[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]





                                                                               OCS Report
                                                                               MMS 95-0007



                   Outer Continental Shelf
                   Natural Gas and Oil
                   Resource Management Program:

                   CUMULATIVE EFFECTS
                   1987-1991





                                                 ........... . . . . . . . .













                              I.......... ........ ........


                       M.



                                          MEN












                                           . . . . . . . . . . . .




                                                                  Ae








                            U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
                   MMS MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE










                                                                     OCS Report
                                                                     MMS 95-0007





          Outer Continental S           helf
          Natural Gas and Oil
          Resource Management Program:



          CUMULATIVE EFFECTS
          1987-1991


          Compiled by:


          Maureen A. Bornholdt
          Eileen M. Lear






















         R.S. Department of the Interior
         'w'Ninerals Management Service
        Ocknvironmental Policy and Programs Division LI-BIJARy       Herndon, Va.
        'v"Branch of Environmental Operations and Analysis NOA-A/CCEH February 1995
         cr_
    <0                                         1990 HOBSON AVE.
                                              CIHAS,@ SC 29408-2623


















                                            Acknowledgements

            This report was expanded in scope to present a more scientifically-substantiated assessment.
           Because this undertaking required additional support from regional and headquarters staff, we
                     would like to acknowledge the following people for their special efforts:

                                    Steve Alcorn, Pacific Region Coordinator
                                   Michael Baffrey, Alaska Region Coordinator
                                   James Bennett, Graphics Unit, Headquarters
                             Deborah Cranswick, Gulf of Mexico Region Coordinator
                         Michele Gall, Technical Communication Services, He.-Adquarters
                      John Goll, Environmental Policy and Programs Division, Headquarters
                                   George Hampton, Pacific Region Coordinator
                               R. Mark Rouse, Gulf of Mexico Region Coordinator
                                   Teresa Wilson, Graphics Unit, Headquarters











                                 If you wish copies of this report, please contact:

                                         U.S. Department of the Interior
                                          Minerals Management Service
                                   Environmental Policy and Programs Division
                                Branch of Environmental Operations and Analysis
                                           381 Elden Street, MS 4360
                                         Herndon, Virginia 22070-4817
                                                 (703) 787-1728








                Overview
                       Section 20(e) of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA) Amendments of
                       1978 requires the Secretary of the Interior to submit, annually to Congress an
                       assessment of the cumulative effects on the human, marine, coastal, and
                       socioeconomic environments from the Outer Continental Shelf Natural Gas and Oil
                       Resource Management Program (OCS Program). "Cumulative effects" are defined as
                       the total identifiable long-term effects that: (1) are attributable to activities authorized
                       under the OCSLA; (2) are evident during the time period analyzed; and (3) can be
                       quantified or evaluated. This report contains an assessment of the cumulative effects
                       from OCS Program activities that occurred from 1987 through 1991. It does not
                       evaluate effects from potential Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) activities or non-OCS-
                       related activities/events. For an assessment of cumulative effects prior to 1987, see Oil
                       and Gas Program: Cumulative Effects (Van Horn et al., 1988).

                       From 1987 through 1991, in response to the reduced margin between revenue and cost
                       on the OCS, many major oil and gas production companies reduced their OCS-related
                       activities and moved the bulk of their exploration and development activities overseas.
                       Consequently, smaller companies were able to expand their share of the OCS market.
                       Because the increased presence of smaller companies did not offset the loss of major
                       oil and gas companies, a gradual decline in OCS activities was noted during this
                       period (USDOI, MMS, 1992a).

                       During the 5 years covered by this report, the following OCS-related activities
                       occurred.
                         *  16 natural gas and oil and I salt/sulfur lease sales were held
                         *  over $3.3 billion in bonuses and $11.4 billion in royalties were collected
                            over 2,200 exploratory wells were drilled
                            over 2, 100 development wells were drilled
                            over 1.6 billion barrels of crude oil and condensate were produced
                            over 22.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas were produced
                            over 500,000 short tons of salt were produced
                         ï¿½  over 1.75 million short tons of sulphur were produced
                         ï¿½  approximately 825 OCS platforms were installed
                         ï¿½  over 3,690 line miles of pipeline were installed
                         ï¿½  approximately 450 OCS platforms were removed
                         ï¿½  approximately 36,000 barrels of OCS crude oil and condensate were spilled

                       Although identifying OCS activities that occurred during 1987 through 1991 is
                       straightforward, isolating OCS-related cumulative effects from those associated with
                       other factors affecting the natural and manmade environments can be difficult. Further,
                       some "anticipated" effects are not realized because of preventive measures, such as
                       stipulations, built into the regulations governing OCS leasing, exploration,
                       development, and production.


                                                                                                           iii









                     Because environmental protection and operational safety are an essential part of the
                     OCS Program, the Minerals Management Service (MMS) identifies potential risks
                     associated with OCS activities in order to design special operating requirements to
                     avoid or reduce those risks. The MMS Environmental Studies Program provides the
                     information needed to predict, assess, and manage OCS effects on the marine and
                     coastal environments. Likewise, the MMS uses a formal risk assessment approach
                     based on ocean observations, numerical models, and historic data to assess the
                     probability of occurrence and contact of hypothetical oil spills. Using information from
                     these and other sources, the MMS develops special lease sale stipulations to eliminate
                     or reduce many potential adverse effects before actual OCS activities take place.

