whales ....................................... 126 Sadlerochit Spring Special Area ................................... 140 Arctic peregrine falcon ............................................... 126 Coastal and marine environment ................................. 140 Effects on socioeconomic environment .......................... 126 Fish and wildlife resources............................... 140 Population ....................................................................... 126 Effects on socioeconomic environment .......................... 140 Existing land use ..................................... 127 Summary of unavoidable impacts, Alternative C .......... 141 Subsistence use ........................................ 127 Alternative D--No action ........................................ 141 Land status and military and industrial use ............ 129 Alternative E--Wilderness designation ............................. 141 Native allotments.............................. 129 Irreversible and irretrievable commitments of State and local political and economic systems ....... 130 resources ............................................................................. 142 Public services and facilities ..................................... 130 Mineral resources.............................................................. 142 Archeology................................................................... 130 Biological r esources.......................................................... 142 Recreation, wilderness, and esthetics .................... 131 Historical resources .......................................................... 142 Summary of unavoidable impacts, Alternative A ........... 131 Comparison of short-term uses and Alternative B--Limited leasing................................. 132 long-term productivity........................................................ 143 Effects on physical geography and processes ............ 132 Summary of recommended mitigation for the Effects on biological environment ................................... 13 2 1002 area ........................................ 145 Vegetation, wetlands, and terrain types ...................... 132 Summary of effects for Alternatives A, B, C, D, and E Sadlerochit Spring Special Area ................................... 133 on the physical, biological, and socioeconomic Coastal and marine environment ................................. 133 environments of the 1002 area ......................................... 148 Terrestrial mammals ....................................................... 133 References cited for Biological environment Caribou ........................................ 133 (Chapters II and VI) .......................................................... 150 Muskoxen .................................................................... 134 Moose .......................................................................... 134 Dall sheep . . . ..................................... 135 CHAPTER VII. OIL AND GAS--NATIONAL Wolves.......................................................................... 135 NEED FOR DOMESTIC SOURCES AND Arctic foxes.................................................................. 135 THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL Wolverines ........................................ 135 CONTRIBUTION .......................................................... 161 Brown bears ................................................................ 135 Arctic ground squirrels and other rodents .............. 136 Introduction ........................................ 161 Marine mammals ............................................................ 136 The 1002 area's potential contribution to U.S. needs ..... 161 Polar bears .................................................................. 136 Contribution to domestic oil demand and supply ........ 161 Seals and whales ....................................................... 136 Contribution to national objectives ................................. 164 Birds ................................................................................ 136 Fostering adequate energy supplies at Swans, geese, and ducks ........................................ 136 reasonable costs .......................................................... 164 Seabirds and shorebirds ........................................... 136 Reducing dependence on imported oil ....................... 164 Raptors......................................................................... 137 Enhancing national security................................ 164 Ptarmigan ..................................................................... 137 Achieving a more favorable balance of Passerines ......................................... .......................... 137 in ternational trade................................... 164 Fish ........................................ 137 Pr ovidi ng economic benefits to the Nation ................ 165 Threatened and endangered species .......................... 137 Providing Federal, State, and local revenues ............. 165 Bowhead and gray whales ....................................... 137 Continued use of the Trans-Alaska pipeline Arctic peregrine falcon ............................................... 137 system .......................................................................... 165 Effects on socioeconomic environment .......................... 138 The 1002 area's oil potential compared to Population ....................................................................... 138 U.S. p ro ved oil reserves .................................................... 165 Existing land use ..................................... 138 Anticipated markets for the 1002 area's oil ...................... 166 Subsistence use ........................................ 138 Conclusion ................................ 166 Land status and military and industrial use ............ 138 References cited ................................................................... 166 Native allotments......................................................... 138 State and local political and economic systems ....... 138 CHAPTER VIII. SECRETARY'S Public services and facilities ..................................... 138 RECOMMENDATION ........................................ 169 Archeology ................................................................... 138 Recreation, wilderness, and esthetics .................... 139 CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION ......... 171 CONTENTS XI ILLUSTRATIONS [Plates in pocket] Plate 1. Maps of archeological and natural areas, Figure 111-5. Diagrammatic section showing strati- fishery, moose, brown bear, and polar bear graphic relations of the Ellesmerian resources in the 1002 area, Arctic National sequence along the mountain front Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. south of the 1002 area . ........................... 54 2. Maps of caribou and muskoxen resources in 111-6. Map summarizing the northern limits the 1002 area, Arctic National Wildlife of the Ellesmerian potential reservoir Refuge, Alaska. rocks under the Lower Cretaceous 3. Maps of bird resources in the 1002 area, unconformity .............................................. 55 Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. 111-7. Maps summarizing the regional and 4. Well correlation sections showing selected local geologic trends of the Lisburne test data, Arctic Slope of Alaska. Group, Ledge Sandstone Member 5. Selected seismic lines across the 1002 area, of the Ivishak Formation, and Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. Kemik Sandstone and Thomson sand... 56 111-8. Diagrammatic section showing strati- graphic relations of the Brookian Figure I-1. Index map of northern Alaska showing sequence between the Mobil West location of the 1002 area in relation Staines State 2 well and the north- to the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, west corner of the 1002 area ................ 59 the National Petroleum Reserve in 111-9. Generalized near-surface structural Alaska, and Prudhoe Bay ........................ 10 trends in Brookian rocks . ........................ 60 111-10. Map of the 1002 area showing trends Figure I1-1. Map of northeastern Alaska showing of structural culminations in Mesozoic the 1002 area and important geo- and Tertiary rocks having petroleum graphic features ........................................ 15 potential ...................................................... 60 11-2. Map showing generalized surficial I1-11. Generalized stratigraphic column deposits of the 1002 area ....................... 16 for the northern part of the 1002 11-3. Schematic diagram of the effect of area showing intervals of assessed surface features on the distribution of plays ........................................................... 63 permafrost .................................................. 19 111-12. Schematic section showing the seven 11-4. Map showing migration routes and assessed plays in the 1002 area .. ......... 63 winter range of the Porcupine caribou 111-13. Map showing locations of the Topset, herd ............................................................ 28 Turbidite, and Imbricate Fold Belt 11-5. Graph showing estimated numbers of plays in the 1002 area ............................. 64 muskoxen in postcalving populations 111-14. Map showing locations of the Thomson- in the Arctic Refuge, 1972-84 .................. 30 Kemik, Undeformed Pre-Mississippian, 11-6. Diagram showing yearly cycle of subsis- Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian, tence use by Kaktovik residents ............ 39 and Undeformed Ellesmerian plays in 11-7. Map showing extreme extent of the 1002 area ............................................ 65 subsistence use by Kaktovik 111-15. Graphs of probability curves showing the residents in the years 1923-83 ............... 40 estimated in-place oil and total gas resources of the 1002 area . .................... 67 Figure II1-1. Map showing seismically mapped 111-16. Map showing resource blocks A-D of the prospects and resource blocks in 1002 area and diagram showing the the 1002 area ............................................ 49 approximate distribution of mean values 111-2. Bar graph: Conditional oil resources of of in-place oil and gas resources . ......... 68 some prospects in the 1002 area 111-17. Graph and diagram: estimated in-place compared with estimated recoverable oil for plays in the 1002 area, showing reserves of selected producing individual probability curves and fields ........................................................... 50 relative contributions of the plays .......... 69 111-3. Map of the 1002 area showing loca- 111-16. Graph and diagram: estimated in-place tions of Cretaceous and Tertiary total gas for plays in the 1002 area, outcrops ..................................................... 52 showing individual probability curves 111-4. Generalized stratigraphic column for and relative contributions of the plays .. 69 the 1002 area showing significant geologic events and potential source rocks ............................................. 53 Xll ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Figure IV-1. Diagram showing directional drilling from Table IV-1. Winter water depths at selected loca- a single drilling location ........................... 78 tions on the 1002 area ............................ 80 IV-2. Diagram showing horizontal deviation versus well depth ..................................... 79 Table V-1. In-place oil-related facilities IV-3. Diagram showing production-well assumed to be associated with design ......................................................... 81 development of oil resources made IV-4. Typical cross section of pipeline available by full leasing or limited and road development ............................. 83 leasing of the 1002 area .......................... 91 IV-5. Graph showing land-pipeline pipe diameter versus pumping rate ................. 83 Table VI-1. Definitions of environmental effects ........... 96 VI-2. Evaluation species for the 1002 area Figure V-1. Maps showing hypothetical generalized resource assessment ............................... 97 development of the 1002 area under VI-3. Resource categories and mitigation full leasing or limited leasing goals ........................................................... 98 if economic quantities of oil VI-4. Central Arctic caribou herd population, are discovered.............................. 90 calving in Prudhoe Bay area, and Prudhoe Bay development activities, 1969-85 ........................................ 106 VI-5. Porcupine Caribou Herd calving area TABLES potentially affected by development under full leasing or limited Table 11-1. Landsat-identified vegetation cover leasing ........................................................ 107 classes and correlation with FWS VI-6. Muskox range potentially affected wetland classifications, 1002 by development under full leasing area .................................... 24 or limited leasing ....................................... 113 11-2. Observed muskox range within the VI-7. Snow goose staging habitat potentially Arctic National Wildlife Refuge affected by development under full and within the 1002 area, 1982-85 ......... 30 leasing or limited leasing ......................... 122 11-3. Kaktovik participation in subsistence use VI-8. Irretrievable and irreversible commit- according to resource harvested ............ 41 ments of resources .................................. 143 Table II111-1. Estimates of undiscovered, conditional, Table VII-1. U.S. oil fields having ultimate recovery economically recoverable oil resources exceeding 1 billion barrels of oil ............. 162 in the 1002 area and elsewhere ............. 50 VII-2. The 1002 area's potential contribution 111-2. Data on petroleum prospects in the to U.S. oil demand, production, 1002 area ........................................ 61 and imports ............................................... 162 111-3. Reservoir volume parameters used VII-3. Historical recoverable U.S. oil and in estimating recoverable resources ....... 71 natural gas finding rates .......................... 163 111-4. Undiscovered, conditional, economically VII-4. Estimated revenues from full leasing recoverable oil resources in the 1002 and limited leasing of the 1002 area..... 165 area ............................................................. 72 VII-5. The 1002 area's conditional, economically 111-5. Distribution, by block, of estimated recoverable oil resources compared unconditional mean recoverable with total U.S. proved oil reserves ......... 166 oil resources in the 1002 area ................ 72 XIII ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ANCSA -- Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 ANGTS -- Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System ANILCA -- Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 ANS -- Alaskan North Slope ANWR -- Arctic National Wildlife Refuge ASRC -- Arctic Slope Regional Corporation BBO -- billion barrels of oil CAH -- Central Arctic caribou herd CEQ -- Council on Environmental Quality CCP -- Comprehensive conservation plan DCF -- discounted cash flow DEW Line -- Distant Early Warning Line EOR -- enhanced oil recovery FASP -- Fast appraisal system for petroleum KIC -- Kaktovik Inupiat Corporation MBO -- million barrels of oil MBO/Y -- million barrels of oil per year MEFS - minimum economic field size MMS -- [U.S.] Minerals Management Service NARL -- Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (Barrow) NEPA -- National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 NEPP -- national energy policy plan NNEB -- net national economic benefit NOAA -- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NPRA -- National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska NSB -- North Slope Borough OPEC -- Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Members: Algeria Libya Ecuador Nigeria Gabon Qatar Indonesia Saudi Arabia Iran United Arab Emirates Iraq Venezuela Kuwait PCH -- Porcupine caribou herd PRESTO -- Probabilistic resource estimates -- offshore TAPS -- Trans-Alaska Pipeline System TCFG -- trillion cubic feet of gas XIV EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT In December 1980, the Congress passed the Alaska These oil resources are likely to be found in the 26 National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA)-- identified subsurface structures scattered across the coastal landmark legislation setting aside more than 100 million plain, and each represents an opportunity for a significant acres of Federal lands in Alaska in conservation system oil discovery. Additionally, other areas within the coastal units (that is, parks, refuges, and so on). Prior to ANILCA, plain have excellent potential for containing hydrocarbon the Arctic National Wildlife Range occupied 8.9 million acres accumulations in stratigraphic traps and other structures of northeastern Alaska. ANILCA enlarged the unit to 17.9 that cannot be defined with currently available geologic million acres and changed its name to the Arctic National data. Wildlife Refuge. A range of options exists for the future management Of special interest to the Congress during its of the 1002 area. In light of the information obtained, the ANILCA debates was the coastal plain of the Arctic Refuge. entire coastal plain, or portions thereof, have the resource Not only was the area prized for its outstanding wildlife potential for a successful oil and gas leasing program. Or, values, it was also suspected of having the most to acquire more definitive data, an exploration program outstanding oil and gas potential of any unexplored obtaining additional seismic surveys and drilling offstructure onshore area in the country. The Congress created exploratory wells in selected areas could be authorized by section 1002 of ANILCA to develop information about the Congress. On the other hand, the Congress could wildlife and energy values of the 1.5-million acres Arctic take no further legislative action and the 1002 area would Refuge coastal plain ("1002 area"). Section 1002 required be managed as an integral part of the entire refuge under further study of the area's fish and wildlife resources, and the direction of its comprehensive conservation plan. limited exploration of its oil and gas potential. A report to Finally, the Congress could designate the area as a the Congress on the results of these studies and wilderness addition to the refuge's current 9 million recommendations by the Secretary of the Interior for future wilderness acres. management of the coastal plain area were also required. On the basis of the analysis presented, and in In the years since ANILCA was passed, the U.S. consideration of this country's need for domestic sources Fish and Wildlife Service conducted a series of biological of oil and gas, the Department proposes that the Congress studies of the area's fish and wildlife resources and their authorize the Secretary to lease the entire 1002 area for oil habitats. During the same period, the Bureau of Land and gas exploration and development. An area of Management, the U.S. Geological Survey, and exploration approximately 242,000 acres in the southeast part of the crews from private industry conducted surface geologic 1002 area is used as a core calving area by the Porcupine studies. Approximately 1,300 gravity readings and more than caribou herd. To afford protection to this special area, the 1,300 line miles of seismic data were acquired by industry, Department 'would want to structure a leasing program that under special-use permits issued by the Fish and Wildlife offered this area last for leasing. This would permit Service. experience obtained from development in the rest of the 1002 area to be applied in developing mitigation for The Department's analysis of the geologic studies activities in the calving area. The Congress would also be and surveys predicts a 95-percent chance of the 1002 area asked to grant authority to the Department to impose any containing more than 4.8 billion barrels of oil and 11.5 restrictions necessary to ensure that unnecessary adverse trillion cubic feet of gas in-place. There is a 5-percent effects are avoided and to require compensation in the chance that the area contains more than 29.4 billion barrels event of significant unavoidable losses of habitat quality. of oil and 64.5 trillion cubic feet of gas in-place. The average of the range of in-place estimates yields a mean Section 1002 also required an assessment of estimate of 13.8 billion barrels of oil and 31.3 trillion cubic potential environmental consequences if oil and gas feet of gas in-place. The area is clearly the most development occurred in the 1002 area. To facilitate this outstanding oil and gas frontier remaining in the United assessment, scenarios were developed using the mean States, and could contribute substantially to our domestic estimated recoverable oil and gas resource figures for the energy supplies. Moreover, development of 3.2 BB of area, considering prospects that would be economically recoverable oil resources could yield Net National Economic recoverable under a most likely situation. Using these Benefits from $79.4 billion, based on an oil price of $33 per scenarios, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service determined barrel, to more than $325 billion, if a more optimistic possible environmental consequences. economic and resource assumption of 9.2 BB of recoverable oil at $40 per barrel is used (1984 dollars). The assessment predicted environmental These benefits would be manifested in jobs, lower balance- consequences of developing the entire 1002 area to be of-trade deficits, and increased tax revenues to all levels of some long-term effects on the area's water resources, on government, caribou from the Porcupine herd, and on muskoxen. The EXECUTIVE SUMMARY presence of infrastructure supporting oil and gas the foothills of the Brooks Range. The 1002 area development and a pipeline to transport the oil to the near constitutes about 75 percent of the total coastal plain of by Prudhoe Bay area would eliminate the wilderness the refuge; the rest is east of the Aichilik River to the character of the 1002 area. Most adverse effects would be Canadian border, and is part of the refuge's designated minimized or eliminated through carefully applied mitigation, wilderness area. using the lessons learned and technology acquired from development at Prudhoe Bay and from construction of the Its arctic marine climate has extremely cold winters Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS). The evidence and short, cool summers. Summer temperatures average generated during the 18 years of exploration and about 400F; in the winter temperatures drop well below development at Prudhoe Bay indicates minimal impact on 0�F, with wind-chill factors to minus 800F. Persistent winds wildlife resources. Hence, it is reasonable to assume that blow throughout the year. Precipitation over the 1002 area development can proceed on the coastal plain and generate is light but frequent, with summer drizzle and light winter similar minimal effects. snows. Regardless of season, clear days on the coastal plain are uncommon. Fog and stratus clouds prevail during Highlights of the report to the Congress, prepared by the summer. In the winter, fog and blowing snow reduce the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in cooperation with the visibility. The sun is continuously above the horizon from Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Geological mid-May to the end of July, and continuously below the Survey, follow. horizon from the end of November to mid-January. THE 1002 AREA Freezeup begins by mid-September, and the ground in the 1002 area remains frozen until June. Snowfall is The 1.55-million-acre 1002 area, part of the tundra- greatest from September through November, and again in covered Arctic Coastal Plain Province, is located in the January. Numerous measurements indicated that average remote northernmost part of the Arctic Refuge. It is snow accumulations were 12 inches in 1984 and 9 inches bounded on the east by the Aichilik River, on the west by in 1985. The almost-continuous winds redistribute the the Canning and Staines Rivers, to the north by the snow, filling valleys and swales, but leaving ridgetops bare. Beaufort Sea, and to the south by township lines through Drifts along stream cutbanks can be as high as 20 feet. 1670 1580 1490 1400 0 100 MILES rea illustrated l IL 0 O100 KILOMETERS 720 _ *ALASKA ARCTIC OCEAN 72� - Barrow , EA UF T SEA Harrison Bay Prudhoe ByMacKenzie ru Point Reindeer Flaxman McKenzie 70 C--lsland 0 Bay NATIONAL PETROLEUM 0, t RESERVE IN ALASKA ' (NPRA) Chukchi Sea Ka)ak c2Xi ARCTICREFUGE RES C EWILDLIFE REFUGE a 68-, \ 0 0 KS R A N G E 2 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Rivers are fed by melting snow in the foothills and do not The Porcupine caribou herd, named for the Porcupine begin to flow until mid-May. Only a few large lakes occur River in Canada where they winter, is the larger of the two and most of these are so shallow they freeze to bottom in herds that use the refuge. The Porcupine herd is currently winter. A few shallow thaw lakes are found near the coast, estimated by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game at east of the Canning River delta. 180,000 animals. Each year the herd returns to its traditional calving grounds between the Babbage River in The entire 1002 area is underlain by continuous Canada and the Canning River in Alaska. Although permafrost except for a small area near the warm perm st Sicep floras are rune. The ulayrm distribution on the calving grounds varies from year-to-year, Sadlerochit Spring which flows year round. The upper layer most calving usually takes place in the area between the of the surface of the ground that freezes and thaws Hulahula River and the Canadian border. Certain areas annually is called the "active layer." appear to be favored by pregnant cows for calving. During the last 14 years, a 2.1-million-acre area has been identified Vegetation and Terrain Types by biologists as a concentrated calving area. Of this, 934,000 acres, or 44 percent of the area, is within the 1002 Despite its barren and desolate appearance, the 1002 area. In 1985, 82 percent of the pregnant cows in the area. In 1985, 82 percent of the pregnant cows in the area actually consists of a variety of tundra vegetation and Porcupine caribou herd used the 1002 area for calving. landform types. The Central Arctic caribou herd uses a range entirely Foothills cover about 45 percent of the 1002 area. north of the Continental Divide, from the Itkillik and Colville These areas are rich in mosses and lichens, important Rivers on the west to the Sadlerochit River on the east. components of the tundra vegetation. Barren deltas and The TAPS, Dalton Highway, and Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk The TAPS, Dalton Highway, and Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk braided river channels of the river flood plains make up as oil fields all lie within this herd's range. Despite this, the oil fields all lie within this herd's range. Despite this, the much as 25 percent of the area. Gently rolling, hilly coastal herd has been increasing, and in 1985 numbered about plains cover 22 percent of the 1002 area. Here numerous 12,000 to 14,000 animals. Cows tend to calve in an area 12,000 to 14,000 animals. Cows tend to calve in an area slightly elevated ridges and depressions cover the on or near the Canning and Staines River deltas; calving landscape. Vegetation includes sedges, mosses, lichens activity has been concentrated near the lower Kuparuk River and prostrate shrubs in well-drained areas. Tussock tundra and Canning River delta. Most years as many as 1,000 and Canning River delta. Most years as many as 1,000 occurs frequently in this hilly terrain, and its vegetative females calve on the Canning River delta within the 1002 complement includes cottongrass, dwarf willows, and area, with some scattered calving as far east as the birches. Flat thaw-lake plains comprise only about 3 Sadlerochit River. percent of the 1002 area, and contain unusual surface features called polygons, a ground pattern similar in Ater calving in late May and early June, when huge After calving in late May and early June, when huge appearance to rice paddies. Polygons are caused by appearance to rice paddies. Polygons are caused by swarms of mosquitoes emerge, caribou from both herds seasonal thawing and freezing of the active layer in wetter cluster in large aggregations and travel to coastal habitats cluster in large aggregations and travel to coastal habitats areas. Vegetation in the thaw-lake plains is dominated by areas. Vegetation in the thaw-lake plains is dominated by for relief from insect harassment on points, river deltas and aquatic and wet tundra species. Virtually the entire 1002 mudflats. Some groups may move to higher elevations in mudflats. Some groups may move to higher elevations in area can be classified as wetland. area can be classified as wetland the southern mountains for relief. Sadlerochit Spring is one of the largest perennial In early July most of the Porcupine caribou move springs on the Alaskan North Slope. Located in the east and south, and vacate the 1002 area by mid-July, east and south, and vacate the 1002 area by mid-July, foothills in the southern part of the 1002 area, the spring heading for their wintering grounds in Canada and in the and its surrounding area of approximately 4,000 acres has southern Brooks Range. Occasionally, remnant groups may southern Brooks Range. Occasionally, remnant groups may been nominated as a National Natural Landmark. The been nominated as a National Natural Landmark. The winter in the northern mountains and foothills. In late spring is unique owing to its large warm water discharge summer and fall, caribou of the Central Arctic herd are which maintains an open channel for nearly 5 miles which maintains an open channel for nearly 5 miles found scattered across the coastal plain south of Camden downstream during the coldest part of the year. downstream during the coldest part of the year. Bay, in the foothills north of the Sadlerochit Mountains, and in uplands south of the Sadlerochit Mountains where they Fish and Wildlife Species Fish and Wild ~ife Species winter. During most winters scattered groups of caribou of the Central Arctic herd range throughout the 1002 area Except for muskoxen and denning or burrowing west of the Katakturuk River and the adjacent uplands to animals such as polar bears and arctic ground squirrels, the south. the harsh winters drive most species from the 1002 area. The brief spring, summer, and fall seasons, however, find OTHER MAMMALS OTHER MAMMALS the area host to large numbers of mammals and birds which use the coastal plain for important parts of their Muskoxen were exterminated from the North Slope by annual life cycles, the late 1800's by hunters. The animal's instinctive defense of forming a circle of bulls surrounding cows and calves, CARIBOU although effective against predators, makes them especially Caribou of the Porcupine and Central Arctic herds vulnerable to hunters. In 1969 and 1970, 69 muskoxen Caribou of the Porcupine and Central Arctic herds ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~were reintroduced to the Arctic Refuge to establish an are the most numerous large mammals using the 1002 area. were reintroduced to the Arctic Refuge to establish an indigenous population. High productivity and low natural EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3 mortality caused this population to expand rapidly. In 1985, Tundra swans are common breeding birds of the the refuge population was estimated at 476 animals. thaw-lake plains. As many as 150 nests and 400-500 adult Muskoxen move with seasonal changes in vegetation and swans have been counted on the 1002 area during annual snow cover. In summer and fall they frequent major surveys. Black brant and Canada, greater white-fronted, drainages to feed on willows and forbs. In winter and and lesser snow geese regularly use the 1002 area. spring many animals move to the uplands where snow Canada geese and black brant breed there each year. Part cover is light and tussock sedges readily available. of the Banks Island, Canada, population of lesser snow geese use the 1002 area as a staging area for their annual Polar bears roam the pack ice of the Arctic Ocean fall migration. At their maximum, as many as 325,000 snow throughout most of the year. Some females move to geese have been counted on the area. coastal areas and inland during October and November to seek suitable maternity den sites. Pregnant polar bears Erect riparian willow stands support a diversity of and, later, their cubs probably spend more time on the perching birds such as hoary redpolls and white-crowned, 1002 area than other segments of the population. At least American tree and savannah sparrows. Snow buntings are 15 dens have been located in the 1002 area; 5 dens have found on coastal bluffs. Lapland longspurs are the most been found on ice near the 1002 area. abundant species, and nest in all tundra types. Brown bears use the 1002 area seasonally. At their FISH time of greatest abundance on the area, about 108 bears Fish in the Arctic survive because of extreme are found on the coastal plain. The bears appear in late adaptations to a harsh environment. Relatively few species May and remain through June and July to prey on caribou, occur in the marine, estuarine, and fresh-water environments ground squirrels and rodents. Food habits change with the of the 1002 area. Arctic char, arctic cisco, arctic flounder, seasons--spring finds a combination of meat and vegetation arctic cod, boreal smelt, and fourhorn sculpin have been in their diets, and mid -to late summer, almost all berries reported offshore of the 1002 area. The nearshore waters and vegetation. Although the bears breed while on the are important spawning and overwintering areas. Arctic 1002 area, they leave in September and October for den char, arctic grayling, arctic cisco, arctic flounder, fourhorn sites in the foothills and mountains. sculpin, least cisco, round whitefish, broad whitefish, ninespine stickleback, chum salmon, and burbot have been Other predators using the 1002 area include wolves, reported in the Canning River system. Other streams that wolverines, and arctic foxes. There are very few wolves support fish populations include the Tamayariak, and wolverines on the 1002 area. Arctic fox populations Sadlerochit, Hulahula, Akutoktak, Okpilak, and Aichilik tend to fluctuate according to the abundance of the small Rivers, and Itkilyariak Creek. The remaining streams in the rodents on which they prey. 1002 area apparently do not support major fish populations, most probably because they freeze to bottom or otherwise Ringed and bearded seals, and, occasionally, spotted fail to provide suitable overwintering habitat. seals occur along the coast of the Beaufort Sea. The endangered bowhead and gray whale, as well as beluga KAKTOVIK AND ITS INUPIAT VILLAGERS whale, migrate through waters north of the 1002 area. The village of Kaktovik, located on Barter Island on Other mammals using the 1002 area include small the Beaufort seacoast, is the only village within the numbers of moose and Dall sheep, which are near the boundaries of the Arctic Refuge. Nearly 90 percent of its northern limits of their range, and large numbers of arctic 200 residents are Native Inupiat Eskimo, who have strong ground squirrels and other rodents. Although these cultural links to lands in and adjacent to the 1002 area. animals are of lesser importance, they indicate the biological diversity of the area. Barter Island was an important trading center for centuries. Canadian Inuit people met on the island to trade BIRDS with Barrow area residents; inland people came down from the mountains to trade. Barter Island was an important The majority of bird species using the coastal plain stop for commercial whalers during the 1890's and later, are migratory, and occur in large numbers from May to but it was not until 1923 that a permanent settlement was September. A total of 108 species have been recorded. established as a trading post, which served as an Six species are considered permanent residents--rock and exchange point for furs and was the beginning of the willow ptarmigan, snowy owl, common raven, gyrfalcon, and village of Kaktovik. American dipper, which winters in the warmer area around the Sadlerochit Spring. The lagoon systems are important Kaktovik has survived as a community because of feeding areas for oldsquaw, eider, scoter, and other ducks; strong family and cultural ties, ties to the land, and loons, phalaropes, terns, gulls, jaegers and black guillemots. economic opportunity for both jobs and subsistence. Raptors nesting in the area include rough-legged hawks, Participation in subsistence activities is a major aspect of golden eagles, gyrfalcons, snowy owls, short-eared owls, Kaktovik residents' life. Approximately 68 percent of and threatened arctic peregrine falcons. Kaktovik's present subsistence land use is within the Arctic 4 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Refuge, including the entire 1002 area. Kaktovik residents exploration on the 1002 area in a manner that avoided depend primarily on caribou, Dall sheep, bowhead whales, significant adverse effects to fish and wildlife and other fish, waterfowl, and other birds. Seals, polar bears, resources. Exploration included surface geological and furbearers, and small game are secondary. Brown bears geophysical exploration, but not exploratory drilling. The and moose are taken occasionally. A few residents harvest favorable geology of the 1002 area, which lies between berries, wild rhubarb, and roots. areas where significant oil discoveries have been made, was confirmed by recent surface geology studies and Changes in the economy have changed the living seismic surveys. patterns of Kaktovik residents. The Inupiat traditionally have had a subsistence economy. However, increasing contact During the summers of 1983-85, exploration crews with other cultures has changed the nature of their from 15 companies visited the 1002 area by helicopter. economic system. Since 1890 economic activity has The crews made field observations and measurements, and vacillated from whaling, to trapping, reindeer herding, and collected rock samples that were analyzed for age and construction of the Distant Early Warning (DEW Line) geochemistry (hydrocarbon-generation potential) and system on Barter Island. Kaktovik residents have relocated porosity and permeability (potential reservoir characteristics). their village three times since 1947. The current village was Approximately 1,300 gravity readings along a 1x2-mile grid established in 1964, and was incorporated as a second- covering the 1002 area were collected by a helicopter- class city in 1972. supported gravity survey during the late summer of 1983. Seismic operations, permitted during two winter seasons in Economic activity in the area has recently increased 1983-84 and 1984-85, acquired more than 1,300 line miles of in response to the passage of the Alaska Native Claims seismic data. The seismic program provided the detailed Settlement Act (ANCSA) in 1971, to oil and gas subsurface data on the area's oil and gas potential. development in the Prudhoe Bay area, to the capital improvement program of the North Slope Borough, and to The U.S. Geological Survey and Bureau of Land the KIC/ASRC exploratory well drilled on Native land. Management analyzed these data in assessing the Kaktovik Inupiat Corporation (KIC), the village profit hydrocarbon potential of the area. The results indicate that corporation formed as a result of ANCSA, operates a village the 1002 area has the geologic elements necessary for store, selling fuel oil, aviation fuel, and snowmachines. hydrocarbon formation and entrapment. Sedimentary rocks Kaktovik residents are also shareholders in the Arctic Slope in the area include organic source rocks necessary to Regional Corporation (ASRC), the regional profit corporation produce oil, and thick sequences of reservoir rock where organized under ANCSA. hydrocarbons can accumulate. Equally as important, the area appears to have favorable geologic structures for OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL OF trapping and holding hydrocarbons, such as the Marsh THE 1002 AREA Creek anticline in the western portion of the 1002 area. A high potential for significant discoveries of oil and The U.S. Geological Survey and Bureau of Land gas in the 1002 area has long been recognized. Explorers Management made, based on their analyses, estimates of at the turn of the century found oil seeps and oil-stained the potential volumes of oil and gas in-place and likely to sands on this part of the Arctic coastal plain. be economically recoverable. Although the geologic indications and seismic interpretations are extremely Oil and gas exploration in the Arctic began in 1944 encouraging, only exploratory drilling can confirm the on the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska. Exploration by oil presence of oil. The estimates contain a high degree of companies on Federal and State lands east of the Colville uncertainty as reflected in the methods and assumptions River in the 1960's culminated in 1968 in the discovery of used by each agency. In-place and recoverable figures are the Prudhoe Bay oil field, the largest in North America. In presented as ranges of probability from the 5-percent 1982 the adjacent Kuparuk River field came on line, and the probability level to the 95-percent probability level. Milne Point field was productive by 1985. There is a 95-percent chance the 1002 area contains Exploration offshore in the Beaufort Sea began in the more than 4.8 billion barrels of oil and 11.5 trillion cubic mid-1970's. In 1978, the Endicott field was discovered near feet of gas in-place. There is a 5-percent chance the area the Sagavanirktok River delta; it is scheduled to begin contains more than 29.4 billion barrels of oil and 64.5 trillion production in 1987. The joint State-Federal Lease Sale BF cubic feet of gas in-place. The average of the range of in- in 1979 increased the pace of offshore exploration. Federal place estimates yields a mean estimate of 13.8 billion Lease Sale 71 in 1980 resulted in two discoveries. barrels of oil and 31.3 trillion cubic feet of gas in-place. Exploration began in the summer of 1985 on Federal Sale 87. State lease sales within the 3-nautical-mile limit along Total recovery of oil and gas in-place is impossible. the coast of the 1002 area in Camden Bay have been To estimate the amount of in-place resources that may be scheduled for 1987, and near Demarcation Point for 1988. recoverable, technological and economic conditions were applied to in-place resource estimates for the area. This Section 1002(a) of ANILCA authorized oil and gas resulted in an estimated 95-percent chance of 0.6 billion EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 barrels of oil recoverable, a 5-percent chance of 9.2 billion ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES barrels of oil recoverable, and an average conditional OF OIL DEVELOPMENT ON THE 1002 AREA economically recoverable resource estimate of 3.2 billion barrels of oil. Biologists from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service assessed potential effects of each alternative: A-Full The Department did not include gas in its recoverable leasing of the 1002 area; B--Leasing limited to a portion of calculations as it was determined that the gas resources the 1002 area; C--Further oil and gas exploration; D--No were unlikely to be economic at any point in the 30-year further Congressional action; and E--Wilderness designation. period considered in the report. Alternatives D and E would result in no adverse The onshore basins in the United States that hold impacts on the fish and wildlife resources of the 1002 or the greatest potential for very large discoveries have already on its wilderness value; however, they would preclude been explored, except for the 1002 area. Although there further exploration to determine the real hydrocarbon are some very attractive offshore areas yet to be explored, potential of the 1002 area and production of any the 1002 area is particularly promising because it contains economically recoverable resources. extensions of other producing trends; wells on adjacent properties show highly favorable evidence of petroleum Short-term activities associated with further deposits. These evidences, combined with the 26 structural exploration, such as exploratory wells, of the 1002 area will traps mapped or inferred for the area, indicate that the lead to generally short-term displacement and disturbance 1002 area is currently the unexplored area in the U.S. with of fish and wildlife resources and Native subsistence users. the greatest potential of containing giant (100 million barrels There will probably be little or no residual or long-term or more) or supergiant (500 million barrels or more) fields. effect on wildlife populations. Wilderness attributes of the area will be affected for a longer period of time. DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION OF OIL FROM THE 1002 AREA Long-term losses in fish and wildlife resources, subsistence uses, and wilderness values would be the Generic scenarios were devised for the exploration, inevitable consequences of a long-term commitment to oil development, production, and transportation of economic and gas development, production, and transportation. If quantities of oil from the 26 potential oil prospects located producing fields were discovered, petroleum operations throughout the 1002 area. Gas production was not would last for 30-90 years. Oil and gas discovery will lead considered. to industrial development. There will be pressure to use this area as a base to service exploration and development These scenarios were used for assessing on the outer continental shelf, or to intertie with projected environmental consequences. In assessing development oil and gas development in the Canadian Arctic. An oil requirements, it became apparent that the water and gravel development infrastructure in the 1002 area would be an necessary for construction and development are in very impetus to develop State lands between the Canning River limited supply on the 1002 area. and the TAPS. Infrastructure in the 1002 area would serve potential offshore or other fields, adding to the long-term An inland pipeline, roughly bisecting the 1002 area industrial commitment. from east to west, was selected for transporting oil to Prudhoe Bay to connect with the existing TAPS. This Oil and gas development will result in widespread, pipeline would be elevated across most of the area to long-term changes in wildlife habitats, wilderness protect the permafrost. The distance from the easternmost environment, and Native community activities. Changes development in the 1002 area to TAPS Pump Station 1 could include displacement and reduction in the size of the would be about 150 miles, including the 50 miles of State Porcupine caribou herd. The amount of reduction and its of Alaska land between the western boundary of the 1002 long-term significance for herd viability is highly speculative. area and Pump Station 1. Declines in Prudhoe Bay oil Geography apparently limits the availability of suitable production would coincide with the time at which alternative calving or insect-relief habitats for the herd. production might begin in the 1002 area. Therefore, it was Mitigation measures can minimize some adverse effects to assumed that TAPS would have the capacity to transport the Porcupine caribou herd as well as to other wildlife oil from the 1002 area. species, wildemrness characteristics, and subsistence uses. The development scenarios depicted typical Industrial development could profoundly affect the infrastructures in three areas for full development of the Native culture. Although it may provide jobs for villagers 1002 area, and in two areas if the Porcupine caribou core from Kaktovik, it will hasten changes from a life style based calving area was not leased. on subsistence and community sharing and a dependence on the land to a society with a cash-based economy. Increased education, employment, and health services would be positive benefits of this change in life style. 6 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 1461 145- 1440 1430 Flexrman kEA U FOR T S EA B alrowh n'low Ig-~ Flaxman~~~~~~~ k A MF l T) SE BA *1 II~~~~~~~~~I I ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ IQ, Flaxma n ~ ~ ~~~~~~ I h I TI Poi~~Cntra production~~~~~~~~Kaloi acilt A Drl pa ace N - Conctn roa a 40 acres acres plan~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~it Hyotetca gnealze dveometoth102are ne ullaing (upr2riie lesig loe) f cooicqunttisoroi aedicoerd K~~~~ubr inict the oaiis(hddEaigtyiarsetcaatrsis 7.7 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ EEUTV UMR THE CONTRIBUTION TO U.S. NEEDS domestic production supplants imports, benefits accrue notd FOR DOMESTIC ENERGY SOURCES only from savings that result when domestic oil costs are lower than imported oil costs, but also from the reduction The 1002 area's oil fields could be the largest in economic vulnerability to disruptions of supply. domestic fields discovered since Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk River. Except for these, no U.S. field with reserves Continued dependence on imports for a substantial exceeding I billion barrels of oil has been discovered since portion of total U.S. oil consumption creates national 1948. Today, Prudhoe Bay contributes approximately 20 security concerns. The potential for supply disruption limits percent of domestic production, but production from flexibility in foreign security policy, including the ability to Prudhoe Bay has peaked and a decline is expected by respond to threats to national security. The United States 1988. could potentially be drawn into dangerous political and military situations involving the exporting nations. A leasing program on the 1002 area cou~d contribute billions of barrels of additional oil reserves toward the Another objective of leasing the 1002 area would be national need for domestic sources. Oil consumption in the production of additional domestic sources of oil as one U.S. has exceeded domestic production for more than 20 means of achieving a more favorable balance of years. Not only might discovery of a giant or supergiant international trade. In 1984 the gross cost of importing field significantly contribute to domestic reserves and crude oil and refined petroleum products amounted to production, it could de so at a relatively low average cost almost 50 percent of the trade deficit. Production from the per barrel because of economies of scale. 1002 area not only would reduce the need to import oil, but would reduce the amount of foreign exchange required to Oil from the 1002 area could also help achieve pay for the imported oil. several national economic and security objectives. Since 1970 this Nation has been heavily dependent on The economic benefits from producing oil on the petroleum imports to meet domestic demand. Imports in 1002 area would include an increase in Net National 1985 were expected to supply about one-third of domestic Economic Benefits expected to accrue as bonuses, oil needs. The most recent forecast by the Department of royalties, rental fees, taxes, and after-tax business profits. If Energy indicates that U.S. dependence on oil will increase the entire 1002 area were leased, these benefits could be significantly by the end of the century due to declines in almost $15 billion in discounted dollars. Lease production domestic reserves. would generate revenues to the public as lease bonus payments and rentals, royalties, Federal corporate income As imports have increased, the U.S. has become taxes, severance tax payments to the State, and State vulnerable to the actions of oil-exporting countries. Because corporate income taxes. 8 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT ARCTIC NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE, ALASKA, COASTAL PLAIN RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CHAPTER I PURPOSE AND NEED FOR THIS REPORT INTRODUCTION (iii) To provide, in a manner consistent with the purposes set forth in subparagraphs (i) and (ii), The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, in the the opportunity for continued subsistence uses by northeastern corner of Alaska, was first established as the o rsiens local residents; and Arctic National Wildlife Range by Public Land Order 2214 in 1960, for the purpose of preserving unique wildlife, (iv) To ensure, to the maximum extent practicable and wilderness, and recreational values. The original 8.9-million- in a manner consistent with the purposes set in a manner consistent with the purposes set acre Range was withdrawn from all forms of appropriation forth in paragraph (i), water quality and necessary forth in paragraph (i), water quality and necessary under the public land laws, including mining laws, but not water quantity within the refuge. water quantity within the refuge. mineral leasing laws. This order culminated extensive efforts begun over a decade earlier to preserve this unique part of Alaska. The Arctic Refuge offers wildlife, scientific, recreational, and esthetic values unique to the arctic coastal During the 1970's the Alaskan arctic coastal plain ecosystem. In the Arctic Refuge, a person traveling on foot was the site of several studies on the area's oil and gas or by boat can traverse a full range of North Slope potential, possible oil and gas transportation corridors, and landscape and habitats, because of the proximity of the biological resources (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1972, arctic coast to the mountains. Mt. Isto, 9,049 feet; Mt. 1976). The Alaska Natural Gas Transportation System Chamberlin, 9,020 feet; Mt. Hubley, 8,914 feet; and Mt. studies on the Range included extensive biological studies, Michelson, 8,855 feet--the four tallest peaks in the Brooks as did studies for the planning and development of the Range--are located in the Arctic Refuge. The Arctic Refuge Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) to the west of the contains the only extensive active glaciers in the Brooks Range. Range. Found on the refuge is the full complement of arctic flora and fauna, including the calving ground for the The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act Porcupine caribou herd, one of the largest in Alaska (ANILCA), passed in 1980, established 16 National Wildlife (approximately 180,000 caribou); and habitat for the Refuges in Alaska, among them the 19-million-acre Arctic threatened arctic peregrine falcon, lesser snow geese, and National Wildlife Refuge, hereafter referred to as Arctic other migratory bird species, and reintroduced muskoxen. Refuge. The Arctic Refuge encompasses the existing 8.9- million-acre wildlife range and approximatley 10 million additional acres of adjoining lands west toward TAPS and LEGISLATIVE HISTORY south to the Yukon Flats. Approximately 8 million acres, comprising most of the original Arctic National Wildlife During the 9 years ANILCA was being considered in Range, was designated wilderness. the Congress, and particularly during 1977-80, the issue of oil and gas exploration and development on the 1.55-million- ANILCA also redefined the purposes of the Arctic acre Arctic Refuge coastal plain was fully debated. Some Refuge: members wanted the coastal plain designated as wilderness, and some favored opening it to oil and gas (i) To conserve fish and wildlife populations and leasing. As explained in the 1979 Senate Report: habitats in their natural diversity including, but not limited to, the Porcupine caribou herd (including "The Committee was particularly concerned with the participation in coordinated ecological studies and ANWR. In hearings and in markup, conflicting and management of this herd and the Western Arctic uncertain information was presented to the committee caribou herd), polar bears, grizzly bears, muskox, about the extent of oil and gas resources on the Dall sheep, wolves, wolverines, snow geese, Range and the effect development and production of peregrine falcons and other migratory birds and those resources would have on the wildlife inhabiting Arctic char and grayling; the Range and the Range itself. The nationally and intemrnationally recognized wildlife and wilderness (ii) To fulfill the international treaty obligations of the values of the Range are described in the discussion United States with respect to fish and wildlife and of the Committee amendments to Title Ill. The their habitats; Committee was determined that a decision as to the PURPOSE AND NEED 9 development of the Range be made only with 3. To prepare a "Report to Congress" which describes adequate information and the full participation of the the fish and wildlife resources of the 1002 area; Congress." (Senate Report 413, 96th Cong. 1st identifies and estimates the volume and area of Sess. at 241(1979)). potential hydrocarbon resources; assesses the potential impacts of development; discusses Therefore, the Congress created section 1002 of transportation of oil and gas; discusses the national ANILCA to deal with the issue. need for domestic sources of oil and gas; and recommends whether further exploration, PROGRAM DESCRIPTION AND development, and production of oil and gas should IMPLEMENTATION be allowed. Specifically, section 1002 of ANILCA requires the The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) has lead Secretary of the Interior: responsibility for meeting these Congressional mandates. Under an interagency memorandum of understanding (MOU) 1. To conduct a comprehensive, continuing baseline dated June 1983, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) study of the fish and wildlife resources of the Arctic and the Geological Survey (GS) have assisted the FWS by Refuge 1002 area (fig. I-1). [Throughout this report providing technical expertise in reviewing industry-proposed the term "1002 area" refers to that part of the Arctic exploration plans, conducting geologic studies and Refuge defined as the "coastal plain" by section assessing the hydrocarbon potential of the 1002 area, as 1002(b) of the ANILCA]; well as developing this report. The status of these 2. To develop guidelines for, initiate, and monitor an oil activities is reported herein. and gas exploration program; and 1670 1580 1490 1400 rea illustrated 0 100 KILOMETERS /A7ALASKA\ ARCTIC OCEAN 720 * B ~ Barro 5 UChukchiFoRT SSEA Fgr / -d Harr i son 68 � G'ru yeindeer Raaman MacKenzie Fr /I-1 NATIONAL PETROLEUM t Nati oa W0ildifeRefu RESERVE IN ALASKA /4- Chukch i Sea (NPRA), and Prudhoe Bay. 10 ARCTIC REFUGE RESNATIONALSSESSMENT 68� _ - - - - - - - - - -\ in I Fronto BROOKS \R A N G E Figure 1-1.--lndex map of northern Alaska showing location of 1002 area in relation to the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (Arctic Refuge), the National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska (NPRA), and Prudhoe Bay. 10 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Baseline Study of Fish and age and geochemistry (hydrocarbon-generation potential) Wildlife Resources and porosity and permeability (potential-reservoir characteristics). The FWS carefully monitored all activities, The FWS began biological baseline studies of and no adverse effects to fish or wildlife were observed. selected fish and wildlife species of the 1002 area during the spring of 1981. An initial baseline report that described The FWS issued one permit for a helicopter- The FWS issued one permit for a helicopter- the 1981 field season (spring-fall) and reviewed existing supported gravity survey that was conducted during the late supported gravity survey that was conducted during the late literature was published in April 1982. The results of summer of 1983. The permittee (International Technology subsequent field seasons (1982-85) were documented in subsequent field seasons (1982-85) were documented in Ltd.) collected approximately 1,300 gravity readings from the four annual baseline update reports and a final baseline four annual baseline update reports and a final baseline ground along a 1x2-mile grid covering the entire 1002 area. report. (See "References cited" for listing of these publications.) ~~~~~~~~~publications.) ~During the winter months, when most wildlife species were absent or were present in lesser numbers, seismic The 1002 area baseline studies represent more than operations were permitted. More than 1,300 line miles of 60 staff-years of research effort (that is, data collection, eis wa pied. he e o seismic data was acquired. The seismic program provided analysis, and synthesis). Fifty-seven separate field studies em dta su r ed he es oi d the most detailed subsurface data on the area's oil and gas defined (1) the ecology, distribution, and abundance of fish potential. As the only exploration technique involving and wildlife species; (2) wildlife habitats within the 1002 e nia ste nporation t e he ge mechanized surface transportation, it posed the greatest area; and (3) the impacts of seismic exploration on tundra arvea;gand(3)teimpatsofsei pation. possibility of adverse environmental effects. Therefore, to vegetation. avoid significant adverse impacts, the FWS: Section 303 of ANILCA, which reestablished existing 1. Allowed only one permittee (Geophysical Service Inc.) refuges, specified that a purpose of the Arctic Refuge was representing an industry group of 23-25 companies to to conserve fish and wildlife populations. Among the collect seismic data, species or groups of species mentioned in section 303(2)(B)(i) that were studied on the 1002 area were 2. Restricted activities in sensitive wildlife areas (such as caribou, muskoxen, wolves, brown bear, wolverines, bear dens) or where snow cover was insufficient to bear dens) or where snow cover was insufficient to migratory birds, and fish, as well as the vegetation. The protect the tundra, Arctic Refuge staff was assisted by the State of Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Canadian Wildlife Service, 3. Limited the number of line miles of seismic survey to Yukon Department of Renewable Resources, researchers only that amount necessary to yield data from which from the Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit at the to develop a credible oil and gas resource University of Alaska, and volunteers. Investigative assessment, and techniques included visual observations, aerial censuses, radio telemetry, and satellite tracking. These baseline 4. Placed full-time FWS monitors on each seismic crew. studies of the 1002 area are the basis for the description of the biological environment in Chapter II and the analysis of By restricting or rerouting overland travel in areas of environmental consequences in Chapter VI. inadequate snow cover or sensitive vegetation types, the monitors effectively limited adverse environmental impacts. Oil and Gas Exploration Programs They also collected data on the severity of the seismic surveys' surface impact in relation to snow depth, Secxtion 1002(a) of ANILCA authorized oil and gas topography, and vegetation type. Several more seasons of exploration on the 1002 area in a manner that avoided followup studies on long-term impacts, if any, will significant adverse effects to fish and wildlife and other supplement their observations of short-term surface resources. Exploration included surface geological and disturbance disturbance. geophysical exploration but not exploratory drilling. Report Preparation The FWS published an environmental impact Report Preparation statement (EIS) in February 1983, and final regulations Under provisions of the MOU, an "Interagency governing exploration on the 1002 area were published in Advisory Work Group" was formed in March 1984 to the Federal Register on April 19, 1983 (48 Federal Register oversee the preparation of this report. The work group, 16838-16872; 50 CFR 37). As required by section 1002(d), headed by the FWS, comprised FWS, GS, and BLM the regulations were developed to ensure that exploratory representatives. The group called on more than 50 activities did not have a significant adverse effect on fish technical experts within the three bureaus to contribute to and wildlife, their habitats, or the environment. various sections of this report. Contributors are listed at the front of this report. During the summers of 1983-85, exploration crews from 15 companies visited the 1002 area. No surface This document provides the basis for the Secretary vehicles were allowed; access was by helicopter. The work of the Interior's recommendation to the Congress involved field observations, surface measurements, mapping, concerning future management of the 1002 area. The and collection of rock samples. Samples were analyzed for document fulfills the requirements of both section 1002(h) of PURPOSE AND NEED 11 ANILCA and section 102(2)(C) of the National Environmental STANDARD FOR ENVIRONMENTAL Policy Act (NEPA). PROTECTION Section 1002(h) of ANILCA mandates that the report Any decision to develop oil and gas resources must contain: requires advanced planning so as to minimize conflict between environmental values and energy development. 1. The identification by means other than drilling of One purpose of this report is to identify potential exploratory wells of those areas within the coastal environmental impacts from Arctic Refuge development. plain that have oil and gas production potential and This analysis will provide preliminary information to facilitate an estimate of the volume of the oil and gas planning to mitigate impacts to ensure that development, concerned (Chapter III). should it occur, is conducted in a responsible manner that results in no unneccessary adverse effects. 2. The description of the fish and wildlife, their habitats, and other resources that are within the areas In assessing the environmental consequences of identified under paragraph (1) (Chapter II). possible oil and gas development on the 1002 area, the FWS has chosen to apply its FWS mitigation policy (46 3. An evaluation of the adverse effects that the carrying Federal Registe 7644-7663, January 23, 1981). FWS uses out of further exploration for, and the development this policy in conducting fish and wildlife impact and production of, oil and gas within such areas may investigations and in recommending suitable mitigation for have on the resources referred to in paragraph (2) development projects of all kinds. Furthermore, the policy (Chapter VI). complements NEPA, and CEQ regulations recognize that any analysis of options, including the proposed action, 4. A description of how such oil and gas, if produced requires consideration of mitigation measures. within such area, may be transported to processing facilities (Chapter IV). Development and use of natural resources may affect the quality and quantity of habitat upon which plant and 5. An evaluation of how such oil and gas relates to the animal species depend. The FWS mitigation policy focuses national need for additional domestic sources of oil on losses of habitat value. The type and degree of and gas (Chapter VII). mitigation imposed should be tailored to the value and scarcity of the affected habitat. According to the policy, 6. The recommendation of the Secretary with respect the following steps represent a desirable sequence in to whether further exploration for, and the mitigation planning: (a) avoiding the impact altogether by development and production of, oil and gas within not taking a certain action or parts of an action; (b) the coastal plain should be permitted and, if so, what minimizing impact by limiting the degree or magnitude of the additional legal authority is necessary to ensure that action; (c) rectifying the impact by repairing, rehabilitating, adverse effects of such activities on fish and wildlife, or restoring the affected environment; (d) reducing or their habitat, and other resources are avoided or eliminating the impact over time by preservation and minimized (Chapter VIII). maintenance operations during the life of the project; and (e) compensating for the impact by replacing or providing substitute resources or environments. Each of the five The document also comprises a legislative EIS (LEIS) alternatives for the 1002 area is evaluated in terms of this pursuant to section 1506.8 of the Council on Environmental sequence. Quality's (CEQ) regulations to implement NEPA (40 CFR 1500-1508). Chapters V and VI in particular discuss and Chapter V of this report describes the alternatives. evaluate five major alternatives from which the Secretary's Chapter VI then assesses the impacts associated with each recommendation (Chapter VIII) has been derived. Those alternative; proposed mitigation is identified in conformance alternatives are: (A) full leasing of the entire 1002 area, (B) with the FWS mitigation policy. leasing limited to a part of the 1002 area, (C) further exploration, (D) no action, and (E) wilderness designation. Any Congressionally authorized oil and gas program Estimates of economically recoverable resources described on the 1002 area would have some degree of cumulative in Chapter III form the basis for hypothetical oil exploration, effect with other existing and potential activities on the development, production and transportation scenarios North Slope of Alaska, including State and Federal offshore outlined in Chapter IV which are used in the LEIS to leasing programs, oil and gas exploration programs to the determine and measure environmental impacts, and to east in the Canadian Arctic, and further Federal or State discuss the national need in Chapter VII. Major leasing on the North Slope. Also possible is the expansion environmental issues addressed are those that were of oil and gas activities in and around Prudhoe Bay. identified through the exploration activities, and baseline studies: Fish and wildlife resources (especially caribou, Leasing and operations would be subject to all snow geese, and fish), water quality and quantity, and appropriate Federal and State regulations and further socioeconomics. environmental evaluation at appropriate stages of the 12 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT development. It is expected that this LEIS will suffice for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1983, 1982 update report, initial leasing. However, exploration proposals normally baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, require site-specific NEPA evaluations, and a Section 1002(c) of the Alaska National Interest Lands development/production proposal will require a site-specific Conservation Act (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds, EIS. Any future EIS on development of the 1002 area will, editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, to the extent appropriate, be tiered on the present LEIS. Region 7, 379 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984, 1983 update report, If leases are eventually developed, all applicable baseline study of fish, wildlife, and their habitats, Federal and State regulations would apply to oil exploration, Section 1002(c) of the Alaska National Interest Lands development, production, and transportation unless they Conservation Act (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds, were superseded by the legislation enacted by the editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Congress to open the 1002 area to leasing, and any Region 7, 614 p. implementing regulations. Currently more than 36 Federal U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1985, 1984 update report, and 5 State of Alaska laws, and 111 separate regulations baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, found in 6 separate titles in the Code of Federal Section 1002(c) of the Alaska National Interest Lands Regulations apply to oil and gas activities in Alaska. Some Conservation Act: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife examples are the National Wildlife Refuge System Service, Region 7, v. 1--p. 1-361; v. 2--p. 362-777. Administration Act; Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986a, Final report, baseline Clean Water Act; Coastal Zone Management Act; Alaska study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, Section Native Claims Settlement Act; Alaska Environmental 1002c of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, Title 46; Alaska Oil Pollution Control Law; Conservation Act (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds, and Alaska Coastal Management Act. editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7. The final report and LEIS, with the Secretary's U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986b, 1985 update report, recommendations, will be submitted to the Congress as baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, required by section 1002 of ANILCA for review and further Section 1002c of the Alaska National Interest Lands decisions regarding management of the Arctic Refuge's Conservation Act (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds, coastal plain. At the time the final report is submitted to editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Congress, a Notice of Availability will be published Region 7, in press. concurrently in the Federal Register and in major Alaska U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey, and newspapers. Bureau of Land Management, 1982, Proposed oil and gas exploration within the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska--Draft environmental impact statement and draft regulations: Washington, REFERENCES CITED DC, chapters paginated separately. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey, and U.S. Department of the Interior, 1972, Proposed Trans- Bureau of Land Management, 1983, Proposed oil and Alaska Pipeline--Final environmental impact statement: gas exploration within the coastal plain of the Arctic Washington, DC. National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska--Final environmental U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976, Alaska natural gas impact statement and preliminary final regulations: transportation system--Final environmental impact Washington, DC, chapters paginated separately. statement: Washington, DC, 778 p., 23 foldout maps. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982, Initial report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, Section 1002(c) of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 507 p. ADDENDUM After all the figures in this report were completed, Kaktovik Inupiat Corporation (KIC) received documents of interim conveyance on approximately 20,000 adjacent acres of land within the 1002 area. This boundary modification is not shown on any of the figures or plates. Corrections will be shown in the future and all discussions herein pertaining to KIC lands do apply to the lands in this latest interim conveyance. PURPOSE AND NEED 13 'I 1 l l 1 I iI i l 1 I I I I I I I I I 14 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CHAPTER II EXISTING ENVIRONMENT PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PROCESSES northward-flowing rivers and 14 smaller rivers or named Physical Geography creeks. The majority of large rivers within the 1002 area are braided; nearly all the creeks, even the many small The 1.55-million-acre 1002 area, located in the unnamed ones, have extensive tributary systems. northernmost part of the Arctic Refuge between the Brooks Range and the Beaufort Sea (fig. Il-i), more than 250 miles Except for about 4 percent of scattered bedrock above the Arctic Circle, is in the tundra-covered Arctic outcrops, the 1002 area is covered by a thin mantle of Coastal Plain Province, the only extension of the Interior unconsolidated, frozen sediments of Cenozoic age that Plains of North America in Alaska (Wahrhaftig, 1965). It is range in thickness from a few feet to about 100 feet (fig. bounded on the north by the Beaufort Sea, and on the 11-2). The outcrops are mainly poorly consolidated Tertiary east by the northeast-flowing Aichilik River. The south siltstone, mudstone, sandstone, and conglomerate in the boundary follows township lines and approximates the Marsh Creek and middle Jago River areas; a few minor 1,000-foot elevation contour. The north-flowing Canning outcrops of Cretaceous and Jurassic shales along the and Staines Rivers are the west boundary of the 1002 area lower Jago River; and Cretaceous and Jurassic shale near and the Arctic Refuge. The 1002 area constitutes about 75 the Niguanak River and in the Sadlerochit Spring area. percent of the total coastal plain of the Arctic Refuge. Oil seeps have been found in the Manning Point The 1002 area is about 104 miles in length at latitude area, about 6 miles north of the 1002 area, and near Angun 69051'N. Maximum width is about 34 miles; minimum is 16 Point, within the 1002 area. Oil-stained sandstones are miles, south of Camden Bay. The area has 10 major found in outcrops near the middle reaches of the Katak- 1470 1460 1450 1440 1430 142� 141� Alaska Pom son'. Th,, Roo B E A U F O R T S E A SPo>hIi n I I I Id K~k k 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS 701 ~C AMDEN BAY 69�f Philip Smith i Mts ls II I k ' limportant nearby geographic features. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 15 8 Bhtubidge 69� -- I Phillip Smith I MsI Figure I1-1.--Map of northeastern Alaska showing the 1002 area and important nearby geographic features. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 15 turuk River; and oil-bearing sands and shales having an lagoons. The coast is punctuated by deltas, the most odor of oil occur in outcrops along the lower Jago River, pronounced being those of the Canning, Hulahula-Okpilak, about 10 miles south of Barter Island. Jago, and Aichilik Rivers. Tides are small; the daily tide rarely exceeds 1 foot, and the maximum annual tide is less Despite the arctic climate prevailing during the Pleis- than 3 feet. Wind tides occasionally exceed the maximum tocene, about 90 percent of the 1002 area is unglaciated. lunar tides during periods of open water, particularly in late A large valley glacier formed a piedmont that extended September-early October. The coast is characterized by approximately 12 miles into the area and probably about 7 bluffs commonly 4-5 feet high, locally as high as 25 feet. miles along the Tamayariak River. Smaller valley glaciers The 50-foot contour is generally 2-3 miles inland, except at extended about 4 miles into the area along the Hulahula Barter Island, which is only about 3 miles wide but is River, just across the 1002 area boundary along the Jago higher than 50 feet in the central area. In the low-lying River, and 2 miles along the Aichilik River. Glacial fluvial Canning River delta a comparable elevation is found about deposits and eolian materials are widespread, even in 8 miles inland. unglaciated areas. Lagoons and bays are generally shallow, 3-12 feet The Beaufort Sea coastline, with its narrow beaches, deep, except for the greater-than-15-foot depths in Camden is low-lying, gradually receding, and irregular in shape. It Bay, where the 18-foot depth contour is within about 200 has numerous points, many offshore shoals, mudflats, spits, yards of shore. Camden Bay offers the best reasonably bars, and low-lying barrier islands behind which are shallow deep, protected harborage along the coast of the 1002 area. 1460 1450 1440 1430 1420 Flaxman B E A U F O R T S E A - Islnda Brownlow CAMDEN BAY 70�- . m sg/ m 0 5 10 15 MILES b/ O 5 10 15 20 KILOMETERS 69� I 30' EXPLANATION Gravel and sand-Includes river flood plains and terraces, upland m Mrainal deposits-Composed of compact, silty, bouldery till surfaces that lack a silt cover ;:/@g 'l Silt and very fine sand over gravel-Fine-grained cover general- c Slope deposits-Variable composition. ranging from silt to ly more than 6.6-10 feet thick and ice-rich; commonly con- bedrock rubble tains disseminated fine-grained organic debris Bedrock |suIm Silt and very fine sand over marine silt and day- Ice-rich; con- tains boulders n sg/m Sand and gravel over marine sand, silt, and clay Contact Gravel over marine sand, silt, and clay Anticlinal fold Figure 11-2.--Generalized surficial deposits of the 1002 area. Map indicates surface materials only and not what could be borrowed for fill. Geology by Carter, Ferrians, and Galloway (1986). 16 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Climate (Selkregg, 1975). The average wind-chill factor at Barter Island during February 1984 was -800F (-33.10F and 15.5- The climate of the 1002 area is arctic marine, having mph wind). extremely low winter temperatures and short, cool summers. Persistent winds occur throughout the year. Frequent Precipitation over the 1002 area is light but frequent; blizzards occur during the long, dark winter. Along the it occurs as drizzle in the summer and as light snow in the coast the climate is moderated by the sea and is less winter. Published summaries indicate that the annual extreme. Meteorological data are limited; those of most precipitation at Barter Island averages 6.28 inches and value for this study are the marine data from Barter Island ranged from 2.93 inches in 1974 to 12.22 inches in 1955. (Kaktovik) and the data from Umiat (to the west and about Average summer precipitation is 0.52 inch in June; 1.01 75 miles inland, fig. I-1), which has more of an arctic inches in July; and 1.09 inches in August. The reported continental climate. Umiat is the closest area for which remaining 3.66 inches generally occurs as snow throughout inland climate records exist. The recorded minimum for the rest of the year. Rainfall rarely exceeds 0.5 inch in any Barter Island was -590F in February 1950; the maximum one day (three times in the last 15 years). On the North was +78OF, July 1978. For Umiat the minimum was -650F Slope, relative humidity is generally high during the in February 1977, and a maximum of +850F in July 1977. summer--80-95 percent along the coast. During winter it The maximum and minimum temperatures are of very short falls to about 60 percent. Absolute humidity in winter is duration, often only minutes, and thus do not really affect generally low, often 5-20 percent. either the environment or man's activities. Snow can occur at any time on the 1002 area, The average monthly temperatures, however, can although snowfall is greatest during September-November markedly affect the environment and man's activities. From and January, with a lesser fall in May. Melting begins in year to year, the average monthly temperatures, especially late May and is largely completed in early June. Winds in winter, can vary widely. At Barter Island, the average continually redistribute snowdrifts, baring inland ridgetops January temperature was +4.50F in 1981, and -21.80F in and drifting in the valleys, with drifts adjacent to stream 1983. At Umiat, the average January temperature was cutbanks sometimes becoming 20 feet deep. Higher -11.20F in 1982 and -42.10F in 1984. In summer, variations microsites, such as tussock tops and high-center polygons, are less pronounced but more important because the are frequently exposed with hard-packed snow drifted accumulation of the degree days above freezing (thaw between them. Felix and others (1986), traveling with the index) greatly influences the depth of thaw in the soil and seismic crews in the spring of 1985, noted that the area the rate of the melting of ice on water bodies. Some of west of the Sadlerochit River had significantly less snow the important average monthly temperature data and than the eastern part of the 1002 area. According to temperature-related parameters are tabulated below. The numerous measurements taken throughout the 1002 area thaw indices show that usually approximately three times as from January to May, average depths of snow actually much heat energy is received at the ground surface in the accumulated on the ground were 12 inches in 1984 and 9 Umiat area during the summer months, but that the effect inches in 1985; measured depths ranged from 0 inches to of an unusually warm summer can be relatively much at least 32 inches (Felix and others, 1986). greater at Barter Island. During 1955-84, the recorded average seasonal Average temperatures and thaw index, snowfall at Barter Island was 42.1 inches; the minimum was Barter Island and Umiat, 1976-84 19.9 inches in 1980-81, and the maximum, 71.4 inches in 1961-62. Because the wind blows almost continuously, the snow crystals are broken up and pack much like fine sand; and the snow often develops a density of about 0.4. This Barter Umiat could result in actual winter precipitation about four times the 3.66 inches officially reported (Black, 1954). Average temperature (OF): Easterly winds predominate most of the year in the Coldest month .......................... -33.1 -42.1 1002 area. However, during January-April westerly winds Warmest month ........................ 42.9 58.0 are often associated with storms. The windiest month Thaw index (degree days above usually is January (mean 15.0 mph): and the calmest freezing): month, July (mean 10.7 mph). The peak gust (westerly) Maximum (summer) .................. 793 2183 recorded at Barter Island was 75 mph in January 1980. Ice Minimum (summer) ................... 456 1371 storms, or occasionally heavy rains, occur in October and Average (summer) ..................... 549 1671 January. The coastal part of the 1002 area can be subjected to storms rolling in from the Beaufort Sea during In the Arctic, chill factor is more important than air the open-water season. Even though Barter Island, the temperature in evaluating temperature's effect. Strong winds barrier islands, the shallow lagoons, and often nearby sea coupled with cold temperatures produce chill temperatures ice provide some shelter to coastal areas, these storms can sometimes colder than -1000F (-350F with a 30-mph wind) cause severe erosion of the coastline. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 17 In the 1002 area, particularly along the coastline and river or a sea bluff where deep snowdrifts may occur, the up to 5 miles inland, fog frequently reduces visibility. Along ice may be only 15-20 inches thick, whereas in the middle the coast, fog occurs most frequently during summer. At of the river it may be 6 feet thick. Similarly, should the Barter Island, it reduces visibility to 6 miles or less about winter temperature remain average or even mild with a very 27 percent of the time during May-September, reaching a light snowpack, the ice may be as much as 7.5-8 feet thick. maximum of 31.5 percent in August. Fog occurs an average of 10 percent of the time during the rest of the In the 1002 area, the ground is frozen until June. year. Inland, Umiat has fog about 15 percent of the time Rivers fed from melting snow in the foothills may start to during September-May, and less than 10 percent during flow as early as mid-May. Ponds, lakes, lagoons, and June-August. nearshore sea ice begin to melt in early June. Ice on deeper lakes may not completely melt until early to mid-July. Stratus clouds are prevalent in the Arctic during Ice breakup in coastal lagoons and nearshore areas summer months, often persisting for weeks. The base of depends on runoff from the land, offshore grounding, and these clouds is often below 700 feet. At Barter Island and ocean currents. Where runoff is negligible, melting follows Umiat, skies are cloud-covered 54 percent of the year. a pattern similar to that in deeper lakes. Melting off river mouths is markedly different: fresh-water runoff begins in In the winter, blowing snow and whiteouts can create late May, depositing river sediments on top of the ice; conditions in which neither shadows, nor horizon, nor channels are often cut on both top and bottom ice sur- clouds are discernible, and depth perception and orientation faces, and large holes may be cut through by river waters are lost. At Barter Island, blowing snow reduces visibility draining in a swirling, fast-cutting manner. Nearshore, land- to 6 miles or less about 10-22 percent of the winter. This fast sea ice often does not completely melt in place but is in addition to loss of visibility caused by fog. floats away, beginning as early as late June. At Barter Island, the sun is continuously above the Permafrost horizon from May 15 to July 27, and continuously below the horizon from November 24 to January 17. In winter, Permafrost is defined as a thickness of soil or other when the sun is not more than 60 below the horizon, superficial deposit, or even of bedrock, at a variable depth twilight permits many activities; at that latitude moonlight beneath the surface of the earth in which a temperature can be an important source of illumination. In the 1002 below freezing (320F) has existed continuously for a long area twilight amounts to 6 or 7 hours in late November and time (from 2 years to tens of thousands of years) (Muller, is reduced to about 3 hours by December 21. 1947). It may include soil, rock, minerals, interstitial and segregated ice (the latter as wedges or, less frequently, The arctic winter is characterized by frequent lenses), organic matter, or other materials both naturally temperature inversions. Whereas the lower atmospheric air occurring and those buried by man. Permafrost is often temperature normally decreases with altitude, in a tempera- considered to be synonymous with "perennially frozen ture inversion, colder air is overlain by a warmer air layer. ground"; however, it need not be "frozen hard," because During the summer surface temperatures are warmer, fewer the material could contain water having an elevated salinity, inversions occur. as is often found in the NPRA, or could contain liquid hydrocarbons, such as oil seeps found in northern Alaska. Freezeup normally begins in early to mid-September. Because of confining pressures, such as at the base of Drier areas begin freezing first, sometimes cycling between permafrost, the contained water could have a depressed freeze and thaw for several days. Wet tundra and ponds freezing point. Or, because of low water content and freeze over next, then lakes and rivers and protected particle-surface forces, the material could be unfrozen. The shallow lagoons. In wet areas as much as 8 weeks may volume of ice in permafrost soils, particularly in the first few be required to completely freeze the "active layer" (that tens of feet below the ground surface, can be several times layer above the permafrost which annually freezes and the volume of the mineral components; it can even approxi- thaws). A sudden cold snap, particularly if accompanied by mate pure ice. At the other extreme some gravel may wind, can cause all the areas to freeze over within a day or contain little, if any, ice. two. Freezeup on the sea depends on late summer water temperatures, nearness of the ocean icepack, winds, and Except for a small area at Sadlerochit Spring, which prevailing air temperatures. Generally, at least the flows year round, the 1002 area is believed to be nearshore sea areas are iced over by early to mid-October. completely underlain by permafrost (Ferrians and others, 1969). Ice thickness is determined by numerous factors, including thickness and insulating value of the snow cover. The minimal permafrost-temperature data available for Data from the Arctic coast indicate ice thickness of 2 feet Barter Island suggest an average permafrost temperature of in mid- to late November, 3 feet in mid- to late December, +17.80F to 15.80F. Similar temperatures have been found and 4 feet by mid- to late January. At the end of winter, in a series of shotholes extending from the coast inland for the average maximum thickness of seasonal sea ice and 20 miles on the 1002 area (T. E. Osterkamp, oral communi- fresh-water lake ice is about 6 feet. Near the cutbank of a cation to Max Brewer, 1986). Temperatures also vary with season and depth (Brewer, 1958a, fig. 3). Near Barrow, at 18 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT a depth of 70 feet, where annual change is negligible freeze to the bottom and consequently are underlain by a (Brewer, 1958a), permafrost temperatures range from about thaw bulb in the permafrost table (Brewer, 1958a, b). 310F under the ocean, to about 18.50F beneath sandy Shallow rivers and creeks freeze to the bottom, with the unvegetated beaches, to about 150F under dry tundra permafrost table usually a few inches to a few feet beneath. areas, to a minimum of about 130F under very wet, low- Some deeper rivers, such as the Canning, may have centered polygonal tundra areas (Brewer, 1976). Similar unfrozen pockets of water in deeper parts (7 feet or more temperatures and variations in temperature are believed to at freezeup), but may be frozen to the bottom in shallower occur throughout the 1002 area. areas. Thus, the permafrost table beneath a river may be very irregular. The effects of surface features on distribu- The greatest reported thickness of permafrost in tion of permafrost are shown in figure 11-3. Alaska is about 2,250 feet near Prudhoe Bay, believed to result from an anomalous thermal conductivity because of Studies of sea-water temperatures, seismic surveys, the usually thick gravel in that area. Permafrost thickness and boreholes in the Mackenzie Bay, Flaxman Island, decreases markedly in all directions within a few miles. In Prudhoe Bay, Harrison Bay, and Barrow areas (fig. I-1) the NPRA, the maximum known thickness is 1,330 feet, indicate that subsea permafrost occurs in the nearshore of inland near Barrow (Brewer, 1955b). At Umiat the thickness the Beaufort Sea and probably extends in a thin layer out ranges approximately from 700 to 960 feet. No wells have to water depths approximating 500 feet. Subsea been drilled through the permafrost in the 1002 area; about temperatures range between the fresh-water freezing point 9 miles south of the southwest corner of the 1002 area, at and the sea-water freezing point, that is, from approximately the Exxon Canning River well, the measured thickness of 30.10F at 15.0 feet below sea bottom in the Chukchi Sea permafrost is 928 feet. Thickness of the active layer ranges off Barrow (Brewer, 1955a, 1958a) to 29.50F at 22.3 feet in from less than 1 foot to 5 feet and averages about 2 feet. Harrison Bay off Atigaru Point, to 29.30F at 17.7 feet in Prudhoe Bay off Reindeer Island (the latter two tempera- Depending on their depth and areal extent, lakes and tures from Osterkamp and Harrison, 1985). Permafrost rivers influence the shape of the permafrost table. Shallow temperatures in the nearshore Beaufort Sea parallel mean lakes freeze to the bottom and are directly underlain by annual bottom-water temperatures (Selkregg, 1975), permafrost. Deep lakes (7+ feet deep) typically do not approximately 31.10F to 30.80F for the Chukchi Sea, and Hill Shallow I Small Iak e deep lake Creek Ocean ,K '.'deep lake lT Figure 3 Shemat representaton showng the effet of surfae features on the dstrbuton of Figure 11-3.