                     The OCS leasing and operating activities are also regulated by Federal laws, and the
                     MMS reviews OCS plans and drilling applications to develop or institute additional
                     mitigation. Compliance with the MMS requirements and Federal statutes resolves
                     many potential land, water, and natural resource use conflicts before OCS activities
                     begin. Finally, to ensure operator compliance with OCS regulations, conditions, and
                     stipulations, the MMS conducts inspections of all safety equipment designed to prevent
                     blowouts, fires, spills, or other major accidents.

                     During 1987 through 1991, OCS activities caused only temporary, localized effects on
                     most resources analyzed; however, there were cumulative effects in the following
                     areas:

                       ï¿½  Gulf of Mexico Region: wetland loss, coastal (nearshore) discharge of OCS-
                          produced water, onshore disposal of OCS wastes, social effects, and
                          recreation/tourism enhancement
                       ï¿½  Pacific Region: social effects
                       ï¿½  Alaska Region: social effects
                       ï¿½  Atlantic Region: social effects

                     In general, the current OCS regulatory system prevents identifiable significant adverse
                     cumulative effects from OCS-related activities on the human, marine, and coastal
                     environments.


















             iv







                      Abbreviations and Acronyms

                                                  A
                      ADFG         Alaska Nartment of Fish and Game                      INC             incident of noncompliance
                      ADL          Arthur D     Little                                   INTERMAR        Office of International and Marine
                      APCD         air pollution control district                                        Minerals Activities
                      APD          application for permit to drill                       ITL             Information to Lessee
                                                  B                                                                  i
                      bbl          barrels                                               JIMS            Joint Interagency Modeling Study
                      BOD          biological oxygen demand
                      BOM          Bureau of Mines                                                                   K
                                                  C                                      km              kilometer
                      CAMP         California Monitoring Program                                                     M
                      CDFG         California Department of Fish and
                                   Game                                                  m               meter
                      CEI          Coastal Environments, Inc.                            MMbb1           million barrels
                      CFR          Code of Federal Regulations                           MMS             Minerals Management Service
                      CO           carbon monoxide                                       MMTC            Marine Minerals Technology Center
                      COE          Corps of Engineers (U.S. Army)
                      COST         continental offshore strategraphic test                                           N
                      CzM          coastal zone management
                      CZMA         Coastal Zone Management Act                           NAAQS           National Ambient Air Quality
                                                                                                         Standards
                                                  D                                      NEPA            National Environmental PolicyAct
                                                                                         NMFS            National Marine Fisheries Service
                      dB           decibel                                               NOAA            National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                      DPP          development and production plan                                       Administration
                                                                                         NORM            naturall occurring radioactive
                                                                                                                17
                                                  E                                                      materia
                                                                                         NAS             National Academy of Sciences
                      EIS          environmental impact statement                        N02             nitrogen dioxide
                      EP           exploration   plan                                    NO.             nitrogen oxides
                      EPA          Environmental Protection Agency                       NPDES           National Pollutant Discharge
                      ESP          Environmental Studies Program                                         Elimination System
                                                                                         NRC             National Research Council
                                                  F                                      NTL             Notice to Lessees and operators
                      FAA          Federal Aviation Administration                                                   0
                      FWS          Fish and Wildlife Service
                      FY           fiscal year                                           OCS             Outer Continental Shelf
                                                                                         OCSLA           Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
                                                                                         OSCP            Oil-Spill Contingency Plan
                                                  G                                      OS&T            Offshore Storage and Treating Vessel
                      G&G          geological and geophysical
                      GOM          Gulf of Mexico                                                                    P
                                                  H                                      PSD             prevention of significant deterioration
                      ha           hectare (2.471 acres)                                                             R
                      H,S          hydrogen sulfide                                      RTWG            Regional Technology Working Group




                                                                                                                                                   V









                           S

          so,     sulphur dioxide
          so.     sulphur oxides
          SYU     Santa Ynez Unit

                           T

          TSP     total suspended particulate
          THC     total hydrocarbons
                           U

          USCG    U.S. Coast Guard
          USDOC   U.S. Department of Commerce
          USDOI   U.S. Department of the Interior
          USDOT   U.S. Department of Transportation
          USGS    U.S. Geological Survey
                           V

          VOC     volatile organic compounds








































          Vi








                Table of Contents


                Overview        ........................................