--Schematic representation showing the effect of surface features on the distribution of permafrost in the continuous permafrost zone. From Lachenbruch, Brewer, Greene, and Marshall (1962). EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 19 30.00F to 29.70F for the Beaufort Sea. Where the water in Most polygonal areas in the 1002 area contain "low- the shallow nearshore areas freezes to bottom, the centered" polygons, characterized at the outer edges by permafrost temperatures decrease markedly, and the upthrust ridges that impede drainage from the polygon, permafrost-temperature profiles are similar to those found giving the enclosed area a rice-paddy appearance. on land (Osterkamp and Harrison, 1985). Farther east, eroded pingos, with the remains of their cores of ice, occur Where slopes near streams or some lake banks allow well offshore in Mackenzie Bay. drainage, "high-centered" polygons may occur. These polygons originated in the same manner as low-centered Few data are available concerning (1) amounts of ice polygons, but during exceptionally warm summers with in subsea sediments; (2) whether the ice is mostly inter- deeper thaw, the tops of the ice wedges melt, water drains stitial; and (3) whether, at least nearshore, a significant off, and the soil and tundra slump into the voids. The portion of it is segregated as ice wedges. Information is slumping, when continued over tens of years, produces also lacking regarding near-surface variability in ice content ditches between the polygons, thus leaving the polygons resulting from shoreline regression (about 3.3 feet per year), as erosional remnants separated by partly filled voids. because of migrating spits, bars, and barrier islands, and because of warmer water inflow from major rivers. Soils and Other Materials Permafrost-related stream data for the 1002 area are The 1002 area is crossed by numerous north-flowing sparse. However, data from the Shaviovik River, 35 miles rivers that head in the glaciated mountains rising about 6-12 west of the Arctic Refuge, are pertinent because the miles south of the area's boundary. Outwash plains, active Shaviovik has many characteristics common to most rivers flood plains, river terraces, and eolian deposits resulting in the 1002 area except the Canning and Aichilik. It is from winds during glaciation have covered much of the shallow and it has many bars, few potholes, heavy spring 1002 area with a thin mantle of unconsolidated, though runoff, summer low- and high-water periods, and low water frozen, sediments a few feet to about 100 feet thick. at freezeup. The average annual temperature in shallow sediments beneath the Shaviovik (Brewer, 1958a) is about The valleys of larger streams are underlain by large 5.40F warmer than beneath adjacent well-drained tundra, quantities of coarse sand and gravel. These include the though well below the freezing point of fresh water. valleys of the Canning, Tamayariak, Katakturuk, Sadlerochit, Measurements from the upper part of the geothermal profile Hulahula, Okpilak, Jago, Okerokovik, Kogotpak, and Aichilik beneath a narrow sand bar in midriver do not indicate any Rivers. These rivers, especially the Canning, Sadlerochit, unfrozen zone in the river channel on either side of the bar Hulahula, Jago, and Aichilik, are heavily braided and have in late winter. Temperature data from the 15- and 25-foot extensive unvegetated gravel bars. Gravel also occurs in depths suggest that water is present in the channel at the the south part of the 1002 area between the Canning River time of freezeup, which delays the freezing process. Tem- and Marsh Creek, along tops and flanks of ridges between perature profiles through and beneath shallow lakes are the Katakturuk and Sadlerochit Rivers, and on spits and similar. Apparently, shallow rivers freeze to the bottom; bars along the coastline of the Beaufort Sea. On the spits sands and gravels in the river bottoms rest on permafrost and bars the deposits range from fine to medium sandy and, by early November, are also frozen. gravel to sand. Granular deposits typically present in stream valleys range from coarse to medium sandy gravels Ice wedges form when the upper few feet of ground, with cobbles, along the south boundary of the 1002 area. exposed to temperatures well below freezing, contracts and Downstream toward the Beaufort Sea the materials become cracks, usually in a polygonal pattern. Hoarfrost is formed progressively finer grained; in the deltaic areas they range in these cracks and is cemented by the spring meltwater, from fine to medium sand. Sand dunes occur in the leaving a vertical stringer of ice. This ice limits summer Canning, Hulahula-Okpilak, and Jago River deltas. Numer- expansion of warming permafrost, displacing the adjacent ous sizable sandy shoals are prominent between the deltas mineral soils upward; repeated cracking and widening of the of the Sadlerochit and Okpilak Rivers. ice wedges over many years eventually results in elevated ridges of material on each side of the wedges (Lachen- Soils in the 1002 area are poorly developed and bruch and others, 1962). Polygonal ground is the common frequently water saturated, and can generally be classed as surface feature in the 1002 area. Most polygons range in tundra soils, bog soils, or sand dunes. They tend to be diameter from 30 feet to 200 feet and are easily recognized sticky claylike soil in the beginning process of leaching, on the surface; some in the southern part of the 1002 area even in better drained areas, because of cold ground are masked by tussock-type tundra. Usually each polygon temperatures, the presence of permafrost, and the thinness is separated from the adjacent polygons by ice wedges, a of the "active layer." Polygonal patterning is well developed few inches to several feet wide at the permafrost table. throughout the area, although surface expressions tend to These ice wedges are 10-18 feet deep and are be more pronounced adjacent to breaks in slope, especially interconnected. Some small streams may have originated those associated with drainage. A soils study in the by the melting of a long series of ice wedges. Beaded valleys of the upper Okpilak and Jago Rivers (Brown and streams, with the beads located at the intersections of ice Tedrow, 1964) reported mineral uniformity in the soils, with wedges, follow this pattern, quartz and feldspar each amounting to 40-50 percent in the 20 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT sands, and heavy-mineral suites consisting of opaques, intrusion. The Canning River has not been intensively epidote, tourmaline, chlorite, actinolite, zircon, and minor studied. But long-term studies of the much-larger Colville amounts of other minerals. In view of the geomorphic River (having 3.5 times the length and approximately 11 history of the 1002 area, this type of mineral composition times the drainage basin of the Canning) show that may be assumed to prevail there. streamflow in that river even ceases during winter; and salt- water intrusions eventually reach as far as 58 km (35 miles) Except in the sand dunes, on ridgetops, and in upstream (Walker, 1973). unvegetated gravel areas, much of the 1002 area is covered by a 1- to 2-inch organic mat of living vegetation overlying a Several springs occur along the north edge of the fibrous layer containing sand, silt, and small cobbles. That eastern Brooks Range. The largest of these is Sadlerochit fibrous layer, in turn, overlies mineral soils of loam, silt, or Spring, just inside the south boundary of the 1002 area (fig. sand. In well-drained areas thaw progresses to greater 11-2). The spring flows year round; rate of discharge and depths, and mineral soils near the base of the "active water temperature are variable. This spring has had a layer" may have a pronounced brownish appearance, owing reported discharge of 21.2 cubic feet per second (cfs) to an accumulation of well-humified organic matter. (Craig and McCart, 1974), and a temperature of 430F. Discharges of 37 cfs (FEIS, 1983) and 88.3 cfs (Williams, Water Resources 1970) and temperatures of 550F (FEIS, 1983) and 52�F (Williams, 1970) also have been reported. Water resources in the 1002 area are very limited and are confined to the surface. The estimated 800- to 1,000- Numerous small springs have been reported on rivers foot-thick impermeable permafrost precludes obtaining or in valleys south of the 1002 area where large icings have nonsaline water from within this zone. Although no wells been observed (FEIS, 1983; Williams, 1970). Selected penetrate the permafrost zone in the 1002 area, any water physical parameters have been measured for some springs that might occur beneath that zone probably would be (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). Icings (aufeis), brackish or at least moderately saline (Cederstrom and especially those reported on rivers, require investigation to others, 1953; Hopkins and others, 1955; Brewer, 1958a, b, determine whether they result from discharge from true 1974; Williams, 1970). springs or are the result of meltwater in areas having relatively steep gradient. Only a few large lakes occur in the 1002 area. A few shallow thaw lakes are found near the coast east of the Turbidity from suspended sediment impairs water Canning River delta, and east of the Hulahula-Okpilak River quality. Suspended-sediment concentrations are highest in deltas, the latter being on Native land and outside the 1002 the major streams and rivers during spring breakup and late area. Except for two near the Canning delta, the lakes summer and fall high-flow periods. During low-flow periods each cover less than 1 square mile; most have basins less most streams are almost clear. However, the Canning, than 7 feet deep and freeze to bottom by late winter. Hulahula, Okpilak, Jago, and Aichilik rivers are somewhat turbid, owing to glacial inflow from tributaries. Some Rapid spring snowmelt (10-14 days) causes water to shallow lakes are turbid during summer, when wind and accumulate on and flow over the river ice, fracturing and wave action disturb bottom sediments. Aside from periods rapidly eroding it. Large chunks of ice break loose from of turbidity, the water in most rivers and lakes is virtually the banks and bottoms of the river, and float downriver. In colorless. Tea-colored water, resulting from high concen- constricted areas, ice may lodge, causing jams and exten- trations of dissolved organic materials, occurs in some sive spring flooding, particularly in the deltas. Even if this smaller tundra streams and ponds. does not occur, the rivers run very full because of the rapid snowmelt. Surface runoff often resembles sheetflow, Water quality in lakes and streams is lessened in because of the frozen ground. Suspended-sediment winter because salts and dissolved organic material are content is very high, perhaps 75 percent of annual excluded from the downward-growing ice. The concentra- transport (Walker, 1973), and riverbanks are severely tion of those materials depends on the ratio of water to ice eroded, higher cutbanks often being undercut. By the third as the ice thickens. Water in lakes and river pools that or fourth week in June rivers may subside to summer low- freezes nearly to the bottom is usually unpotable by late water stage. Late summer or fall rains rapidly bring the winter. rivers to one or more flood stages. Warm weather may also cause the rapid rise of glacial rivers such as the Dissolved oxygen (DO) is at or near saturation in Hulahula, Jago, and Okpilak. Low water prevails at the lakes and streams during summer. Under winter ice cover, time of freezeup; by midwinter, most rivers in the 1002 area DO levels can be severely depressed, owing to lack of go dry or freeze to bottom throughout most of their length, aeration and the extended darkness that limits photo- with the possible exception of a few basins or "potholes" synthesis. near the mouth of the Canning and perhaps one or two other major rivers. Even early in the freezeup period, if the Coliform-bacteria counts in lakes and ponds peak in basins, or potholes, in the lower Canning are connected to early June because of the "washing action" of surface the sea, water may be brackish because of sea-water runoff. A secondary peak follows in mid- to late summer in EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 21 areas where large concentrations of waterfowl arrive for of 3 to 6 feet per year may be the average. Erosion and molting and staging (Boyd and Boyd, 1963). deposition of eroded sands and gravel also produces barrier-island or spit migration. This occurs especially Because of the lack of fresh water for industrial use where no established vegetation may exist. Such migration within the 1002 area, the adjacent marine waters must be can introduce major variations in the temperature and viewed as a water resource. Lagoons begin breakup in thickness of subsea permafrost. early June with an influx of fresh, silt-laden, relatively warm water from river and stream runoff and snowmelt. Much Thaw lakes elongated north-south are characteristic water initially flows over the top of the sea ice; silt, as thick of the Arctic coastal plain farther west, but they are not a as 4-6 inches and thinning seaward, has been deposited pronounced feature in the 1002 area, where the few small on the ice (Walker, 1973). Overflows can continue for lakes, except in the Canning-Tamayarlak delta, are oriented several miles offshore, until meeting cracks in the ice. In either randomly or somewhat east-west. Because prevailing shallow lagoons (less than about 6 feet deep), the ice is winds are not greatly different, the general absence of often frozen to bottom, and water may puddle on top until north-south orientation suggests that the small thaw lakes the ice becomes free and floats. Moats form along the found there are enlarged more by thermal erosion than by shore in early June, and by early to mid-July the lagoons mechanical (current) erosion. are generally ice free. Freezeup begins in late September- early October. Although precipitation over the 1002 area is light, in summer the soils are frequently water-saturated because By the time the lagoons are ice free, the influx of (1) evaporation rates are low; (2) the permafrost barrier fresh water, coupled with some ocean current-flushing of prevents water loss to underground aquifers; and hypersaline brines formed beneath the ice during the winter, (3) irregularities in the permafrost table impede surface drastically reduces salinity, often from a normal 32-33 parts drainage. Despite the fact that saturation is usually per thousand (ppt) to <10 ppt. Salinity gradually increases conducive to solifluction and creep or slump in areas of during the balance of the summer owing to the influx of steeper terrain, the surface impact of these processes is marine water through inlets and lowered discharges of fresh not widespread on the 1002 area, because of its generally water. coarser material. However, once the surface is disturbed, these processes can become active, especially along Erosion and Mass Movement coastal bluffs, terrace escarpments, lake margins, and ridge slopes. Locally along a stretch of the Katakturuk River and Water and wind are the major shapers of the land- near Marsh and Carter Creeks, landslides have occurred in scape of the 1002 area because of permafrost which often weathered and poorly indurated Tertiary shale, siltstone, is very susceptible to erosion, and the unconsolidated and sandstone. In all areas having any appreciable slope sediments supplied by earlier nearby glaciers; and exposed and exposed mineral soil, the soil migrates gradually river channels, deltas, and offshore bars and barrier islands. downslope because of seasonal frost-jacking of individual Water causes the most erosion, especially during breakup. soil grains. It flushes heavy sediment loads onto the sea ice; it undercuts high banks and ice-rich terraces causing frozen Wind erosion is generally confined to the Canning, blocks of soil to fall into the rivers; and it builds deltas and Hulahula, Okpilak, and Jago River deltas (where active mudflats. Even though the results of lateral erosion are dunes are found along their western banks) and to sandy obvious in the multi-channel braiding of the major rivers, river bluffs, exposed bars in braided rivers, and exposed stream gradients across the 1002 area demonstrate the spits and barrier islands. Though considered to be a potential for vertical erosion. Gradients range from approxi- summer phenomenon, wind erosion actually occurs during mately 12 feet per mile on the Canning River, to 30 feet on much of the year, in exposed areas along river bluffs and the Hulahula and Aichilik, to 40 feet on the Katakturuk and on barrier islands. Sadlerochit, to about 50 feet per mile on Marsh Creek, which cuts through ridges of Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate. Seismicity Erosion along the coast and offshore during open water is less obvious. Leffingwell (1919) and MacCarthy There has been some earthquake activity in the 1002 (1953) suggested that bluffs and beaches erode approx- area, but historically the level of this activity is low. Earth- imately 3 feet per year; Leffingwell also reported an extreme quakes of magnitude 6 and larger on the Richter scale of shoreline recession rate of more than 30 feet per year. intensity are potentially destructive; earthquakes of magni- Wiseman and others (1973) measured 164 feet of bluff tude 5 could cause damage locally. Since the mid-1960's erosion on the east end of Pingok Island, west of Prudhoe epicenters of at least 6 shocks (5 of them offshore) having Bay, during 3 weeks in 1972; this was also an extreme. magnitude greater than 4.0 have been located within about Beach erosion varies greatly from place-to-place and year- 40 miles of the 1002 area between longitudes 1430W and to-year along the entire Beaufort coast, depending on storm 1460W. Uncertainties in epicenter locations are estimated intensity and nearness of pack ice. Erosion on the order to be about 25 miles. 22 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT No active faults are known through surface recon- processes. During the winter, the principal sounds are naissance on the 1002 area, but more detailed geologic those associated with the wind. Noise carries considerable investigations might reveal evidence of geologically recent distances (but not upwind), especially during calm, cold movements. There is evidence of offshore seismic activity (-400F) conditions because of the increased air density. in the Beaufort Sea. The area historically is one of the Water noises, including those of wave action, occur during least seismically active in the State (U.S. Department of the the summer. Manmade sounds are confined to village Interior, 1976, map on p. 84). activities and to some isolated activities, such as hunting. Other manmade sources are aircraft, vehicles, and As seismically active faults are possible, earthquake equipment operations. potential within or adjacent to the 1002 area may be specified as a maximum expectable earthquake of magni- BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT tude 5.5 (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976, p. 86; Page and others, 1972). The maximum expectable earthquake is Terrestrial and Fresh-Water Environments the largest earthquake that may reasonably be expected to occur. The probability of such an earthquake is low. VEGETATION Air Quality The Arctic Refuge coastal plain is in the tundra region (Aleksandrova, 1980), where moderately wet to dry Relatively few long-term air-quality data are published habitats are mostly continuously vegetated with low-growing for Arctic Alaska. The North Slope air is generally of good plants such as sedges, grasses, mosses, lichens, small quality (Burro, 1973). The low levels of pollutants that do herbs, and dwarf shrubs, generally less than 1 foot high. occur generally result from natural sources and natural Taller shrubs are restricted to drainages and to south-facing atmospheric reac- tions. In recent years, however, there slopes. Soils are underlain by permafrost having thaw have been reports of Arctic haze, with the suggestion that depths of less than 6 inches in colder coastal areas to some pollutants originate from the Ural Mountains (USSR) more than 36 inches in some riverbeds. industrial complex. Early classifications of the Arctic Refuge soils, Locally, particulate-matter content may be very high landforms, vegetation, and landcover categories were because of windblown dust from beaches, sand bars, and developed from interpreted, color-infrared photographs sand dunes, because of salt spray near the coast, or (scale 1:60,000) and from a ground-truth reconnaissance because of industrial operations such as road traffic at survey in 1981. A preliminary Landsat land cover map Prudhoe Bay. Low concentrations of carbon monoxide based on high-altitude satellite photography and a derived have been measured (Cavanagh and others, 1969), ranging simplification were produced in October 1981 (Walker and from 0.055 to 0.250 ppm and averaging 0.090 ppm, with the others, 1982). A second revised land-cover map was trend toward an increase in the past 20 years. Carbon- produced in 1984; field verification of that revision is dioxide concentrations show an annual cycle (Kelley and ongoing. For example, verification shows that willows are Weaver, 1966; NOAA, 1975). Concentrations are higher not easily visible on Landsat photographs and may be during the winter and under the snow (Kelley and Weaver, underrepresented on current maps. The 17 cover classes 1966). Concentrations are at their minimum in August, identified in the 1002 area are one forest, three scrub, four corresponding closely to the maximum vegetative bloom on herbaceous, four scarcely vegetated, and five other types the tundra. (table 11-1). Dominant vegetation within each 1002 area terrain type is discussed under that terrain type. Each The effects of human activity on air quality are cur- vegetation type and correlations among classification rently localized, being restricted mostly to the vicinity of systems are described in the final baseline report (Garner villages and to the Prudhoe Bay/Kuparuk development area, and Reynolds, 1986a). and are strongly dependent on local meteorological condi- tions and topography. The FWS is currently examining the status of 30 plant taxa in Alaska that may be threatened or endangered with Strong temperature inversions on the coastal plain, extinction. This list was published December 15, 1980 (45 particularly during the winter, often begin near ground level FR 82480), with supplements published in 1983 (48 FR and hinder vertical air circulation and mixing. An inversion, 53640) and 1985 (50 FR 39526). One candidate plant if coupled with low, near-surface wind speeds, can produce species, Thlaspi arcticum, is known to occur in the 1002 prolonged stagnant air conditions, especially in areas having area (pl. 1) (Murray, 1980b; Felix, Lipkin, and others, topographic obstructions such as hills and mountains. 1985). An endemic of the Alaska-Yukon region, T. arcticum Although inversions are common in the 1002 area, is known from several widely disjunct areas. Within the persistent surface winds tend to prevent air stagnation. Arctic Refuge it has been found in eight locations ranging from alpine sites on the upper Okpilak, Sadlerochit, and Noise Canning Rivers to gravel bars, river terraces, and dry bluffs Ambient noise levels over most of the 1002 area are on the 1002 area along Marsh Creek and the Katakturuk low and result predominantly from natural sources or River. It is also found in shrub tundra, dwarf heath, and EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 23 Table 11-1 .--Landsat-identified vegetation cover classes and correlation with FWS wetland classifications, 1002 area of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. [Because of rounding, does not add to 100 percent. Class names were developed during mapping for Arctic National Wildlife Refuge comprehensive conservation plan and are not identical with earlier class names by D. A. Walker and others (1982). Wetland types from Cowardin and others (1979)] Wetlands Cover class Acres Percent Classification Acres Deciduous forest tall scrub.. 20 <0.1 Palustrine, forested, broad-leaved deciduous, 20 temporarily flooded. Total forest <.1 Dry prostrate dwarf scrub .... 10,330 0.7 Non-wetland ........................................-- Moist prostrate dwarf 389,180 25.2 Palustrine, scrub-shrub, broad-leaved deciduous, 389,180 scrub. saturated. Mesic erect dwarf scrub ...... 113,000 7.3 Palustrine, scrub-shrub, broad-leaved deciduous 113,000 emergent, persistent, saturated. Total scrub 33.2 Very wet graminoid ................ 3,910 0.3 Palustrine, emergent, permanently flooded ............ 3,910 Wet graminoid ........................ 211,430 13.7 Palustrine, emergent, semipermanently 211,430 flooded or seasonally flooded. Moist/wet tundra complex .... 238,660 15.4 Palustrine, emergent/scrub-shrub, broad-leaved 238.660 deciduous, semipermanently flooded or seasonally flooded. Moist graminoid tussock 465,350 30.1 Palustrine, emergent/scrub-shrub, broad- 465,350 tundra. leaved deciduous, saturated. Total herbaceous ............... 59.5 Scarcely vegetated scree ..... 430 <0.1 Non-wetland ........................................-- Scarcely vegetated flood 21,100 1.4 Palustrine, scrub-shrub, broad-leaved deciduous, 21,100 plain. temporarily flooded. Barren flood plain .................. 30,350 2.0 Riverine, unconsolidated shore, temporarily 30.350 flooded or seasonally flooded. Barren scree........................... 230 <.1 Non-wetland ........................................-- Total scarcely vegetated areas................................. 3.4 Clear water (lakes, 17,290 1.1 Palustrine, open water, permanently flooded; or 17,290 ponds, rivers). lacustrine, limnetic, open water, permanently flooded; or riverine, open water, permanently flooded. Clouds-snow-ice .................... 2,530 .2 Non-wetland ........................................-- Shallow water ......................... 450 <.1 Riverine, unconsolidated shore/open water .......... 450 Offshore water ....................... 40,880 2.6 Marine, subtidal, open water; or estuarine, 40,880 subtidal, open water. Shadow ................................... 1,160 .1 Not applicable ...........................................................-- Total other........................... 4.0 TOTAL .................................. 1,546,300 100.1 .................................................................................... 1,531,620 24 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT occasionally in tussock tundra. At least three of these Vegetation is dominated by sedges and tussock- sites (Okpilak Lake, Katakturuk River, and Marsh Creek) forming sedges. Dwarf willow or birch are common but contain more than 100 plants each. This small, white to sparsely distributed. Mosses and lichens are important lilac-colored mustard plant flowers very early and is easily components of tundra vegetation. The main Landsat cover overlooked when past flowering. classes in the foothills are moist graminoid tussock tundra. mesic erect dwarf scrub, and moist prostrate dwarf scrub. WETLANDS Frost-scars are often a component of tussock tundra and can constitute as much as 80 percent of the surface. Approximately 99 percent (1.53 million acres) of the Parallel and subparallel water tracks, commonly present, 1002 area is classified as wetland according to the U.S. give the slopes a ribbed appearance. These water tracks Fish and Wildlife Service's (FWS) Classification of Wetlands are shallow, vegetated drainage channels that conduct and Deep-water Habitats of the U.S. (Cowardin and others, snowmelt waters, and perhaps subsurface waters as well, 1979) (table 11-1). The FWS defines wetlands as lands during the thaw season. Strangmoor are often found in the transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where channels, suggesting slow mass movement of the saturated the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land soil columns. Vegetation in the water tracks is commonly is covered by shallow water. Wetlands must have at least dwarf shrubs, mainly dwarf birch and diamond-leafed willow. one of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; (2) the RIVER FLOOD PLAINS substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soils; and (3) the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or River environments (about 25 percent of the 1002 covered by shallow water at some time during the growing area) are among the most complex terrains. They include season of each year. (Note: FWS has prepared a the barren deltas and braided channels of the larger rivers, preliminary list of hydrophytes and other plants occurring in the terraces and alluvial areas associated with old river wetlands of the United States in this classification system. channels, and the delta formations at the base of the The U.S. Soil Conservation Service has prepared a list of foothills that possibly represent an ancient sea level hydric soils for use in this classification system.) (Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research, University of Colorado, unpublished data, 1982). Riverine systems Non-wetland, upland habitat in the 1002 area is consist of the active channel and one or more terraces. generally restricted to sparsely vegetated sites outside of Most major rivers within the 1002 area have braided active flood plains where the depth to permafrost is great channels about 0.6 to 2.5 miles wide. Most of the enough to allow for well-drained soil conditions. Areas with diamond-shaped islands between channels are inundated a dense vegetative cover are characterized by permafrost sporadically each year during snowmelt from late May to occurring at a shallow depth due to the insulating effect of early June. Two types of islands occur: those consisting the organic mat. The soil in these areas remains saturated of unvegetated gravels and gravelly sands (silts in the delta at or near the surface throughout most of the growing regions) with no soil development, and vegetated islands season. The vegetation layer is composed mainly of that have been removed from the main high-water mark species typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. because of channel cutting. Vegetated islands of the second type have widely varying vegetation coverage, depending upon the extent and frequency of inundation. The soils developed on them consist of silt, silt loam, loam, TERRAIN TYPES and fine sandy loam over gravel and gravelly sand. Six regionally significant terrain types (Walker and Land cover associated with river systems ranges from others, 1982) occur within the 1002 area. Five are totally barren river gravels and mud to tundra that is indis- discussed below. The sixth is the 131 square miles of tinguishable from that in nonalluvial areas. The braided ocean water within the 1002 boundary (5 percent). channels are subjected to intense disturbance during spring breakup. In addition, meandering streams and braided FOOTHILLS rivers are constantly changing their channels. Slightly more stable areas are often only partially vegetated but may Foothills cover about 45 percent of the 1002 area. contain a wide variety of taxa, making them among the Between the Canning and Sadlerochit Rivers, an east-west most floristically rich sites in the region. Willows are distance of about 47 miles, low foothills rise from Camden common on vegetated gravel bars and may form extensive Bay to the base of the Sadlerochit Mountains, 18-34 miles thickets; however, these thickets are not nearly so exten- from the seacoast. The hills in this region are as high as sive as the riparian willow communities found farther west 1250 feet and are interspersed with the drainages of the along the Sagavanirktok, Kuparuk, and Colville Rivers (fig. Tamayariak River, Katakturuk River, Marsh Creek, Carter I-1). This relatively limited supply of riverine willow within Creek, Itkilyariak Creek, and the Sadlerochit River (fig. 11-2). the 1002 area is of significance to several wildlife species. The crests of several hills, particularly near the Katakturuk Riparian areas are often snow-free earlier than other areas River, have barren gravel outcrops. East of the Sadlerochit on the coastal plain, another reason they are of River the foothills are farther from the coast. considerable importance to several wildlife species. Smaller EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 25 streams and stiller interchannel areas of the larger rivers cover categories in the thaw-lake plains include moist/wet have lush sedge and willow stands. Willow height varies tundra complex, moist prostrate dwarf scrub, wet and very with the amount of winter snow cover and summer wet graminoid, clear water, dry prostrate dwarf scrub, and temperature regime. Willows near the coast are mostly moist graminoid tussock. prostrate, whereas near the south boundary of the 1002 area, shrubs can occasionally exceed 6 feet in height. MOUNTAINS Land-cover map classes for this area include clear Alpine terrain represents only a few square miles in water, barren and scarcely vegetated flood plain, wet the 1002 area (about 0.05 percent), mostly above 1970 feet graminoid, moist/wet tundra complex, dry prostrate dwarf elevation west of Sadlerochit Spring. Sadlerochit Spring is scrub, and moist graminoid tussock tundra. of special interest because poplar and other distinct plant species occur there (Murray, 1980a). HILLY COASTAL PLAINS Vegetation communities in these areas are complex Extensive areas of gently rolling topography cover and are interspersed with unvegetated rocks and talus more than 22 percent of the 1002 area. East of the slopes. The character of the well-vegetated slopes varies Hulahula River and parallel to the coast are numerous considerably, but the more completely vegetated areas have slightly elevated ridges and depressions, mostly with less extensive moss mats with numerous prostrate shrubs, such than 100 feet of relief. Flat, gently sloping (5 percent or as mountain avens, prostrate willow, and small forbs. less) interfluve areas contain complexes of moist/wet Limestone areas are of particular interest because of the tussock tundra associated with poorly developed flat- presence of unique assemblages of plants, such as the centered ice-wedge polygons. Ridges are mainly vegetated bryophytes associated with wet limestone seeps (Brown with moist prostrate dwarf scrub, moist graminoid tussock, and Berg, 1980; Steere and Murray, 1976). The main land- and moist/wet tundra complex. Frost boils and hummocky cover classes include barren and scarcely vegetated scree ground are common in this area. The depressions between and dry prostrate dwarf scrub. ridges contain thaw-lakes of clear water and wet graminoid tundra. Stream drainages are well defined and have large SADLEROCHIT SPRING SPECIAL AREA expanses of relatively well drained terrain. Sadlerochit Spring and its surrounding area FLAT THAW-LAKE PLAINS (approximately 4,000 acres), in the southern part of the 1002 area, west of the Sadlerochit River (pl. 1A) has been Thaw-lakes, drained lake basins, and expanses of nominated as a National Natural Landmark (Bliss and low-centered ice-wedge polygons occur only locally, Gustafson, 1981). The National Natural Landmark program primarily near the flat braided river deltas, and cover only 3 was established to encourage the preservation of areas percent of the 1002 area. Thaw-lakes are generally illustrating the diverse ecological and geologic character of elliptical, shallow (2 to 6 ft), and geomorphologically short- the United States. Areas qualifying as National Natural lived. They form with disruption of the vegetation and Landmarks must be free of disturbance and capable of organic cover of the polygonized tundra. Thaw of the ice- retaining and perpetuating their inherent natural qualities rich, near-surface materials and melting of ice wedges can over time, as well as having exceptional scientific research result in a pool of standing water and development of a and education values. Sadlerochit Spring is unique shallow pond that eventually becomes a thaw lake. The because of its large discharge and almost constant best examples of thaw-lake topography are: (1) confluence temperature, which maintains an open channel for nearly 5 of the Canning and Tamayariak Rivers, (2) a narrow coastal miles downstream during the coldest part of the year. belt extending east of the Canning and Tamayariak Rivers; Located near the foothills on the coastal plain of the Arctic and (3) a narrow zone between the delta of the Hulahula Refuge, it is one of the largest perennial springs on the River and a point a few miles east of the Jago River. North Slope of Alaska. It has a discharge ranging from 35 to 53 cubic feet per second (cfs) and warm waters of 500 Except for the vegetated basins of relatively recently to 580F, which support a dense population of tiny drained lakes, some form of microrelief is nearly always organisms (macro-invertebrates) (400 to 500 per cubic foot) present on thaw-lake plains, mostly low-centered polygons and populations of arctic char and arctic grayling (Craig, and strangmoor. 1977). Sadlerochit Spring is a fish-wintering area (pl. 1B); such areas are extremely limited on the 1002 area and are The microtopography of thaw-lake plains (elevation generally associated with the larger springs. Several plant variations of only a few feet) plays the major influence on and bird species not found anywhere else this far north are the distribution of plant communities, and small elevation associated with this spring. Muskoxen also use the area differences create distinct patterns of plant communities and throughout the year. soils associations (Wiggins, 1951; Cantlon, 1961; Britton, 1957; D. A. Walker, 1981). The perched water table is very The Sadlerochit Spring Special Area, as designated close to the surface, or slightly above, for most of the area, by regulations for exploration in the 1002 area, except for polygon rims and lake bluffs. The Landsat land- encompasses an area within 1/2 mile of the spring outlet 26 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT and extends 1/4 mile on each side of the stream the coastal and marine environment is the program goal of downstream 5 miles to the aufeis field (50 CFR 37.32(g)). protecting the natural environment and its capacity to The spring and surrounding area have been identified as a support subsistence activities. special area primarily for their unusual plant communities and associated diverse wildlife (pl. 1A. Because of the Fish and Wildlife Resources spring's special values, exploration activities have been prohibited within this area. The Sadlerochit Spring area is Section 303 of ANILCA, which establishes additions used as a traditional subsistence-use area, particularly in to existing refuges, requires that the Arctic National Wildlife winter, when people from Kaktovik camp at the spring and Refuge be managed "to fulfill the international treaty hunt and fish in the area (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). obligations of the United States with respect to fish and wildlife and their habitats * * *" [Section 303(2)(B)(ii)]. Coastal and Marine Environment International treaties and agreements related to fish and wildlife species that are either resident, transient, or Coastal-marine habitats in the 1002 area include occasionally found in the 1002 area, include: offshore, nearshore, open coast, delta, and barrier island/lagoon-mainland shore areas, and those parts of the 1. Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife coastal uplands directly affected by storm surges and Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, October 12, marine saline intrusions. These areas provide essential 1940 (56 Stat. 1354, TS 081), Article VII, Migratory shelter, staging areas, and other life support attributes to Birds. resident and migratory fish and wildlife populations. Beaches, spits, and bars occur throughout the area. 2. Convention with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Although permafrost probably underlies these sites, it does on the Conservation of Migratory Birds and Their not enter into the soil taxonomy. The inland extent of Environment (TIAS 9073). coastal habitats, biologically defined as the maximum inland reach of storm surges, is identified in many areas by the 3. Protection of Birds and Their Environment, Convention "strandline" of large drift logs and other debris, and by the between the United States of America and Japan (25 extent to which salt spray and ingress of saline water U.S.T. 3329, TIAS 7990). affects the vegetative cover along the coast. 4. Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, The North Slope Borough (NSB), under the November 15, 1973 (TIAS 8409). framework of the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act and the Alaska Coastal Management Act of 1977 (AS 5. International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, 44.19.891-894 and 46.40), has developed a Coastal Whaling Convention Act of 1949 [16 U.S.C. 916- Management Program approved by the State, April 17, 1985. 916(1)]. Article Ill of the act established the However, the Federal Office of Ocean and Coastal International Whaling Commission. Resource Management denied approval of this program on August 8, 1986. The NSB Coastal Management boundary 6. Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. includes State lands that are within the 3-nautical-mile 1361, 1362, 1371-1384, 1401-1407), Section 1378, offshore territorial limit, are inland approximately 25 miles, International Program, provides for negotiations for and State lands up certain streams to include anadromous the protection and conservation of marine mammals. fish spawning and fish overwintering habitat. The fish and wildlife occurring on the 1002 area are Concurrent with the Coastal Management Program, discussed by species, in five categories: terrestrial mam- the NSB initiated planning programs and sociocultural and mals, marine mammals, birds, fish, and threatened and economic studies. The NSB Comprehensive Plan and Land endangered species. Management Regulations became effective January 1, 1983. TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS Under section 307(c)1 of the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act, Federal activities directly affecting the CARIBOU coastal zone must be consistent with the approved State Coastal Management local program to the " * * * maximum The Porcupine and Central Arctic caribou herds are extent practicable." The NSB Coastal Management Plan found within the 1002 area during various times of the year. noted that the Hulahula, Okpilak, and Achilik Rivers within Each herd has specific distributions, movement patterns, the 1002 area had values warranting special attention (NSB, and herd dynamics. 1984a). The Porcupine caribou herd (PCH) is an international Goals of the State-approved NSB Coastal Manage- resource, estimated by the Alaska Department of Fish and ment Program relevant to government and economic Game (ADF&G) at 180,000 animals in 1986. The herd is activities in the area are described below under "State and increasing and is one of the largest in North America Local Political and Economic Systems." Most applicable to (Whitten, 1986). Earlier population estimates for the PCH EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 27 1480 1440 1400 1360 1320 IsBEA AI distributions, snow conditions, and the onset of spring U'IFORT SE.4 gt, SS~gf/weather. Most caribou migrate to reach the calving grounds of the 1002 area from Canada, moving westward along the northern foothills of the Brooks Range. In some YIa 1 \ \ s years many caribou also pass through the first snow-free 68�3,- , @ ) ; \\X _ mountain valleys east of the Aichilik River in Alaska. As spring conditions progress, caribou in the foothills spread northward along a broad front, primarily following the major / ~'-, 5j \ . Xriver corridors and associated terraces where snowmelt has / advanced. '-" EXPLANATION \ it 66�- Primary winter During years when snowmelt on the coastal plain is - Migration routes N, early, a broad zone north of the foothills is used for 100lo MILES k- \ calving. In such years calving concentrations tend to be o 1 oo KILOMETERS v s W f M E W / more northerly and scattered calving extends to the coast. m0 0 a0 K I LOMETE R S I __/ When spring is late, calving is more southerly and easterly, followed by a distinct movement west and northwest. Once Figure 11-4.--Migration routes and winter range of caribou have reached the calving grounds there is less the Porcupine caribou herd. directional movement. During and immediately after calving, were as low as 101,000 (LeResche, 1972). The lower levels foraging caribou use vegetated riparian habitats as well as of earlier estimates may reflect a truly smaller population, tussock uplands. Riparian areas (pl. 2A are used as travel less accurate or less complete survey techniques, or a corridors and important feeding areas in both spring and combination of these factors. Caribou populations appear summer. to fluctuate unpredictably over the long term. The long-term maximum and minimum population of the PCH and the The percentage of PCH cows using the 1002 area for carrying capacity of the PCH are unknown. calving was estimated to be 74 percent in 1983 and 82 percent in 1985. In 1984, 35 percent of the cows calved in The PCH ranges over 96,100 square miles of the 1002 area; 38 percent calved adjacent to the 1002 area, northeast Alaska and northwest Canada, and constitutes east of the Aichilik River. The latter group moved into the the largest population of large mammals shared between 1002 area within a week of giving birth and joined the cows the two nations (fig. 11-4). already there (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpublished data). These estimates were extrapolations from locational The traditional calving grounds of the PCH extend data on radio-collared cows. throughout the Arctic foothills and coastal plain from the Canning River in Alaska to the Babbage River in Canada. In arctic areas, caribou reproduction is highly Including the entire 1002 area, the calving grounds synchronous. The majority of calving occurs within a 2- to encompass an area of nearly 8.9 million acres (pl. 2A). 3-week period, when a single calf is born to most adult From year-to-year, the distribution of caribou on these females (3 years old). Caribou calves are precocious, calving grounds varies considerably, with most calving being able to stand and nurse within 1 hour following birth. usually taking place in the area between the Hulahula River They are capable of travel with adults within a week. The and the Canadian border. During 1972-85 detailed first 24 hours of life is critical, when a behavioral bond is observations were made of calving areas of the PCH. As a formed between the calf and its mother. Disturbance of result of these studies, areas where caribou were present cow-calf groups on the calving grounds may interfere with during calving at a density of at least 50 caribou/square bond formation and can increase calf mortality. mile were identified as concentrated calving areas. The core calving area is a location to which pregnant cows Usually caribou begin to arrive on the calving have shown a strong fidelity as traditionally favored calving grounds of the Arctic Refuge during mid- to late May. The habitat. Those concentrated calving areas used in at least first calves are born during the last week of May; peak 5 years during the 14-year study were identified as the core calving occurs during June 4-8. Although calving has been calving area. Of the 2.1 million acres identified as observed in a variety of terrains, most calves are born in concentrated calving areas, 934,000 acres (44 percent) are snow-free areas of sedge tussock uplands, where the cows within the 1002 area. An even greater proportion, 242,000 seek suitable vegetation. Predator densities are apparently acres (78 percent), of the 311,000 acres of core calving less in these areas and, subsequently, calf survival is better area is within the 1002 area. in the northern parts of the calving grounds which become snow-free when snowmelt is early (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Spring migrations to the calving grounds start in May Service, 1982; Mauer and others, 1983; Whitten and others, from winter ranges, which are usually south of the Conti- 1984, 1985). nental Divide in Alaska and in central Yukon Territory and adjacent Northwest Territories in Canada (fig. 11-4). Timing After calving, small bands of cows with newborn and routes of migrations vary annually depending on winter calves gradually merge into larger groups. Yearlings, barren 28 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT females, and bulls occupying the southern and eastern The Central Arctic caribou herd (CAH) has been periphery of the calving grounds begin to mix with the increasing, and in 1985 numbered about 12,000 to 14,000. cows and calves, ultimately forming huge postcalving Its range is entirely north of the Continental Divide, from the aggregations. By late June or early July aggregations of Itkillik and Colville Rivers on the west to the Sadlerochit 80,000 or more caribou on the 1002 area are common. River on the east (pl. 2B). The TAPS, Dalton Highway Postcalving movements show considerable annual variation. corridor and Prudhoe Bay-Kuparuk oil fields lie within the herd's range. In July 1983 the herd comprised 46 percent Although rather small in proportion to the herd's cows, 21 percent calves, and 33 percent bulls (Hinman, entire range, the calving/postcalving area is an important, 1985). identifiable habitat that has been repeatedly used by the PCH during these critical life stages. Females of the CAH wintering in the mountains and foothills near the western part of the 1002 area migrate As the spring progresses, weather conditions north-northwest across the rolling uplands south of promote the emergence of swarms of mosquitoes. Harass- Camden Bay to the calving grounds on or near the ment by these insects drives the caribou into dense Canning and Staines River deltas. A northward movement aggregations and results in their increased movement to along the Canning River corridor also occurs. areas of relief. The groups usually move rapidly toward the coast seeking relief on points, river deltas, mudflats, aufeis, CAH calving activity has been concentrated in two large gravel bars, barrier islands, and in the shallows of areas: the vicinity of the lower Kuparuk River and the lagoons (pl. 2). Some groups also move to higher Canning River delta. Most years as many as 1,000 females elevations in the mountains for relief. In other years there calve on the Canning River delta within the 1002 area (pl. can be a gradual westward shift across the coastal plain 2B). Scattered, low-density calving extends as far east as and northern foothills. the Sadlerochit River. Little or no calving has been observed in the TAPS-Prudhoe Bay oil field area since The postcalving season is the low point of the about 1973 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982; Whitten annual physiological cycle when energy reserves of and Cameron, 1985). parturient cows are especially low. The stresses of winter, pregnancy, migration, birth, lactation, hair molt, antler After calving, some CAH caribou move growth, and insect harassment draw heavily upon this southeastward, to the uplands south of Camden Bay. segment of the population (Dauphine, 1976; White and During the insect season (July) there is often a strong others, 1975). Access to insect-relief habitat and forage eastward movement along coastal habitats between the resources during this period may be critical to herd Canning River delta and Camden Bay. An estimated 2,000- productivity. In early July the herds usually move east and 3,000 caribou of the CAH use the 1002 area (Canning River south, vacating the 1002 area by mid-July. In certain years, delta and coastal habitats along Camden Bay) for post- residual groups numbering up to 15,000 animals have calving and insect-relief (pl. 2BJ. During the summer, an remained on the 1002 area and adjacent foothills and additional 1,000 animals may be scattered west of the mountains through August. Occasionally, remnants of such Sadlerochit River and north of the Sadlerochit Mountains. groups (up to 2,000 animals) have wintered in northern Riparian areas are used for travel corridors as well as mountains and foothills. important spring and summer feeding areas. In late summer and fall, CAH caribou are found scattered across An international agreement for management of the the coastal plain south of Camden Bay, in foothills north of PCH is currently being negotiated between the governments the Sadlerochit Mountains, and in uplands south of the of the United States and Canada. The State of Alaska and Sadlerochit Mountains where they remain for the winter. Provincial governments as well as local users are During most winters, scattered groups of CAH caribou participating in the negotiations. range throughout the 1002 area west of the Katakturuk River and adjacent uplands to the south. The number of Harvest of the PCH occurs in both the United States wintering animals ranges from 100 to 1,000. and Canada. The harvest by individual Native villages is highly variable, depending upon herd movements. Recent The annual harvest of CAH caribou by Kaktovik annual harvests from the PCH by Kaktovik, the only village residents has most recently been estimated to be 25-75 adjacent to the 1002 area, have ranged from 25 to 75 animals (Pedersen and Coffing, 1984). This harvest occurs animals (Pedersen and Coffing, 1984). Annual harvest of along the coast during the summer when residents can the PCH throughout its range was estimated at 3,000-5,000 travel by boat and inland during the fall and spring when animals (LeBlond, 1979). The harvest varies greatly from snowmachine travel is possible (pi. 2). village to village and from year to year within the same village. The annual harvest at Arctic Village, Alaska, ranges MUSKOXEN from 200 to 1,000 (LeBlond, 1979). During 1963-85 annual harvest of the PCH within Canada averaged approximately Muskoxen were exterminated from the North Slope by 1,700 animals for the years in which data were available the late 1800's, so carrying capacity and past historic levels (Yukon Territory Wildlife Branch, unpublished data). are unknown. In an effort to reestablish an indigenous EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 29 population, 69 muskoxen were reintroduced to the Arctic habitats along major drainages, where they feed on willows Refuge in 1969 and 1970 (Roseneau and Stern, 1974). The and forbs. In winter and spring many animals move to muskox population has grown exponentially since 1974 (fig. adjacent uplands with less snow cover to feed on tussock 11-5) because of high productivity and low mortality. In sedges (Reynolds and others, 1985). Preliminary FWS data 1985, the postcalving refuge population was estimated at indicate that muskoxen apparently reduce both their 476, more than triple the 1979 population. movements and activity during winter, probably as an adaptation to conserve energy. Table 11-2 and plate 20 Muskoxen are highly social, usually found in mixed- show the extent of muskoxen habitat within the Arctic sex herds. Herd size of the 1002 area population varies Refuge and 1002 area and delineate those seasonal or seasonally, the smallest herds occurring during the rut in year-round use areas where muskoxen have been observed August. Many bull muskoxen do not remain with a mixed- most frequently, year after year (1982-85). sex herd for long periods of time, but move from herd to herd, associate with other bulls in small groups, or travel Table 11-2.--Observed muskox range within the Arctic alone (Reynolds and others, 1985). In response to National Wildlife Refuge and within the 1002 area, 1982-85. predators or other threats, muskoxen form a compact defensive formation. Muskoxen have used the same areas along the Within Within Percent of Niguanak-Okerokovik-Angun, Sadlerochit, and Tamayariak- Arctic 1002 area total use Katakturuk river drainages for the past several years with Refuge (acres) area within approximately 80, 160, and 230 animals using those (acres) 1002 area drainages, respectively. Muskoxen using the Sadlerochit and Tamayariak areas seem to be part of the same subpopulation, whereas animals in the Okerokovik area High seasonal or year- seem to be a separate subpopulation. Many of the cows round use with marked for the baseline study research in 1982-85 have calving....................... 251,000 207,000 82 remained in these areas (pl. 2_) and show a high site- High seasonal or year- specific fidelity. Riparian areas are important travel corridors round use "without and muskoxen regularly feed there year-round. Dispersal of calving" .................... 211,000 158,000 75 mixed-sex herds into new areas on the Katakturuk River Total observed range, and drainages east of the Aichilik River is also occurring. including high-use areas ......................... 1,116,000 760,000 68 Though not migratory, muskoxen apparently move in response to seasonal changes in snow cover and vegeta- tion. In summer and fall, they are often found in riparian Muskoxen hunting on the Arctic Refuge under permit from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game started in 1983. Five bull-only permits have been issued annually; the ,400 i ' 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986 harvests were 4, 5, 4, and 3, ?P respectively. ,' MOOSE 300 - 7' Patterns of moose distribution north of the Brooks Z Range vary seasonally (pl. 1). Winter concentrations 0o - f - occur south of the 1002 area where up to 158 and 239 jv Total ,/ moose have been counted in the Canning and Kongakut D populations/ m 2 - population~/ River drainages, respectively. A few moose are scattered in _200 - o f other river drainages (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982; Iu Tamayariak Martin and Garner, 1984, 1985). En ,z area -3 Z ,' A/ y In late May or early June small widely dispersed 100 - ,.-' Sadlerochit //_/< - groups of moose move northward along riparian systems. , area t Moose using the 1002 area have dispersed from popula- - a_--"~ tions to the south and use a variety of habitats in July and --Okerokovik early August. The number of moose using the 1002 area at any one time probably does not exceed 25. In late August, 972 1975 1978 1981 1984 moose begin to aggregate; the largest groups occur in October during the rut south of the 1002 area. Most Figure 1l-5.--Estimated numbers of muskoxen in post- moose using the 1002 area move southward to winter in calving populations in the Arctic Refuge, 1972-84. valleys of the Brooks Range. Riparian willow species 30 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT comprise a major part of the forage used by moose; Wolves on the North Slope are known to prey on mountain alder is an important winter food where available. caribou, moose, sheep, ground squirrels, small rodents, and birds. Wolves are typically associated with drainage Subsistence hunters from Kaktovik take one or two systems which they use as travel corridors. They are also moose annually (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). Other attracted to riparian areas because of the abundance of hunters harvest a few moose, generally less than 10 prey, including ground squirrels. During the summer when annually, from the North Slope of the Arctic Refuge. Most prey species are most abundant, wolves are distributed of this harvest is in the Canning River and Kongakut throughout all 1002 area habitat types (U.S. Fish and drainages, and nearly all outside the 1002 area. Wildlife Service, 1982; Haugen, 1984, 1985; Weiler and others, 1985). Wolves are hunted and trapped by Kaktovik residents. Most of the harvest occurs in the Hulahula, Sadlerochit, and Okpilak River areas (Jacobson and DALL SHEEP Wentworth, 1982; Weiler and others, 1986). Generally, fewer than 10 wolves are harvested annually, usually south Although the estimated total population of Dall sheep of the 1002 area. within the original 8.9-million-acre Arctic Refuge is approxi- mately 6,800, Dall sheep are very rare on the 1002 area, ARCTIC FOXES because suitable habitat is lacking. The Sadlerochit Mountains contain an estimated 270 sheep, and constitute Arctic foxes move seasonally between summer the northernmost extent of their range in North America breeding habitats in wet tundra and winter habitats along (T.G. Smith, 1979). the northern Alaska coast and onto the sea ice (Chesemore, 1967). They are limited in their range by Traditional summer range consists mainly of alpine habitat and interspecific competition with red foxes. slopes and meadows. Winter range, limited mostly by Periodic outbreaks of rabies can reduce fox populations. topography, consists of windblown slopes and ridges, Productivity of foxes is related to abundance of microtines usually south-facing. FWS surveys indicate that Dall sheep (small rodents). Foxes regulate their food supply, despite have used the lower foothill terrain near Sadlerochit Spring, fluctuating prey availability, by caching food in early summer mostly in winter; in summer, they cross this tundra area in when prey is abundant and utilizing food caches and moving to other habitats (D. Ross and M. A. Spindler, carrion in late summer when fewer prey are available. At unpublished data, 1981). Demarcation Bay arctic foxes spent most of their time in medium-relief, low-center polygon and meadow habitats, WOLVES preying on small mammals and bird nests (Burgess, 1984). In 1979 when rodents were at low population levels, foxes Wolves are found throughout Alaska's North Slope, at Demarcation Bay depended mainly on birds and eggs. On the 1002 area, the population density is lower than in No pups were produced that year (Burgess, 1984). areas farther south. Wolves occupy large home ranges. In winter wolves tend to congregate in areas of overwintering Arctic foxes are trapped by Kaktovik residents in the caribou and possibly moose or Dall sheep. Daily move- winter for fur. The number taken annually fluctuates ment depends on availability of prey. Estimates of density according to their abundance. In years of abundance more for restricted geographic areas vary widely, but most fall than 100 foxes may be taken. Most trapping is within 15 within the range of 6 to 200 square miles per wolf (Mech, miles of the coast, mainly on or near Barter Island 1970). Mating occurs in March, and pups (usually 4-7 per (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). litter) are born in dens 2 months later. Although the 1002 area appears to contain suitable denning habitat, no dens WOLVERINES have been found. Dens that have been documented are in mountainous terrain, 10 to 40 miles south of the 1002 area. Wolverines frequent all types of terrain found in Arctic The number of wolves using the 1002 area on a seasonal areas, as evident from observations and tracks. Rivers and basis is low and apparently does not exceed 5-10 animals mountains are frequently associated with territorial annually. boundaries. Snowdrifts are important for wolverine den sites, and, in the tundra, remnant snowdrifts in small Populations in or adjacent to the 1002 area were drainages are used by females for rearing their offspring depressed in the late 1970's by an outbreak of rabies. A (Magoun, 1985). similar outbreak occurred in 1985 when six dead wolves, including four radio-collared animals, were found. Four of A few wolverines inhabit the 1002 area. Accurate the animals were confirmed as rabid. Historical den sites population figures are unavailable. A rough estimate of the on the Kongakut, Hulahula, and Aichilik Rivers were 1002 area wolverine population can be made from the deserted in 1985. Death of breeding wolves from rabies wolverine densities and assumptions used by Magoun was suspected as the reason. However, four new dens (1985) for estimating the population in the Western Arctic. were found, three of them occupied by wolves which were On Magoun's assumptions, the estimated density for the remnants of earlier packs. 1002 area is 90 wolverines. This figure may not be very EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 31 accurate: Magoun's area and the 1002 area are not caribou leave the 1002 area in early July, brown bears identical; Magoun studied a virtually unexploited population gradually move south into the foothills and mountains whereas wolverines in the 1002 area and environs are (Garner and others, 1983, 1984, 1985). Riparian areas are routinely harvested by Kaktovik residents. Furthermore, used as travel corridors. Brown bear habitat changes sighting records for the 1002 area are sparse; recent FWS seasonally according to food availability (U.S. Fish and studies have resulted in very few sightings. Wildlife Service, 1982). Spring foods include vegetation, Wolverines feed opportunistically and have been carrion, caribou, ground squirrels, and rodents. River reported pursuing large ungulates such as caribou, moose, courses frequently contain abundant prey as well as and Dali sheep, though they are more commonly scaven- preferred vegetation. During mid- to late summer, brown bears shift to eating horsetail, grasses, and sedges. In the gers than predators. In the Arctic, ground squirrels are an important food (Rausch and Pearson, 1972). Caribou are fall, they eat wild sweetpea roots, crow- berries, blueberries, bearberries, and ground squirrels and other rodents scavenged, particularly during May and June when they bearberries, and ground squirrels and other rodents are numerous on the 1002 area. During June and July, wolverines also prey on birds and eggs. Denning occurs in late September and October, Kaktovik residents hunt wolverines most frequently in depending on soil conditions (the top soil must be frozen the foothills and northern mountainous areas of the Sadle- to support den excavation) and weather (Pearson, 1976; rochit, Hulahula, and Okpilak Rivers. ADF&G records Reynolds and others, 1976; Garner and others, 1983, 1984, indicate that an average of about one wolverine per year is 1985). Cubs are born in the den in January and early harvested from the 1002 area; this may be an February. Litters range from one to three cubs; the underestimate because of incomplete reporting. Magoun average litter for bears using the 1002 area is 1.9 (Garner (1985) believed that harvest in Game Management Unit 26A and others, 1984). Most dens are located in the foothills (Western Arctic) was 2 to 10 times greater than reported. and mountains south of the 1002 area. Six of 129 (4.6 During the winter of 1980-81, seven wolverines were taken percent) known den sites within the Arctic Refuge have by Kaktovik residents (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). been located on the 1002 area (Garer and others, 1983, Wolverines are sometimes harvested by trappers near the 1984, 1985). Brown bears emerge from winter dens in late village of Kaktovik. These animals are mostly subadults April through May. On the 1002 area the survival rate that may be dispersing onto the 1002 area from the among cubs and yearlings ranges from zero to 100 percent. foothills to the south. Information is lacking as to whether Causes of juvenile mortality on the 1002 area are not well the 1002 area wolverine population is resident or transient. known, but a major cause is probably the killing of juveniles by mature males such as occurs in other brown bear BROWN BEARS populations (Stringham, 1983). Brown bears seasonally use the 1002 area. At Residents of Kaktovik harvest an average of 2 brown periods of greatest abundance (in June) use is estimated at bears annually. The bears are taken opportunistically on one bear per 30 square miles, or approximately 108 bears the 1002 area or farther south in the foothills or mountains (Garner and others, 1984). Brown bears north of the (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). The sport harvest within Brooks Range are at the northern limit of their range. the Arctic Refuge north of the Brooks Range averages 2-4 These populations are characterized as having low brown bears annually. Virtually all sport harvest is south of reproductive rates as a result of short periods of food the 1002 area. availability, large individual home ranges (95 to 520 square miles), and habitats that provide little protective cover (Reynolds and others, 1976; Reynolds, 1979; Garner, Weiler, and Martin, 1983). Arctic ground squirrels are found throughout the 1002 area in colonies restricted to well-drained soils free of Brown bears appear on the 1002 area in late May permafrost. Ground squirrels hibernate from late September and are generally most abundant during June and July through May (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). Activity when caribou are most plentiful. The bears breed during resumes in the spring, before the snow begins to this same period. Brown bears are found throughout the disappear. Mating is followed by a 25-day gestation period. entire 1002 area. There are two known high-use areas Young ground squirrels grow rapidly in preparation for One, used by 50-70 adult bears and cubs, is in the winter hibernation. southeastern section of the 1002 area where caribou calving is concentrated. The second, used by 15-20 bears, Ground squirrels are a subsistence food for Kaktovik is a much smaller area along the upper reaches of the residents. They are also important in the diets of snowy Katakturuk River (pl. 1I. Moderate-use (30-80 bears) is owls, rough-legged hawks, brown bears, arctic foxes, red located between and around the high-use areas and are foxes, and wolves. generally used for a shorter period (June-July). (Note that bear numbers from each use area cannot be added Other rodents found on the 1002 area include the because they represent different times of residency. Each collared lemming, brown lemming, and tundra vole. Red- bear may use more than one or all areas delineated.) After backed voles and tundra voles may occur in the foothills in 32 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT the southern part of the 1002 area. The brown lemming is which polar bear dens and denning activity have been the leading herbivore along the coast, and in high popu- observed during more than one winter. Dens or denning lation years can account for more plant consumption than activity has also been observed in other 1002 area ungulates (Batzli and others, 1980). Impacts on the locations, but data are inadequate to confirm recurrent use. vegetation are cyclic and correspond to the brown lemming's 3- to 5-year population cycle. Lemmings and Female polar bears that den on land move onshore voles are active all year, grazing frozen plant material and to seek out den sites in October and November, depending breeding under the snow. Maximum population densities on ice movement and ice buildup in the fall (Lentfer and occur after successful winter reproduction. Shallow snow Hensel, 1980). Denning females give birth to 1 or 2 cubs depths result in low temperatures under the snow, creating in December or January, and bears emerge in late March or an energy stress that can reduce winter reproductive early April, depending upon weather conditions. The female success. and cubs generally remain near the den, making short forays for 1 to 2 weeks until the cubs gain strength and MARINE MAMMALS become acclimated to outside conditions. Soon thereafter, they move to the sea ice to feed on seals. Many females with new cubs concentrate their foraging on the shore-fast the coast of the Arctic Refuge. Some of these--the spotted ice which varies in width from a few feet to more than 30 seal and walrus--are occasional visitors. Others such as iles. the killer whale, gray whale, humpback whale, fin whale, narwhal, harbor porpoise, and hooded seal are only rarely seen because this part of the Beaufort Sea is at the When the nearshore ice breaks up in the spring, the extreme margin of their ranges. Five of the species were bears move with the sea ice and many concentrate at the evaluated: polar bear, ringed seal, bearded seal, beluga south edge of the pack ice. This position varies seasonally whale, and the endangered bowhead whale. but usually is between the coast and latitude 720N. POLAR BEARS Except for a shore lead, the Beaufort Sea is ice Polar bears are closely associated with pack ice of covered year-round. Open water nearshore begins to the Arctic Ocean throughout most of the year. The freeze in September or October, and nearshore ice does Beaufort Sea population of polar bears is estimated to be not melt until May or early June. Male and nondenning 2,000. Some females move to coastal areas and occa- female polar bears inhabit the sea ice throughout the sionally farther inland during October and November to winter. The distribution of polar bears is influenced by the seek maternity den sites. Pregnant polar bears, and later availability of their major prey species, ringed and bearded their cubs, probably spend more time on the 1002 area seals, which concentrate in areas of drifting pack ice than other segments of the polar bear population. Other (Lentfer, 1971; Stirling and others, 1975). Ringed seals groups of polar bears seasonally frequent the coastal probably constitute 95 percent of the polar bear's diet periphery of the area. Recapture of polar bears marked by (Burns and Eley, 1978). the FWS in recent years indicates that an influx of females accompanied by cubs as old as 20 months and subadult Polar bears are protected under the provisions of the animals coincides with the fall ice-edge advance to the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. An international shoreline. agreement for the conservation of polar bears was ratified in 1976 by the governments of Canada, Denmark, Norway, Polar bear dens have been found as far as 250 miles the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the United offshore and 32 miles inland. Eighty-seven percent of dens States of America. Article II requires that appropriate located in 1983-85 were offshore. The onshore area from actions be taken to protect ecosystems of which polar the Colville delta to the Canadian border is within the area bears are a part, especially denning and feeding sites. used by the Beaufort Sea population of polar bears for denning. However, the most consistently used land denning areas were on and adjacent to the 1002 area Large numbers of polar bears may occur seasonally where 1-2 dens were found in 4 of the 5 years, between along the coast of the Arctic Refuge near the village of winter 1981-82, when the FWS began a continuing study of Kaktovik where whale carcasses can be scavenged North Slope polar bears, and winter 1985-86 (Amstrup, (Amstrup and others, 1986). Each year many bears are 1986a). The ideal denning sites are riverbanks, draws, and available to local subsistence hunters, but in most recent the leeward side of bluffs where snow accumulation is years the kill has been small (FWS, unpublished data). sufficient to support den construction. At least 15 dens Annual subsistence harvest of polar bears by local were located in the 1002 area, 1951-85 (pl. 1E). Another residents was as high as 23 to 28 in 1980-81; at least one five dens have been located on ice near the 1002 area. polar bear was confirmed as being taken in each of the following 4 years, with three bears being taken in 1985-86 Three locations in the 1002 area (pl. 1E) have been (Schliebe, 1985; Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982; FWS, delineated as confirmed denning areas, that is, areas in unpublished data). EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 33 SEALS AND WHALES Sixteen offshore species breed locally on coastal tundra or barrier islands (Bartels, 1973). Greatest concentrations of Ringed seals, bearded seals and, occasionally, summer resident waterbirds on the Arctic Refuge occur in spotted seals occur in the Beaufort Sea and along the two general habitats: shallow coastal waters and tundra coast north of the coastal plain, including the lagoons of wetlands (pl. 3A. the 1002 area (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). Although there is some evidence of ringed seals within the Birds begin using coastal lagoons when the snow refuge in summer and fall, their primary habitats are gener- melts in early June. During this period, river overflows ally outside the 1002 area. Ringed seals use stable, shore- cover lagoon deltas and provide the first open water of the fast ice as their primary pupping habitat (T.G. Smith, 1980). season. Habitat use during the breeding season (mainly To improve chances of successfully rearing pups, older, June and July) varies with bird species. Peak numbers of more-dominant female ringed seals select and actively birds are often seen in August and September during defend territories on stable shore-fast ice for pupping. staging and early migration. Smaller numbers are present Subadult and younger females are forced to construct lairs until freezeup in late September or early October. on active pack ice, increasing the chances of predation by polar bears. Bearded seals are chiefly associated with the Lagoon areas are relatively high in productivity, and pack-ice edge throughout the year. Primary breeding and are important during all phases of the avian life cycle. pupping habitat is associated with the ice edge. A small More than 35,000 waterbirds of 20-25 species (primarily number of bearded seals remain in northern ice-bound oldsquaw) may use the coastal lagoons during the open- areas. The extent of active pack ice use by seals is not water period (July-September). As many as 11,000 birds well understood within the 1002 area. However, seals in may be present in a lagoon at one time. Some birds move Canada do occupy active pack ice, a preferred hunting area from terrestrial nesting habitats into shallow lagoons, bays, for polar bears (T.G. Smith, 1980). and sand spits to molt and for protection from predation during this flightless stage. The lagoon systems are also Kaktovik residents harvest spotted, ringed, and important feeding areas used by oldsquaw, eiders, scoters, bearded seals for subsistence, though relatively few seals and other ducks, loons, phalaropes, terns, gulls, jaegers, are taken (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). and black guillemots (Divoky, 1978). Bowhead and gray whales are listed as endangered Migratory birds are international in range; nesting and species. Gray whales are occasionally found in the wintering grounds and migration routes may occur not only Beaufort Sea, north of the 1002 area (U.S. Fish and Wildlife in different countries but on different continents. Inter- Service, 1982). The bowhead whale is known to inhabit national treaties for the protection of migratory birds have waters offshore of the Arctic Refuge in September and been ratified between the United States and the Union of October during its fall migration along the Beaufort Sea Soviet Socialist Republics, Japan, Canada, and Mexico. In coast. The southern boundary of the bowheads' fall addition, measures for the protection of migratory birds are migration corridor is generally the 66-foot isobath, although contained in the Convention on Nature Protection and they are occasionally seen in shallower water. Demarcation Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, an Bay east of the 1002 area is a feeding area for these agreement to which the United States is a party. whales; waters off the 1002 area may also be used (National Marine Fisheries Service, 1983). Belukha (beluga) Species-specific information follows, under five bird whales also migrate through waters north of the 1002 area. categories: swans, geese, and ducks; seabirds and shorebirds; raptors; ptarmigan; and passerines. Bowhead whales are taken for subsistence by residents of Kaktovik. Subsistence whaling at Kaktovik SWANS, GEESE, AND DUCKS began in 1964. During 1981-85 the annual harvest has averaged one whale, with an average of one additional Tundra swans are common breeding birds of the whale struck and lost each year. thaw-lake plains. Up to 150 nests and 400 to 500 adult swans have been counted on the 1002 area during annual BIRDS surveys (Brackney and others, 1985a). Swans arrive in late May and early June and concentrate on the Canning- One hundred eight species of birds have been Tamayariak delta, the Hulahula-Okpilak delta, Barter Island recorded on the Arctic Refuge coastal plain (Garner and lakes, Jago River wetlands, the Aichilik-Egaksrak deltas, and Reynolds, 1986a, b). The majority are migratory, present Demarcation Bay area lakes (pl. 3A. Spring surveys from only from May to September. Six species are considered 1982 to 1985 showed average densities of 1 swan per 0.67 permanent residents--rock and willow ptarmigan, snowy owl, square mile in concentration areas. These areas apparently common raven, gyrfalcon, and American dipper. The offer highly desirable swan nesting and feeding habitat. common and hoary redpoll, ivory gull, and Ross' gull Average density for the overall 2,960-square-mile area occasionally winter on the 1002 area. Twenty-one species studied was 1 swan per 7.7 square miles. Swans depart occur offshore, mostly from late July to mid-September, with the breeding grounds from late August to late September, distribution generally limited to within 35 miles of shore. those swans with young being last to leave (U.S. Fish and 34 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Wildlife Service, 1982; Bartels and Doyle, 1984a, b; Bartels foraging areas is critical to ensure healthy arrival on the and others, 1984; Brackney and others, 1985a, b). breeding grounds. Four species of geese regularly use the 1002 area of Several species of ducks use the 1002 area, the the Arctic Refuge: Canada geese, black brant, greater coastal lagoons, and nearshore Beaufort Sea waters during white-fronted geese, and lesser snow geese. Canada summer. Ducks arrive during spring migration in late May geese and black brant may breed there each year; and early June. Early-arriving ducks are attracted to however, the size of the breeding population is unknown, overflow water at river mouths until open water becomes and the coastal plain is not a major nesting area. Geese available in nearby lakes and wetlands. Northern pintail, nest on islands and peninsulas associated with the drained- American wigeon, greater scaup, oldsquaw, common eider, basin wetlands of the thaw-lake plains and river flood plains and king eider breed on the 1002 area; the oldsquaw is the (pl. 3). Canada geese with broods seek lakes and most numerous breeder (pl. 3A. Nesting density through- lagoons for protection shortly after they hatch. Brant out the 1002 area is generally low; locally, nesting densities breeding areas are usually found near the mouths of large in wetland complexes around river deltas and other coastal rivers. In late June, nonbreeding and failed breeding pairs areas may be higher. begin to molt. Some of these individuals may move west prior to molting (pl. 3B). Several hundred molting Canada Probably more important than breeding habitat, the geese and brant have been observed in late July and early 1002 area lakes and wetlands, coastal lagoons, and August along the Arctic Refuge coastline. nearshore Beaufort Sea waters provide important molting and staging areas for several duck species. Oldsquaw are Staging lesser snow geese congregate on the Arctic the vast majority of waterbirds using the 1002 area. As Refuge coastal plain in mid-August and may remain through many as 33,000 postbreeding oldsquaw congregate in late September (pl. 3). These geese nest chiefly on coastal lagoons, nearshore waters, and large open lakes Banks Island in Canada and, prior to fall migration, move during the midsummer molt period and remain throughout westward into the 1002 area as far as the Hulahula River. the summer. The movement of oldsquaw and common and Several hundred snow geese also use the Canning River king eider continues to late summer. Fall migration includes delta during fall staging. More than 595,000 birds have movement of females, juveniles, and late-molting individuals been estimated for the entire staging area on the coastal along the Beaufort seacoast. Many of the ducks that plain in Alaska and the Yukon Territory, Canada (FWS, breed outside the 1002 area use coastal lagoons and unpublished data). The maximum estimated for the Arctic nearshore waters as staging areas during molt and fall Refuge coastal plain was 325,760 in 1976 (Spindler, 1978b), migration. In midsummer, scoters (especially surf scoters) with an 11-year average of 136,000. The average number of and eiders (especially common eiders) move westward geese using the 1002 area is 105,000, approximately 15-20 along shorelines and lagoons. At the same time, pintails percent of the Banks Island population. Distribution of migrate eastward over the coastal tundra. staging snow geese on the 1002 area is highly variable. Preferred staging areas shift annually among the Niguanak- Waterfowl and their eggs are taken for subsistence. Okerokovik area, the Jago-Bitty-Okerokovik area, the Jago- The largest harvest occurs from May through early June, Bitty-Okpilak River area, and the lower Aichilik and Angun though birds are taken throughout the summer (Jacobson Rivers between the 400- and 1,000-foot contours. Staging and Wentworth, 1982). Virtually all species of waterfowl are geese move up to 225 miles west of their southward used, oldsquaw being the most abundant and geese the migration corridor on the Mackenzie River in order to take most prized. advantage of the food resources on the Yukon and the Arctic Refuge coastal plain. The geese feed heavily to SEABIRDS AND SHOREBIRDS accumulate fat reserves for the fall migration flight. Significant weight gains have been reported in fall staging Seven species of seabirds are known to breed in the snow geese on the North Slope (Patterson, 1974; Brackney, 1002 area: three jaegers (pomarine, parasitic, and long- Masteller, and Morton, 1985a). tailed), two gulls (glaucous and Sabine's), arctic tern, and black guillemot. Jaegers are widely distributed over all As many as 10,000 greater white-fronted geese and habitat types, but their breeding population is comparatively black brant have been found to use the Arctic Refuge small, except in years of high microtine populations. coastal plain for fall staging and migration from late August Likewise, glaucous gulls and arctic terns are widely through mid-September. The white-fronted geese congre- distributed, reaching greatest densities in tundra wetlands gate with snow geese and move east during migration near the coast, but they occur in limited numbers on the (Martin and Moitoret, 1981), probably to the Mackenzie 1002 area. Sabine's gulls and black guillemots are highly River. Coastal salt marshes and mudflats in the river deltas localized. The only known nesting areas of the Sabine's are especially important habitat for the westward-migrating gull in the 1002 area are on the Canning River delta. Black black brant at this time (pl. 3_). During spring migration, guillemots breed only on the coastal beaches. Gulls, terns, reported arrival dates for geese range from mid-May to early and jaegers feed and nest along the coastline and major June. Brant rely heavily on vegetated coastal mudflats coastal rivers. Jaegers feed on small birds and insects during spring migration when the availability of suitable along the beaches, as well as on lemmings, the eggs and EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 35 young of small birds, and carrion (U.S. Fish and Wildlife exposed ridges and bluffs where the earliest snowmelt Service, 1982). occurs; later they move elsewhere for nesting. Rock ptarmigan nest in nearly all 1002 area habitats except the Shorebirds are present in the coastal plain from mid- very wet sites; willow ptarmigan prefer drier upland sites May through the end of September in all habitats (pl. 3g). with moist sedge shrub or tussock habitat. In the Sixteen species of shorebirds have been recorded as postbreeding season, flocks and broods of both species breeding on the coastal plain. Most abundant are pectoral usually move into riparian willow habitat. and semipalmated sandpipers, lesser golden plovers, red- necked and red phalaropes, ruddy turnstones, and long- Willow and rock ptarmigan are frequently hunted as billed dowitchers. Other common breeders are Baird's, stilt, subsistence food species by Kaktovik residents. In and buff-breasted sandpipers; dunlin; black-bellied and midwinter, willow ptarmigan are hunted on the 1002 area. semipalmated plovers; and wandering tattlers. Occasionally Rock ptarmigan are hunted mostly in the spring (April-May). snipes and whimbrels nest on the coastal plain. Along the coast, seasonal fluctuations in shorebird numbers are PASSERINES characterized by highs each year in mid-June (arriving birds), early July (nonbreeding transients), and late August Many passerines, or perching birds, use the 1002 (departing birds). More than 2 million shorebirds are area during summer (pl. 3g). Erect riparian willow stands estimated to be present on the coastal plain from mid-June support the highest nesting density and diversity of to mid-July (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). Mudflats passerine species. The common and hoary redpolls, white- on river deltas, particularly the Canning, OkpilaklHulahula, crowned sparrows, yellow wagtail, and American tree and Jago, and thaw-lake ponds along the coast are sparrow are largely restricted to riparian willow thickets or important stopping points for several species of migratory adjacent riparian Dryas terrace or gravel bars which also shorebirds. support willow growth. Savannah sparrows use similar habitats, but are also found in uplands, tussocks, and RAPTORS coastal areas. Snow buntings seem to be limited to bluffs near the coast and around buildings. Lapland longspurs Rough-legged hawks, golden eagles, gyrfalcons, are the most abundant species nesting in all tundra types. merlins, snowy and short-eared owls, as well as the Only two passerine species are resident, the common raven threatened arctic peregrine falcon, are present on the and the American dipper. Some raven nesting areas are coastal plain. Rough-legged hawks nest on river bluffs and shown on plate 3D. American dippers are probably near steep foothill slopes; golden eagles nest in the restricted in winter to the only open water available which foothills and mountains of the Brooks Range; gyrfalcons is near Sadlerochit and Shublik Springs. nest on the cliffs along rivers or on isolated upland cliffs; and owls nest on the open tundra (pl. 3D). These birds FISH use the coastal plain mostly as a feeding area. Raptors generally arrive on the 1002 area in mid-May, except for Fish resources in the Arctic survive because of gyrfalcons which are resident and begin nesting as early as extreme adaptations to a harsh environment. They have a the first week of April. Raptors prey upon small rodents, limited period in which food is available to them and ptarmigan, waterfowl, and other birds, and so their popu- generally a limited area in which they can survive during the lations and distributions vary with the availability of prey. long winter. The result is populations of slow-growing fish Snowy owl and short-eared owl population peaks are that can be affected easily by changes in environmental directly related to the microtine cycle. Concentrations of factors. 25-75 golden eagles (mostly immature birds) occur on the calving grounds and postcalving areas of the PCH, where Coastal waters of the Beaufort Sea in Alaska have they prey on young calves and scavenge caribou carcasses been reported to contain 62 marine and anadromous (Mauer, 1985b). species, including arctic char, arctic cisco, arctic flounder, arctic cod, boreal smelt, and fourhorn sculpin (Craig, 1984). PTARMIGAN Nearshore waters and the brackish lagoon systems provide migrational corridors for anadromous fish and are extremely Willow ptarmigan and rock ptarmigan are common important feeding areas for these species. breeders and fairly common winter residents on interior parts of the 1002 area. Both species are less common Marine nearshore waters are important spawning and near the coast than inland, but rock ptarmigan are more overwintering areas for some marine fishes such as arctic common than willow ptarmigan at coastal sites. Little is cod, arctic flounder, and fourhorn sculpin. River deltas are known of the wintering status of these species on the 1002 also believed to be important overwintering areas. Suita- area, although they are present. A general northward bility of deltas for overwintering depends largely on the migration of willow ptarmigan occurs in April and early May salinity tolerances of species using the areas. as flocks totaling several thousand birds move from the Brooks Range north toward the 1002 area. In the spring, The Canning River has been studied more than any ptarmigan are commonly observed in riparian willow or on other fresh-water system in the 1002 area. Species 36 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT reported include arctic char, arctic grayling, arctic cisco, solved oxygen concentration, include density of organisms arctic flounder, fourhorn sculpin, least cisco, round in the pool area, species' physiological tolerances, volume whitefish, broad whitefish, ninespine stickleback, chum of the pool, temperature, amount of organic matter, and the salmon, and burbot. Lake trout are also found in several influence of springs. Overwintering habitat is probably the lakes within the Canning River drainage but outside the greatest limiting factor for Arctic anadromous and fresh- 1002 area. Other 1002 area streams (pl. 1B) that support water fish populations (pl. 1_). fish populations are listed below. Springs supply most, if not all, of the free-flowing Streams that support fish populations water in the 1002 area during late winter. The importance (excluding Canning River). of springs for spawning, rearing, and overwintering arctic fish populations has been well documented in the Arctic A: Arctic grayling. C: Anadromous arctic char. Refuge and other Arctic areas. Macro-invertebrates (aquatic B: Resident arctic char. D: Pink salmon. insects consumed by fish) are generally much more abundant and diverse in springs and spring-fed sections of stream channels than in other Arctic Refuge stream habitats (Glesne and Deschermeier, 1984). A B C D Lakes are uncommon in the 1002 area. The few that exist are generally thaw lakes located along the coast. Tamayariak River X Lakes less than 6 or 7 feet deep generally lack fish over- Itkilyariak Creek X X wintering capabilities: they either freeze to the bottom by Sadlerochit River X X X late winter or have poor water quality because of freeze Hulahula River X X concentrations of dissolved solids and low dissolved-oxygen Akutoktak River X levels. Lakes near the coast may be brackish, owing to Okpilak River X saltwater intrusion or windblown ocean spray. In contrast Aichilik River X X to the more inland lakes, some shallow coastal lakes may be important summer feeding areas for anadromous and marine fish, depending on access. These and many other smaller streams and coastal lakes have populations of ninespine sticklebacks. The Coastal lakes near the Canning River delta, sampled other major streams in the 1002 area (Katakturuk River, during summer, have contained arctic char, arctic grayling, Marsh Creek, Carter Creek, Jago River and tributaries, arctic flounder, round whitefish, and broad whitefish (Ward Niguanak River, Sikrelurak River, Angun River, and Kogotpak and Craig, 1974). In deeper mountain and foothill lakes to River) apparently do not support major fish populations. the south of the 1002 area, arctic char, arctic grayling, They may support fish locally and serve as summer feeding and/or lake trout may be found. The best known and most areas for a few fish but seemingly lack adequate widely used for recreation and subsistence are Lake Peters overwintering habitat. and Lake Schrader, in the headwaters of the Sadlerochit River. These lakes contain all three of the aforementioned The drainages that originate in or transect the 1002 fish species. area range from small intermittent-flow tundra streams to the Canning River which has an estimated 50-year flood Most Native subsistence use of fish occurs along the discharge of 13,500 cfs (Childers and others, 1977). The coast. Arctic char and arctic cisco are the primary species integrity of riparian areas is important for maintenance of caught during summer when they are present in large water quality and fish stocks on the coastal plain. Most of a numbers in the Arctic Refuge lagoon systems. The arctic the water present is a result of precipitation, surface cisco is an international resource believed to originate in permafrost-thaw processes, deep-lake drain, or springs. the Mackenzie River in Canada. Some subsistence use of Peak flows are associated with snowmelt in early summer arctic cod occurs in winter in apparent response to its or with rainfall during late summer and fall. By late increased abundance during that time. Arctic cod (Lowry October, most rivers in the 1002 area have no measurable and others, 1978) also constitutes more than 95 percent of flow. As riffle areas freeze to the bottom, overwintering fish the diet of ringed seals which in turn are the major prey of become isolated in deeper pools, spring areas, or brackish the areas's polar bears. Some winter subsistence fishing river deltas. Substantial movement from summer feeding also occurs at fresh-water overwintering sites. The most areas to small overwintering areas has been recorded (West notable of these are "Fish Hole One" and "Fish Hole Two" and Wiswar, 1985). Ice accumulation on Arctic rivers is on the Hulahula River (pl. 1) where arctic char and arctic thickest from late March through early May. grayling are caught from holes in the river ice. Available fish overwintering habitat, such as deeper pools, is greatly reduced in early spring. Although pool Sport fishing is currently minimal in the 1002 area depth is important, several other factors affect suitability for because of difficulty in access and seasonal limitations on overwintering. These factors, which ultimately affect dis- fish abundance. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 37 THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES of these observations is unclear, as the birds did not appear to be associated with nest sites. Yet the BOWHEAD AND GRAY WHALES observations do indicate that in addition to those present during migration, a few scattered peregrines (possibly Bowhead and gray whales are listed as endangered nonbreeders) can be found in the 1002 area during the under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. breeding season. Both species migrate into or through the Beaufort Sea, north of the 1002 area, although sightings of gray whales are extremely rare. In-migrations of bowheads occur after spring breakup, and out-migrations take place before fall freezeup. ARCTIC PEREGRINE FALCON The arctic peregrine falcon is the only terrestrial SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT threatened or endangered species known to occur in the 1002 area. In Alaska, most peregrine falcons nest on Population ledges of cliffs or bluffs along river courses. In the Arctic Refuge north of the Brooks Range, cliff habitat is not The North Slope Census Region comprises the entire abundant. However, a few peregrines have been reported 88,281-square-mile northern coast of Alaska. The region is nesting there in past years (Cade, 1960; Roseneau and very sparsely populated, with a density of one person per others, 1976; Amaral, 1985; Amaral and Benfield, 1985). 220 square miles. With the exception of Anaktuvak Pass, Historically, peregrines were known to occupy eyries along the population of the region lives on or near the coast. the Canning, Katakturuk, Sadlerochit, Hulahula, Jago, The majority of residents are Inupiat Eskimo; but about Aichilik, and Kongakut Rivers (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 6,200 nonresidents are employed in isolated, self-sufficient 1982). Among the eyries formerly or potentially occupied large to medium-sized industrial or military enclaves (NSB, by peregrines within the Arctic Refuge, only two are within 1984a). the 1002 area. These sites occur on bluffs along the Sadlerochit River near the spring and at Bitty Benchmark on Population figures for the Census Region are derived the Jago River (pl. 32). for several purposes and must be checked to see which data are used. For example, the U.S. Census 1980 Peregrine falcons are highly migratory and spend only population was 4,199 but it did not include workers at a relatively short time in Alaska. Arctic peregrines generally Prudhoe Bay as "residents;" the 1980 population including arrive at their North Slope eyries between April 21 and May both residents and the nonresident workforce was 9,234 7, egg-laying and incubation occur between May 15 and (NSB, 1984b). In comparison, the 1970 population of July 21, and young fledge (leave the nest) during August Prudhoe Bay was 217. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). Generally, the breeding season is defined as the period from April 15 to The NSB Comprehensive Plan uses an annual August 31. population growth rate of 2 percent and assumes a doubling of the Eskimo population for the region in 35 There appears to be a significant movement of arctic years (3,034 in 1980 to 6,000 by 2015). peregrine falcons through the 1002 area from late August to mid-September (Martin and Moiteret, 1981; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). The number and timing of these Kaktovik is the only settlement near the 1002 area. observations strongly suggest that at least some North The 1980 U.S. Census listed Kaktovik's population as 165, Slope arctic peregrines follow a coastal migration route a 34-percent increase over the 1970 population. The 1983 along the Beaufort Sea. The lagoons, river mouths, and population shows another increase, although counts bays concentrate shorebirds and waterfowl, which are differed: 185, according to an April 1983 population count favored prey of the peregrine. by Pedersen, Coffing, and Thompson (1985), and 203 according to the North Slope Borough (1984b). Nearly 90 Documented nesting of peregrines in the Arctic percent of the population is of Native Inupiat Eskimo Refuge north of the Continental Divide occurred in 1972-73 descent. The population increase since 1970 has been when three sites near the confluence of the Marsh Fork primarily the result of residents formerly living in Barrow and Canning River 40 miles south of the 1002 boundary who have returned to the village because of improved were occupied (Roseneau, 1974), and in 1984 and 1985, housing and employment opportunities. Key features of the when pairs nested along the Canning and Aichilik Rivers, community are family and cultural ties, ties to the land, and also outside the 1002 area. Several sightings during June the economic opportunity for both jobs and subsistence. and July have been reported from the 1002 area (U.S. Fish Community growth will probably continue if current trends and Wildlife Service, 1982; Amaral, 1985; Amaral and for services and other village improvements continue (U.S. Benfield, 1985; Oates and others, 1986). The significance Bureau of Land Management, 1978). 38 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Existing Land Use More recent studies, as summarized by Pedersen and others (1985), found that 80 percent of Kaktovik SUBSISTENCE USE households consumed meats daily that were obtained from hunting and fishing. Responsibilities for subsistence management and use on Federal lands are derived from Title VIII of ANILCA. Kaktovik residents depend mainly on caribou, Dall Under section 803, "subsistence uses" are defined as "the sheep, bowhead whales, fish, waterfowl, and other birds for customary and traditional uses by rural Alaska residents of subsistence (table 11-3). Seals, polar bears, furbearers, and wild, renewable resources for direct personal or family small game are also widely used, although they are not consumption as food, shelter, fuel, clothing, tools, or major components of the local diet. Brown bears and transportation; for the making and selling of handicraft moose are occasionally taken. Many residents harvest articles out of nonedible byproducts of fish and wildlife berries, wild rhubarb, and roots. Driftwood is gathered resources taken for personal or family consumption; for from the beach and used as a supplementary heating barter, or sharing for personal or family consumption; and source to oil, and willows are an important heating and for customary trade." cooking source when camping. Because of its location adjacent to the 1002 area, Subsistence activities are most intensive during spring Kaktovik is the community of primary concern relative to and summer months-the time of long hours of daylight, subsistence land uses within the 1002 area. Residents of relatively mild weather, and species abundance. During the other villages at considerable distances from the 1002 area snow-free months, usually mid-June through September, harvest migratory CAH and PCH caribou mainly when those overland travel is difficult. Shallow water prevents access animals are not on the 1002 area. These villages are Arctic to inland areas by river; however, by early July, coastal Village (1980 population of approximately 125) on the south areas are accessible by small motorboats. From October boundary of the Arctic Refuge, 120 miles south of the 1002 through May, snow cover and frozen ground greatly expand area; Venetie (1985 population of 132) and Fort Yukon the area used for subsistence. Longer days combined with (1980 population of 619), even farther away, being 150 and adequate snow cover and milder weather make April and 170 miles, respectively, south of the 1002 area; and Old May the best months for snowmachine travel. Travel then Crow, Yukon Territory, Canada (1973 population of 206) extends across the tundra of the 1002 area and to hunting about 160 miles southeast of the 1002 area. Because this camps along the Hulahula and Sadlerochit River drainages. chapter focuses on 1002 area resources and uses of those During winter, foothills and mountain valleys are the most resources within the 1002 area, these other villages are important places for subsistence activities. considered only generally. Summer Fall Winter Spring The Alaska Department of Fish and Game Division of Jun.-Aug. Sep-Oct. Nov-Mar. Apr.-May Subsistence recently completed a detailed investigation, Whale begun in 1980, of Kaktovik subsistence land use (Pedersen ea/Ugruk and others, 1985). That study elaborated upon the previous work by Jacobson and Wentworth (1982) and Polar bear Wentworth (1978). The 1981-82, 1982-83, and 1983-84 caribou harvest by Kaktovik residents was also reported by Birds/Eggs ADF&G (Pedersen and Coffing, 1984). Figure 11-6 displays Kaktovik's subsistence species use by season. Caribou Approximately 68 percent of Kaktovik's present Moose subsistence land use is within the Arctic Refuge (Pedersen G bear and others, 1985). This area extends as far south as the headwaters of the Hulahula River and includes the entire Furbearers 1002 area (23 percent of the total subsistence land use (hunt/trap) area) (fig. 11-7). The State lands along the coast west of mammals the refuge are used during summer, often to Bullen Point and occasionally as far as Foggy Island Bay. Those and Sheep other State lands, though rather lightly used, account for 30 Fresh-water percent of the Kaktovik subsistence land use area. fish Kaktovik Inupiat Corporation (KIC) lands adjacent to Ocean Kaktovik are the remaining 2 percent. fish Figure 11-6.