                Abbreviations and Acronyms                    ...........................                                               v

                1.0 The Outer Continental Shelf Natural Gas and Oil Resource Management
                      Program (OCS Program), 1987 Through 1991

                1.1   Levels of Activity in the OCS Program              ............................                                1-1

                1.2   OCS Lease Sales          .........................................                                             1-2


                1.3   Production-Related OCS Activities           ...............................                                    1-3

                1.4   OCS Revenue and Disbursement              ................................                                     1-3

                2.0   Administration of the OCS Program

                2.1   The MMS Regulatory Program               .................................                                     2-1
                      2. 1A Stipulations      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .      2-2
                      2. IB Notices to Lessees and Operators              . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      2-2
                      2. 1 C Conditions of Approval           . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      2-3

                2.2   Offshore Inspection and Compliance Program                . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      2-3

                2.3   Environmental Studies Program             . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      2-4

                2.4   Coordination with Federal Agencies, State Agencies, and Local
                      Governments       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      2-4

                3.0 Activities Associated with OCS Exploration, Development, and Production

                3.1   Geological and Geophysical Investigations              ..........................                              3-1
                      MA Geophysical Surveying              ..................................                                       3-1
                      3. 1B Geological Sampling and Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test
                              (COST) Wells         .......................................                                           3-2

                3.2   Exploration Phase          ........................................                                            3-3
                      3.2A The Exploration Plan             ..................................                                       3-3
                      3.2B Rig Emplacement and Artificial Islands                  ........................                          3-5
                      3.2C Drilling        ...........................................                                               3-6





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             3.3  Development and Production Phase         ..............................                           3-6
                  3.3A The Development and Production Plan            ........................                      3-6
                  3.3B    Platform Emplacement     ..................................                               3-9
                  3.3C    Drilling   ...........................................                                    3-9
                  3.3D    Pipeline Construction    ..................................                             3-12
                  3.3E    Platform Removal       ....................................                             3-12

             3.4  Non-Routine Events      ........................................                                3-12

             4.0  Observed Effects of the OCS             Program

             4.1  Gulf of Mexico Region        .....................................                                4-1

                  4.IA Physical Environment        ..................................                             4-17

                  4. IA I Water Quality      .......................................                              4-17
                           Effects of OCS Geological Sampling         ........................                    4-17
                                      OCS Support Vessel Traffic        .......................                   4-18
                                      Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes           ......       4-19
                                      Nearshore Disposal of Routine OCS Operational Wastes           ......       4-22
                                      Onshore Disposal of Routine OCS Operational Wastes             ......       4-22
                                      OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeline Emplacement            ...........          4-23
                                      OCS Oil Spills      ...............................                         4-23

                  4. IA2 Air Quality      ........................................                                4-24
                           Effects of OCS Drilling      ................................                          4-27
                                      OCS Platform Operations and Associated Emissions          .........         4-27
                                      OCS Support Vessel Traffic        .......................                   4-28
                                      OCS Hydrocarbon Venting and Offloading            ..............            4-28
                                      OCS Pipeline Construction       ........................                    4-28
                                      OCS Oil Spills      ...............................                         4-28

                  4. 1B   Biological Environment      .................................                           4-29
                  4.lBI   Lower Trophic Organisms        ............         6 *ra@ * * * * , * , , * , * ...    4-29
                           Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS         pe    onal Wastes    ......       4-29
                                      OCS Pipeline Emplacement        ........................                    4-30
                                      OCS Oil Spills      ...............................                         4-30

                  4. 1B2 Special Benthic Communities        ..............................                        4-31
                          (a) Live Bottoms (Pinnacle Trend)       ...............                                 4-31
                               Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or i*em'o'v*al'                  4-32
                                           Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes                   4-33
                                           OCS Pipeline Emplacement        .....................                  4-33
                                           OCS Anchoring Activities       ......................                  4-34
                                           OCS Oil Spills    .............................                        4-34




                                                                viii








                              (b) Deep-Water Benthic: (Chemosynthetic) Communities                     .............                 4-34
                                    Effects of OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeline Emplacement and
                                                 Anchoring Activities         . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      4-35
                                                 Reservoir Depletion        . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      4-36

                              (c) Topographic Features         . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       4-36
                                    Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes                        . . .     4-37
                                                 OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeline Emplacement and Anchoring
                                                 Activities      ................................                                    4-38
                                                 OCS Oil Spills        .............................                                 4-38

                     4.lB3 Fish Resources          . . . . . . . . .                                                                 4-38
                               Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying               . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      4-38
                                            Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes                      ......         4-39
                                            OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal                      .......           4-40
                                            OCS Oil Spills        ...............................                                    4-41

                     4. 1 B4 Endangered or Threatened Species                ..........................                              4-42
                              (a) Marine Turtles        ....................................                                         4-42
                                    Effects of OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeline Emplacement                      .........            4-42
                                                 OCS Support Vessel Traffic           .....................                          4-43
                                                 Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes                      . . .     4-43
                                                 OCS Platform/Structure Removal               . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      4-43
                                                 OCS-Related Plastic Debris           .....................                          4-44
                                                 OCS Oil Spills        .............................                                 4-45

                              (b) Alabama, Choctawhatchee, and Perdido Key Beach Mice                         ..........             4-46
                                    Effects of OCS Oil Spills          .............................                                 4-46

                     4.IB5 Marine Mammals             .....................................                                          4-46
                               Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying              ..........................                              4-46
                                            Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS             Operational Wastes          ......         4-47
                                            OCS Support Vessel Traffic             .......................                           4-47
                                            OCS-Related Operational Noise             .....................                          4-48
                                            OCS Platform/Structure Removal               .....................                       4-49
                                            OCS-Related Plastic Debris           ........................                            4-49
                                            OCS Oil Spills        ...............................                                    4-50