--Yearly cycle of subsistence use by Kaktovik Participation in subsistence activities is a major residents. Patterns indicate periods for pursuit of each aspect of Kaktovik residents' life. In 1978, 20 percent of species, based on abundance, hunter access, seasonal Kaktovik households obtained their entire food supply from needs, and desirability. Modified from Jacobson and hunting, fishing, and gathering; 65 percent obtained most of Wentworth (1982, p. 29). their food supply in that manner (J.W. Peterson, 1978). EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 39 Caribou is the staple land mammal in the Kaktovik more than 80 percent of Kaktovik's caribou harvest was subsistence diet. It is a source of fresh meat throughout from the PCH; in 1982-83, about 70 percent was from the the year, and is also frozen and dried. It is also important PCH; and in 1983-84, approximately half of the community's in holiday feasts. Caribou hides are used for garments, harvest came from each herd (Pedersen and Coffing, 1984; boot soles, and blankets. Coffing and Pedersen, 1985). Caribou hunting opportunities and harvest are usually Most winter caribou hunting occurs in the mountains greatest from early July to late August, when they are along river valleys. Occasional hunting occurs on the hunted primarily along the coast from outboard-powered coastal plain, especially at favored locations such as boats (pl. 2DJ. Other major hunting periods are from late Konganevik Point. The Hulahula River valley is one of the October to late November, when there is enough snow for most intensely used areas for winter caribou hunting, and overland travel by snowmachine and daylight is not yet too the Okpilak River and Okpirourak Creek drainages are also brief, and again from late February through March and April, important winter-hunting areas. The Jago and Niguanak when daylight is longer and weather conditions are better. Rivers, the Niguanak Hills, and the Niguanak Ridge area immediately south are other winter-hunting areas. Availability of the PCH to local hunters is highly variable. During the summers of 1978-81, the PCH migrated In spring, caribou hunting continues along the past Barter Island and into Canada before breakup of sea Hulahula, Sadlerochit, Okpilak, and Jago Rivers. The ice allowed Kaktovik people to travel by boat. Caribou from greatest expanse of hunting territory is covered at that time. the CAH in the vicinity of the Canning River delta are Some trips are made up the Okerokovik River and to the especially important during such years. For 1972-84 the foothill country of the Aichilik River. Occasionally, in late annual harvest was estimated at 40-300 caribou total, from winter or early spring, people travel to the Canning River in both herds. More detailed studies in recent years show an the vicinity of Ignek Valley and Shublik Island and hunt annual harvest level of about 100 animals. The proportions caribou as far upriver as the Marsh Fork. of harvested caribou from the two herds varies: in 1981-82, 1480 1470 1460 1450 1440 1430 142� 1410 F~I I Fl~nd I I I t 40 0 0 AR C R AR R C ASGSESSMEN 0 l B 20 30 MILES 0 10 20 30 40 KILOMETERS Figure 11-7.--Extreme extent (patterned) of subsistence use by Kaktovik residents in the years 1923-83. Data from Pedersen, Coffing, and Thompson (1985). 40 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Table 11-3.--Kaktovik participation in subsistence use, in winter and in spring depending on the year. Annual according to resource harvested. harvest of the PCH from Old Crow and other Canadian villages averaged approximately 1,700 between 1963 and [Of Kaktovik's 46 households, 21 were surveyed. Ten of 1985 for the years in which data were available (Yukon the households not surveyed were teachers, or short- Territory Wildlife Branch, unpublished data). term residents, or without active hunters. NA, not available. Adapted from Pedersen and others, 1985] Venetie and Fort Yukon residents also take caribou when they are available. For 1980-81 the harvest for Venetie was reported as 200-300 caribou and the harvest for Fort Yukon as 80-100 caribou (Pedersen and Caulfield, Participation (total 21) 1981). Variations in annual harvest described here do not Resource harvested necessarily indicate a large variation in the quantity of House- Percent subsistence resources consumed. The villages do much holds sharing and trading of resources. Fish ........................................ 21 100 Because they are rare within the 1002 area, Dall Caribou ........................................ 20 95 sheep are generally hunted outside the 1002 area, with Sheep.............................................. 20 95 hunting occurring from mid-October through March. The Wildfowl................................ 20 95 Hulahula River drainage within the mountains is used most extensively. Hunting begins at the river's exit from the Seals................................................ 19 90 mountains near the Second Fishing Hole and continues to Polar bears ..................................... 18 86 the headwaters. The Sadlerochit River, creeks along the Small mammals ............................... 18 86 eastern sides of the Shublik Mountains and Third Range, Trapping furbearers. ...................... 16 76 and the Whistler Creek area at Lake Peters are other Moose ............................................. 16 76 locations where sheep are occasionally hunted. During Vegetation ...................................... 15 71 recent years there has been increased hunting in the upper Okpilak, Jago, and, especially, the Aichilik River drainages Whales ........................................... 14 67 (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). Hunting furbearers ......................... 12 57 Grizzly bear ................................... 11 52 The number of sheep taken by Kaktovik hunters has Walrus ............................................. 6 29 fluctuated greatly; only a few were killed in some years and Wood, fuel, and struc- as many as 50 in other years. The harvest is closely tied tural materials .............................. 5 24 to the success of the whaling season and the number of Invertebrates ................................... NA -- caribou available for harvest. Snow cover, weather, and travel conditions in the mountains are also important Harvest of caribou by villages other than Kaktovik factors. During 1982-84, Kaktovik hunters took only about depends on availability of animals near those villages. In half the 50 sheep for which they could obtain permits some years caribou migration routes or wintering areas may (Pedersen and others, 1985), mainly because of their not bring caribou near enough to a village to make hunting success in procuring other resources. feasible. Still, a large amount of sharing and trading of resources occurs between villages. The two villages other In the historic period, no whaling occurred at than Kaktovik which are most dependent on caribou using Kaktovik. Beginning in 1964, whales (particularly bowheads the 1002 area are Arctic Village and Old Crow, Yukon and occasionally belugas) have been actively hunted. Territory--inland villages having little or no access to marine Whaling is viewed as among the village's most important resources. Caribou is the most important food source for annual activities (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). It Arctic Village and caribou from the PCH are often available expresses the cultural values of large group cooperation from August to April. Fall hunting is conducted near the and sharing of resources, and is a way of passing these village; winter hunting occurs farther away because snow- values to the younger generation. The harvest quota for machines can be used. In the 1970's, the harvest at Arctic Kaktovik, as determined through the cooperative agreement Village, Alaska, was reported to be 200-1,000 animals between the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission and the (LeBlond, 1979). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, has never been exceeded. Kaktovik hunters filled their quota of 3 Approximately half the food consumed by people in whales in 1981. In 1981-85 an average of one whale was Old Crow comes from the land; of this, caribou is the most harvested annually with an additional annual average of one important resource. The major hunt for caribou is in the whale struck and lost by the village. Approximately 22 fall; some hunting occurs in winter and in spring depending whales were taken during 1964-81. Kaktovik's bowhead on the year. In September, large numbers of caribou pass whaling season occurs during the westward migration of through the Old Crow flats and cross the Porcupine River bowheads near the Beaufort Sea coast, from late August heading for their wintering areas. At this time they can be until early October. There is no spring whaling season in taken on land or by boat. There is some caribou hunting Kaktovik because the leads (open water channels) are too EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 41 far from shore. Whales are generally hunted within 10 squirrels are hunted mainly from March through May along miles of land and sometimes as far as 20 miles offshore of the banks and sandy mounds of the major rivers, especially Barter Island. After a whale is butchered, the meat and the Jago, Okpilak, Hulahula, and Sadlerochit (Jacobson and muktuk (blubber and skin) are divided among the captain, Wentworth, 1982). crew, and the rest of the village. Several goals of the State-approved North Slope Kaktovik people hunt bearded, ringed, and spotted Borough Coastal Management Program (see "Coastal and seals for oil, meat, and skins. Seals are hunted throughout Marine Environment") relate to subsistence resources. the year, although relatively few are taken. Most seal These goals are: (1) to protect the natural environment and hunting occurs by boat along the coast from July into its capacity to support subsistence activities; (2) to protect September. and enhance subsistence resources; (3) to preserve the Inupiat culture; and (4) to maintain and enhance access to In recent years, most polar bears harvested were subsistence resources. foraging on Barter Island, usually attracted by the remains of a beached whale or the Kaktovik landfill. They are actively hunted on the ice, seaward of the barrier islands. The main hunting area for polar bears extends from the Hulahula-Okpilak River delta on the west to Pokok Lagoon LAND STATUS on the east. Hunting is often best near decaying bowhead carcasses. Harvest varies considerably from year Land ownership within and adjacent to the 1002 area to year; as many as 28 were taken in the 1980-81 season, is a complex of Federal, State, and private interests. Fed- but an average of one bear has been taken annually since erally owned land to the south and east is managed as the then (Schliebe, 1985; Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982; U.S. Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Oil and gas exploration has Fish and Wildlife Service, unpublished data). occurred on State lands west of the Canning River. Lease sales have been proposed for January 1987 on nearly one- Arctic char is the fish species most extensively used half million acres of State lands between the Canning and by local people. In early July, sea-run char are caught all Colville Rivers. along the coast, around the barrier islands, and along the navigable parts of the river deltas. Arctic cisco, the most The Kaktovik Inupiat Corporation has statutory commonly caught whitefish species, is taken in the ocean entitlement to ownership of 92,160 surface acres within the by netting or seining. Cisco begin appearing in the nets Arctic Refuge north of the 1002 area. Subsurface about mid-July near the peak of the arctic char run. ownership was conveyed by the United States to the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation under the terms of an August Willow and rock ptarmigan are hunted year-round, 9, 1983, agreement. with greatest success during April and May. Waterfowl are hunted along the coast, mostly in the spring from May Submerged lands beneath the coastal lagoons in the through early June, although less intensive hunting contin- area located between the mainland and the offshore barrier ues through the summer and into September. People islands between Brownlow Point and the mouth of the usually hunt black brant, common and king eider, snow and Aichilik River (with the exception of lagoons north of KIC Canada geese, pintail, and oldsquaw. More oldsquaw are lands) were included within the area of exploration taken than any other species, usually incidental to other authorized by section 1002(b)(1). The United States and forms of hunting or when fishing nets are checked. A few the State of Alaska dispute ownership of these lands and bird eggs are collected each spring. have presented their arguments to a Special Master appointed by the United States Supreme Court. A final Winter is the season for trapping and hunting decision has not yet been rendered. Until this decision is furbearers. Some Kaktovik residents hunt wolves and made, all activity on these submerged lands requires wolverines and trap for red foxes in the foothills, chiefly concurrent Federal and State approval. south of the 1002 area. Others concentrate on arctic foxes on or near the 1002 area. Furs are used locally in making The State of Alaska has solicited comments and is parkas and ruffs or are sold to the Village Corporation or to developing a preliminary analysis for State offshore oil and furbuyers. gas lease sales, including submerged lands. Approximately 127,000 acres immediately offshore of the 1002 area Brown bears are taken by villagers strictly on an between the Canning and Hulahula Rivers has been opportunistic basis (Jacobson, 1980), recently about two for identified for a May 1987 State sale; about 300,000 acres the entire village per year. One or two moose are also offshore from the Arctic Refuge between the mouth of the harvested each year by Kaktovik on an opportunistic basis. Hulahula River and the Canadian Border has been They are most often taken in the Sadlerochit Valley and in proposed for a May 1988 State sale. the foothills along Old Man Creek, Okpilak River, and Okpirourak River. Expanding muskoxen populations are a Native allotments (described below) are scattered limited source of subsistence hunting. Arctic ground throughout the 1002 area. 42 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT NATIVE ALLOTMENTS (approximately 876 acres) became a part of the Arctic Refuge on December 28, 1982. Within the 1002 area, the Federal Government has begun to process toward conveyances some 21 State and Local Political applications, involving 29 parcels for Native allotments. and Economic Systems None of these parcels had been issued a certificate of allotment as of February 1986. In total, these applications Four levels of government operate within or affect the cover approximately 1,985 acres. A Native allotment is a 1002 area: Federal, State of Alaska, North Slope Borough parcel of land, containing 160 acres or less, which can be (NSB), and the village of Kaktovik. Two corporations, Arctic conveyed to a Native based on that individual's use and Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC) and Kaktovik Inupiat occupancy of the land under the authority of the Native Corporation (KIC), have a major influence on private lands Allotment Act, May 17, 1906 (43 U.S.C. 270-1), as amended, adjacent to the 1002 area. Many Native residents belong August 2, 1956, and repealed by the Alaska Native Claims to and have direct input to the NSB, ASRC, KIC and Settlement Act of December 18, 1971 (43 U.S.C. 1617). Kaktovik Village. Subsurface ownership under an allotment will be The State (1) establishes laws and regulations reserved to the government if it is determined that it may governing certain local activities, (2) provides financial and be valuable for coal, oil, or gas. The allotment owner technical assistance, (3) exercises certain police and would then be subject to the right of the government or its regulatory powers such as hunting and fishing bag limits lessee to enter and use the lands for the development of and subsistence and commercial harvest of natural the reserved minerals, subject to the duty to pay for resources, and (4) sets standards for water quality. damages to surface improvements and a bond to guarantee such payments. If the allotment area is known to be The NSB was organized in 1972; in 1973 it was valuable for minerals other than coal, oil, and gas, the converted to a home-rule charter--the strongest form of allotment is not granted. local government under Alaska law (NSB, 1984a). The NSB has an elected mayor and an elected seven-member INDUSTRIAL USE assembly. It is responsible (among other functions) for borough-wide planning such as the coastal management The 1002 area has received no industrial land use program, and it oversees the capital improvements program. other than oil and gas exploration under the 1002 program. Kaktovik was incorporated as a second-class city in GOVERNMENT AND MILITARY USE 1972, and has a council-mayor form of government. The mayor is appointed from the elected seven-member council. Arctic Contractors (PET-4 Contractor) established an exploration camp at Barter Island in 1947. It also support- The ASRC is the regional profit-making Native ed the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey coastal surveying organization formed in 1972 under the provisions of the parties. Arctic Contractors constructed the airstrip in 1947. Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA). It is responsible to nearly 4,000 Inupiat stockholders for The U.S. Air Force constructed a Distant Early management of 5.6 million acres and $75 million (ASRC, Warning (DEW) Line Station (DEW Line Site BAR MAIN) on 1985; NSB, 1984b). ASRC owns the entire 5.6-million-acre Barter Island in 1955, as part of a larger network of radar subsurface and about 4.8 million surface acres scattered installations across the North American Arctic. In 1956 they across the North Slope of Alaska. built the DEW Line hangar adjacent to the airstrip. The establishment and expansion of the site forced the village KIC is a village corporation; it was formed under the of Kaktovik to relocate three times, but also brought provisions of ANCSA in 1972 to manage surface resources employment opportunities to villagers. The site is located surrounding the village of Kaktovik transferred under the about 1/2 mile from the present village and is largely self- provisions of ANCSA and ANILCA. contained, functioning as a separate entity from the village. As many as 70 employees live at the site. Most DEW Line Between 1970 and 1979, employment in the NSB site employees are hired from outside the North Slope. increased from 977 jobs to 5,598. During 1979, total wage The site currently employs three Inupiat and two non-lnupiat and salary employment for the North Slope Region was as residents of Kaktovik. Modernization of the Bar Main DEW follows: mining, including oil development, 47.9 percent; Line site is scheauled to start in 1986. construction, 7.4 percent; State and local government, 22.3 percent; transportation, communication, and utilities, 6.3 The Alaskan DEW Line also included intermediate percent; and services, 5.8 percent (NSB, 1984b). The sites at Camden Bay (POWD) and Beaufort Lagoon majority of the jobs are held by non-Native workers, (Humphrey Point, BAR A), which were constructed for principally at Prudhoe Bay and the military enclaves. communications relays. Because of advances in communi- However, participation by Inupiats in the labor market has cations technology, these sites were deactivated in 1963. been encouraged through NSB and ASRC programs. The lands formerly withdrawn for the two sites Government employment in July 1980 totaled 1,171 workers. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 43 The economy recently made a major transition from leasing are described in Oil Development Scenarios for largely subsistence to a mixed subsistence and cash Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Lease Sale 97--Beaufort economy. Through local-hire policies, the NSB has Sea Planning Area (Draft) (Roberts, 1985). provided at least some employment for more than 50 percent of the resident Inupiat adults and has contributed Air transportation is the single most extensive all- significantly to increased per capita income. A major factor season form of travel in the region. Air facilities range from contributing to increased Native employment is the capital long, well-maintained paved runways to unimproved strips, improvement program. However, long-term Inupiat employ- sand bars, and local large lakes. During the winter oil and ment opportunities depend on: (1) NSB's continuing ability gas exploration operations are supported by artificially to provide jobs; and (2) ability and desire of Natives to created ice strips. Commercial air transportation facilities work at sites away from their homes. are located at all communities in the NSB. Except for Barrow and Prudhoe Bay, most lack sophisticated navi- The region has been isolated from the periodic gation aids, lighting or snow-removal equipment. The only boom-and-bust economic cycles of forest/fishery/gold military air facility of significance to the 1002 area is at extraction typical of other parts of Alaska. Except for Barter Island (Kaktovik), and is shared by the NSB and whaling it remained virtually unchanged until after World War U.S. Air Force (NSB, 1984b). Originally constructed by the II. The primary driving force then became national defense military, airstrips located at Camden Bay, Demarcation Bay, (research at the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory at Beaufort Lagoon, and Bullen Point have since been Barrow, and Distant Early Warning radar sites along the abandoned and remain unmaintained. coast). Today, the production of oil at Prudhoe Bay is the basic economic influence. Marine transportation is controlled by ice conditions and shallow nearshore waters. Major port facilities The State-approved NSB Coastal Mangement important to the area are located at Prudhoe Bay. At Program was described under "Coastal and Marine Barter Island, shallow-draft vessels land directly upon the Environment." Of the program goals relating to economic beach. Military sites have in the past been served by and government activities those particularly pertinent to this marine transportation. Most ports of embarkation are in report are: Washington and California; only a small part of ocean freight is shipped from Alaska ports. The rivers in the 1002 Preserve opportunities for traditional activities and the area are too small and shallow for inland commercial Inupiat way of life in the North Slope, regardless of navigation. ownership and jurisdictional boundaries, The Dalton Highway is an all-weather road connect- Increase economic opportunity in villages, ing Prudhoe Bay to the Alaska highway system. No road network connects population centers in the NSB. Cross- Create employment for NSB residents which provides country transportation to and from the 1002 area is limited flexibility for traditional Inupiat cultural and subsistence to winter using special equipment on the snow or sea ice. activities, Nearly every community and military site in the NSB has an internal gravel or dirt road system linking air or marine Develop new industries based on the Inupiat culture, transportation facilities. Village residents use motorbikes, three-wheeled all-terrain vehicles, cars, or trucks in summer, Protect life and property from natural hazards and and snow machines in winter. phenomena, The Trans-Alaska Pipeline connects Prudhoe Bay and Provide guidance and direction for present and potential associated oil fields to a marine tanker terminal at Valdez, resource development, onshore and offshore, including Alaska. Recent offshore sales by Federal and State exploration, extraction, and processing activities and Governments have been based on the assumptions that related facilities, feeder pipelines will connect any new commercial discov- eries to the existing oil pipeline and that half those Cooperate and coordinate with private development, pipelines would be located onshore. Many factors including potential locations of production platforms and Improve energy supply for local communities, and size of commercially developable fields are unknown. Possible offshore pipeline routes and landfalls include those Develop local energy resources. suggested for Sales 71, 87, and 97. Of significance to the 1002 area is an assumed landfall at Bullen Point, west of PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES the Canning River (Roberts, 1985). A detailed description of existing public services and The NSB provides water, sewage, sanitary, light- facilities is in the NSB Coastal Management Program-- power-heating, public housing, education, health, and public Background Report (NSB, 1984b). New oil and gas safety facilities in Kaktovik. At Kaktovik the school complex facilities assumed to result from existing offshore Federal consists of a two-room elementary school and a high 44 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT school with four classrooms, library, gymnasium, swimming The remainder of the 1002 area consists largely of pool, and kitchen. A vocational education building was flat to gently rolling tundra, now very wet. Such areas are completed in 1981. Junior and senior high school least likely to contain sites, or to contain sites that are enrollment for the 1984-85 school year was 36. susceptible to discovery. Kaktovik has a health clinic staffed by a health aide. RECREATION Two NSB Department of Public Safety Officers are located at Kaktovik. Federal facilities include the Post Office, the Recreational use of the Arctic Refuge is varied and is Arctic Refuge field office, and the Bar Main DEW site. related to wildlife or wilderness values. Types and amount of recreation are limited by the refuge's remoteness, harsh climate, and poor access. Fewer than 3,000 visits occur ARCHEOLOGY annually. Wet and moist ground conditions in the short summer season make surface travel difficult, and extended Approximately 100 archeological sites are known to periods of cold and darkness during the winter reduce occur within the 1002 area (pl. 1A). Dated sites appear to recreational uses atthattime. Access to the refuge is be comparatively recent and of either Historic Inupiat almost exclusively by aircraft and is costly. Recreational (approximately AD 1838-present) or Western Thule (about use of the 1002 area is slowly increasing as it becomes AD 900-1838) origin. Several smaller sites--mostly scatters better known and scheduled airline services to Barter Island of lithic debris from the manufacture, maintenance, and use improve. of stone tools--are not yet datable but may be considerably older. The most common forms of recreation on the 1002 area are hunting, backpacking, and float trips on some of Sites near the 1002 area are known to be as much the larger rivers such as the Canning, Hulahula, and as 6,000 years old (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). A Aichilik. Other recreational pursuits are wildlife observation, as 6,000 years old (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982). A fairly widely accepted date from the Old Crow area of the photography, sightseeing, cross-country skiing, fishing, and Yukon Territory (about 150 miles southeast of the 1002 nature study. Most recreationists involve themselves in a area) indicates that people have been present in the variety of these activities. Kaktovik residents also engage in general area for the last 27,000 years. Even though sites snowmobiling. of such an early period are few, sites 5,000-6,000 years old may occur on the 1002 area, but are yet to be discovered. In 1984, 13 hunting guides operated on the refuge, though none guided on the 1002 area. An additional 10 In the 1002 area, archeological sites may occur recreational guides conducted group float or backpack trips almost anywhere. However, some areas are much more on the refuge. Four of these operated, at least in part, on likely to have sites, especially coastal areas and offshore the 1002 area. Float-trip groups average 6-12 people. barrier islands. Most identified sites consist of the remains Figures on nonguided recreationists are unavailable. But of sod houses, log cabins, burials, caches, lookout towers, probably fewer than 100 unguided visits occur annually on and related features. Older sites may have become buried the ground in the 1002 area. Several hundred visitors fly under considerable sediment. over the 1002 area annually for sightseeting or en route to other locations on the Arctic Refuge. Archeological sites are also likely along rivers and streams that cross the 1002 area from the Philip Smith WILDERNESS AND ESTHETICS Mountains. These rivers could have provided fishing areas and would have been natural travel routes between the The Arctic Refuge is the only conservation system coast and the foothills. Sites known from the river courses unit that protects, in an undisturbed condition, a complete are chiefly tent rings, although there are two interior sites spectrum of the various arctic ecosystems in North with sod houses. Points of particular interest are high, America. Approximately 8 million acres of the refuge is well-drained banks, especially near stream confluences. designated as wilderness by ANILCA section 702(3), and adjoin the 1002 area on the south and east. The eastern Undiscovered sites may also be on high points of coastal plain, from the eastern 1002 area boundary to the land that provide overlooks above the surrounding moist Canadian border is designated wilderness. tundra; such spots are known to produce archeological sites throughout most of northern Alaska and Canada. Wilderness is described by the Wilderness Act of There are relatively few such locations on the 1002 area, 1964 (Public Law 88-557) as ". . . an area of undeveloped and sites identified in such locations are uniformly small Federal lands retaining its primeval character and influence, scatters of lithic material. without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its Archeological sites are even less likely on the natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to have relatively stable sandy areas in river deltas. As with the been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the overlook sites, material from blowouts in such deltas is imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has currently limited to lithic remains. outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 45 unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five thousand 1958a, Some results of geothermal investigations of acres of land of sufficient size as to make practicable its permafrost in northern Alaska: Transactions of the preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) American Geophysical Union, v. 39, no. 1, p. 19-26. may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of 1958b, The thermal regime of an Arctic lake: scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value." With the Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, v. 39, exception of the two abandoned DEW Line sites on the no. 2, p. 278-284. coast, the entire 1002 area could meet the criteria. The 1974, Permafrost, its impact on development, in Man's coastal plain in its present state has outstanding wilderness impact on Arctic and subarctic environments: qualities: scenic vistas, varied wildlife, excellent Washington, DC, Arctic Institute of North America, p. 19- opportunities for solitude, recreational challenges, and 27. scientific and historic values. 1976, The seaward extension of permafrost off the northern Alaskan coast [expanded abstract], p. 987-988, Most of the major wildlife species occurring on the in Proceedings of the 3d International Conference on refuge (caribou, moose, brown bears, wolverines, wolves, Port and ocean engineering under Arctic conditions muskoxen, polar bears, and numerous species of birds) use (August 1975), v. 2: Fairbanks, University of Alaska. 1002 area habitats for all or part of their life cycles (calving, Brown, J., and Tedrow, J. C. F., 1964, Soils of the northern nesting, breeding, staging). The 1002 area is the most Brooks Range, Alaska-4, Well-drained soils of the biologically productive part of the Arctic Refuge for wildlife glaciated valleys: Soil Science, v. 97, no. 3, p. 187-195. and is the center of wildlife activity on the refuge. Caribou Burro, C., 1973, Want clean air? Barrow, Alaska has purest migrating to and from the 1002 area and the postcalving in the Nation: Seattle, WA, Seattle Times, August 31, caribou aggregation offer an unparalleled spectacle. The 1973. area presents many opportunities for scientific study of a Carter, L. D., Ferrians, O. J., Jr., and Galloway, J. P., 1986, relatively undisturbed ecosystem. Engineering-geologic maps of northern Alaska coastal plain and foothills of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 86-334, scale Visual resources of the 1002 area encompass diverse ecotypes and landforms. The irregular coastline of the 1:250,000. Cavanagh, L. A., Schadt, C. F., and Robinson, Elmer, 1969, Beaufort Sea--characterized by its barrier islands, lagoons, beaches, submerged bars, spits, and river deltas--gives way Atmospheric hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide to the south to the gently rising coastal plain. The measurements at Point Barrow, Alaska: Environmental backdrop of the steeply rising Brooks Range, with its deep Science and Technology, v. 3, no. 3, p. 251-257. Cederstrom, D. J., Johnston, P. M., and Subitsky, Seymour, river valleys and glacier-clad peaks, portrays the abruptness Cederstrom, J ohns ton, P. M., and Subitsky, Seymour, 1953, Occurrence and development of ground water in and rugged beauty of the area. permafrost regions: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 275, While the esthetic value of the 1002 area has been 49 p. temporarily reduced as a result of seismic exploration, the Craig, P. C., and McCart, P., 1974, Classification of streams area remains noteworthy. Recent botanical studies show in Beaufort Sea and drainages between Prudhoe Bay, that recovery on the 1002 area is starting with seismic trails Alaska, and the Mackenzie Delta: Canadian Arctic Gas Study Ltd. (CAGSL) and Alaskan Arctic Gas Study less visible in the second year after disturbance (Felix and others, 1986a). Company (AAGSC) Biological Report Series, v. 17, no. 1. [Quoted in U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976, Alaska natural gas transportation system--Final environmental REFERENCES CITED FOR impact statement, p. 102] PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND PROCESSES FEIS, 1983--see U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey, and Bureau of Land Management, [NOTE: References cited for Biological Environment 1983. are in References Cited list at end of Chapter VI] Felix, N. A., Jorgenson, M. T., Raynolds, M. K., Lipkin, R., Blank, D. L., and Lance, B. K. 1986, Snow distribution Black, R. F., 1954, Precipitation at Barrow, Alaska, greater on the arctic coastal plain and its relationship to than recorded: Transactions of the American disturbance caused by winter seismic exploration, Arctic Geophysical Union, v. 35, no. 2, p. 203-206. National Wildlife Refuge, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, Boyd, W. L., and Boyd, J. W., 1963, A bacteriological study P. E., editors, 1985 update report, baseline study of the of an arctic coastal lake: Ecology, v. 44, no. 4, p. 705- fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish 710. and Wildlife Service, Region 7, in press. Brewer, M. C., 1955a, Preliminary interpretations of ice water Ferrians, O. J., Jr., Kachadoorian, Reuben, and Greene, G. and bottom temperature data in the Arctic Ocean near W., 1969, Permafrost and related engineering problems in Barrow, Alaska [abs.]: Transactions of the American Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 678, Geophysical Union, v. 36, no. 3, p. 503. 37 p. 1955b, Geothermal investigations of permafrost in Hopkins, D. M., Karlstrom, T. N. V., and others, 1955, northern Alaska [abs.]: Transactions of the American Permafrost and ground water in Alaska: U.S. Geological Geophysical Union, v. 36, no. 3, p. 503. Survey Professional Paper 264-F, p. 113-146. 46 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Kelley, J. J., Jr., and Weaver, D. F., 1966, Carbon dioxide Selkregg, L. L., 1975, Alaska regional profiles--Arctic region: and ozone in the arctic atmosphere, in Viereck, Eleanor, Anchorage, University of Alaska Arctic Environmental editor, Science in Alaska 1965--Selected papers of the Information and Data Center, 218 p. 16th Alaskan Science Conference of the National U.S. Department of the Interior, 1972, Proposed Trans- Academy of Sciences, Proceedings: Fairbanks, Alaska Pipeline--Final environmental impact statement: University of Alaska, p. 151-167. Washington, DC. Lachenbruch, A. H., Brewer, M. C., Greene, G. W., and U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976, Alaska natural gas Marshall, B. V., 1962, Temperature in permafrost, in transportation system--Final environmental impact Herzfeld, C. M., editor, Temperature--Its measurement statement: Washington, DC, 778 p., 23 foldout maps. and control in science and industry; Proceedings of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey, and 4th Symposium on Temperature (1961): New York, Bureau of Land Management, 1983, Proposed oil and Reinhold Publishing Co., v. 3, no. 1, p. 791-803. gas exploration within the coastal plain of the Arctic MacCarthy, G. R., 1953, Recent changes in the shoreline National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska--Final environnmental near Point Barrow, Alaska: Arctic, v. 6, no. 1, p. 44-51. impact statement and preliminary final regulations: Muller, S. W., 1947, Permafrost or permanently frozen Washington, DC. ground and related engineering problems: Ann Arbor, Walker, H. J., 1973, Morphology of the North Slope, in Ml, Edwards Brothers, 230 p. [Originally published in Britton, Max, E., editor, Alaskan Arctic tundra: Arctic 1943 by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers] Institute of North America Technical Paper 25, p. 49-92. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1975, Williams, J. R., 1970, Ground water in the permafrost Geophysical monitoring for climatic change: NOAA, regions of Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Summary Report No. 3, 1974. Paper 696, 83 p. Osterkamp, T. E., and Harrison, W. D., 1985, Subsea Wiseman, W. J., Jr., Coleman, J. M., Gregory, A., Hsu, S. permafrost--Probing, thermal regime and data analysis, A., and others, 1973, Alaskan arctic coastal proceses 1975-81: Fairbanks, University of Alaska Geophysical and morphology: Baton Rouge, Louisiana State Institute, 108 p. University Coastal Studies Institute Technical Report 149, Page, R. A., Boore, D. M., Joyner, W. B., and Coulter, H. 171 p. W., 1972, Ground motion values for use in the seismic design of the trans-Alaska pipeline system: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 672, 23 p. EXISTING ENVIRONMENT 47 I I I I I I I I I I I 4 oJim 0 40 I I I I I I I I I II I i I 1 48 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT i i CHAPTER III ASSESSMENT OF OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF THE 1002 AREA INTRODUCTION SIGNIFICANT FINDINGS AND PERSPECTIVES This chapter presents the assessment of the oil and The 1002 area is potentially rich in oil and gas gas potential of the 1002 area of the Arctic Refuge. This resources. Seven different "plays," areas with common assessment and the discussion of the petroleum geology of geological characteristics favorable for oil and gas resource the 1002 area are based on surface geology studies and occurrence were identified. From these plays, in-place seismic surveys conducted by industry and the Department resources were calculated. According to these estimates, of the Interior. Although all seismic work was conducted there is a 95-percent chance the 1002 area contains more by industry for the Department, the analyses presented here than 4.8 billion barrels of oil (BBO) and 11.5 trillion cubic are based on interpretations of that work by the U.S. feet of gas (TCFG) in-place, and there is a 5-percent Geological Survey (GS) and the Bureau of Land chance that the 1002 area contains more than 29.4 BBO Management (BLM). and 64.5 TCFG in-place. The average of all the estimates made in this study, called the mean estimate, is 13.8 BBO This chapter is organized as follows: first, significant and 31.3 TCFG in-pace. results of the resource assessment are summarized; second, the geology of the 1002 area is briefly described, Not all in-place resources are recoverable. To indicating the types of rocks and structures which might be estimate the amount of the in-place resource which may be present; third, the likelihood that oil and gas resources are recoverable, 26 prospects were delineated and assessed present is assessed through the use of geological "play" (fig. II111-1). These 26 prospects were subjected to analysis which leads to estimates of the amount of technological and economic conditions to determine the resource potentially located in nature beneath the surface of degree to which their resources could be recovered, the 1002 area, without reference to its recoverability; fourth, resulting in estimates of conditional economically the possibility of recovering these potential resources is recoverable resources. It is estimated, if there is assessed by including technological and economic economically recoverable oil present (the chance of which considerations. is estimated to be about 20 percent), that there is a 95- 1460 145� 1440 1430 .F.axman B E A U F O R T S E A .- ~ Island~-% Brownlow oai nt 700 / -CAM DEN B A Y 70 00'- E"9o ' , A R E 1 i02 / . i, 'l : l l Figure l-.--Seismically mapped prospects (126) and resource blocks (A-D) in the 1002 area. 30' ] percent chance for more than 0.6 BBO and a 5-percent Estimates of specific propects were also undertaken. chance for more than 9.2 BBO recoverable in the 1002 area If recoverable oil resources are present in the prospects, as a whole. The average of all the estimates of the there is a 5-percent chance that the two largest prospects conditional economically recoverable resources, the mean, is contain economically recoverable resources equivalent to 3.2 BBO. those found at Prudhoe Bay (fig. 111-2). There is also a 5- percent chance that the next two largest prospects contain Gas was not included in the calculation of recoverable resources rivaling the East Texas field. In economically recoverable resources. Gas resources are addition, there is a 5-percent chance that the next four unlikely to be economic at any point in the time period largest prospects contain recoverable resources exceeding being considered. Nevetheless, the amount of gas fields such as Kuparuk, Elk Hills, and Point Arguello. Table resource estimated to be in-place is considerable, and II111-1 shows the conditional economically recoverable represents a major addition to the Nation's gas resources. resources estimated for the 1002 area and estimates made At some time in the future, this gas resource conceivably for parts of the Outer Continental Shelf. The 1002 area is could become economic and benefit the Nation. clearly one of the most outstanding prospective oil and gas areas remaining in the United States. 12 - EXPLANATION 5 percent Table Ill-i.--Estimates of undiscovered, conditional, economically recoverable oil resources in the 1002 area Mean =; and elsewhere. 10 - 95 percent [In billions of barrels. Figures do not reflect the risk that economically recoverable oil resources may not exist in the planning area. Date for Outer Continental Shelf resources from U.S. Department of the Interior] B- 95-percent Mean 5-percent Planning area case case case - .0. 4.00. i0 0l-2; 1002 area ................................ 0.60 3.20 9.20 '. 6- - . Central Gulf of Mexico .95 2.66 4.97 Western Gulf of Mexico .45 1.69 3.31 Eastern Gulf of Mexico .03 .36 1.48 Southern California ................ .61 1.26 2.08 Northern California . ............... .15 .42 .76 . :.. : :. :.:. :.:.: -ggg4 gCentral California . .................. .18 .56 1.01 .. ...:... .. Washington-Oregon ............... .04 .18 .54 South Atlantic Ocean .34 .82 1.46 40000000000 :0g8|5=it .B...... Mid-Atlantic Ocean ................07 .24 .51 :::::. North Atlantic Ocean ............ .10 .26 .43 2-g W= e Florida Straits . ........................ .01 .04 .12 -j Yp � Navarin Basin......................... 1.81 3.28 5.09 Lo Beaufort Sea . ......................... .11 .65 1.66 :1 ::d :~,~ _~ ~St. George Basin . .................. .37 1.12 1.98 Chukchi Sea .......................... .96 2.68 4.88 Gulf of Alaska . ....................... .12 .49 .86 CONDITIONAL RESOURCES OF THE EIGHT ESTIMATED RECOVERABLE RE- North Aleutian Basin .08 .36 .76 LARGEST PROSPECTS IN THE 1002 AREA SERVES OF SELECTED FIELDS Norton Basin . ......................... .05 .28 1.02 Figure 111-2.--Conditional oil resources of the Kodiak ..................................... .04 .15 .26 eight largest prospects in the 1002 area compared with Hope Basin ............................ .13 .17 .40 estimated recoverable reserves of five known producing Shumagin ................................ .05 .05 .09 fields. Modified from McCaslin (1986, p. 318-319). M, Cook Inlet ............................... .03 .18 .40 mean. 50 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY OF METHODS relate to petroleum geology. More detailed and technical discussions of the geology, geophysics, and assessment Methods used in the estimation of in-place and methods are contained in a GS Bulletin (Griscom, in recoverable oil and gas resources in the 1002 area rely on preparation). two related techniques utilizing similar components of the extensive geologic data base. Each assessment depends Sedimentary Rocks fundamentally upon recognition of potential petroleum traps (prospects) and description of their geologic and fluid The area in and adjacent to the 1002 area is characteristics. Particular care was employed to ensure underlain by sedimentary rocks several tens of thousands consistent data treatment, honoring information from the of feet thick. These rocks range in age from Precambrian geologic studies. (greater than 570 million years old) to Quaternary (Bader and Bird, 1986). In northern Alaska, rocks prospective for The separate methods employed meet specific petroleum (oil and gas) are mostly Mississippian to Tertiary requirements of the 1002 area study. First, the assessment in age and overlie folded and truncated pre-Mississippian of the natural endowment of hydrocarbon resources is met rocks. These rocks are divided into two sequences: the by an assessment of what is in-place, employing a broad- Ellesmerian sequence of Mississippian to Early Cretaceous based view of what may be present, and is without age, and the Brookian sequence of Early Cretaceous and economic constraints. Second, the assessment of younger age. Deposition of the Ellesmerian sequence resources for the development of the infrastructure, impact, occurred when the land area was to the north and the and national need requires a site-specific evaluation of what seaway was to the south. During deposition of the may be a recoverable resource at a given prospect, taking Brookian sequence, the geography was reversed--the land into consideration questions of economics, technology, and area was to the south (the ancestral Brooks Range) and transportation under various assumptions. the seaway was to the north, much as it is today. The differentiation of these two sequences is important in Assessment of in-place resources used a "play understanding depositional history, and in projecting trends analysis" method whereby prospects (potential petroleum of reservoir rocks. Furthermore, properties of the accumulations) are grouped according to their geologic Ellesmerian sandstones are generally better than those of characteristics into "plays" or natural associations having the Brookian sequence. common characteristics. In the assessment of recoverable resources, a site-specific analysis of larger individual Figure 111-4 is a generalized stratigraphic column of prospects was employed in order to model the elements the rocks in the area showing oil-bearing formations west of which determine recoverability and determine exploration, the 1002 area, potential source rocks, and significant development, production, and transportation at that level. geologic events. The following discussion summarizes pertinent information on the sedimentary rocks relating to Generally, the assessment of in-place resources deals the oil and gas assessment and reviews their depositional with prospects in the aggregate, whereas the recoverable history. resources assessment deals with separate assessments of the larger (or selected) prospects which are then PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN ROCKS (BASEMENT COMPLEX) aggregated. Estimation of in-place resources includes both identified prospects and those estimated to exist on the Pre-Mississippian rocks in the mountains adjacent to basis of geologic setting, and includes both structural and the 1002 area consist of more than 20,000 feet of a variety stratigraphic traps. However, estimation of recoverable of rock types such as phyllite, argillite, quartzite, chert, and resources was limited to those prospects (all structural) volcanic and carbonate rocks, and are mostly of Pre- which can be identified and delineated with a reasonable cambrian age. Because most of these rocks are weakly degree of certainty, and which are physically large enough metamorphosed and are not prospective for petroleum, they that they could reasonably be expected to contain are considered to be economic basement and are not commercial quantities of oil, discussed further. However, the carbonate rocks--limestone and dolomite--could have porous zones that may serve as PETROLEUM GEOLOGY reservoirs for oil or gas that may have generated in overlying younger rocks. These conditions apparently exist The 1002 area of the Arctic Refuge lies along the in the Exxon Alaska State F-1 and Sohio Alaska Island 1 foothills and coastal plain north of the Brooks Range (fig. wells on the barrier islands north of Point Thomson (fig. III- 111-3). Much of this area is covered by soil or vegetation, 3), where oil and gas have been recovered from carbonate and the few outcrops that are present are mostly of the rocks in the basement. Similar situations may occur in the younger part of the stratigraphic sequence. Our knowledge 1002 area, and these rocks are important to the petroleum of the geology of the area is based on these few outcrops, assessment. extrapolating known geology of adjacent areas, and integrating this with the geophysical data (mainly seismic At least 6,500 feet of carbonate rocks, ranging in age surveys) acquired within the 1002 area. This section from Precambrian(?) to Devonian and known as the reviews the overall geology, emphasizing those aspects that Katakturuk Dolomite and Nanook Limestone, crops out in OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 51 the Sadlerochit and Shublik Mountains. Unnamed deposition of Mississippian and younger strata. Seismic carbonate rocks as much as 200 feet thick have been reflections beneath these younger strata are not adequate penetrated in a few wells in the Point Thomson area. Their for mapping these older carbonate rocks without closer well distribution in the subsurface of the 1002 area is unknown, control. Hence, their presence as possible reservoirs for because they had been folded and eroded prior to petroleum is risked accordingly in the assessment. 1470 1460 1450 1440 1430 A asa Alaska Island 1 . ;' - Alaska State F-l B E A U F 0 R T S E A ~~~~~~~~Plo~in~Ts- Icludes' -TKss Ts' T sNPlate 4 urass, ic C: N 020 - A T P O0 2 . 0A R E AK I MARSH CREEK ' Ts , ANTICLINE / \9 TKss-- Ts 7 - - C Kavik gas T ssection Q TKS elKS1 . .. ' ' K T " -r. K ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ -Tc.TKsc TKss X ,, ~ ,,,, ,,.,.~srW.D , ,f'\ vN ! A //// Kr \;{,, 69., ,. ,, r , r zi.. ....'.," ' BU Rig ./' K"' -' 3 0'lei : . s~,,,~,~,*t M,, ......., -.--~ Arctic Creeki n pr K~ _.___=. K B R K S Cretaceous rocks TKsc Shallow marine and nonmarine 1 20 30 M Drill holeES Figure I11-3.--Map of the 1002 area and adjacent mountains showing locations of Cretaceous and Tertiary outcrocks Paleocene and uplate 4.rmost 52 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASrocksEMENT TROOKs c g~Deep water Cretaceous rocks Shallow marine and nonmarine o Drill hole Figure 111-3,--Map of the 1002 area and adjacent mountains showing locations of Cretaceous and Tertiary outcrops and lines of sections of figure 111-8 and plate 4. 52 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT STRATIGRCPHIC GEOLOGIC EVENTS S ATG PIC LITHOLOGY AGE UNIT S) N) Cubic Formation o: - o..... and HOLOCENE surficial deposits C) Uplift of Sadlerochit r Mountains: moder- PLIOCENE ______ ate deformation in coastal plain MIOCENE Sagavanirktok Formation z 6000-7500 ftOLG EN Major deformation I1~~EOCENE in eastern part of 1002 area - PALEOCENE Canning Fm -- 4000-6200 ft ________ LATE ned-weathering tf- CRETACEOUS Hue Shale Inoceramue zone- 300-900 ft LATE AND EARLY Subsidence in north Gamma-ray znenCETACOU Subsidence in north ~~Pebble shale unit ( L A TAEDU NEO O MAN Transgression Kemik Sandstone ~(AENOOIN Differential uplift, normal faultingEAL Kingak Shale CRETACEOUS 0-1500 ft AND JURASSIC Transgression KrnCekS > _ Slow fluctuating subsidence Shublik Formation -'~~ Fire Creek __ __ Siltotone Mbr Regression Ledge Ss TRIASSIC member Member Transgression LC~~~i EchookaPE IA Transgression ~~~~~Formatio EMA Epeirogenic uplift and erosion PNSYLVAN IAN Lisburne Group 0-2500 ft Marine transgression Kayak Shale .--.-- fKekiktuk CR) Folding, uplift, and erosion Nanook C~ Limestone i - , 9 Katakturuk TEON A Igneous intrusion ~ ~ ~ Dolomite ~T Igneous~~~~~~~~~ inruio PRECAMBRIAN Burial metamorphism urit.vlncs carbonates, granite 4+ Figure 111-4.--Generalized stratigraphic column for the northern part of the 1002 area showing significant geologic events, oil-bearing formations west of the Arctic Refuge, and potential source rocks. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 53 ELLESMERIAN SEQUENCE the unconformity may provide a seal and source rock for truncated reservoirs. Well control west of the 1002 area Rocks of the Ellesmerian sequence record marine and seismic data indicate that most of the Ellesmerian and nonmarine deposition along a slowly subsiding sequence is missing in the northwestern quadrant of the continental margin in which the land area was to the north 1002 area (fig. 111-6), but seismic data suggest that a and the seaway to the south. These rocks consist significant part of the sequence may be present in the dominantly of limestone, shale, and sandstone that range in eastern part of the area (pl. 5). The presence or absence age from Mississippian to earliest Cretaceous (fig. 111-4), a of these rocks in that area greatly affects the petroleum time span of about 210 million years. All the oil production potential because very large structures occur in that area; in the Prudhoe Bay-Kuparuk River field areas is from rocks these rocks include the main oil-producing reservoirs in the of the Ellesmerian sequence. By far the greatest Prudhoe Bay area. If most of the Ellesmerian rocks are production is from the Ledge Sandstone Member of the missing in most of the 1002 area, the assessment number Ivishak Formation, but almost all the sandstone units of the would be reduced considerably. Drilling one or two wells in Ellesmerian sequence and some of the carbonates of the critical areas would resolve this question. Lisburne Group are potentially productive in some fields (fig. 111-4). Based on outcrop and well control, maps showing the known trends and thicknesses of three of the main In and adjacent to the 1002 area, the Ellesmerian Ellesmerian potential reservoir rocks of the 1002 area are sequence ranges in thickness from a few hundred feet to shown in figure 111-7. about 5,000 feet. This wide range is due to a regional unconformity in the upper part of the sequence in which DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY progressively more of the sequence had been removed by erosion in a north or northeastward direction prior to Following a period of deformation (folding and deposition of the uppermost part of the Ellesmerian faulting), uplift, and erosion of pre-Mississippian rocks, the sequence (fig. 111-5; pl. 4). This unconformity is of great Ellesmerian sequence was deposited on an erosion surface importance to the petroleum potential of the 1002 area of slight relief. Initial deposits of sand, gravel, mud, and because it controls the northern distribution of most peat filled in low areas and built up on a coastal plain as Ellesmerian rocks. In addition, the porosity of reservoirs the seaway advanced from the south. These deposits directly underlying the truncated surface may be enhanced became the sandstone, conglomerate, shale, and coal of owing to solution of calcite cement, and the shale overlying the rock unit called the Kekiktuk Conglomerate, which is SOUTH NORTH SHUBLIK MOUNTAINS SADLEROCHIT MOUNTAINS 1002 AREA ' - - Pebble shale unit -- - _ _ , CD'W ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~-. not present in much of the 1002 area - - -.'-� . BecaTho us o f fEarly Cretace of inflded Proter < X ,ey -> : _, Ad... , ozoic-Devonian carbonate rocks Kataktuuk D olomt i nte and Nanook Meters Feet - g"' '. Thousands of !ee! of infolded Proter 400- - Shale Siltstone --1000 i - ' 'Limestone | .:'v0Siandst carbonate rocks 0 < 9>z2@2\thtt |," , Kat k u Dolomite and anok MetConglom er s Feet Approximately 30 miles Figure 111-5.--Diagrammatic section showing stratigraphic relations of the Ellesmerian sequence along the mountain front south of the 1002 area. 54 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 148� 147� 146� 145� 1440 1430 1420 0 6 12 18 MILES B E A U F O R T S E A : | i FL I ; / 9 7 ~~. is*"pF~~~~n E~;~~~pand~ 1~ 6 ~o 6 12 1B KILOMETERS 700 " ' sa,n /% I * Jo _ ,7 '<A R E A ....* .. 1 . - � G OLISBU NE, - , . Northern limit of Brooks Range faulting involving'Ellesmerian rodhs bf h .s. Kavik gas fieJd; 5ofllll o "hv M; ;*a i ,A Y:, 690 ',i 30' 1,~ ~~- X \ 4M~~~~~~u0,, - BROOKS RA N G E 69o- I I I Figure 111-6.--Map summarizing the northern limits of the Ellesmerian potential reservoir rocks preserved under the Lower Cretaceous unconformity. (Based on regional control.) less than 400 feet thick in areas adjacent to the 1002 area. the deltaic and shelf sands; and the Fire Creek Siltstone As the sea advanced northward, a few hundred feet of Member, formed from the upper offshore muds. The Ledge offshore muds accumulated that formed the Kayak Shale. Member is 200 to more than 400 feet thick and is the main As the sea advanced farther and the land area to the north producing reservoir at the Prudhoe Bay field. The Ivishak subsided, less sand and mud washed into the seaway or and Echooka Formations together make up the Sadlerochit basin. Lime muds and fragments from lime-secreting Group. organisms then accumulated in substantial thicknesses to form the limestone and dolomite of the Lisburne Group. Continued subsidence of the basin followed Then probably in Late Pennsylvanian and Early Permian Sadlerochit deposition and offshore muds and chemical time, the entire North Slope area was uplifted and sedimentation predominated in a sea rich in organisms in subjected to erosion. In areas adjacent to the 1002 area, s edimentation predominated in a sea rich in organisms in the remaining Lisburne Group is 1,500 to 2,000 feet thick. Middle and L a t e Triassic time. This formed the black shales, siltstones, and dark phosphatic fossiliferous limestones of the Shublik Formation, which is 150 to 500 In Late Permian time and continuing into the Early T riassic, th e area was once again inundated by the sea feet thick adjacent to the 1002 area. The Shublik is considered to be an important oil-source rock for Prudhoe while sand, gravel, and mud were washing into the sea from the rising northern landmass. Initially, sands and Bay oil. A minor regression or increase in clastic input from the rising northern landmass. Initially, sands and from the northern source area resulted in deposition of gravels were deposited along the shoreline of the advancing sea. These formed the Echooka Formation, which is 50 to widespread s ilt an d fine sand on a broad shelf, which formed the 10- to 125-foot-thick Karen Creek Sandstone. 400 feet thick adjacent to the 1002 area. Later, as the sea advanced farther, offshore muds were deposited until deltaic and offshore shelf deposits of sands and lesser amounts of Subsidence of the basin occurred during Jurassic gravels filled in or pushed the seaway back again, Then and earliest Cretaceous time and thick deposits of mud either the northern source area was worn down or the sea accumulated on the shelf, basin slope, and basin bottom. advanced northward again and more offshore muds were These muds make up the Kingak Shale, which, after deposited. All these deposits make up the Ivishak subsequent erosion, is 0-1,200 feet thick adjacent to the Formation, which is further divided (in ascending order) into 1002 area. Parts of the Kingak are thought to contain the Kavik Member, a shale unit made up of the lower enough organic matter to be a source rock for some of the offshore muds; the Ledge Sandstone Member, formed from Prudhoe Bay oil and gas. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 55 1480 1470 1460 1450 1440 1430 1420 * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 6 12 16 MILES *~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ F 0FR T S EAFTT * 6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6 12 lB KILOMETERS 70-~ Northern extent of Brooks Range'faul *n affecting the Lisburne Group >21 691 40 30' A~~~~~~~~~~~~20 2 690 -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lt *~~~~ ~ 0 6 12 16 MILES 69 Tgao 0 6 12 IS KILOMETERS 700 CADN-3 Northern extent of,'Brooks Rnge1~ faulting involving the eg Sandstone MembereLde Kavik gas field 350 '''!'r 69, V 30' k 14R 0 20 K. 30 690 , EXPLANATION Control points-Showing thickness in feet -400 Isopach -Showing thickness in feet. Bashed where *350 We ll ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~approximately located x140 Outcrop Figure 111-7.--Maps (facing and above) summarizing regional and local geologic trends of the Lisburne Group (A , Ledge Sandstone Member of the Ivishak Formation (a), and Kemik Sandstone and Thomson sand (C). 56 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Uplift of northernmost Alaska and the offshore area be primarily lenticular turbidite (deep-water) sandstone beds to the north in Early Cretaceous time resulted in removal by in the lower part of the Canning Formation. These beds erosion of progressively more of the Ellesmerian section to are generally thin bedded, but locally thicker beds are the north. This was followed by subsidence of the area present. They are potentially productive of oil and gas in and northward inundation by the seaway again. Lenticular several wells in the Point Thomson area west of the sands were deposited along the advancing shoreline and northwest corner of the 1002 area (pl. 4). Sandstones and offshore shelf, and mud was deposited farther offshore. conglomerates of the Sagavanirktok Formation also would These deposits formed the Kemik Sandstone, as much as be good reservoirs for petroleum. However, because of the 100 feet thick, and the pebble shale unit, 200-300 feet thick. dominance of sandstone in the section, effective petroleum Deposition of the Ellesmerian sequence ended as the seals for traps may be limited. Rich oil-prone source rocks northern land area subsided and was never again a occur in the lower half of the Hue Shale. These rocks are sediment source. considered to be the main potential source rock for oil in the 1002 area. BROOKIAN SEQUENCE DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY The Brookian sequence consists of thick Mountain building of the ancestral Brooks Range may northeasterly prograding basinal, basin-slope, and marine have started in Jurassic time, and the mountain belt was a and nonmarine shelf deposits derived from the ancestral dominant sediment source during earliest Cretaceous time. Brooks Range to the south and southwest. These But, as the former land area to the north subsided, initial deposits consist dominantly of shale, sandstone, deposition from the rising mountain belt to the south and conglomerate, and bentonite (consolidated volcanic ash) southwest was very slow in the 1002 area because a deep that range in age from late Early Cretaceous to Quaternary trough (the Colville trough of the central North Slope, fig. (fig. 111-4), a time span of about 120 million years. In wells 1-1) developed immediately north of the mountain belt immediately west of the 1002 area, the sequence is as (which then was much farther south than the present much as 13,000 feet thick (fig. 111-8; pi. 4), but seismic data mountain front) had to be filled first. Consequently, initial indicate that Brookian rocks may be as thick as 26,000 feet Brookian deposition in the 1002 area consisted of clay and in the central part of the 1002 area. However, this volcanic ash that settled out of suspension, probably in thickening could be due in part to duplication caused by deep water. These deposits formed the Hue Shale, which thrust faulting. is 500 to 1,000 feet thick. Because of poor circulation and low oxygen content of the bottom water during deposition Potential reservoirs in the Brookian sequence would of the lower half of the Hue Shale, pelagic organisms that 1480 147� 1460 1450 1440 1430 142� .~L O-_ 0 6 12 18 MILES / ~. T . ..i.gvariak Thomson sand A U F O R T E A ! < 0 at , /.) If l 0{>0 2 A '\ A ,, Kemik Sandstone �30~ 35,,? . iBR NG B _ 0 " " S A 5e ) G E 69� 160 , 0 30'OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 57 OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 57 also settled with the clay were preserved in the sediments compressional forces have folded and faulted strata into to eventually form an organic-rich shale, a good oil source what is called a fold-and-fault belt. The thrust faults move rock. older strata over younger strata; in the 1002 area, the direction and amount of transport has been to the north Deposition became more rapid as delta-front deposits several miles to tens of miles. The thrust faults originate in prograded into the area from the southwest. Initially, deep- deeper layers and step upsection northward following water mud and sand that slumped or flowed down the structurally incompetent layers such as shales. In the basin slope as turbidity currents from the front of shallow- mountains and foothills south of the 1002 area, these water deltas to the southwest were deposited at the base detachment surfaces (thrust faults) are in Jurassic and of the basin slope. Concurrently, thick deposits of mud older rock. In the 1002 area, the detachment surfaces are were accumulating on the northeastward-prograding basin mostly in Cretaceous and younger rocks, although the slope. These deposits formed the Canning Formation, older rocks are also involved in thrusting. Several large oil which is 4,000-6,000 feet thick in wells adjacent to the 1002 and gas fields occur in this type of structural setting in area (fig. 111-8; pi. 4). In much of the 1002 area, however, western Wyoming, northern Utah, the foothills of the compressional forces folded and faulted the strata during Canadian Rockies, and in other parts of the world. late Paleocene and early Eocene time resulting in uplift and erosion of some earlier deposited Brookian sediments and The structural patterns produced by this type of more deposition in adjacent low areas. Deformation and deformation are very complex, and because the strata are associated deposition continued during middle and late highly folded and faulted, interpreting the seismic data is Tertiary time in the eastern part of the 1002 area but the difficult. Nevertheless, a seismic reflection from the top of depositional patterns are poorly understood. In the the pre-Mississippian basement (pl. 5), which was mapped southeastern part of the 1002 area, a 10,000-foot-thick over most of the area, shows several very large structural section of nonmarine sandstone, conglomerate, and shale closures. These closures are discussed with the various containing thin beds of coal, which is latest Cretaceous to prospects or plays later. Paleocene in age and is referred to as the Sabbath Creek unit, probably was displaced northward from a position Seismic reflections, as well as outcrops of farther south by thrust faulting. Cretaceous and Paleocene strata, indicate that these rocks have been much more deformed than the older strata. The Meanwhile, in the northwestern quadrant and areas reason is that these younger rocks are structurally weaker to the west, after the thick deposits of prodelta or slope and yield more to the compressional forces. Seismic muds filled in deeper parts of the seaway, sand, mud, reflections are discontinuous and very difficult, if not gravel, and peat were deposited along and adjacent to a impossible, to map for any distance. Hence, a structure deltaic shoreline as the sea oscillated back and forth map of a shallower horizon was not made except for the across the area. These deposits make up the northwest quadrant of the 1002 area. Figure 111-9 shows Sagavanirktok Formation, which is the youngest bedrock the near-surface structural trends in Brookian rocks. unit in the 1002 area and is 5,000-7,000 feet thick in areas to the west (fig. 111-8; pi. 4). The Eocene and younger strata are only moderately deformed in the northeastern part of the 1002 area. Structure Seismic lines in that area show a discontinuity (an unconformity) between the more complexly folded Seismic and surface data indicate that all but the Cretaceous and Paleocene rocks below and the gently northwestern quadrant of the 1002 area is complexly folded deformed Eocene rocks above (pl. 5).- This discontinuity and faulted. This complexity is vastly different from the indicates that the major deformation probably occurred in relatively simple structure that underlies the coastal plain late Paleocene to Eocene time, before deposition of the west of the Arctic Refuge, such as the Prudhoe Bay area. younger Eocene rocks. Deformation continued, probably The line of change in structural style from the simpler episodically, into the late Tertiary. Indeed, on the north structure to the west and the complex structure observed in flank of the Marsh Creek anticline (fig. 111-3), the tilted most of the 1002 area cuts across the northwest part of Eocene strata dip 600 and overlying Pliocene strata dip the 1002 area, approximately coinciding with the north flank 150. of the Marsh Creek anticline (fig. 111-3). This dividing line is important in separating the various types of prospects for Twenty-six potential hydrocarbon traps have been assessment purposes. seismically mapped at or near the top of the pre- Mississippian surface (fig. I-1). Generally, prospects Seismic data, which are of good quality in the occurring near this horizon have three or more objective northwestern quadrant of the 1002 area, show that the reservoirs. Table 111-2 summarizes the pertinent data for strata are little deformed except for a generally northeast each prospect. gentle dip. One very low-relief structure, which is an oil and gas prospect, is mapped at the top of the pre- No prospects were adequately resolved within the Mississippian surface (pl. 5). The remaining part detached and highly deformed Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks. (southeastemrn part of the 1002 area) is characterized by However, figure 111-10 shows the distribution of structural complexly folded and faulted structures. Lateral culminations in these deformed rocks. Structural analogs in 58 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT WEST EAST 25 miles MOBIL WEST STAINES 1002 AREA STATE 2 0 PLEISTOCENE Gamma ray Resistivity PLISTOCEN PLIOCENE - PLIOCENE Base of permafrost MIOCENE Sagavanirktok Formation { Sandstone and shale: lesser amounts of conglomerate and coal (alternating marine and nonmarine) MIOCENE AND ca '--~- OLIGOCENE 5000-- Pr ding ________ consu EOCENE Slope and shelf shale facies (silty shale) '-_'Tongue .o0 Sagavanirktok Fm Canning Formation K \- Prograding basin slope> \ PALEOCENE 000- K Turbidite sandstone facies (shale and interbedded sandstone) UPPER . Disl condensed shale faes CRETACEOUS (clay shale and bentonite) Hue Shale Hue Shale -.L-Gamma-ray zoneI ~~3 _ ~L -Gamma-ray zO WER ,/ Pebble shale unit CRETACEOUS / Vertical exaggeration X10 Figure 111-8.--Diagrammatic section showing stratigraphic relations of the Brookian sequence between the Mobil West Staines State 2 well and the northwest corner of the 1002 area. Dashed lines represent time lines as inferred from seismic reflections. Depths on well logs are in feet. Ages based on micropaleontologic data correlated from wells to the west. See figure 111-3 for location of section. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 59 146� 1450 1440 1430 Flaman E A U F O R T S E A EXPLANATION Island- 8ronlownlow Point :.P~ Kak _+tovikBre ~ /"K k Syncline / C A M D F N B A Y ,__ <: 3t ,0 r <+ Well CA 10 20 30 MILES 630.�o�~~- I -- I III I I I I t 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS Figure III-9.--Generalized near-surface structural trends in Brookian rocks, based on seismic data. Because of structural complexity, not all features are shown, particularly in the east part of the 1002 area. 146� 145� 144� 143� I I I I Flaman B E A U F O R T SEA '- \ Islandl< Brownlow --gfYA%, .. . .. 700'- ~ ?-~ ' , 690 I 30' 0 I , ( 0 10 20 30 MILES i I - I I 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS Figure 111-10.--Trends of structural culminations in highly deformed Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks (shaded) and area of monoclinal north-dipping strata (line pattern) that may have petroleum potential in the 1002 area. 60 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT /Q:~~~~~~~~~~ 10 20 0 LMEER Figue 11-1C,- Tedofsrcua cuinain inhgldeomdMsziadTrtryocs(ae)ad are ofmnia ot-ipn taa ln atr)ta a aeptrlu oeta nte10 ra 60 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMEN Canada--the Alberta disturbed belt--and in the Montana- PETROLEUM GEOCHEMISTRY Wyoming thrust belt suggest that the probability of traps occurring in the subsurface in this structural setting is high, Petroleum geochemistry deals with (1) identifying and although determining their location on the basis of existing quantifying petroleum source rocks (which rock units seismic data is difficult. In addition, a narrow zone of contain sufficient organic matter and how much); (2) north-dipping strata along the southern margin of the 1002 determining the type of source rock (oil prone versus gas area (fig. 111-10) may be interrupted by faults which could prone); (3) identifying the specific source rock responsible trap petroleum. for oil and gas from seeps, outcrops, and wells; (4) determining thermal maturity of the source rock (whether subjected to enough heat to convert organic matter to petroleum); and (5) determining the time of oil and gas Table 111-2.--Data on petroleum prospects in the 1002 area. [Depths are below mean sea level. Potential objectives: 1, pre-Mississippian carbonate rocks; 2a, Ellesmerian clastic rocks; 2b, Ellesmerian carbonate rocks; 3, Thomson/Kemik sandstones; 4, turbidites; 5, lower Neogene(?) topsets] Prospect Area Size Crestal Lowest Potential Number (acres) (miles) depth closing objectives of (feet) contour seismic (feet) 1 2a 2b 3 4 5 lines 1 48,5121 18 X 6 14,000 15,000 X X X X X -- 5 2 11,793 8X 3 14,820 15,000 X X -- X X -- 2 3 13,120 12 X 3 13,000 14 X X X X X -- 3 4 12,922 8 X 3.5 14,900 15,500 X -- -- X X -- 4 5 34,234 16 X 4 12,700 15,000 X X -- X -- 6 6 11,940 10 X 3 11,500 13,800 X -- -- X X -- 3 7 18,970 16 X 2 8,500 10,500 X X X X X -- 6 8 4,880 4X 2 16,300 17,000 X -- -- X X -- 2 9 2,200 4X 1 12,500 13,200 X -- -- X X -- 1 10 6,291 11 X 1 11,900 12,500 X -- -- X X -- 3 11 9,4301 8X 3 5,200 6,000 X X X X -- -- 2 12 3,950 6X 1 19,000 21,000 X -- -- X X -- 2 13 1,344 4 X 0.8 10,900 11,500 X X X X -- -- 1 14 4,9151 5X 2 5,640 6,000 X X X X -- -- 1 15 42,5001 13 X 10 22,500 23,000 X -- -- X X -- 6 16 6,720 6.3 X 2.4 1,230 2,300 -- - -- -- X X 3 17 3,170 3 X 2 21,600 22,000 X - -- X -- 1 18 226,8221 27 X 15 13,500 >24,000 X -- -- X X -- 16 19 129,587 22 X 13 9,790 17,000 X X X X X -- 10 20 79,738 30 X 7 11,900 17,500 X X X -- -- -- 10 21 65,3001 21 X 4 7,500 14,500 X X X -- -- -- 7 22 4,5601 5 X 2 11,600 12,000 X X X -- -- -- 1 23 3,706 5 X 1.5 16,300 16,500 X X X -- -- -- 1 24 11,8721 8X 3 10,400 12,000 X X X - -- -- 4 25 2,3601 4X 1 11,950 12,000 X X X -- -- -- 1 26 4,954 5 X 3 16,500 17,000 X X X X X -- 2 1Prospect area includes extensions or projections outside the 1002 area as shown in figure II111-1. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 61 generation and the direction in which it migrated. In the ASSESSMENT OF THE OIL AND 1002 area (where there is no well control), most of these GAS POTENTIAL data come from surface samples and seismic shot-hole samples or must be projected from wells or outcrops in In-Place Oil and Gas Resources adjacent areas. Because of the different and complex structural history of most of the 1002 area compared with The method employed for estimating in-place oil and that of adjacent areas to the west, some of the projections gas resources for the 1002 area is a modified version of are tenuous. the play analysis technique developed by the Geological Survey of Canada to assess Canada's oil and gas Analyses of different rock units throughout resources (Canada Department of Energy, Mines and northeastern Alaska indicate that the Shublik Formation, Resources, 1977) and used in earlier assessments of the Kingak Shale, pebble shale unit, Hue Shale, and shales in NPRA and the 1002 area (U.S. Department of the Interior the Canning Formation may be potential oil or gas source Office of Minerals Policy and Research Analysis, 1979; Mast rocks (fig. 111-4). The first three units are considered to be and others, 1980; Miller, 1981; Bird, 1984). But the present the source for the oil in the Prudhoe Bay field. In or assessment uses a more efficient computer program adjacent to the 1002 area, however, analytical data on a (FASP), utilizing probability theory rather than Monte Carlo limited number of samples of some units indicate that all simulation (Crovelli, 1985, 1986). the above units except the Hue Shale are gas-prone source rock of fair to good quality and that the Hue Shale is a In this method, geologic settings of oil and gas good to excellent oil-prone source rock. In addition, the occurrence are modeled, risks are assigned to geologic distribution of the Shublik and Kingak is not known, and attributes of the model necessary for generation and because of pre-pebble shale erosion, these rocks may not accumulation of petroleum, and ranges of values are be present in much of the 1002 area. assessed for the geologic characteristics of traps and reservoirs which control petroleum volumes within the Analyses of the oils collected from seeps and stained modeled accumulations of each play. The volumes of outcrops in or adjacent to the 1002 area, and of the petroleum in the hypothetical traps are determined using different potential source rocks, suggest that the Hue Shale reservoir engineering formulas, and summed for the play as is the most likely source rock in the 1002 area. None of a whole. Consequently, a play can be viewed as an the sampled oils are similar to Prudhoe Bay oil, aggregate of prospects, which are conceived as having similar geologic characteristics and sharing common Maturation studies indicate that in the outcrop belt geologic elements. They are defined by a known or south of the 1002 area, all potential source rocks are suspected trapping condition, which may be structural, mature to overmature, the latter having been overheated by stratigraphic, or combination in character. deep burial and so petroleum had already been generated and expelled. In wells in the Point Thomson area, where In this appraisal method, geologists make judgments the rocks are now at or near their maximum burial depths, about the geologic factors necessary for formation of an oil the Hue Shale and pebble shale unit are at the beginning or gas deposit and quantitatively assess those geologic of hydrocarbon generation. According to maturation data properties which determine its size. The computer program and downward-extrapolated temperature gradients from (FASP) then does the resource calculation based on that these wells, the maturity thresholds of oil, condensate, and information. This arrangement utilizes the geologist's thermal gas are about 12,000, 22,500, and 28,000 feet, expertise with geologic factors and the computer's facility in respectively. These threshold values can be extrapolated manipulation of numbers. The method provides for a into the northwestern quadrant of the 1002 area with a fair systematic analysis and integration of the geologic factors degree of confidence, but in the structurally complex area essential for the occurrence of oil and gas, a thorough to the east, there are complications. Where the Hue Shale documentation of the analysis, and an assessment which is at or near the surface, it is immature, but seismic data provides information on the size, distribution, and number of indicate that it could be as deep as 25,000 feet in nearby petroleum accumulations as well as their sum. areas. Thus, depending on its structural position, the Hue Shale ranges from immature to mature or overmature. In this assessment, seven plays were identified, encompassing Precambrian to Cenozoic rocks (fig. I-11), In the deformed eastern part of the 1002 area, data and for each play, in-place oil and gas resources were are insufficient to determine the time of oil generation with estimated. Estimates for each of the seven plays were respect to the formation of petroleum traps. It seems likely, aggregated using probability theory to produce estimates for however, the generation occurred before, during, and after the Arctic Refuge 1002 area. formation of the traps because the Hue Shale, the main source rock, occurs in such a wide range of burial depths and maturation stages. The time range of oil generation was probably long enough for reservoirs in early-formed as well as late-formed traps to be charged by migrating petroleum. 62 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT .8 DESCRIPTION OF PLAYS STRATIGRAPHIC LITHOLOGY AGE PLAYS UNIT iswm (NE) Brief descriptions of the seven plays follow, including Gubic Formation maps and cross sections to show the play limits and and HOLOCENE surficialndeposits geologic relations (fig. 111-12). Some plays are similar or equivalent to oil and gas plays with known petroleum in PLIOCENE adjoining areas. The plays are presented in the order that they were assessed rather than according to their estimated oil and gas potential. MIOCENE 1 SE - I:'":". Ml Sadlerochit NW Sagavanirktok 1- Mountains KM Formation _ OLIGOCENE MARSH CREEK B E A U F 0 R T _1 OLIGOCENE ANTICLINE Z 6000-7500 ft s � A 0 ::ii:!n / -:".~ EOCENE - i- PALEOCENE 2 PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN Canning Fm 3 - - 4000-6200 It 6 ,ELLESMERIAN - 5 6 4 PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN . _.- - LATE EXPLANATION Red weathering tun-- ...-... CRETACEOUS Hue Shale _-- - Play boundary 300-900 ^ ocea rats zone' eLATmE AND -EARLY Figure 111-12.--Schematic section showing the seven Pebleshrae onui-- - CRETACEOUS assessed plays in the 1002 area: 1, Topset; 2, Turbidite; Pebble shale u n it .(LATE NEOCOMIAN) 13 Kemik Sandstone - ;. (LATE NEOCOMIAN) 13 3, Thomson-Kemik; 4, Undeformed Pre-Mississippian; 5, EARLY Imbricate Fold Belt; 6, Folded Ellesmerian/Pre- Kingak Shale CRETACEOUS Mississippian; and 7, Undeformed Ellesmerian. 0-1500 ft AND JURASSIC Karen Creek Ss . .:- TOPSET PLAY Shublik Formation Fire Creek Siltstone Mbr TRIASSIC The Topset play consists of stratigraphic traps in Ledge Ss sandstone reservoirs of Tertiary age and includes those - cQ � Kavig rocks represented on the seismic records in the topset _ emt-er 7 position in a topset-foreset-bottomset sequence. This play ~'] Echooka .itii0 x PERMIAN is limited to the northwestern part of the 1002 area and is Formation 1:-:-. ______________ 6 generally unaffected by Brooks Range folding and faulting PENNSYLVANIAN (fig. 111-13). The southeastern boundary is selected as the Lisburne Group line marking the north flank of the Marsh Creek anticline. 0-2500 ft These rocks, on the basis of well penetrations immediately * MISSISSIPPIAN west of the 1002 area, are assigned to the Sagavanirktok �.-acak Shale ~ --.- Formation and consist of marine and nonmarine deltaic Kavak Shale Kekiktuk CMl _ sandstone, siltstone, shale, conglomerate, and minor Nanook amounts of coal. A maximum thickness of 10,000 feet, Limestone � Katakturuk , DEVONIAN estimated from the seismic records, occurs in the eastern Dolomite TO 4 part of the play; the sequence thins westward to about Argillite phyllite PRECAMBRIAN 7,000 feet in wells just west of the Arctic Refuge. Drilling quartzite. volcaonics. carbonates. granite depths range from 100 to 10,000 feet. The reservoir rocks are composed of sandstone and Figure 111-1 1.--Generalized stratigraphic column for the conglomerate which may constitute as much as half the northern part of the 1002 area showing intervals of total thickness of the play interval, even though individual assessed plays. reservoir beds seldom exceed 50 feet. Fair to good reservoir continuity in sand bodies is expected parallel to depositional strike (northwestward), but marked changes may occur over short distances perpendicular to strike. Porosity of reservoir rocks is expected to be excellent, averaging 10-32 percent, and permeability is in the hundreds of millidarcies. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 63 1460 1450 1440 1430 Reservoir rocks, which are turbidite sandstones, may Point I I I occur anywhere within the play interval, but in wells Thomson Alaseka O E A U F OR T SE A adjacent to the 1002 area they occur mostly in the lower A-0 State A.1Location of cross section Barter Manning third as toe-of-slope or basin-plain turbidites. Sandstone -- o ~ O~ , (Fig 111-2) Islandi o~ v C~~__ A M DE �N bodies are expected to be laterally discontinuous and to 700�- i 41 | ngun have an aggregate thickness of several hundred feet, although individual beds are expected to be less than 50 feet thick. Abnormally high fluid pressures are expected in i;:fOp.~~8r'�~~~~~ 0 the lower part of the play interval as in wells west of the EXPLANATION, t .1A' Arctic Refuge, and so porosities should be better than normally encountered for turbidite sandstones at these EXPLANATION 10 MILES depths. o Exploratory well 10 KILOMETERS Potential source rocks include deep-marine shale Figure 111-13.--Locations of the Topset (1), Turbidite adjacent to the reservoirs (the Canning Formation) and (2), and Imbricate Fold Belt (5) plays in the 1002 area. below the reservoirs (the Hue Shale and pebble shale unit). These shales are gas prone (Canning Formation and pebble shale unit) and oil prone (Hue Shale) and are Potential source rocks immediately associated with mature below about 12,000 feet. Oil and gas have been the reservoirs are deltaic shales and mudstones which are recovered from turbidite reservoirs in several wells adjacent immature and probably biogenic gas prone. The underlying to the Arctic Refuge. The oil, generally 210 to 270API marine shales are both oil prone (Hue Shale) and gas gravity, but as high as 440 in one occurrence, has been prone (Canning Formation and pebble shale unit), and are recovered on drillstem tests at rates of as much as 2,500 mature below about 12,000 feet in the play area. As a barrels per day. Gas flows of 2.25 million cubic feet per consequence, oil accumulations in this play are likely to be day were also measured in the Alaska State A-1 well the result of vertical migration along faults or inclined adjacent to the northwest corner of the 1002 area. foreset beds in the underlying Canning Formation. Oil shows are reported in several wells in the Point Thomson Postulated traps in this play are mostly stratigraphic area from the lower part of the rock sequence included in and are related to facies changes or traps formed against this play. The multi-billion-barrel heavy oil and tar small-displacement normal faults; three broad, low-amplitude accumulations just west of the Prudhoe Bay field (West Sak structures have been identified seismically. Faults and the and Ugnu) and the small oil accumulations in northeastern surrounding thick marine shales are expected to provide fair NPRA (Simpson and Fish Creek) are considered to be to good seals. analogs for potential accumulations in this play. THOMSON-KEMIK PLAY Postulated traps in this play are mostly stratigraphic, related to facies changes, or combination structural and The Thomson-Kemik play consists of stratigraphic stratigraphic traps formed against small-displacement normal traps in sandstone reservoirs of Early Cretaceous faults. Faults, interbedded shales, facies changes, perma- (Neocomian) age in the Kemik Sandstone or the equivalent frost, and asphaltic petroleum are expected to provide only Thomson sand. This play is limited to the northwestern fair to poor seals. Poor seals--that is, barriers to petroleum part of the 1002 area that is generally unaffected by Brooks migration--may have allowed preferential escape of gas, Range folding and faulting (fig. 111-14). The southeastern leaving mostly oil accumulations in this play. play boundary is a line marking the boundary between folded and faulted rocks of the Marsh Creek anticline and TURBIDITE PLAY the adjacent undeformed rocks. Sandstone in this play overlies the Lower Cretaceous regional unconformity, was deposited under shallow marine to possibly nonmarine The Turbidite play consists of stratigraphic traps in deposited under shallow marine to possibly nonmarine conditions, and is expected to be discontinuous. Drilling deep-marine sandstone reservoirs of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary age which occur in the foreset and bottomset units depths range from 12,000 to 25,000 feet. of the Canning Formation as shown by seismic reflectors. The reservoir rock may range from a fine-grained, The play is limited to the northwestern part of the 1002 well-sorted quartzose sandstone (Kemik) to a detrital area that is generally unaffected by Brooks Range folding dolomite and quartz conglomeratic sandstone (Thomson). and faulting (fig. 111-13). The southeastern play boundary is Thicknesses of as much as 345 feet have been penetrated a line marking the boundary between folded and faulted by wells, but the distribution of sandstone is unpredictable rocks of the Marsh Creek anticline and the adjacent and appears to be seismically undetectable. Average undeformed rocks. On the basis of well penetrations porosity is expected to be about 12 percent. Abnormally adjacent to the 1002 area, these rocks consist of relatively high fluid pressures are expected in this play as in wells deep-marine shale, siltstone, and turbidite sandstone. A west of the Arctic Refuge in these same units. Owing to maximum thickness for rocks in this play is about 5,000 abnormal pressures, porosities are expected to be better feet. Drilling depths range from 4,000 to 22,000 feet. than normal for similar sandstone at these depths. 64 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 146�0 1450 1440 143� Potential reservoir rocks may be dolomite, limestone, SAate Point Thomson B I A U F O and sandstone. Dolomites may be vuggy as observed in Sa P Alason B E A t' IF O R T S E A -d/ P"aoin te Aoction A the Katakturuk Dolomite in outcrops. Sandstone may also cross section Barter Manning be present. Under favorable conditions, leaching of o A g k CA MDE N _sG-~icalcareous cements may have improved the reservoir 700 - 0 - B Angun character. Although carbonate rocks may locally have porosity of as much as 25 percent, the average porosity is 0 i: ( I j-,R~-~� Ai�-LD } LO~AX~~-fi-rE�--~--J -A--> expected to be less than 10 percent. Fractures are expected in these rocks and should enhance the observed o, ier A-TI , low matrix permeabilities. Flow rates from basement rocks in the Alaska State F-1 well were about 3 million cubic feet EXPLANATION o10MILES per day and 150 barrels of 350API gravity oil per day. Salt o Exploratory well o Exploratory wll l0 10 KILOMETERS water was recovered from the Alaska State A-1 well at a rate of 6,800 barrels per day and fresh water was recovered Figure 111-14.--Locations of the Thomson-Kemik (3), from the Katakturuk Dolomite in the Canning River A-1 well Undeformed Pre-Mississippian (4), Folded at a rate of 4,800 barrels per day. Abnormally high Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian (6), and Undeformed formation pressures are present in the basement rocks in Ellesmerian (7) plays in the 1002 area. some Point Thomson wells. Source rocks within the pre-Mississippian basement Potential source rocks include the overlying Canning are unlikely because of the regional metamorphic character Formation, Hue Shale, and pebble shale unit and, possibly, of these rocks. Hence, juxtaposition of younger the Kingak Shale and Shublik Formation where these (Cretaceous or Tertiary) source rocks with basement formations are present beneath the regional unconformity. reservoir rocks is critical for petroleum accumulations in this Geochemical data indicate that the Hue Shale is oil prone play. The Hue Shale is expected to be a mature oil-prone and the other units are gas prone and, in the play area, source rock, and the Canning Formation and pebble shale may be marginally mature to mature. Both oil and gas are unit, gas-prone source rocks. Possible asphaltic petroleum present in the Thomson sand in the Point Thomson field, is described from the Katakturuk Dolomite in the Canning which is reported by the Exxon Corporation to contain River A-1 well, and oil and gas have been recovered from reserves of 5 trillion cubic feet of gas and 375 million Point Thomson wells. barrels of condensate. Flow rates are reported to be as much as 13 million cubic feet of gas and 2,283 barrels of Postulated traps in this play are stratigraphic and are oil per day. Oil gravity generally ranges from 35� to 45' located in areas where truncation placed Cretaceous or API, but some oil as low as 18' API has been reported. Tertiary source rocks in contact with reservoirs in the basement. Postulated traps in this play are mostly stratigraphic and are related to facies changes or traps formed against IMBRICATE FOLD BELT PLAY small-displacement normal faults; three broad, low-amplitude structures have also been identified seismically. Faults and The Imbricate Fold Belt play consists chiefly of the overlying thick marine shales are expected to provide structural traps in sandstone reservoirs of Cretaceous and fair to good seals. Tertiary age. Structural traps are the result of Brooks Range folding and faulting. This play encompasses that UNDEFORMED PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN PLAY part of the area southeast of a line marking the limit of deformation of rocks along the north flank of the Marsh The Undeformed Pre-Mississippian play consists of Creek anticline (fig. 111-13). Rocks included in this play are stratigraphic traps in carbonate or sandstone reservoirs in bounded below by a major structural detachment zone, the pre-Mississippian basement complex. In this play, it is which in the area of the Sadlerochit Mountains lies within critical that the reservoir rocks be charged and sealed by the Kingak Shale, and in the subsurface to the north is source rocks in the overlying Ellesmerian or Brookian believed to cut stratigraphically up-section and eventually to sequences. Pre-Mississippian rocks were metamorphosed, die out within rocks of the Marsh Creek anticline. folded, faulted, uplifted, and eroded prior to deposition of younger rocks. The occurrence of reservoir rocks in the Sandstone reservoirs in this play may include the basement complex is unpredictable. This play is limited to Kemik Sandstone, Canning Formation turbidites, and the northwestern part of the 1002 area that is unaffected by Sagavanirktok Formation deltaic deposits. Drilling depths in Brooks Range folding and faulting (fig. 111-14). The this play range from 100 to about 26,000 feet. The turbidite southeastern play boundary is a line marking the boundary reservoirs are expected to be most prospective in this play. between folded and faulted rocks just north of the Marsh Distribution of the Kemik is expected to be unpredictable as Creek anticline and the adjacent undeformed basement in the Thomson-Kemik play. Deltaic sandstones are rocks. Drilling depths are expected to be 12,000-25,000 generally expected to have the same excellent reservoir but feet. poor sealing characteristics as described in the Topset OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 65 play; also included are the very poor reservoir sandstones caused by the Lower Cretaceous regional unconformity in and conglomerates that crop out along Igilatvik (Sabbath) which erosion has removed an undetermined amount of Creek east of the Jago River in the southeastern part of underlying strata. The Ivishak Formation and Lisburne the area. The distribution of this thick section of rocks Group can be projected eastward from the Sadlerochit (Sabbath Creek unit) beyond the area of surface exposure Mountains into the subsurface of the southernmost part of is unknown. the 1002 area with a relatively high degree of confidence. North of this area, the character of seismic reflections Potential source rocks include the Kingak Shale, offers the possibility of their presence. However, their pebble shale unit, Hue Shale, and Canning Formation. northern extent depends on several factors, such as the These shales may be present within this play or below the rate of truncation on the unconformity, the amount of detachment zone in the subjacent Folded Ellesmerian/Pre- northward transport by thrust faulting, and the possible Mississippian play. The Canning Formation is expected to existence of downdropped fault blocks north of the be a poor, submature source rock, whereas Cretaceous truncation edge, about which we have little direct and Jurassic shales are expected to be fair to good source information. Drilling depths range from 2,000 to 25,000 feet. rocks in the submature to mature range. Oil seeps at Manning Point and Angun Point are thought to be from Potential source rocks include marine shales in the rocks assigned to this play. In addition, oil-stained Kayak Shale, Ivishak Formation, Shublik Formation, Kingak sandstone is known from many surface exposures of Shale, pebble shale unit, and possibly the Hue Shale. The these rocks. Hue Shale is expected to be the best oil-prone source rock where it occurs at depths shallower than the thermal gas Traps in this play are mainly structural and area threshold (about 22,000 feet). The other shales are all expected to consist of relatively small but numerous fault- apparently gas-prone source rocks. They are generally cored anticlines. Stratigraphic traps, such as updip mature to possibly overmature. As with reservoir rock pinchouts on the flanks of anticlines, may also be present. described above, truncation is expected to reduce the areal Shales within the play are expected to provide fair to good extent of all pre-pebble shale unit source rocks by an seals for these traps, although faulting and related fracturing unknown amount. may reduce their effectiveness. Traps in this play are mostly structural and are FOLDED ELLESMERIAN/PRE-MISSISSIPPIAN PLAY expected to consist of a relatively few large, broad anticlines and fault traps. A significant number of structures The Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian play smaller than the present 3- by 6-mile seismic grid is also consists mostly of structural traps in sandstone or expected to be present. Stratigraphic traps related to carbonate reservoirs of earliest Cretaceous to pre- truncation by the Early Cretaceous unconformity are also Mississippian age. The structures are the result of Brooks possible. The pebble shale unit and younger shales are Range folding and faulting. This play underlies nearly the expected to provide good to excellent seals. same area as the Imbricate Fold Belt play. The play area lies southeast of a line marking the approximate northern Within this play area, two extremely large structures limit of deep basement faulting which lies just north of the were seismically identified (prospects 18 and 19 shown on surface trace of the Marsh Creek anticline (fig. 111-14). figure II111-1 and table II111-1). These two structures were each Rocks in this play lie beneath the major structural assessed independently from the other structures detachment zone which marks the base of the overlying composing this play, and special consideration was given Imbricate Fold Belt play, and reservoirs consist mainly of to their position relative to the Ellesmerian truncation edge Ellesmerian and pre-Ellesmerian rocks. Depending on the and the relationship of trap fill to petroleum column height. stratigraphic level of the main structural detachment zone, some Brookian rocks may also be included. UNDEFORMED ELLESMERIAN PLAY Reservoir rocks in this play consist of both carbonate The Undeformed Ellesmerian play consists of and sandstone. Potential carbonate reservoirs include the stratigraphic traps in carbonate or sandstone reservoirs in Katakturuk Dolomite, Nanook Limestone, other unnamed the Ellesmerian sequence. The play is limited to the pre-Mississippian carbonates, the Lisburne Group, and northwestern part of the area that is unaffected by Brooks Shublik Formation. Potential sandstone reservoirs include Range folding and faulting (fig. 111-14). The southeastern pre-Mississippian sandstone, Kekiktuk Conglomerate, play boundary is a line marking the boundary between Echooka Formation, Ivishak Formation, Karen Creek folded and faulted rocks and adjacent undeformed Sandstone, Kemik Sandstone, and possibly turbidite Ellesmerian rocks. This boundary coincides with the sandstones in the basal part of the Brookian sequence. northwest boundary of the Folded Ellesmerian/Pre- The most important sandstone reservoir is expected to be Mississippian play. A wedge of Ellesmerian rocks is the Ivishak Formation (Ledge Sandstone Member) and the seismically mapped beneath the Lower Cretaceous most important carbonate reservoirs, the Lisburne Group unconformity only in the southwesternmost corner of the and Katakturuk Dolomite. The areal distribution of play area. Elsewhere in the play area, there may be one or reservoirs in this play is uncertain. The uncertainty is more fault-bounded, downdropped blocks which preserve 66 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Ellesmerian rocks. Such fault-bounded blocks are well , , , known in the Prudhoe Bay area but have not been ESTIMATES identified thus far on the seismic data in the 1002 area. z - Mean 13.8 Drill depths to Ellesmerian rocks are 12,000-25,000 feet. Mede 8.8 F95 4.8 Lu F75 8.2 Potential reservoirs consist of both sandstone and 0 0.6 - F25 17.2 20.6 - F25 17.2 carbonate rocks. The most important reservoirs are F05 29.4 expected to be dolomite in the Lisburne Group and sandstone in the Ledge Sandstone Member of the Ivishak - 0.4 Formation. Reservoir properties may be improved by proximity to the unconformity, as at Prudhoe Bay. Average o 0.2 - carbonate porosity is expected to be about 4 percent and a. average sandstone porosity, about 15 percent. Potential source rocks include marine shales within � 10 20 30 40 50 the Ellesmerian sequence (Kayak Shale, Ivishak Formation, BILLION BARRELS IN-PLACE OIL Shublik Formation, Kingak Shale) and the overlapping pebble shale unit. These shales are expected to be I l l l submature to mature. The Shublik, Kingak, and pebble ESTIMATES shale unit are expected to be gas-prone source rocks. Z - Mean 31.3 0.8 - Median 27.3 I - Mode 20.8 F95 11.5 ' Postulated traps in this play are stratigraphic and F75 19.2 depend for seals on the pebble shale unit or younger � 0.6 F25 3882 shales. L_ - \F05 64.5 , 0.4 - ESTIMATES AS DISTRIBUTIONS - - The estimates of in-place oil and gas resources o 0.2 - included in this report are in the form of complementary cumulative probability distributions, as shown in figure 111-15. - These distributions summarize the range of estimates 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 generated by the FASP computer program as a single TRILLION CUBIC FEET IN-PLACE GAS probability curve in a "greater than" mode. Because of the uncertainty attached to the many geologic variables, no single answer is possible to the question of how much oil Figure I11-1 5.---Probability curves showing the estimated and gas are present; instead, an infinite number of answers in-place oil and total gas resources of the 1002 area. Oil are possible, each with its own confidence level. In nature, in billions of barrels; gas in trillions of cubic feet. F, only one real value exists and the curve is an expression of fractile. the uncertainty about its size. The degree of uncertainty is expressed in the "spread" or variance of the distribution. indicate the potential for unusually large resources, or the The curve for in-place oil is read as: there is a 50-percent possibility that there may be no exploitable petroleum chance that the resource is greater that 11.9 billion barrels, resources in the 1002 area. For perspective, the Prudhoe and there is a 5-percent probability that the resource is Bay field is calculated to have initially contained about 23 greater than 29.4 billion barrels. Large quantities BBO in-place and more than 35 TCFG in-place in Triassic correspond to lower probabilities--that is, there is less reservoirs. Furthermore, an area similar in size and shape confidence that those quantities are present. Our estimates to the 1002 area, centered at Prudhoe Bay, encompasses are reported at the mean and at the 95th and 5th 10 oil and gas accumulations, both economic and probability levels, considered by us to be "reasonable" subeconomic, with nearly 60 BBO and 45 TCFG in-place. minimum and maximum values. in addition, other central Mean estimates for the 1002 area are calculated to be 13.8 values are discussed. BBO in-place and 31.3 TCFG in-place; these mean values have probabilities of 40 percent or less of being exceeded. ESTIMATED IN-PLACE RESOURCES To facilitate weighing of land-use values within the 1002 area, the mean values of in-place oil and gas In-place oil and gas resources contained within the resources were assessed for four separate geographic 1002 area of the Arctic Refuge are estimated to range from resources were assessed for four separate geographic 4.8 billion to 29.4 billion barrels of oil (BBO) and from 11.5 trillion to 64.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas (TCFG), at the 0.95 and 0.05 probability levels, respectively (fig. 111-15). This assessment of oil and gas in-place represents Though indicating a relatively high degree of uncertainty those deposits which constitute the resource base without regarding the true value, this wide range of values does reference to recoverability. Included are accumulations OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 67 146� 1450 1440 1430 Economically Recoverable BEA FORT S0E A Oil Resources Conditional estimates of economically recoverable oil 70 a -,2 1 � resources were calculated for use in environmental 70,-O :;r�'l We Wan ti - analyses and to assess the potential contribution of the J. 1 . 14 ;t~ ;1002 area to the Nation's domestic energy resource supply. ( to !' -I.____ j t If\_ < < _ t _ These estimates are conditional upon the occurrence of at 100 it .. . least one economic size oil accumulation in the area, the c>) I, i ,~ probability of which is about 19 percent. The estimates are o0 s) '>, ,,,,,,'" ~"",..-~ reported as a range of values, which reflects the uncertainty inherent in such estimates. The conditional mean estimate EXPLANATION MILES was used to provide a single point value for the indicated oI Exploratory well L I 0 IOKILOMETERS purposes. APPROXIMATE DISTRIBUTION OF IN-PLACE OIL Natural gas is not expected to be economic during MEAN ESTIMATE the time period considered. OIL IN PLACE GAS IN PLACE BLOCK (BBO) (TCFG) / \METHODS BLOCK A 5.5 12.7 BLOCK B 1.5 2.9 BLOCK C 5.1 11.5 BLOCK A The estimate of economically recoverable oil BLOCK D 1.6 4.2 \ resources for the 1002 area is the result of a prospect- specific analysis using the computer simulation model SIMILAR TO THAT OF OIL VER B PRESTO II. PRESTO is an acronym for Probabilistic Resource Estimates--Offshore, developed and currently used Figure 111--16.--Resource blocks A-D of the 1002 area by the U.S. Minerals Management Service for generating (shaded) and the approximate distribution of mean petroleum resource estimates for Outer Continental Shelf values of in-place oil and gas resources. planning areas. The PRESTO process is described by Cooke (1985). PRESTO II uses prospect-specific geological and geophysical volumetric input data for identifiable prospects estimated to range in size from very small (far less than 1 and produces prospect-specific and areawide resource million barrels of oil in-place or equivalent) to very large estimates. The uncertainty in a frontier area is addressed (greater than 1 billion barrels in-place). Included are both by allowing the user to input geologic risk factors and a stratigraphic traps and structural traps, not only traps range of values for each volumetric input parameter. The unequivocally identified and measured by seismic data, but PRESTO model also allows for input of a minimum also traps inferred to exist on the basis of framework economic field size. Any field smaller than this economic geology. Clearly, this in-place resource includes many field size is not counted in the prospect or area conditional deposits well below any economic size limit which may resource estimates. currently be assumed for the Arctic, and includes deposits which have reservoir characteristics that preclude them from PRESTO uses a "Monte-Carlo" random sampling being economic (see section on Economically Recoverable technique. The model repetitively simulates an exploratory Oil Resources). drilling program for the area, "finding" various combinations of prospects and various combinations of values for volume Estimated in-place resources of individual plays are parameters in the prospects for each simulation "pass." shown in figures 111-17 and 111-18. The most significant play This process, if repeated enough times, results in a range in terms of contribution is the Folded Ellesmerian/Pre- of values which represents all possible combinations of Mississippian play, containing approximately 50 percent of subsurface conditions that affect hydrocarbon volumes. the area's estimated in-place oil and 60 percent of the Similar models and the Monte-Carlo method are described estimated total gas. This play has several unusually large more fully by Newendorp (1975). structural prospects and is estimated to contain large accumulations. Next in order of decreasing importance are After all input information is entered, PRESTO starts the Imbricate Fold Belt play and the Turbidite play. its drilling simulation, drilling each prospect in the area However, in these and several other plays, the estimated based on prospect and area risks. After the area has been accumulation sizes, though perhaps substantial, are often of "drilled" a sufficient number of times, PRESTO then such size as to be of little or not current economic interest computes the prospect-specific resource volumes for each if occurring singly, and are often mapped with great trial where a prospect was found to be economically difficulty. If occurring above deeper and larger deposits or productive, by sampling from the input distributions. The close to them, such accumulations may be of interest. average of these productive trials for each individual 68 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Relative contribution based on mean value Mean estimate 3,4 7 (BBO) Play 1. Topset 0.6 Play 2. Turbidite 2.5 Play 3. ThomsonlKemik 0.3 0.75 - Play 4. Undeformed Pre-Mississippian <0.1 <I | | \Play 5. Imbricate Fold Belt 3.3 Play 6. Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian 6.9 LJw \\ \ Play 7. Undeformed Ellesmerian 0.2 0 0.50- 6 CL 0.25 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 TOTAL OIL IN-PLACE (BILLION BARRELS) Figure 111-17.--Estimated in-place oil for plays in the 1002 area, showing individual probability curses and relative contributions of the plays. Triangles show mean values on principal distribution curves. Relative contribution based Mean estimate on mean value (TCFG) 1,4,7 Play 1. Topset 0.2 Play 2 Turbidite 5.4 Play 3. Thomson/Kemik 1.5 - 0.75 -| \ \ Play 4. Undetormecd Pre-Mississippian 0.1 0.75- Play 5. Imbricate Fold Belt 3.5 5 C Play 6. Folded Ellesmerian/Pre-Mississippian 193 \ Play 7. Undeformed Ellesmerian 1.1 2 6 L0.50I 0 a. 0.25 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 TOTAL GAS IN-PLACE (TRILLION CUBIC FEET) Figure 111-18.--Estimated in-place total gas for plays in the 1002 area, showing individual probability curves and relative contributions of the plays. Triangles show mean values on principal distribution curves. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 69 prospect is the conditional mean prospect resource. For GEOLOGIC RISK each trial where a prospect is found to be productive, prospect resources are added to give areawide resources The probability of occurrence of hydrocarbons in an for that trial. The area conditional mean is the average of area or prospect is normally expressed as a geologic risk these trials. The results of all the productive trials are then factor which is the complement of the probability of arranged in ascending order to give the cumulative occurrence (1 minus probability of occurrence). It is the frequency of the conditional area resources, that is, the probability that hydrocarbons will not be found. percentage chance of finding resources greater than a given value. The results of all trials (including zero, non- The PRESTO model requires user input of economic, and productive trials) are used to generate risked unconditional risk factors for the area and for each resource estimates and an economic risk factor (Cooke, prospect and each zone being assessed. At the prospect 1985, p. 11). and zone levels, these risk factors are internally adjusted by the model to a conditional basis, and these conditional risk PRESTO MODEL INPUTS factors control the frequency with which prospects and zones are found productive during a PRESTO "run" (Cooke, The PRESTO model requires the development of user 1985, p, 9). This sampling frequency determines the relative input values in much the same way as described for the in- contribution of each prospect to the area resource estimate. place resource assessment. The major difference is that volumetric parameters and risk factors are developed for For the 1002 area, the areawide prospect geologic specific, identified prospects, and that technological and risk level used was approximately 90 percent (1 chance in economic factors affecting recoverability are considered. 10 of a discovery). This prospect risk level is generally Specific variables are discussed in this section. consistent with the industry standards for significant (not necessarily commercial) rank wildcat success rates. The PROSPECTS abundant direct evidence of hydrocarbons (oil and gas seeps, oil staining) within the 1002 area and the existence Twenty-six structural prospects, identified and of commercial oil deposits to the east and west argue for delineated as a result of interpretation of seismic data, were use of this level of unconditional prospect risk even for considered in the 1002 area recoverable resource some of the very large prospects modeled in this analysis, assessment. The minimum (areal) size of prospects is a which, statistically, would ordinarily be considered very rare function of the seismic grid density and the resolution occurrences. Unconditional prospect risk was assessed at (quality) of the data on seismic record sections, which is the conditional mean (expected) resource level, rather than variable within the area. A large volume of additional, at the threshold (near minimum) level. This is necessary to possibly economically recoverable resources in small remain consistent with subsequent, more detailed analyses, structural traps and stratigraphic traps, may also be such as economic evaluations, required for various present, as reflected in the in-place resource assessment, purposes. ZONES Unconditional risk factors on specific prospects were assessed within this framework on the basis of prospect- Each prospect is modeled as having one or more specific characteristics, such as confidence in the seismic prospective reservoir zones. For the purpose of the 1002 interpretation, which is a function of data quality and area recoverable resource assessment, the number and coverage. Well-defined, structurally simple prospects have geologic characteristics of zones within prospects were lower risk factors, whereas more complex structures would based on the areal distribution of the equivalent geologic have higher risks. plays used for the in-place assessment. The major part of the economically recoverable estimate is modeled as Reservoir zone risks were assessed on a relative, or occurring in Ellesmerian clastic and carbonate reservoirs. conditional" basis, often using the conditional risk analyses jointly (GS/BLM) conducted for use in the in-place resource VOLUMETRIC PARAMETERS assessment. Each reservoir zone in a prospect requires input of Area risk was derived from the array of prospect hydrocarbon volumetric parameters, including the productive risks in the area, using the "state of nature" conditional area, zone pay thickness, and a barrel/acre-foot oil recovery mean field size as the primary criterion. Simply put, the factor. Gas recovery factors and the associated gas input area geologic risk is based on the probability of occurrence parameter (gas-oil ratio) were "zeroed out" for purposes of of at least one field large enough to meet the economic the 1002 area assessment. All volumetric parameters are requirements for commercial production in the 1002 area. ranges of values, with an associated probability distribution, No geologic dependencies were assumed among the to account for uncertainty. The ranges and distributions prospects selected for this purpose. used for recovery factors were derived directly from equivalent parameters developed for the in-place resource assessment. See table 111-3. 70 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Table 111-3.--Reservoir volume parameters used in estimating recoverable resources. ["Hydrocarbon saturation" range and probability distribution are based on equivalent range and distri- bution currently built into the GS FASP Model for carbonates and sandstone reservoirs. "Recovery efficiency" is based on reported or projected estimates published for North Slope reservoirs in industry trade publications or State of Alaska reports. Proven primary and enhanced recovery technology (water flood, gas injection) are considered implicit in these estimates. The "yield" is the estimate of technically recoverable oil at reservoir conditions, not corrected for a formation volume factor. The formation volume factor is depth dependent and, therefore, prospect specific] Zone Porosity Hydrocarbon Recovery Yield equivalent saturation efficiency BBL/acre-ft) Topset ......................................... Minimum 0.100 0.350 0.200 54 Most likely .250 .730 .250 354 Maximum .320 .950 .350 825 Turbidite ...................................... Minimum .030 .350 .250 20 Most likely .135 .730 .320 245 Maximum .300 .950 .400 884 Thomson-Kemik ........................... Minimum .030 .350 .250 20 Most likely .110 .730 .320 199 Maximum .300 .950 .400 884 Ellesmerian clastic....................... Minimum .030 .350 .250 20 Most likely .170 .730 .300 289 Maximum .300 .950 .500 1106 Ellesmerian carbonate ................. Minimum .030 .350 .100 8 Most likely .045 .750 .250 65 Maximum .150 .950 .350 387 Pre-Mississippian carbonate ...... Minimum .030 .350 .100 8 Most likely .055 .750 .250 80 Maximum .150 .950 .350 387 ECONOMIC INPUTS Under the most likely case economic scenario, the minimum economic field size for the 1002 area as a whole The economics of petroleum development for the is about 440 million barrels of technically recoverable oil. area and for each prospect are applied in the PRESTO For individual prospects, the MEFS varies, depending on analysis. This is accomplished by means of an estimate of prospect-specific characteristics, such as drilling depths, the volume of recoverable resources that would be required well spacing, and pipeline distance. The areawide minimum for a prospect to be economically successful. This is equal to the MEFS for the prospect with lowest estimate, referred to as the minimum economic field size development costs. (MEFS), is based on estimated development, production, and transportation costs, and various forecasts and Minimum economic field sizes were calculated using estimates of future economic factors, such as oil prices, alternative, more optimistic economic assumptions. Under inflation, and discount rates. Pertinent assumptions used in these assumptions, the areawide minimum economic field the derivation of MEFS for prospects in the 1002 area are size (that is, least costly prospect) is about 155 million shown in table 111-4 and are discussed at greater length in barrels of technically recoverable oil. This is referred to as an unpublished paper by Young and Hauser (1986). the "optimistic case MEFS." OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 71 PRESTO ANALYSIS RESULTS values for each prospect modeled is truncated at a lower level by the lower minimum economic field size. This Economically recoverable estimates of oil resources results in a wider range of conditional values containing were calculated using two economic scenarios. The results lower values. This is offset by the increased probability of are shown in table 111-4, along with economic variables occurrence associated with the wider range of values, which significantly affect the estimate of the minimum because prospects and the area are found economic more economic field size. often during the Monte Carlo simulation (Cooke, 1985, p. 11). The optimistic case resource estimate was made to assess the effects of different economic conditions or To assess the effect of variations in geologic risk, projections on the estimate. Except for economic inputs PRESTO runs were made at different levels of unconditional (the minimum economic field size), all other input variables risk. These runs produced no significant variations in the were held constant. On a conditional basis, the area conditional area resource estimate. resource estimate is lower because the prospect resources contributing to the area resource are lower. The range of RESOURCES BY BLOCK To provide a basis for assessing the consequences of resource management decisions in terms of the oil Table 111-4.--Undiscovered, conditional, economically resource potential of the 1002 area, the unconditional recoverable oil resources in the 1002 area. resource potential for the area was allocated on a percentage basis to the blocks shown in figure 111-16. This [BBO, billion barrels of oil] allocation is based on the unconditional resource potential of the individual prospects contained in each block. See table 111-5. A similar resource allocation, by percentage, Greater Economic scenario was made to "activity areas" in the Sec. 105B Economic than Most likely Optimistic and Policy Analysis for the National Petroleum Reserve- case case Alaska. Conditional, economically recoverable oil Table 111-5.--Distribution, by block, of estimated uncondi- tional mean recoverable oil resources in the 1002 area. Probability ............................ 99% 0.49 BBO 0.18 BBO 95% 0.59 0.23 75% 1.12 0.67 Block Location in Resource Number of 50% 2.21 1.49 1002 area distribution prospects 25% 4.24 3.67 (percent) in block 5% 9.24 7.85 1% 17.19 15.73 Maximum simulated oil ......... 22.34 22.34 A........................ West 9 14 B........................ Central 3 3 Mean (arithmetic average).... 3.23 2.66 C ....................... East 63 4 Marginal probability1l ............. 19.0% 26.0% D........................ South 25 5 Minimum economic field....... 0.44 BBO 0.15 BBO Natural Gas Economics Significant economic assumptions For this analysis, crude oil is assumed to be the only potentially economic hydrocarbon in the 1002 area which would attract development interest in the early to mid- Crude oil market price (1984 dollars/ 1990's, and which could be explored for, developed, and barrel in year 2000) ......................... $33.00 $40.00 marketed at expected costs and prices. Given (1) the Annual inflation rate ............................ 6.0% 3.5% Discount rate: projected high costs of North Slope natural gas at market, Discount rate: Real ........................................ 10.0% 8.0% (2) uncertainties associated with development of a natural Nominal ........................................ 16.6% 11.78% gas transportation system to a viable market for proven Federal royalty rate ............................. 16.67% 12.5% North Slope natural gas reserves located at Prudhoe Bay, Development cost multiplier ............... 1.0 0.75 (3) the additional costs of moving potential gas resources from the 1002 area to a major transportation system near 1The marginal probability is the probability of Prudhoe Bay, and (4) the quantity of proven reserves likely occurrence of economically recoverable oil somewhere in to be developed prior to any gas reserves found in the the 1002 area. 1002 area, it is assumed here that there would not be a 72 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT demand for acquiring acreage in the area in the early to Crovelli, R. A., 1985, An analytic probabilistic methodology mid-1990's for the purpose of finding and producing natural for resource appraisal of undiscovered oil and gas gas. resources in play analysis: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 85-657, 51 p. It is assumed that any gas resources discovered 1986, A comparison of analytical and simulation through oil exploration activities will remain undeveloped or methods for petroleum play analysis and aggregation: will be used locally. This is not to say that potential gas U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 86-97, 21 p. resources in the 1002 area are without value. At some Griscom, S. B., editor, in preparation, Geology and future time, national or international economic conditions or undiscovered oil and gas resources of the coastal plain technological advances may warrant exploration for and area, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska: U.S. development of potential natural gas resources in the 1002 Geological Survey Bulletin. area. For a detailed discussion of the alternatives and Mast, R. F., McMullin, R. H., Bird, K. J., and Brosge, W. P., issues affecting development of potential natural gas 1980, Resource appraisal of undiscovered oil and gas resources in the 1002 area see Young and Hauser (1985). resources in the William O. Douglas Arctic Wildlife Range: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 80-916, REFERENCES CITED 62 p. McCaslin, J. C., editor, International petroleum encyclopedia Bader, J. W., and Bird, K. J., 1986, Geologic map of the 1986 [v. 19]: Tulsa, OK, Pennwell Publishing Co. Demarcation Point, Mount Michelson, Flaxman Island, Miller, B. M., 1981, Methods of estimating potential and Barter Island quadrangles, northeastern Alaska: hydrocarbon resources by the U.S. Geological Survey-- U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map Case studies in resource assessment in the National 1-1791, scale 1:250,000. Petroleum Reserve in Alaska and the William O. Douglas Bird, K. J., 1984, A comparison of the play-analysis Arctic Wildlife Range, in Exploration and economics of techniques as applied in hydrocarbon resource the petroleum industry: New York, Matthew Bender & assessments of the National Petroleum Reserve in Co., v. 19, p. 57-96. Alaska and of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge: U.S. Newendorp, Paul, 1975, Decision analysis for petroleum Geological Survey Open-File Report 84-78, 18 p. exploration: Tulsa, OK, Petroleum Publishing Co. [Reprinted in C. D. Masters, editor, Petroleum resource U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Minerals Policy assessment: Ottawa, International Union of Geological and Research Analysis, 1979, Final report of the 105(b) Sciences Publication No. 17, p. 63-79] economic and policy analysis: Washington, D.C., U.S. Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, 1977, Government Printing Office, 145 p. Oil and natural gas resources of Canada, 1976: Ottawa, Young, J. S., and Hauser, W. S., 1986, Economics of oil Canada Department of Energy, Mines and Resources and gas production from the Arctic Refuge (ANWR): Report EP 77-1, 76 p. Anchorage, U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Cooke, L. W., 1985, Estimates of undiscovered, unpublished report. Available from BLM Alaska State economically recoverable oil and gas resources for the Office, 701 C Street, Anchorage, AK 99513. Outer Continental Shelf as of July 1984: U.S. Minerals Management Service Offshore Resource Evaluation Division OCS Report MMS-85-0012, 45 p. OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL AND GEOLOGY 73 I I I I I I I I I I CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURE INTRODUCTION the 1002 area to markets. The exploration, development, and construction scenarios presented herein are general Section 1002(h)(3) requires an evaluation of the concepts and must not be considered to be final effects of further oil and gas exploration, development, and engineering solutions for the 1002 area, if developed for oil production, should it be permitted on the 1002 area, and gas production. Specific locations and sources of Section 1002(h)(4) requires a description of oil and gas water and gravel for exploration and development activities transportation facilities. To meet these requirements, have not been identified; and it is understood that these scenarios were needed to describe possible oil and gas resources, especially water, are not readily available on the development within the Arctic Refuge coastal plain, and 1002 area. transportation of the oil and gas to processing facilities. The scenarios in this chapter are based on general concepts germane to oil development, and production in an Exploration arctic environment. Determining the possible magnitude of such development in the 1002 area required an estimate of ADDITIONAL GEOLOGICAL AND the amount of potentially recoverable hydrocarbon GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION resources. Chapter III describes how these recoverable resource estimates were derived, and the limitations Additional surface geology work would probably connected with their use. occur prior to drilling exploratory wells. This would consist of hand sampling of rock and further study and F1~ ~ Gas was not considered in the recoverable resource measurements of geologic sections. Access would be by assessment; at present crude oil is assumed to be the only helicopter, and actual time on the ground would be only a potentially economic hydrocarbon which would attract few hours for each survey. leasing interest if the 1002 area were opened to leasing. Conceivably, at some future date, gas as well as oil could Additional seismic exploration would also take place be economically produced from the Arctic Refuge. to obtain more detailed information on subsurface geology. Therefore, a general discussion of gas development and Use of vibrator equipment would probably be the preferred transportation is presented at the end of this chapter. method, based on the results of seismic activities already conducted in the 1002 area. Although the total line miles For this chapter and Chapter VI, the recoverable of new surveys might not differ much from the cumulative estimates used are those attributed to the mapped total of about 1,300 line miles already collected, more crews structures (fig. Ill-l). This is not to imply that these are the may be on the area for two reasons: (1) different only areas of oil and gas potential on the 1002 area. It companies have different ideas as to where to concentrate merely provides a less speculative tool from which to detailed surveys (closer grid spacing); and (2) different project potential development activity and from which to types of data and parameters are useful to companies in evaluate possible environmental impacts. Areas without their interpretations of subsurface geological structures or mapped structures may prove to be of greater, lesser or style. Thus, there could be requests for authorizations to equal potential. Without exploratory drilling as a run "3-D surveys," which use closely spaced, parallel confirmation and delineation tool, all estimates must be survey lines. considered uncertain. EXPLORATORY DRILLING EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRODUCTION Exploratory drilling is a large-scale operation using heavy equipment, but it is usually confined to a localized The exploration and development of an oil field on area. For environmental, engineering, and economic the North Slope of Alaska and the transportation of oil to reasons, exploratory drilling on the North Slope is typically markets entail several activities and the construction of conducted during the winter. If the exploratory drilling many types of facilities. The various activities include operations, including construction, drilling, and testing, can seismic exploration; drilling of exploration, confirmation, be completed within approximately 170 days, the well can delineation, and production wells; and the planning, probably be completed in a single winter season (Mitchell, engineering, and construction of field production facilities, 1983b). On the North Slope, exploratory wells to a depth support facilities, and transportation systems. Following is of approximately 12,000 feet can usually be drilled in a a general description of the activities and facilities that single season. It is possible that many wells would require would normally be required to bring North Slope oil from two seasons. PRODUCTION INFRASTRUCTURE 75 A single-winter-season operation involves the The drilling pad is connected to the airstrip and the mobilization of construction crews and equipment, followed camp water source by ice roads. Initially a source of water by the mobilization of the drilling rig. After the rig and sufficient for ice-road and airstrip construction and camp support equipment are delivered to the site and assembled, and drilling uses must be located. On the 1002 area, drilling begins, and continues until desired depth is obtaining the water needed for drilling, and more particularly reached. After drilling, testing, and suspension or for ancillary needs such as ice roads and airstrip abandonment of the well, the rig, support equipment, and construction, poses the major engineering problem. Water camp are demobilized and the pad area is rehabilitated, in the 1002 area is confined to surface resources, and there are few lakes of appreciable size within the area. The Heavy construction equipment is used to prepare the water requirements for drilling an exploratory well are wellsite for the drilling operation and to prepare an airstrip approximately: (1) 1.7 million to 2.0 million gallons for the large enough for Hercules 0-130 aircraft. The drilling rig drilling operations and domestic use, (2) 1.2 million to 1.5 and the ancillary equipment are massive, usually requiring million gallons per mile for construction and maintenance of 110 o 18 C-10 lods, epedingon te sie ofthe ig.million gallons per mile for construction and maintenance of 110 to 180 C-130 loads, depending on the size of the rig. ice roads, and (3) 7 million to 8 million gallons for Drilling an exploratory well requires 500,000-600,000 gallonsicrodad3)7mlont mlinglosfr Drilling an exploratory well requires 500,000-800,000 gallons construction and maintenance of an airstrip on the tundra, if of fuel. That is about 115 e-130 tanker tloads otr, if required. Therefore, as much as 15 million gallons of water supplied by overland tanker truck and trailer, 115 truck loads, may be needed to drill one exploratory well, loads. Three possible scenarios despite water shortage are: Construction equipment is hauled cross-country by low-ground-pressure vehicles to the exploratory well site. 1. Exploratory wells drilled reasonably near the coast Once the equipment and crew arrive on site, construction could be constructed on shorefast sea ice, in areas begins for ice roads, an ice airstrip, and the drilling pad. protected from ice ridging by projecting land points The drilling pad can be constructed of ice, material or nearby barrier islands. Construction could be excavated for various purposes such as reserve pits, gravel- done early in the season in shallow water. If water foam-timber, or other possible combinations. from shallow ponds in the area of a proposed wellsite is inadequate for constructing an ice road between the airstrip and the wellsite, rolligons could The drilling pad is large enough to hold the rig, be used with care to transport heavy drilling-rig camp, and support equipment, and to provide storage for components, drilling supplies, and fuel to the wellsite. drilling supplies (drillpipe, casing, drilling mud, cement, etc.). By using a series of parallel paths, such transport A typical pad (including reserve pit) is about 600 feet by would be analogous to the use of "winter trails" by 700 feet, and covers approximately 10 acres of ground the seismic crews. The fresh water required for surface. The construction and drilling camps contain domestic purposes, and especially for drilling could sleeping and eating accommodations, communication be obtained from shallow ponds. When these ponds equipment, power generator units, storage space, shops, freeze to bottom, a snow or ice melter could be used and offices. A construction camp contains facilities for 50- for melting snow scraped from the surface of the 75 people and the drilling camp for 50-60 people. The ponds or ice ripped from those ponds. Melters with actual number of people varies with the type of activity. sufficient capacity to handle these requirements have been successfully used on the NPRA (W. T. Foran Test Well 1). A reserve pit is excavated at the edge of the pad Test Well 1). immediately adjacent to the well. The purpose of a reserve 2. For exploratory wells drilled near lakes that are on 2. For exploratory wells drilled near lakes that are on pit is twofold: (1) to contain fluids that might be ejected the KIC lands or near the band of small lakes east during an "upset" such as when high-pressure natural gas of the Jago River, if the appropriate permissions were of the Jago River, if the appropriate permissions were forces part of the column of drilling mud to the surface, or granted, airstrips could be constructed partially on in the unlikely event of a "blowout" when uncontrolled te a ce contued pt alyn the lake ice and continued on the adjacent flat-lying crude oil reaches the surface, and (2) to contain the used t a endin on the aa t fate tundra. Depending on the overall availability of water, drilling muds and "cuttings" from the well. rolligon and snow-melter techniques might be necessary. Reserve pits are generally about 200 feet wide and 300 to 400 feet long (parallel to the drilling pad); and are 10 3. The same innovative effort (obtaining water, snow, or to 20 feet deep. A small (50-foot-square) flare pit is ice from wherever it can be found, without disrupting excavated at the corner most distant from the drilling rig, in the biological environment) would be required for case it is needed for gas flaring during testing. The ice-rich exploratory drilling elsewhere in the 1002 area. material excavated from the reserve and flare pits is used to level the drill pad and provides a cover of approximately 2 If a suitable water source can be found, ice roads feet over the tundra surface. Because of uneven ground, would probably be constructed, typically by applying a layer the pad-cover thickness may range from 6 inches at one of water over snow cover along the desired route with edge to 3-5 feet at the opposite edge. specially designed water trucks. This process is repeated 76 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT until an ice layer of sufficient thickness is created. One Development mile of ice road generally requires about 1.5 acre-feet of water. Ice airstrips are usually placed on nearby lakes if Following a discovery of oil from exploration drilling, a they are of sufficient size; otherwise, the airstrip is confirmation or delineation well is drilled during the next constructed on level tundra similar in manner to an ice road drilling season. This well tests the same prospect and is except with a minimum ice thickness of 12 inches. The drilled in a similar manner as an exploration well. If the well airstrip may be as long as 5,000-6,000 feet and about 150 results are positive, further delineation drilling occurs during feet wide, usually to accommodate Hercules C-130 aircraft. subsequent drilling seasons. The purpose for the delineation drilling is to determine the size of the discovery Drilling operations begin by augering a hole for the and the geologic characteristics of the reservoir. conductor casing, typically 50-100 feet. Then the drilling rig Delineation drilling continues until enough information has is placed on the pad. To prevent differential settling during been collected to determine whether or not the reservoir drilling, the rig is placed on pilings or timbers. The could be produced economically. The actual number and conductor casing is run and cemented in place and the scheduling of delineation wells are tailored to each well is spudded. Drilling begins and the hole is drilled to a reservoir. The drilling method is similar to that for competent geologic formation, usually to a depth of about discovery and confirmation wells except that two or more 2,000 feet. Test logs are run and the surface casing is run wells might be drilled during the same winter. So, the into the hole and cemented with a special arctic cement, airstrip and roads for support of the drilling rigs would be This casing passes through the entire permafrost zone and shared. If the discovery is significant and appears to be provides an anchor for blowout-prevention equipment until economically developable, some of the roads and the next casing string is set. Drilling continues to the next delineation-drill pads may be constructed with gravel so casing point where the well is logged and intermediate they could be used during production. casing is run and cemented. Drilling continues until the target zone is reached and tested. After the final testing From time of discovery through delineation, evalu- and logging, the well is suspended or abandoned by ation, and engineering, the lessee or lessees conduct placing several cement plugs in the well bore and casing. environmental studies and plan for the development and production of the reservoir. Once the studies and plans Usually demobilization of the drilling rig and camp are completed, the lessee's plans for construction, starts immediately after the well is abandoned. Within development, and production are submitted to appropriate several weeks, the equipment and most of the debris will Federal and State agencies for review, possible modification, have been removed or the equipment made secure for and approval. movement to the next wellsite. A final-cleanup crew returns to the site in the summer to pick up any remaining debris Assuming that the decision is to proceed with or garbage and to check on the rehabilitation. development and that plans of operation are approved, the first on-the-ground activity is establishment of a temporary For wells that cannot be completed in a single winter construction camp for workers. This camp provides the season two options exist: (1) year-round drilling or (2) necessities for living and working on the North Slope and interrupted drilling during two or more winter seasons may house as many as 1,500 workers during peak (Mitchell, 1983a). Year-round exploration drilling uses the construction and development. Gravel extraction and same facilities as the winter method, but the pad, roads, construction of roads, drilling pads, and airstrip are and airstrip are usually constructed with gravel instead of priorities, because these facilities receive immediate and ice. Therefore, a source of gravel for construction material continuous use. First to be constructed is the airstrip to must be available. handle the heavy supply loads. With connecting roads, such an airstrip could serve more than one oil field, were Multi-winter drilling is similar to single-winter drilling, they to be discovered nearby. Next would be gravel roads except that the drilling pad is constructed with enough to planned drilling pads, and then all-season pads. gravel (usually about 35,000 cubic yards) to provide a Construction would begin at the main camp area, again stable and suitable surface on which to store the drilling with an all-season gravel pad. Once each drilling pad is equipment and camp during the summer. Gravel sources completed, drilling rigs can be moved on location and for drilling pads and other facilities are discussed under the production drilling can begin. following section on roads. Also the well is arctic packed and suspended, At the beginning of the second or The buildings and engineering equipment for the subsequent winter drilling seasons, the roads, airstrip, and permanent camp and most of the production facilities are drilling pad are rebuilt to the extent necessary with ice, the usually constructed as large modular units elsewhere (lower- nonfreezing fluid in the upper part of the well is removed, 48 States, Anchorage, etc.). The modules, often several and the drilling is resumed. stories high, are sent by barge on an annual sealift during the open water season to a suitable port site with large- scale dock facilities. From there, they are either trucked or moved by tracked vehicles to the project location. On-site the modules are assembled and functionally tested. The PRODUCTION INFRASTRUCTURE 77 actual years of construction may depend on the overall Drilling padWe dGround surface ~ /~~~~~~~~Ground surface scope of the field development and is usually a continuing operation. For example, construction was begun on the Prudhoe Bay field during the early 1970's, yet major construction supported by annual sealifts has continued Kickoff point into the 1980's with expansion of the initial production field and improved technology for extraction of additional \ Angle of petroleum resources. Construction may continue for many deviation more years. Construction of a hot-oil transmission pipeline I presumably to TAPS Pump Station 1 at Prudhoe Bay would proceed concurrently with construction of production facilities (see "Transportation options for oil and gas Oil reservoir Horizontal deviation production," this chapter). Once the major production facilities, including Figure IV-1.--Directional drilling from a single drilling location. gathering pipelines and main pipeline, are in place, single drilling location. production begins. The initial production rate depends upon the number of production wells drilled and connected to production facilities; peak production is probably attained in 2 to 5 years, and expected to be 5-10 percent of total recoverable resources annually. Production may remain at environmental impact mitigation. A vertical hole is drilled to that level for 3-8 years and then decline 10-12 percent per a predetermined "kickoff" point where it begins a controlled year. The productive life of an oil field is usually 20-30 deviation (drift) from vertical. The angle of deviation years (National Petroleum Council, 1981). Although this increases with depth until it reaches the necessary angle has not yet occurred on the North Slope, after production for the well to reach a specific bottom-hole location in the from the reservoir is no longer economic, the field would producing geologic horizon. The horizontal deviation presumably be abandoned. Most facilities, buildings, (horizontal distance between surface and bottom-hole structures, equipment, and above-ground pipelines would be locations) depends upon the angle of deviation and the removed to permit rehabilitation of the surface, vertical depth of the hole. The amount of horizontal deviation that is possible for a group of wells drilled from a The time period from lease acquisition to initial oil single pad determines the degree of flexibility in choosing production from a new reservoir on the North Slope is the surface location of that drilling pad. Increased true difficult to determine. Even under optimum circumstances, vertical depth of a reservoir increases the degree of about 10 years will elapse before production starts from a flexibility in pad location. new lease. Unless advances in technology dictate otherwise, Production most development wells for the 1002 area would likely be drilled with an angle of deviation between 00 and 450 from The physical characteristics (size, shape, and depth) an assumed kickoff point of 2,000 feet. The actual kickoff and performance (well-production rate and spacing) of a point depends upon geologic conditions and reservoir field determine the number and location of surface facilities depths. From the kickoff point, the hole can be deviated needed for development and production. 30 per 100 feet of hole drilled. The maximum practical angle for directional drilling on the North Slope is now The size and shape of the productive field roughly about 600, with the horizontal deviation reaching a possible define the areal extent of surface disturbance from distance of over 12,000 feet in some of the deeper production-related facilities. The lateral dimensions of the reservoirs (that is, deeper than 10,000 ft.) (U.S. Army Corps reservoir, when projected to the surface, would typically of Engineers, 1984). encompass all or most of the production facilities, such as drilling pads, reserve pits, infield roads, and gathering lines. Reservoir depth also influences the number of drilling The camp, airstrip, or other facilities not directly related to pads required for development and production. A deep actual production could be positioned to best suit reservoir can be produced from fewer drilling pads because environmental and engineering concerns. more wells can be drilled from a single pad (fig. IV-2). Conversely, a shallow reservoir requires more drilling pads, For environmental or technical reasons, it may be because fewer wells can be drilled from each pad. desirable to shift the location of the drilling pad. Directional drilling allows multiple wells to be drilled from a single Reservoir type and performance influence the spacing surface location (fig. IV-1). This typical North Slope practice of production wells, which in turn affects the number of reflects economics, engineering considerations, and drilling pads required for development and production. The 78 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Ground surface welheads Drill pads garages; fuel and water storage; electric-power-generation - I/ / \ t . unit; solid-waste and water-treatment facilities; and a crude- ,Kickoff points Kickoff point, oil topping unit. If the field being developed is small, all facilities may be located on a single gravel pad. However, field sizes in the 1002 area may be on a scale similar to Prudhoe Bay or Horizontal deviation rese Kuparuk River. This would require locating some facilities on separate pads, and additional CPF's could be necessary. Pad size varies according to the magnitude of the field, good arctic engineering practice, and ......... ...... V environmental concerns. Each pad would be about 5 feet Oil reservoir thick and could cover 20-100 acres, requiring 180,000- l- Horizontal deviation 900,000 cubic yards of gravel. Actual pad thickness depends on the amount of insulation necessary to protect Figure IV-2.--Horizontal deviation versus well depth. the permafrost from thawing, but a 5-foot thickness should provide the needed insulation for most of the 1002 area. Structures would be built on pilings and elevated above the well spacing for a producing field is designed to effectively pad surface to ensure foundation integrity for the project drain a specific area surrounding the well bore. On the life. North Slope, well spacing, or well density, ranges from 50 acres to 320 acres, depending on production performance Living quarters must provide sleeping accommoda- and needs (Williams, 1982; Petroleum Information Corpora- tions, kitchens, food storage, dining areas, sanitary stations, tion, 1985). and recreation facilities for all production, maintenance, and administrative personnel at the CPF, about 200-500 people Production drilling on the 1002 area is assumed to depending on the magnitude of operations. Support be on 160-acre spacing, the present practice in portions of services, administration, engineering, communications, and producing fields on the North Slope and the spacing herein project management would be housed in an adjacent assumed for the development scenarios and the minimum administrative office center. The workshop, maintenance economic field size determinations. Each production well center, and main garage would be located nearby, for fire, would then drain 160 acres. This spacing is "reservoir safety, and oil-spill equipment as well as parts and spacing" in the subsurface and should not be confused supplies. with surface well spacing. Also, if gas were to be eventually produced, reservoir spacing would probably be greater (320 or 640 acres). Injection wells are required for Production facilities include the equipment necessary fluid disposal, gas reinjection for storage and pressure to process hydrocarbons from the producing wells, maintenance, and waterflooding for pressure maintenance. beginning with a series of three-phase separators which result in three products-oil, gas, and water. Each product Infrastructure for any oil production on the 1002 area is run through additional separators until the required requires many facilities, like those for the Kuparuk River and separation is obtained. Oil is piped through a sales meter Prudhoe Bay oil fields (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and then to the pipeline pump station. The gas is available 1984; Andrews, 1984). These major facilities include central for on-site fuel requirements or is used for producing production facilities (CPF's), drilling pads, roads, airstrips, additional oil (enhanced oil recovery or gas lift). In gas lift, pipelines, water and gravel sources, base camps, gas is the medium for lifting fluid from a well. The construction camps, storage pads, powerlines, powerplant, separated gas is compressed and returned to the support facilities, and possibly a coastal marine facility. All production well and injected into the space between the would be of permanent construction and have a useful life casing and tubing, where gas enters the tubing through a of 20-30 years. The airstrip, roads, pads, and dock gas-lift valve. The oil in the tubing mixes with the gas and facilities would typically be constructed of gravel mined from is raised to the surface by the expanding gas (American nearby upland sites, terraces, or streambeds. Most Petroleum Institute, 1976). Any excess gas is injected back structures and production facilities would be built off-site as into the reservoir through gas injection wells to maintain modules and transported to and assembled on location. reservoir pressure (enhanced oil recovery). CENTRAL PRODUCTION FACILITY The produced water is pumped to water injection wells for subsurface disposal or reservoir waterflooding. A The central production facility (CPF) is the primary waterflood system for secondary oil production would operation center for production activities and may possibly probably be necessary for developing a reservoir in the be the headquarters for each field. Typically the CPF 1002 area. Waterflooding involves the injection of large includes: production facilities; living quarters and adminis- amounts of water into the reservoir (400,000 barrels per day trative office center; workshops, maintenance buildings, and for the Kuparuk River field, and up to 2 million barrels per PRODUCTION INFRASTRUCTURE 79 day for the Prudhoe Bay field), and serves to sweep the oil Water sources may include non-fish-bearing streams, toward producing wells and to maintain reservoir pressure rivers, and lakes year round. Water may be removed from (Lynch and others, 1985). This process increases the fish-bearing waters, except in winter, provided that water recoverable reserves of the reservoir. removal meets Alaska Statute Title 16 requirements, is within terms of other necessary State and Federal permits, and Sea water is the likely choice for a waterflood project does not impede fish passage or otherwise measurably if sufficient quantities of produced water are not available. degrade aquatic habitats. A sea-water waterflood system includes a sea-water-intake structure and treatment plant, an insulated pipeline from the Desalinated sea water and snow melting are also plant to each CPF, and heat generators spaced at intervals options, particularly for domestic use and exploratory drilling along the pipeline to prevent the water from freezing. The operations. These sources may not be economically sea-water-treatment plant facilities probably would be feasible for ice roads and airstrips. Material sites may also located at the coast as in Prudhoe Bay (Williams, 1982). function as water reservoirs and, where possible, could be For the Prudhoe Bay facility the entire plant was built in a positioned and designed to fulfill both gravel and water single barge unit towed up during the open-water period needs. Potable water for camp use would be stored at the and grounded at the prepared coastal site. The sea-water CPF in insulated tanks. Additional water and sewage treatment pipeline would be routed to the CPF where treatment facilities are normally placed at each CPF, additional pumps would increase the pressure to meet injection needs. The treated sea water would then be The fuel-storage area would hold diesel and other piped to the appropriate drilling pads for injection. necessary refined petroleum products and would be diked to contain any spills. A crude-oil topping plant could Fresh water for camp use is normally obtained from provide all the field's needs for arctic diesel and jet fuel. various sources--lakes, water-filled gravel pits, or by An electric generating plant, fueled with produced gas, desalination of sea water. Requirements for camp use would provide power for each field. Backup diesel power could be as much as 10,000 gallons per day, and drilling would be available at all sites for use in power outages. water requirements could be as high as 30,000 gallons per day per well. Water for drilling and production requirements may be difficult to obtain in sufficient quantities on the 1002 area, as previously discussed, so combinations of several DRILLING PADS AND WELLS or all sources may be necessary. Each drilling pad would support drilling activities until Data from water-availability studies for the proposed all the production and injection wells had been drilled. Alaska Natural Gas Pipeline are shown in table IV-1. The Production from the pad could begin before all wells are data were obtained 12-27 miles inland, approximately in the completed, so production and drilling may occur middle of the 1002 area, and suggest that in winter rivers in simultaneously. The layout of a pad during drilling activities the 1002 area are not a potential source of water for typically includes the following: drilling camp, fuel and industrial use. Note that water depths beneath ice do vary water storage, one or two drilling rigs, drilling supplies, throughout the length of these rivers. reserve pits, production facilities and equipment, gathering facilities, and flare stack. Table IV-1.--Winter water depths at selected locations on the 1002 area. The drilling pad is normally constructed with gravel [Data from U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976, p. 99] and covers 20-35 acres. A pad thickness of 5 feet requires 160,000-285,000 cubic yards of gravel. The drilling camp is Date Thickness Water Approximate similar to the camp facilities at the CPF, but smaller and River sampled/ of ice depth straight-line temporary. Housing is required for approximately 50 people observed (ft) (ft) distance (mi) per drilling rig, and support staff and some maintenance (1973) upstream workers for the production wells. Once drilling is complete, the drilling camp is disbanded and remaining personnel are housed at a CPF. Drilling supplies at the pad would Canning .................. 4/18 7.54 0 19.8 include well tubulars, drill bits, drilling mud and chemicals, (downstream) 11/05 1.15 0 14.0 (dosTamayariakm. ) 11/07 1.0 0 14.0 cement, wellheads, and other assorted equipment. Tamayariak ..... ........ 11/07 0 0 14.0 11/07 0 1.15 13.0 Katakturuk .............. 11/07 0 0 11.8 The wells on the pad are customarily arranged in a Sadlerochit ............. 11/07 .03 0 18.9 straight line; adjoining wells may be as close as 10 feet Hulahula................. 4/18 0 0 21.7 (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984). Spacing between 11/08 0 .82 19.2 110Jago .. 4/118 0 0 261.27 wells depends on pad-size restrictions and the number of Jago ........................ 4/18 0 0 26.7 11/07 .85 0 26.7 wells required for each pad. Producing-well design Okerokovik ............. 11/07 0 .66 25.7 depends upon well-production rates, geologic conditions, Aichilik .................... 11/07 2.16 0 19.8 and drilling depth. A design example is shown in figure IV- 3. 80 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Drill cuttings and used drilling muds for the well are FIELD ROADS AND PIPELINES usually stored in a reserve pit on the drill pad until final disposal. Pumpable liquids are generally pumped into a Gravel roads would connect all permanent facilities in mud disposal well. Solids must be removed to a the field, that is, all drilling pads, CPF's, airport complex, government-approved site, such as an abandoned gravel pit water and gravel sources, and waterflood and marine or an offshore dump. A flare stack, located near the drilling facilities. These roads would have a crown width of pad, is used for routine and emergency gas flaring. approximately 35 feet and a thickness of 5 feet. Each mile of road occupies about 5 acres and requires approximately The number of pads required to develop and 40,000 cubic yards of gravel. The number of miles of roads produce an oil reservoir depends upon reservoir size and constructed would depend upon the size and physical depth, the production-well spacing, and number of wells on setting of the field. a pad. These factors cannot be determined until site- specific engineering studies are completed. However, as an In-field pipelines or gathering lines would run from example, a relatively deep field of 35,000 productive acres each drilling pad to the CPF. Parallel pipelines carry gas developed on 160-acre production-well spacing may require and water from the CPF to the drilling pads for fuel, approximately 220 production wells and 90 injection wells. injection, or disposal. The pipelines would probably be 8- If the wells drilled from a single pad could effectively drain 16 inches in diameter and be built parallel to the roads 5,000 acres, seven drill pads would be necessary; 40 to 50 connecting the drilling pads and the CPF. They are wells could be drilled from each pad. commonly placed on steel vertical support members (VSM) elevated at least 5 feet. Pipelines, pump stations, and the Wellhead VSM's are discussed in more detail later in this chapter. valve - To production assembly _ assembly,~_ ~Surface MARINE FACILITY $ Conductor Construction of a marine facility to service devel- opment of the 1002 area would be necessary because long // Surface casing hauls across the tundra from Prudhoe Bay are impractical. / /Kickoff point (startof The facility built on the coast would take into consideration / buildup to angle of the locations of the proposed developments and True dev ation vTrue r tic deviatio ~d up ".n environmental and engineering concerns. As needed, vertical --Buildup completion depth ica\ point (angle of detailed engineering studies would be prepared for the deviation achieved) marine facility size, design, and location. Angle of-roduction tubing deviation tubing The facility would contain water-treatment facilities and various supporting operations. It would be designed to receive barges loaded with the annual sealift of supplies, *I. Oil-bearing zone:: ::::t: M::: y::::: ::g::::other cargo, and production/support modules used in the oil field's development and production. Barging these -__ Horizontal_ goods with an annual sealift is the most economical deviation method of transportation and the only practical method of delivering very large modules to the North Slope. Barge Figure IV-3 .--Production-well design. routes and timing would be similar to the current annual sealift used by North Slope operators. The facility would require one or more docks and AIRSTRIP sufficient acreage in storage pads to facilitate orderly and timely unloading of barges. A temporary camp and An airstrip to support each major field development associated support facilities would be required during and production area in the 1002 area would be a unloading periods if the main camp were too distant to permanent, year-round structure used for the entire lifetime provide necessary living quarters for marine facility workers. of that field. The airstrip(s) would be designed to A transportation corridor would be required to connect the accommodate all types of fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters, marine facility with the development site. and have a length of 5,000-6,000 feet and a width of 150 feet. The airstrip(s) would cover approximately 20 acres Because more than one marine facility may be each; the adjacent taxiway, apron, terminal, and other necessary to economically develop and produce oil airport support facilities could require another 10 acres. resources from the 1002 area, two locations along the Airstrip(s) and pad(s) for support facilities would be coast of the 1002 area were selected for the analysis. The constructed of gravel and be about 5 feet thick. The Camden Bay area could serve the western and central part estimated gravel requirement for each is approximately of the 1002 area, and a site near Pokok Lagoon could 250,000 cubic yards. serve the eastern part. These potential locations were used PRODUCTION INFRASTRUCTURE 81 in creating prospect-specific development scenarios to it may cause problems in later years as the ice melts, identify and assess possible wildlife conflicts with oil causing differential settling in the pipelines. development and production. The hot-oil, 24-inch pipeline from the Kuparuk River Both locations seem to be suitable, although there field to Pump Station 1 is entirely elevated on VSM's and may be other potential sites. They both appear to have support beams. A minimum 5-foot clearance is provided for sufficient water depths seaward of the site so as not to caribou crossing; varying terrain features allow greater require dredging. They also have open ice periods similar clearance in places. Also, caribou ramps (relatively short to those at Prudhoe Bay (Arctic Environmental Information sections of gravel fill placed over the pipe) are provided. and Data Center, 1983). These potential sites were not The Kuparuk River field pipeline support beams are selected on the basis of detailed engineering studies and constructed to carry more than one pipe. the locations may prove less desirable after such studies are conducted, should the area be opened for development. A concept used in the Kuparuk River field pipeline, but not incorporated in TAPS, was construction of only one TRANSPORTATION OPTIONS FOR road for use as both a main transportation artery and a OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION pipeline-maintenance road. A temporary ice road was used during construction of the pipeline, eliminating the need for a construction work pad. That construction placed the This section assesses the technology involved in the a construction work pad. That construction placed the major elements of oil transportation methods. Pipelines are pipeline on the uphill side of the gravel road fill, enabling the road to act as a dam in the event of an oil spill. emphasized as the most reasonable transportation method the road to act as a da in the event of an oil spill. because the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) is in Cross drainage for water was provided by culverts, which because the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) is in could be quickly plugged if an oil spill occurred. Insofar as place and operating. As production of the Prudhoe Bay oil possible, a similar design could be proposed across level field declines, TAPS should have adequate capacity to acdcomm soulda the ArctiRefuate opiy th e 19terrain in the 1002 area. Where the terrain is irregular, accommodate the Arctic Refuge oil by the 1990's. engineering and environmental constraints would require However, if TAPS capacity (about 2.2 million barrels pereniein d e coninud i adjustments so the pipeline could be continued in a day, according to W. Witten, Alyeska Pipeline Servicestmn o the p l could e conti Company, Jan. 9, 1986) were inadequate, capacity might be straight line but the road could follow the contours of the Company, Jan. 9, 1986) were inadequate, capacity might be land. increased by looping or by improving pipeline hydraulics land. The ultimate method to increase transmission capacity significantly is to construct a second pipeline parallel to TAPS between Prudhoe Bay and Valdez. Major elements of other systems are also described and evaluated. Gas transportation is considered separately, later in this chapter. Pipelines Because of the existence of TAPS, the most probable Several alternative pipeline routes for transporting method is assumed to be transportation of crude oil crude oil from the 1002 area to processing facilities were produced on the 1002 area by pipeline to TAPS pump considered: station, thence to the ice-free port of Valdez on the southern coast of Alaska. 1. An elevated pipeline following an east-west inland route from the 1002 area, across State lands, to Prior to TAPS, little was known about constructing oil TAPS Pump Station 1. pipelines in an arctic environment. Design and construction techniques used during TAPS construction (1974-77) and in 2. An elevated east-west pipeline (onshore) from the the ensuing years of development of the Prudhoe Bay and 1002 area along the Beaufort Sea coast to TAPS Kuparuk River oil fields have advanced the state of the Pump Station 1. technology and have proved that hot-oil pipelines can be constructed, and reliably and safely operated. 3. A marine pipeline east-west (offshore) along the Beaufort Sea coast to TAPS Pump Station 1. This Because of ice-rich permafrost conditions throughout pipeline would require north-south feeder lines from the area, an elevated pipeline is the most probable system producing fields on the 1002 area to the coastal site. for transporting oil produced from the 1002 area west to TAPS Pump Station 1. To prevent thawing, elevated 4. An elevated east-west pipeline from the 1002 area pipelines supported by VSM's placed into the frozen across State lands to TAPS Pump Station 1, then a ground are most effective. new pipeline paralleling TAPS to Valdez. Experience from the operation and maintenance of 5. An inland pipeline from the 1002 area east to the TAPS has shown that unacceptable settling and stress in Canadian border, thence southeastward through the buried pipe may occur despite systematic geotechnical Yukon and Northwest Territories, to connect with the investigations. Even in soils thought to be thaw stable, ice existing oil pipeline systems in the Province of may be present and go unnoticed during construction, and Alberta. 82 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT The most probable route for a pipeline was 30 l l determined to be an inland route, which roughly bisects the 1002 area from east to west (fig. V-1) and is the route used for the assessment of environmental effects (Chapter VI of this report). The exact route would be determined primarily Z 20- by the location of hydrocarbon discoveries, and would be - adjusted to minimize impact to surface resources, and to , meet engineering requirements. The existing TAPS is w believed to have the capacity to carry oil produced from the D 10 - 1002 area by the earliest date production would start. u Figure IV-4 shows a typical pipeline installation, in cross _ section. The pipeline could be designed like the Kuparuk River field pipeline, with support beams large enough to 00 300 4 00 100 200 300 400 500 accommodate additional pipelines, depending on future needs for oil or gas, or possibly water. A road constructed on at least a 5-foot gravel fill would be needed to supply Figure IV-5.--Land-pipeline pipe diameter versus pumping the oil-field facilities and give access for pipeline rate. Modified from Han-Padron Associates (1985, fig. 7.2-1). maintenance. Unless otherwise necessary for minimizing impacts on caribou migration or to accommodate engineering constraints, the pipeline could be built close to the upslope shoulder of the road to preclude an additional maintenance road. Access to valves, which require maintenance road. Access to valves, which require Pipeline hydraulic design analyzes normal hydraulic frequent maintenance, would probably call for a special gradients and also the effects of pressure surges and their work road connecting the valve site to the main road. In control by means of suction and discharge relief protection critical caribou habitat, the pipeline and main road might at each pump station. Tanks at each station collect oil that require separation. If so, a gravel maintenance work road is discharged through relief valves when surges occur; the might have to be constructed along the pipeline for collected oil is later returned to the pipeline. segments where the pipeline and road are separated VALVES Federal regulations (49 CFR 195.260) provide criteria for the locations and number of valves required for pipeline GAS OIL Space for future expansion systems. For example, valves must be placed on each side of a water crossing more than 100 feet wide. A mainline valve system can be used to reduce the potential size of an oil spill. Valve locations are selected so that a spill at 5'iu '1:N/ 7 / / \ I ~any point is limited to a predetermined maximum quantity 1minimum \ Gravel Nominal 5 (50,000 barrels on TAPS). / ///'' //// //////////////// /On TAPS, remotely operated gate valves close rapidly under emergency conditions to protect pump stations and -Steel vertical-support member (depth varies) environmentally sensitive areas. Check valves are used where the terrain slope allows the valve to effectively stop Figure IV-4.--Typical cross section of pipeline and reverse oil flow and block potential oil spills. road development. No scale. COMMUNICATIONS Figure IV-5 shows pipeline diameters required for Maintaining continuous control of the pipeline from various pumping rates. A pump station is required every 50 the Arctic Refuge to Prudhoe Bay would require a complex to 100 miles depending on desired pumping rate and communication system. The primary system could be a topography. Therefore, two to three pump stations series of permanent microwave stations which link all pump probably would be required for an inland route across the stations, remotely controlled gate valves, and pipeline- 1002 area. The first would be located near the oil field or maintenance centers with a control center. Each remote fields and the second and third between the oil field(s) and station typically includes a self-supporting steel antenna Pump Station 1. Each pump station would contain tower, two small buildings, and 2 to 4 fuel tanks, a heliport, pumping, oil-storage, power, pipeline equipment and repair, backup generators, and a battery system. Such stations, if and communication facilities, living quarters for about 30 patterned after TAPS, could be backed up by a satellite people, and environmental-support systems; the station system and would be located on relatively high ground would be constructed on about a 7-acre gravel pad. Other about 40 miles apart. Also, common-carrier circuits, related facilities are described below (Mechanics Research, telephone, and mobile radio systems would be incorporated Inc., 1977). into the overall pipeline communication system. PRODUCTION INFRASTRUCTURE 83 ROADS temporary camps might be required. These sites could be used for 2 years and would be rehabilitated after As noted previously, a road would roughly parallel construction or used for road maintenance camps. the pipeline across the 1002 area and continue across State lands to Pump Station 1. This permanent all-season OIL-SPILL CONTINGENCY, gravel road would be built in accordance with accepted INCLUDING LEAK DETECTION arctic engineering practices on 5-foot gravel fill, with a 35- foot-wide driving surface, and would support construction of The first lines of defense against spills are design the pipeline and link central production and marine facilities. and operational procedures (including personnel-training The pipeline could be constructed during winter from a programs), properly designed and maintained equipment, snow pad or ice road. If snow or water is not available in adequate alarm systems, and strict adherence to industry sufficient quantities, a gravel work road could be built. and State and Federal government codes and regulations in Gravel access roads would connect the main road to pump construction and operation. It must be recognized, stations, valves, and maintenance stations. Emergency however, that even with the most comprehensive access to the pipeline during the summer would be precautions, oil spills will occur. Operators of a pipeline accomplished by rolligon or similar vehicles. The availability across the 1002 area would be required to have an oil-spill of adequate gravel supplies on the 1002 area is uncertain. contingency plan that, as a minimum, included provisions Gravel could be mined from inactive streambeds, but for oil-spill control, which consist of (1) leak-detection additional pits would have to be opened to obtain the large systems; (2) methods for locating, confining, and cleaning quantities of gravel required for roads, pump stations, up spills; (3) notification procedures for local, State, and airports, and maintenance-support facilities. Gravel might Federal agencies; (4) corrective action for the affected area; have to be mined from upland sites, river terraces, (5) various types of oil-spill equipment; and (6) site-specific streambeds, lagoons, or other potential sites. Site cleanup techniques. selections would be based on environmental and engineering considerations as well as availability. No gravel A leak-detection system would include automatic would be removed from the active stream channels of major instrumented detection systems and periodic ground and fish-bearing rivers or from barrier islands. All gravel removal aerial surveillance. For best visual ground surveillance, the will follow the guidelines for arctic and sub-arctic flood road should be close to the pipeline if there is no gravel plains (Woodward Clyde Consultants, 1980a, b). Sites work road next to the pipeline. Aerial surveillance by would be designed to provide fish and wildlife habitat after helicopter or fixed-wing aircraft covers the greatest amount they are abandoned. For example, gravel-removal sites may of area in the shortest time, but could be restricted by be designed to fill with water and provide islands for weather, length of daylight, and wildlife considerations. migratory-bird nesting and resting habitat, littoral zones for migratory bird and fish feeding, and deep water for fish PIPELINE ROUTING overwintering. Thus, these gravel pits can also be potential water reservoirs. Bridges and culverts would be designed The 1002 area's widely diversified local environments and constructed to provide cross drainage for roads in a require numerous engineering constraints regarding location manner that prevents erosion or adverse effect to the and routing of pipelines, roads, and airstrips. This applies fishery resources. particularly to stream and ravine crossings where, to minimize environmental problems, cutbanks and braided AIRFIELDS FOR CONSTRUCTION CAMPS stream areas must be avoided, especially by road Airfields may be required at pipeline construction cosns camps and pump stations or airstrips may be shared with INLAND ROUTES oil development facilities. The typical airfield for these camps would be similar to those supporting air The southern part of the 1002 area provides more development, that is, 5,000-6,000 feet long and 150 feet feasible stream crossings, relatively more stable soils, better wide and 5 feet thick. drainage, and more sources of gravel than a route nearer the coastline. The actual availability of gravel is unknown, CONSTRUCTION CAMPS FOR but at least 16 borrow pits located in active flood plains ROADS AND PIPELINES were identified by the Alaskan Arctic Gas Pipeline Company Camp buildings would be portable module structures, as possible sources of about 2.4 million cubic yards of self-contained and equipped with functional furnishings for sand and gravel for the ANGTS (Alaska Natural Gas sleeping, eating, recreation, and with sanitation facilities. A Transportation System--U.S. Department of the Interior, typical camp houses 150-300 people. To minimize surface 1976, p. I10). disturbance, these temporary camps should be collocated with the permanent pump station sites. Production and An inland pipeline from the 1002 area east into transportation on the 1002 area would probably require two Canada was discussed in the TAPS and ANGTS reports or three pump stations. Therefore, two or three camps (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1972, 1976). Construction would occupy the pump station sites; two additional of the pipeline would require a cooperative agreement 84 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT between Canada and the United States, as well as A major consideration in designing a marine pipeline Congressional authority to cross the designated wilderness for Arctic waters is placement of the line with regard to ice area east of the Aichilik River. and permafrost. Shorefast ice includes all types of ice, broken or unbroken, attached to the shore, beached, stranded, or attached to the bottom in shallow water. The ~~~~~~~COASTAL ROUTES ~fast-ice zone of the 1002 area extends from shore outward COASTAL ROUTES to water depths of approximately 10 to 66 feet. Intense A coastlineroutewoross more interaction between moving pack ice and shorefast ice A coastline route would cross more ice-rich rostninld route (U. ieprth e forms a shear zone of ice ridges, which often ground on permafrost than an inland route (U.S. Department of the the seabed. The keels of these ice pressure ridges and Interior, 1976, p. 491). More of the route would be on occasional pieces of ice islands scour deep gouges in the thaw-unstable material; such material and the braided subsea floor during subsequent movement of the ice. stream crossings would complicate pipeline constructionded ridges may extend outward to a depth of Grounded ridges may extend outward to a depth of and could compromise pipeline integrity. A coastal route approximately 150 feet. From shore to 50-foot seabed approximately 150 feet. Fo hr o5-otsae would have fewer stream crossings, but more of the routely shallow. Scour is depth, ice scour is frequent but relatively shallow. Sori would be on active flood plains and cross wider delta greatest at seabed depths of 65 to 100 feet. The deepest areas. Work pads and roads in that flat, poorly drainedre et at seabed depth of 5 feet. recorded scour is 18 feet at a seabed depth of 125 feet. area could result in water-ponding problems. Construction costs of an elevated oil pipeline would be expected to be In nearshore areas, ice-bonded permafrost will In nearshore areas, ice-bonded permafrost will slightly higher for a coastal onshore route than for an probably be present and must be considered in the design probably be present and must be considered in the design inland route because of (1) extra length, (2) higher gravel of an offshore pipeline (Heuer and others, 1983). But of an offshore pipeline (Heuer and others, 1983).Bu requirements, (3) poor drainage, and (4) poorer soils for nearshore ice-wedge permafrost under shallow water, nearshore ice-wedge permafrost under shallow water, construction. The earlier ANGTS study (U.S. Department of construction. The earlier ANGTS study (U.S. Department of particularly along a rapidly receding coastline, is even more the Interior, 1972) for a buried natural gas line along coastal critical for design. A hot-oil pipeline placed in areas of ice- critical for design. A hot-oil pipeline placed in areas of ice- and inland routes also estimated slightly higher costs for bonded or ice-wedge permafrost must be heavily insulated bonded or ice-wedge permafrost must be heavily insulated the coastal onshore route. ~~~the coastal onshore route. to limit thawing of permafrost and pipeline settling. The best location for an offshore pipeline is at water depths of 6.5-65 feet, to minimize ice gouging. Beyond the 6.5-foot SUBSEA MARINE ROUTES water depth the top of the ice-bonded permafrost generally is below the surface of the seabed. Inshore of the 18-foot For the past 15 years, the petroleum industry has bottom-depth contour, ice gouging is typically less than 1.6 been actively engaged in research and development of feet (Mellor, 1978). technology for the design and construction of subsea oil pipelines in the Arctic. Large-diameter marine-pipeline An arctic marine pipeline must be laid in a trench to construction in the Beaufort Sea is considered to be ensure that the top of the pipe is below maximum ice- technically feasible by some authorities (Han-Padron gouging depth. Several subsea trenching methods are Associates, 1985). However, to date no marine pipelines available but have never been used in the Arctic. Because have been constructed in the Arctic. the construction season is short, fast-moving cutter-suction dredges or subsea plows would be required. Under In general, the continental shelf of the Beaufort Sea development are self-propelled seabed plows, rippers, or of the Alaska coast is not more than 50 miles wide, and cutting devices. breaks at a water depth of 225 to 250 feet. The average duration of open-water conditions, during which a pipeline Automatic block valves at intervals along the pipeline could be constructed, is approximately 50 days. A marine would minimize oil spillage in the event of a rupture. The pipeline presents significantly higher environmental risks only way to assure continuous operation is to have a loop than does an onshore pipeline. Wherever a hot-oil pipeline line (a second pipeline parallel to the existing line) or similar is buried in permafrost, differential settling is to be built-in redundancy. Maintenance and repair work on a expected. Any significant settling could rupture the pipe, marine pipeline in the Arctic would not be feasible during causing an oil spill. Repair and maintenance of a marine the ice season (normally October through July). pipeline under ice would impose almost impossible engineering problems for much of the year. Marine pipelines must be waterproofed and weighed down with a concrete coating to give negative buoyancy. Critical environmental factors affecting the design and They also must be cathodically protected from corrosion by construction of marine pipelines include ice and weather sea water, in accordance with industry standards. conditions, their effect on construction equipment and the length of the construction season, the nature of the seabed soil, seabed ice scouring, and, in the permafrost zones, prevention of permafrost degradation. Marine-pipeline design, installation, and cost considerations are described below. PRODUCTION INFRASTRUCTURE 85 Tankers noise pollution, oil spills, and degradation of fish and wildlife habitat caused by roadbed construction through Transportation of petroleum products by icebreaker mountainous terrain. tanker in the Beaufort Sea has been considered for more than 15 years. However, no offshore loading terminals Possible, but not practical, is operating a large fleet suitable for the area exist. Nor do designs exist for such of trucks to haul oil to a southern Alaska port, for icebreaker tankers, their support vessels, or loading transshipment to West Coast ports, or to the north-central terminals. Presumably, icebreaker tankers would transport United States via a trans-Alaska-Canada route. High crude oil to an ice-free transshipment terminal in the operating costs, air and noise pollution, and the high Aleutian Islands or on the Alaska Peninsula. Several other potential for oil spillage make truck transport impractical. concepts have been considered, with or without internal The existing TAPS haul road (Dalton Highway) would not storage capacity (Han-Padron Associates, 1985, p. 7-30). be adequate for such high-volume traffic, which, considering Greater knowledge of ice conditions and ice dynamics north round-trip travel, would require almost bumper-to-bumper of the Bering Strait is needed before the requirements and trucks. risks of operation in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas can be adequately appraised. NATURAL GAS TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM A study on using submarine tankers, prepared by a team headed by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Since the early 1970's, industry has given serious Drydock Company (NNSDC, 1975) for the U.S. Marine consideration to developing a transportation system to Administration, was updated by Han-Padron Associates deliver Alaskan North Slope (ANS) natural gas to the market (1985, p. 7-53). Han-Padron escalated the capital and place. Gas produced at Prudhoe Bay is currently used on- operating costs in order to be able to compare site for power generation, enhanced oil recovery, or is transportation costs for submarine tankers with those for reinjected, inasmuch as it is not yet economical to produce icebreaker surface tankers. A submarine tanker designed to for marketing. operate under the Arctic icepack is limited as to propulsion methods and overall size. Current technology limits the In December 1981, the Secretary of the Interior power source to a nuclear reactor, although fuel-cell issued a right-of-way to the Northwest Alaska Pipeline powerplants might propel smaller submarines. The original Company to construct a large-diameter, chilled, buried gas study (NNSDC, 1975) indicated that no existing shipyard pipeline and related facilities from Prudhoe Bay to domestic could construct or maintain a submarine of sufficient size markets in the lower-48 States. However, by 1985 the (200,000-300,000 tons deadweight) to be efficient in such an project sponsors had temporarily reduced their efforts to operation. The updated study suggests that the unit- complete the Alaska Arctic Gas Pipeline until market transportation cost of a submarine tanker would not differ conditions for ANS natural gas improved. A timeframe for significantly from that provided by an icebreaker tanker of remobilizing the project has not been identified. similar capacity. Technical problems associated with loading, construction, and operation have yet to be solved. In 1984, the Yukon Pacific Corporation (YPC) applied to the BLM for Federal permits to construct and operate a Other Transportation Methods buried gas pipeline from Prudhoe Bay to a tidewater liquid natural gas (LNG) terminal in south-central Alaska (an area Several other transportation systems have been such as Valdez). That pipeline project, called the Trans- proposed and discussed in detail (U.S. Department of the Alaska Gas System (TAGS), would export ANS natural gas Interior, 1972, 1976). Only a few are discussed here, as to markets in Pacific Rim nations, such as Japan and none is a realistic alternative to a pipeline in terms of Korea. Export of natural gas (or oil) outside the United safety, economics, and environmental impact. The reader States would require approval of the President of the United should refer to the cited reports for further information. States, pursuant to the Mineral Lands Leasing Act of 1970. The YPC project was also suspended. But in January Two rail routes have been considered for transporting 1986, YPC requested the BLM to resume processing its North Slope oil. The shorter, in terms of new railroad 1984 application. construction, is an extension of the Alaska Railroad. This railroad is State-owned and has 470 miles of track from Accordingly, it is likely that a gas delivery system Seward to Fairbanks. The extension would be northward from Prudhoe Bay would provide ready market access for across the Yukon River and the Brooks Range to the North any gas discovered in the 1002 area, should it become Slope oil fields near Prudhoe Bay. The other route crosses economically recoverable. Alaska and Canada from Prudhoe Bay to Whitefish, Montana, via Dawson, Yukon Territory. Either route would The environmental impact statement for the Alaska encounter major construction constraints and operational Arctic Gas Pipeline project (U.S. Department of the Interior, problems in accommodating, handling, loading and 1976) described the overall effects that would result from unloading, marshaling trains, and maintaining track and construction and operation of a gas pipeline transportation rolling stock. Potential environmental impacts are air and system through the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. This 86 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT pipeline system proposed construction of a buried, chilled Heuer, C. E., Coldwell, J. B., and Zamsky, R., 1983, Design gas pipeline through the coastal plain of Arctic Refuge to of buried seafloor pipelines for permafrost thaw the Canadian border, to facilitate production of gas from settlement, p. 486-491, in Permafrost--Fourth International the Mackenzie delta region of Canada. However, for Conference sponsored by University of Alaska and purposes of-this report, it is presumed that commercial National Academy of Sciences: Washington, DC, quantities of natural gas discovered in the 1002 area would National Academy Press. be processed and transported west to Prudhoe Bay using Lynch, C., Siltor, D. L., and Rudolf, R. W., 1985, Arctic shared facilities with oil development and transportation on summary report: Reston, VA, Minerals Management the 1002 area. Ideally, the vertical support mechanisms for Service, 84 p. the oil delivery system to TAPS could be designed so that Mechanics Research, Inc., 1977, Technical service support construction, operation, and maintenance of both oil and for the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Project--Final report, 6 gas systems could be collocated. It is also assumed that volumes. gas production and transportation systems would not be Mellor, Malcolm, 1978, Undersea pipelines and cables in constructed until after a natural gas transportation system polar waters: Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of was operational between Prudhoe Bay and markets outside Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Alaska, now speculated not to occur before the middle to Laboratory CRREL Report 78-22. late 1990's. Mitchell, D. W., 1983a, Design and construction of the Inigok wellsite: Anchorage, AK, Husky Oil Co. NPR Construction of an oil transportation system from Operations, Inc., 18 p. Arctic Refuge would have a higher priority than a gas _ 1983b, Design and construction of the North Inigok transportation system due to the anticipated decline in oil wellsite: Anchorage, AK, Husky Oil Co. NPR from Prudhoe Bay which would make available oil capacity Operations, Inc., 11 p. in the TAPS during the late 1990's. Therefore, construction National Petroleum Council, 1981, Transportation, chapter V, of the oil and natural gas transportation systems would be p. 63-78, in U.S. Arctic oil and gas: Washington, DC. sequential on the Arctic Refuge. The timing for the natural Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, 1975, gas transportation system would depend upon the final Maritime submarine transportation system conceptual design and delivery capability of the gas pipeline system design study: Contract report for U.S. Department of south from Prudhoe Bay, combined with the consideration Commerce, Maritime Administration, Office of Commercial of economic factors in both domestic U.S. and foreign Development. natural gas markets. Petroleum Information Corporation, 1985, Arco begins West Sak pilot oil recovery project: Alaska Report, v. 30, no. 44, 3 p. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1984, Endicott development project draft environmental impact statement: Anchorage, AK. U.S. Department of the Interior, 1972, Proposed Trans- REFERENCES CITED Alaska Pipeline-Final environmental impact statement: Washington, DC. American Petroleum Institute, 1976, Primer of oil and gas __ 1976, Alaska natural gas transportation system--Final production (3d edition; 10th printing, 1981): Dallas, TX, environmental impact statement: Washington, DC. 81 p. Williams, B., 1982, Vast $10.5 billion program to maintain Andrews, S., 1984, Welcome to the North Slope: Los production, hike recovery at Prudhoe Bay: Oil and Gas Angeles, CA, Atlantic Richfield Co. Journal, v. 80, no. 28, p. 78-80 (July 12 issue). Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center, 1983, Woodward Clyde Consultants, 1980a, Gravel removal Alaska Marine Ice Atlas: Fairbanks, University of Alaska. studies in arctic and subarctic flood plains in Alaska: Han-Padron Associates, 1985, Beaufort Sea petroleum Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-80- technology assessment: Contract report for Minerals 08, 403 p. Management Service; Technical Report 112, chapter 7-- . 1980b, Gravel removal guidelines manual for arctic Transportation technology assessment, 54 p. Available and subarctic flood plains: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and from National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-80-09, 169 p. VA 22161. PRODUCTION INFRASTRUCTURE 87 I I I I I I I I i 'I I _ v ~~~~~~~IIIII I I I i I 88 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I CHAPTER V ALTERNATIVES ALTERNATIVE A--FULL LEASING 5. Development, production, and transportation of oil OF THE 1002 AREA from the 1002 area are considered to be independent of any offshore production; however, infrastructure Under the alternative of full leasing, it is assumed could be shared. that Congressional action would allow all Federal subsurface ownerships of the 1002 area to be available for 6. The State of Alaska will allow a trunk oil pipeline to development through a leasing program administered by the cross State lands between the western boundary of Department of the Interior. This action would also open to the 1002 area and Pump Station 1 at Prudhoe Bay (a oil and gas development and production the private lands distance of about 50 miles). within the refuge. The exact terms of the leasing program would be developed in response to specific legislation 7. Once the Congress approves leasing, but prior to passed by the Congress. If the Congress chooses to lease sales, industry will be allowed to conduct authorize leasing in the entire 1002 area, the legislation additional geophysical and surface geological would probably contain the important elements of the exploration work. Mineral Leasing Act and the NPRA legislations, with special provisions to meet the unique needs of the Arctic Refuge. 8. Surface occupancy for oil and gas purposes will not be permitted within areas formally designated by the Presumably, major portions of the 1002 area would Congress as Wilderness. be leased and additional geophysical exploratory work would take place on all leased areas before exploration According to the size, number, and characteristics of wells are drilled. Leaseholders would likely focus first on prospects described in Chapter III, and production and those areas and geologic structures believed to have the transportation scenarios described in Chapter IV, the highest probability of containing commercial quantities of oil. number and types of facilities likely to be required for It is feasible for phased development to occur. development and production of oil resources in the 1002 area are listed in table V-1. Figure V-1 shows a The 1002 area contains a combination of identified conceptual placement of production and transportation potential petroleum prospects having a mean conditional facilities based on typical North Slope prospect estimated total of 3.2 billion barrels of economically characteristics for three localities within the 1002 area. recoverable oil under current and foreseeable economic conditions (Chapter III). These prospects are grouped into Actual placement of oil production facilities and 4 geographic areas (blocks) of the 1002 area to facilitate an marine facilities on the 1002 area, or location of the trunk analysis of the effects of oil development on the pipeline from producing fields to TAPS Pump Station 1, environment. These blocks are depicted in Chapter III (fig. depends upon site-specific geotechnical, engineering, 111-16). environmental, and economic data that can be determined only after a specific prospect has been drilled, and a Alternative A assumes that: discovery made and confirmed. 1. Although both oil and gas would be leased, initially Chapter IV describes the types and numbers of only oil will be developed and transported to market. facilities that might be necessary for oil production in the Associated gas will be reinjected and/or used for field 1002 area. Typically, these include for each developed operations in the manner similar to other North Slope prospect: central processing facility (CPF) and initial pump fields, until it becomes economical and adequate station for the oil pipeline, all-weather airfield, consolidated markets are identified. production and reinjection well pads, and an internal network of roads and gathering lines connecting pads and 2. Oil production will start about the year 2000. the CPF. A trunk oil pipeline would connect the CPF to Pump Station 1. From Pump Station 1, oil from the 1002 3. Development will be unitized within the 1002 area and area would move through the existing TAPS to Valdez and on privately owned subsurface resources in the then by tanker to market. Depending on the amount of vicinity of Kaktovik, final through-put, one or several additional pump stations may be required. 