                     4. 1B6 Coastal and Marine Birds             ................................                                    4-51
                               Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic               .......................                           4-51
                                            OCS-Related Plastic Debris           ........................                            4-52
                                            OCS Oil Spills        ...............................                                    4-53

                     4.lB7 Coastal Wetlands           .....................................                                          4-54
                               Effects of OCS-Related Vessel Traffic on Navigational Channels                      .......           4-55
                                            OCS-Related Onshore Pipeline Construction                 . . . . . . . . . . . . .      4-56
                                            OCS Oil Spills        . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      4-57




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                  4AC Socioeconomic Environment         ..............................                    4-58

                  4. 1 C I Employment and Demographic Conditions     ......................               4-58

                  4. 1C2 Sociocultural Issues, Public Services, and Community Infrastructure   ......     4-60
                          Effects of OCS-Related Employment      ........................                 4-61
                                    OCS-Related Population Change     .....................               4-62

                  4.10 Commercial Fisheries      ..................................                       4-62
                          Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying    ..........................                  4-62
                                    OCS Support Vessel Traffic     .......................                4-63
                                    NORM in OCS-Produced Formation Waters          .............          4-63
                                    OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal       .......       4-64
                                    OCS Pipeline Construction    ........................                 4-65
                                    OCS Oil Spills   ...............................                      4-65

                  4. IC4 Recreation and Tourism    .................................                      4-66
                          Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal      .......       4-67
                                    OCS-Related Trash and Debris     ......................               4-68
                                    OCS Oil Spills   ...............................                      4-69

                  4. 1 C5 Archaeological Resources   ................................                     4-70
                          Effects of OCS Drilling    ................................                     4-70
                                    OCS Pipeline Emplacement     ........................                 4-70
                                    OCS-Related Dredging Activities     ....................              4-71
                                    OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal       .......       4-71
                                    OCS Ferromagnetic Debris     ........................                 4-71
                                    OCS Oil Spills   ...............................                      4-72

             4.2 Pacific Region

                  4.2A Physical Environment      ..................................                       4-73

                  4.2AI Water Quality    .......................................                          4-73
                          Effects of OCS Geological Sampling    .........................                 4-76
                                    Offshore Discharge of OCS Muds and Cuttings       ...........         4-76
                                    Construction of OCS-Related Onshore Facilities    ...........         4-78
                                    Offshore Discharge of OCS-Produced Formation Waters       ......      4-78
                                    OCS Pipeline Construction    ........................                 4-79
                                    OCS Oil Spills   ...............................                      4-80

                  4.2A2 Air Quality   .........................................                           4-81
                          Effects of OCS Drilling/Construction/Production Activities  ...........         4-83
                                    OCS Oil Spills   ...............................                      4-84







                                                             x









                 4.2B Biological Environment      .................................                      4-86

                 4.2BI Lower Trophic Organisms       ...............................                     4-86
                         Effects of Offshore Discharge of OCS Muds and Cuttings       ...........        4-86
                                   OCS Pipeline Construction    .............                            4-88
                                   Offshore Discharge of OCS-Produced Formation @ia@ers*                 4-89
                                   OCS Oil Spills    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-90

                 4.2112 Fish Resources    ......................................                         4-92
                         Effects of OCS Geophysical Surveying     .......................                4-92
                                   Offshore Discharge of OCS Muds and Cuttings        ...........        4-94
                                   Offshore Discharge of OCS-Produced Formation Waters        ......     4-95
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                     4-95

                 4.2133 Endangered or Threatened Species      ...........................                4-96
                        (a) Endangered Whales     .................................                      4-96
                             Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying     .......................                4-96
                                        OCS Support Vessel Traffic    .....................              4-97
                                        OCS Oil Spills   .............................                   4-99

                        (b) Sea Otters      .....................................                       4-101
                             Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying     .......................               4-101
                                        OCS Support Vessel Traffic    .....................             4-101
                                        OCS Oil Spills   .............................                  4-102

                        (c) Endangered Birds     ..................................                     4-103
                             Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic    .....................             4-103
                                        OCS Oil Spills   .............................                  4-104

                 4.2B4 Marine Mammals       .....................................                       4-105
                         Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying     ..........................                4-105
                                   OCS Support Vessel Traffic     .......................               4-106
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                    4-107

                 4.2B5 Marine and Coastal Birds     ................................                    4-109
                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic    .......................               4-110
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                    4-111

                 4.2C Socioeconomic Environment       ..............................                    4-111

                 4.2C1 Public Services and Community Infrastructure      ...................            4-112

                 4.2C2 Coastal Land Use     .....................................                       4-113









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                 4.20 Commercial Fisheries      .....                                                    4-115
                         Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying    ..........................                  4-116
                                   OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement        .................           4-116
                                   Offshore Use Conflicts    ..........................                  4-118
                                   OCS Pipeline Construction     ........................                4-119
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                     4-120

                 4.2C4 Recreation and Tourism     .................................                      4-121
                         Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement       .................           4-122
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                     4-122

                 4.2C5 Archaeological Resources     ................................                     4-123
                         Effects of OCS Platform Structure/Pipeline/Onshore Facilities Emplacement       4-124
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                     4-124

            4.3 Alaska Region

                 4.3A Physical Environment      ..................................
                                                                                                         4-128

                 4.3A1 Water Quality     .......................................                         4-128
                         Effects of OCS Geological Sampling     .........................                4-128
                                   Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes        ......    4-128
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                     4-132

                 4.3A2 Air Quality   .........................................                           4-132

                 4.3B Biological Environment      .................................                      4-133

                 4.3BI Lower Trophic Organisms       ...............................                     4-133
                         Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying    ..........................                  4-134
                                   Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes        ......    4-134
                                   OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement        .................           4-135
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                     4-135

                 4.3B2 Fish Resources    ..........       * * * " * ' * ' " **'*********     ' ' * * " " '4-135
                         Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying    ..........................                  4-136
                                   Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS     Operational Wastes    ......    4-136
                                   OCS Oil Spills    ...............................                     4-137

                 4.3B3 Endangered or Threatened Species      ..........................                  4-137
                        (a) Endangered Whales     .................................                      4-137
                             Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying, Drilling, and Support Vessel Traffic      4-138
                                        OCS Oil Spills   .............................                   4-139

                        (b) Endangered Birds    ..................................                       4-139

                        (c) Steller Sea Lions  ...................................                       4-140



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                 4.3B4 Marine Mammals      .....................................                          4-140

                        (a) Cetaceans      .....................................                          4-141

                        (b) Pinnipeds      .....................................                          4-142

                        (c) Carnivores     .....................................                          4-143
                             Effects of OCS Drilling and Support Vessel Traffic   . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-143
                                        OCS Oil Spills   .............................                    4-143

                 4.3B5 Coastal and Marine Birds     ................................                      4-144
                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic     .......................                4-145
                                    OCS Oil Spills   ...............................                      4-145

                 4.3C Socioeconomic Environment        ..............................                     4-145

                 4.3CI Employment and Demographics         ............................                   4-145

                 4.3C2 Coastal Land Uses      ....................................                        4-146


                 4.3C3 Commercial Fisheries     .....   * * * *I I* * ** * ,* ,* * ,* * *, , ,* * ," * *  4-147
                         Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying     ..........................                  4-147
                                    OCS Oil Spills   ................................                     4-148

                 4.3C4 Recreation and Tourism     .................................                       4-148

                 4.3C5 Archaeological Resources     ................................                      4-149

                 4.3C6 Subsistence    .........................................                           4-149

            4.4  Atlantic Region

                 4.4A Biological Environment      .................................                       4-151

                 4.4A1 Fish Resources      ......................................                         4-151
                         Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying     ..........................                  4-151

                 4.4A2 Endangered or Threatened Marine Mammals          ....................              4-155
                        (a) Endangered Whales     .................................                       4-155
                             Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying      .......................                4-155

                        (b) Sirenians      .....................................                          4-156

                 4AB Socioeconomic Environment         ..............................                     4-156








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            5.0 OCS Marine Minerals Program

            5.1  Program Administration      .....................................                           5-1

            5.2  Associated Activities  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-2
                 5.2A Geophysical Equipment        .................................                         5-2
                 5.213 Sediment-Sampling Equipment        .............................                      5-4
                 5.2C Biological Sampling and Observations and Water Sampling         ...........            5-4

            5.3  Summary of Marine Mineral Activities      ............................                      5-4
                 5.3A Gorda Ridge       ........................................                             5-5
                 5.3B    Hawaii      .........................................                               5-5
                 5.3C    Georgia     .........................................                               5-6
                 5.3D    Alaska      .........................................                               5-8
                 5.3E    Oregon      .........................................                               5-8

            5.4 Observed Effects     .........................................                               5-9

            6.0 References



            Tables


            Table 1.2-1.     Summary of OCS Lease Sales, 1987 through 1991        ..............             1-2
            Table 1.3-1.     OCS Production-Related Activities, 1987 through 1991     ...........            1-4
            Table 1.4-1.     OCS Revenue and Disbursements, 1987 through 1991         ...........            1-4
            Table 2.3-1.     Environmental Studies Program, Expenditures by OCS Region,
                             1987 through 1991     .................................                         2-4
            Table 3. 1 - 1.  G&G Exploration Permits Issued by the MMS OCS Regions, 1987 through
                             1991    ..........................................                              3-1

            Table 3.3-1.     OCS Production Platform Installations and Removals, 1987
                             through 1991    .....................................                           3-9
            Table 3.3-2.     Well Drilling Status, by OCS Area, 1987 through 1991     ...........            3-10
            Table 3.4-1.     Number and Volume of Offshore Oil Spills Greater Than 1 bbl from
                             Federal OCS Lease Facilities and Operations, 1987 through 1991      .....       3-13

            Table 3.4-2.     Offshore Oil S ills of 1,000 bbI or Greater From Federal OCS Lease
                                         _ pi
                             Facilities and operations, 1987 through 1991     .................              3-13