4. A single trunk oil pipeline will transport oil from Federal leases and from any private lands in the 1002 area to Pump Station 1 of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS). ALTERNATIVES 89 1461 1450 1441 1431 Reoman Browniow k A F R E 701 -~~~1 ~~~~~~~munainsr s~~~~~~~~oa 30' Shublik Mountains C,~ i 1460 1450 1440 1430 Flaxmsn IE A U RT SEA snd%. Browolow ~~~1 u70, - road A 21 25 20~~~~, 32 3 24oa - 1:etch Mountains 30' - Z Shublik Mountains N I in 20 30 MILES 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS EXPLANATION Central prodction ty Drill pad-23 acres --Connecting road U 90 acres tAirstrips-30 and 130 vSeawater treatment 40 acres acres plant Figure v-i1.--Hypothetical generalized development of the 1002 area under full leasing (upper) or limited leasing (lower) it economic quantities of oil are discovered. Numbers indicate three localities (shaded) having typical prospect characteristics. 90 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Table V-1.--Number and area of in-place oil-related facilities assumed to be associated with development of estimated mean conditional recoverable oil resources made available by full leasing or limited leasing of the 1002 area. [mi, miles; cu yds, cubic yards; ac, acres] Approximate units1 Facility Full leasing Limited leasing Main oil pipeline within the 1002 area2 ............................................................. 100 mi (610 ac) 80 mi (490 ac) Main road paralleling main pipeline and from marine facilities2 ............................. 120 mi (730 ac) 100 mi (610 ac) Spur roads with collecting lines within production fields ....................................... 160 mi (980 ac) 120 mi (730 ac) Marine and salt water treatment facilities ............................................................. 2 (200 ac) 2 (200 ac) Large central processing facilities ........................................ ..................... 7 (630 ac) 6 (540 ac) Small central processing facilities ........................................ ..................... 4 (160 ac) 3 (120 ac) Large permanent airfields .......................................... ................... 2 (260 ac) 2 (260 ac) Small permanent airfields ........................................ ..................... 2 (60 ac) 1 (30 ac) Permanent drilling pads ........................................ ..................... 50-60 30-40 (1,200-1,600 ac) (700-1,000 ac) Borrow sites ............................................................. 10-15 8-13 (500-750 ac) (400-650 ac) Gravel for construction, operation, and maintenance ................................................ 40 million- 35 million- 50 million cu yds 40 million cu yds Major river or stream crossings................................................................................... Maximum 25 Maximum 15 1Figures given in miles refer to linear miles of the facilities. Areas were calculated on the basis of 50-foot widths each for the main oil pipeline and main road, totaling a 100-foot right-of-way for the main transportation corridor. A 50-foot right- of-way was assumed for spur roads with collecting lines. The numbers of nonlinear units are also provided. 2The distance from the 1002 western boundary to TAPS Pump Station 1 is approximately 50 miles, across State of Alaska land. This 50 miles is not included in the mileage estimates. opening of the KIC and ASRC lands. Approximately 2.4 ALTERNATIVE B--LIMITED LEASING billion barrels (800 million barrels less than in Alternative A) OF THE 1002 AREA of economically recoverable oil are estimated as the mean conditional resource which might be available for This alternative discusses a leasing program that development under this alternative. would develop if the Congress chose to pass legislation, based on environmental considerations, that would limit the A conceptual placement of production and amount of the 1002 area available for leasing. There would transportation facilities under the limited leasing alternative is be no leasing, exploration, development, or transportation of also shown on figure V-1. oil from or through the traditional core calving area of the Porcupine caribou herd (Chapter II and pl. 2A. The Production and transportation facilities were described remainder of the 1002 area would be offered for leasing; in the full leasing alternative. Under limited leasing, facilities presumably, all potentially economic prospects would be would not be constructed in the core caribou calving area. leased, explored, and developed. The assumptions in this All other facility requirements would be virtually the same alternative are the same as for full leasing, including the (table V-1). ALTERNATIVES 91 ALTERNATIVE C--FURTHER EXPLORATION reservoir rocks, and the availability of seals to trap hydrocarbons. Possible locations for stratigraphic test wells Under this alternative, the Secretary would are: recommend additional exploration, to include exploratory drilling, to permit acquisition of more data to aid the 1. East of the Canning River in the northwest block Secretary and the Congress in their decision of whether or (Block A, fig. 111-16) to test primarily for geologic not to authorize leasing of the 1002 area. Acquisition of conditions similar to those of the Prudhoe Bay field. additional data could be by the Government, or industry, or both. 2. Near the Hulahula River between the Marsh Creek anticline to the west and larger mapped geologic Section 1002 of ANILCA has afforded the Department structure to the east (Block B, fig. 111-16 and fig. Ill- of the Interior the opportunity to acquire a substantial 9). amount of exploration data in the 1002 area. During two winter field seasons, private industry obtained 1300 line 3. In the northeastern part of the 1002 area north of the miles of seismic data on a 3x6-mile seismic grid over a large mapped geologic structure and south of the large part of the 1002 area. A substantial amount of Kaktovik lands (Block C, fig. 111-16, and fig. 111-9). gravity, magnetic, geochemical, paleontological, and shallow stratigraphic data was also collected. The BLM and GS 4. Near the large mapped geologic structure in the acquired additional data through in-house research and field southern foothills (Block D, fig. 111-16, and fig. 111-9). investigations over several field seasons. Analysis of the available geological and geophysical ALTERNATIVE D--NO ACTION data has revealed that the 1002 area is a very complex geological terrane, and additional geological and geo- This alternative describes the probable future man- physical data might provide a basis for a more defined agement of the 1002 area if the Congress chose to take no assessment of the oil and gas potential of the 1002 area. further legislative action regarding the 1002 area of the Additional seismic data could better define some of the Arctic Refuge. According to the provisions of sections more complex geologic structures that have been identified. 1002 and 1003 of ANILCA, an act of the Congress would It is expected that if a decision was made to allow leasing be prerequisite to leasing or other development leading to of the 1002 area, industry would want to obtain more oil and gas production on the Arctic Refuge. If the detailed seismic data over particular areas of interest in Congress chose instead to designate all or part of the order to make a more accurate determination of oil and gas 1002 area as wilderness, that too would take legislative potential prior to a lease sale. These data would also be action. If instead, the Congress chose to allow the made available to the Department for its use in determining management of the 1002 area to continue under existing the fair market value of tracts to be leased. legal authorities guided by the Arctic Refuge comprehensive conservation planning (CCP) process outlined by section The location and size of geologic structures have 304(g) of ANILCA, no additional Congressional action would been generally defined. However, the nature of the rocks be required. present remains virtually unknown, owing to a lack of deep stratigraphic, paleontological, and geochemical data specific The management goals of the Arctic National Wildlife to the 1002 area. Therefore, only indirect inferences based Refuge, until further defined by the CCP process, are to on surface and near-surface geological data and on well maintain the existing availability and quality of refuge data outside the 1002 area can be made as to the nature habitats with natural forces governing fluctuations in fish of source and reservoir rock and the type of hydrocarbon and wildlife populations and habitat change: provide the present. A program to drill off-structure test wells would opportunity for continued subsistence use of natural provide subsurface geological information on the 1002 area resources by local residents, in a manner consistent with and eliminate some of the uncertainties in the oil and gas sound natural resource management; and provide assessment such as the probability of the occurrence of recreational and economic opportunities compatible with the adequate source and reservoir rocks, and also the probable purposes for which the refuge was established. mix of hydrocarbons. This type of information might better define the more prospective parts of the 1002 area that Section 304(g) of ANILCA mandates that management should be considered for leasing. of the 16 National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska, including the Arctic Refuge, be assessed through the CCP process. Four deep test wells could be drilled off-structure This process requires that the plan: (1) designate areas similar to the stratigraphic test wells (COST wells) drilled in within the refuge according to their respective resources the Outer Continental Shelf. These wells would provide and values; (2) specify the programs proposed for more definitive data on the stratigraphy, paleontology, conserving fish and wildlife and maintaining the values for geophysics, and geochemistry of the rock formations which the refuge was established; and (3) specify uses present. Core samples would be taken to determine the which may be compatible with the major purposes of the quality of the source rocks, the characteristics of the refuge. The preferred alternatives identified in this process 92 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT would establish the long-term basic management direction Regulations. Provisions of the Wilderness Act would apply for each refuge. This planning process allows for the to those 8 million acres of the Arctic Refuge outside the evaluation of a range of alternatives for refuge management 1002 area. and consultation with the appropriate State agencies and Native Corporations. The FWS is using the environmental Activities proposed for the 1002 area would be impact statement (EIS) process to implement the CCP's. subject to a compatibility determination as required by Following a series of public scoping activities and a ANILCA section 304(b) and the Refuge Administration Act. comment period on a draft EIS, a preferred alternative Permissible activities could include hunting, fishing, would be chosen by the Alaska FWS Regional Director, subsistence harvest, river trips, hiking, photography, and described in a final EIS, and documented by a Record of certain other forms of recreation and compatible scientific Decision. research. Guiding for recreational activities, trapping, and other commercial activities determined to be compatible with Currently, the CCP process for the Arctic Refuge is refuge purposes also would be allowed. These commercial in the first or scoping and data-collection phase and calls activities could conceivably include activities as diverse as for completion of the CCP by the spring of 1988. The onshore support and transportation facilities for offshore oil 1002 area has been deleted from this planning process, and gas activities. Any proposed activity would be pending the decision of the Congress as to its future reviewed for compatibility before it could be permitted. management. If this no-action alternative were selected by Because compatibility determinations are very site-specific, the Congress, the 1002 area would be added to the and the list of probable activities long and speculative, planning process as an integral part of the Arctic Refuge. effects of specific activities are not assessed in Chapter VI. Depending on the stage of planning, at least the CCP, and perhaps some step-down management plans, would need The establishment of aids to navigation and facilities to be amended or supplemented to include management of for national defense would be authorized under ANILCA the 1002 area. section 1310. Weather, climate, and research facilities could also be permitted. Under section 1008 of ANILCA, a policy was established to permit certain oil and gas activities, including Title XI of ANILCA governs access on Federal lands leasing and development, on Alaska refuges in areas where in Alaska. Authorized forms of access on the Arctic Refuge such activities are deemed to be compatible with the major include snowmachines (during periods of adequate snow purposes for which a particular refuge was established, cover), aircraft, motorboats, and other means if found Because of the provisions of sections 1002 and 1003, compatible. section 1008 does not apply to any part of the Arctic Refuge. Selection of Alternative D would preclude Refuge management could include activities such as production of oil and gas from the Arctic Refuge, and wildlife surveys, reintroduction of native fish and wildlife leasing or other develoment leading to oil and gas species, fisheries management, prescribed burning for products. habitat enhancement, and construction of public use facilities where appropriate. Although these activities are Step-down management plans for the Arctic Refuge allowed by law, their actual implementation and the extent would be developed for specific activities once the CCP of implementation would be decided through the CCP was completed. These management plans might address process and the subsequent management plans. activities such as public use, wildlife inventories and other scientific research, wild and scenic rivers, wildemrness Implementation of Alternative D would preclude the management, and fire management. Harvest of fish and development of estimated oil resources, as discussed in wildlife would generally be conducted in accordance with Chapters III and VII. the State of Alaska Department of Fish and Game regulations, and subsistence use of the refuge would continue. ALTERNATIVE E--WILDERNESS DESIGNATION The Arctic Refuge would be managed under the legal Under this alternative, the Congress would designate authorities found in ANILCA and the National Wildlife the 1.55-million-acre 1002 area as wilderness, within the Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (Public Law 89- meaning of the 1964 Wilderness Act (Public Law 88-577). 669). Other laws and their amendments that affect the management of the 1002 area and the Arctic Refuge in No further study or public review is necessary for the general include but are not limited to the Migratory Bird Congress to designate the 1002 area as wilderness. Treaty Act, Endangered Species Act, Antiquities Act, Clean Previous studies and public debate have sufficiently covered Air Act, Clean Water Act, Coastal Zone Management Act, the issue. A wilderness review of the Arctic Refuge was Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956, Marine Mammal Protection conducted in the early 1970's pursuant to the provisions of Act, National Environmental Policy Act, National Historic the Wilderness Act. A draft report was prepared in 1973; Preservation Act, Refuge Recreation Act, Refuge Revenue however, the draft was never made final nor was public Sharing Act, and the State of Alaska Fish and Game comment obtained. ALTERNATIVES 93 The issue of wilderness designation for all of the designation would not affect the air space over the area. Arctic Refuge, including the 1002 area, was debated The use of motorboats and snowmachines (during periods extensively by the Congress and the public in widely held of adequate snow cover) would be authorized for traditional hearings from 1976 through 1980 during the development activities-for example, subsistence uses or for access to and passage of ANILCA (Eastin, 1984). The House of inholdings such as native allotments. Cabins could be Representatives generally favored designation of the 1002 constructed in wilderness areas if they were necessary for area as wilderness, whereas the Senate generally did not. subsistence trapping, public safety, or administration of the The Senate view was that designating the area as wilder- area. ness was premature until a resource assessment of the oil and gas potential was completed and reviewed by the In contrast to the "no-action" alternative, use of Congress. The Senate view prevailed and became the motorized equipment by the FWS in administering the area section 1002 portion of Title X of ANILCA. would only be allowed consistent with the minimum-tool concept. (Minimum-tool concept is use of the minimum The draft report resulting from the original wilderness action or instrument necessary to successfully, safely, and study recommended that all of the original 8.9 million acres economically accomplish wilderness management of the Arctic Refuge be designated as wilderness, with the objectives.) Situations for which motorized access might exception of 74,516 acres consisting of tracts at Camden be used include emergencies involving public health or Bay (456 acres), Beaufort Lagoon (420 acres), Demarcation safety and search-and-rescue operations. Landing of Point (10 acres), Lake Peters (10 acres), the village of aircraft would be permitted. Other government agencies Kaktovik (141 acres), the military withdrawal on Barter Island (local, State, and Federal) would also be allowed to use (4,359 acres), and land in the vicinity of Barter Island that motorized equipment in carrying out legitimate activities in was to be selected by the Kaktovik Inupiat Corporation wilderness consistent with the minimum-tool concept. An (KIC) under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act example would be the use of helicopters by the Department (ANCSA) (69,120 acres). Section 702(3) of ANILCA of the Interior to carry out the ANILCA section 1010 Alaska ultimately designated approximately 8 million acres of Mineral Resource Assessment Program (AMRAP). Manage- wilderness on the Arctic Refuge which encompassed all of ment activities such as wildlife control, prescribed burning, the pre-ANILCA refuge with the exception of the 1002 area, habitat rehabilitation, predator control, reintroduction of native fish and wildlife species, and wildlife surveys would This alternative considers wilderness designation of be permissible, though not necessarily practiced, in the the entire 1.55-million-acre 1002 area, except for the designated wilderness area. The appropriateness of these abandoned DEW line sites at Beaufort Lagoon and Camden activities would be addressed in the CCP. Bay, native allotments, and land owned by KIC. The 1002 area would still be included in the CCP process, as As in the "no-action" alternative, placement and described in Alternative D, but would be managed as maintenance of navigation aids, communication sites and wilderness under the provisions of the Wilderness Act, the related facilities, and facilities for national defense could be National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, and permitted (ANILCA section 1310). Facilities for weather, ANILCA. climate, and fisheries research could also be permitted. Permitted uses in wilderness include hunting, fishing, Implementation of this alternative precludes the backpacking, river trips, and photography. Commercial development of estimated oil resources, as discussed in activity would be restricted to commercial guiding for such Chapters III and VII, activities. These activities may be restricted or eliminated if necessary in designated wilderness areas under the REFERENCE CITED provisions of other laws or regulations. Motorized equipment would generally be prohibited. Exceptions would Eastin, K. E. 1984, Wilderness review for Arctic National include operation of aircraft, including landing. Wilderness Wildlife Refuge's 1002 area: U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of the Solicitor, 21 p. 94 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CHAPTER VI ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES INTRODUCTION roads and infrastructure from that required to develop the mean estimated case. A larger diameter oil pipeline could This chapter analyzes and discusses the potential be used to accommodate increased oil production. environmental effects of activities that could occur from Additional disturbance and displacement might occur due to implementing any of the alternatives described in Chapter V: increased or prolonged traffic on the roads and at the port Alternative A: Full Leasing sites. The roads and port facilities anticipated for the mean Alternative B: Limited Leasing case development should be capable of handling that Alternative C: Further Exploration increased traffic. Alternative D: No Action Alternative E: Wilderness Designation. Whether or not the development of potential gas The impacts of Alternatives A through E are summarized resources becomes economic, gas development and the and compared at the end of this chapter. infrastructures to support it would be expected to share oil development and transportation facilities to the extent Development, if it occurs, may differ somewhat from possible. Therefore, no appreciable increase in the scenarios assessed here. However, the magnitude and environmental impacts is anticipated. Development of gas types of effects should be reasonably comparable. The would require separate approval and would be subject to analysis of oil development is based on best available appropriate environmental review prior to such approval. information as to possible location and size of mappable prospects delineated by the seismic surveys. Additional Developing the Assessment exploration would further refine these data. Oil and gas may be discovered in other parts of the 1002 area or the To determine the potential environmental areas now delineated may be nonproductive; the magnitude consequences of the various alternatives, a Fish and and types of effects should not change significantly. If the Wildlife Service (FWS) environmental assessment team was area is opened to leasing, this will be subject to formed in February 1985. This team of biologists met with reassessment at appropriate stages as the development Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and Geological Survey proceeds. (GS) scientists to determine the scope and probable surface modifications required for effects of oil development The environmental effects described in this chapter on the 1002 area. Maps of fish and wildlife use areas (pls. are based on scenarios developed for the mean estimated 1-3) were overlaid with full and limited development recoverable resource figure of 3.2 billion barrels of oil. scenarios (fig. V-l). This allowed measurement of direct There is a 5-percent chance that 9.2 billion barrels of oil habitat loss or alteration. Determinations were then made could be recovered. The environmental effects associated as to the nature and magnitude of direct and indirect with this 5-percent case would likely result from the habitat losses, disturbance, mortality, and other potential extended development of 2 or 3 of the largest prospects if effects. Effects are characterized as either major, moderate, they contain a much larger volume of oil than expected. minor, or negligible (table VI-1) for the physical, biological, The effects would not increase proportionally with increased and socioeconomic features of the 1002 area that would be production. affected. Effects that could likely persist 20 years or more were considered "long-term" and those likely to persist less Based on development of the large field at Prudhoe than 20 years were considered "short-term." Bay, well spacing for prospect(s) contributing to the 9.2- billion-barrel recoverable estimated would be assumed at The scenarios for development in Alternatives A and the 160-acre average, the same as that for the 3.2-billion- B depict hypothetical infrastructures based on a projected barrel case, and field life would be expected to remain at hydrocarbon potential at the mean economically recoverable about 30 years. The majority of any additional surface resource estimate. As mentioned earlier, if the 5-percent- impacts would be due to expansion and modification of the probability production occurs, the effects remain basically infrastructure used to develop the individual oil fields. This the same. In Alternative A, three portions of the 1002 area could mean construction of additional drilling and -western, eastern, and southern--are all predicted as being production pads, and additional production facilities and developed, and the assessment considers all three areas as connecting lines. These facilities would still be developed concurrently. In fact, however, development concentrated within the boundaries of the field, so impacts would likely occur sequentially. Therefore, the analysis and would be largely confined to the same surface area as consequences may represent a higher level of development assessed at the 3.2-billion-barrel mean recoverable case. than may actually occur at any specific time if the area The~ adiioapoucinrmth -pren as s were opened to leasing. This factor was recognized and, The additional production from the 5-percent case is because any prediction as to the various stages of not likely to significantly change the impacts of a main oil development at any given time on the 1002 area would be pipeline, haul road, airstrips, ports, and their supporting highly speculative and perhaps misleading, the FWS chose ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 95 Table VI-1 .--Definitions of environmental effects. [Long-term, 20 years or more. Short-term, less than 20 years] Effect level Definition Physical resources Major. ..............Widespread modification of considerable severity in landforms, surface appearance, or distribution of physical resources, or contamination of those resources, lasting several tens of years. Modifications could occur during development/production phase. Moderate............Local modification of considerable severity in landform, or surface appearance, or contam- ination of physical resources, lasting several tens of years; or widespread modification of lesser severity in surface appearance or other characteristics of physical resources, lasting from a few years to several tens of years. Modifications could occur during the exploration phase. Minor ...............Localized, relatively isolated change lasting from less than I year to no more than 10 years, with no observable residual modification in surface appearance, distribution, or other characteristics of physical resources. Negligible............Little or no change in the surface appearance, distribution or other characteristics of physical resources. Biological resources Major ...............Widespread, long-term change in habitat availability or quality which would likely modify natural abundance or distribution of species using the 1002 area. Modification will persist at least as long as modifying influences exist. Moderate ............Widespread, short-term change in habitat availability or quality which would likely modify natural abundance or distribution of species using the 1002 area; or local modification in habitat availability or quality which would likely modify natural abundance or distribution at least as long as modifying influences exist. Minor ...............Short-term, local change of species abundance, distribution, habitat availability, or habitat quality. Negligible ............Little or no change in population, habitat availability, or habitat quality, Socioeconomic resources Major ...............Requires substantial changes in governmental policies, planning, or budgeting, or is likely to affect the economic or social well-being of residents of the area. Moderate ............Requires some modification of governmental policies, planning, or budgeting, or may affect the economic or social well-being of residents of the area. Minor ...............Requires marginal change in governmental policies, planning, or budgeting, or may margin- ally affect the economic or social well-being of residents of the area. Negligible ............Not sufficient to have any measurable effect on governmental policies, planning or budget- ing, or any measurable effect on the economic or social well-being of residents of the area. 96 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT to perform the analysis as if concurrent development were maintaining high environmental and safety standards. Site- to take place. specific mitigation measures, including design and construction techniques, would be addressed early in the A high degree of interest and concern for effects on planning. These measures can be instituted in contracts the Porcupine caribou herd exists. Because of the general and stipulations required by the FWS in special-use permits lack of relevant information concerning probable reactions of or other authorizations. If development or further that specific herd to oil development, the assessment team exploration is authorized, addressing mitigation concerns consulted with caribou biologists from the State of Alaska, early in the planning should benefit all parties, resulting in the oil industry, universities, Canada, and within the FWS environmentally responsible development with no itself. In November 1985, a meeting with 14 biologists was unnecessary adverse effects. held to specifically address the potential effects of oil development within the 1002 area on the Porcupine and The five elements of this definition--avoiding, Central Arctic caribou herds and to compare the minimizing, rectifying, reducing or eliminating, and experiences gained from oil development at Prudhoe Bay compensating impacts-represent the sequence of steps in and its effect on the Central Arctic herd. These experts the mitigation process. At whatever point the mitigation evaluated a scenario approximating the magnitude of goal is achieved, the step-down process ceases. development likely to occur from developing prospective areas identified by the BLM and GS in their preliminary In developing this assessment the first four elements studies. The location of development in that scenario was were used for recommending mitigation for avoidable effects modified to prevent disclosure of any proprietary data. On of the alternatives. Mitigation is considered in terms of the basis of their studies of the Porcupine and Central current technology and standard requirements on previous Arctic caribou herd biology, and of caribou reactions to oil developments in the Arctic. This includes safety and arctic oil development and other disturbances, these experts environmental stipulations that conform with available assisted the assessment team by providing information and technology and industry practice. It should be noted that ideas on the types and magnitude of possible effects, advances in technology by the time any development takes Recommendations on appropriate mitigation were developed place might result in changes in the amount or type of during the workshop and a report of the proceedings was mitigation that would be recommended. prepared (Elison and others, 1986). Recommendations for mitigation vary depending on Fish and Wildlife Service the fish and wildlife species being considered and the Mitigation Policy planning goals. The mitigation policy calls for the selection of important fish and wildlife species (evaluation species) to Many potential effects of development can be function as indicators of habitat quality. Selection of avoided or minimized through mitigation. The FWS evaluation species has an important role in determining the Mitigation Policy (46 F.R. 7644-7663, January 23, 1981) extent and type of mitigation necessary. Five evaluation guided the assessment team in identifying appropriate species were selected in the 1002 area (table VI-2). These measures for mitigating avoidable adverse impacts so there species all have high public interest or ecological values, would be no unnecessary adverse effects. The policy is and are the focus for impact analysis, including mitigation focused especially on losses of habitat value, recommendations, in this chapter. However, effects to all other species and resource concerns described in Chapter The mitigation policy lays out a process based on II are also considered and generally assessed, and the Council on Environmental Quality's definition of additional mitigation needs are identified as appropriate. mitigation: "(a) avoiding the impact altogether by not taking Table VI-2.--Evaluation species for the a certain action or parts of an action; (b) minimizing 1002 area resource assessment. impacts by limiting the degree or magnitude of the action and its implementation; (c) rectifying the impact by repairing, Common name Scientific name rehabilitating, or restoring the affected environment; (d) Common name Scientific name reducing or eliminating the impact over time by preservation and maintenance operations during the life of the action; and (e) compensating for the impact by replacing or Caribou Ranqifer tarandus aranti providing substitute resources or environments" (40 CFR, Muskox Ovibos moschatus Part 1508.20[a-e]). Polar bear Ursus maritimus Snow goose Chen caerulescens The FWS would emphasize early and continuous Arctic char Salvelinus alpinus consultation and coordination with leaseholders, permittees, and State and Federal agencies at the start of planning. The mitigation policy also has four resource Performance standards would be developed for safety and categories with corresponding mitigation planning goals to environmental requirements rather than adherence to highly ensure that the level of mitigation recommended is specific design or operational procedures. This flexibility consistent with the fish and wildlife resource values involved would encourage development of improved technology while (table VI-3). Designation of resource categories and ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 97 Table VI-3.--Resource categories and mitigation goals. do not result in adverse impacts on habitat value may be acceptable, provided they will have no significant cumulative [FWS Mitigation Policy: FIR, v. 46, no. 15, January 23, impact, 1981. Habitat value: a measure of the suitability of an area to support a given evaluation species] Assumptions Assumptions used in the physical. biological, and socioeconomic assessments include: Resource Designation criteria Mitigation category of habitat to planning 1. The Secretary of the Interior, through the FWS. would be affected goal retain authority to issue refuge special-use permits for activities in the 1002 area, and to provide site-specific stipulations for all necessary authorizations. I Habitat of high value for No loss of existing 2. Planning, design, construction, operation and evaluation species. habitat value. maintenance, and rehabilitation would be Unique and irreplace- accomplished using the most current available able on a national technology and practices. It is assumed that the 32 basis or in the eco- mitigation measures summarized at the end of this region. chapter, or measures as least as effective, will be included in development, construction, and operation 2 Habitat of high value for No net loss of in- plans, and will be implemented. evaluation species. kind habitat Relatively scarce or be- value. 3. Any authorized operations and related activities would coming scarce on a comply with all applicable Federal and State laws and national basis or in regulations, as well as with any special laws and the ecoregion. regulations the Congress or the Secretary of the Interior promulgate to govern activities on the 1002 3 Habitat of high to medium Minimize loss of in- area. value for evaluation kind habitat species. Relatively value. No 4. The environmental protection standards governing the abundant on a national net loss of seismic exploration program on the 1002 area (50 basis. value. CFR 37.31-33) and the land-use stipulations for exploration drilling on the KIC/ASRC lands (August 9, 4 Habitat of medium to low Minimize loss of 1983, agreement between ASRC and the United value for evaluation habitat value. States) would continue to be in effect for oil and gas species. activities in the 1002 area. This would include special protections for terrestrial and aquatic environments and cultural resources, and designation of special areas such as Sadlerochit Spring. These consequent determination of mitigation goals is based upon regulations and stipulations may duplicate some of the habitat values assigned to specified evaluation species. the mitigation measures recommended in this This habitat value is a measure of the suitability of the area analysis, but also include specific references to the to support a given evaluation species. handling and disposal of garbage, combustible and noncombustible solid wastes, used equipment, The mitigation policy recommends that legally sewage and gray water, fuel and hazardous or toxic designated or set-aside areas, such as National Wildlife materials, and provision for hazardous substances Refuges, be given special consideration as either Resource control and contingency plans. Category 1 or 2. As described in Chapter 1I, high-value habitat for each of the five evaluation species exists within ALTERNATIVE A--FULL LEASING the 1002 area. The Porcupine caribou hard (PCH) core calving area is considered unique and irreplaceable. Habitat Effects on Physical Geography in this area has been designated Resource Category 1 (pl. and Processes 2A) because of its high fish and wildlife values, particularly for PCH caribou. The remainder of the 1002 area has been Potential and probable impacts to the physical designated Resource Category 2. environment of oil development resulting from a full leasing program on the 1002 area are considered in four phases, The FWS normally recommends that all losses of each having progressively greater impact: geological and Resource Category I habitat be prevented, as these one-of- geophysical (principally seismic) exploration; exploratory a-kind areas cannot be replaced. Insignificant changes that drilling; development drilling: and construction of all-season 98 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT roads, oil transmission pipelines, and marine and production No ice roads or airstrips would be constructed to facilities. support seismic operations. Light, fixed-wing aircraft would be used for resupply and would land on 2,000-foot-long ice CONSEQUENCES OF GEOLOGICAL AND airstrips scraped on the nearest lake or pond. GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION Occasionally, ski-equipped aircraft that can land on the Additional geological surveys or studies during the snow-covered tundra can be used if there are no lakes snow-free months would not be expected to affect the nearby. physical environment on the 1002 area. These surveys are CONSEQUENCES OF EXPLORATORY DRILLING brief: the investigators arrive by helicopter, study and measure geologic sections, perhaps take a few hand-sized Exploratory drilling requires heavy construction samples of rock, and, at most, remain on the ground for a equipment to prepare the wellsite for the drilling operation few hours. The principal effect is noise generated by the and to prepare an airstrip large enough for Hercules C-130 helicopter during arrival and departure. aircraft. The drilling rig and the ancillary equipment are massive, usually requiring 110 to 180 C-130 loads, Effects of additional seismic exploration would be depending on the size of the rig. Drilling rigs must be set similar to effects of the seismic surveys during the winters on a firm foundation, usually piles, not susceptible to of 1983-84 and 1984-85. Although the total line miles of differential settlement. new surveys might not differ much from the 1300 line miles run previously on the Arctic Refuge, more crews may be on On the 1002 area, obtaining water for drilling and the area. Different companies have different ideas as to ancillary needs such as ice roads and airstrip construction where to concentrate detailed surveys (closer grid spacing); could be a serious problem and the greatest potential for and different types of data and parameters are useful to effects on the physical environment. Water in the 1002 companies in their interpretations of subsurface geological area is confined to surface resources, and there are few structures or style. Additional crews could increase the lakes of any appreciable size within the 1002 area. A few overall impact, mainly from increased mobilization to and shallow thaw lakes occur near the coast east of the demobilization from the 1002 area. Canning River and a few are found east of the Hulahula- Okpilak delta. However, the latter are on private lands Effects of seismic exploration generally result from outside the 1002 area. A few small, shallow thaw lakes overland travel of seismic trains. The effect is to the tundra also are found in a north-south band east of the Jago which, if broken or scarred, can cause thawing of the River. Of all the lakes, only the two near the Canning River upper ice-rich permafrost during the succeeding summers. are larger than 1 square mile, or long enough to Such thawing in flat areas will cause ponding at the accommodate a C-130 airstrip entirely on lake ice. The junction of the ice-wedge polygons, altering the appearance rivers on the 1002 area, for much of their lengths, are dry of the tundra landscape. However, if the thawing occurs or virtually dry during the winter, and where they do have on sloping ground, erosion can occur. If that erosion and water, fish populations may overwinter. its products terminate at a stream, local silting may result. As much as 15 million gallons of water may be Surface effects of seismic surveys can be minimized needed to drill one exploratory well. Taking this amount of by confining operations to the winter after the active layer is water from the water-deficient 1002 area could have a major frozen to a depth of at least 12 inches and the average adverse effect. snow depth is about 6 inches. Seismic trains are generally routed through terrain where it is easier to move equipment, Ice roads constructed on the NPRA had virtually no so potential for surface damage is minimized even though effect on tundra. The longest road was 38 miles, with an the routing may not provide the shortest travel distance, average minimum thickness of 6 inches to keep from Gently sloping banks would be selected for the entry and breaking under heavy loads. Ice airstrips on the NPRA exit to all stream crossings, to reduce equipment strain and were built with a minimum thickness of 12 inches for safety. avert bank damage which could cause erosion and stream Ice airstrips have been constructed in the same place a siltation. This is very important on the 1002 area where, second season, with virtually no effects on tundra. even though the topographic relief is not great, streambanks are steep along many drainages. The area disturbed by activity at the wellsite is usually about 10 acres, including the area for the reserve The effect of seismic operations on water resources (mud) pit. would be negligible. Seismic trains use about 2,000 gallons of water per day for domestic purposes. Crews obtain When drilling is completed, the reserve pit will contain water from lakes that do not freeze to bottom, where well cuttings; muds containing barite, bentonite, and some available, When such lakes are not available, a small snow traces of oils used during drilling to "slicken" up the drill or ice melter is used to obtain domestic water supplies. bit; chemical residues, principally the chlorides of salts Minor amounts of local noise and air pollution result from used during the drilling process; fillers such as ground equipment operation; these effects are brief and transitory. walnut shells; and water from snow that has blown into the Minor fuel spills could also occur. pit during the winter. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 99 The FWS has undertaken investigations into the equipment, opening a gravel pit elsewhere, and effects of reserve pit fluid discharges on water quality and hauling in material to fill in and "mound up" over the the fresh-water macro-invertebrate community of tundra reserve pit area. Experience on the NPRA shows ponds. The aquatic macro-invertebrates studied were this to be a questionable mitigation technique, resident species, sensitive to local environmental change. because it leaves a mound of material at the wellsite They were also known to be sensitive indicator organisms that is difficult to revegetate, a new borrow site that for a wide variety of environmental pollutants, and an may be difficult to revegetate, and another ice road important food source to the approximately 150 species of between the borrow site and wellsite. waterfowl, seabirds, shorebirds, raptors, and passerines using the North Slope for nesting, rearing, molting, and The unavoidable physical consequences of drilling feeding. one exploratory well during the winter-only season would be: Preliminary results of those investigations show gradients of increase in pH, salinity, alkalinity, turbidity, and 1. Denuding of a 10-acre area of tundra for 10 years or sediment loads from control ponds to ponds adjacent to more, and the long-term (many tens of years) reserve pits (R. L. West and E. Snyder-Conn, unpublished creation of a 2- to 3-acre rectangular-appearing pond. data). Trends of increase in the vicinity of reserve pits were also shown for heavy metals such as aluminum, 2. Temporary minor contamination of the tundra in the barium, chromium, zinc, and arsenic, as well as for certain depression(s) where the treated gray water and/or hydrocarbons. Moreover, there were concomitant the effluent is discharged from the camp's waste decreases in oxygen levels, total taxa, taxa diversity, and treatment plant. invertebrate abundance in tundra ponds associated with reserve pits. West and Snyder-Conn postulated that 3. The almost unavoidable minor oil leaks and spills increased turbidity interfered with filter feeding and from operating equipment, which are dispersed over respiration, decreasing the overall primary productivity of the area within which operations would be affected waters. Detrimental physical changes in the conducted. Human error and mechanical breakdown sediment may be due to the fineness of barite, which in a rigorous environment create the potential for physically smothers benthic organisms as well as benthic accidental oil spills which would contaminate the stages of other organisms. In summary, these results tundra and, possibly, the aquatic environment as indicate deterioration in water quality that appears related to further described in subsequent sections on reserve pit fluid discharges into tundra ponds as a result of "Vegetation" and "Fish." breaching, leaching, or overtopping of the pits. Along with deteriorations in water quality, the quality and quantity of 4. Gaseous and particulate emissions which temporarily organisms used as food by North Slope bird species may reduce air quality in the locale. be decreasing. 5. Short-term (one or two winter seasons) noise effects There are two approaches to abandoning an associated with operations, and the visual effect of exploratory well reserve pit: the drilling rig, construction camp, and transportation activities. 1. Leave it as is. The muds at the bottom of the pit remain in place because of the permafrost. But there From a technical and economic standpoint, industry is always the chance that runoff water flowing into may prefer to drill exploratory wells deeper than 15,000 to the pit may breach the downslope side, carrying 17,000 feet on a year-round basis, not during the winter some of the salts in the overlying fluid onto the only. The impacts of year-round drilling would be similar to tundra. If the chloride content is sufficiently high, those for development drilling (discussed next) but would this overflow can kill plants over a few square yards be more widespread throughout the 1002 area. to perhaps an acre. Revegetation may occur naturally. The pit itself would become a somewhat CONSEQUENCES OF DEVELOPMENT DRILLING rectangular pond, lasting decades or more. Usually several million cubic yards of gravel are 2. "Button up" the reserve pit; that is, reinject unfrozen required to develop an oil field. In a tundra environment, fluid at the time drilling is completed, and fill in the adverse effects can be minimized by obtaining gravel from reserve pit with enough soil (usually gravel) so the exposed and unvegetated river bars. As long as the drilling mud and frozen fluid becomes a part of the removal is limited to gravel exposed above the river ice or permafrost. On the North Slope at least 5 feet of above the streambed (in those cases where the stream cover material is required. Excavated material from runs dry in winter), the watercourse would remain construction of the reserve pit, even if not used for unchanged and no silting would occur because the gravels leveling the pad, would not provide nearly enough fill tend to be clean. In addition, the rivers in the 1002 area even if the contained ice did not melt. Therefore, completely flush during the spring runoff. The next least this method requires remobilizing construction disruptive places are gravel terraces immediately adjacent to 100 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT the river bed, if carefully mined using a ripper blade. 9. Noise generated by aircraft operations, drilling Finally, gravel may also be removed from cutbanks of a operations (especially that arising from power river with minimal disruption. The most disruptive and the generation) and traffic. most visually displeasing (for thousands of years) places from which to obtain gravel are the upland areas. Gravel, CONSEQUENCES RESULTING FROM CONSTRUCTION OF but mostly sand in the absence of gravel, was obtained ROADS, PIPELINES, AND from river bars, river terraces, and cutbanks, in that order, MARINE AND PRODUCTION FACILITIES during the construction of the permanent airstrips and access roads for the deep exploration wells on the NPRA. Chapter IV describes many of the siting and Today, the untrained observer can scarcely find those construction aspects of a pipeline to transport oil from the borrow sites. 1002 area to TAPS Pump Station 1. An above-ground oil pipeline would not be as topographically confined in its The large quantities of water required for development routing as would the main road, and would be expected to drilling on the 1002 area are not available. The most be as straight as possible while minimizing the lengths of obvious, and probably only feasible, solution relates to the spur lines to central production facilities (CPF). Thus, gravel sources: carefully mining gravel from streambeds to the distance between the pipeline and the work road could create elongated deep pools (up to 40-50 feet deep, vary and occasionally the two might even cross, as with depending on the depth of available gravel) which, after TAPS and the haul road (J. W. Dalton Highway) when they spring runoff, can supply water year-round. Excavations pass through similar topography. It is further assumed that could be within the river channel, or immediately adjacent the pipeline might cross some streams on vertical support but connected to the channel, members; in other instances the pipeline might be attached to the road bridge over the stream. A pump station would The infrastructure required to develop the economic be required at each CPF; an additional one or two booster prospects of the 1002 area is described in Chapter IV. pump stations would be positioned somewhere within the The unavoidable effects of such a program could be: 1002 area, all of which are described in Chapter IV. 1. Possible mining and use of as much as 50 million cubic yards of gravel from within the 1002 area. CPF's, marine facilities, pump stations, and power- generation facilities to heat water lines running treated sea 2. As a result of the gravel mining operations, the water to the CPF's would all be constructed on 5-foot-thick possible creation of 20 to 30 elongated deep pools gravel pads. Pad areas would vary considerably, for water storage within, or immediately adjacent to, depending on the planned use, but consequences to the river beds that now run dry during the winter months. physical environment would vary mainly in degree. 3. Construction of as many as four or five year-round 5- Unavoidable effects on the physical environment from foot-thick gravel C-130 airstrips on the 1002 area. the construction of an all-season road, transmission pipelines, and production facilities would be similar to those 4. Construction of multiple (15-55) 5-foot-thick drilling described for the support facilities for development drilling, pads, and 200-300 linear miles of all-season gravel with these additional consequences: roads within several oil fields, assuming discovery of multiple commercial grade oil fields within the 1002 1. Construction of permanent road bridges over several area. Total number of pads and miles of road rivers, with possible ponding, washout, and drainage depends on fields developed. Approximately 110 problems. miles of road would be necessary east from the Canning River to the Pokok marine facilities. 2. Construction of the elevated pipeline, and the potential for oil leaks from that line. 5. Minor erosion in connection with culverts for in-field roads crossing minor drainages, and some pending 3. Construction of a solid-core causeway at the marine upslope of airstrips, roads, and pads. facilities stretching into sufficiently deep water so that heavy loads (up to several hundred tons per load) 6. Almost unavoidable minor oil leaks and spills from can be put ashore safely. This could result in operating equipment, and from storage facilities, changes in nearshore currents and would require dispersed over the operational areas, breaching to permit fish passage, as necessary (see "Coastal and Marine Environment," this section). 7. Dust associated with traffic on the roads, airstrips, and pads which temporarily degrades the air quality, Effects on Biological Environment but also affects nearby water and vegetation as it settles. Although this analysis treats species individually, the dynamic interrelationships existing among species and 8. Gaseous and particulate emissions, other than dust, between species and their environments is recognized. which temporarily degrade local air quality. Vegetation is a key component of the environment; it ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 101 provides food, cover, and water essential to all wildlife. Spills of diesel fuel, oil, and antifreeze would be Therefore, a thorough discussion is first presented under expected to affect hundreds of small areas of vegetation "Vegetation, Wetlands, and Terrain Types" regarding the (possibly extending out 30 feet in diameter). Diesel fuel is effects from full development to that foundation of wildlife highly toxic and kills all plants on contact; it may penetrate habitat. This forms the basis for later discussions of deeply into soil, killing roots and rhizomes and remaining effects to individual species. toxic for decades (D. A. Walker and others, 1978; Lawson and others, 1978; Mackay and others, 1980). VEGETATION, WETLANDS, AND TERRAIN TYPES The effects on vegetation from ice roads and airstrips are not well-documented, although it is generally thought Effects on the vegetation, wetlands, and terrain of the that properly built ice roads protect vegetation from adverse 1002 area are described for each sequential phase of oil impacts. Ice roads delay plant growth in the first year after development, similar to the assessment of the physical use, and may appear as green trails for several years. environment. Higher sites, common in vegetation types on the 1002 area, may be scraped during road construction or during use if More detailed seismic surveys would create a closely the ice is not sufficiently thick (Adam, 1981). On Alaska spaced (2-mile by 2-mile or closer) network of generally State lands, ice roads are not allowed in the same location temporarily visible trails over parts of the 1002 area. The 2 years in a row to avoid compounding vegetation impacts. effects of winter seismic trails would be similar to those Repeated passes of vehicles moving drilling rigs and from the 1984 and 1985 seismic operations in the 1002 supplies results in severe decreases in plant cover, area. These would include decreases in plant cover, destruction of microrelief, and subsidence unless ice roads patches of exposed peat and mineral soil, destruction of are sufficiently thick and properly constructed. (Kerfoot, hummocky microrelief, compression of the vegetative mat, 1972; Lambert, 1972; Hernandez, 1973). deepening of the active layer, and surface depression on trails (Felix and Jorgenson, 1985; Felix and others, 1986a, Well pads may be built of ice, gravel-timber-insulation, b). The trails through wet graminoid tundra and moist or gravel. Of these, ice well pads have the least impact on prostrate shrub scrub vegetation will appear greener due to vegetation, similar to that for ice roads and airstrips. compression of standing dead leaves which normally give Gravel-timber-insulation pads use timber and insulation in the tundra a tawny appearance. Green trails may persist place of some of the gravel needed for proper insulation as a result of increased plant productivity and nutrient and often use reserve pit materials for any remaining gravel levels in future years (Challinor and Gersper, 1975; Chapin needs, minimizing the need for gravel borrow sites and, and Shaver, 1981; Envirosphere Company, 1985; Felix and thus, loss of vegetation. Rehabilitation is more successful others, 1986a, b). On heavily disturbed trails, surface for these pads. When the timber and insulation are depression of tracks could occur due to compression of removed, a much thinner layer of material remains, often the moss mat and possibly some subsidence. Standing containing soil as well as gravel. Pioneer species are slow water may be present on these trails, making them highly to colonize gravel pads because of limited nutrients, limited visible. In moist graminoid tussock tundra or other water availability, and lack of fine-grained materials (Everett vegetation types with hummocky microrelief, moundtops and others, 1985). could be scraped or crushed exposing small patches of peat and sometimes mineral soil. Trails here appear brown Reserve pit fluids may kill surrounding vegetation from peatanusmeothexs neral soi Treaisher ler bfrow overflow spills, breaching of pit walls, or leaching through because of the exposed peat or increased litter from dead the pit wall (French and Smith, 1980). Drilling muds may plants. The thin vegetation mat on dry prostrate shrub river plants.race i eetati dstu ond lrg createshb riv contain diesel fuel, soluble salts, heavy metals, and ethylene terraces is easily disturbed, and large decreases in plant cover would be expected. Traffic through riparian areas glycol, all of which can be toxic to vegetation (D. W. Smith could break shrubs, nearly to ground level at some sites. and James, 1980). Closure of reserve pits can result in The most severe impacts occur on narrow trails with future leaks or erosion (French, 1980). Subsurface disposal multiple vehicle passes, and occur more often on trails of drilling muds by reinjection, a method currently being made by mobile camp units and fuel- or dynamite-supply used in some Alaskan oil fields, provides permanent sleighs. disposal of contaminants, eliminates the need for large reserve pits, and reduces the possibility of negative effects Because of the potential of permanent damage from on vegetation. significant decreases in plant cover, increased exposure of peat and mineral soil, surface subsidence, and long-term Inasmuch as exploratory drilling requires large moisture and species composition changes on summer amounts of fuel, spills of much greater magnitude than vehicle trails (Bliss and Wein, 1972; How and Hernandez, those that occur during seismic exploration could occur. 1975; Chapin and Shaver, 1981; Everett and others, 1985), Leaks of crankcase oil, antifreeze, and hydraulic fluid from summer seismic exploration has not been allowed on the vehicles may occur, as they did during the 1984 and 1985 coastal plain. It is not currently permitted on Alaska State seismic exploration program on the 1002 area. The extent of vegetation damage that occurs depends on the time of lands. It has been assumed for purposes of this analysis of vegetation damage that occurs depends on the time of that the restriction would continue. year, type of material, size of spill, and vegetation type. 102 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Diesel is the fuel most toxic to plants as previously the Thaw Lake Plain terrain type N(Walker and others, 1984), described. Lawson and others (1978) found that an area and in the Foothills type where complex drainage patterns of 30-year-old diesel spills in northern Alaska showed little occur due to the network of water tracks (Brown and Berg, recovery. Spills in the winter are less toxic than summer 1980). Also thermokarst, which commonly occurs on the spills: winter spills are easier to contain and clean up, do edges of roads and pads, extends the area of impact off not penetrate the soil as deeply, and lose some of their the actual facility site and causes long-term changes in toxicity by evaporation. moisture conditions and plant species composition. Crude oil can cause severe decreases in vegetative Gravel, dust, and changes in snow accumulation cover but may not kill all vegetation, even in heavily patterns would affect areas surrounding petroleum saturated areas (Johnson and others, 1981). Mackay and development facilities. As summarized by Meehan (1986): others (1980) noted that crude oil degraded much faster 1) gravel spray may be deposited as far as 100 feet on than diesel, especially if it had not penetrated deeply into either side of roads; 2) heavy dust may be deposited within the soil, and revegetation sometimes began in less than 3 80 feet and some dust up to 250 feet out from heavily years. Areas where oil had penetrated deepest (20-30 mm) traveled roads; 3) some dust will be deposited within 160 remained toxic for more than 4 years. Large spills inhibited feet of lightly traveled roads; and 4) snowmelt will be early recovery by altering the physical properties of the soils, where dust is deposited adjacent to heavily traveled roads making them drier, thus reducing or preventing seed but generally later on the west side of highly traveled roads germination and vegetative growth. Deep spills may also due to snow deposition by winter winds. On the basis of resurface in later years with toxic effects on the vegetation, this information, secondary effects from gravel and dust Because oil penetration is related to soil moisture, wet spray were assumed to extend 100 feet on each side of all vegetation types suffer less initial damage than vegetation roads. Impoundments and altered snowmelt patterns were on dry sites because standing water or saturated soils also assumed to occur within this same 100-foot area. prevent fuel from penetrating to the roots or rhizomes. Wet Similar modifications would be expected adjacent to drill sites usually recover faster. In addition, those species pads and other facilities. Therefore, approximately 7,000 most resistant to oil spills (sedges and deciduous shrubs) acres of existing vegetation could be modified by these are also the best recolonizers following disturbance (Walker secondary effects. and others, 1978). Direct contact with oil often results in immediate damage to above-ground vegetation. Injury to An additional 500 to 750 acres may be mined for the root system may not be immediately obvious and can gravel at as many as 15 different locations, or by creating cause a slow deterioration of plants and a high degree of 20 to 30 deep holes for use as water reservoirs. The winter kill in future years (Deneke and others, 1975; Mackay effects of gravel mines on vegetation depend on the and others, 1980). location of the borrow sites, amount of gravel removed, and the vegetation type. Vegetation would not be directly If the entire 1002 area was leased, subsequent oil affected if gravel were mined from unvegetated riverbars, development, production, transportation activities, and unvegetated coastal beaches, coastal lagoons, or lake associated infrastructure could result in approximately 5,000 bottoms. Borrow pits on partially vegetated river bars or acres of vegetation being covered by gravel for roads, vegetated river terraces would cause losses of alluvial pipelines, airstrips, and other facilities (table V-l). Physical deciduous shrub and dry prostrate shrub river terraces, disturbances such as erosion and sedimentation, which cover only a small part of the 1002 area. In upland thermokarst (caused by the melting of ground ice and areas, vegetation would be lost in the area of the borrow settling or caving of the ground surface so that pits, site, the area covered by overburden, and any area affected hummocks, depressions, and small ponds result), by erosion. Gravel removal in upland areas would be the impoundments, clearing, gravel spray, dust, snowdrifts, and most visually disruptive and would be extremely difficult to pollution incidents would alter the habitat values of many rehabilitate to pre-project natural conditions. more acres. Properly designed snow or ice pads used for construction and transportation activities are effective in Accidental spills of crude oil and refined petroleum protecting vegetation; however, gravel debris from those products are an inevitable consequence of oil field activities could smother additional vegetated areas (Johnson development. Although diesel fuel is most toxic, crude oil and Collins, 1980; Brown and Berg, 1980). is also toxic to vegetation. Throughout the operation of Prudhoe Bay, the very large spills, on the order of at least Culvert design would need to ensure that slumping 10,000 gallons, have been of crude oil, gasoline, and diesel. from roadcuts and erosion did not occur. Altered drainage Larger spills not only cover a larger area, but they also patterns caused by roads and pads would result in some penetrate deeper into the soil than smaller spills. Since ponding and a generally wetter environment on the nearby 1972 some 23,000, mostly small, spills have been reported upslope side of a road or pad, and a drier environment on to the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. the nearby downslope sides. Impoundments caused by The largest spill of 658,000 gallons was the result of blocking drainages could cause changes in plant species sabotage in 1978. A spill of over 200,000 gallons near composition or eliminate some plants depending on the Atigun Pass in 1979 was caused by improper pipe bedding depth and duration of flooding. Impoundments occur more which resulted in permafrost thawing and a ruptured pipe. frequently in aquatic and wet graminoid tundra vegetation in ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 103 An indication of the frequency and volume of potential spills deposition, altered snowmelt and erosion patterns, is provided by recent records for Prudhoe Bay. According thermokarst, impoundments, and pollution incidents. to 1985 records, the first full year of computerized oil-spill Habitat values would decrease. Some of these secondary data, there were 521 reported spills totaling 82,216 gallons effects would be reduced by appropriate facility design and (Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, operation, including traffic speed controls and reinjection of Fairbanks, unpublished data). Diesel and crude oil were drilling muds and other fluids, as well as careful the most commonly spilled products, comprising nearly half construction to prevent toxic spills. Appropriate of the reported spills, with other petroleum products containment procedures and absorbent pads must be used accounting for fewer spills. Most spills were small; 51 to minimize and clean up any fuel, sea water, or other spills percent of spills were no more than 10 gallons yet those which do occur. It is assumed that summer seismic spills equaled only 1 percent of the volume spilled in 1985. exploration and ice road placement, in the same location 2 The most common causes of spills were leaks, ruptured years in a row, would continue to be prohibited. lines, and tank overtopping. Effects have generally been localized. To date, the cumulative effect of spills has not Further study to better define the locations and been significant. numbers of Thlaspi arcticum plants occurring on the 1002 area in conjunction with careful siting of pads and routing Pipelines may transport sea water from coastal of collecting lines and associated roads in Block A would marine facilities inland for waterflood or other purposes. avoid most impacts to that species. Environmental briefings The effects of sea water spills on tundra vegetation are by FWS would include information on the characteristics poorly understood, but depend on the spill size, season of and location of the candidate plants. occurrence, moisture, pH level of the site, and vegetation type. Sea water spills affect dry sites more severely than Conclusion wet sites. Sea water rapidly penetrates dry soil, resulting in high salt concentrations near the rooting zone. Recovery The expected modification of approximately 12,650 can take many years to recover (Simmons and others, acres (0.8 percent of the 1002 area) would be a moderate 1983). Sea water would be diluted and more rapidly effect (table VI-1) on area vegetation and wetlands. Many flushed away at wet sites. Also, many wetland sedge and localized areas will be affected on a permanent, or at least grass species are salt tolerant. Large sea water spills that very long term, basis. inundate the tundra could severely disturb vegetation, even in wet tundra sites. It has been shown that major storm SADLEROCHIT SPRING SPECIAL AREA surges have killed all vegetation on flooded sites (Reimnitz and Maurer, 1979). Within the 1002 area, the approximately 4,000-acre Sadlerochit Spring (pl. 1A and surrounding area are the A plant species of special note is Thlaspi arcticum, only National Natural Landmark nomination and the only currently under review to determine if it qualifies as a area which was closed year-round to exploration activities threatened or endangered plant (category 2 candidate--45 during the previous exploration program. This special FR 82480). The widest known distribution of Thlaspi recognition is due to the spring's continuous flow of warm arcticum in the Arctic Refuge is along the Katakturuk River water, the only major flow of warm water in the 1002 area (pl.lA, adjacent to potential economic prospects in Block during the winter. Prohibiting surface occupancy and A. Careful siting of petroleum exploration and development certain other activities in the Sadlerochit Spring Special Area facilities and activities would be required to prevent would prevent most negative effects from oil development. disturbance of Thlaspi arcticum plants and their habitat. Some indirect plant loss might result from dust deposition. The increased transient and permanent population expected under full leasing could increase use of the Mitigation Sadlerochit Spring area, particularly by workers from adjacent Block D. The resulting increase in disturbance Consolidating facilities to the maximum extent could cause muskoxen to avoid the area (pl. 2C) or could possible would minimize effects on vegetation. Snow pads affect birds. In winter, the open water in the Sadlerochit and ice roads, of appropriate thickness and areal extent to Spring area provides habitat for the American dipper, one of protect vegetated areas, should be used as much as only two passerine species resident year-round on the 1002 feasible to construct pipelines in order to reduce the need area (pl. 3C). Fishing pressure in the area could also for gravel. An overall loss of approximately 5,650 acres (0.4 increase, causing competition with and disturbance to percent of the 1002 area) of existing vegetation could result, Native subsistence users in the Sadlerochit Spring area based on the estimated facility needs for developing the (pl. 1J. entire 1002 area. Habitat values would be lost when these habitats are covered by pads, airstrips, roads and other Mitigation support facilities. Before any water withdrawal in the Sadlerochit Spring Additionally, at least 7,000 acres could be modified Special Area, studies would be required to determine the by the secondary effects of gravel spray and dust quantity of water that could be removed, when, and by 104 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT what methods, without seriously affecting fish, wildlife, and Mitigation habitat that rely on the spring. However, the existing "no surface occupancy" restriction for oil exploration and Experience gained from construction and operation of development is assumed to remain in effect. This docks and causeways for Prudhoe Bay should be used to precludes surface development and disturbance, maintaining plan and construct docks and causeways for the 1002 area the area's physical features and important fish, wildlife, and so that those facilities do not affect longshore water subsistence resource values. transport and lagoon water chemistry or impede fish movements. Release of fuels and other hazardous Conclusion substances to the environment should be minimized by developing and implementing control, use, and disposal Development as a result of fully leasing the 1002 area plans for such substances. would have negligible effects on the Sadlerochit Spring Special Area under current protective management Conclusion regulations. Overall, the effect of full leasing is anticipated to be COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT minor on coastal and marine habitats. However, there is a small probability of major adverse effects depending on the Petroleum development and production in the 1002 extent and duration of future cumulative developments or in area and associated transportation at both onshore and the event of a catastrophic offshore or coastal oil spill. offshore sites would have a variety of effects. Docks and causeways can affect dispersion, nutrient transfer, TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS temperatures, salinities, invertebrate abundance and diversity, fish passage, and other uses of those areas by CARIBOU fish and wildlife. Disruption of natural nearshore currents can result in sea water intrusions into lagoons causing Caribou use the 1002 area during the summer lower water temperatures and higher salinities. Salinity and months for two important activities, calving and seeking temperature changes could alter invertebrate abundance; relief from insect harassment. During that period, 3,000- decreases in invertebrates would mean lower coastal area 4,000 caribou from the 12,000-14,000 member CAH use the values to fish and wildlife. Such intrusions may also alter 1002 area. Up to 82 percent of the calving caribou in the fish movements by reducing existing favorable habitat PCH calved on the 1002 area in recent years (1972-85) and conditions in nearshore zones. the entire 180,000-member PCH may use the area in some years, mainly during the late June/early July insect-relief Noise created by construction and other operations period. Concentrations of caribou are generally absent in coastal areas could be a disturbance factor, sufficiently from the 1002 area in winter, except for as many as 1,000 reducing the quality of the coastal and marine habitats to animals (7 percent) of the CAH scattered between the cause avoidance by some marine birds and mammals. Sadlerochit Mountains and Camden Bay. Debris washing ashore from transport and offshore Exploration activities could increase with increased human activities in the area. The driftline is used for nesting habitat by several Winter seismic programs in 1984 and 1985 on the species of waterfowl and seabirds (pl. 3A, B, _. 1002 area, and exploratory drilling on adjacent Kaktovik Disruption and physical alteration of the driftline from Inupiat Corporation (KIC)/Arctic Slope Regional Corporation activities associated with oil development could affect bird (ASRC) lands in the winters of 1985 and 1986, resulted in nesting success by disturbing nesting birds or altering their no apparent conflict with CAH or PCH activities. Similar nests. Debris and disruption of driftlines would also affect results were found during both seismic and exploratory esthetics. Occasional fish and wildlife mortalities could drilling work in the NPRA and on State lands within the occur where animals become entangled in or ingest debris. range of the CAH (U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1983; Fancy, 1983). Winter oil exploration, including exploratory Any spill of oil or other hazardous materials along drilling, would likely have a negligible effect on PCH caribou the coast could severely affect coastal and marine habitats since they are generally absent from the area. Disturbance, and fish and wildlife. For example, decreased invertebrates resulting in displacement, could occur to the CAH. result in decreased food for fish and wildlife. Sea ducks, Disturbance and displacement to both the CAH and PCH such as oldsquaw which heavily use this coastal area, from the short-term, scattered and local activities of summer could be displaced, and direct mortality could occur. Level surface geology programs would be almost negligible. of impact would relate to the volume of oil spilled, location, effectiveness of cleanup, time of year, and fish and wildlife Production, Transportation, and Development species present. Effects on caribou from petroleum field development, production, and transportation would occur from direct habitat modification, indirect habitat loss (displacement, ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 105 barriers to movement which reduce access to insect-relief Table VI-4.--Central Arctic caribou herd population, and other habitats, and disturbance/harassment), and direct calving in Prudhoe Bay area, and Prudhoe Bay mortality (e.g., hunting, collisions with vehicles, or other development activities, 1969-85. accidents). Analogies comparing the effects of current oil development on the CAH and effects of potential 1002 area [Information from Shideler (1986); some variation exists development on the PCH must be drawn with caution. in calving areas surveyed. Long-term investigations Movements, density, and traditions of the PCH differ from of the CAH begun in 1974 by ADF&G. N.A., not those of the CAH (Chapter II). Because of the greater available] density of PCH on their calving grounds, the PCH would interact with oil development much more extensively and intensively than the CAH has interacted with oil development in the Prudhoe Bay area. Year Total Number Development CAH cows and activities Caribou calving in the Prudhoe Bay area was population calves reported by Gavin (1971), Child (1973), and White and others (1975), when development of the Prudhoe Bay oil field was beginning. Later studies (Cameron and Whitten, 1969-70 (1) (1) Oil discovered. 1979, 1980; Cameron and others, 1981; Whitten and 1972 N.A. 13 Deadhorse airport, road Cameron, 1985) indicate an absence of calving near the system, several drill coast at Prudhoe Bay during 1976-85, possibly due to 1973 N.A. 42 pads developed. avoidance of the activity area by calving caribou. Two centers of concentrated calving activity were identified; (1) 1974 N.A. 51 Construction of TAPS; west of Prudhoe Bay in the vicinity of the Kuparuk and rapid area growth Ugnuravik Rivers (including recent oil development in the in roads, facilities, Milne Point and Kuparuk areas); (2) east of Prudhoe Bay, and drill pads. primarily in the Bullen Point to Canning River delta area (Shideler, 1986). Surveys in 1981 indicate that the Canning 1976 N.A. (2) Oil production begins. River delta area may support more calving caribou than the 1978 6,000 (3) Drill sites and road Kuparuk area (Whitten and Cameron, 1985). Table VI-4 connecting Kuparuk compares calving in the Prudhoe Bay area and population with Prudhoe Bay of the CAH with development of the Prudhoe Bay oil field. developed. The apparent herd increase has been attributed to high calf production and survival as well as relatively light hunting 1981 9,000 N.A. Kuparuk pipeline connect- pressure (Whitten and Cameron, 1983). ing to TAPS completed. Even more tenuous are parallels between caribou 1983 N.A. 0 Expansion of Kuparuk activities and population trends on NPRA with those which oil field. might result from oil development on the 1002 area. Although NPRA has been extensively explored, no oil 1985 12,000- N.A. Pipeline to Milne Point production or infrastructure development has occurred. 14,000 constructed. Approximately 242,000 acres of the 1002 area used as a core calving area by the PCH has been determined 1Reports of area used for calving by the 3,000 or Resource Category 1 habitat in accordance with the FWS so caribou residing in Prudhoe Bay area, early 1970's. mitigation policy. More than 50 caribou/sq mi have been 2A handful. present during calving in at least 5 of 14 years (1972-85) for 3About 10. which detailed data exist (pl. 2_); nearly 80 percent of the total core calving area for the 180,000 member PCH occurs habitat, would be affected. West of the Sadlerochit River in this portion of the 1002 area (table VI-5). The remaining some 2,000 acres, predominantly used by the CAH, would approximately 1,304,000 acres, considered Resource be affected. Slightly more than 0.3 percent of all Resource Category 2 habitat, includes areas used year-round by up Category 2 habitat would be directly modified. Most of the to 4,000 CAH caribou and for concentrated and scattered reduction in habitat value would result from covering feeding calving, postcalving aggregations, and insect-relief habitat by and calving habitat with gravel. the PCH. Because insects are easily blown off somewhat If the 1002 area's anticipated oil and gas resources elevated, unvegetated areas by wind, some positive effect were developed across the entire area, direct modification might occur in the form of increased insect-relief habitat of caribou habitat could total approximately 5,650 acres. (Curatolo and others, 1982; Elison and others, 1986). East of the Sadlerochit River about 3,650 acres used by the However, it is generally during the oestrid fly (nose bot and PCH, of which about 1,300 acres are Resource Category 1 warble flies) harassment period from late July to early 106 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Table VI-5.--Porcupine caribou herd calving area potentially affected by development under full leasing or limited leasing, assuming an approximately 2-mile sphere of influence. Concentrated Core calving calving area1 area2 Total calving area within 1002 area (acres) .............................................................. 934,000 242,000 Area (acres) potentially influenced by development: Full leasing ................................................................................................................... 357,000 78,000 Limited leasing............................................................................................................. 261,000 10,000 Percent of 1002 calving area potentially influenced by development: Full leasing ................................................................................................................... 38 32 Limited leasing............................................................................................................. 28 4 Total calving area (acres) in U.S. and Canada .......................................................... 2,117,000 311,000 Percent of total U.S. and Canada area potentially influenced by development: Full leasing ................................................................................................................... 17 25 Limited leasing............................................................................................................. 12 3 1At least 50 caribou/square mile during calving, in 1-4 years, 1972-85. 2At least 50 caribou/square mile during calving for at least 5 years, 1972-85. August that caribou seek relief on unvegetated gravel roads, of intensity. Disturbance can result from a variety of well pads, or the shade of pipelines and buildings on those sources including presence of pipelines and roads, aircraft pads (Curatolo, 1983; Fancy, 1983). Insect harassment of operations, general construction, routine operation of the oil PCH on the 1002 area generally results from swarms of field, presence of people, and hunting. Reactions depend mosquitoes early in the summer season. The PCH usually upon several factors, including caribou age and sex, herd leaves the 1002 area prior to the emergence of oestrid flies. size, presence of calves, season, and type and distance of the disturbance. Secondary modification of habitat due to changes in surface water flow, snow accumulation, roadside dust Behavioral avoidance of development areas displaces deposition, gravel spray from vehicle movements, and caribou from preferred habitats of traditional use. It is pollution incidents would reduce the habitat value of generally believed to result from human activity (noise, additional acreage. These changes in vegetation, and thus vehicle movements, presence of people, and odors), instead food availability, could occur on approximately 7,000 acres, of the mere presence of roads, pipelines, and buildings. of which nearly 1,800 acres is in Resource Category 1 (1 Avoidance of oil development and other human activity by percent). Total modification of caribou habitat attributable caribou has been reported by numerous investigators (Dau to direct and secondary changes would occur on about and Cameron, 1985; Cameron and others, 1979; Whitten 12,650 acres, or 0.8 percent of the 1002 area, and 1.3 and Cameron, 1983; Fancy and others, 1981; Urquhart, percent of the core calving area (Resource Category 1 1973; Wright and Fancy, 1980). The reported extent of habitat). displacement varies. Displacement of the CAH from historic calving grounds in response to oil development at Prudhoe Major indirect losses of habitat and additional Bay has been documented (Dau and Cameron, 1985; reductions in habitat value would be widespread throughout Cameron and Whitten, 1979). Whitten and Cameron (1985) the 1002 area. The habitat value losses from these indirect found consistently low numbers of caribou and generally effects would result from behavioral avoidance of low percentages of calves in the Prudhoe Bay oil field from development areas; decreased accessibility to undeveloped their annual surveys of the CAH calving grounds, 1978-82, areas (insect-relief habitats along the coast) due to with caribou being displaced to adjacent areas already used physical barriers and disturbances such as pipelines, traffic, for calving. Mean densities of caribou in five other regions or facilities; and other disturbances or harassment by oil of the calving grounds were 2 to 18 times higher than at development activities and personnel during sensitive Prudhoe Bay. Dau and Cameron (1985), in what may be caribou life stages. the most systematic study of caribou displacement by oil development, reported that maternal caribou groups showed Disturbance to caribou is unavoidable if oil measurable declines in habitat use within approximately 2 development occurs on the 1002 area. Historically the miles on either side of the Milne Point road in the central entire area has been used by PCH caribou at varying levels Alaskan arctic. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 107 Caribou select calving areas because of favorable has remained low and brown bears, which also prey on weather causing early snowmelt, advanced emergence of caribou, are only moderately abundant in the area. new vegetation, relative absence of predators, proximity to insect-relief habitat, absence of disturbance, or some The lack of observable adverse effects from combination of these and other factors. Maternal cows displacement exhibited by the CAH would be unlikely for and their calves are most sensitive to disturbance during the PCH. The PCH is much more crowded in its calving calving and immediately thereafter (Calef and others, 1976; habitats, and a substantially greater proportion of important Miller and Gunn, 1979; Elison and others, 1986). calving habitats would be involved with development that included their core calving area. Furthermore, predators are Displacement of the PCH from a core calving area to more abundant adjacent to their core and concentrated a less desirable area would be expected to reduce caribou calving areas. For example, preliminary analysis of radio- productivity. Loss of important habitat has been shown to relocation data indicate that brown bears shift habitat use directly impact ungulate populations (Wolfe, 1978; Skovlin, patterns to coastal areas in June and early July (pl. 1D) to 1982). But no recognizable, long-term effect upon the CAH coincide with occupancy of those habitats by calving and as a result of displacement by oil development in the postcalving caribou (Garner and others, 1985). central Alaskan Arctic has been demonstrated to date. In considering the effects of displacement of the CAH from Biologists participating in the FWS workshop all traditional calving grounds, Whitten and Cameron (1985) agreed that displacement from areas of human activity contend that the CAH has not experienced a reduction in related to oil and gas activities would occur (Elison and productivity or consequent population decline because: (1) others, 1986). the CAH has been displaced from only part of its calving grounds: (2) suitable alternative high-quality habitat appears Plates 2A and 2B show the substantial overlap of available for caribou displaced from Prudhoe Bay; and (3) potential oil development facilities with PCH calving areas overall density of CAH caribou on their calving grounds is and smaller overlap of such areas with CAH calving areas. much lower than that of other arctic herds in Alaska. Calving caribou of the PCH and those CAH caribou using Although the CAH and PCH calving grounds are roughly the 1002 area are the most sensitive segment of those equal in size and the Western Arctic herd calving ground is herds. They would annually encounter oil development about 50 percent larger, the population of the PCH is about during one of the most, if not the most critical time in their 15 times larger and that of the Western Arctic herd is about yearly cycle. Based upon the work of Dau and Cameron 18 times larger than the CAH (based on 1982 population (1985), caribou are displaced approximately 2 miles out from estimates). development. This is most applicable during calving and immediately postcalving, which coincides with the greatest Both absolute (number of caribou, including calves, caribou use of the 1002 area. Within this approximately 2- on the calving grounds divided by area of calving grounds) mile area of influence are about 357,000 acres (38 percent) and effective (allowing for the length of time a herd uses its of the total concentrated calving grounds in the 1002 area. calving grounds each year) densities of the CAH are a fraction of PCH and Western Arctic herd calving ground For this analysis, core calving areas for the PCH are densities. As described by Whitten and Cameron (1985), defined as concentrated calving areas used by at least 50 absolute density for the PCH is nearly 14 times, and for the caribou/sq mi in 5 or more of the last 14 years (Chapter II Western Arctic herd nearly 15 times greater than for the and pl. 2A). Development in these areas is of particular CAH. The difference in effective densities is even greater, concern. Seventy-eight percent of the PCH's core calving particularly for the PCH, which are found at approximately areas is within the 1002 area and is designated as 24 caribou per square kilometer as compared with Resource Category 1 habitat. An approximately 2-mile approximately 5 caribou per square kilometer for the CAH. displacement of caribou out from petroleum facilities would Effective density of the Western Arctic herd is 15 caribou include loss of 32 percent of the most critical PCH core per square kilometer. calving areas (table VI-5). The mitigation goal for Resource Category 1 habitat is no loss of existing habitat value. The With the CAH calving density remaining low projected displacement from preferred calving habitat would compared to other herds, despite a recent population represent a complete loss of habitat values. Measuring the increase, overcrowding and consequent habitat stress that probable population decline from complete loss of habitat might result in reduced productivity have not yet occurred, values in calving areas is impossible and the ultimate nor have caribou been displaced to areas of reduced effects of displacement are unknown. habitat value or areas where they might be exposed to increased predation. Unlike the Western Arctic or Barriers to caribou movements are another source of Porcupine caribou herds, the CAH has been exposed to indirect habitat loss. Roads without activity generally minimal predation in recent years. With the influx of present little problem to free movement of caribou. workers and use of the haul road for Prudhoe Bay Depending upon design pipelines may create a barrier, development, the wolf population in the Central Arctic area those adjacent to or close to active roadways would decreased in the mid-1970's because of hunting. At that probably most impede free movement (Elison and others, time CAH numbers began increasing. The wolf population 1986). Several investigators have described where passage 108 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT of caribou through oil or other development areas has been Kuparuk oil fields, Curatolo and Murphy (in press) attributed inhibited because of linear oil-development facilities and the lower crossing frequencies at pipeline/road sites to the associated activities (Curatolo and others, 1982; Smith and combined stimulus of vehicular traffic and a pipeline. Cameron, 1985a, b; Klein, 1980). This is of particular concern in the 1002 area because the probable After evaluating caribou responses to pipelines, pipeline/haul road route would bisect the area. roads, and pipeline/road complexes in the Kuparuk oil field, Curatolo and Murphy (1983) suggested that caribou Barriers to caribou movements could result in movements could be facilitated by separating pipelines from decreased calving success by reducing access to preferred heavily traveled roads and constructing ramps at strategic calving areas, compounding the displacement from calving locations over elevated pipelines. Other researchers have areas which could result from disturbance as discussed concurred that roads should be separated from pipelines as previously. A greater concern, relative to the location of a means of improving caribou passage through potential barriers under the full leasing scenario, would be development areas (Curatolo and others, 1982; Robus and inhibiting movements for the large postcalving aggregations Curatolo, 1983; Elison and others, 1986). The optimum which annually occur on the 1002 area as they move separation between roads and pipelines depends upon between inland feeding areas and coastal insect-relief terrain; preliminary information indicates that a separation of habitats. In years when ice breakup is late and more of at least 400-800 feet improves caribou crossing success the PCH calving occurs east and southeast of the 1002 (Curatolo and Reges, 1986). area, there is a strong westward movement following calving. Virtually the entire PCH gathers on the 1002 area Where Curatolo and Murphy (1983) and Smith and for foraging and insect relief, with large portions of the herd Cameron (1985a, b) documented reduced crossing success tending to remain on the 1002 area later into July and in areas of oil-related development, it has been for caribou August during the years of late breakup (Roseneau and exposed to major oil and gas development for extended Stern, 1974; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982; U.S. Fish periods annually in the central Alaskan Arctic since the and Wildlife Service, unpublished data). The insect season early 1970's. Because some habituation would presumably is a period of extreme natural harassment and one of the have occurred, animals in the CAH may be more likely to primary driving forces in the annual caribou cycle. This cross an oil-field development than the PCH which would harassment follows closely behind the critical calving period. encounter such developments for only 2 or 3 months each Insect harassment can have a pronounced negative effect year. on caribou survival. Helle and Tarvainen (1984) reported that insect harassment reduced growth in reindeer calves in Eighteen percent (294,000 acres) of the 1002 area, Finland and contributed heavily to increased mortality the including KIC/ASRC lands, used for insect-relief and other following winter. Insect harassment also affected the body purposes by the PCH lie north of the proposed size at maturity. Insect harassment and the avoidance pipeline/road corridor. Use of this area by the PCH could actions of caribou put considerable energy stress on be affected by two possible factors. If caribou refuse to caribou (Reimers, 1980; White, 1983). Davis and cross through any development areas, then 294,000 acres Valkenburg (1979) reported several dead and sick calves in would be unavailable as habitat. That area encompasses the Western Arctic caribou herd, all with heavy infestations 52 percent of total insect-relief habitats and over 80 percent of nose bot larvae. Reduced access to insect-relief habitat of coastal insect-relief habitats. This would mean that all would result in greater energy stress with possibly reduced coastal insect-relief habitats within the 1002 area, except for survival. a small area in the eastern portion, would become unavailable under full development. The second factor is to Numerous investigators have reported on the varying assume the approximately 2-mile sphere of influence for oil successes of caribou in crossing roads and pipelines development used previously. Under that assumption, associated with Prudhoe Bay facilities (Fancy, 1982, 1983; caribou crossing through the development area would avoid Curatolo, 1984; Curatolo and Murphy, 1983; Smith and using approximately 72,000 acres or 29 percent of identified Cameron, 1985a, b). Crossing success depends on several coastal insect-relief habitat within the 1002 area and factors including traffic and human activity levels, pipeline KIC/ASRC lands (Pank and others, 1986). Failure to obtain design, season, and type and amount of insect harassment. relief from insect harassment from either factor could Caribou crossing success is generally greatest at buried shorten foraging time, leading to poorer physical condition pipelines and then decreases for roads without traffic, to and subsequently to increased susceptibility to predation elevated (at least 5 feet above ground) pipelines adjacent to and reduced overwinter survival. roads without traffic, to pipelines adjacent to roads with traffic. Large mosquito-harassed groups do not readily Notwithstanding the limited sample size and cross beneath elevated pipelines (Curatolo and Murphy, timeframe covered, the satellite telemetry work of Pank and 1983; Smith and Cameron, 1985b); deflections of up to 20 others (1986) provides an indication of the extent to which miles during which caribou trotted or ran have been 1002 area caribou could interact with facilities and observed in the central Alaskan Arctic. During the oestrid infrastructure necessary for full leasing. Their preliminary fly season, caribou crossing success was markedly analysis of the potential interaction between PCH and CAH increased. In summarizing their 1981-83 studies of caribou caribou and the oil development scenario used in this crossings at roads and pipelines in the Prudhoe Bay and ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 109 report involved 10 caribou radio-collared on winter range in calving. Curatolo and others (1982), Miller and Gunn the Arctic Refuge, two from the CAH and eight from the (1979), and Elison and others (1986) have all reported that PCH. An interaction was defined as whenever a caribou traffic, people, or general activity is more disturbing to point location, or any segment of a line connecting two caribou than merely the presence of roads or structures. point locations calculated for the same caribou on adjacent No agreement on effects, and sometimes even causes, of days, was within approximately 2 miles of a road, pipeline, disturbance exists. For example, Bergerud and others drill pad, airfield, or other development facility. Point (1984) have a dissenting, though widely disputed, view. locations for the five caribou from the PCH which entered For review of the effects of various human developments on the 1002 area in summer 1985 can be examined to indicate the demographics of seven North American caribou herds the extent of time caribou usually spend within the and one wild Norwegian reindeer herd, they postulated that development area. Of the 232 point locations, 51 (22 caribou can withstand periodic severe disturbance without percent of the time) were within approximately 2 miles of adverse effects on productivity and survival. They the infrastructure for full development. Moreover, 34 discounted the effects of much of the disturbance percent of caribou routes between locations on adjacent associated with development activities, concluding instead days were also within the approximately 2-mile area that increased hunting along transportation corridors influenced by development. The two CAH caribou through several herd ranges was responsible for encountered the development scenario to a much greater distributional changes. extent than did the collared PCH caribou: 413 (32.7 percent) of 1264 point locations and 83 percent of routes One of the more significant effects on caribou as a were within the approximately 2-mile interaction area. result of better human access to their habitats has been increased harvest (Bergerud and others, 1984). Obviously, Effects of disturbance might also include injury by hunting directly reduces the number of caribou in a trampling during stampedes, particularly calves; energy population. More important, it reinforces the negative stress, possibly critical during times of low energy reserves stimulus in surviving animals to associate human activity such as winter and postcalving; and inability to reach and development with danger. This negative stimulus insect-relief habitat which also increases energy loss. Miller increases the intensity and duration of disturbance and and Gunn (1979) and Northwest Territories Wildlife Service displacement. It also reduces habituation which, over time, (1979) noted that major physiological responses to could otherwise offset some displacement. Habituation of harassment may occur in the absence of visible behavioral caribou to structures and activity occurs more readily in changes. unhunted than hunted populations (Klein, 1980). Aircraft activities are another cause of disturbance; Legal harvest outside developed areas would be numerous instances involving caribou have been expected to increase moderately as workers could documented. For example, Calef and others (1976) conveniently travel to adjacent areas to hunt caribou in reported that helicopters which hazed caribou from the rear season. The State of Alaska as lead, in cooperation with caused the most severe panic reaction. Large herds of up the FWS, sets seasons and bag limits for the 1002 area. to 60,000 animals could be herded by flying at altitudes of Closing the oil development area to hunters should reduce up to 2,000 feet above ground level (AGL). Calves were illegal take to a minor level. Still, law enforcement in such a more sensitive than other age classes and caribou on remote area is often difficult. For example, notwithstanding calving grounds were most reactive. the fact that a 5-mile corridor along either side of the Dalton Highway from the Yukon River north to Prudhoe Recommendations for aircraft restrictions differ. Bay, the gravel TAPS haul road, has been closed to According to Calef and others (1976), flight elevations of firearms since 1975, State Fish and Wildlife Protection 500 feet AGL would prevent most injurious caribou Officers and Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G) reactions and altitudes of 1,000 feet AGL would avoid mild biologists are discovering increasing numbers of people escape responses. These investigators recommended that hunting illegally within the corridor and outside the corridor aircraft maintain altitudes of 1,000 feet AGL during caribou through illegal access using all-terrain vehicles. The ADF&G calving, caribou rut, and early winter. Davis and Valkenburg has been monitoring the kill; their biologists estimate that (1979) also noted an inverse relationship between the as many as 800 caribou were taken in Game Management altitude of aircraft and severity of the caribou's reaction. Unit 26B (Central Arctic) during fall and winter 1985-1986. They recommended altitudes of 2,000 feet AGL from May to All but 82 came from along the approximately 200 miles of August. The Peary caribou herd in Canada reacted the haul road between Prudhoe Bay and Atigun Pass (K.R. similarly to helicopters (Miller and Gunn, 1979); altitudes of Whitten, ADF&G, unpublished data). The majority of this 2,000 feet AGL were recommended for May to November harvest is illegal because hunters either lacked a road and 1,000 feet AGL at other times. permit where necessary or illegally used all-terrain vehicles for access. While the prohibition on discharging firearms Davis and Valkenburg (1979) reported that caribou extends to all users, including subsistence users, may respond more to people on the ground than to flying subsistence take is not considered a significant factor in aircraft. They recommend that people and vehicles maintain the total harvest because of the distance of subsistence a minimum distance of 3,000 feet from caribou during users from this area. State protection officers have found it 110 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT difficult to assign staff to such remote areas to enforce 4. Site nonessential facilities outside calving areas and existing laws and regulations. major movement zones (Cameron and Whitten, 1979; Elison and others, 1986). Based upon experience with TAPS and Prudhoe Bay, mortality as a result of vehicle collisions, entanglement and 5. Separate roads and pipelines as necessary in areas other accidents should be minor (R.D. Cameron and K.R. used for crossing to improve crossing success Whitten, unpublished data). (Curatolo and Murphy, 1983; Curatolo and others, 1982; Robus and Curatolo, 1983; Elison and others, Mitigation 1986; Curatolo and Reges, 1986). The following measures would help avoid and 6. Acquire authority to establish time and area closures minimize habitat value losses in the 1,304,000 acres of or restrictions on surface activity to minimize Resource Category 2 caribou habitat. Mitigation of the loss disturbances during calving or in concentrated use of caribou habitat in Resource Category 1 (242,000 acres of areas (Cameron and Whitten, 1979; Curatolo and core calving area) is not possible. others, 1982; Robus and Curatolo, 1983). For exploration activities, all environmental protection 7. Establish time and area closures and minimum measures required during the previous 1002 coastal plain altitude restrictions for aircraft operations of 1000 feet exploration program (50 CFR 37.31) and the drilling of an AGL (Aug. 16 through May 19) and 2000 feet AGL exploration well on KIC/ASRC lands (August 9, 1983, (May 20 through Aug. 15). Altitude and time Agreement between Arctic Slope Regional Corporation and restrictions may be modified after further study. the United States of America, Appendix 2, Land Use Stipulations) will maintain most habitat values. Oil 8. Monitor the effects of oil development on caribou. exploration, with the exception of surface geology studies, should be limited to the period of winter conditions, 9. Annually monitor herd size, productivity, movements, generally November 1 to May 1. distribution, and general health. If greater or additional adverse effects are found to occur than For oil development, the success of various those initially predicted, additional mitigation or stipulations designed as mitigation will ultimately determine protective management actions would be implemented the degree to which oil development actually affects caribou upon the recommendation of the FWS, in conjunction using the 1002 area. Measures previously used with with the State where effects extend beyond the success for Arctic oil development as well as other boundaries of the 1002 area. Additional mitigation measures which should further help to reduce negative could include further seasonal area closures, surface effects on caribou include: or air traffic restrictions, phasing of field development, or state-of-the-art measures. 