                                                             Xiv









           Table 4. 1 - 1. Gulf of Mexico OCS Lease Sales, 1987 through 1991       ............           4-1
           Table 4.1-2.    OCS G&G Permits Issued by the Gulf of Mexico Region, 1987
                           through 1991   .....................................                         4-17
           Table 4.1-3.    OCS Average Annual Air Quality Emissions in the Gulf of Mexico, 1987
                           through 1991   .....................................                         4-26
           Table 4.1-4.    Estimated Direct OCS-Related Employment and Population in the Gulf of
                           Mexico Region, 1987-1991      ............................                   4-60
           Table 4.1-5     Fishermen's Contingency Fund Claims in the Gulf of Mexico Region,
                           1987 through 1991    .................................                       4-64
           Table 4.2-1.    OCS G&G Permits Issued by the Pacific Region, 1987 through 1991       ...    4-73
           Table 4.2-2.    Estimated Emissions from OCS Direct and Support Activities in the
                           Pacific Region, 1987 through 1991   ........................                 4-83
           Table 4.2-3.    OCS Crude, Diesel, or Other Spills in the Pacific Region, 1987
                           through 1991   .....................................                         4-85
           Table 4.2-4.    Onshore Natural Gas and Oil Processing Facilities in the Pacific Region,
                           1987 through 1991    .................................                      4-114
           Table 4.2-5.    Onshore Natural Gas and Oil Refineries in the Pacific Region, 1987
                           through 1991   .....................................                        4-115
           Table 4.2-6.    Estimated Area Lost to Commercial Fishing in the Pacific Region,
                           1987 through 1991    .................................                      4-117
           Table 4.2-7.    Fishermen's Contingency Fund Claims in the Pacific Region,
                           1987 through 1991    .................................                      4-118
           Table 4.3-1.    Alaska OCS Lease Sales, 1987 through 1991       .................           4-126
           Table 4.3-2.    OCS G&G Exploration Permits Issued by the Alaska Region,
                           1987 through 1991    .................................                      4-128
           Table 4.3-3.    Alaska OCS Drilling I-Estory, 1987 through 1991    ...............          4-129
           Table 4.3-4.    Emissions from Alaska OCS-Related Exploration Activities
                           1987 through 1991    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4-132
           Table 4.4-1.    OCS G&G Permits Issued by the Atlantic Region, 1987 through 1991            4-151










                                                          XV










              FIgures

              Figure 2.3-1    Breakdown of ESP Expenditures from FY 1987 through 1991              ......       2-5

              Figure 3-2.1    Exploration Plan Approval Process     ........................                    3-4

              Figure 3.3-1    Development and Production Plan Approval Process        ............              3-8

              Figure 4. 1 -1  Gulf of Mexico OCS Planning Areas         ......................                  4-3

              Figure 4.1-2    Western Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion) Official
                              Protraction Diagrams    ................................                          4-4

              Figure 4.1-3    Western Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion) Official
                              Protraction Diagrams    ................................                          4-5

              Figure 4.1-4    Central Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion) Official
                              Protraction Diagrams    ................................                          4-6

              Figure 4.1-5    Central Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion) Official
                              Protraction Diagrams    ................................                          4-7

              Figure 4.1-6    Western Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion), Status of Leases         .......        4-8

              Figure 4.1-7    Western Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Status of Leases      ........          4-9

              Figure 4.1-8    Central Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion), Status of Leases      ........         4-10

              Figure 4.1-9    Central Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Status of Leases      ........         4-11

              Figure 4. 1 -10 Western Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion), Exploration and Production
                              Activities, 1987 through 1991     ..........................                     4-12

              Figure 4. 1-11  Western Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Exploration and Production
                              Activities, 1987 through 1991     ..........................                     4-13

              Figure 4.1-12   Central Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion), Exploration and Production
                              Activities, 1987 through 1991     ..........................                     4-14

              Figure 4.1-13   Central Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Exploration and Production
                              Activities, 1987 through 1991     ..........................                     4-15




                                                               Xvi








              Figure 4.1-14       Eastern Gulf of Mexico, Status of Leases and Exploration
                                  Activities, 1987 through 1991           . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      4-16

              Figure 4.2-1        Pacific OCS Planning Areas             . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     4-74

              Figure 4.2-2        Southern California Planning Area, Status of Leases and Exploration and
                                  Production Activities, 1987 through 1991               ...................                       4-75

              Figure 4.3-1        Alaska OCS Planning Areas              ...........................                             4-127

              Figure 4.3-2        Chukchi Sea Planning Area, Status of Leases and Exploration
                                  Activities, 1987 through 1991            . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4-130

              Figure 4.3-3        Beaufort Sea Planning Area, Status of Leases and Exploration
                                  Activities, 1987 through 1991             ..........................                           4-131

              Figure 4.4-1        Atlantic OCS Planning Areas            ...........................                             4-152

              Figure 4.4-2        Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, Status of Leases, 1987
                                  through 1991         ..........................                       ...........              4-153

              Figure S. I -I      INTERMAR Marine Minerals Activities Conducted Under State/Federal
                                  Agreements       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       5-3
























                                                                         XVU








                 1.0 The Outer Continental Shelf Natural Gas and Oil
                         Resource Management Program (OCS Program),
                          1987 Through 1991

                 1.1 Levels of Activity in the OCS Program
                        Natural gas and oil resources on the Federal OCS have been in production since the
                        1950's. In the past 40 years, the petroleum industry has acquired many valuable tracts
                        leased from the U.S. Department of the Interior (USDOI), Minerals Management
                        Service (MMS) and its predecessors. Drillers have already found and brought into
                        production resources that were the easiest to find and least costly to exploit. The
                        remaining deposits tend to be hidden under deeper water or located at greater drilling
                        depths. In the face of continuing low interriational. oil prices, these higher cost
                        resources have reduced the attractiveness of many U.S. development projects on the
                        OCS.


                        In response to the reduced margin between revenue and cost on the OCS, many of the
                        major natural gas and oil production companies have curtailed their efforts and moved
                        the bulk of their exploration and development activities to more promising areas
                        overseas. The decline in activity by the major companies has created an opportunity
                        for smaller firms, with lower overhead costs, to expand their share of the OCS
                        market. Smaller firms, however, have also found themselves squeezed between high
                        costs and low prices. Although the figures are not clear on the issue, the consensus
                        among experts is that the United States is experiencing a gradual decline in OCS
                        activities (USDOI, MMS, 1992a).

                        The numbers of tracts, exploration permits, wells, and platform emplacements seem to
                        be trending downward. On the other hand, firms recently have been installing more
                        miles of pipeline, although this practice may reflect discoveries farther offshore.
                        Production, the most important measure of OCS activity, shows an unclear pattern.
                        The general consensus is that Gulf of Mexico (GOM) oil production is on the decline,
                        while southern California oil production is still growing. Although California OCS
                        production levels are large, the increase is still insufficient to overcome the decline in
                        the GOM. Natural gas production, on the other hand, set a record in 1990. However,
                        due to the decline in exploration, this level may not be reached again. The recent
                        increase in natural gas prices should soon show whether the industry can or will
                        respond with greater OCS gas production.

                        Most financial measures associated with OCS oil activities have peaked and are headed
                        downward. The most dramatic decline is in lease bonus revenues (for oil and gas
                        leases). Both sales values and royalties on the oil produced and sold are also down,
                        especially when taking into account inflation. Natural gas, however, shows a different









                      picture. Gas sales and royalties reached records and may continue upward, at least for
                      the near term.


               1.2. OCS Lease Sales
                      From 1987 through 1991, the MMS held 17 OCS lease sales: 16 natural gas and oil,
                      and 1 salt/sulphur. Table 1.2-1 summarizes the results of these 17 sales.


                 Table 1.2-1. Sununary of OCS Lease Sales, 1987 through 1991

                                             Sale Offering                        Bids Made             Leases issued
                 Sale I Date           Area                   Acres      Number     Tra:c@ =Acres Tractsi Acres

                 110    4/22/97 Central G           5,891   31,818,472      385     313    1,636,330 293      1,539, 10
                 112    8/12/87   Western GOM       5,045_  27,943,606      519     367    2,02         47    1,908,199
                 SIS    2/24188   Central GOM           51      593,971      20      14      142,6851   14      142,685

                 97     3/16/89   Beaufort          3,344   19,277,806      276     218    1,199,099   202    1,110,721

                 113    3/30/88   Central GOM       6,229   33,580,661      931     684    3,523,205   662    3,416,759

                 109    5/25/88   Chukchi           4,566   25,631,122      653     351    1,982,565   350    1,976,912
                 115    8/31/88   Western GOM       5,053 1 27,911,790      370     270    1,499,1641  255    1,412,764
                 92     10/11/88  No. Aleutian        990     5,603,472.     31      23      121,754    23      121,754
                 116-1-  11/16/88 Eastern GOM       8,149   46,417-1921     135   1 115      657,349   115      657,348
                 118    3/15/89   Central GOM       5,9701  32,123,6751     821   1 591    12,972,5671 574   12,892,535
                 122    8/23/89   Western GOM       5,0431  27,973,9971     676   1 489    12,759,4241 475   12,688,394
                 123    3/21/90 lCentral GOM     1  5,667 1 30,49 461       840     538    2,671,597   525    2,604,259
                 125    8/22/90 IWestern GOM     1  4,7921  26,295,30j5_    465   1 307    11,699,507  300   1 1,659PI87

                 131    3/27/91 Central GOM         5,420   29,127,324      637     464    2,265,799   456    2,224,284

                 124    6/26/91 Beaufort            3,417   18,556,976       60      57      277,004    57      277,004
                 135    8/21/91 -Western GOM        4,287   23,616,0341     182     142      792,546   135      753,059
               F126]    8/29191 IChukchi -T-3,476           19,987,591[      30      28    1 159,213]   28   1  159,213

                 Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991 (USDOI, MMS, 1992a)


              1-2








                  1.3. Production-Related OCS Activities
                              During the 5 years covered by this report, operators on the OCS produced over
                              1.6 billion barrels of crude oil and condensate and over 22.5 trillion cubic feet of
                              natural gas. These amounts represent 11.5 and 24.2 percent, respectively, of the
                              total U.S. oil and natural gas production from 1987 through 1991. Table 1.3-1
                              (next page) specifies cumulative totals and yearly breakdowns of oil and gas
                              production and other important production-related OCS activities. From 1987
                              through 1991, the OCS also produced over 500,000 short tons of salt and over
                              1.75 million short tons of sulphur.