1. Bury all pipelines where possible (Cameron and Whitten, 1979; Elison and others, 1986). Because of 10. Protect insect-relief habitat and facilitate free permafrost, opportunities for pipeline burial will be movement and access for caribou by reducing few. Where burial is not feasible: surface occupancy in the zone from the coast to 3 miles inland (Elison and others, 1986). Occupancy A. Place ramps over structures in areas of natural would be restricted to marine facilities and crossings or where development tends to funnel infrastructure necessary to move inland beyond the caribou (Curatolo and Murphy, 1983; Robus and restricted zone. Curatolo, 1983; Elison and others, 1986). 11. Protect riparian and adjacent areas by placing B. Elevate pipelines (the most common practice) to permanent production facilities outside the areas allow free passage of caribou in areas without within 3/4 mile of the high-water mark on both sides ramps (Elison and others, 1986). of identified watercourses (pl. 2A) and by limiting crossings of transportation facilities. 2. Reduce disturbance from vehicle activity by limiting use of development infrastructure to essential industry Conclusion and agency personnel on official business (Elison and others, 1986). Surface geologic exploration and study conducted throughout the year would be controlled by specific time 3. Close the area within 5 miles of all development and and area closures to avoid conflicts with caribou calving associated infrastructure to hunting and trapping, as and movements during the insect-relief period. Seismic well as to discharge of firearms, so as to reduce activity would be confined to winter work only. Based disturbance to caribou and to protect people and upon experience from the 1983-1985 exploration program in equipment (Elison and others, 1986; Carruthers and the 1002 area, only negligible effects would occur. others, 1984). Localized avoidance and disturbance of a minor nature may ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 111 occur in the area of exploration wells if caribou entered the MUSKOXEN area while well drilling activities were underway. Because human activity would be low, effects would most likely Recently reintroduced to the Arctic Refuge, muskoxen result from some avoidance and displacement around well are rapidly expanding and pioneering new areas. From the pads. 69 muskoxen introduced between 1969 and 1970 the population has grown to 476 in 1985. Carrying capacity The expanding population trend for the CAH in the has apparently not been reached. past decade would indicate that the CAH is not at carrying capacity (the number of healthy animals that can be Experience in the Arctic Refuge from winter seismic maintained by habitat on a given unit of land). However, exploration in 1984 and 1985 and summer surface the point at which cumulative effects and expanding exploration in 1983, 1984, and 1985, indicates that these developments all modify suitable displacement habitat is activities have only minor disturbance effects upon Arctic unknown. Also unknown is carrying capacity of the PCH. Refuge muskoxen. Harassment may result in a net energy Given the geography of the calving areas and current drain if it occurs during the critical winter period, and can densities in those areas, the availability of suitable thereby reduce survival. Reynolds and LaPlant (1985) alternative habitats is not apparent. reported no long-term or widespread changes in distribution or use of traditional areas in response to disturbance by A major change in distribution as an adverse result seismic exploration. In response to seismic activity, one of displacement of both that portion of the CAH using the herd did move 2.8 miles and another herd moved 1.9 miles 1002 area as well as the entire PCH could occur if the within 24 hours. Jingfors and Lassen (1984) found that 1002 area were fully developed. The main oil pipeline muskox disturbed by seismic vehicles either ran or would bisect the 1002 area between the western and gradually moved away. Other investigators (Carruthers, northeastern boundaries. Disturbance would occur from the 1976; Russell, 1977) reported similar responses by presence and activities of up to 6,000 people, hundreds of muskoxen from winter seismic exploration in Canada. vehicles, and major construction and production activities scattered throughout the 1002 area, including sensitive Potentially economic prospects in blocks A, C, and D caribou calving areas. Use of approximately 25 percent of occur partially in year-round high-use areas, including the total PCH core calving area and 29 percent of the calving areas (pl. 2). Direct loss of muskoxen habitat coastal insect-relief habitat could be reduced or eliminated. from oil development could total approximately 2,700 acres. Potentially a much larger portion, nearly 80 percent of coastal insect-relief habitat, could be affected if development Disturbance caused by routine oil field operation and proves to be a barrier to caribou movements. Loss of associated infrastructure may exclude or reduce muskoxen calving habitat, barriers to free movement causing reduced use of preferred habitat. Muskox reaction to helicopters access to insect-relief and other areas, disturbance, stress, depends on sex and age of animals, group size, number of and other factors would cumulatively reduce both available calves in a group, the position of the sun and wind habitat and habitat values on remaining areas, resulting in direction relative to the disturbance, what the animals are caribou population declines. doing at the time of disturbance, and terrain (Miller and Gunn, 1979). In their extensive study of the reaction to These changes in habitat availability and value, helicopter disturbance of muskoxen on Banks Islands, combined with increased harvest, could result in a major Northwest Territories, Canada, Miller and Gunn (1979) population decline and change in distribution of 20-40 reported that: cows and calves and solitary bulls were the percent, based on the amount of calving and insect-relief most responsive to disturbance; the reaction of muskoxen habitats to be adversely affected. Because of the many to disturbance was similar to their response to a predator; variables involved and lack of relevant experience in and the degree of reaction to disturbance was generally estimating impacts on this herd and because of the inversely related to the distance of the disturbing stimuli. difficulty in quantifying impacts, this estimate is uncertain. The presence of people on the ground in association with helicopters that had landed increased the disturbance. For the CAH, a moderate change in distribution or Although muskoxen disturbed by helicopters usually moved decline in that portion of the CAH using the 1002 area less than 0.2 mile, Miller and Gunn (1979) recommended could occur. The effect on the entire CAH population minimum altitudes of 2,000 feet AGL during May-November throughout its range may also be moderate. Those effects and 1,000 feet AGL during December-April. on the segment of the CAH within the 1002 area would be similar to those on the PCH that occur from disturbance, Muskoxen may also be disturbed by seismic surveys. displacement and barriers to free movement. The One herd was reported to have run at least 0.6 mile after population decline or distribution change would be 5-10 being disturbed by seismic vehicles 1.9 miles away percent for the CAH throughout its range. (Reynolds and LaPlant, 1985). Temporary displacement of up to 2 miles has been observed on both sides of seismic lines (Russell, 1977). While oil field development and operation would be much more intrusive and sustained than seismic exploration, the increased disturbance may be 112 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT partially offset by habituation which has been observed by and LaPlant (1985), a 2-mile sphere of influence was Miller and Gunn (1979) during experimental helicopter assumed in calculating the range which could be affected harassment. by full leasing. Table VI-6 shows that habitat values could be lost or greatly reduced throughout about one-third Muskoxen are present on the 1002 area throughout (256,000 acres) of the muskox range within the 1002 area. the winter when most exploration and construction activities Habitats used for high seasonal or year-round use, would take place. Muskoxen daily activity may decrease including calving, would be disproportionately affected; during winter (Reynolds, 1986) as part of their behavioral muskoxen would be displaced from approximately 53 strategy for energy conservation. Repeated disturbance percent of those habitats. Habitat values could be lost on causing increased or prolonged activity during the winter nearly 75 percent of the high use habitats in which calving results in energy drain which may adversely affect survival occurs. Such a high percentage of loss in valuable calving of individuals or productivity of pregnant females. habitat could have a major negative influence on herd productivity. The effects on muskoxen from habitat loss or stress due to disturbance have been difficult to measure. Miller Direct mortality could result from hunting, vehicle and Gunn (1979) concluded that lack of visible response collisions, and other accidents associated with does not necessarily mean the absence of physiological development. Muskoxen are highly vulnerable to hunting, changes or energy drain which may have a major effect on and direct mortality would be expected to increase over the population over time. Muskoxen, as residents on the time as access into previously undeveloped areas 1002 area, will be exposed to year-round activity. As increased. Increased hunting regulation and enforcement described in the previous section on caribou, loss of would be required to reduce illegal harvest. With adequate important habitat has been shown to have major negative enforcement of season and bag limit restrictions, the effects on ungulates. Muskoxen, like caribou, presumably number of animals killed would be expected to permit only select wintering and calving areas because of factors a minor effect on the population. favorable to herd productivity and survival: availability of preferred forage, better weather or snow conditions, relative Mitigation absence of predators, lack of disturbance, or some combination of these and other factors. Displacement from Negative effects to muskoxen could be mitigated by calving areas would have a negative effect on muskoxen standard stipulations prohibiting disturbance, implementing production. The magnitude of that effect is difficult to necessary time and area closures, and requiring on-site accurately predict, particularly in view of the expanding monitoring. Continued monitoring of the population's nature of the population and refuge management objectives growth, distribution, and movements would detect changes to allow continued population expansion. The effect on and determine what, if any, additional mitigation may be production would likely be related to the magnitude and needed. Because riparian areas are favored habitats, those duration of displacement. stipulations for caribou that close valuable riparian areas to siting of permanent facilities and limit crossings of those No information is available on the reaction of areas by transportation facilities would minimize potential muskoxen to sustained oil development and production interactions and disturbance, which would reduce effects on activities. From the reports of Russell (1977) and Reynolds muskoxen as well (pl. 2). Table VI-6.--Observed muskox range potentially affected by development under full leasing or limited leasing, assuming a 2-mile sphere of influence. High-use range seasonally Other Total or year-round range range Without calving With calving Total muskox range (acres) within Arctic Refuge .................. 251,000 211,000 654,000 1,116,000 Area (acres) within development sphere of influence: Full leasing............................................................................... 46,000 112,000 98,000 256,000 Limited leasing......................................................................... 46,000 110,000 98,000 254,000 Percent of Arctic Refuge range influenced by development: Full leasing ............................................ 18 53 15 23 Limited leasing......................................................................... 18 52 15 23 Total muskox range (acres) within 1002 area ........................ 207,000 158,000 395,000 760,000 Percent of 1002 area influenced by development: Full leasing............................................................................... 22 71 25 34 Limited leasing......................................................................... 22 70 25 33 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 113 Conclusion area could occur as a result of hunting or accidental death, especially vehicle collisions. Because so few moose use Major negative effects upon the muskoxen population the area and because of the area's open nature, the from oil development could occur, considering the present number killed would probably be very low. management objectives for continued population growth of the herd under natural regulation and the displacement from Moose populations south of the 1002 area would habitat likely to occur. Muskoxen could be displaced from come under increased hunting pressure due to the influx of up to 71 percent of their high-use, year-round with calving, workers to the area. Declines in the population age habitats within the 1002 area. This, coupled with direct structure and average antler size would probably occur. mortality, and the unavoidable disturbances would cause Moose concentrate in riparian habitats south of the 1002 the population to decrease and its distribution to be area where they are highly visible and vulnerable to hunting. altered. Effects would be most pronounced on the subpopulation using the Niguanak-Okerokovik-Angun River Mitigation area. This subpopulation is the smallest (approximately 80) and has the least amount of interchange with other None would be needed beyond those general subpopulations. Consequently the likelihood of immigration measures for caribou such as limiting use of transportation offsetting population-depressing forces on this corridors and closing the area within 5 miles of project subpopulation would be very limited. facilities to the discharge of firearms. Moose harvest on Arctic Refuge would be regulated by the State of Alaska in Predicted population changes resulting from cooperation with the FWS, and should consequently be petroleum development are speculative. There are no kept within sustainable limits by modifying harvest seasons references in the literature to analogous activities in other and bag limits. muskoxen ranges. However, considering the large extent (158,000 acres, 43 percent) of all high-use muskoxen Conclusion habitats within the 1002 area, as well as more than 33 percent of the population's high-use habitats throughout the Effects on the regional moose population from habitat Arctic Refuge which could be affected under full leasing, a loss and mortality due to oil development in the 1002 area change in distribution or decline affecting 25-50 percent of would be minor. the population may occur. MOOSE DALL SHEEP The 1002 area is not high-quality moose habitat. Dall sheep are rarely found north of the Sadlerochit Peak use by moose is during the summer when the 1002 Mountains in the 1002 area, although they are common in area population probably is less than 25; during the winter, the Brooks Range, south of the 1002 area. Increased moose are rare on the area. The portion of the total refuge hunting pressure, air traffic, and harassment by sightseers population represented by this figure is not known. could adversely affect Dall sheep. Direct loss of habitat is expected to be about 140 Mitigation acres out of the 96,000 acres of the 1002 area identified as moose-use areas. Affected areas are low-density habitats More restrictive hunting regulations could be required (less than one moose per 26 square miles), mainly in Block if increased harvest affects the health of Dall sheep D (pl. 1C_). populations or reduces the quality of hunting and associated recreational use. Moose adapt readily and habituate to the presence of human activity; they are not easily disturbed (Denniston, Conclusion 1956; Peterson, 1955). Moose have expanded their range in North America at the same time that human disturbance Indirect effects on sheep outside the 1002 area has spread (Davis and Franzmann, 1979). On the Kenai would be minor. Full leasing would have a negligible effect National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska, helicopter-supported on Dall sheep in the 1002 area; average age and, winter seismic surveys using explosives did not modify consequently, horn size of rams may decline somewhat as moose distribution patterns, movements, or behavior (Bangs a result of increased hunting pressure. and Bailey, 1982). Most studies have dealt with moose in forested areas. The response of moose to disturbance in WOLVES tundra areas has not been demonstrated. Five to ten wolves seasonally use the 1002 area Increased human development on the Kenai (Weiler and others, 1985), mainly in the summer for hunting Peninsula, Alaska, has resulted in increased moose mortality when prey is most abundant. Wolf dens have not been from hunting, vehicle collisions, poaching, and other causes documented in the 1002 area. Wolves have denned (Bangs and others, 1982). Moose mortality on the 1002 infrequently on the coastal plain east and west of the 1002 114 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT area. Although wolves occur throughout the Arctic Refuge, Experience across the North Slope has demonstrated that their numbers are not known. foxes are not greatly displaced. One fox den was reported abandoned when a seismic camp parked next to it The effects of direct habitat loss to wolves would be (Eberhardt, 1977), but foxes readily used culverts and other negligible. Reduction of prey species (primarily caribou) construction materials around active TAPS construction caused by oil development could reduce wolf vigor and, camp sites for denning. consequently, productivity. The abundance of wolves is ultimately determined by the biomass of ungulate prey Direct mortality as a result of shooting and trapping (Keith, 1983). Harrington, Mech, and Fritts (1983) reported would cause a minor population reduction. Regulations a positive correlation between prey availability and survival would limit most of this effect. Shooting some foxes for of young wolves. Ability of adults to readily provide food is public safety reasons (rabies) would also occur. Once a key determinant in wolf-pup survival (Van Ballenberghe habituated to people, foxes become very bold which may and Mech, 1975). Reduction of prey species would be increase their susceptibility to shooting or trapping. greatest in the area east of the Hulahula River where Accidents such as road kills would annually claim a few caribou activity and, consequently, wolf use have been the individuals. Improper garbage handling and illegal feeding greatest. of foxes could provide an unnatural supplementary food source which could enhance over winter survival and Development activity is not expected to cause wolves production of young. Arctic foxes regularly fed in dumps to avoid the area. During construction of the Dalton around construction camps during construction of TAPS Highway and TAPS, instances of wolves becoming (Eberhardt, 1977). Foxes have high fecundity rates which habituated to human activity were recorded. In some are directly influenced by food availability. MacPherson cases, wolves readily accepted handouts from construction (1969) reported an average litter size of 10.6 young at workers (Eberhardt, 1977; Follmann and others, 1980). Demarcation Bay. Under natural conditions production and survival of arctic foxes are directly linked to oscillations in Shooting or trapping, which may be the most likely rodent abundance (Speller, 1972). Consequently, arctic fox causes of direct mortality to wolves, could increase with populations can increase rapidly when rodents are increased human access to the 1002 area. Zimen and abundant. The effect of increased artificial feeding may Boitani (1979) and Mech (1970) reviewed the drastic result in increased density and, subsequently, increased reduction in the former range of wolves, not just in North exposure to rabies and other diseases. America but throughout the Northern Hemisphere. The decline in wolves has largely been a result of human efforts Mitigation to reduce wolf populations. No mitigation beyond that already outlined is Mitigation recommended. Measures designed for prey species such as caribou Conclusion will also help reduce adverse effects to wolves. Enforcement of existing regulations by the State and the The effects on the arctic fox population are uncertain. FWS would reduce potential effects of hunting. A few Population could increase because of the potential for wolves might be killed for public safety (to combat rabies), increased artificial food supplies, or decrease as a result of with a minor effect on the population. Strictly enforcing direct mortality from shooting, accidents, or rabies. Any prohibitions against feeding wildlife and providing adequate effect is expected to be minor. garbage handling would prevent wolves from becoming nuisances around camps, decreasing the probability of WOLVERINES these animals being shot or trapped. The wolverine population is scattered throughout the Conclusion 1002 area at low density (Mauer, 1985a). Recent wolverine observations on the 1002 area (Mauer, 1985a) relative to A moderate decline of the wolf population using the levels reported at other sites on the North Slope (Magoun, 1002 and surrounding area could result from the cumulative 1979), suggest that current 1002 area wolverine numbers effects of direct mortality and reduced production or survival may be at a low level in relationship to habitat quality. of young, caused by reduced prey availability. Data regarding wolverine use at specific areas within the 1002 area are lacking as are population estimates for the ARCTIC FOXES entire Arctic Refuge. Arctic foxes are common and widespread on and Throughout their circumpolar distribution, wolverines around coastal areas. Winter fox habitat is primarily along occur exclusively in remote regions where human activity is the coast and on the sea ice outside the 1002 area; low (van Zyll de Jong, 1975: Myhre, 1967). The wolverine denning occurs up to 15 miles inland. Habitat loss has been displaced from southern portions of its historic associated with oil development would be negligible, range in Eurasia and North America (Myhre, 1967) and is ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 115 known to be cautious and wary of humans (Krott, 1960). BROWN BEARS Wolverine distributions and movements on the 1002 area would be altered by the presence of human activity Brown bears are common on the 1002 area during associated with oil development. Displacement of May-September when they forage and range widely. The wolverines from local areas of development on the 1002 1002 area contains habitat used seasonally by bears at area is very likely. In considering potential population moderate or high density (pl. 1D). Habitat use and effects to wolverines from the proposed Susitna populations throughout the Arctic Refuge have not been hydroelectric project, Whitman and Ballard (1984) thought similarly delineated. that local avoidance of work camps would not significantly influence wolverine movements or productivity. Under full leasing, direct loss of brown bear habitat would total about 3,500 acres. Oil-field activities would take Because wolverines are primarily scavengers, their place throughout approximately 17 percent of high and abundance is related to the biomass and turnover of large moderate brown bear use areas within the 1002 area. herbivore populations (van Zyll de Jong, 1975). Thus, the Quantifying the number of animals involved is difficult. magnitude of anticipated effects on populations of caribou, Seasonal density of bears on the 1002 area averages one muskox, and moose upon which wolverines depend will bear/30 square miles, but local densities can range from directly affect the degree of effects on wolverines. Major one bear/18.5 square miles to one bear/2,200 square miles. effects have been projected for caribou and muskox populations, minor effects for moose. Magoun (1985) Brown bears use the 1002 area mainly for feeding stated that successful management of wolverines in Game from late May through July when caribou are present. The Management Unit 26A on the North Slope was directly potential decline in caribou population and change in related to successful management of the Western Arctic distribution probable with full leasing (major for the PCH and Teshekpuk Lake caribou herds. She further stated that and moderate for the CAH) could cause a decline in an a decline in these herds could result in a decline in important brown bear food source. This could result in wolverine productivity. Whitman and Ballard (1984) believed decreased bear productivity and survival of young in years that a decrease in the populations of moose and other when alternate food sources, such as small rodents, are prey as a result of the proposed Susitna hydroelectric scarce. project could eventually affect wolverine densities, population size, and movements. Reduction in abundance Brown bears are not readily displaced by human of the primary predators (wolves and brown bears for presence or activity. Brown bears along the TAPS corridor which moderate and minor effects are predicted, became so habituated to development activity that they respectively) could also decrease the abundance of prey occasionally entered occupied buildings in search of food carcasses available for scavenging by wolverines. (Follmann and others, 1980), routinely fed at garbage dumps, and waited along roads and other activity areas for During the winter wolverines on the tundra are handouts. Electrified fencing successfully eliminated vulnerable to hunting from snowmobiles and aircraft. problems with both brown and black bears in two summer Increased hunting and trapping could occur on the 1002 camps of 100 people each in the Brooks Range (Follmann area as a result of the greatly improved access provided by and Hechtel, 1983). the roads, trails, and airstrips associated with oil and gas development, and the increased human populations in the Disturbance to brown bears denning on the 1002 region. Hornocker and Hash (1981) found that trapping area could occur, particularly from winter seismic exploration was the primary cause of wolverine mortality. Van Zyll de because such activity occurs after brown bears have Jong (1975) felt that human predation was the factor most denned and den sites may not be known. Disturbance of likely to affect wolverine numbers. denning bears, once development is complete, should be ~~~~~~~~~~Mitigation ~negligible since bears would likely avoid denning in areas Mitigation where activity was occurring. Hanley and others (1981) found that brown bears in their dens were disturbed by Measures designed for prey species such as caribou, seismic blasting 1.2 miles away, as demonstrated by muskox, and moose will also benefit wolverines. Control of movement within the den, but no negative effect such as movement within the den, but no negative effect such as access and harvest to minimize direct mortality would be den abandonment was documented. Reynolds and others den abandonment was documented. Reynolds and others the most important determinant of effects. This control is (1983) reported that seismic vehicles or shot detonation (1983) reported that seismic vehicles or shot detonation recommended as mitigation for effects on several species. resulted in increased heart rate and movement in the dens ~~~~~~~~~Conclusion ~of instrumented brown bears. Harding and Nagy (1980) Conclusion reported brown bears successfully wintering within 1-4 miles of active oil exploration camps. Conversely, they also The cumulative effects of displacement/avoidance and reported a den being abandoned when a seismic vehicle reduced food resources could result in localized, long-term reort a den e in dn aeimiic drove over it, and den destruction during gravel mining. changes (a moderate effect) in wolverine distribution. Quimby (1974) reported that 5 of 10 brown bears Inadequate controls on access and harvest could possibly Quimby (1974) reported that 5 of 10 brown bears apparently abandoned dens in early October after being reduce by half or more the 1002 area wolverine population. fly aidens elcoter followed to their dens by helicopters. If this occurred, it would result in a major effect. 116 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Only 6 of 129 (4.7 percent) den sites documented of direct mortality, decreased prey availability, harassment, during the Arctic Refuge baseline studies were located on and disturbance in denning areas. the 1002 area (Garner and others, 1984, 1985). Therefore, the potential to disturb denning habitat and disrupt denning ARCTIC GROUND SQUIRRELS AND OTHER RODENTS activities of the regional brown bear population from oil exploration and development would be low, and impacts Arctic ground squirrels are commonly found would be expected to be minor. throughout much of the 1002 area. Moderate effects would result from localized habitat alterations such as placing Aircraft disturbance of bears is unavoidable. Doll and gravel pads over squirrel colonies. Minor effects would be others (1974) and McCourt and others (1974) reported expected as a result of road kills. variable reactions by bears to aircraft disturbance at 1,000 feet AGL or less. Douglass and others (1980) reported Other rodents, primarily lemmings and voles, are bears reacted strongly to hazing by vehicles and aircraft. naturally cyclic in abundance but can be expected to be affected somewhat by development on the 1002 area. Direct bear mortalities from accidents or being shot in Some effects may be positive--structures and debris would defense of human life and property will occur. Drug- provide protective cover from hawks, owls, or other induced death of bears occasionally occurs when nuisance predators. Negative effects could include localized bears are immobilized for relocation. Accidents, such as destruction of nesting sites and increased mortalities from vehicle collisions, could also reduce bear numbers. entrapment and traffic. Follmann and others (1980) reported 13 brown bears killed in conjunction with TAPS construction and operation during Mitigation 1971-79. The BLM (1983) estimated that oil development on NPRA in an area of bear density similar to the 1002 None additional to that already outlined is area would produce a loss of one bear annually as a result recommended. of confrontation between bears and oil development personnel. The rate of mortality would presumable be Conclusion similar on the 1002 area. Most deaths would probably result from bears' being attracted by improper garbage or Developing oil resources throughout the 1002 area food handling, or illegal feeding. would cause minor to moderate effects on squirrel populations because of habitat loss and alteration. Effects Bears that seasonally use the 1002 area are part of on lemmings and voles should be minor. the same regional population inhabiting the mountains and foothills of the Brooks Range. Hunting pressure on this MARINE MAMMALS population could increase if oil workers remained on the 1002 area during off-duty periods to pursue recreational Though 14 species of marine mammals may occur off activities. Increased harvest of bears occurred during the coast of the Arctic Refuge, only 5 species were construction of TAPS (Follmann and Hechtel, 1983). evaluated: polar bear, ringed and bearded seals, and Schallenberger (1980) similarly reported an increase in bear beluga and bowhead whales. harvest as a result of increased human presence associated with oil development. Further regulation of hunting by the State and the FWS would probably be POLAR BEARS required. Polar bears are one of the few large mammal species Mitigation present on the 1002 area during winter. In addition to those measures listed earlier in the Polar bears are particularly sensitive to human chapter, strictly enforcing prohibitions on feeding wildlife, activities during the denning period. Belikov (1976) reported adequate food storage, control of harvest, and control of that females will usually abandon their dens prematurely if aircraft flight altitudes and corridors would lessen adverse disturbed. Early den abandonment can be fatal to cubs effects of development resulting from full leasing. An active unable to fend for themselves or travel with their mother. monitoring program for brown bears during seismic Development of potential petroleum prospects in Block C exploration, construction, and other development activities could have a moderate adverse effect on the continued would help avoid disturbing denning bears. Buffer zones of suitability of the eastern portion of the 1002 area for at least 1/2 mile would be established around any known denning polar bears, substantially decreasing the habitat dens as required for previous exploration in the 1002 area values of this area. At least eight polar bear dens were [50 CFR 37.32 (c)]. located within this area between 1972 and 1985 (pl. 1). Conclusion Factors that may influence responses of denning female polar bears to disturbance include: frequency and A moderate decline in brown bear numbers or level of disturbance, distance of the disturbance from the change in distribution could result from the additive effects den, and the stage of denning when disturbance occurs. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 117 Pregnant females beginning to den in the fall are especially Polar bears are attracted by garbage dumps and vulnerable. A radio-collared female polar bear denning in could become a nuisance or threat to personnel in camps. the 1002 area emerged from her den in early February 1985 Because bears are attracted to the Barter Island area to (Amstrup, 1986b), as the suspected result of repeated scavenge on whale carcasses, nearby oil facilities could disturbance from motorized exploration support equipment experience a higher occurrence of nuisance bears than within 1,600 feet of the den site. The bear was suspected other facilities report. of being pregnant when she entered her den, even though no cubs were later observed. Mitigation Pipelines and roadways may prevent female polar Some adverse effects to polar bears could be bears from moving to and from inland denning areas reduced by documenting den locations and use areas so (Amstrup and others, 1986: Lentfer and Hensel, 1980). that oil-development activities avoid them to the maximum Disturbance from oil exploration, construction, and extent possible. Avoiding suitable denning habitat is most production in the immediate vicinity of polar bear dens important. To prevent disturbance which could cause early could cause the bears to abandon dens. Production den abandonment, buffer zones of at least 1/2 mile should activities could create disturbances that would likely keep be established around known dens, such as the zones bears from returning to those preferred denning areas. described for brown bears [50 CFR 37.32 (c)]. Activities along the coast during the late October-early November Locating petroleum resources, with resultant period when bears come ashore to den should be development and production facilities, in confirmed coastal minimized. Where possible, orienting seismic lines, denning areas could produce a major reduction in the pipelines, and roads at right angles to the coast in coastal availability of 1002 area denning habitat. Although the areas could further minimize interference with denning number of bears returning each year varies depending on bears. Also, ice quality and movement data collected by ice, snow, and weather conditions, some researchers industry should be made available to the FWS to augment believe female polar bears show fidelity to birth sites and research attempts to understand polar bear movements and try to reach areas previously used for denning (Lenffer and behavior. Such data would be invaluable in learning how to Hensel, 1980). Recent analyses suggest that mortalities of predict and minimize adverse effects of industrial activities female polar bears are now about the maximum the on polar bears. Beaufort Sea population can sustain (Amstrup and others, 1986) without a decrease in population levels. Thus, If attracted by garbage, polar bears could become a preserving undisturbed onshore denning habitat each year nuisance or threat to personnel and would need to be is very important for the 12 to 13 percent of females relocated. Proper garbage control and fencing of camps denning on land rather than offshore ice. Moreover, if would reduce this problem. Because killing polar bears by there is an especially significant area for denning on land in anyone except Alaskan Natives is prohibited under the Alaska, it is on and adjacent to the 1002 area (U.S. Fish Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, nuisance bears and Wildlife Service, unpublished data). would have to be trapped and relocated. Additional habitat value losses would result from Conclusion development of marine facilities. The Pokok port site is located in a confirmed coastal denning area: polar bears Although only a few polar bears use the 1002 area, were known to have denned within approximately 1 mile of the exclusion of only one or two bears from areas the site in 3 of the last 5 years. The Camden Bay area consistently used for denning would be a moderate impact has also been used by denning polar bears, on that segment of the Beaufort Sea population because some decline in the reproduction rate could result. Given The effects of oil development on nondenning the apparently stable Beaufort Sea population of segments of polar bear populations are not well known. approximately 2,000 polar bears, such exclusion and decline These segments of the population generally inhabit the in natality would likely not affect the species' overall pack ice throughout the year, although in the fall a number survival, so long as similar intensive developments did not of animals, primarily family groups composed of females occur along the entire northern coast of Alaska and and juveniles, are seen along the coast (Amstrup and Canada. Biologists believe that the Beaufort Sea others, 1986). Potential adverse effects to bears inhabiting population can sustain little, if any, increase in mortality of pack ice could be caused by shipping traffic and its females because population surveys and calculations show concomittant disturbance of water and ice or from an that the number of animals dying each year is accidental oil spill from a ship or loading facility. approximately equal to the population increase from Disturbance alone may not greatly affect nondenning bears, reproduction (Amstrup and others, 1986). Direct effects of oil contamination are not well known. Initial results of a study conducted in Canada (Hurst and SEALS AND WHALES others, 1982) indicate that bears forced to enter an oil slick Oil-development activities with the greatest potential and then subjected to cold temperatures and wind will die; for affecting seals and whales would be those occurring that study did not determine if polar bears will voluntarily along the immediate coast or just offshore. Under full enter an oil slick. 118 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT leasing any oil-development and production would probably encouraging early movement into northerly areas before safe occur far enough inland to have no direct effect on either ice conditions exist. seals or whales. Marine and air support facilities could affect some marine mammals, because noise producing Short-term behavioral modification in marine mammals activities generally disturb marine mammals, could occur near proposed marine facilities: changes in migrational routing, decreased time spent at the surface, Major sources of noise are low-flying aircraft or concentration or dispersion of aggregations, or changes in equipment that produces high-frequency, high-pitched swimming speeds. These changes would probably not sounds. Low-flying aircraft are known to panic hauled-out preclude successful migration. But, the ultimate effect of seals. If the disturbance is frequent during molting, disturbance may be abandonment of a particular area, and successful regrowth of skin and hair cells can be retarded, possibly reduced productivity and population size. Long- increasing physiological stress on seals during a normally term behavioral effects from noise and vessel disturbance stressful period (U.S. Minerals Management Service, 1984). have not been demonstrated or measured. Another source of noise is vehicular traffic on coastal ice roads. This source of disturbance is of concern because Dredging activities and gravel deposition during noise transmitted through the ice may be loud enough to construction could affect marine mammals through displace denning and pupping ringed seals to a degree disturbance, habitat alterations, and changes in availability sufficient to reduce reproductive success (U.S. Minerals of food sources. Noise and other disturbances from Management Service, 1984). Underwater noise from aircraft dredging, causeway construction, and support traffic could flying at altitudes of less than 2,000 feet, as well as from displace marine mammals up to approximately 2 miles from boats, has been recorded (Fraker and Richardson, 1980; the activity site during operations (U.S. Minerals Greene, 1982; Ford, 1977; Fraker and others, 1981). Such Management Service, 1983). Dredging and gravel noise may disturb or alarm marine mammals, causing them deposition could also temporarily disrupt or remove prey to flee. species for several miles downstream of dredging sites and near the port construction sites. Short-term, site-specific Fraker and others (1978) reported a startle response increases in turbidity would not be expected to adversely by beluga whales and flight from barges and boats traveling affect seals, whales, or their habitats in the coastal area. through a whale concentration area. Flight or avoidance Sediments associated with causeway construction would be could displace whales from important habitat areas. less than, but additional to, that naturally occurring during However, monitoring of beluga behavior and distribution for spring breakup or storms (Lowry and Frost, 1981). 10 years did not show any long-term or permanent displacement of whales from Mackenzie delta development Mitigation areas (Fraker, 1982). No mitigation beyond that already outlined for other Vessel operations (boats, barges, icebreakers) would species is recommended. increase with development of marine facilities at either Camden Bay or Pokok. Noise and disturbance associated Conclusion with the increase would be the activity most likely to affect bowhead whales in the area. Preliminary field experiments The continued presence of dolphins, porpoises, and on bowhead whales showed statistically significant seals in coastal marine habitats with high levels of industrial differences in behavior as a result of nearby boat activity, activity and continuous marine traffic strongly suggests that including decreased time spent at the surface, decreased at least some marine mammals are able to adjust to number of blows per surfacing, increased spreading out of manmade noise and disturbance (U.S. Minerals grouped animals, and significant changes in directional Management Service, 1984). Knowledge of marine mammal orientation (Fraker and others, 1981). Bowheads in summer behavior in association with industrial disturbance elsewhere feeding locations have been observed to move away from suggests that any behavioral changes in animals using the boats when approached to within 0.6 mile, and sometimes Arctic coast would be minor as a result of petroleum to within 1.9 miles (Fraker and others, 1982). There was development on the 1002 area. no evidence that bowheads abandoned any area where they have been disturbed by a boat; their flight responses seemed to be brief. Whether frequent or continuous boat BIRDS operations would ultimately cause bowheads to vacate an area or would lower their reproductive fitness is unknown Factors that may directly affect birds using the 1002 (Fraker and others, 1982). Conclusive evidence of effects area include shoreline alteration; facility siting; gravel mining; from boat traffic on bowhead migration patterns or behavior dredge and fill operations; contaminants from reserve pits, during migration does not exist. East of Barrow, traditional drill muds, and fluids; pipeline and road construction; and spring migration of bowheads is seaward from the associated developments. The responses of birds to coastline. If icebreaking vessels are used to support 1002 human disturbances such as road traffic, aircraft flights and area development supply needs, artificial leads may be other development-related activities are highly variable and created. These leads could alter migration chronology, depend on factors such as species; physiological or ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 119 reproductive state; season; distance from disturbance; and numbers. The effect to 1002 area populations could be type, intensity, and duration of disturbance. major if a spill occurred in lagoons during peak molting, staging or migration periods. Effects could also extend to Adverse effects on birds from further exploration are other bird populations which migrate along the Arctic likely to be minor. Habitat modification and disturbance will Refuge coast. have their greatest effect during oil field development and production. Of primary concern would be permanent The alteration of habitat and food chains by oil or habitat loss from facility sitings, roads, and pipelines. other contaminant spills may affect birds through direct Approximately 5,650 acres of tundra habitat would be ingestion or contact. These effects are apt to be more destroyed and at least an additional 7,000 acres would be subtle and prolonged. Because most breeding and many modified due to dust and gravel spray, different rates of nonbreeding birds depend on invertebrate food sources snowmelt, and changes in water drainage. Effects of during at least a portion of their stay on the North Slope, habitat modification and disturbance are discussed in terms pollution-induced depression of invertebrate populations may of the five bird categories used in Chapter II: swans, influence survival and reproduction. geese, and ducks; seabirds and shorebirds; raptors; ptarmigan; and passerines. Oil spills can affect invertebrates through direct mortality by smothering, contact toxicity, toxicity of soluble SWANS, GEESE, AND DUCKS compounds, destruction of sensitive eggs and larvae, and sublethal effects such as destruction of food sources, Disturbance associated with exploration and reduced tolerance to stress, interference with behavioral and development, especially from air traffic near nesting integrative mechanisms, and concentration of carcinogens waterfowl, could reduce productivity of waterfowl and may or other toxic compounds in the food chain (Percy and cause abandonment of important nesting, feeding, and Mullin, 1975). A closer examination of sublethal effects staging areas. Studies in the Arctic indicate that black upon physiological functioning shows that such sublethal brant and common eider had lower nesting success in effects may cause death of an organism over an extended disturbed areas (Gollop, Davis, and others, 1974). period (Percy and Mullin, 1975). Mortality may result from a Schweinsburg (1972) reported that snow geese were combination of behavioral and physiological disfunction, particularly sensitive to aircraft disturbance during pre- reduced feeding and stress, increased predation, and long- migratory staging. Conversely, studies by Ward and Sharp term increases in metabolic rate (Percy and Mullin, 1975). (1973) and Gollop, Goldsberry, and Davis (1974) indicate the unlikelihood of long-term displacement or abandonment In their study of major oil spills, Teal and Howarth of important molting and feeding areas by oldsquaw from (1984) concluded that the effect on aquatic invertebrates occasional aircraft disturbance. ranged from massive kills and total eradication of microbenthos communities to elimination of only the A small increase in direct waterfowl mortality would sensitive species. Effects on phytoplankton populations be possible. Road kills of hens and flightless broods could included changes in species dominance, depression of occur as well as some aircraft-bird collisions. Several biomass, or increased biomass brought about by the investigators (Sopuck and others, 1979; Blokpoel and reduction of zooplankton grazers. In some cases, Hatch, 1976; Cornwell and Hackbaum, 1971; Anderson, invertebrate populations were still depressed 6 to 7 years 1978) have reported mortalities when waterfowl strike after the spill. In other spills, recovery occurred within a manmade objects, particularly powerlines. Some poaching year. Recovery of aquatic systems in Arctic waters would could also occur. be much slower (Percy and Mullin, 1975). Nest predation appears to be a significant source of An experimental spill of Prudhoe Bay crude oil by natural mortality for waterbirds on the North Slope. Should Barsdale and others (1980) on a tundra pond eliminated raven, gull, or arctic fox populations increase as a result of several invertebrate species from the pond for at least 6 poor housekeeping practices at facility sites (uncontrolled years. These included fresh-water aquatic invertebrates garbage dumps or feeding), predation on waterfowl nests utilized by breeding tundra birds. and young could increase. Wright and Fancy (1980), studying the effects of an exploratory drilling operation at The effect on North Slope bird populations from Point Thomson, Alaska, found that a large proportion of changes in water quality of tundra ponds as a result of waterfowl nests were lost to predators at both the drill site reserve pit discharges has not been studied. However, and the control area. At least 50 percent of loon nests along with deteriorations in water quality, as discussed failed prior to hatching and five of eight waterfowl clutches previously, the quality and quantity of aquatic organisms were taken by predators, mostly arctic foxes. Disturbance used as food by waterfowl may be considered as also that causes adults to temporarily abandon their nest or decreasing, thereby reducing habitat values (R.L. West and young can also increase predation. E. Snyder-Conn, unpublished data). Oil and other contaminant spills could kill waterfowl, Sources of direct waterfowl mortality would include: particularly in lagoons where waterfowl congregate in large shooting; strikes with towers, transmission lines, antennas, 120 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT and other structures (particularly during the frequent foggy snow geese within 0.5 mile. Hampton and Joyce (1985) weather); predation; and environmental contaminants. The reported that snow geese were disturbed by general activity annual loss would be highly variable, depending on the associated with oil-development at Prudhoe Bay. Wiseley number of waterfowl using the area and weather. (1974) did report limited habituation to disturbance over time. Tundra swans concentrate in the 1002 area in the Canning-Tamayariak delta, Hulahula-Okpilak delta, Aichilik- Existing data on the degree of displacement are Egaksrak-Kongakut delta, and Jago River wetlands inconclusive. Table VI-7 shows the amount of habitat that (Brackney and others, 1985a). Up to 100 nests have been could be affected by development resulting from full leasing, found and 400 to 500 swans have used the Arctic Refuge assuming snow geese are displaced 1.5 and 3 miles as coastal plain; most of this use is on the 1002 area. observed by Gollop and Davis (1974). Habitat values could be lost on up to 45 percent of the preferred staging area Direct loss of tundra swan habitat would be relatively on the 1002 area and 27 percent of the total preferred limited (pl. 3A). An area of low-density swan use could be staging area in the Arctic Refuge with an assumed 3-mile affected by development in Block C. Marine facilities at displacement. A 1.5-mile displacement would result in lost Camden Bay or Pokok would also adversely affect swan habitat values on nearly 31 percent of the preferred staging habitat. Transportation corridors would have little effect on area within the 1002 area and up to 18 percent of the total tundra swan nesting and staging areas, because they are preferred staging area within the Arctic Refuge. sited away from coastal areas where most nesting occurs. Repeated disturbance from air or surface traffic, or other An average of 105,000 snow geese (15 to 20 percent activities associated with development, might cause nest of the Banks Island population) stage on the 1002 area, abandonment where nests and those activities occur in the building energy reserves prior to their southward migration. same area. Nevertheless, swan nests and use areas have During some years, as many as 325,000 snow geese have been observed less than 2 miles from the village of staged on this part of the 1002 area. Patterson (1974) Kaktovik (Brackney and others, 1985a). reported an increase of 7.2 ounces of fat and 1.7 ounces of muscle (wet weight) in juvenile snow geese while they Snow geese would experience a direct loss of over were on the 1002 area. Brackney (unpublished data) found 2,900 acres of their historically used staging habitat in an average daily gain of 0.6 ounces and 0.7 ounces of fat Blocks B, C, and D (pl. 3_). Nearly 2,000 acres is (dry weight) for adult male and female snow geese, considered preferred staging habitat that is used by respectively. Juveniles gained an average 0.5 oz/day. approximately 75 percent of the snow geese using the 1002 Reduced time spent feeding and lost habitat in which to area in any given year. Because this habitat represents feed would result from petroleum development, adversely less than 1 percent of the total preferred staging habitat affecting accumulation of the energy reserves essential for available in the 1002 area, direct loss of habitat values migration. Davis and Wiseley (1974) estimated that staging would result in minor effects. Moreover, staging snow juvenile snow geese unable to adjust to aircraft disturbance geese are highly mobile. accumulated 20.4 percent less energy reserves due to lost feeding time. Energy reductions of this magnitude could Disturbance resulting in indirect habitat loss could reduce the survival of migrating geese. have a greater effect on snow geese. They are highly sensitive to aircraft disturbance. Studies in northeast Mitigation Alaska and northwest Canada reported that snow geese flush in response to fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters Measures outlined for other species also apply to passing by at 100-10,000 feet AGL and distances of 0.5-9 waterfowl: careful facilities siting, as well as controls on miles (Salter and Davis, 1974; Davis and Wiseley, 1974; surface activities, air transportation, and hunting. Reserve pit Barry and Spencer, 1976; Spindler, 1984). Spindler (1984) fluid discharges and other contaminants should be found that fixed-wing aircraft flying at low-altitudes produced adequately controlled. Powerlines should be designed to less disturbance than when flying at higher altitudes. He minimize losses from bird strikes by burying or attaching to attributed this to reduced lateral dispersion of sound. pipelines or otherwise eliminating the need for poles. Davis and Wiseley (1974) reported limited habituation to Increased hunting from workers in the area will occur but aircraft disturbance; after several passes with a helicopter will be kept to a minimum level by the assumed prohibition flushing distance decreased. Flight distance of the geese of discharging firearms around development areas. The decreased after several passes of a fixed-wing aircraft. judicious placement of transportation corridors south of coastal nesting areas would be particularly important for Disturbance by vehicle traffic, drilling, human tundra swans. presence, or other causes could extend up to 3 miles from the source. Gollop and Davis (1974) reported that the Conclusion noise from a gas-compressor-simulator disturbed staging snow geese 3 miles away from the source at Komakuk A decline in waterfowl use on the 1002 area could Beach, Yukon Territory, Canada. Some birds, however, occur. Indirect mortality would result from the cumulative eventually returned to within 1.5 miles of the noise. Wiseley loss of nesting and feeding habitat, persistent disturbance (1974) reported similar noise disturbance which displaced ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 121 Table VI-7.--Snow goose staging habitat potentially affected by development under full leasing or limited leasing, assuming 1.5- and 3-mile spheres of influence. [Preferred staging is defined herein as the area used by approximately 75 percent of the staging snow geese on the refuge in any given year. Peripheral staging is defined herein as the area used by staging snow geese, excluding the preferred staging area.] Preferred Peripheral T otagin staging staging area Staging habitat within the Arctic Refuge (acres)........ . .........888,000 460,000 1 .348,000 Staging habitat within 1002 area (acres) ........ . ...............529,000 307,000 837,0001 Assuming a 1.5-mile sphere of influence: Staging habitat affected (acres) Full leasing................. ............................162,000 101,000 263,000 Limited leasing ............... ..........................95,000 67,000 162,000 Percent of staging habitat within 1002 area Full leasing... . .........................................31 33 31 Limited leasing... . ......................................18 22 19 Percent of staging habitat within Arctic Refuge4 Full leasing..1...........................................i 22 20 Limited leasing... . ......................................11 15 12 Assuming a 3-mile sphere of influence: Staging habitat affected (acres) Full leasing................. ............................236,000 155,000 391,000 Limited leasing................. .........................135,000 104,000 239,000 Percent of staging habitat within 1002 area Full leasing.............................................45 50- 47 Limited leasing... . ......................................26 34 29 Percent of staging habitat within Arctic Refuge Full leasing... . .........................................27 34 29 Limited leasing... . ......................................15 23 18 from development activities, and spills or contaminants from preferred staging habitat, a reduction in the Banks Island reserve pits and other facilities. Direct mortality from road population or change in distribution of an average of 5-10 kills, aircraft, bird strikes with structures, and poaching is percent could occur. The average number of snow geese expected to be minor. With effective implementation of annually staging on the 1002 area could be reduced by4 mitigation and use of recent knowledge about previous oil almost 50 percent. Because of highly variable annual use1 development on the North Slope, the overall effect is of the 1002 area, actual effects could vary widely from year expected to be minor for ducks, tundra swans, and geese to year. other than snow geese. Operational needs, weather, and safety of equipment and personnel may limit the SEABIRDS AND SHOREBIRDS effectiveness of aircraft altitude and corridor restrictions as well as some time and area closures. Development in the 1002 area would have widely varying effects on seabird and shorebird species, A major reduction or change in distribution of snow depending on time of year, location, and type and intensity geese using the 1002 area could occur through the of disturbance. Nesting seabirds are likely to be more cumulative effects of direct habitat loss, indirect habitat loss susceptible to development activity than nonbreeders and due to disturbance, and direct mortality. Disturbance will can be expected to avoid nesting close to areas with visualI cause subsequent loss of feeding areas and feeding time, or noise disturbances. Nesting attempts in disturbed areas as well as energy drain, and would be the single largest may be less successful, as has been observed with Arctic negative force causing losses in habitat value. Based upon terns (Gollop, Davis, and others, 1974). past historical use of the 1002 area by some of the Banks Island, Canada, snow goose population and the assumed Coastal development sites in Block C and at the displacement of these geese from 45 percent of their Pokok and Camden Bay sites, as well as development 122 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT facilities inland where gulls, terns, and jaegers often nest, Conclusion could cause locally moderate effects on some nesting seabird populations. Spilled or leached contaminants from Overall effects to seabird and shorebird populations reserve pits or other sources could enter the food chain, on the 1002 area would be minor if facilities and activities reducing invertebrate foods or resulting in accumulation of were minimized in the riparian and coastal habitats where toxic substances. nesting and staging are most concentrated. Moderate effects could occur where local development is intensive in Some positive effects on seabirds can be expected. areas with high seabird and shorebird use. In spite of mitigation, a certain amount of debris can be expected. Black guillemots are known to nest in old oil RAPTORS drums and other debris and may respond favorably in some instances if more nesting sites are inadvertently made The gently rolling terrain of the 1002 area provides available. Local glaucous gull numbers could increase only limited habitat for cliff-nesting raptor species, where considerably around sanitary landfills because of the rivers have cut steep banks or exposed rock cliffs. The artificial food source. Over time, other gull species could 1002 area is important foraging habitat for the few cliff- also be expected to use such areas. Possible long-term nesting birds of prey that nest there and for those that increases to gull populations could be moderate to major, nest farther south in the foothills and mountains. Short- as a result of increased food. A population increase in eared and snowy owls nest in the open tundra and feed gulls could have a negative effect on other seabird species throughout the 1002 area, and in years when prey is because gulls eat the eggs and young of other birds. abundant, owls are common. Glaucous gull predation on Canada goose and Pacific brant eggs in the Lisburne oil field was recently documented by Raptors, like most birds, are acutely sensitive to Murphy and others (1986), who noted that predation upon disturbance during their nesting period. If disturbed goose eggs may be exacerbated by "an unnaturally high repeatedly, raptors typically abandon nests. During gull population in the Prudhoe Bay area." A nearby open construction of the Terror Lake hydroelectric project on dump may be the cause of the high gull population. Kodiak Island in 1983, rough-legged hawks were absent from areas where they had successfully nested in 1980 and Because of widespread and intensive use of the 1002 1982 (Zwiefelhofer, 1985). With completion of the dam and area by shorebirds, there is a potential for a variety of elimination of a construction camp in that area, three of adverse effects from petroleum development activities. As four hawk nests were again active in 1984. In contrast, with seabirds, these effects include disturbance of nesting however, gyrfalcons nested successfully within 1 mile of an birds, ingestion of contaminants, or reduction of food airstrip built to support an exploratory well in the NPRA. resources because of contaminant spills. Shorebird nesting The nest was occupied during construction activities and and staging concentrations occur primarily along the coast was located on the flight path used by approaching aircraft in riparian habitats (pl. 3_). Wet tundra and river deltas are (P.E. Reynolds, unpublished data). important to migratory and staging birds. Habitats with a good mix of wet and dry terrain are ideal nesting sites for Potential conflicts in the 1002 area in known high- most shorebird species. density raptor nesting habitat used by rough-legged hawks, gyrfalcons, and peregrine falcons (see section on Recent work near Prudhoe Bay has shown that Threatened and Endangered Species) could occur from reduced numbers of shorebirds occur near roads in the oil road, collecting-line, and drill-pad systems located in Blocks field (Troy and others, 1983; Troy, 1984). Direct habitat A and D (pl. 3D). Carefully siting access and development loss by gravel placement and impoundments as well as facilities would reduce conflicts. Short-eared and snowy effects from dust and noise could occur. Other potential owls which nest on the open tundra could experience effects, including occasional mortalities from traffic, collisions some reduction of nesting habitat. with towers and communications equipment, and contaminant spills, could occur to a lesser degree. The Once nesting habitat needs are met, raptor thaw-lake plains area in the lower Okpilak, Jago, and populations and distribution vary with prey availability. Niguanak River systems are high use areas that would be There would be limited conflict between most raptor nesting affected by development of potentially economic prospects habitat and potential development. Adverse effects would in Block C. Any development on KIC coastal habitats be directly related to the adverse effects on their prey base, would increase potential negative effects on coastal birds. such as small rodents, ptarmigan, and waterfowl. These effects are generally expected to be minor. Mitigation In 1984, the most common cliff-nesting raptor using Carefully placing facilities, restricting transportation, the 1002 area was the golden eagle (Amaral, 1985; Mauer, and controlling pollutants would also minimize adverse 1985b). Golden eagle distribution appears to be positively effects to seabirds and shorebirds. correlated with caribou calving and postcalving use areas (Mauer, 1985b). The major effects anticipated on the PCH from development could cause an effect on golden eagles ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 123 because of decreased prey abundance or modified disturbance to prey upon eggs and young. Jaegers have distribution. This effect would be moderate rather than been observed to hover over people hiking across the major because the affected birds are primarily immature tundra waiting for them to flush possible prey (R.L. West, (nonreproducing), and some other food sources do exist to unpublished data). help meet their needs. Mitigation Direct mortality of raptors resulting from collisions with towers, planes, or electrical wires would be minor. To minimize habitat losses and disturbance in areas particularly important to ptarmigan, permanent facilities Mitigation should not be located within a 3/4-mile buffer zone around identified riparian areas. Measures designed to reduce adverse effects to caribou during calving and post-calving could lessen effects Conclusion of reduced prey for golden eagles. The effect on rock and willow ptarmigan would Siting and designing powerlines and towers to probably be negligible. minimize potential strikes, as discussed for waterbirds, will reduce direct mortality to a minor effect. PASSERINES Restricting activities in known high density nesting Several passerine, or perching, bird species are areas near Sadlerochit Springs and Bitty Benchmark would found throughout the 1002 area. Riparian willow habitat is further minimize adverse effects of oil development. used by many passerines for nesting and other activities (pl. 3_). Coastal areas are also important, especially for Other restrictions should include: staging prior to migration. A buffer zone 3/4 mile out from the high-water mark of streams would protect most of the 1. The authority to require aircraft to maintain 1,500-foot riparian willow habitat important to many passerine species. altitude (above nest level) within 1 mile horizontal River crossings, marine facilities, and development of distance of nest sites from April 15 through August economic prospects in Block C could cause minor 31 (or June 1 if a nest is found inactive). reductions in habitat availability or suitability, and nesting success of passerines. 2. Permitting activities within 1 mile of active rough- legged hawk, golden eagle, gyrfalcon, and peregrine Unless carefully controlled, contaminants could be falcon nests on a site by site basis. released in fuel spills or breaching of reserve pits so drill muds and fluids flow across the tundra. Contaminant spills 3. Prohibiting permanent facilities and long-term habitat could have severe local effects of direct mortality and alterations from materiel sites, roads, and airstrips contamination of foods. within 1 mile of rough-legged hawk, golden eagle, gyrfalcon, and peregrine falcon nest sites, unless Lapland longspurs are the most common passerine specifically authorized by the FWS. species found in the 1002 area. They nest outside riparian zones and are often abundant in a variety of tundra habitats. Most proposed surface development in the 1002 Conclusion area could be expected to affect some longspur nesting, mainly by covering vegetated habitat with gravel. Only a The golden eagle population using the 1002 area minor effect is anticipated because of the abundance of the could be expected to decline moderately or change species and its ability to use many common habitat types distribution as a result of major adverse effects on the found in the 1002 area. PCH, an important prey species. Other raptors using the coastal plain could experience a minor decline in nesting Minor to moderate positive effects may occur for two success as a result of disturbance. other passerine species. Snow buntings frequently nest in buildings and could find increased nesting opportunities PTARMIGAN with the construction of oil facilities. Ravens, being scavengers, might find increased food availability around Some ptarmigan habitat would be covered by landfills and construction camps, as well as from carrion structures and gravel fill. Habitat losses would be most along roadways. noticeable where facilities were placed in high-use riparian willow areas. Some increase in mortality could be expected Mitigation from hunting and traffic. Disturbance of nesting or brooding ptarmigan could occur if people or vehicles came The 3/4-mile buffer zone for ptarmigan would also too close to nesting birds, scaring off hens or scattering protect most of the riparian willow habitat important to the young flocks. Predators take advantage of such many passerine species. 124 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Conclusion Rivers (pl. 1l). Ensuring that effects on char are minimized would require that the number of river crossings was limited Restricting development in riparian areas and and all crossings were properly designed. Development of controlling contaminants, coupled with the potential for potential prospects and associated transportation corridors positive effects on snow buntings and ravens, would result in Blocks A and B could create local minor adverse effects in overall minor negative effects of habitat loss and mortality on fresh-water fish populations in the Canning and to passerines as a group. Tamayariak Rivers. Arctic char, grayling, and other fresh- water fishes use these rivers for spawning, rearing, feeding, FISH and overwintering. Local populations of grayling use the Tamayariak River for feeding, spawning, and rearing their Arctic char are the most sought after sport and young. Development in Block A would require both water subsistence fish species on the 1002 area. Arctic grayling and gravel. If these materials were taken from the are second only to char in providing freshwater sport and Tamayariak River, moderate adverse effects on grayling subsistence use. Grayling are found in more river systems would result. than char but are in large concentrations at only a few locations. Grayling are not as tolerant of salinity as char The Canning River is the only system in the area to and spend most of their lives in fresh water. Other fresh- have known populations of other fresh-water species, water fish (whitefish, burbot, salmon, smelt, and lake trout) excluding ninespine sticklebacks which are common in are not addressed in great detail because they are generally many coastal streams and lakes. Sticklebacks, though not common nor taken regularly in the 1002 area by sport having no importance as a sport or subsistence fish, are an or subsistence fishing. important food source for other fish and birds. Culverts and other crossings should be constructed to avoid Both direct (habitat loss or alteration) and indirect stranding sticklebacks in areas that do not provide (increased regional fishing pressure) effects on fish would overwintering habitat. occur from oil development. Water withdrawal in critical areas and/or during critical time periods, and gravel removal There are 62 species of fish that use coastal waters from fish-bearing stream systems would not be permitted. off the 1002 area (Craig, 1984). Docks and causeways at Aspects of oil-development that could negatively affect fish the Camden Bay and Pokok port sites could create are direct mortality or reduced invertebrate food resources physical barriers, cause changes in water chemistry, and resulting from oil or other contaminant spills, failure of cause direct mortality at water-intake structures. Population sewage and waste-water disposal systems, blasting, and declines of coastal fish could be compounded if offshore problems from channelization, culverts, and barriers to and adjacent onshore development occurred, or coastal migration. The longevity and types of effects to development near Prudhoe Bay expanded inasmuch as invertebrates from oil and other contaminant spills were many of the anadromous species exhibit major east-west discussed previously. Overharvest could occur from nearshore movements. Oil spills in coastal areas could sportfishing by the large numbers of people brought in to result in major population reductions depending on the work in the 1002 area. time, amount, and type of material spilled. Most of the arctic char populations are anadromous Mitigation and individual populations or year classes can be adversely affected over a wide range of fresh-water and brackish- Properly locating and designing road and pipeline water habitats in which they migrate. Major migration crossings and constructing those facilities when fish are not corridors are the Canning and Aichilik Rivers, which form concentrated in the area will minimize impacts to fish. the western and eastern boundaries, respectively, of the Further mitigation should include carefully locating and 1002 area, and the Hulahula River, roughly midway between constructing docks, causeways and other water-based them. The Canning River probably has the largest char run structures. Water quality and quantity in fish-bearing rivers of any river in the area. The Hulahula River is likely the and streams must be assured. Gravel removal and other greatest contributor to the subsistence catch of char. stream alterations in important fish habitats should be Development near any of these three rivers could adversely restricted. Appropriate containment procedures and spill affect arctic char. The pipeline and access road would contingency plans for oil and other contaminants will also probably cross the Hulahula River to accommodate reduce potential effects of oil development on fish by development in the eastern part of the 1002 area. More minimizing direct mortality or reductions in invertebrate or than one crossing would increase the potential for adverse aquatic plant food resources. Mitigation measures effects of decreased habitat suitability. designed to adequately protect arctic char and arctic grayling will protect other fresh-water species. Proper Grayling make extensive migrations to and from culverting of road systems will reduce the potential of spawning, rearing, feeding, and overwintering sites. trapping fish in areas that do not provide overwintering Because individual river stocks occur, the 1002 area habitat. Season and creel limits may be adjusted to protect population is vulnerable to impacts over a wide area. Major sportfish from overharvest in certain areas if populations arctic grayling populations are found in the Canning, become stressed. Tamayariak, Sadlerochit, Hulahula, Okpilak, and Aichilik ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 125 Conclusion number as a result of oil development. Some peregrine mortalities might result from collisions with towers, planes, The recommended mitigation measures reduce the or electrical wires. effects of oil development on arctic char to minor. Arctic grayling may be moderately affected locally in upper Petrochemical or other toxic materials could be reaches of the Tamayariak River, but would otherwise accumulated if peregrines ingest prey contaminated as a experience only minor impacts. Effects on other fresh-water result of spills or leaks from reserve pits. fish populations would also be local and minor. Development of KIC/ASRC lands or offshore areas could Mitigation result in moderate effects on coastal fish through lost or reduced habitat values, inhibited movements, and direct Mitigation would include controlling aircraft, noise, mortality. Development of the 1002 area would result in surface activities, or other disturbances within 1-2 miles of minor effects on coastal fish populations in the vicinity of active nest sites, April 15-August 31. Construction of port sites. Elsewhere, the effects on coastal fish will be permanent facilities or other long-term habitat alterations negligible. If an oil spill occurs along the coast or in fresh- (materiel sites, roads, and airstrips) within 1 mile of historic water fish habitats, the effect to fish could become major. nest sites would require special authorization by the FWS. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES Approved handling procedures for chemicals and toxicants will permit little or no adverse effects from BOWHEAD AND GRAY WHALES contaminants. As discussed for other bird species, transmission lines would be designed to minimize the See previous discussion under Seals and Whales. potential for collisions. ARCTIC PEREGRINE FALCON Conclusion Arctic peregrines are absent from the 1002 area from Mitigation will reduce effects to peregrine falcon to mid-September through April. Oil and gas activities during minor as concluded in the July 28, 1982, biological opinion the summer when peregrines are present could have some appended to the Environmental Impact Statement and minor adverse effects. regulations for the exploration program in the 1002 area (FEIS, 1983). Protective restrictions (a 2-mile area closure) Habitat suitable for cliff-nesting birds of prey is not for the historic nest sites at Sadlerochit Springs and Bitty abundant on the 1002 area. No direct loss or alteration of Benchmark on the Jago River (pl. 3), and any occupied historic peregrine eyries would be permitted under the terms eyries located through annual surveys, should result in only of the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531). Formal minor adverse effects from disturbance and displacement. consultation under terms of the Endangered Species Act Prey reductions are generally expected to be no more than may be required once a development proposal is prepared. minor. Consequently, no reduction in the peregrine Loss of suitable nesting habitat as a result of facilities population would be expected. Exploration between June 1 placement would be minor since facilities would not be (if a nest remains inactive) or August 31 (if a nest becomes permitted within 2 miles of an eyrie or potential nesting active) and April 15 each year could be allowed with habitat, negligible effects on peregrines. Human presence, air traffic, and construction activities Effects on Socioeconomic Environment near peregrine eyries may disturb nesting birds. Type, distance, frequency, and intensity of disturbance affect how POPULATION peregrines react. Frightened adults flushed from an eyrie can injure or kill young. Peregrines may temporarily desert Oil development in the 1002 area would increase the an eyrie after a disturbance, resulting in overcooling, local population due to transient workers and support overheating, or excess moisture loss from eggs; chilling, service personnel. Additionally, North Slope Borough job heat prostration, or malnutrition of the young; or predation opportunities would probably be created through tax on both eggs and young (Alaska Peregrine Falcon Recovery benefits to the Capital Improvement Program as has Team; Roseneau and others, 1980). Disturbance may also occurred from Prudhoe Bay development. Many jobs result in premature fledging causing injury or death of would be generated as a direct result of oil exploration, nestlings (Roseneau and others, 1980). The first sites to production, and transportation. Each exploratory and be deserted in areas studied in Alaska were those eyries confirmation drilling operation could require 50-75 people closest to human activity (Haugh and Halperin, 1976). during construction of the airfield and drill pad, and 50-60 people during drilling. Drilling during production phases Peregrines could be adversely affected during would use slightly smaller construction and drilling crews migration through the 1002 area from late August to mid- because much of the needed infrastructure (roads, airfields, September. Food could be reduced for peregrines if prey etc.) would already be in place. Employment levels would (shorebirds and waterfowl) are displaced or reduced in be highest during the initial construction. As noted on 126 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT figure I111-1 (see also figure V-I), mapped prospects in the availability of harvested resources or the ability of local 1002 area may be grouped into three general "regions." people to reach traditional harvest areas. The presence of During peak construction, an estimated 1,500 people would up to 6,000 workers could result in competition for local be employed per region. Operation and maintenance for resources, particularly if any workers become residents of each of these regions would require 200-500 people. An Kaktovik and thus spend more free time in or near the 1002 additional 450-900 people would be employed for 2-3 years area. Subsistence hunting would be restricted by safety to construct the primary road network and pipeline in each requirements or for pipeline security. Loss of traditional region. Rehabilitation of the entire coastal plain after the oil harvest sites would occur in the vicinity of oil development fields are no longer economically productive could require facilities or where facilities disturb or displace fish and as many as 1,500 people for several years. wildlife resources. Although unlikely, if peak construction occurred Caribou is the staple land mammal in the Kaktovik throughout the 1002 area at one time, up to 6,000 jobs subsistence diet. They are hunted nearly year-round, with (drilling and construction of oil-field and main trunk pipeline) most Kaktovik households participating in the harvest (table could be created. During the 30-year field life, 200-500 11-3). Overall, 83 percent of Kaktovik's 1983-84 caribou permanent jobs would be located within each prospective harvest was within the 1002 area (Coffing and Pedersen, oil region or 600-1,500 permanent jobs in the 1002 area. 1985). Consequently, caribou are of primary concern because of the major and moderate adverse effects on the The year-round population at Kaktovik would probably PCH and CAH, respectively, which are anticipated under full not increase dramatically, although no increase in job leasing. Major changes in distribution or population opportunities is expected without oil development in the reductions could result in a major restriction of subsistence 1002 area. Most oil-field workers in the 1002 area would use to the village of Kaktovik because of the reduced have permanent residences elsewhere, as do workers at availability of this species at preferred harvest locations, as the Prudhoe Bay complex and at military DEW-line facilities. well as throughout the 1002 area. The greatest effects on A few small support industries might locate at Kaktovik, other villages will be where the PCH, the most widely used resulting in increased employment opportunities and some migratory resource, is a significant component of the diet. population increases. Moderate effects to the CAH would primarily affect Conclusion Kaktovik, the village closest to the CAH segment which will be adversely affected by oil development. A moderate increase in the permanent population at Kaktovik could occur. Elsewhere on the North Slope, and Development of any potentially economic prospects in Fairbanks, Anchorage, or south-central Alaska, the found in the Canning River delta area within Block A would increase would be negligible to minor. conflict with a winter and summer harvest area used intensively by Kaktovik residents. Because caribou are EXISTING LAND USE likely to avoid traditional calving grounds or their SUBSISTENCE USE movements may be inhibited by development in Blocks C and D, loss of traditional harvest sites is a significant concern. Any inhibition to free movements during Most effects on subsistence are directly related to concern. Any inhibition to free movements during change s in the availability o f subsistence resources postcalving when caribou move back and forth to insect- changes in the availability of subsistence resources. relief areas along the coast could be particularly detrimental, Reductions in fish and wildlife populations, displacement of because most subsistence harvest occurs along the coast fish and wildlife from areas of traditional harvest, an during July and August Marine facilities at Camden Bay during July and August. Marine facilities at Camden Bay reduced access to those resources will adversely affect and Pokok as well as development of any potentially subsistence uses. Kaktovik would be the village most subic u. weconomic prospects which extend to the coast in Block C, directly affected. The more distant communities of Arctic have the greatest probability of direct conf lct with Village, Venetie, Fort Yukon, and Old Crow, Canada, whose subsistence users. Those coastal areas have been residents rely on caribou from the PCH found in the 1002 intensively used fo r caribou hunting since 1923, and harvest intensively used for caribou hunting since 1923, and harvest area, would experience indirect effects. concentrations have been located there in recent years (pl. 2D). Based on the 1981-83 harvests of caribou during July Effects of oil development on fish, wildlife, and their Effects of oil development on fish, wildlife, and their only, the availability of, and easy access to the PCH during habitats were previously described. The severity of those postcalving may be an important factor in determining effects Is summarized at the end of this chapter. annual harvest levels (Pedersen and Coffing, 1984). The Resources of greatest concern relative to their importance July 1981 caribou harvest was three because postcalving in local subsistence use and likely severity of adverse caribou did not occur close to Kaktovik But in 1982 effects from full leasing are the Porcupine and Central Arctic postcalving caribou were numerous along the coast east of caribou herds. Waterfowl, fish, whales, and polar bears, the Sadlerochit River and even came onto Barter Island in are also of some concern. large numbers; the July harvest then was 82. With post- Oil development would reduce access to subsistence calving caribou in moderate numbers along the coast east use areas. The transportation infrastructure could affect the of the Hulahula in 1983, the July harvest was 29. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 127 Another potential impact to subsistence is the spills). Noticeable effects in other villages which take avoidance of industrialized areas by village hunters. At beluga whales are not expected because only minor, local present, part of the North Slope subsistence hunting range effects are anticipated to that species. is within the rapidly industrializing central portion of the North Slope. Caribou hunting activity there by Kaktovik Although generally only one or two are taken, polar residents has declined in recent years. Pedersen and bears are used by most Kaktovik households because of Coffing (1984) suggested that confusion over special community sharing of resources. While the effects of oil harvest regulations associated with the industrialized area, development on nondenning segments of the polar bear lack of caribou in the area, disruption of access routes, or population are not well known, development activities may other reasons may have deterred Kaktovik caribou hunters. exclude female polar bears from denning in preferred Such avoidance could occur on parts of the 1002 area that onshore habitats in the eastern and coastal portions of the were developed. Given the nearness and greater use of 1002 area. Polar bears are used for subsistence and in the 1002 area by Kaktovik residents, such avoidance would recent years more bears have been available than have severely limit the amount of area and resources available for been taken. Kaktovik elders recognize the sensitivity of the subsistence uses. polar bear denning and no bears were taken during 1982-86 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpublished data). Waterfowl are also used by residents of Kaktovik. Consequently there is some potential for a decrease in the Effects on major waterfowl species used for subsistence availability of polar bears for subsistence take. are expected to be minor. The only major effects predicted for waterfowl are for snow geese, a species present during Specific subsistence hunting areas of concern vary fall staging. Due to difficulties in accessing snow geese with season. For example, although inland hunting by use areas at that time and whaling activities, snow geese Kaktovik residents occurs much less during summer than are not currently a major component of the subsistence during winter, subsistence activities on the coast greatly diet. increase during the summer. Therefore summer operations along the coast could temporarily disrupt subsistence uses. Fishing was pursued by all Kaktovik households Development of permanent port facilities and associated surveyed in 1984 (table 11-3). Adverse effects on fish could access corridors would be a permanent disruption. affect this activity, although effects would be minor. Locally moderate effects on grayling in the Tamayariak River could Activities may also physically impact Traditional Land result with development in Block A, which is not an Use Inventory sites of the Arctic Refuge study area, many important subsistence harvest area. The moderately of which have present-use value as subsistence sites negative effect on coastal fish likely if oil is also developed (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982). These sites may or may on KIC/ASRC lands or offshore areas would be the most not have tangible remains, and in many cases their noticeable effect on subsistence use of those species. If boundaries cannot be easily delimited. Knowledge of an any oil spills occur, effects on fish could become major. area and how to hunt it are skills gained and passed down Even in small quantities, spilled hydrocarbons can taint fish, through years of experience. These skills cannot be making them inedible (Crutchfield, 1979). quickly acquired if subsistence users are forced to hunt new areas, and displacement of subsistence users from The overall low level of adverse effects expected for traditional use areas is expected to result in reduced fish suggests minor adverse effects on subsistence uses. harvest success. However, there is potential for disturbance of traditional fishing sites and access may be modified. The main haul A policy that prohibits the discharge of all firearms road/pipeline would have to be crossed to reach both the and hunting and trapping within 5 miles of development First and Second Fishing Holes on the Hulahula River areas could result in major adverse effects by limiting (pl. 1B). The Hulahula River is the most important winter resources and areas traditionally harvested in over half of fishing river to Kaktovik residents (Jacobson and the 1002 area. Measures to prohibit off-road vehicle use Wentworth, 1982). The First Fishing Hole is close to do not extend to local residents engaging in traditional potentially prospective areas plus the airstrip associated uses. Subsistence users would not be allowed to use with development in Blocks C and D. The access road access corridors or aircraft facilities. Consequently and pipeline for those areas could cross the Hulahula River subsistence use will be neither facilitated nor restricted by in the vicinity of the First Fishing Hole. The effects would these measures. be compounded by the additional adverse effect of increased competition for fish from oilfield workers. Other important results of development, though difficult to quantify, are the potential psychological effects The taking of bowhead whales has been on local residents. Development near subsistence harvest characterized as one of Kaktovik's most important annual areas may disturb people accustomed to sociocultural activities (Jacobson and Wentworth, 1982), particularly from isolation and privacy while in the field. Increased air traffic a cultural standpoint. Subsistence harvest of whales and human activity are viewed as an aggravating intrusion should not be affected by coastal development, in light of by many local residents. The esthetic integrity of traditional minor adverse effects on whales (in the absence of oil hunting experiences would be diminished in rough 128 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT proportion to the amount of disturbance encountered in abilities to harvest resources from those areas would customary use areas. Additionally, noise and visual minimize adverse effects to continued subsistence uses. presence of airplanes and helicopters flying over and landing in the area could reduce hunting success. Conclusion Frequent disturbances also cause game to become more wary and more difficult for hunters to approach. The cumulative effect of reduced availability of subsistence resources through reductions in populations In some instances, the impact may be lessened by and habitats, displacement of animal populations, modified the availability of alternative resources or harvest areas. access to or closure of traditional harvest areas, and Because of the magnitude of the area and number of potential psychological effects of development on species which could be affected by full development, subsistence practices are considered in determining the alternative subsistence resources and areas may not exist overall impact of development that would occur as a result in every case. of full leasing. Development activities could substantially increase Because effects of further exploration on fish and employment and cash flow in Kaktovik. Therefore, wildlife are expected to be no greater than minor, including alternatives to subsistence may become available and/or those associated with drilling exploratory wells, a significant local residents' abilities to purchase equipment for restriction of subsistence uses would be much less likely subsistence harvest may increase. Such effects would be during that phase. The much greater intensity, duration, unevenly distributed within the community. and amount of area involved in the construction and production phases would result in major or moderate Mitigation adverse effects on fish and wildlife resources important to subsistence, as well as on continued access to those Measures previously recommended for 1002 area fish resources. Most important will be the likely decline or and wildlife and their habitats will also mitigate adverse change in distribution of the PCH and CAH, and the effects to subsistence uses by minimizing the direct loss harvest prohibitions near developed areas. These effects, and displacement of subsistence species. In coastal areas, in combination with adverse effects on other subsistence the protection of the natural environment, subsistence use species, disruption of traditional subsistence use sites, activities, subsistence resources, and access to those and likely psychological effects on a people accustomed to resources sought under the State-approved Coastal isolation, will result in a major adverse effect on subsistence Management Program, as well as Federal stipulations that uses within the 1002 area. Competition for resources and coastal zone activities be consistent with that program, the potential for increasingly restrictive hunting regulations would further minimize effects on subsistence. may add to the severity of impacts on subsistence uses. Effects on subsistence can also be minimized by Overall, a major effect (considered a significant careful siting and proper design of facilities, not only to restriction of subsistence uses under section 810 of lessen effects to fish and wildlife but also to lessen ANILCA) could occur if Alternative A was implemented. If potential conflicts with traditional harvest areas. Seasonal the Congress enacts legislation to authorize the Department a nd area closures to prevent disturbances of wildlife of the Interior to lease the 1002 area, the Secretary of the populations during sensitive periods, and other mitigation Interior must, prior to actual lease sale, determine the measures described for fish and wildlife species using the effects on subsistence of such disposition in compliance 1002 area, will further minimize adverse effects to with section 810 of ANILCA, unless the Congress were to subsistence resources. However, for important subsistence exempt the Secretary from that requirement. resources--especially caribou, polar bear, and fish, and the vegetation, wetlands and terrain types which form the LAND STATUS AND MILITARY AND habitat bases upon which these species depend--major and INDUSTRIAL USE moderate effects will remain because of the intensive nature of development. Obviously, land use both on and off Arctic Refuge lands would change. No changes in existing military Changes in policy regarding access and harvests activities would be expected. Full leasing, however, would near development sites would greatly mitigate adverse eventually introduce industrial development to an area now effects on subsistence uses. If subsistence users were devoted to Native subsistence, Federal fish and wildlife permitted to use the development infrastructure, including management activities, and wilderness-oriented recreational roads and airports, to facilitate their access to subsistence uses. The scope of likely industrial development has been resources, there would be a positive effect on their ability described in Chapters IV and V. to harvest subsistence resources. Restrictions to subsistence uses from reductions in species availability or NATIVE ALLOTMENTS altered distributions could be offset if access to other areas and resources was allowed. Excluding development from According to the full development scenario (fig. V-l), traditional harvest areas and not restricting local residents' four Native Allotment parcels occur in areas of petroleum ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 129 potential in Block C. Six Native parcels comprising 240 Local economic benefits to Kaktovik would result from acres could be in the area that may be developed as a establishment of some support industries there, purchase of port facility at Camden Bay and two parcels totaling 120 goods and services by oil-field workers who visit Kaktovik, acres are in the area of the Pokok port site. and income from those local residents who obtain employment in the oil fields. Because of the relatively small size, scattered location, and general lack of overlap with potential Conclusion prospects, allotments generally would not conflict with development. Major positive State and local economic effects would be expected if the entire 1002 area is leased and from Subsurface ownership under an allotment will be subsequent revenue from leases, taxes, increased local reserved to the government if it is determined that it may population and employment base, and other aspects of oil be valuable for coal, oil, or gas. The allotment owner development. would then be subject to the right of the government or its lessee to enter and use the lands for the development of PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES the reserved minerals, subject to the duty to pay for Transportation facilities associated with full leasing damages to surface improvements and a bond to guarantee could result in greater connections between Kaktovik and such payments. Prudhoe Bay, as well as TAPS and the rest of Alaska. The existing Dalton Highway, adjacent to TAPS and connecting STATE AND LOCAL POLITICAL STATE AND LOCAL POLITICAL Prudhoe Bay with Fairbanks and other highways in Alaska, AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS ~~AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS ~has sufficient capability to handle increased traffic during exploration, construction, operation, and rehabilitation with Full leasing for the 1002 area would produce State only negligible effect. Similarly, the capacity to handle and local economic benefits. Effects on national economics neae eet o t apie t ade increased movement of goods and supplies through Valdez, are iscsse in haper II.Income from the State's are discussed in Chapter VII. Income from the State's Whittier, Anchorage, and Fairbanks would only negligibly share of revenues derived from Federal oil leases on the affect the existing transportation infrastructure. affect the existing transportation infrastructure. coastal plain and from corporate taxes levied on the oil industry could produce major economic benefits to the The long-term capital improvement program of the State of Alaska. The State would also receive additional State of Alaska. The State would also receive additional North Slope Borough would be beneficially affected insofar revenues through corporate taxes from any oil development as oil-field facilities in the 1002 area increased the on Native-owned areas adjacent to the 1002 area. Some on Native-owned areas adjacent to the 1002 area. Some Borough's tax base. This positive effect on the Borough's minor secondary economic effects could result from economy would increase its ability to provide improved employment and population increases in Anchorage, public services and facilities. Fairbanks, and south-central Alaska. These effects would be similar to those described in the Beaufort offshore sale Conclusion evaluations (U.S. Minerals Management Service, 1984), which estimated a 3-percent increase. Restricting uses of the transportation infrastructure to those directly associated with oil development activities, as As is common at Prudhoe Bay, almost all the required to minimize effects on fish and wildlife species, will permanent jobs would be filled by commuters present at limit increased transportation opportunities which would worksites approximately half the time each year (job sharing otherwise result from full leasing. Additional Borough and on a 24-hour basis) with residences outside Alaska. The local revenues will likely result in overall major increases in number of jobs filled by permanent residents of the North available public services and facilities. Slope region, most of whom are Inupiat, would be expected to be small, based upon experience at Endicott and ARCHEOLOGY Prudhoe Bay oil developments. According to U.S. MMS (1984), a recent survey of workers at Prudhoe Bay showed More than 100 archeological sites have been that of 6,306 workers, only 178 (fewer than 3 percent) identified on the 1002 area, outside the KIC lands. Thirty- claimed either no permanent residency or a North Slope four of these sites are recognizable structures such as residency. cabins, caches, or graves, all but two of them on the coastline. The other sites, mainly tent rings, are situated There will be an overall beneficial economic effect on along the primary rivers of the 1002 area, anywhere from 2- the North Slope Borough through substantial increases in 33 miles upstream from the coast. taxes and other revenue generated from development and production on the 1002 area. The Borough also would Conflict between known archeological sites and increase its tax base to the extent Native-owned lands were projected oil field development might occur at Camden Bay placed in commercial development status. ASRC would and Pokok due to construction of marine and waterflood obtain substantial revenue through lease, exploration, and facilities at these locations (pl. 1A). Four known sites production of oil from its lands. KIC might benefit occur at Camden Bay and three have been located at substantially by providing related support services. Pokok. 130 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Mitigation affecting recreational hunting and trapping opportunities. Because much of that displacement would be from the area Because known archeological sites in the 1002 area in which firearms could not be discharged and access are small and precisely located, they can be easily avoided would be restricted, the net effect on hunters would be during construction and operation of nearby facilities. negligible. Before exploration or development work, contractors would be required to conduct archeological surveys in all areas Noise and visible presence of oil development that may be affected. Most, if not all, sites discovered in facilities would not only eliminate the wilderness character in this process could be protected by avoidance. The the areas of development, but there could also be some preponderance of known sites and most likely the majority intrusion in the designated Wilderness Area from activities of undiscovered sites occur along the coast and major and developments adjacent to the 1002 area. Moreover, rivers, in areas that will be avoided for other reasons. the existence of oil facilities and activities would eliminate Nonetheless, contractors will be required to exercise the opportunity for further scientific study of an undisturbed caution in their operations, and to cease activities when an ecosystem. archeological site is encountered, until appropriate protective measures are in place. Mitigation Conclusion With careful planning and coordination for other reasons, each river should generally have only one facility Impacts to archeological resources of the 1002 area crossing point throughout its length. Negative effects on should be negligible. A minor positive benefit may occur recreationists in the adjacent wilderness could be mitigated through the discovery, evaluation, and protection of any somewhat if, wherever possible, no facilities were placed additional archeological sites during oil exploration and within 5 miles of designated wilderness. It is impossible to development. mitigate loss of the area's wilderness character where oil exploration and development occur. RECREATION, WILDERNESS, AND ESTHETICS Conclusion Most recreationists currently travel to the 1002 area for a total wilderness experience and might perceive the The expected disruption of wildlife populations and existence of oil facilities in the area as lessening the quality natural processes would cause a major reduction in the of that experience. Fewer than 150 recreationists of all value of the area as a pristine, natural scientific laboratory. types (exclusive of local residents from Kaktovik) currently The wilderness value of the coastal plain of the Arctic visit the 1002 area annually. Several hundred visitors fly Refuge would be destroyed, except for the small area of over the area to sightsee or enroute to other destinations the refuge between the Aichilik River and the Canadian on the refuge. border which is designated wilderness. Effects on recreation would result from activities Summary of Unavoidable Impacts, affecting esthetics and access. The visual aspect of the Alternative A 1002 area as a broad trackless wildemrness would be destroyed by the addition of oil facilities. This may be Compaction and destruction, as well as delayed growth of considered a major adverse effect by those individuals vegetation, in areas of further geophysical exploration desiring to fly over, photograph, or otherwise partake of a (green and brown trails). pristine Arctic wilderness. Similarly, those making float trips on rivers such as the Canning, Hulahula, and Aichilik may Loss of approximately 5,650 acres of existing coastal plain be esthetically disturbed by the visual impact of bridges, habitat (approximately 1,300 acres of Resource Category pipelines, or other facility crossings. For recreationists 1 and 4,350 acres of Resource Category 2) due to road other than those seeking a purely wilderness experience, and pad construction and gravel material sites. increased ease of entry to the area would be considered an improvement in recreational opportunities. The addition Modification of about 7,000 additional acres of coastal plain of roads, pipelines, airfields, and other infrastructure within habitat (1,800 acres of Resource Category 1 and 5,200 the 1002 area will undoubtedly improve access. Of course, acres of Resource Category 2) due to secondary effects use of that access will generally be restricted so as to such as gravel spray, dust deposition, and altered minimize negative effects of development on 1002 area fish snowmelt and erosion patterns. and wildlife resources. Additionally, access may be limited for safety and security reasons. Notwithstanding that, Increased noise and disturbance level displacing wildlife experience on the Dalton Highway has shown that throughout the 1002 area. unauthorized public use is difficult to curtail. Loss of habitat values on approximately 78,000 acres of Oil development and the associated infrastructure caribou core calving habitat (Resource Category 1) due may displace some hunted and trapped species, adversely to disturbance/displacement. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 131 An unknown number (possibly hundreds) of small spills Loss of subsistence hunting opportunities throughout (diesel fuel, oil, antifreeze, etc.) resulting from vehicle and approximately one-half of the 1002 area. equipment operation and causing destruction of vegetation, contamination of waters, or mortality of small Unquantifiable loss of wilderness values throughout the food organisms. entire 1002 area. Displacement of caribou from approximately one-third of the ALTERNATIVE B--LIMITED LEASING core, concentrated calving areas within the 1002 area resulting in a large part of the projected population Under limited leasing the area designated as a core decline or distribution change for 20-40 percent of the calving area for the PCH would not be leased. This would PCH. include all of Block D and parts of Block C (pl. 2A), an area of approximately 290,000 acres (19 percent of the 1002 Reduced use or avoidance of approximately 72,000 acres of area). Consequently the development scenario for limited insect-relief habitat for caribou. leasing would only affect Resource Category 2 habitats. The analysis for this Alternative is based on the same Direct loss of approximately 2,700 acres of muskoxen methods and assumptions used for Alternative A and habitat. described in the introduction to this chapter. As depicted in figure V-l, the development scenario has no surface Increased disturbance with possible avoidance by occupancy in the southeastern part of the 1002 area (that muskoxen of 71 percent of their high use, year-round is, no access road extending south from the main east-west with calving, habitats in the 1002 area resulting in a road nor other support infrastructure, drill pads, exploration, change in distribution, population decline, or no further or production facilities). expansion of the 1002 area muskoxen population. Both the effects referenced and mitigation measures Direct loss of approximately 140 acres of moose habitat, described by species under the full leasing alternative apply within the scope of development likely for leasing a portion Moderate decline in the wolf population due to the of the 1002 area. In this discussion these references and cumulative increase in mortality and decrease in discussions will be summarized or referenced rather than production/survival due to reduced prey availability, repeated in full. If there is a change in level or type of effect anticipated between full development and limited Displacement and increased harvest of wolverines. development, it will be emphasized at the end of the appropriate discussion. Direct habitat loss of 3,500 acres of brown bear high- and moderate-use areas. Effects on Physical Geography and Processes Loss of one brown bear per year from accidents or from being shot in defense of life or property. Effects on the physical environment resulting from a limited leasing program would be similar to those resulting Direct and indirect small mammal loss due to habitat from full leasing, but to a lesser degree. Most important is destruction, road kills, etc. the fact that by not developing economic prospects in Block D and parts of Block C, water and gravel Probable loss of the eastern part of the 1002 area as requirements should be reduced by about one-third. Some denning habitat for polar bears. of this reduction would occur outside Blocks C and D if water and gravel sources that would support development Direct loss of 2,000 acres cf snow goose preferred staging in those blocks were located in adjacent locations in the habitat. 1002 area. Loss of habitat values from between 162,000 and 236,000 Effects on Biological Environment acres of snow goose preferred staging habitat within the 1002 area. VEGETATION, WETLANDS, AND TERRAIN TYPES Direct mortality of birds due to strikes with towers, antennas, wires, and other structures. The additional exploration associated with limited leasing would require additional seismic surveys and Moderate decline or change in distribution of golden eagles exploration wells. As described for full leasing, these as a result of decreased caribou prey. activities would result in visible trails, toxic materials spills, soil compaction, and delayed plant growth under ice roads, Moderate loss of arctic grayling habitat in Block A due to airstrips, and drill pads. With the restriction on surface stream alterations and direct mortalities, occupancy of the southeastern portion of the 1002 area, 132 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT one-fifth less area than under full leasing would be subject Mitigation to these effects. No additional mitigation would be necessary, given Approximately 3,800 acres, compared to 5,000 acres existing prohibitions on area activities. under Alternative A, would be covered with gravel for roads, drill pads, airstrips and other facilities. This decrease in Conclusion gravel needs would result in 400-650 acres of gravel sites, a reduction of 100 acres from Altemrnative A, for a total direct Under current protective management stipulations, habitat modification on nearly 4,400 acres of Resource effects on the Sadlerochit Spring Special Area would be Category 2 habitat. negligible. Secondary habitat modifications resulting from gravel COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT spray, dust, and changes in snow accumulation patterns would affect nearly 5,200 additional acres of Resource Limited leasing would affect coastal and marine Category 2, 1,800 acres less than under full leasing. The environments at nearly the same level as full leasing. possibility of habitat destruction or degradation from toxic Although support requirements may decrease because of materials and sea-water spills would be eliminated in reduced inland development and use of coastal areas, two important caribou calving, snow goose staging, and other port sites are still recommended to support the limited fish and wildlife habitats. development program, just as they were for full leasing. Spills of oil or other hazardous materials along the coast The candidate plant Thlaspi arcticumrn is not known to could severely affect coastal and marine habitats and fish occur in the area deleted from leasing under this alternative, and wildlife. Consequently, effects would be the same as for full leasing: potential loss of plants and habitat from gravel placement, Mitigation dust deposition, or other development activities. Again, environmentally sensitive construction of docks Mitigation and causeways as well as proper management of fuel and other hazardous substances will minimize most adverse Consolidation of facilities, environmentally sensitive effects. engineering, and control of toxic materials as described under full leasing could help reduce the area and magnitude Conclusion of effects to vegetation and wetlands. Because coastal activities would only be slightly less Conclusion in magnitude but not area, a minor effect would result from limited leasing. Again, the cumulative effects of future The expected total modification of existing vegetation developments or an oil spill could be major. and wetlands, both primary and secondary, because of gravel placement and associated secondary modifications TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS for drill pads, roads and other oil development facilities, would be nearly 9,600 acres (over 0.6 percent) or 3,000 CARIBOU acres less than the area to be modified by full development. The effect would remain moderate because With limited leasing, direct modification of caribou of the long-term or permanent effects on localized areas habitat would be reduced to 4,400 acres. Secondary habitat scattered through the 1002 area. changes due to dust and gravel spray would be reduced to 5,200 acres. This would result in total habitat modification SADLEROCHIT SPRING SPECIAL AREA of nearly 9,600 acres versus direct and secondary impacts to 12,650 acres from full development. Most important, no The prohibition on activities in the Sadlerochit Spring habitat modification would occur in Resource Category I area would prevent most negative effects. With no habitat. Reduced habitat modification and decreased development in the southeastern portion of the 1002 area, human activities would be within the calving and post- oil development activities and people would be located calving range of the PCH only. Effects on the CAH which much farther from the Sadlerochit Spring Special Area. occupies the western portion of the 1002 area would be Consequently, the likelihood of increased visitor use would the same as for full development, with the exception of be greatly reduced, preventing disturbance, any noticeable somewhat reduced support activities along the main access increase in fishing pressure, or competition with local Native road and pipeline and perhaps at the Camden Bay marine subsistence uses in that area. support facility. None of the PCH core calving area within the 1002 area, as determined from historical information, would be leased (pl. 2A). In addition to substantially reducing direct ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 133 habitat loss, the absence of human disturbance in this For the PCH, oil development would reduce their use important area would significantly reduce behavioral of only 4 percent of the core calving area. However, 28 avoidance and decreased access by maternal cows and percent of the concentrated calving area and 28 percent of calves. The approximately 2-mile sphere of influence (Dau insect-relief habitats would be affected. A larger portion of and Cameron, 1985) used to assess effects would mean insect-relief habitat could be affected if the main lost or reduced habitat values on 10,000 acres of the pipeline/road corridor proves to be a barrier to caribou PCH's core calving area (table VI-5). This compares with movements. The habitat value losses represented by the projected displacement from approximately 78,000 acres displacement, other disturbances and increased harvests, under full development. Displacement from other would be less than those under full leasing, as a result of concentrated calving areas not included in the core calving protecting the core calving habitat. Based on protection area would also be reduced, to 28 percent from 38 percent. provided and the overall reduction of oil-related activity, decline in the population or change in distribution of the Not leasing the core calving area would eliminate PCH should be moderate, about 15 percent, barriers to free movement of caribou in all of Block D and much of Block C. This is most important relative to MUSKOXEN allowing caribou free access to the calving areas of greatest sustained use (Elison and others, 1986) as described Limited leasing would reduce the effects of oil above. Access to coastal insect-relief areas would still be development on the subpopulation of muskoxen in the inhibited since there would be no change in the east-west Niguanak-Okerokovik-Angun River area (pl. 2). Effects transportation/pipeline corridor, although traffic levels may upon muskoxen elsewhere on the 1002 area would remain be somewhat reduced. The approximately 2-mile sphere of the same as those for full development. Direct habitat influence used in assessing effects would mean lost or modification would be approximately 2,400 acres (0.3 reduced habitat values on more than 68,000 acres of percent of muskox habitats), 300 acres less than under insect-relief habitat. (This compares with projected Alternative A. Assuming muskoxen are displaced 2 miles displacement from approximately 72,000 acres under full away from all development facilities (Russell, 1977; Reynolds development.) Over 80 percent of coastal insect-relief and LaPlant, 1985), then habitat value losses would occur habitats would remain unavailable under limited leasing. on 254,000 acres of muskox habitat (table VI-6) (reduced from 256,000 acres for full development). This loss in Effects of disturbance from aircraft activities, etc., habitat values represents approximately one-third of the would be similar to but less than those described for muskoxen range on the 1002 area. Habitats used for high Alternative A. Direct caribou mortality would also be less seasonal or year-round use, including calving habitat, would with no development on the area of greatest sustained be disproportionately affected; muskoxen could be calving use. A lower harvest and fewer vehicle/animal displaced from approximately 52 percent of those habitats-- accidents would also be expected because of fewer only a 1 percentage point decrease from the loss expected workers and vehicle trips. under full development. Mortality from hunting, vehicle collisions, and other accidents would be little changed Mitigation because activities would still occur throughout most of the All measures recommended for Alternative A (pipeline same muskoxen habitats. design, limiting use of the infrastructure to development activities, closing areas to hunting and trapping, Mitigation environmentally sensitive siting of all facilities, time and area closures) would apply in avoiding, minimizing, and otherwise Because essentially the same habitats would be mitigating potential adverse effects to caribou in developing affected by limited development, mitigation recommendations all but the core calving area. would be identical to those for full development. Conclusion Conclusion Only negligible effects on the PCH and minor effects Muskoxen and their habitats would be adversely on the CAH would be expected from further exploration on affected to essentially the same degree by either full or the 1002 area with exploration well and seismic activities limited development of the 1002 area. Therefore, effects of confined to the winter season. limited development would be moderate. While a major population decline is unlikely, the muskox herd is not likely The CAH would experience the same amount of to continue increasing in numbers or expanding its range at disturbance, barriers to free movement, increased harvest, the current rate. and other adverse effects of oil development, because the level of activity would be the same in the area of the refuge MOOSE that they use. Consequently, effects on CAH caribou by petroleum development would still be moderate, a 5-10 Effects of limited leasing upon the 1002 area moose percent population decline or distribution change, under the population would be substantially reduced, because most limited development probable in Alt rnative B. moose habitat affected under full leasing is in Block D 134 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT which would not be leased under this alternative. Direct Mitigation habitat loss would be reduced to 10 acres from 140. The reduced work force and reduced proximity of that workforce No additional mitigation beyond that recommended to moose using the 1002 area would lessen the potential for other species would be needed to reduce or eliminate for direct mortality, the primary adverse effect. effects on fox. Mitigation Conclusion None necessary beyond those measures Effects on arctic fox would be minor, as under full recommended under full leasing. development. Conclusion WOLVERINES The overall effect on the 1002 area moose population Limited development would result in localized, long- would be reduced from minor to negligible under limited term displacement of a few wolverines in all but the leasing with elimination of nearly all habitat loss and vehicle southeastern part of the 1002 area. Reduction in both activities in moose habitats. wolverine displacement and adverse effects to prey species and their predators would result in somewhat less severe DALL SHEEP effects on wolverines under the limited as compared to full leasing alternative. Increased human activities throughout Few effects on Dall sheep are anticipated under the 1002 area could still lead to increased harvest. limited leasing. Aircraft harassment and hunting pressure in areas adjacent to the 1002 area might be slightly reduced Mitigation with fewer personnel in the area, particularly in those areas closest to Dall sheep habitats. Minimizing adverse effects to prey species and controlling access and harvest will help minimize the effect Mitigation of limited leasing on wolverines. As for full leasing, more restrictive hunting regulations Conclusion could be required. Although the area affected is reduced from full Conclusion leasing, the cumulative effects of displacement/avoidance, reduced food resources, and increased harvest would still Effects on Dall sheep would be negligible. result in localized, long-term changes in wolverine distribution, affecting a few individuals. Because of their WOLVES sensitivity to disturbance and human predation, the effects on wolverines would be moderate. Direct habitat loss would be negligible. Protection of the PCH core calving area would better ensure the availability of an important prey species for the wolves BROWN BEARS using the 1002 area. The intrusion of development into some wolf habitat and direct mortality would be reduced Development of potentially economic prospects within from that expected from full development. Blocks A, B, and most of C would affect areas used seasonally by brown bears at moderate to high density (pl. Mitigation 1D). Direct habitat loss would be approximately 2,600 acres, 900 acres less than under full leasing, Alternative A. The same measures for adequate garbage control Oil-field activities would take place in 11 percent of brown and enforcement of hunting regulations would be required bear high- and moderate-use areas (compared to 17 as for full development. percent under full development). The limited leasing alternative would reduce adverse effects by protecting the Conclusion core calving area of the PCH, an important prey species for brown bears on the 1002 area. Encounters between The effect on the wolf population using the 1002 area humans and bears may also be somewhat reduced, but would be minor. some direct mortality of nuisance bears would be expected to occur throughout the remainder of the 1002 area. ARCTIC FOXES Mitigation Direct mortality, habitat loss, and artificial feeding would occur in all but the undeveloped areas in Blocks C Controls on handling garbage, on harvest, and and D. aircraft overflights; fencing; monitoring; and one-half mile ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 135 buffer zones of no activity around dens (described under Mitigation Alternative A) would mitigate adverse effects. Recommended measures for full development would Conclusion also apply to limited development. Not developing marine facilities in the Pokok area would further reduce the adverse The overall population reduction or change in effects of disturbance, noise, lost food resources, and distribution of brown bears as a result of direct mortality, altered habitats. harassment, loss of feeding habitat, and disturbance in denning areas would be reduced from moderate to minor, Conclusion since their use of the calving area as an important feeding site would not be disrupted. Effects on seal and whales would be minor. Withdrawing the proposed marine facilities at Pokok could ARCTIC GROUND SQUIRRELS AND OTHER RODENTS reduce this effect to negligible by eliminating disturbances and habitat alterations from a sizeable part of the coastal Localized habitat alterations and road kills would area. result from this alternative. Potential positive effects of protective cover in and under structures and debris could BIRDS similarly result. SWANS, GEESE, AND DUCKS Mitigation Direct and indirect habitat loss would be reduced No additional mitigation is recommended. somewhat as a result of limiting the development area. However, with the exception of snow geese, the area Conclusion eliminated from leasing is not heavily used by waterfowl. Effects to these species would be minor due to local For snow geese, the direct loss of use areas would habitat losses and road kills. be 1,970 acres. A loss of 1,200 acres of preferred habitat is expected, nearly 800 acres less than expected from full MARINE MAMMALS development. The primary adverse effect, indirect habitat POLAR BEARS loss due to displacement, would also be substantially reduced. Areas deleted for limited leasing have generally not been used by denning polar bears. The reduced overall Potential displacement would be reduced to between activity (fewer vehicle, sealift, and air support trips) would 95,000 and 135,000 acres, or up to 26 percent (as not appreciably reduce potential disturbance of polar bears, compared to 45 percent under full development) of preferred because the more highly used areas around the coast and snow goose staging habitats within the 1002 area, resulting in Block C would still be open to potential development. in moderate effects on population distribution and numbers (table VI-7). Mitigation Mitigation No additional mitigation measures are recommended over those for Alternative A. Development of a marine Mitigation of impacts to swans, geese, and ducks facility at Pokok and its subsequent use would result in the would be the same as for Alternative A. loss of repeatedly used denning habitat. Conclusion Conclusion For waterfowl species other than snow goose, the The overall effect of limited leasing would be cumulative effects of disturbance, habitat alteration, direct moderate, mainly arising from the adverse effects associated mortality, and contaminants would remain minor. However, with proposed marine facilities at Pokok. disturbance could cause a moderate reduction in population or change in distribution for up to 26 percent of the snow SEALS AND WHALES geese using the 1002 area (5 percent of the Banks Island snow goose population). Activity, noise, altered habitats, and changes in availability of food sources from dredging and causeway SEABIRDS AND SHOREBIRDS construction and operation, ships and barges, and aircraft could adversely affect seals and whales. The effects may Under limited development, activities in coastal areas be somewhat less than for full leasing because the would be little reduced from those under full development. reduction of oil facilities would reduce the level of coastal Consequently, effects on seabirds and shorebirds would be logistical activities. little changed. The potential for contaminant spills in 136 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT developed areas would remain a concern. Although the PASSERINES areas which would be deleted from leasing are not sites of high seabird and shorebird density, several species, such Adverse effects (habitat loss and disturbance, as jaegers and plovers, nest and feed there. These birds contaminants, and possibly decreased nesting opportunities would be unaffected by construction, traffic, noise, gravel or food availability for some species) would occur for placement, and other disturbances associated with passerine bird species except those using the core calving development in other parts of the 1002 area. area habitats. Those effects are described in Alternative A. Mitigation Mitigation Recommended measures would be the same as for Measures would be as recommended under full Alternative A. leasing. Conclusion Conclusion Overall population changes and habitat loss would be Effects on passerines would be minor. minor. Moderate effects may occur from development in areas of high use by seabirds and shorebirds. Bird FISH mortalities and reduced food resources could occur in the event of spills of oil or other contaminants as described Effects on fish under limited leasing would be similar previously, to those under full leasing. Access corridors along the Hulahula River to development in the southeastern part of RAPTORS the 1002 area would no longer be required. Consequently, effects on arctic char and arctic grayling using the Hulahula Conflicts from development could still occur in raptor River system would be eliminated, with the exception of nesting habitat in Block A but would be eliminated from some fishing pressure and one crossing by the main east- nesting habitats in the southeastern portion of the 1002 west pipeline/road corridor. Reduced gravel and water area. Most importantly, the reduction in golden eagle prey needs, fewer stream crossings, elimination of some potential expected from adverse effects on the PCH core calving for oil spills, and reduced human access/fishing pressure area caused by development would not occur with would reduce effects on arctic grayling in the Okpilak River elimination of activities in Block D and part of Block C. drainage. Mitigation Mitigation Mitigation measures designed for full development in The same measures as those for Alternative A would Alternative A would apply, including activity restrictions near also be appropriate for this alternative. Not developing the nest sites. Pokok marine facility would reduce the potential for adverse effects on coastal fish. Conclusion Conclusion Because of a relatively protected prey base in the core calving area, changes in population and distribution of Effects on fish throughout the 1002 area should be golden eagles would be minor rather than moderate as minor. If marine facilities were not constructed at Pokok, expected with full development. Effects on other raptors adverse effects on coastal fish would occur in a much would be minor, and the potential for nesting habitat smaller part of their habitats, resulting in negligible effects. conflicts would be somewhat reduced. An oil spill in a waterway or along the coast could cause a major effect on fish populations. PTARMIGAN THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES Not leasing the southern part of the 1002 area would reduce potential losses of some ptarmigan habitat. BOWHEAD AND GRAY WHALES Mitigation See discussion under Seals and Whales. Recommendations under full leasing would apply. ARCTIC PEREGRINE FALCON Conclusion Disturbance and reductions or displacement of prey would adversely affect peregrine falcons. The potential for The effect of limited oil development on ptarmigan conflicts between development and historic peregrine nest would be negligible. sites would be eliminated, because there would be no ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 137 development, and probably no water withdrawal, in the Conclusion vicinity of either known nest sites or much of the cliff- nesting habitat within the 1002 area. The adverse effects of petroleum--reduced and displaced fish and wildlife populations used for subsistence, Mitigation inhibited access to traditional harvest areas, and potential psychological effects--except in the core calving area of the Measures would be the same as those PCH would have major adverse effects on subsistence recommended for Alternative A. activities. A significant restriction of subsistence use would be expected to result. Conclusion LAND STATUS AND MILITARY AND INDUSTRIAL USE Effects of development, disturbance, and reduced prey throughout the 1002 area except in Block D and part Land ownership would not change under this of Block C would have negligible impacts on peregrines. alternative, nor would any change in existing military activities be expected. Industrial development would occur Effects on Socioeconomic in an area currently devoted to Native subsistence, fish and Environment wildlife management, and recreational uses. POPULATION NATIVE ALLOTMENTS Development would require approximately one-third None of the 1002 area parcels for which Native fewer workers and support service personnel under limited allotment applications have been made are in the area leasing than under full leasing. Employment opportunities deleted from leasing; therefore, the areas affected would be during construction and restoration phases would total the same as for Alternative A. approximately 4,000 jobs. Permanent employment during production would range from 400 to 1,000 jobs during the STATE AND LOCAL POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS 30-year lifetime of the 1002 area oil fields. AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS Economic benefits at the Federal, State, and local The year-round population at Kaktovik would increase levels would still occur as described under Alternative A somewhat, but less than for full leasing. Most workers and in Chapter VII. These benefits could be one-third less would still be expected to maintain permanent residences than those for full leasing and development because the elsewhere, similar to workers at Prudhoe Bay. development of revenue-producing oil resources may possibly be that much less. Conclusion Conclusion The expected population increase would be moderate in Kaktovik and negligible to minor in other Alaska Although the overall benefits might be smaller than communities. those expected to result from full leasing and development, limited leasing would still be a major positive benefit to EXISTING LAND USE State and local political and economic systems. SUBSISTENCE USE PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES Under Alternative B, villagers from Kaktovik could The tax base and employment opportunities would be continue to pursue subsistence activities in the approximately one-third less than for Alternative A. southeastern part of the 1002 area. This would include use of caribou and snow geese. Competition with oil-field Conclusion workers, for harvest of fish and wildlife resources, would occur throughout the 1002 area. Intrusion of development The overall effect of increased public services and activities into traditional harvest areas may occur in all but facilities would be a major benefit. the southeastern part of the 1002 area. ARCHEOLOGY Mitigation Potential conflict between known archeological sites As for full leasing, mitigation applicable to species and projected oil-field activities might occur in four used for subsistence would also lessen effects on instances at Camden Bay and three at Pokok from subsistence uses. However, policies designed to reduce construction of marine facilities there. Activities would disturbance and other adverse effects to fish and wildlife occur at nearly the same level in coastal and river areas species by restricting access and harvest in some areas where undiscovered archeological sites are most likely to would adversely affect subsistence uses. occur. 138 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Mitigation Displacement of caribou from approximately 4 percent of the core, concentrated calving areas within the 1002 Surveys in areas to be developed and subsequent area causing part of the projected population decline or avoidance of known or discovered archeological sites will distribution change for approximately 15 percent of the minimize the potential for site destruction. PCH. Conclusion Reduced use or avoidance of approximately 68,000 acres of insect-relief habitat for caribou. Effects would be negligible. Direct loss of approximately 2,400 acres of muskoxen RECREATION, WI LDERNESS, AND ESTHETICS habitat. The wilderness character of the 1002 area would be Increased disturbance to muskoxen with possible avoidance destroyed except in the southeastern part of the 1002 area of 70 percent of the high-use, year-round with calving, and immediately adjacent wilderness areas. habitats in the 1002 area resulting in a change in distribution, population decline, or no further expansion Mitigation of the 1002 area muskoxen population. t Li~~~ miting numbers of river and stream crossings and Direct loss of approximately 10 acres of moose habitat. not placing development facilities within 5 miles of designated wilderness areas would reduce adverse visual Minor decline in the wolf population mainly due to effects within the 1002 area and in adjacent designated increased mortality. wilderness areas. Displacement and increased harvest of wolverines. Conclusion Direct habitat loss of 2,600 acres of brown bear high- and A major loss of the wilderness character of the 1002 moderate-use areas. area would occur. Loss of one brown bear per year from accidents or from being shot in defense of life or property. Summary of Unavoidable Impacts, Direct and indirect small mammal loss due to habitat Alternative B destruction, road kills, etc. pCompaction and destruction, as well as delayed growth of Probable loss of the eastern portion of the 1002 area as vegetation in areas of further geophysical exploration denning habitat for polar bears. I. ~~~(green and brown trails). Direct loss of 1,200 acres of snow goose preferred staging Loss of nearly 4,400 acres of existing Resource Category 2 habitat. coastal plain habitat due to road and pad construction and gravel material sites. Loss of habitat values from between 95,000 and 135,000 acres of snow goose preferred staging habitat within the Modification of about 5,200 additional acres of Resource 1002 area. Category 2 coastal plain habitat due to secondary effects such as gravel spray, dust deposition, and Direct mortality of birds due to strikes with towers, I ~~~altered snowmelt and erosion patterns, antennas, wires, and other structures. Increased noise and disturbance level displacing wildlife Moderate loss of arctic grayling habitat in Block A owing to throughout all but the southeastern part of the 1002 stream alterations and direct mortalities. area. Loss of subsistence hunting opportunities in 40-50 percent Loss of habitat values on approximately 10,000 acres of of the 1002 area, core caribou calving habitat (Resource Category 1) due to disturbanceldisplacement. Unquantifiable loss of wilderness values in approximately 80 percent of the 1002 area. An unknown number (possibly hundreds) of small spills (diesel fuel, oil, antifreeze, etc.) resulting from vehicle and equipment operation and causing destruction of vegetation, contamination of waters, or mortality of small food organisms. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 139 ALTERNATIVE C--FURTHER EXPLORATION period when these operations would take place. Further exploration involves short-term, local activities which would The first activities associated with further exploration disturb or displace only those wildlife resources in the on the 1002 area would be additional seismic work and immediate vicinity. Although surface geology work would surface geology studies. The effects of these exploration occur during the summer when fish and wildlife use of the activities are fully described under Alternative A and will not 1002 area is greatest, it is very short-term, extremely be repeated here. Alternative C also provides an localized, and results in almost no noticeable impacts. opportunity to collect further information regarding possible impacts of oil development, because exploration wells not The only species on which minor rather than previously permitted on the 1002 area would be allowed, negligible effects might occur are CAH caribou, which use This would assist in more accurately predicting the 1002 area during the winter, muskoxen, and polar environmental impacts and planning mitigation, should bears. Short-term, localized displacements of caribou and leasing be considered at some future date. muskoxen could occur in the vicinity of exploration activities. Polar bears could be disturbed from denning in Effects and mitigation previously described for such areas, as was suspected to be the case during the Alternatives A and B are referenced. Previously discussed 1984-85 seismic program on the 1002 area. literature on effects of exploration activities is also applicable. Mitigation measures applicable to further exploration would be those from the regulations and special use Effects on Physical Geography permits governing the previous exploration programs in the and Processes 1002 area and the stipulations of the Chandler Lake agreement for the exploratory well on the KIC/ASRC lands. The physical effects to be expected from additional Additional measures applicable to exploration are detailed surface geology and seismic exploration as well as the under Alternative A (time and area closures; aircraft altitude drilling of several stratigraphic test wells would be identical restrictions; controlling access, harvest, and contaminants; to those described in the seismic exploration and and actively monitoring all exploration activities as well as exploratory drilling discussions for Alternative A. wildlife activities). Effects on Biological Environment Effects on Socioeconomic Environment VEGETATION, WETLANDS, AND TERRAIN TYPES The moderate effect on wilderness expected under further exploration makes it the only feature of the Effects would be similar to those described for socioeconomic environment for which the effects of this exploration under Alternative A. The generally temporary alternative further exploration could be greater than minor. nature of exploration activities and possible location of test Seismic trails and well pads are visual remnants of wells (Chapter V) would result in a minor effect on the exploration activity which may persist for several years, vegetation, wetlands, and terrain types of the 1002 area. reducing the wilderness value of areas in which they occur. Rehabilitation of well pads would be slow, and the effects SADLEROCHIT SPRING SPECIAL AREA on the wilderness values of the area in and around pads would be moderate. Adequate snow cover to protect the Current management regulations prohibit activities and surface, environmentally sensitive routing of trails, and other would thus prevent adverse impacts in this area. mitigation stipulations described for Alternative A and used in the previous 1002 area and KIC/ASRC lands exploration COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT programs would minimize effects on wilderness, subsistence use, and archeology. Effects would be negligible because activities causing debris and disturbance in this area would be minimal and Reduction and displacement of fish and wildlife of a temporary nature. No greater than local, small populations used for subsistence would be no more than contaminant spills are likely. minor, access to traditional harvest areas would generally not be inhibited, and potential psychological effects would FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES be greatly reduced with the local, temporary activities involved in further exploration of the 1002 area. As Further exploration including the construction and described under Alternative A, previous evaluations of the drilling of single season or winter only multi-season effect on subsistence from 1983-85 surface geology and exploratory wells would result in only minor or negligible seismic exploration programs on the 1002 area have effects on the fish and wildlife resources of the 1002 area concluded that effects on subsistence use in the 1002 area as described for Alternative A. Fish and wildlife species would be minimal and there would be no significant which would be most affected by exploration activities are restriction of subsistence uses (U.S. Fish and Wildlife generally absent from the 1002 area during the winter Service, 1983a, b, and 1985a, b). 140 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Summary of Unavoidable Impacts, 669, 16 U.S.C. 668 dd-ee and ANILCA section 304(b)]. Alternative C Infrastructure associated with offshore developments could be permitted within the 1002 area provided it (1) did not Compaction and destruction, as well as delayed growth, of lead to development and production from the 1002 area vegetation in areas of further geophysical exploration and (2) was found compatible with refuge purposes. Also, (green and brown trails), some minor compatible surface geology studies could be possible. An unknown number (possibly tens) of small spills (diesel fuel, oil antifreeze, etc.) resulting from vehicle and Major long-term benefits would accrue to fish and equipment operation and causing destruction of wildlife as well as their habitats from management of the vegetation, contamination of waters, or mortality of small 1002 area under this alternative. Adverse effects of food organisms. Alternative D from activities such as sport hunting and fishing or other recreational uses, or from activities Short-term, local increases in noise and disturbance levels conducted for scientific studies, would be negligible on all causing short-term, local displacement of some wildlife in species and resource concerns discussed in previous areas with exploration activities. alternatives. Short-term, local disturbance to subsistence users. In accordance with the terms of ANILCA (and the Chandler Lake Agreement) petroleum exploration, development, and production could not occur anywhere on ALTERNATIVE D--NO ACTION the Arctic Refuge nor on those lands owned by KIC and ASRC which lie within the refuge boundaries unless the Under Alternative D, the general physical and Congress enacted legislation specifically designed to open environmental conditions on the 1002 area would essentially ASRC's lands to these activities. Production of the continue as they are at present. Fish, wildlife, and their estimated recoverable 3.2 billion barrels of oil would not habitats would respond to natural forces. The FWS would occur. amend the comprehensive conservation plan (CCP) and, depending on the stage of refuge planning, the individual Socioeconomic changes would be expected to management plans for the entire refuge to include the 1002 continue in the manner and pace in which they now occur. area, which would be treated as an integral part of the There would be no (or few) new job opportunities, little entire Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. increased cash flow, and little change in subsistence uses, so long as no infrastructure associated with offshore Refuge planning has not been completed, so it is development were built on the 1002 area. impossible to predict exactly what will be contained in the CCP and resultant management plans. The 1002 area has not yet been included as a part of this planning process, ALTERNATIVE E--WILDERNESS pending a management decision by the Congress. To fulfill DESIGNATION the purposes for which the Arctic Refuge was established as outlined in ANILCA [sec. 302(2)], the management goals If the Congress were to designate the 1002 area as (at least until further defined by the CCP) would be to: Wilderness, an extensive continuum of undisturbed Arctic maintain the existing availability and quality of refuge environment in the United States would be preserved, habitats with natural forces governing fluctuations in fish extending from the crest of the Brooks Range to the Arctic and wildlife populations and habitat change; provide the Ocean. Under the Wilderness Act (P.L. 88-577), the FWS opportunity for continued subsistence use of natural would manage this area to maintain wilderness resources resources by local residents, in a manner consistent with and values, preserve the wilderness character of the sound natural resource management; and provide biological and physical features, and provide opportunities recreational and economic opportunities compatible with the for research, subsistence, and recreation. Loss or purposes for which the refuge was established. alteration of fish and wildlife habitats would occur in response to natural forces (population cycles, weather, Planning that would include the 1002 area could predators, disease, etc.). None of the oil exploration and result in an increase in commercial activities in the 1002 development, production, or transportation activities area as well as the rest of Arctic Refuge, if found described in Alternatives A, B, and C could occur. compatible. Public debate of petroleum related issues as a Government research concerning the Alaska Mineral result of the ANILCA section 1002 program will result in Resource Assessment Program (ANILCA section 1010) greater public awareness of the natural resource values of could continue. In accordance with the terms of the the Arctic Refuge. Thus, recreational use of the 1002 area Wilderness Act and ANILCA, future petroleum development would probably increase. The FWS permits activities on would be prohibited anywhere on the Arctic Refuge, and National Wildlife Refuges insofar as they are compatible with would include the KIC/ASRC lands. Production of the the purposes for which each refuge was established [the estimated 3.2 billion barrels of recoverable oil would be National Wildlife Refuge Administration Act Public Law 89- forgone. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 141 Previous surface geology activities in the 1002 area The infrastructure for developing, producing, and had no apparent adverse effects on area fish, wildlife, and transporting 9.2 BBO would not necessarily be three times wilderness values. Such activities would still be permitted as that for 3.2 BBO. What would most likely change would be a prior existing use for scientific purposes in the 1002 area the amount of time required to produce the oil. Therefore, if it were designated as wilderness. By using similar the impacts discussed for Alternatives A and B, depending protective stipulations effects on fish, wildlife, and on the scope of the leasing program, would be very similar. wilderness values would be negligible. The opportunity for If species such as caribou and muskox did not readily economic changes related to petroleum revenues, jobs, and habituate to development facilities and activities, and if other economic stimuli described in Alternatives A, B, and suitable alternative habitats are not available, the impacts C would be lost. expected would be in terms of declines in population numbers and overall herd vigor, and major changes in Hunting, fishing, and trapping would be allowed, behavioral pattemrns due to disturbance and displacement. Motorized access via aircraft, power boats, and Longer oil production times would also increase the snowmobiles would be permitted for traditional uses only. potential for oil spills and other toxic/contaminant accidents, the results of which are detailed in Alternatives A and B. Unless the Congress made special provisions in its wilderness designation for the 1002 area, further petroleum Biological Resources activity on lands owned by KIC and ASRC would be precluded under the provisions of section 1003 of ANILCA Placement of gravel pads for roadways, pipelines, and the Chandler Lake Land Exchange Agreement between airfields, processing facilities, housing, and other the United States of America and ASRC. infrastructure under full leasing will cover slightly more than 5,000 acres of natural vegetation. Although there can be IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE some flexibility in siting so that higher value habitats can be COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES avoided, the affected vegetation may be considered an irretrievable loss, at least for the duration of the life of the Mineral Resources facilities. Up to an additional 500 to 750 acres of the coastal plain may also be permanently altered as a result of The recoverable oil resource estimate used for the gravel mining. assessment in this chapter and for the scenarios in Chapter IV is the conditional mean recoverable figure of 3.2 Approximately 20 acres of shallow subtidal marine billion barrels of oil (BBO). The estimates range from a low bottom could be permanently altered by construction of of 0.6 BBO at the 95-percent chance to a high of 9.2 BBO docks and causeways at each port site. A causeway at the 5-percent chance. If the Congress elects to permit could also have permanent effects on nearshore oil and gas development and production on the 1002 area temperature and salinity regimes and circulation which in of the Arctic Refuge and if exploration efforts are turn could alter species composition of planktonic and successful, the amount of development would be directly benthic organisms in the area affected or influenced by the dependent upon the actual amount of economically causeway. Whether these populations would return to pre- recoverable reserves discovered on the 1002 area. Those project levels and composition following either deliberate resources would be committed to development. The mean removal of the causeway or natural erosion is problematical. recoverable estimate provides a reasonable scenario for oil development. However, until reserves are confirmed, it must Historical Resources be recognized that actual development could be as little as that required to recover 0.6 BBO or as much as that Irretrievable products of prehistoric culture such as needed to produce 9.2 BBO. archeological sites might be lost from looting and indiscriminate or accidental activity on known and unknown Infrastructure for a 0.6-BBO field would depend on sites. Environmental training of personnel and stipulations the location of the discovery (or discoveries). For a for the protection of such resources would reduce the level discovery in the eastern part of the 1002 area, the pipeline of those losses. requirements would be the same as in Alternatives A and B; one or two central production facilities may be required, Traditional subsistence life styles would be and at least one port site. A discovery in the western area irreversibly and irretrievably lost or altered with the only would reduce the length of the pipeline. Depending introduction of widespread industrial activity and greater on the leasing program selected, development might occur opportunities for a cash-based economy. in the PCH core calving area. ~~in the PCH core calving area. ~The wilderness character of the coastal plain would be irretrievably lost (table VI-8). 142 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Table VI-8.--Irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources. Loss of: Alternative Traditional Artifacts at Commercial Wildemess native life development Oil development character style/culture sites resources potential A--full leasing.......................... All Most All Depletion None B--limited leasing.................... All Most All Some Minimal C--further exploration ............ Some Some Some None Some 0--no action ........................... Possible None None None Some E--wilderness .......................... None None None None Complete COMPARISON OF SHORT-TERM USES that period. Initial economics would depend on oil, but it is AND LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY expected that gas production from this area would also be economic within two to three decades. However, Geological and geophysical investigations carried out successful oil and gas exploration would lead to industrial in 1983-85, along with other available information, have development with an infrastructure as depicted in Chapters revealed geologic structures with the potential for containing IV and V. Additionally, to be expected are pressure to use oil and gas resources. If the Congress allows oil and gas this area as a base to service exploration and development production from the 1002 area, exploration will proceed and, of the Outer Continental Shelf area to the north, possible if oil and gas resources are found in economic quantities, interties with projected oil and gas development in Canada, production will result. Though the structures appear highly and pressure on the Congress to open areas designated favorable, there is no assurance that they do in fact contain as wilderness in the Arctic Refuge to oil and gas oil and gas. Nevertheless, based on favorable exploration exploration, depending on the location of actual discoveries. results from the Prudhoe Bay oil field to the west and the Moreover, an oil and gas development infrastructure in the Canadian Beaufort Sea and Mackenzie delta oil fields to the 1002 area would be an impetus to development of State east, the prospects are encouraging. Even with negative lands between the Canning River and TAPS to the west. If results, it is expected that mid- to short-term changes the infrastructure for 1002 area development also served caused by 10-15 years of exploration could occur before potential offshore or other fields, it will add to the long-term the area would be abandoned. commitment of this area to industrial use based on oil and gas development. The short-term activities associated with further exploration of the 1002 area will lead to generally short-term Commitment of the 1002 area to oil and gas displacement and disturbance of the area's fish and wildlife development would provide the opportunity to extract the resources and subsistence users as described in this recoverable reserves in this area to help meet projected chapter. If further exploration indicates that the oil and national energy needs. Oil and gas development would gas structures are barren, there will be no need for result in widespread, long-term changes in the wilderness production and transportation systems--the development environment, wildlife habitats, and Native community efforts can be terminated, the lands reclaimed, and the area activities currently existing in the 1002 area, resulting allowed to return as closely as possible to its present instead in an area governed by industrial activities. These condition. In this case it is expected that there will be few changes include displacement and reduction in the size of or no residual or long-term effects on wildlife populations of the Porcupine caribou herd as a result of widespread, the area. The area's wilderness attributes will be affected intensive activities throughout one-third of its core calving for a longer time, but are eventually expected to generally area, as well as throughout a large part of its postcalving recover. and insect-relief areas. The size of this herd reduction and its long-term significance to herd viability is highly Long-term losses in fish and wildlife resources, speculative because relevant experience is lacking regarding subsistence uses, and wilderness values would be the the responses or adaptability of the PCH to such intensive inevitable consequence of a long-term commitment to oil activities. However, geography apparently limits the and gas development in the area. If economic prospects availability of suitable alternative calving or insect-relief are subsequently delineated, the area would be committed habitats. The ability of the herd to successfully calve at to petroleum operations for a period of 30-90 years with an even greater concentrations than at present in calving areas estimated 3.2 billion barrels of oil being produced during which remain unaffected by oil and gas activities is ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 143 unknown. Mitigation measures such as environmentally not be diminished or displaced, yet that they be allowed to sensitive siting of facilities, time and area closures, and benefit from jobs or other economic opportunities available. harvest restrictions can minimize some adverse effects to Residents of Arctic Village and other Native communities the PCH as well as to other fish, wildlife, wilderness, and utilizing caribou from the highly migratory PCH were critical subsistence resources. But, even with effective mitigation, of any impacts to their subsistence use resources which herd displacement or reduction could be as great as 20-40 could be caused by exploration. Views of Kaktovik or other percent. villages regarding full development are unknown. The ASRC has publicly expressed its support for oil and gas Industrial development will also have a profound development on both KIC/ASRC lands and the 1002 area. effect on the Native culture. Although it may provide jobs Congressional authorization of development would include for a few members of the Kaktovik community, it will conflict authorization to develop oil and gas resources on the with or hasten changes in life style from one of subsistence KIC/ASRC lands, which will add to effects on subsistence use dependent on the land to an industrial society with a users and traditional lifestyles. cash-based economy, Increased educational and employment opportunities, and greater health services may A decision to pursue oil and gas development on the be benefits but at the expense of traditional ways of life 1002 area will result in the tradeoff of a gain of as much as and community bonds. 3.2 billion barrels of oil to meet that demand in the Nation's energy needs and offset oil imports with a loss of, at With authorization of oil and gas development, KIC minimum, a significant part of the PCH calving grounds and and ASRC will have the opportunity to develop their oil and other habitats, continued expansion of 1002 area muskoxen gas resources adjacent to the 1002 area, further speeding herds, notable staging habitats for internationally important, the modernization of local life styles. The tradeoffs involved migratory snow geese, and numerous other fish and wildlife are a subjective assessment: lost opportunities to pursue resources, significant restrictions to the continuation of traditional cultural activities and subsistence life styles for subsistence activities by residents of Kaktovik, and employment opportunities and economic gains which may existence of wilderness values on a vast expanse of fragile be unevenly distributed throughout the community. and limited Arctic coastal plain ecosystem. Moreover, Acceptability of these changes will only be partly a local pressures to discontinue or lessen pursuit of a traditional decision, relative to the extent to which the development of Native subsistence lifestyle, resulting in irreversible changes, an industrial-commercial base in Kaktovik is pursued. will be minimized. Conversely, a decision to designate the 1002 area as wilderness will maintain those long-term fish, Local people can either encourage or discourage wildlife, subsistence, and wilderness values at a cost of a ancillary development servicing the oil and gas industry, potential, but unconfirmed, 3.2 billion barrels of oil. During hearings for the previous 1002 area exploration program, Kaktovik residents expressed concerns that their Additional tradeoffs involved in developing coastal opportunities to pursue a subsistence life style not be plain oil and gas resources include loss of existing pristine diminished, including desires that fish and wildlife resources air and water quality and gravel and water resources. 144 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED MITIGATION FOR THE 1002 AREA Following is a compendium of safety and environmental stipulations applicable to oil and gas exploration, development, production, and transportation on the 1002 area. Stipulations Results 1. Consolidate, site, construct, and maintain facilities Will avoid or minimize disturbance in, or loss of, and pipelines to minimize effects on sensitive habitats environmentally sensitive areas and allow free passage and species. Locate nonessential facilities outside and natural movement of fish and wildlife. caribou calving areas. 2. Design all bridges and culverts to handle at least 50- Will prevent damage and disturbance of fish habitats. year flood events. 3. Use ice or gravel-foam-timber pads, where feasible, Will reduce gravel requirements and acres of habitat for exploration wells. modified. 4. Develop and implement an approved rehabilitation May provide total or partial restoration of habitat values in plan as part of leasing program, affected area. 5. Prohibit off-road vehicle use within 5 miles of all Will minimize disturbance to wildlife, reduce destruction of pipelines, pads, roads, and other facilities, except by vegetation, and permit migration of large mammals. local residents engaged in traditional uses or if otherwise specifically permitted. 6. Limit oil exploration, except surface geology studies, Will limit disturbance to periods when most area fish and to November 1-May 1 (exact dates to be determined wildlife species are absent. by Refuge Manager). Cease exploration activities and remove or store equipment at an approved site by May 15. Local exceptions may be made. 7. Prohibit: gravel removal from active stream channels Will minimize disturbance to fish and degradation of fish on major fish-bearing rivers; winter water removal habitats. from fish-bearing waters, or springs and tributaries feeding into fish-bearing waters; spring, summer, or fall water removal from fish-bearing waters at levels that will not easily pass fish or maintain quality rearing habitat. 8. Elevate pipelines to allow free passage of caribou in Will allow migration and other movements of large areas without ramps or buried sections. mammals. 9. Place ramps over piplines at natural Will allow migration and other movements of caribou and crossings or where development tends other large mammals. to funnel animals. 10. Bury pipelines where possible. Will prevent or reduce visual disturbances and barriers to movements of caribou and other large mammals. 11. Separate roads and pipelines 400-800 feet, depending Will enhance crossing of linear structures by caribou and on terrian, in areas used for caribour crossing. other mammals. 12. Restrict surface occupancy in the zone from the Will permit caribou use of coastal insect-relief habitat coastline inland 3 miles to marine facilities and and reduce disturbance of nesting waterfowl and other infrastructure necessary to support activities outside species. the restricted zone. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 145 Stipulations Results 13. Monitor populations, productivity, movements, and Will allow early identification of problems and general health of key species. Research measures to implementation of corrective measures for caribou, further minimize adverse effects of development: muskoxen, polar bears, snow geese, arctic char, and Implement corrective actions. others. 14. Close areas within 3/4 mile of high-water mark of Will protect riparian habitat and reduce stream pollution specified water courses to permanent facilities and and disturbance in an important and limited habitat. limit transportation crossings. Gravel removal may occur on a site-specific basis. 15. Acquire authority to require aircraft to maintain 1,500 Will protect nesting peregrine falcons and other raptors feet altitude above nest level within 1 mile horizontal from disturbance. distance of historic peregrine or other raptor nest sites April 15-August 31 (June 1 if nest is unoccupied). 16. Prohibit use of explosives or other noisy activities Will protect nesting peregrine falcons and other raptors within 2 miles of raptor nest sites April 15-August 31 from disturbance. (June 1 if nest is unoccupied), unless specifically authorized by the FWS. 17. Prohibit ground level activity, permanent facilities, and Will protect nesting peregrine falcons and other raptors long-term habitat alterations (material sites, roads, and from disturbance. airstrips) within 1 mile of known peregrine or other raptor nest sites. April 15-August 31 (June 1 if nest is unoccupied) unless specifically authorized. 18. Survey suitable habitat annually to locate nesting Will avoid conflicts between development and nesting peregrines and other raptors. raptors. 19. Track radio-collared female polar bears. Establish no- Will prevent disturbance during denning. activity zone of at least 1/2 mile around any den. 20. Avoid construction in coastal areas near river Will reduce disturbance to polar bears, and prevent systems with topographic relief or bluffs. Minimize destruction of potential bear den and raptor nest sites. activities along the coast during late October-early November when polar bears come ashore to den. 21. Close area within 5 miles of development and Will increase public safety and reduce direct mortality of associated infrastructure to hunting, trapping and caribou, muskoxen, bears, and waterfowl; lower discharge of firearms. disturbance: and increase the likelihood of habituation by species encountering development. 22. Prohibit surface occupancy in the Sadlerochit Spring Will prevent degradation of a unique environment and Special Area (pl. 1_). prevent loss of water essential for fish overwintering. 23. Define range of the candidate plant Thlaspi arcticum. Will prevent destruction of Thlaspi arcticum. Minimize surface occupancy in immediate vicinity of areas identified as supporting the plant. Position pads, collecting lines, and associated roads at least 1/2 mile from candidate plant locations. 24. Construct docks and causeways so that fish Will provide for fish and marine mammal movement and be movements are not impeded and lagoon water less degrading to near-shore marine habitat. chemistry is basically unchanged. 146 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Stipulations Results 25. Establish time and area closures or restrictions on Will protect species from disturbance during critical surface activity in areas of wildlife concentration periods. during muskox calving, April 15-June 5; caribou calving, May 15-June 20: caribou insect harassment, June 20-Aug. 15; snow goose staging, Aug. 20-Sept. 27; and overwintering and spawning. 26. Acquire authority to establish time and area closures Will protect species from disturbance during critical and minimum aircraft altitude of 2000 feet above periods. ground level (AGL) during muskox and caribou calving and caribou insect harassment, April 15-Aug. 15; and snow goose staging, Aug. 20-Sept 25. At other times the minimum altitude generally will be 1000 feet AGL over areas of animal concentrations. 27. Fence camps and pump stations; incinerate garbage Will reduce bear/human confrontations, and reduce daily; prohibit wildlife feeding. attraction of and increases in scavenger populations. 28. Limit use of development infrastructure, roads and Will reduce disturbance levels and human/wildlife airstrips, to persons on official business. interaction. 29. Inventory project areas for cultural resources, evaluate Will preserve cultural resources (archeological and historic resources and implement mitigation to avoid or sites) to the maximum extent possible. minimize impact. 30. Develop and implement plans for control, use, and Will reduce potential for contaminant spills. disposal of fuel and hazardous wastes. 31. Reinject drilling muds, cuttings, and other wastes Will minimize areas needed for reserve pits and reduce where geologically feasible. Remove hazardous potential for contaminant spills. wastes to an approved disposal site. 32. Provide: environmental orientation briefings for Will increase environmental awareness of workers; give workers; program for monitoring development managers continuing baseline information to analyze activities; continuation of fish and wildlife population effects of development and improve protective measures; monitoring; follow-up programs to evaluate effects; help to ensure effectiveness of mitigation. and adequate staffing for full and effective enforcement of mitigation. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 147 SUMMARY OF EFFECTS FOR ALTERNATIVES A, B, C, D, AND E ON THE PHYSICAL, Alternative A B C D1 E Physical environment Water ......................... Major--Dedicated industrial use of Major2 Minor None None limited natural water supplies. Gravel ........................ Moderate--Translocation of natural Moderate2 Minor None _None gravel sites to manmade sites, changing contours, and creating scars where the gravel was both removed and placed, lasting beyond life of project. Air .............................. Minor--Limited to life of project and Minor2 Minor None None restoration. Permafrost ................. Moderate--Permafrost may melt under Moderate2 Neg. None None borrow sites and under vegetation disturbed by other development activities, causing sloughing, sloughing, and stream pollution lasting beyond life of project. Ambient noise .......... Major--Locations at work sites dur- Major2 Minor None None ing life of project and restoration. Socioeconomic environment Human population ... Moderate Moderate Neg. Neg. Neg. Subsistence .............. Major Major Minor Neg. Neg. Native allotments ..... Major Major Minor Neg. Neg. Land status and military .................... Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Industrial ................... Major Major Minor Neg. Neg. State/local political and economic. Major Major Minor Neg. Neg. Public services/ facilities. Major Major Minor Neg. Neg. Archeology ................ Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Recreation, wilderness, and esthetics. Major Major Moderate Neg. Neg. 1Depending on final CCP. 2Effects will generally be the same as for full leasing but over less area. 3Moderate decline in age and horn size of male sheep south of the 1002 area may occur as a result of increased hunting. 4Could be major if access and harvest not controlled. 5Withdrawing harbor at Pokok Lagoon may reduce impact to minor for polar bear and negligible for seals and whales. 148 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT BIOLOGICAL, AND SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTS OF THE 1002 AREA Alternative A B C D1 E Biological environment Caribou (PCH) ................. Major Moderate3 Neg. Neg. Neg. (CAH) ................. Moderate Moderate Minor Neg. Neg. Muskox.............................. Major Major Minor Neg. Neg. Moose ............................... Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Dall sheep ......................... Neg.3 Neg.3 Neg. Neg. Neg. Wolf .................................... Moderate Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Arctic fox ........................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Wolverine ........................... Moderate4 Moderate Neg. Neg. Neg. Brown bear ....................... Moderate Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Polar bear ......................... Moderate Moderate5 Minor Neg. Neg. Seals/whales ..................... Minor Minor5 Neg. Neg. Neg. Ground squirrel/ other rodents ................ Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Snow goose ..................... Major6 Moderate Neg. Neg. Neg. Tundra swan ..................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Other geese/ducks .......... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Seabirds/shorebirds ......... Minor7 Minor7 Neg. Neg. Neg. Peregrine falcon ............... Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Raptors .............................. Moderate8 Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Ptarmigan .......................... Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Neg. Passerines......................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Arctic char ........................ Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Arctic grayling................... Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Other fresh-water fish ................................ Minor Minor Neg. Neg. Neg. Coastal fish ...................... Minor9 Minor9 Neg. Neg. Neg. Vegetation, wetlands, and terrain types .......... Moderate Moderate Minor Neg. Neg. Sadlerochit Spring Special Area .................... Neg.10 Neg.10 Neg.10 Neg. Neg. Coastal/marine environment ..................... Minor11 Minor11 Neg. Neg. Neg. 6Effect on 1002 area population only. Moderate effect on total Banks Island, Canada, population. 7Some local effects could be moderate. 8Golden eagles only. Effect on other raptors minor. 9Could be moderate with development of KIC/ASRC or offshore areas. Other than minor effects expected in vicinity of port sites, effects on coastal fish will be negligible. Effects could be major with an oil spill in fish habitats. 10An exploratory well, water removal, or other activities in this area could increase effects to major. 110il spills and (or) cumulative developments could cause major impacts. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 149 REFERENCES CITED Bartels, R. F., 1973, Bird survey techniques on Alaska's FOR BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT north coast: Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University (Chapters 11 and VI combined) unpublished M.S. thesis, 47 p. Bartels, R. F., and Doyle, T. J., 1984a, Migratory bird use of the coastal lagoon system of the Beaufort Sea coastline Adam, K. M., 1981, Travel over snow, p. 521-561, in Gray, within the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1983, D. M., and Nale, D. H., editors, Handbook of snow - p. 169-199, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., Principles, processes, management and uses: Toronto, editors, 1983 update report, baseline study of the fish, Canada, Pergarmon Press. wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Aleksandrova, V. D., 1980, The Arctic and Antarctic--Their Wildlife Service, Region 7, 614 p. division into geobotanical areas [translated from Bartelt, R. F., and Doyle, T. J., 1984b, Distribution, Russian]: New York, Cambridge University Press, 247 p. abundance, and productivity of tundra swans in the Amaral, M. J., 1985, A raptor survey of selected North coastal wetlands of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Slope rivers in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 1985: Alaska, 1983, p. 200-208, n Garner, G. W., and Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Division of Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1983 update report, baseline Endangered Species. study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, Amaral, M. J., and Benfield, D., 1985, A raptor survey of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 614 p. Canning and Kongakut Rivers, Arctic National Wildlife Bartels, R. F., Doyle, T. J., and Wilmers, T. J., 1984, Refuge, Alaska, 1984: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Movement of molting oldsquaw within the Beaufort Sea Service unpublished report, 13 p. coastal lagoons of Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Amstrup, S. C., 1986a, Minutes of Canadian Federal- Alaska, 1983, p. 156-168, in Gamer, G. W., and Provincial polar bear technical committee meeting, Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1983 update report, baseline January 28-30, 1986, Edmonton, Alberta, 55 p. total. study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, Amstrup, S. C., 1986b, Research on polar bears in Alaska, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 614 p. 1983-1985, p. 85-117, in Proceedings of Working Meeting Bartels, R. F., and Zellhoefer, W. J., 1983, Migratory bird IUCN polar bear specialist group, August 9-11, use of the coastal lagoon system of the Beaufort Sea Edmonton, Alberta: Switzerland, publication of coastline within the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Alaska, 1981 and 1982, p. 61-75, in Garner, G. W., and Natural Resources. Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1982 update report, baseline Amstrup. S. C., Stirling, I., and Lentfer, J. W., 1986, Past study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, and present status of polar bears in Alaska: Wildlife Service, Region 7, 379 p. Bartels, R. F., Zellhoefer, W. J., and Miller, P. A., 1983, Distribution, abundance, and productivity of whistling Anderson, W. L., 1978, Waterfowl collisions with power lines Distribution, abundance, and of whistling at a coal fired plant: Lawrence, KS, Wildlife Society swans in the coastal wetlands of the Arctic National at a coaBulletince, v. 5, no. 2, p. 77-83. Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, p. 53-60, in Garner, G. W., and Bulletin, v. 5, no. 2, p. 77-83. Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center, 1978 Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1982 update report, baseline Kaktovik foldout, Socioeconomic profile, NPRA 105(c) study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 379 p. study report: Anchorage, prepared for NPRA task force U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 379 p. st report: 186Anchorage, prepared. f o r NPRA task fre, Batzli, G. O., White, R. G., MacLean, S. F., Jr., Pitelka, F. Arctic Slope Regional Corporation, 1985, 1985 annual A., and Collier, B. D., 1980, The herbivore-based trophic Arc Slope regional Corport: Barrow, 1 9 8534 p. annusystem, p. 335-410, in Brown, J., Miller, P. G., Tieszen, report: Barrow, 34 p. Bangs, E. E., and Bailey, T. N., 1982, Moose movement L. L., and Bunnel, F. G., editors, An Arctic ecosystem-- and distribution in response to winter seismological The coastal tundra at Barrow, Alaska: Stroudsburg, PA, exploration on the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska: Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross Inc., 571 p. Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service unpublished Belikov, S. E., 1976, Behavioral aspects of the polar bear, final repohfotor ARCO, Alaska, Inc., 46 p. Ursus maritimus; International Union for Conservation of final report for ARCO, Alaska, Inc., 46 p. Bangs, E. E., Spraker, T. H., Bailey, T. N., and Berns, V. D., Nature and Natural Resources: Public News Service, v. 1982, Effects of increased human population on wildlife 40, p. 37-40. resources of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska: Transactions Bergerud, A. T., Jakimchuk, R. D., and Carruthers, D. R., of the Nor'.h American Wildlife and Natural Resources 1984, The buffalo of the North--Caribou (Rangifer Conference, v. 47, p. 605-616. tarandus) and human development: Arctic, v. 37, no. 1, Barry, T. W., and Spencer, R., 1976, Wildlife response to oil p. 7-22. well drilling: Edmonton, Alta, Canadian Wildlife Service Bliss, L. C., and Gustafson, K. M., 1981, Proposed ecological natural landmarks in the Brooks Range, Progress Notes No. 67, 15 p. Barsdale, R. J., Miller, M. C., Alexander, V., Vestal, J. R., Alaska: Prepared for the Division of Natural Landmarks, and Hobble, J.E., 1980, Oil spill effects, p. 388-406, in Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service, 175 p. Hobble, J. E., editor, Limnology of tundra ponds, Bliss, L. C., and Wein, R. W., 1972, Plant community Barrow, Alaska; U.S. International Biology Program responses to disturbance in the wester Canadian Arctic: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 50, p. 1097-1109. Synthesis Series 13: Stroudsburg, PA, Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross. Blokpoel, H., and Hatch, D. R. M., 1976, Snow geese, Hutchinson, and Ross. 150 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT disturbed by aircraft, crash into powerlines: Canadian meso-, and micro-relief: U.S. Office of Naval Research, Field-Naturalist, v. 90, no. 2, p. 195. Grant Nos. ONR-208 and 216, Final report, 128 p. Brackney, A. W., Masteller, M. A., and Morton, J. M., Carruthers, D. R., 1976, A study of the influence of seismic 1985a, Ecology of lesser snow geese staging on the exploration on muskoxen and caribou on Banks Island, coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, N.W.T.: Calgary, Alta, Beak Consultants Ltd., 80 p. Alaska, fall 1984, p. 245-262, in Garner, G. W., and Carruthers, D. R., Jakimchuk, R. D., and Ferguson, S. H., Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update report, baseline 1984, The relationship between the Central Arctic study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, caribou herd and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline: Sidney, BC, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 777 p. Renewable Resources Consulting Services Ltd., report to Brackney, A. W., Morton, J. M., Noll, J. M., and Masteller, Alyeska Pipeline Service Co., 207 p. M. A., 1985b, Distribution, abundance, and productivity Challinor, J. L., and Gersper, P. L., 1975, Vehicle of tundra swans in the coastal wetlands of the Arctic perturbation effects upon a tundra soil-plant system--Il, National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1984, p. 297-308, in Effects on the chemical regime: Soil Science Society of Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update America Proceedings, v. 39, p. 689-695. report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their Chapin, F. S., and Shaver, G. R., 1981, Changes in soil habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, properties and vegetation following disturbance of Region 7, 777 p. Alaskan arctic tundra: Journal of Applied Ecology, v. 18, Britton, M. E., 1957, Vegetation of the Arctic tundra, in no. 2, p. 605-607. Hansen, H. P., editor, Arctic biology: Corvallis, Oregon Chesemore, D. L., 1967, Ecology of the arctic fox in State University Press, p. 67-130. northern and western Alaska: Fairbanks, University of Brown, J., and Berg, R., editors, 1980, Environmental Alaska M.S. thesis, 148 p. engineering and ecological baseline investigations along Child, K. N., 1973, The reactions of barren-ground caribou the Yukon River-Prudhoe Bay haul road: Hanover, NH, (Rangifer tarandus aranti) to simulated pipeline and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research pipeline crossing structures at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska: and Engineering Laboratory CRREL Report 80-19. Fairbanks, Alaska, Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Burgess, R. M., 1984, Investigations of patterns of University of Alaska, completion report, 51 p. vegetation, distribution and abundance of small mammals Childers, J. M., Sloan, C. E., Meckel, J. P., and Naumann, and nesting birds, and behavioral ecology of arctic foxes J. W., 1977, Hydrologic reconnaissance of the eastern at Demarcation Bay, Alaska: Fairbanks, University of North Slope, Alaska, 1975: U.S. Geological Survey Alaska M.S. thesis, 191 p. Open-File Report 77-492, 77 p. Burns, J. J., and Eley, T. J., 1978, The natural history and Coffing, M., and Pedersen, S., 1985, Caribou hunting--Land ecology of the bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) and use dimensions, harvest level and selected aspects of the ringed seal (Phoca hispida), p. 226-302, in the hunt during regulatory year 1983-84 in Kaktovik, Environmental assessment of the Alaskan Continental Alaska: Fairbanks, Alaska Department of Fish and Shelf: Annual reports of principal investigators of the Game, Division of Subsistence, Technical Paper 120, 38 year ending March 1977, Outer Continental Shelf p. Environmental Assessment Program Report, RU 230, v. Cornwell, G., and Hackbaum, H. A., 1971, Collisions with 1, 773 p. wires--A source of anatid mortality: Wilson Ornithological Cade, T. J., 1960, Ecology of the peregrine and gyrfalcon Society, Toronto, Wilson Bulletin, v. 83, no. 3, p. 305- populations in Alaska: University of California 306. Publications in Zoology, v. 63, no. 3, p. 151-290. Cowardin, L. M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F. C., and LaRoe, Calef, G. W., DeBock, E. A., and Lortie, G. M., 1976, The E. T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater reaction of barren ground caribou to aircraft: Arctic, v. habitats of the United States: Washington, DC, U.S. 29, no. 4, p. 201-212. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-79/31, 103 p. Cameron, R. D., and Whitten, K. R., 1979. Seasonal Craig, P. C., 1977, Arctic char in Sadlerochit Springs, movements and sexual segregation of caribou Arctic National Wildlife Range, Chapter II in Arctic Gas, determined by aerial surveys: Journal of Wildlife Biological Report Series, v. 41, Aquatic Environments Management, v. 43, p. 626-633. Limited, 28 p. Cameron, R. D., and Whitten, K. R., 1980, Influence of the Craig, P. C., 1984, Fish use of coastal waters of the Alaska Trans-Alaska Pipeline corridor on the local distribution of Beaufort Sea--A review: Transactions of the American caribou, p. 475-484, in Reimers, E., Gaare, E., and Fisheries Society, v. 113, no. 3, p. 265-282. Skjenneberg, S., editors, Proceedings of the 2d Crutchfield, F. A., Jr., 1979, A definition of issues and International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium, Roros, search for consensus on multiple uses, p. 235-242, in Norway, 1979: Trondheim, 799 p. Simonett, D. S., editor, Symposium on Marine sciences Cameron, R. D., Whitten, K. R., Smith, W. T., and Roby, D. and ocean policy--A definition of the issues and search D., 1979, Caribou distribution and group composition for a consensus on multiple uses: Santa Barbara, associated with construction of the Trans-Alaska University of California, 318 p. Pipeline: Canadian Field-Naturalist, v., 93, no. 2, p. 155- Curatolo, J. A., 1983, Caribou movements, behavior, and 162. interactions with oil field development--A synthesis of Cantlon, J. E., 1961, Plant cover in relation to macro-, pertinent research and unpublished 1982 field work in ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 151 the Eileen West End, Kuparuk oil field, Alaska: feeding ecology of birds associated with pack ice, p. Anchorage, prepared for Sohio Alaska Petroleum 167-509, in Annual Report of Principal Investigators, Company, 74 p. 1978: Boulder, CO, U.S. Bureau of Land Management Curatolo, J. A., 1984, A study of caribou response to Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment pipelines in and near the Eileen West End, 1983: Program, v. 2. Fairbanks, Alaska Biological Research final report to Doll, D., McCrory, W. P., and Feist, J. D., 1974, SOHIO Alaska Petroleum Co., 32 p. Observations of moose, wolf, and grizzly bear in the Curatolo, J. A., and Murphy, S. M., 1983, Caribou northern Yukon Territory, in McCourt, K. H., and responses to the pipline/road complex in the Kuparuk oil Horstman, L. P., editors, Studies of large mammal field, Alaska, 1982: Fairbanks, Alaska Biological populations in north- eastern Alaska, Yukon, and the Research report to ARCO Alaska, Inc., 81 p. Northwest Territories, 1973: Arctic Gas Biological Report Curatolo, J. A., Murphy, S. M., and Robus, M. A., 1982, Series, v. 22, chap. 3. Caribou responses to the pipeline/road complex in the Douglass, R. J., Wright, J. M., Fancy, S. G., Follmann, E. Kuparuk oil field, Alaska, 1982: Fairbanks, Alaska H., and Hechtel, J. L., 1980, Assessment of the Biological Research report to ARCO Alaska, Inc., 64 p. knowledge of potential effects of the Northwest Alaskan Curatolo, J. A., and Murphy, S. M., in press, The effects of Pipeline Project on mammals-Literature review and pipelines, roads, and traffic on the movements of agency input: Final report prepared by LGL Ecological caribou: Canadian Field-Naturalist, v. 100, no. 2, p. Research Associates, Inc. and the University of Alaska Curatolo, J. A., and Reges, A. E., 1986, Caribou use of for Northwest Alaskan Pipeline Company, 150 p. pipeline/road separations and ramps for crossing Eberhardt, W. L., 1977, The biology of arctic and red foxes pipeline/road complexes in the Kuparuk oilfield, Alaska, on the North Slope: Fairbanks, University of Alaska 1985: Prepared for ARCO Alaska, Inc., by Alaska M.S. thesis, 125 p. Biological Research, Fairbanks, AK, 106 p. Elison, G. W., Rappoport, A. G., and Reid, G. M., 1986, Dau, J. R., and Cameron, R. D., 1985, Effects of a road Report of the caribou impact analysis workshop, Arctic system on caribou distribution during calving: Address National Wildlife Refuge, November 19-20, 1985: at 4th International reindeer/caribou symposium, Fairbanks, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 39 p. Whitehorse, YT, August 22-25, 1985, 18 p. Envirosphere Company, 1985, Effects of dynamite and Dauphine, T. C., Jr., 1976, Biology of the Kaminuriak vibrator seismic exploration on visual quality, soils, and population of barren-ground caribou, Part 4--Growth, vegetation of the Alaskan North Slope: Final report reproduction, and energy reserve: Canadian Wildlife prepared for Geophysical Service, Inc., Anchorage, Service Report Series No. 38, 71 p. Alaska, 82 p. + appendices. Davis, J. C., and Franzmann, A. W., 1979, Fire-moose- Everett, K. R., Murray, B. M., Murray, D. F., Johnson, A. caribou interrelationships-A review and assessment: W., Lipkins, A. E., and Webber, P. J., 1985, Proceedings North American Moose Conference Reconnaissance observations of long-term natural Workshop, v. 15, p. 80-118. vegetation recovery in the Cape Thompson region, Davis, J. L., and Valkenburg, Patrick, 1979, Caribou Alaska, and additions to the checklist of flora: Hanover, distribution, population characteristics, mortality, and NH, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering responses to disturbance in Northwest Alaska, v. 1, p. Laboratory CRREL Report 85-11. 13-52, in Lent, P., editor, Studies of selected wildlife and Fancy, S. G., 1982, Movements and activities of caribou at fish and their use of habitats on and adjacent to the Drill sites 16 and 17, Prudhoe Bay, Alaska--The second National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 1977-1978: year: Fairbanks, LGL Ecological Research Associates, Anchorage, U.S. Department of the Interior, 226 p. final report for Prudhoe Bay owners, 48 p. Davis, R. A., and Wiseley, A. N., 1974, Normal behavior of Fancy, S. G., 1983, Movements and activity budgets of snow geese on the Yukon-Alaska North Slope and the caribou near oil drilling sites in the Sagavanirktok River effects of aircraft-induced disturbance on this behavior, floodplain, Alaska: Arctic, v. 36, no. 2, p. 193-197. p. 1-85, in Gunn, W. W. H., Richardson, W. J., Fancy, S. G., Douglass, R. J., and Wright, J. M., 1981, Schweinsburg, R. E., and Wright, T. D., editors, Studies Movements and activities of caribou at Drill Sites 16 and on snow geese and waterfowl in the Northwest 17, Prudhoe Bay, Alaska: LGL Alaska Ecological Territories, Yukon Territory, and Alaska, 1973: Arctic Research Associates final report to Prudhoe Bay unit Gas Biological Report Series, v. 27, chap. 2. owners, contract No. AR64048, 48 p. Deneke, F. J., McCown, B. H., Coyne, P. I., Rickard, W., FEIS, 1983--see U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. and Brown, J., 1975, Biological aspects of terrestrial oil Geological Survey, and Bureau of Land Management, spills--U.S. Army CRREL oil research in Alaska, 1970- 1983. 1974: Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Cold Felix, N. A., and Jorgenson, M. T., 1985, Effects of winter Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory CRREL seismic exploration on the coastal plain of the Arctic Report 346, 66 p. National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, p. 622-699, in Garner, Denniston, R. H., 1956, Ecology, behavior and population G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update report, dynamics of the Wyoming or Rocky Mountain moose: baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: New York, Zoologica, v. 41, p. 105-118. Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 777 Divoky, G. J., 1978, The distribution, abundance, and p. 152 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Felix, N. A., Jorgenson, M. T., Raynolds, M. K., Lipkin, R., Fraker, M. A., Wursig, B., and Greene, C. R., 1981, Blank, D. L., and Lance, B. K., 1986a, Effects of winter Disturbance responses of bowheads and characteristics seismic exploration on visual resources, vegetation, and of waterborne noise, in Richardson, W. J., editor, subsurface stability of the coastal plain of the Arctic Behavior disturbance responses and feeding of bowhead National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska in Garner, G. W., and whales in the Beaufort Sea, 1980: unpublished report Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1985 update report, baseline for U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Washington, DC, study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, by LGL Limited, Ecological Research Associates, Inc., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, in press. Bryan, TX, p. 91-195. Felix, N. A., Jorgenson, M. T., Raynolds, M. K., Lipkin, R., French, H. M., 1980, Terrain, land use and waste drilling Blank, D. L., and Lance, B. K. 1986b, Snow distribution fluid disposal problems, arctic Canada: Arctic, v. 33, no. on the arctic coastal plain and its relationship to 4, p. 794-806. disturbance caused by winter seismic exploration, Arctic French, H. M., and Smith, M. W., 1980, Geothermal National Wildlife Refuge, in Gamer, G. W., and Reynolds, disturbance resulting from sump construction and use in P. E., editors, 1985 update report, baseline study of the permafrost terrain, arctic Canada, p. 139-165, in fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish Research on environmental fate and effects of drilling and Wildlife Service, Region 7, in press. fluids and cuttings, Proceedings--2 v.: Symposium held Felix, N. A., Lipkin, R., Raynolds, M. K., Blank, D. L., and January 1980 at Lake Buena Vista, FL; sponsored by Dashevsky, S., 1985, Field reports on Salix ovalifolia var. American Petroleum Institute, Bureau of Land alacialis, Thlaspi arcticum: Fairbanks, U.S. Fish and Management, and other U.S./Canada organizations Wildlife Service unpublished report, 18 p. [Library of Congress no. 80-69804], 1122 p. Follmann, E. H., Dietrich, R. A., and Hechtel, J. L., 1980, Frost, K. J., and Lowry, L. F., 1981, Feeding and trophic Recommended carnivore control program for the relationship of bowhead whales and other vertebrate Northwest Alaskan pipeline project including a review of consumers in the Beaufort Sea: Draft report submitted human-carnivore encounter problems and animal to the National Marine Fisheries Service, National Marine deterrent methodology: Fairbanks, Institute of Arctic Mammal Laboratory, Seattle, WA. Biology, University of Alaska, 113 p. FWS, 1981 -- See U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1981. Follmann, E. H., and Hechtel, J. L., 1983, Bears and Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1986a, Final pipeline construction in the far north: Draft paper report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their presented at the Bear Biology Association Sixth habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, International Conference on Bear Research and Region 7, in press. Management, Grand Canyon, AZ, February 1983. Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1986b, 1985 Ford, J., 1977, White whale--Offshore exploration acoustic update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and study [unpublished]: represented by F.F. Slaney and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Company Ltd., Vancouver, for Imperial Oil Ltd., Calgary, Region 7, in press. 21 p. Garner, G. W., Reynolds, H. V., Martin, L. D., Weiler, G. J., Fraker, M. A., 1982, White whale monitoring program, Morton, J. M., and Noll, J. M., 1985, Ecology of brown Mackenzie Estuary, part 1-Migration, distribution and bears inhabiting the coastal plain and adjacent foothills abundance of whales and effects of industry activities on and mountains of the northeastern portion of the Arctic whales: LGL Limited, Environmental Research National Wildlife Refuge, p. 268-296, in Garner, G. W., Associates, Sidney, BC, for Esso-Resources-Canada, and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update report, Dome Petroleum and Gulf-Canada. baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Fraker, M. A., and Richardson, W. J., 1980, Bowhead Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 777 whales in the Beaufort Sea--A summary of their seasonal p. distribution and activities, and potential disturbance by Garner, G. W., Reynolds, H. V., Martin, L. D., Wilmers, T. J., offshore oil and gas exploration and development. and Doyle, T. J., 1984, Ecology of brown bears Prepared for U.S. Bureau of Land Management, by LGL inhabiting the coastal plain and adjacent foothills and Limited, Ecological Research Associates, Inc., Bryan, TX, mountains of the northeastern portion of the Arctic 85 p. National Wildlife Refuge, p. 330-358, in Garner, G. W., Fraker, M. A., Richardson, W. J., and Wursig, B., 1982, and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1983 update report, Disturbance responses of bowheads, in Richardson, W. baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: J., editor, Behavior disturbance responses and breeding Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 614 of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in the Beaufort p. Sea, 1980-81: Unpublished report, for U.S. Bureau of Garner, G. W., Weiler, G. J., and Martin, L. D., 1983, Land Management, by LGL Limited, Ecological Research Ecology of brown bears inhabiting the coastal plain and Associates, Inc., Bryan, TX, p. 145-248. adjacent foothills and mountains of the northeastern Fraker, M. A., Sergeant, D., and Hock, W., 1978, Bowhead portion of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, p. 275-290, and white whales in the southern Beaufort Sea, Beaufort in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1982 Sea project: Sidney, BC, Department of Fisheries and update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and the Environment, their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 379 p. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 153 Gavin, A., 1971, Ecological survey of Alaska's North Slope, three drainages within the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, summer 1969 and 1970: Report to Atlantic Richfield Co., p. 133-152, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., 13 p. editors, 1983 update report, baseline study of the fish, Glesne, R. S., and Deschermeier, S. J., 1984, Abundance, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and distribution and diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates Wildlife Service, Region 7, 614 p. on the north slope of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Haugen, H. S., 1985, Prey utilization by wolves in two 1982 and 1983, p. 523-552, in Garner, G. W., and drainages within the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1983 update report, baseline a preliminary description of wolf pack behavior around study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, the den in the Kongakut River drainage, p. 145-172, in U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 614 p. Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update Gollop, M. A., and Davis, R. A., 1974, Gas compressor report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their noise simulator disturbance to snow geese, Komakuk habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Beach, Yukon Territory, September 1972, p. 280-304, in Region 7, 777 p. Gunn, W. W. H., and Livingston, J. A., editors, Haugh, J., and Halperin, K. C., 1976, Evaluation of raptor Disturbance to birds by gas compressor noise populations-Portage Glacier area, Denali Highway area, simulators, aircraft, and human activity in the Mackenzie Yukon River pipeline crossing area, and Yukon River and Valley and the North Slope, 1972: Arctic Gas Biological Porcupine River tributaries: Anchorage, U.S. Bureau of Report Series, v. 14, chap. 7. Land Management, 58 p. Gollop, M. A., Davis, R. A., Prevett, J. P., and Felske, B. E., Helle, T., and Tarvainen, L., 1984, Effects of insect 1974, Disturbance studies of terrestrial breeding bird harassment on weight gain and survival in reindeer populations, Firth River, Yukon Territory, June 1972, in calves: Rangifer, v. 4, p. 24-27. Gunn, W. W. H., and Livingston, J. A., editors: Arctic Hernandez, H., 1973, Natural plant recolonization of surficial Gas Biological Report Series, v. 14, chap 3, 56 p. disturbances, Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula region, Northwest Gollop, M. A., Goldsberry, J., and Davis, R. A., 1974, Territories: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 51, no. 11, Aircraft disturbance to molting sea ducks, Herschel p. 2177-2196. Island, Yukon Territory, p. 202-231, in Gunn, W. W. H., Hinman, R. A., 1985, Annual report of survey-inventory and Livingston, J. A., editors: Arctic Gas Biological activities, in Caribou survey-inventory progress report, v. Report Series, v. 14, chap. 5. XVI: Juneau, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Aid Greene, C. R., 1982, Characteristics of waterborne industrial in wildlife restoration progress report, project W-22-4, 56 noise, in Behavior disturbance responses and feeding p. of bowhead whales, Balaena mysticetus, in Richardson, Hornocker, M. G., and Hash, H. S., 1981, Ecology of the W. J., editor, The Eastern Beaufort Sea, 1980, wolverine in northwestern Montana: Canadian Journal of unpublished report for U.S. Bureau of Land Zoology, v. 59, no. 7, p. 1286-1301. Management, by LGL Limited, Ecological Research How, G. T., and Hernandez, H., 1975, Terrain and Associates, Inc., Bryan, TX, p. 249-346. vegetation response to disturbance in the Yukon Coastal Hampton, P. D., and Joyce, M. R., 1985, Birds, in Lisburne Plain and Mackenzie Delta region and relevance to the development environmental studies, 1984, Final report-- proposed gas pipeline: Canada, Environmental Caribou, birds, and oceanography: Anchorage, Protection Board, 62 p. Woodward-Clyde Consultants and Entrix, Inc., for ARCO Hurst, R. J., Oritsland, N. A., and Watts, P. D., 1982, Alaska, Inc., v. 2, chapter 2. Metabolic and temperature responses of polar bears to Hanley, P. T., Hemming, J. E., Morsell, J. W., Morehouse, crude oil, p. 263-280, in Rand, P. J., editor, Land and T. A., Leask, L. E., and Harrison, G. S., 1981, Natural water issues related to energy development: Ann Arbor, resource protection and petroleum development in MI, Ann Arbor Science, 469 p. Alaska: Washington, DC, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jacobson, M. J., 1980, Grizzly bear management plan, FWS/OBS-80122, 305 p. William O. Douglas Arctic Wildlife Range: Fairbanks, U. Harding, L., and Nagy, J. A., 1980, Responses of grizzly S. Fish and Wildlife Service unpublished report, 23 p. bears to hydrocarbon exploration on Richards Island, Jacobson, M. J., and Wentworth, Cynthia, 1982, Kaktovik Northwest Territories, Canada, p. 277-280, in Martinka, subsistence--Land use values through time in the Arctic C. J., and McArthur, K. L., editors, Bears--Their biology National Wildlife Refuge area: U.S. Fish and Wildlife and management: Bear Biology Association Fourth Service, 142 p. International Conference on Bear Research and Jingfors, K. T., and Lassen, P., 1984, Muskox responses to Management, Kalispell, MT, February 1977, Conference the seismic test operation--Preliminary observations, p. Series No. 3; Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing 127, in Klein, D. R., White, R. G., and Keller, S., editors, Office. Biological papers: Fairbanks, University of jAlaska Special Harrington, F. H., Mech, L. D., and Fritts, S. T., 1983, Pack Report 4, 218 p. size and wolf pup survival--Their relationship under Johnson, L. A., Rindge, S. D., and Gaskin, D. A., 1981, varying ecological conditions: Behavior Ecology and Chena River Lakes project revegetation--Three year Sociobiology, v. 13, no. 1, p. 19-26. summary: Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Haugen, H. S., 1984, Prey utilization by wolves and a Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory preliminary assessment of wolf and prey densities in Report 81-18, 59 p. 154 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Johnson, P. R., and Collins, C. M., 1980, Snow pads used Mackay, D., Ng, T. W., Shiu, W. Y., and Reuber, B., 1980, for pipeline construction in Alaska, 1976: Hanover, NH, The degradation of crude oil in northern soils: Canada, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Northern Affairs Program, Environmental Studies No. 18, Laboratory CRREL Report 80-17, 28 p. 39 p. Keith, L. B., 1983, Population dynamics in wolves, in MacPherson, A. H., 1969, The dynamics of a Canadian Carbyn, L. W., editor, Wolves in Canada and Alaska: arctic fox population: Queen's Printer, Ottawa, Canadian Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series, No. 45, 135 p. Wildlife Report Series No. 8, 52 p. Kerfoot, D. E., 1972, Tundra disturbance studies in the Magoun, A. J., 1979, Studies of wolverine on and adjacent western Canadian arctic: Canada, Arctic Land Use to NPRA, p. 89-128, in Work Group 3, v. 1, Studies of Research Program, Department of Indian Affairs and selected wildlife and fish and their use of habitats on Northern Development, 115 p. and adjacent to the National Petroleum Reserve in Klein, D. R., 1980, Reactions of caribou and reindeer to Alaska 1977-78: Anchorage, U.S. Department of the obstructions--A reassessment, p. 519-527, in Reimers, E., Interior National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska Land Use Gare, E., and Skjenneberg, S., editors, Proceedings of Study, 226 p. the 2d International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium, Roros, Magoun, A. J., 1985, Population characteristics, ecology Norway; Direktorate for vilt og ferskannsfisk, Trondheim, and management of wolverines in northwestern Alaska: 799 p. Fairbanks, University of Alaska Ph. D. thesis, 197 p. Krott, P., 1960, Ways of the wolverine: Natural History, v. Martin, L. D., and Garner, G. W., 1984, Population size, 69, no. 2, p. 16-29. composition, and distribution of moose along the Lambert, J. D. H., 1972, Botanical changes resulting from Canning and Kongakut Rivers within the Arctic National seismic and drilling operation, Mackenzie Delta area: Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, fall 1983, p. 119-132, in Garner, Canada, Arctic Land Use Research Program 1971-72, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1983 update report, Canada, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Development, 55 p. and appendix. Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 614 Lawson, D. E., Brown, J., Everett, K. R., Johnson, A. W., p. Komarkova, V., Murray, B. M., Murray, D. F., and Martin, L. D., and Garner, G. W., 1985, Population size, Webber, P. J., 1978, Tundra disturbances and recovery composition, and distribution of moose along the following the 1949 exploratory drilling, Fish Creek, Canning and Kongakut Rivers within the Arctic National northern Alaska: Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Cold Regions Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, spring and fall, 1984, p. 207-217, Research and Engineering Laboratory CRREL Report 78- in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 28, 81 p. update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and LeBlond, N. R., 1979, Porcupine caribou herd: Canadian their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Arctic Research Commission Research Monograph 3, Region 7, 777 p. Yukon Series, 156 p. Martin, P. D., and Moiteret, C. S., 1981, Bird populations Lentfer, J. W., 1971, The effects of ocean currents and ice and habitat use, Canning River delta, Alaska: Fairbanks, movement on polar bear activity: Federal Aid Wildlife U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service unpublished report. Restoration Projects W-17-2 and W-17-3, Job 5.2R, 11 p. Mauer, F. J., 1985a, Distribution and abundance of Lentfer, J. W., and Hensel, R. J., 1980, Alaskan polar bear wolverines in the northern portion of the Arctic National denning, p. 101-108, in Martinka, C. J., and McArthur, K. Wildlife Refuge, p. 501-514, in Garner, G. W., and L., editors, Bears--Their biology and management: Bear Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update report, baseline Biology Association Fourth International Conference on study of fish, wildlife and their habitats: Anchorage, Bear Research and Management, Kalispell, MT, February U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 777 p. 1977: Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office. Mauer, F. J., 1985b, Distribution and relative abundance of LeResche, R. E., 1972, The international herds-Present golden eagles in relation to the Porcupine caribou herd knowledge of the Fortymile and Porcupine caribou herds, during calving and post-calving periods, 1984, p. 114- p. 127-134, in Luick, J. R., Lent, P. C., Klein, D. R., and 144, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 White, R. G., editors: Proceedings of the First update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife and International Reindeer and Caribou Symposium: their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fairbanks, University of Alaska. Region 7, 777 p. Lowry, L. F., and Frost, K. J., 1981, Ecological processes, Mauer, F. J., Garner, G. W., Martin, L. D., and Weiler, G. J., sensitivities, and issues of the Sale 71 region, chapter 4, 1983, Evaluation of techniques for assessing neonatal p. 115-136, in Norton, D. W., and Sackinger, W. M., caribou calf mortality in the Porcupine caribou herd, p. editors, Beaufort Sea-Sale 71 synthesis report: Juneau, 201-245, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and 1982 update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, U.S. Bureau of Land Management OCS Environmental and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Assessment Program, 178 p. Service, Region 7, 379 p. Lowry, L. F., Frost, K. J., and Burns, J. J., 1978, Food of McCourt, K. H., Feist, J. D., Doll, D., and Russell, J. J., ringed seals and bowhead whales near Point Barrow, 1974, Disturbance studies of caribou and other mammals Alaska: Canadian Field-Naturalist, v. 92, p. 67-70. in the Yukon and Alaska, 1972: Arctic Gas Biological Report Series, v. 5. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 155 Mech, L. D., 1970, The wolf--The ecology and behavior of insects on the coastal plain and adjoining foothills on an endangered species: New York, Natural History the ANWR, p. 695-724, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, Press, 384 p. P. E., editors, 1984 update report, baseline study of the Meehan, Rosa, 1986, Draft guidance manual for evaluating fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and mitigating oil development impacts on coastal tundra and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 777 p. wetlands of the Alaskan North Slope: Boulder, CO, Pank, L. F., Regelin, W. L., Curby, C. H., and Fancy, S. G., University of Colorado--INSTAAR, for U.S. Environmental 1986, Caribou use of potential oil and gas development Protection Agency. areas in the 1002 region of the Arctic National Wildlife Miller, F. L., and Gunn, A., 1979, Responses of Peary Refuge, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, caribou and muskoxen to turbo-helicopter harassment, 1985 update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, Prince of Wales Island, Northwest Territories, 1976-77: and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ottawa, Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper No. Service, Region 7, in press. 40, 90 p. Patterson, L. A., 1974, An assessment of the energetic Murphy, S. M., Anderson, B. A., and Craynor, C. L., 1986, importance of the North Slope to snow geese (Chen The effects of the Lisburne Development Project on caerulescens) during the staging period in September geese and swans: First annual report prepared for 1973, in Gunn, W. W. H., Richardson, W. J., ARCO Alaska, Inc. by Alaska Biological Research, Schweinsburg, R. E., and Wright, T. D., editors, Studies Fairbanks, AK, 152 p. on snow geese and waterfowl in the Northwest Murray, D. F., 1980a, Balsam poplar in arctic Alaska: Territories, Yukon Territory and Alaska 1973: Canadian Canadian Journal of Anthropology, v. 1, no. 1, p. 29-32. Arctic Gas Study Ltd., Biological Report Series, v. 27, Murray, D. F., 1980b, Threatened and endangered plants of chap. 4, p. 1-44. Alaska: Anchorage, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pearson, A. M., 1976, Population characteristics of the Forest Service, and U.S. Department of the Interior, Arctic mountain grizzly bear, p. 247-260, in Pelton, M., Bureau of Land Management, 59 p. Lentfer, J., and Fold, E., editors, Bears--Their biology Myhre, R., 1967, The wolverine: Fauna, v. 20, no. 2, p. 51- and management: International Union for the 63. Conservation of Nature Publications, New Series No. 40, National Marine Fisheries Service, 1983, Letter from Robert 467 p. W. McVey, Director, Alaska Region, National Marine Pearson, A. M., 1980, The potential impact of the Dempster Fisheries Service, to Keith Schreiner, Regional Director, Lateral Gas Pipeline on grizzly bear and fox in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, p. C-11, in U.S. Fish and Mackenzie delta: Environmental report by Art Pearson Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey, and Bureau of and Associates for Foothills Pipe Lines (Yukon) Ltd., Land Management, 1983. Calgary, Alta, 17 p. North Slope Borough Assembly, 1980, Kaktovik capital Pedersen, S., and Caulfield, R. A., 1981, Some elements of improvement program: Aerial photograph and map, July subsistence land and resource use within the range of 13, 1979, and September 26, 1979. the Porcupine caribou herd in Alaska: Fairbanks, Alaska North Slope Borough Assembly, 1981, Annual overall Department of Fish and Game Division of Subsistence economic development program report: Overall interim report. Economic Development Program Committee, 25 p. Pedersen, S., and Coffing, M., 1984, Caribou hunting--Land NSB, 1984a, North Slope Borough Coastal Management use dimensions and recent harvest patterns in Kaktovik, Program--Concept approved: Alaska Coastal Northeast Alaska: Fairbanks, Alaska Department of Fish Management Program, Maynard and Partch, Woodward- and Game, Division of Subsistence, 57 p. Clyde Consultants, 310 p. Pedersen, S., Coffing, M., and Thompson, J., 1985, NSB, 1984b, North Slope Borough Coastal Management Subsistence land use and place names maps for Program--Background report: Alaska Coastal Kaktovik, Alaska: Fairbanks, Alaska Department of Fish Management Program, Maynard and Partch, Woodward- and Game Technical Paper 109, 140 p. Clyde Consultants, 578 p. Percy, J. A., and Mullin, T. C., 1975, Effects of crude oil on Northwest Territories Wildlife Service, 1979, Transactions of Arctic marine invertebrates: Quebec, Canada Department the caribou disturbance workshop, Yellowknife, NWT, of the Environment, Beaufort Sea Project, Beaufort Sea October 17, 1979: unpublished report, 102 p. and Technical Report 11, 187 p. unnumbered appendix. Peterson, J. W., 1978, A study of the effect of the limit on Oates, R. M., McWhorter, M., and Douglas, D., 1986, bowhead whale take by the Eskimo of Arctic Alaska: Species accounts of migratory birds at eight study areas Anchorage, U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs. on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Wildlife Peterson, R. L., 1955, The North American Moose: Refuge, Alaska, 1985, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. University of Toronto Press, 280 p. E., editors, 1985 update report, baseline study of the Phillips, M. K., 1984, Habitat use and behavior of grizzly fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish bears in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, p. 45-73, in and Wildlife Service, Region 7, in press. Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1983 update Pank, L. F., Curby, C., Nankivell, B., Simon, C., and Wright, report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their R., 1985, DWRC progress report: Sub-work unit 5; habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Spatial and temporal distribution of biting and parasitic Region 7, 614 p. 156 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Quimby, R., 1974, Grizzly bear, in Jakimchuk, R. D., editor, Roberts, R. W., 1985, Oil development scenarios for Outer Mammal studies in northeastern Alaska with emphasis Continental Shelf, Oil and Gas Lease Sale 97, Beaufort within the Canning River drainage: Arctic Gas Biological Sea planning area: U.S. Minerals Management Service, Report Series, v. 24, chap. 2. Alaska OCS Region, 40 p., Draft. Rausch, R. A., 1967, Some aspects of the population Robus, M. A., and Curatolo, J. A., 1983, Caribou ecology of wolves, Alaska: American Zoologist, v. 7, p. movements along the Oliktok Road in the Kalubik Creek 263-265. region, Kuparuk oil field, Alaska, 1983: Fairbanks, Alaska Rausch, R. A., and Pearson, A. M. 1972, Notes on the Biolgogical Research, final report to ARCO Alaska, Inc., wolverine in Alaska and Yukon Territory: Journal of 61 p. Wildlife Management, v. 36, no. 2, p. 249-268. Roseneau, D. G., 1974, A continuation of studies of Reimers, E., 1980, Activity pattern--The major determinant for raptorial bird nesting sites along proposed pipeline growth and fattening in Rangifer, p. 446-475, in Reimers, routes in Alaska: Unpublished report submitted to E., Gaare, E., and Skjenneberg, S., editors, Proceedings Northern Engineering Service Company, Ltd., and of the 2d International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium: Canadian Arctic Gas Study Company, Ltd., Calgary, Roros, Norway, 1979: Trondheim, 799 p. Alberta, 68 p. Reimnitz, Erk, and Maurer, D. K., 1979, Effects of storm Roseneau, D. G., Bente, P. J., and Springer, A. M., 1980, surges on the Beaufort Sea coast, northern Alaska: Numbers and status of peregrine falcons on the middle Arctic, v. 32, no. 4, p. 329-344. Yukon River, lower Yukon in selected areas of the Arctic Reynolds, H. V., 1979, Population, biology, movements, National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1980: Unpublished distribution and habitat utilization of a grizzly bear report submitted to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, population in NPRA, p. 129-182, in NPRA Work Group 3- Anchorage, 54 p. -Field study, v. 1, Studies of selected wildlife and fish Roseneau, D. G., Reynolds, H., and White, C. M., 1976, and their use of habitats on and adjacent to the Northeastern Alaska, p. 243-245, in Fyfe, R. W., Temple, National Petroleum Reserve in Alaska 1977-1978: U.S. S. A., and Cade, T. J., editors, The 1975 North Department of the Interior, 105(c) Land Use Study, American peregrine falcon survey: Canadian Field- Bureau of Land Management, Anchorage. Naturalist, v. 90, no. 3, p. 228-273. Reynolds, H. V., Curatolo, J. A., and Quimby, R., 1976, Roseneau, D. G., and Stern, P. M., 1974, Distribution of Denning ecology of grizzly bears in northeastern Alaska, moose, muskox and sheep in northeastern Alaska, 1972, p. 403-409, in Pelton, M., Lentfer, J., and Folk, E., p. 42-58, in Jakimchuk, R. D., editor, Arctic Gas editors, Bears-Their biology and management: Biological Report Series, v. 6, 101 p. International Union for the Conservation of Nature Russell, J., 1977, Some overt responses of muskoxen and Publications, New Series No. 40, 467 p. caribou to seismic activities, northeastern Banks Island: Reynolds, P. E., 1986, Movement and activity patterns of a Yellowknife, Northwest Territories Wildlife Service, 85 p. satellite-collared muskox in the Arctic National Wildlife Salter, R., and Davis, R. A., 1974, Snow geese disturbance Refuge, Alaska, 1984-85, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, by aircraft on the North Slope, September, 1972, p. 258- P. E., editors, 1985 update report, baseline study of the 279, in Gunn, W. W. H., and Livingston, J. A., editors, fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish Disturbance to birds by gas compressor noise and Wildlife Service, Region 7, in press. simulators, aircraft, and human activity in the Mackenzie Reynolds, P.E., and LaPlant, D. J., 1985, Effects of winter Valley and the North Slope, 1972: Arctic Gas Biological seismic exploration activities on muskoxen in the Arctic Report Series, v. 14, chap. 6. National Wildlife Refuge, January-May 1984, p. 96-113, in Schallenberger, A., 1980, Review of oil and gas exploitation Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update impacts on grizzly bears, p. 271-276, in Martinka, C. J., report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their and McArthur, K. L., editors, Bears--Their biology and habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, management: Bear Biology Association Fourth Region 7, 777 p. International Conference on Bear Research and Reynolds, P. E., Martin, L. D., Weiler, G. J., Noll, J. M., and Management, Kalispell, MT, February 1977; Washington, Morton, J. M., 1985, Population and herd dynamics, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office. distribution, movements, and habitat use of muskoxen in Schliebe, S. L., 1985, Summary of Alaskan polar bear native the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, 1982-1984, p. subsistence harvest: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 42-95, in Garner, G. W. and Reynolds, P. E., editors, Service Marine Mammal Project, unpublished report, 15 1984 update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, p. and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Schweinsburg, R. E., 1972, Snow geese disturbance by Service, Region 7, 777 p. aircraft on the North Slope, in Gunn, W. W. H., and Reynolds, P., Reynolds, H. V. III, and Follmann, E. H., 1983, Livingston, J. A., editors: Arctic Gas Biological Report Effects of seismic surveys on denning grizzly bears in Series, v. 14 [2d edition]. Prepared by LGL Limited. northern Alaska: Draft paper presented at the Sixth Shideler, R. T., 1986, Impacts of human developments and International Conference on Bear Research and land use on caribou--A literature review; Impacts of oil Management, Bear Biology Association, Grand Canyon, and gas development on the Central Arctic Herd, v. 2: AZ, February 1983. Juneau, Alaska Department of Fish and Game Technical Report 86-3, 128 p. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 157 Simmons, C. L., Everett, K. R., Walker, D. A., Lipkins, A. E., Stringham, S. F., 1983, Roles of adult males in grizzly bear and Webber, P. J., 1983, Sensitivity of plant communities population biology: Fifth International Conference on and soil flora to seawater spills, Prudhoe Bay, Alaska: Bear Research and Management, v. 5, p. 140-151. Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Teal, J. M., and Howarth, R. W., 1984, Oil spill studies--A Engineering Laboratory CRREL Report 83-24, 35 p. review of ecological effects: Environmental Management, Skovlin, J. M., 1982, Habitat requirements and evaluations, v. 8, p. 27-44. p. 369-414, in Thomas, J. W., and Toweill, D. E., Troy, D. M., 1984, Tundra bird monitoring program: U.S. compilers/editors, Elk of North America: Harrisburg, PA, Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District, Anchorage, Stackpole Books, 698 p. annual report of the Prudhoe Bay Monitoring Program, Smith, D. W., and James, T. D. W., 1980, Sump studies III- 51 p. Biological changes in permafrost terrain adjacent to high Troy, D. M., Herter, D. R., and Burgess, R. M., 1983, arctic oil and gas wellsites: Canada, Northem Affairs Tundra bird monitoring program: U.S. Army Corps of Program, Environmental Studies No. 16, 150 p. Engineers, Alaska District, Anchorage, annual report of Smith, T. G., 1979, Distribution and abundance of Dall the Prudhoe Bay Monitoring Program, 86 p. sheep in the Arctic National Wildlife Range: Fairbanks, U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1978, Beaufort Sea U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpublished report on file, region socio-economic baseline: Alaska Outer 12 p. Continental Shelf Socio-Economic Studies Program, Smith, T. G., 1980, Polar bear predation of ringed and Technical Report 11, 636 p. bearded seals in the land-fast sea ice habitat: Canadian U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 1983, Final environmental Journal of Zoology, v. 58, no. 12, p. 2201-2209. impact statement on oil and gas leasing in the National Smith, W. R., and Cameron, R. D., 1985a, Factors affecting Petroleum Reserve in Alaska: Anchorage, U.S. Bureau of pipeline crossing success of caribou, p. 40-46, in Martell, Land Management Alaska State Office, 154 p. A., and Russell, D., editors: Ottawa, Canadian Wildlife U.S. Department of the Interior, 1972, Proposed Trans- Service Special Publicationn, 68 p. Alaska Pipeline--Final environmental impact statement: Smith, W. R., and Cameron, R. D., 1985b, Reactions of Washington, DC. large groups of caribou to a pipeline corridor on the U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976, Alaska natural gas Arctic coastal plain of Alaska: Arctic, v. 38, no. 1, p. 53- transportation system--Final environmental impact 57. statement: Washington, DC, 778 p., 23 foldout maps. Sopuck, L. G., Tull, C. E., Green, J. E., and Salter, R. W., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1981, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 1979, Impacts of development on wildlife--A review from Service mitigation policy--Notice of final policy: Federal the perspective of the Cold Lake project: Edmonton, Register, v. 46, no. 15, p. 7644-7663, January 23, 1981. Alta, LGL Limited, prepared for Esso Resources Canada U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1982, Initial report, baseline Limited, Calgary, Alta, 400 p. study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, Section Speller, S. W., 1972, Food ecology and hosting behavior of 1002(c) of the Alaska National Interest Lands denning arctic foxes at Aberdeen Lake, Northwest Conservation Act: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Territories: University of Saskatchewan, Canadian Service, Region 7, 507 p. Wildlife Service, Edmonton, Alberta. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1983a, Evaluation of effects Spindler, M. A., 1978a, Fall staging of lesser snow geese on subsistence, oil and gas exploration plans for surface on the Arctic National Wildlife Range: Fairbanks, U.S. geology and gravity investigations on the coastal plain of Fish and Wildlife Service, 11 p. the Arctic national Wildlife Refuge, July 15, 1983, and Spindler, M. A., 1978b, Bird populations utilizing the coastal subsequent finding of July 20, 1983: Anchorage, U.S. tundra, coastal lagoons, and nearshore waters of the Fish and Wildlife Service, 12 p. Arctic National Wildlife Range: Fairbanks, U.S. Fish and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1983b, Evaluation of effects Wildlife Service mimeographed report, 23 p. on subsistence uses resulting from proposed seismic Spindler, M. A., 1984, Distribution, abundance, and exploration for oil and gas on the coastal plain of the productivity of fall staging lesser snow geese on coastal Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, September 13, 1983, and habitats of northeast Alaska and northwest Canada, subsequent finding of September 15, 1983: Anchorage, 1983, p. 74-101, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 17 p. editors, 1983 update report, baseline study of the fish, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984a, Evaluation of effects wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and on subsistence uses resulting from proposed surface Wildlife Service, Region 7, 614 p. geology and gravity investigations on the coastal plain of Steere, W. C., and Murray, B., 1976, Andreaebryum the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, June 29, 1984, and macrosporum--A new genus and species of Musci from subsequent finding of July 10, 1984: Anchorage, U.S. Northern Alaska and Canada: Corvallis, OR, Phytologia, Fish and Wildlife Service, 11 p. v. 33, p. 407-410. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984b, Evaluation of effects Stirling, I., Andriashek, D., Latour, P., and Calvert, W., 1975, on subsistence--Proposed seismic plans for oil and gas Distribution and abundance of polar bears in the eastern exploration on the coastal plain of the Arctic National Beaufort Sea: Canadian Wildlife Service Technical Report Wildlife Refuge, September 30, 1984, and subsequent 2, 59 p. finding of October 2, 1984: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 18 p. 158 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984c, 1983 update report, Walker, D. A., Acevedo, W., Everett, K. R., Gaydos, L., baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, Brown, J., and Webber, P. J., 1982, Landsat-assisted Section 1002(c) of the Alaska National Interest Lands environmental mapping in the Arctic National Wildlife Conservation Act (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds, Refuge, Alaska: Hanover, NH, U.S. Army Corps of editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Region 7, 614 p. Laboratory, CRREL Report 82-37, 68 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1985a, 1984 update report, Walker, D. A., Walker, M. A., Lederer, N. D., and Webber, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, P. J., 1984, The use of geobotanical maps and Section 1002(c) of the Alaska National Interest Lands automated mapping techniques to study the historical Conservation Act (G. W. Gamer and P. E. Reynolds, changes in the Prudhoe Bay oilfield, Alaska: Boulder, editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, University of Colorado, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Region 7, v. 1--p. 1-361; v. 2--p. 362-777. Research, 63 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1985b, Final subsistence Walker, D. A., Webber, P. J., Everett, K. R., and Brown, J., management and use, Implementation of Title VIII of 1978, Effects of crude and diesel oil spills on plant ANILCA: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 8 communities at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, and the derivation chapters and appendixes, March 1985. of oil sensitivity maps: Arctic, v. 31, no. 3A, p. 242-259. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986a, Final report, baseline Ward, D. L., and Craig, P. C., 1974, Catalogue of streams, study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, Section lakes and coastal areas in Alaska along routes of the 1002 c of the Alaska National Interest Lands proposed gas pipeline from Prudhoe Bay, Alaska to the Conservation Act (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds, Alaska/Canadian border: Canadian Arctic Gas Study editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ltd., Biological Report, v. 19, 381 p. Region 7, in press. Ward, J., and Sharp, P., 1973, Effects of aircraft U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986b, 1985 update report, disturbance on molting sea ducks at Herschel Island, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats, Yukon Territory, in Gunn, W. W. H., Schweinsburg, R. E., Section 1002 c of the Alaska National Interest lands and Wright, J. M., editors: Arctic Gas Biological Report Conservation Act (G. W. Garner and P. E. Reynolds, Series, v. 29: Prepared by LGL Limited. editors): Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Weiler, G. J., Garner, G. W., Martin, L. D., and Regelin, W. Region 7, in press. L., 1985, Wolves of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge-- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Geological Survey, and Their seasonal movements and prey relationships, p. Bureau of Land Management, 1983, Proposed oil and 173-206, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, gas exploration within the coastal plain of the Arctic 1984 update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska--Final environnmental and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife impact statement and preliminary final regulations: Service, Region 7, 777 p. Washington, DC. Weiler, G. J., Garner, G. W., and Regelin, Wayne, 1986, U.S. Minerals Management Service, 1983, Final Wolves of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge--Their environmental impact statement, Proposed Outer seasonal movements and prey relationships, in Garner, Continental Shelf sand and gravel lease sale: G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1985 update report, Anchorage, 140 p. baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: U.S. Minerals Management Service, 1984, Proposed Diapir Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, in field lease offering--Final environmental impact statement: press. Anchorage, MMS Alaska OCS Region, MMS 84-0009, 2 Wentworth, C. J., 1978, Kaktovik Community biography volumes. maps: Barrow, North Slope Borough. Urquhart, D. R., 1973, Oil exploration and Banks Island West, R. L., and Wiswar, D. W., 1985, Fisheries wildlife-A guide for the preservation of caribou, muskox, investigations on the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and arctic fox populations on Banks Island, Northwest Alaska, 1984, p. 729-777, in Garner, G. W., and Territories: 105 p. Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update report, baseline VanBallenberghe, V., and Mech, L. D., 1975, Weight, study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, growth, and survival of timber wolf pups in Minnesota: U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 777 p. Journal of Mammology, v. 56, no. 1, p. 44-63. White, R. G., 1983, Foraging patterns and their multiplier Van Zyll de Jong, G. G., 1975, Distribution and abundance effects on productivity of northern ungulates: Oilos, v. of the wolverine (Gulo gulo) in Canada: Canadian Field- 40, p. 377-384. Naturalist, v. 89, p. 431-437. White, R. G., Thomson, B. R., Skoland, T., Person, S. J., Wahrhaftig, Clyde, 1965 [1966], Physiographic divisions of Russell, D. E., Holleman D. F., and Luick, J. R., 1975, Alaska: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 482, Ecology of caribou at Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, p. 151-201, 52 p. in Brown, J., editor, Ecological investigations of the Walker, D. A., 1981, The vegetation and environmental tundra biome in the Prudhoe Bay Region, Alaska: gradients of the Prudhoe Bay region, Alaska: Boulder, Fairbanks, Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, University of Colorado Ph.D. thesis, 129 p. Special Report 2, 215 p. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES 159 Whitman, J. S., and Ballard, W. B., 1984, Susitna Wiggins, I. L., 1951, The distribution of vascular plants on hydroelectric project, phase I final report, Big game polygonal ground near Point Barrow, Alaska: Palo Alto, studies, v. 7, Wolverines: Anchorage, Alaska Department CA, Stanford University, Contributions of the Dudley of Fish and Game, 25 p. Herbarium, v. 4, p. 41-56. Whitten, K. R., 1986, Population status and trend of the Wiseley, A. N., 1974, Disturbance to snow geese and other Porcupine caribou herd, 1982-1985 update report in large waterfowl species by gas-compressor sound Gamer, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, Final report, simulation, Komakuk, Yukon Territory, August-September, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: 1973, chapter 3, p. 1-36, in Gunn, W. W. H., Richardson, Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, in W. J., Schweinsburg, R. E., and Wright, T. D., editors, press. Studies on snow geese and waterfowl in the Northwest Whitten, K. R., and Cameron, R. D., 1983, Population Territories, Yukon Territory, and Alaska, 1973: Arctic dynamics of the Central Arctic Herd, 1971-1981: Acta Gas Biological Report Series, v. 27, no. 3. Zoologica Fennica, v. 175, p. 159-161. Wolfe, M. L., 1978, Habitat changes and management, p. Whitten, K. R., and Cameron, R. D., 1985, Distribution of 349-368 in Schmidt, J. L., and Gilbert, D. L., editors, Big caribou calving in relation to the Prudhoe Bay oilfield, p. game of North America: Harrisburg, PA, Stackpole 35-39, in Martell, A. M., and Russell, D. E., editors, Books, 698 p. Caribou and human activity: Ottawa, Proceedings of the Wright, J. M., and Fancy, S. G., 1980, The response of First North American Caribou Workshop, Whitehorse, birds and caribou to the 1980 drilling operation at Point Sept. 28-29, 1983, Canadian Wildlife Service Special Thomson #4 Well-final report: LGL Ecological Research Publication, 68 p. Associates, Inc., for Exxon USA, 62 p. Whitten, K. R., Garner, G. W., and Mauer, F. J., 1984, Zimen, E., and Boitani, L., 1979, Status of the wolf in Calving distribution, initial productivity and neonatal Europe and the possibilities of conservation and mortality of the Porcupine caribou herd, 1983, p. 359- reintroduction, p. 43-83, in Klinghammer, E., editor, The 420, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1983 behavior and ecology of wolves: New York, Garland update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and Press, their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 588 p. Region 7, 614 p. Zwiefelhofer, D., 1985, Raptor observations associated with Whitten, K. R., Mauer, F. J., and Gamer, G. W., 1985, Terror Lake hydroelectric project, 1984 annual progress Calving distribution, initial productivity, and neonatal report: Kodiak, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 7 p. mortality of the Porcupine caribou herd, 1984, p. 527- 621, in Garner, G. W., and Reynolds, P. E., editors, 1984 update report, baseline study of the fish, wildlife, and their habitats: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, 777 p. 160 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CHAPTER VII OIL AND GAS--NATIONAL NEED FOR DOMESTIC SOURCES AND THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTION INTRODUCTION Production from Prudhoe Bay has peaked and a decline is expected no later than 1988. Arctic Refuge oil could help Section 1002(h)(5) of ANILCA requires an evaluation moderate this decline and substantially reduce the need for of how hydrocarbon resources in the 1002 area of the increased imports. Arctic Refuge relate to the national need for additional domestic sources of oil and gas. This chapter discusses The oil resources and possible production capability this national need, and describes the potential contribution of the larger potential oil fields in the 1002 area are of oil from the 1002 area. Benefits which would accrue to substantial by U.S. standards. Estimates of oil in place the nation are described. They include gains in national range from 4.8 billion barrels (BBO) to more than 29.4 BBO. income, reduced vulnerability to disruptions in the world Recoverable resource estimates range from 0.6 BBO to 9.2 market, and improvements in the balance of payments and BBO. In some cases, the potential recoverable reserves of national security. The analysis focuses only on oil because the 1002 area's fields may sizably exceed 1 BBO. Only 13 it is not anticipated that natural gas from the 1002 area will domestic fields with total reserves greater than 1 BBO have become economic to produce and transport to market been discovered in this country. Their original reserves, within the timeframe considered. remaining reserves, current production rate, and year of discovery are displayed in table VII-1. The estimates used in this chapter depend on many variables. If the 1002 area were opened and leased in a If productive, the 1002 area's fields could be the timely manner, production would not be expected until largest domestic fields discovered since Prudhoe Bay and about the year 2000. Therefore, the refuge's contribution to Kuparuk River in 1968 and 1969. Except for these, no U.S. U.S. energy needs has been determined by comparing its field with reserves exceeding 1 BBO has been discovered production potential against projected energy needs, since 1948. The size of the 1002 area's structures and beginning about 15 years from now and extending perhaps their potential for oil accumulations are geologically the 30 years out to the year 2030, possibly beyond. It is Nation's best onshore targets for the discovery of very difficult to anticipate world oil prices beyond the year 2000 large oil fields. If productive, the large fields would join the and the rate of real growth of the U.S. economy--two list of "giant" oil fields which have contributed over two- important determinants of the future demand for energy. thirds of total domestic oil production. The previously Nevertheless, potential production from the 1002 area can discovered giants, except for the two Alaskan fields, are be compared against various forecasts about future U.S. over 75 percent depleted (table VII-l), and even the energy demand and supply. This chapter relies mainly on Prudhoe Bay field is almost half depleted. the Department of Energy's (DOE) long-term projections contained in its 1985 National Energy Policy Plan, but also considers several private forecasts. For purposes of assessing the 1002 area's possible contribution, the conditional mean recoverable resource THE 1002 AREA'S POTENTIAL estimate of 3.2 BBO has been used. The estimate for Fi ~ CONTRIBUTION TO U.S. NEEDS limited leasing is 2.4 BBO. These figures do not consider resources that may occur in undefined but potential The unique geologic features underlying the 1002 stratigraphic traps (see Chapter III). area create the potential for discoveries which would make a very substantial contribution to domestic oil reserves. Contribution to Domestic Oil Despite the area's remote location and hostile environment, Demand and Supply it is the most attractive petroleum exploration target in the onshore U.S. Data from outcropping rocks within the area It is important to assess the 1002 area's potential and from nearby wells, combined with seismic information contribution to the national need for domestic oil production gathered from 1983 to 1985, indicate geologic conditions in light of supply and demand conditions. Oil consumption which would be extremely favorable for major discoveries, in the U.S. has exceeded domestic production for more than 20 years. Using the daily production estimates for the The billions of barrels of oil that may exist in the 1002 area, table VII-2 compares the area's contribution with 1002 area could make an important contribution to the the Department of Energy's (DOE) reference case national need for domestic sources of oil. Alaska North projections for domestic oil supply and demand, taken from Slope crude oil, especially that from Prudhoe Bay, now the 1985 DOE National Energy Policy Plan, to illustrate the contributes almost 20 percent of domestic production. magnitude of the contribution 1002 area oil production NATIONAL NEED 161 Table Vll-1,-U.S. oil fields having ultimate recovery levels and discovery rates, higher annual production exceeding 1 billion barrels of oil. declines in known fields, and decreased emphasis on production stimulation projects (Spaulding, 1986; Doscher [BBO, billion barrels of oil; MBOIY, million barrels of oil and Kostura, 1986; Kuuskraa, 1986). per year. From Oil and Gas Journal (1986) and Roadifer (1986)] Field Year Original Remaining Current discovw reserves reserves production ered (BBO) (BBO) r r re s o n Table VII-2.--The 1002 area's potential contribution to U.S. oil demand, production, and imports. Prudhoe Bay, AK ..... 1968 9.47 5.10 568 [in thousands of barrels per day, U.S. demand, production, East Texas . .......... ..... 1930 6.00 1.11 48 and import data from U.S. Department of Energy, 1985d, Wilmington, CA ........1932 2.55 .36 41 tables 4-6 and 4-71 Midway-Sunset, CA. 1894 2.16 .45 54 Kern River, CA .........1899 1.99 .92 51 Yates, TX ..........1926 1.95 .90 45Yer20 205 01 Yates, TX .................. 1926 1.95 .90 45 ~Year ............................................... 2000 2005 2010 Wasson, TX ..............1936 1.68 .57 33 Kuparuk River, AK... 1969 1.59 1.30 79 U.S. OIL DEMAND ................... 16,100 15,800 15,700 Elk Hills, CA .............1911 1.47 .70 47 Panhandle, TX ..........1921 1.46 .07 11 1002 area oil production: Kelly-Snyder, TX ....... 1948 1.35 .15 19 Full leasing ............................. 147 659 404 Percent of U.S. total Huntington Bach .07demand ..............................91 4.17 2.57 CA .......................... 1920 1.12 .07 a Slaughter, TX . .......... . 1936 1.03 .06 24 Limited leasing ....................... 105 473 300 Percent of U.S. total demand .............................65 2.99 1.91 could make in the face of increasing demand and steadily U.S. OIL PRODUCTION 8,600 8,200 7,400 declining domestic production. 1002 area oil production: Full leasing ............................. 147 659 404 The U.S. has stabilized its oil production capability leng.S. total and temporarily moderated the decline in domestic reserves prction .S. total since 1974, This is largely due to successful exploration and intensive exploitation of known fields, including the use of improved and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technology, P erceng.S. total and to the 1.5 million barrels per day produced at Alaska's prction .S. total Prudhoe Bay. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~production........... ..1.22 5.77 4.05 Prudhoe Say. U.S. crude oil production peaked at 9.64 million barrels per day (MBO/D) in 1970 and has been relatively U.S. OIL IMPORTS ...................300 constant over the last decade, being 8.90 MBO/D in 1985. However, in February 1986, the Department of Energy (DOE, Full leasil production: 1986) predicted that domestic oil production would leng.S. total decrease by about 3 percent per year beginning in 1987, por ts .S. total declining to about 8.05 MBO/D in 1990 and to 6.53 MBO/D by 1995. These estimates represent a substantial reduction from previous DOE forecasts. In June 1986, the Chevron P erceng.S. total Corporation predicted that production would decrease to por ts .S. total 8.8 MBO/D in 1986 and steadily decline to 6.2 MBO/D by the year 2000 (Chevron, 1986). Other recent estimates suggest levels as low as 4.0 MBO/D by the year 2000. The lower forecasts are largely the result of reduced oil and gas prices, price uncertainty, consequent reduced drilling 162 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Oil reserves decreased over 27 percent, about 11 Table VII-3.--Historical recoverable U.S. oil and natural billion barrels from 1970 to 1985 and declined annually gas finding rates. during 14 of these 15 years despite extensive exploration and active field exploitation programs. [Modified from U.S. Geological Survey] J. P. Riva (Riva, 1984; Riva and others, 1985; Gall, Period during Increment feet Finding rate per foot 1986), of the Science Policy Research Division of the which footage of exploratory exploration drilling Library of Congress, predicted that shrinking American oil was drilled drilling Oil Gas reserves will plunge by 1990 to their lowest levels since (billions) (barrels) (MCF) shortly after World War II, based on current drilling rates. Riva predicts a decline from the 1985 reserve figure of 28.4 BBO to 25.1 BBO in 1990, and perhaps to as low as 23.2 1859-1949 0.0-0.5 236 916 BBO in 1995. The most significant declines in reserves will 1949-1958 0.5-1.0 51 347 occur in the older, traditional oil-producing areas of the 1958-1967 1.0-1.5 21 252 western United States, Texas, the Gulf Coast, and the 1967-1977 1.5-2.0 20 186 Midcontinent. In the frontier regions of Alaska and offshore 1977-1979 2.0-2.1 9 134 California, prospects are better for substantial reserve additions. If current production and reserves in known fields are assumed (the reserves/production ratio), theoretically the Nation's oil reserves would be exhausted in about 9 years. But because oil-field production conventionally declines of 30,000 oil fields worldwide) contain more than 80 percent about 10 percent per year compounded, in practice it will of the world's known oil reserves. Over 40 supergiants take about 30 years to exhaust known reserves. have been discovered in the U.S., almost all prior to 1939. Only one was discovered from 1977 to 1985. More Production capability and reserves can be increased significantly, only five have been discovered since 1951: by (1) exploring for new fields; (2) extending or finding new McArthur River (1965), Prudhoe Bay (1968), and Kuparuk reservoirs in known fields; (3) producing more of the total River (1969), all in Alaska; Jay in Florida (1970); and East oil-in-place by enhanced recovery methods, infill drilling, well Anschutz Ranch in the Overthrust Belt in Wyoming (1981). stimulation, etc.; and (4) developing improved production Point Arguello in the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) off technology. Use of each technique depends on projected California may be added to this list once the reserves are prices of oil and gas, economics, and relative costs of the fully defined. technique. Discovery patterns for giant oil fields are only slightly From 1977 through 1985, a period of high oil prices more favorable. About two-thirds of the U.S. giants were and the greatest boom in domestic exploration history, an found before 1940, 94 since, and the number of such average of 930 million barrels of new reserves were discoveries decreases in each successive decade. discovered each year (MBO/Y). Revisions and adjustments F added an average of 1483 MBO/Y. Consumption during The onshore basins in the U.S. that hold the greatest the same period averaged almost 3000 MBO/Y. Reserves potential for very large discoveries have already been therefore decreased by an average of 565 MBO/Y. explored, except for the 1002 area. While there are some Approximately 7 percent of the increase resulted from very attractive offshore areas yet to be explored, the 1002 discovery of new fields; 31 percent from the discovery of area is particularly promising because it contains extensions extensions and new zones in known fields; and 62 percent of other producing trends, and wells on adjacent properties from EOR, other increased recovery methods, and statistical show highly favorable evidence of petroleum deposits. revisions. Oil is being consumed faster than it is being These evidences, when combined with the structural traps discovered, and the Nation is reducing its oil inventory. mapped or inferred for the area, indicate that the 1002 area is currently the unexplored area in the U.S. with the The historical quantities of petroleum discovered per greatest potential to contain giant and supergiant fields. foot of exploratory drilling dramatically demonstrate the increasing difficulty in finding large oil and gas fields (table Not only might discovery of a supergiant field in the VII-3). No reversal of the trend has occurred since 1979. 1002 area make a significant contribution to domestic k reserves and production, it could do so at a relatively low Oil fields with recoverable reserves exceeding 100 average cost per barrel because of economies of scale. (MBO) are frequently described as national class giants. The combination of high production and low average costs Giant fields with reserves exceeding 500 MBO are makes the total net economic value much higher for large supergiants or world class giants. Giants and supergiants fields. Moreover, because average costs are lower, larger are few in number, but contribute the bulk of the world's oil fields can be produced economically and can contribute to production. In fact, fewer than 300 supergiant oil fields (out the economy even when world oil prices are lower. NATIONAL NEED 163 Contribution to National Objectives Nation benefits not only from the savings that result when the costs of producing additional domestic oil are less than The potential contribution from the 1002 area's the world price, but also benefits from the reduction in the production goes well beyond that of simply providing a economy's vulnerability to supply disruptions. The potential certain percentage of U.S. domestic oil needs that might contribution of the 1002 area's oil resources should be otherwise have to be obtained from foreign sources of gauged as a displacement of potentially costly and insecure supply. Production of oil from the 1002 area can also help imported oil by less costly, more secure production from achieve this Nation's national economic and security domestic fields. The costs of a price change or a supply objectives as well. disruption will be less if the economy relies more on less expensive domestic supplies than on imported oil. U.S. oil FOSTERING ADEQUATE ENERGY SUPPLIES reserve and production trends suggest a shift toward AT REASONABLE COSTS greater vulnerability, possibly exacerbated by the declines of 1985-86. Thus, the 1002 area's oil may be able to DOE's 1985 National Energy Policy Plan has as its significantly reduce the economy's vulnerability to world oil general goal fostering adequate energy supplies at market changes. reasonable costs. Adequate supply requires "a flexible energy system that avoids undue dependence on any ENHANCING NATIONAL SECURITY single source of supply, foreign or domestic, and thereby contributes to national security (and) implies freedom of Continued dependence on imports for a substantial choice about the mix and measure of energy needs to meet part of U.S. oil consumption creates many national security our industrial, commercial, and personal requirements." The concerns. The potential for a supply disruption limits the National Energy Policy Plan also recognizes leasing Federal flexibility of U.S. foreign/national security policy, including lands as important in the Nation's effort to ensure long-term the ability to respond to security threats. There is also energy supplies. potential for the U.S. to be drawn into dangerous political and military situations involving import nations. Dependence REDUCING DEPENDENCE ON IMPORTED OIL on oil imports entails dependence on extended supply lines (tanker routes), which are targets for attack: this adds to Since 1970 this Nation has been heavily dependent the defense burden. Key weapons systems in the Nation's on foreign petroleum supplies to meet domestic demand. current arsenal and under development are designed to use The prospect is for continued U.S. dependence on foreign hydrocarbon fuel. The most secure sources of supply for oil. Imports in 1985 were expected to average about 5 such fuel are clearly domestic sources. MBO/Y, to supply about one-third of domestic oil needs. DOE's latest forecasts show that U.S. dependence on Secure oil supply lines can have a direct bearing on foreign oil is expected to increase significantly by the end the achievement of national economic goals that depend on of the century and beyond. Table VII-2 compares the uninterrupted economic activity. Interruption of these percent of the 1002 area oil contribution to U.S. oil imports. supply lines, on the other hand, disrupts the production and consumption of goods and reduces economic activity. The Nation's oil imports come from two general This occurred, for example, in the aftermath of the OPEC sources: members of the Organization of Petroleum oil embargo in 1973 when a recession resulted. Exporting Countries (OPEC), such as Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Indonesia; and non-OPEC nations, such as ACHIEVING A MORE FAVORABLE BALANCE Mexico, Canada, the United Kingdom. OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE Because of decreasing production in the U.S. and The deficit in the U.S. international trade balance has other non-OPEC nations it is likely that this Nation will increased significantly in the last decade. In 1984, it totaled become significantly more dependent on imports from the a record $123 billion. In that same year, the gross cost of oil-rich Persian Gulf OPEC nations no later than the mid- importing crude oil and refined petroleum products 1990's. If so, oil prices will also increase as supply amounted to more than $59 billion, almost 50 percent of competition decreases, and the Persian Gulf OPEC nations the deficit. If oil imports increase as projected, achieving a regain market leverage and control of the international oil favorable trade balance will be even more difficult. The market. deficit trade balance in recent years has meant that more U.S. dollars are spent on foreign goods, leaving fewer As imports have increased, the U.S. has become dollars available to consumers and businesses for buying vulnerable to the actions of oil-exporting countries and has U.S. goods and services. Production from the 1002 area essentially become a price taker in the international oil reduces not only the need for imported oil but also the market. The cost of imported oil to the U.S. economy is amount of foreign exchange required to pay for imports, not only the price paid for the oil but also the losses bringing a more favorable trade balance. Using the mean caused by a disruption in supply, should one occur. estimate of the 1002 area's anticipated production amounts, Because domestic production substitutes for oil imports, the oil from the 1002 area could result in U.S. dollar savings 164 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT spent on imports of $1.7 billion in the year 2000, $8.1 billion Federal Government are not included, and the figures do in 2005, and $5.8 billion in 2010. not include Federal revenue sharing. PROVIDING ECONOMIC BENEFITS Table VII-4.-Estimated revenues, in billions of dollars, TO THE NATION from full leasing and limited leasing. The importance of oil in the economy is widely [Bonuses, royalties, and lease rental payments are shown recognized. In 1985, 42 percent of the energy used in the as Federal revenues. Portions of some of the U.S. came from oil, of which approximately 9 MBO/Y was seismically mapped structures lie outside the 1002 produced domestically and 6.8 MBO/Y was imported. area. If these non-Federal subsurface areas are leased by others (for example, the State of Alaska or Native The cost of a resource that is so widely consumed Corporations), portions of bonus, rent, and royalty in our economic system has a strong effect on economic income shown here as Federal revenue would accrue productivity. The higher the cost of oil, the more other to those organizations] resources (labor, materials, energy) must be used or given up in acquiring it. As a result, these other resources are no longer available in the economy to help produce the Full Limited income and the goods and services that support the leasing leasing American standard of living. Thus, the higher the cost of the oil used, the lower the productivity of the U.S. economy. The national need for oil is a need for the Federal revenues: economic productivity and the gains in income that result Undiscounted 1984 dollars.. $ 38.9 $ 25.9 when lower-cost oil is used to produce goods and Discounted dollars services. (10% real) ............................ 8.0 5.1 If oil can be produced from the 1002 area at a cost State and local revenues: lower than the revenues generated from its sale, it will Undiscounted 1984 dollars.. 16.1 11.0 result in a net increase in national income and the Nation Discounted dollars will realize a net economic benefit. The "net national (10% real) ............................ 3.6 2.4 economic benefit" (NNEB) is the expected net value of oil production, or the difference between revenues from sale of oil and the costs of exploration, development, production, CONTINUED USE OF THE TRANS-ALASKA and transportation. The NNEB includes economic benefits PIPELINE SYSTEM expected to accrue as bonuses, royalties, rental fees, taxes, and after-tax business profits. The NNEB expected from The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) is already in the mean potential oil production of 3.2 BBO from the 1002 place and has been assumed as available to transport oil area for full leasing is $79.4 billion in undiscounted 1984 from the 1002 area. Oil from the 1002 area could play an dollars, and $14.6 billion discounted (10 percent real) important role in helping to offset the production declines dollars. Assuming production from a 9.2-billion-barrel field, slated for the Alaska North Slope, thereby reducing the per a more optimistic economic assumption, and oil prices of barrel transportation costs for oil from existing fields. $40 per barrel, the undiscounted NNEB would exceed $325 Inclusion of the 1002 area's oil is, therefore, likely to billion (1984 dollars). Potential oil production from limited prolong the useful life of TAPS and to permit additional leasing would contribute $54.0 billion undiscounted, and production from North Slope fields which would otherwise $9.4 billion discounted. (The discounted value was derived be uneconomical. by using a discounted cash flow simulation model, in which annual revenues and annual costs for projected years of THE 1002 AREA'S OIL POTENTIAL production are discounted to the present.) COMPARED TO U.S. PROVED OIL RESERVES PROVIDING FEDERAL, STATE, AND LOCAL REVENUES Table VII-5 compares the 1002 area's estimated Lease production from the 1002 area could be conditional economically recoverable oil resource to U.S. expected to generate revenues to the public as lease proved reserves. DOE's Energy Information Administration bonus payments and rentals, royalties, Federal corporate has estimated total U.S. proved oil reserves to be 28.446 income taxes, severance tax payments to the State of BBO as of January 1, 1985. The 1002 area's oil potential Alaska, and State corporate income taxes. The revenues equals 11.7 percent of this. The DOE National Energy expected from providing this return to the public are shown Policy Plan (NEPP) has estimated that U.S. proved reserves in table VII-4 for the full leasing and limited leasing will be only 11.602 BBO in the year 2000, thus making the alternatives. Federal revenues include royalties, lease rental 1002 area's oil resources 28.8 percent of the total. For payments, and corporate income taxes. State and local limited leasing, the 1002 area's estimated recoverable revenues include property, severance, conservation, and resource would equal 8.4 percent of proved U.S. reserves corporate income taxes. Transfer payments from the in 1985, and 20.6 percent in the year 2000. These NATIONAL NEED 165 comparisons should be used with caution, however, Revenue, Petroleum Revenue Division, 1985). At the same because of differences in the items being compared. time, crude oil production from any discoveries in the 1002 "Proved reserves" are those that have been demonstrated area is not projected to be on-line until the late 1990's or with reasonable certainty to be recoverable from known after the year 2000. Therefore, the market opportunities for reserves. The 1002 area's economically "recoverable the 1002 area's oil could conceivably be available in roughly resources," on the other hand, are, by definition, the same proportions as current ANS markets. speculative and less precise. The 1985 reserves figure is based on current oil prices at the time of the estimates. Because of the statutory ban on export of U.S. oil, The recoverable resources figure for the year 2000 is based the West Coast market is well established as the primary on DOE's NEPP reference case assumptions regarding area for ANS crude oil; this is logical if viewed solely on world oil prices. the basis of transportation cost. Shipments to the West Coast increased to a peak of 0.9 MBO/D in 1980. Over Table VII-5.-The 1002 area's conditional, economi- the period 1980-84, an average 52 percent of ANS crude oil cally recoverable oil resources compared with total was marketed on the West Coast. Alaskan crude oil in U.S. proved oil reserves. excess of West Coast demand is transported to the [In billions of barrels. Year 1985 data from Department Panama Canal for shipment to other markets. of Energy (1985, p.5); year 2000 data, for lower 48 States only, from Department of Energy (1985e, CONCLUSION table 3-15] In summary, the 1002 area has a very significant Year potential to contribute to the national need for oil. Despite 1985 2000 the degree of uncertainty, there is some chance that the area may contain a field the size of Prudhoe Bay. There is U.S. proved reserves ............................. 28.5 11.60 an even better chance of one or more smaller fields, still supergiants, totaling more than 3 billion barrels. Only actual 1002 area's recoverable resources: exploration can provide the information needed to determine Full leasing................................. 3.23 3.23 the extent and distribution of the resources, and, therefore, Percent of U.S. total ....................... 11.35 27.80 the potential benefit to the economy. Limited leasing ................................. 2.36 2.36 REFERENCES CITED Percent of U.S. total ....................... 8.30 20.34 Alaska Department of Revenue, 1985, Petroleum production revenue forecast, quarterly report: Alaska Department of ANTICIPATED MARKETS Revenue, Petroleum Revenue Division. FOR THE 1002 AREA'S OIL Chevron, 1986, World energy outlook, forecast through the year 2000: Chevron Corporation Economics Department, Assuming that potential oil production from the 1002 June 1986, p. 2-16. area is similar in quality to current North Slope production, Cooke, L. W., 1985, Estimated of undiscovered, the marketing location for the 1002 area's oil could be economically recoverable oil and gas resources for the expected to follow similar marketing patterns. Crude oil Outer Continental Shelf as of July 1984: U.S. Minerals markets are already established for production from the Management Service Offshore Resource Evaluation Alaskan North Slope (ANS), and this system could probably Division OCS Report MMS 850-012, 45 p. be used for oil from the 1002 area. Oil produced from Data Resources Incorporated, 1984, Energy review, Prudhoe Bay and Kuparuk is transported via TAPS to executive summary: Winter 1984-1985, p. 4-23. Valdez and from Valdez by tankers to ports on the West, Dickson, David, 1985, Britian's oil bubble about to deflate: Gulf, and East coasts. The Trans-Panama Pipeline at the Science (American Association for the Advancement of Panama Canal is used extensively to transport crude oil Science), v. 230, no. 4722, p. 154-155. (October 11 from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic. Crude oil is off- issue). loaded on the Pacific side and loaded onto tankers on the Dolton, G. L., and others, 1981, Estimates of undiscovered Atlantic side for shipment to Gulf of Mexico, East Coast recoverable conventional resources of oil and gas in the ports, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 860, 87 p. Significant discoveries have been made in California's Doscher, T. M., and Kostura, J. A., 1986, Enhanced oil OCS areas in the Santa Barbara Channel and Santa Maria recovery and domestic oil reserves 10 years later: Basin, and elsewhere. This potential production could Society of Petroleum Engineers/U.S. Department of effectively back-out a portion of the future ANS production Energy Paper 14881, p. 7-10. that would otherwise be marketed on the West Coast. Gall, Norman, 1986, We are living off our capital (interview However, production from known ANS fields is projected to with Joseph P. Riva): Forbes magazine, v. 138, no. 6, p. begin declining in 1987 and fall to approximately 29 percent 62-66 (September 22 issue). of 1984 production by the year 2000 (Alaska Department of 166 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT Gas Research Institute, 1984, 1984 GRI baseline projection Roadifer, R. E., 1986, Size distributions of world's largest of U.S. Energy supply and demand 1983-2010: Gas known oil, tar accumulations: Oil and Gas Journal, v. Research Insights, October 1984, p. 4-48. 84, no. 8, p. 93-98, 100 (February 24 issue). Gas Research Institute, 1985, Description and implications Spaulding, A. O., 1986, The looming energy crisis: Oil and of the 1984 GRI baseline projection of United States Gas Journal, v. 84, no. 20, p. 89-90 (May 19 issue). demand for liquid fuels: Gas Research Insights, May U.S. Department of Commerce, 1985, Statistical abstract of 1985, p. 3-25. the United States 1985: [105th edition]: U. S. Kuuskraa, V. A., 1986, The status and potential of Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. enhanced oil recovery: Society of Petroleum U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Engineers/U.S. Department of Energy Paper 14951, p. Administration, 1983, Petroleum supply annual: DOE/EIA 367-374. - 0340 (82), v. 1, June, 1983, p. 8-61. Masters, C. D., 1985, World petroleum resources--A U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information perspective: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report Administration, 1984, Petroleum supply annual: DOE/EIA 85-248, 27 p. - 0340 (83), v. 1, June, 1984, p. 2-51. Meyer, R. F., and Fleming, M. L., 1985, Role of small oil U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information and gas fields in the United States: American Administration, 1985a, Monthly energy review: DOE/EIA Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 69, no. 0035 (83/02), February 1985, p. 11. 11, p. 1950-1962. U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Nehring, Richard, 1981, The discovery of significant oil and Administration, 1985b, Annual energy review: DOE/EIA - gas fields in the United States: The Rand Corporation, 0340 (84), v. 1, April 1985, p. 1-273. report R-2654/1-USGS/DOE, 2 volumes, prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information U.S. Departments of Energy and the Interior. Administration, 1985c, Petroleum supply annual: Oil and Gas Journal, 1985a, OGJ Newsletter (unpaged): v. DOE/EIA - 0340 (84), v. 1. June 1985, p. 16-68. 83, no. 40, October 7 issue. U.S. Department of Energy, 1985d, National energy policy Oil and Gas Journal, 1985b, OGJ Newsletter (unpaged): v. plan projections to 2010--A technical report in support of 83, no. 50, December 16 issue. the National energy policy plan: Washington, DC, U.S. Oil and Gas Journal, 1986, OGJ report--U.S. fields with Department of Energy Office of Policy, Planning, and reserves exceeding 100 million bbl: Oil and Gas Journal, Analysis DOE/PE-0029/3 (December). v. 84, no. 4, p. 104-105 (January 27 issue). U.S. Department of Energy, 1985e, U.S. crude oil, natural Riva, J. P., Jr., 1984, Domestic crude oil production gas, natural gas liquids reserves: September 1985. projected to the year 2000 on the basis of resource U.S. Department of Energy, 1986, Annual energy outlook capability: Washington, D.C., The Library of Congress 1985, with projections to 1995: U.S. Department of Congressional Research Service Report 84-129 SPR. Riva, J. P., Jr., Schanz, J. J., and Ellis, J. G., 1985, U.S. conventional oil and gas production--Prospects to the Williams, Bob, 1984, Santa Barbara-Los Angeles line project conventional oil and gas production--Prospects to the yea~r 2 0 0 0 : Bouldr, CO, We Press.pressed: Oil and Gas Journal, v. 82, no. 42, p. 72-74 year 2000: Boulder, CO, Westview Press. (October 15 issue). (October 15 issue). World Oil, 1985, Outlook to 2000-Higher energy demand to benefit OPEC: v. 201, no. 5, p. 114 (October issue). NATIONAL NEED 167 A 11 i 168 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT I CHAPTER VIII SECRETARY'S RECOMMENDATION The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, comprising more reserves will occur in the older, traditional oil-producing than 19 million acres, is unique and one of the largest units areas of the western United States, Texas, the Gulf Coast, of the National Wildlife Refuge System. The coastal plain and the Midcontinent. The onshore basins in the U.S. with portion of the refuge contains a variety of habitats that the greatest potential for giant fields have already been support fish and wildlife species such as muskoxen, snow explored, with the exception of the 1002 area. On the 1002 geese, arctic char, and caribou of both Central Arctic and area and other frontier regions in Alaska and offshore, Porcupine herds. At the same time, the 1.5-million-acre prospects are better for substantial reserve additions. 1002 area of the coastal plain has been predicted to contain as much as 29 billion barrels of oil and 64 trillion The U.S. oil demand predicted by the Department cubic feet of gas, making it the most outstanding oil and of Energy for the year 2005 is 16.5 million barrels per day. gas frontier area in North America. The Department of Energy further predicts that the U.S. will need to import 7.6 million barrels of foreign oil per day by Because of the enormous hydrocarbon potential of the year 2005. Since the 1960's, the U.S. domestic oil the 1002 area and its potential contribution to the vital need production has not been adequate to fully supply the for domestic sources of oil and gas, the Department of the economy's need for competitively priced oil production, and Interior recommends that the Congress enact legislation this Nation's increasing demand for petroleum and making the entire 1002 area of the Arctic Refuge available petroleum-based products continues to surpass our ability for oil and gas leasing, and authorize the Secretary of the to meet the demand domestically. As imports have Interior to impose necessary and appropriate measures to increased, the Nation has become vulnerable to the actions protect refuge resources and values and ensure of oil-exporting countries and cartels such as OPEC. coordinated and efficient oil and gas activities. Despite its Production of oil from the 1002 area could reduce this remote location and hostile environment, the 1002 area is foreign dependence by almost 9 percent in the year 2005. the most attractive onshore petroleum exploration target in the United States today. Development of its potential oil In addition to reducing the dependence on foreign and gas resources could make a significant contribution to oil, contributions from the 1002 area would enhance the the economy and security of this Nation, and could be national security of the country, produce a more favorable done in an environmentally responsible manner based on balance of trade by saving $8.1 billion in the year 2005 on lessons learned at Prudhoe Bay, on the 1002 area, at the the cost of imported oil, and provide overall enhanced KIC/ASRC exploratory well, and elsewhere. economic benefits to the Nation. The contribution made by oil from the 1002 area could be expected to span over 30 Leasing the 1002 area of the Arctic Refuge coastal years from the start of production. Based on the mean plain would provide industry the opportunity to explore for recoverable value of 3.2 billion barrels, production of oil and develop what is believed to be the last onshore area from the 1002 area in the year 2005 could account for of significant oil and gas potential in the United States. almost 4 percent of the daily U.S. oil demand and nearly 8 The geology of the 1002 area indicates the potential for a percent of the daily U.S. production. The net national very substantial contribution to domestic oil reserves. Data economic benefits expected to accrue from oil production from nearby wells in the Prudhoe Bay area of Alaska and in on the 1002 area could approximate $14.6 billion (present the Canadian Beaufort Sea and Mackenzie delta, combined discounted value). The Federal leasing revenues from a with the promising seismic data gathered on the 1002 area, program on the 1002 area are expected to total $8.0 billion indicate extensions of producing trends and other geologic (present discounted value). The State of Alaska would conditions extremely favorable for discovery of one or more receive a share of that Federal revenue, and also it could giant (reserves exceeding 100 million barrels) or supergiant receive an estimated $3.6 billion in tax payments related to (reserves exceeding 500 million barrels) oil fields in the 1002 leasing. area. While our domestic oil supply picture has grown Alaska North Slope crude oil, particularly from darker, the production of oil from North America's largest oil Prudhoe Bay, now contributes almost 20 percent of field at Prudhoe Bay has taught us much about how to domestic production. But contributions from Prudhoe Bay protect environmental values. Even though the billions of have peaked and a decline is expected no later than 1988. barrels of oil reserves have been brought on line and the It has been estimated that shrinking American oil reserves infrastructure developed to bring that oil oil to U.S. markets, will plunge by 1990 to their lowest levels since shortly after the fish and wildlife resources of the Prudhoe Bay area World War II, based on current drilling rates. The decline remain extremely healthy. The Central Arctic caribou herd predicted from the 1985 reserve figure of 28.4 billion barrels has increased substantially during the period that of oil (BBO) is down to 25.1 BBO in 1990, and perhaps to development has occurred within the heart of its range. as low as 23.2 BBO in 1995. Most significant declines in RECOMMENDATION 169 Estimated at about 3,000 animals in 1972, the herd now construction and operation of the 800-mile Trans-Alaska numbers more than 13,000. Similarly, important waterfowl Pipeline. Development would proceed with the goal of no species continue to successfully nest and rear their broods net loss of habitat quality, and unnecessary adverse effects within the developed area. Although circumstances within would not be allowed to occur. the 1002 area may be somewhat different, the evidence derived from the Prudhoe Bay experience leads one to be Therefore, if the Congress authorizes leasing of the quite optimistic about the ability to explore for and develop 1002 area, the program would be designed by the the hydrocarbon potential of the 1002 area without Department to permit leasing first what the Department significant deleterious effects on the unit's wildlife resources. considers the more prospective areas. In this way, additional exploration, including off-structure test wells and Clearly, an area of such high natural resource value delineation drilling, could get underway to determine the should be afforded special protection and steps must be location and size of any oil and gas reserves on the taken to conserve the fish and wildlife and their habitats on coastal plain. Although preliminary data indicate excellent the 1002 area. Therefore, the Department recommends that oil and gas potential in the southeastern corner of the 1002 the Congress enact specific legislation that will provide the area, leasing would be phased so the "core calving" area Department of the Interior with sufficient authority to control of the PCH would be last to be explored or developed. the development of oil and gas resources in the 1002 area This phased leasing would allow time to study the effects by imposing appropriate mitigation measures. Those of oil and gas development and transportation on other aspects of the opening legislation dealing with the elements parts of the 1002 area, and to evaluate the types and of the leasing program itself should be patterned after the degree of impacts on snow geese that stage in the core act authorizing leasing of the National Petroleum Reserve- calving area and on the PCH. These studies would be Alaska, and should address other appropriate matters such used to develop any additional mitigation measures as unitization, drainage, and suspension, as well as necessary to avoid or reduce impacts, and to determine incorporate the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 to the extent compensation required in the event of significant that it would not be inconsistent with this special unavoidable losses of habitat quality. legislation. Provisions should include the authority to issue regulations that ensure environmental integrity in all oil and Authority for administering the leasing program gas operations in the area. This special legislation should should be vested in the Department, to be exercised grant the Secretary of the Interior maximum authority to through the FWS and Bureau of Land Management (BLM). structure a leasing program that permits the exploration, As the agency with direct jurisdiction over these lands, the development, and production of these oil and gas FWS must be delegated primary responsibility for overseeing resources in a manner that results in no unnecessary all aspects of oil and gas exploration, development, and adverse effects on the refuge's fish and wildlife and their production within Arctic Refuge boundaries that could affect habitats and avoids unnecessary duplication of oil and gas surface resources and values. BLM would use its expertise activities. Further, such a program must ensure that any in mineral leasing and development to assist FWS in unavoidable habitat losses are fully compensated. administering the leasing program. Competitive lease sales would be held in accordance with a timetable established Because the area has not been fully explored by by BLM, after consultation with FWS regarding using exploratory drilling, it cannot be precisely determined environmental considerations. Development of the leases where or how much development is likely to occur in the must be designed to avoid or minimize disturbance to 1002 area. To assess anticipated impacts, the Fish and wildlife and other surface resources; produce oil and gas in Wildlife Service (FWS) biologists based their analysis on the most orderly, efficient, and economical manner; and development scenarios using the mean estimated maximize the contribution of the 1002 area's oil and gas recoverable resource figures for prospects in the 1002 area production to the national need for additional domestic considered economical under the most likely scenario. If sources of energy. the entire 1002 area were leased and subsequently developed, the assessment predicts that there may be In accordance with the August 9, 1983, agreement some long-term, widespread effects on the area's water between Arctic Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC) and the resources, the Porcupine caribou herd (PCH), muskoxen, Department, "no leasing or other development leading to and the wilderness values of the area, for at least as long production of oil and gas from ASRC lands shall be as oil and gas development activities influence the area, undertaken until Congress authorizes such activities on Overall, however, most adverse environmental effects would Refuge lands within the coastal plain or on ASRC lands, or be minimized or eliminated through mitigation based on the both." Adoption of this recommendation by the Congress, vast amount of information and technology acquired during even without specific reference to the ASRC lands, would the development of the Prudhoe Bay area and from open those lands to the production of oil and gas. 170 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION Alaska State Agencies Office of the Governor (Clearinghouse) The following agencies, organizations, or individuals Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission have received for review and comment copies of this Draft Alaska State Geological Survey Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska, Coastal Plain Alaska State Historic Preservation Office Resource Assessment. Attorney General for the State of Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development Members of the Congress Department of Community and Regional Affairs Department of Environmental Conservation Senator Frank H. Murkowski Department of Fish and Game Senator Ted Stevens Department of Health and Social Services Representative Donald E. Young Department of Natural Resources Department of Policy Development and Planning Department of Transportation and Public Facilities Federal Agencies Alaska Communities Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Alaska Land Use Council Beaver Village Council Department of Agriculture Birch Creek Village Council Cooperative Extension Service Chalkyitsik Village Council Forest Service City of Anaktuvuk Pass Soil Conservation Service City of Arctic Village Department of Commerce City of Barrow National Marine Fisheries Service City of Fairbanks National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fairbanks North Star Borough U.S. Weather Service Kenai Chamber of Commerce Department of Defense Municipality of Anchorage Alaska Air Command Native Village of Eagle Department of Military Affairs Native Village of Fort Yukon Naval Arctic Research Laboratory Native Village of Venetie U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers North Slope Borough U.S. Army, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Rampart Village Council Laboratory Stevens Village Council Department of Energy Venetie Village Council Department of Health and Human Services Department of Housing and Urban Development Alaska Native Groups Department of the Interior Alaska Outer Continental Shelf Office Alaska Federation of Natives Bureau of Indian Affairs Aleut Corporation Bureau of Land Management Arctic Slope Regional Corporation Bureau of Mines Bering Straits Native Corporation Fish and Wildlife Service Bristol Bay Native Corporation Geological Survey Calista Corporation Minerals Management Service Chugach Natives, Incorporated National Park Service Cook Inlet Region, Incorporated Office of the Federal Inspector Doyon Limited Office of the Solicitor Koniag, Incorporated Department of Transportation NANA Regional Corporation Federal Aviation Administration Sealaska Corporation U.S. Coast Guard The 13th Regional Corporation U.S. Coast Guard Marine Safety Environmental Protection Agency Federal Information Center CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION 171 Environmental Groups Northern Technical Services Ocean Technology, Limited Alaska Center for the Environment Oil Patch of Alaska, Incorporated Alaska Conservation Society Petty Ray Geophysical, Inc. Alaska Wilderness Council Phillips Petroleum Anchorage Audubon Society Placid Oil Company Arctic Coastal Zone Manager Shell Oil Company Centre for Northern Studies Sohio BP Alaska Defenders of Wildlife Standard Oil of California Ducks Unlimited TAM Engineers Environmental Defense Program Tesoro Alaska Petroleum Corp. Friends of the Earth Tetra Tech., Incorporated Greenpeace Texaco, Incorporated International Association of Fish and Wildlife Union Oil Company Union Oil Company International North Pacific Fish Commission Variance Corporation Intersea Research Corporation Western Geophysical Company Isaac Walton League Woodward-Clyde Consultants Kachemak Bay Conservation Society Alaska Oil and Gas Association Kenai Conservation Society Anchorage Chamber of Commerce National Academy of Sciences Fairbanks Chamber of Commerce National Audubon Society Resource Development Council of Alaska National Rifle Association U.S. Chamber of Commerce U.S. Chamber of Commerce National Wildlife Federation National Wildlife Refuge Association Nature Conservancy North Pacific Fisheries News Media Pacific Seabird Group Sierra Club Alaska Journal of Commerce Southeast Regional Resource Center Alaska Magazine Steering Council for Alaska Lands Alaska Radio Network The Real Alaska Coalition Alaska Report The Wilderness Society Alaska Review Trustees for Alaska All-Alaska Weekly Wildlife Management Institute Anchorage Daily News Anchorage Times Associated Press Industry Cheechako News Christian Science Monitor Alaska Oil and Gas Association Cook Inlet Chronicles American Petroleum Institute District Media Resource Center AMOCO Production Company Fairbanks Daily News Miner ARCO Juneau SE Empire Chevron USA, Inc. New York Times Cities Service Company Nome Nugget CONOCO Northwest Arctic School District Dames and Moore Oil and Gas Journal Drilling Services, Inc. Outdoor Writers Association Esca Tech Corporation Peninsula Clarion Exxon Company, USA Petroleum Engineer International Geodata Corporation Tundra Times Geodigit USA Today Geo. Co. of Northway, Inc. Wall Street Journal Geophysical Corporation of Alaska Washington Post Geophysical Service, Inc. IMCO Services International Association of Geophysical Contractors Marathon Oil Company Mobil Oil Corporation Nissho-lwai American Corporation N.L. Baroid Petroleum 172 ARCTIC REFUGE RESOURCE ASSESSMENT