                  1.4. OCS Revenue and Disbursement
                              From 1987 through 1991, the petroleum industry paid the MMS total bonuses of
                              over $3.3 billion for the rights to develop OCS natural gas and oil resources.
                              During this time, the petroleum industry paid royalties of over $11.4 billion on
                              OCS production. Table 1.4-1 (next page) details specific sources of revenue and
                              the disbursal destinations for some of these funds.


                              In addition, the salt/sulphur sale held in 1988 yielded over $15 million in
                              bonuses. Salt production from 1988 through 1991 brought in $26,063 in
                              royalties, while sulphur brought in over $12 million in royalties during the same
                              period.

























                                                                                                           1-3









                                Table 1.3-1. OCS Production-Related Activities, 1987 throuWgh 199
                      1
                     4P,                      Crude Oil & Condensate                  Natural Gas Production
                                                Production            bbl)                           (tcf)                                           OCS-Related Activities
                                                                       OCS as                                OCS as          Explor.                                                           Pipelines
                                                                                                                                                                  rms       Platforms          Installed
                                                                         U.S.         0C           U.S.        U.S.          Issu d         Drilled'      Removed            Installed       (Line Mile)
                              L                           Total          % of                      Total       % of          Permits         Wells        Platfo
                                              OCS           U.S

                                1987           .366         31047          12.01        4.43      17.43        25.42              298            815                24                120              565-
                                1988           321          2,971     -10.79            4.31      17.92        24.05              313            970                102               178              711
                                1989           305          2,779          10.99        4.20      18.10        23.20              249            904                100               1902             774
                                1990           324          29685          12.07        5.09      18.59        27.38              251            995                107               174              802

                                1991           316          2,707          11.67        4.15      18.69        22.20              170            660                115               143              844
                                Total         1,632        14,189          11.50      22.18       90.73        24.45            1_,281           344                448               805            3696

                                MMbbI         million barrels; tcf =     thousand cubic feet
                                'Exploration and development wells only
                                2 Includes two jackets installed in Pacific OCS Region
                              Source: Adapted from Federal Cffwhore Statistics: 1991 (USD01, MMS, 1992a)


                                        Table 1.4-1. OCS Revenues and Disburns ents, 1987 through 1 91 (in Millions of Current Year Dollars)
                                                                                                      Crude Oil &                                                      Ateropriations &
                                                       Oil & Natural Gas Leases                          Condensate                   Natural Gas                         sb rsements

                                                                Rentals &
                                                                 Minimurn                           Sal                           Sal
                                                   Bonus           oy*           Royalties         Valile I Royalties             Val'ue       Royalties       LWC,           NHPA
                                                                R alties                                                                                                                 I States
                                        1987           497                 96         2337           6,345              999        8,135            1,338           169               24       682
                                        1988          1,260                80         2,058          4,815              747        7,946            1,310           193               27       367
                                        1989           646               118          2,119-         5256               819        7,838            1,300           170               31         47

                                        1990           584                 99         2,630          6,981            19091        9,458            1,539           206               33         49

                                        1991           339                 99         2,283          6,318              997        7  '90           1,287           249               34         44
                                                                         492          11$4-2-7      29,715            4653        :4@2ï¿½67           677
                                        Tot+al3,326                                                                   __2__                         j_ 4     ___287                   149 __11189
                                        LWCF = Land and Water Conservation Fund; NHPA                            National Historic Preservation Act
                                        Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991 (USD01, MMS, 1992a)







                    2.0 Administration of the OCS Program

                    2.1 The MMS Regulatory Program
                           The MMS administers the provisions of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
                           (OCSLA), as amended, through regulations found at Title 30 of the Code of Federal
                           Regulations (CFR) Parts 200-243 and 250-282. These regulations govern natural gas
                           and oil leasing operations on the OCS. In addition to regulating the conduct of
                           operations on the OCS, these provisions allow for the following:
                                ï¿½  public participation in leasing and postlease processes, including the review by
                                   and coordination with State governments
                                ï¿½  consideration of State coastal zone management (CZM) programs
                                ï¿½  solicitation of information from the public concerning proposed lease sales
                                   through a Call for Information and Nominations
                                ï¿½  comments on environmental impact statements (EIS's)

                           In addition, the regulations provide for royalty payments and consultation with
                           appropriate Federal and State agencies to develop measures for mitigating adverse
                           effects on the environment.


                           The MMS consults formally and informally with the National Marine Fisheries Service
                           (NMFS) and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) on the effects of MMS-
                           administered natural gas and oil activities on endangered and threatened species under
                           their respective jurisdictions. These consultations, conducted under Section 7 of the
                           Endangered Species Act, may result in suggestions and recommendations promoting
                           the conservation of listed and candidate species. They also may identify operational or
                           other "reasonable and prudent" alternatives that preclude the likelihood of jeopardizing
                           the continued existence of listed species or adversely modifying their critical habitats.
                           The MMS pays close attention to these alternatives and recommendations when
                           developing mandatory lease sale stipulations and discretionary Information to Lessees
                           clauses. Their alternatives may also necessitate area-specific Notices to Lessees and
                           Operators and special conditions in approved exploration plans (EP's) and development
                           and production plans (DPP's). In all cases, the intent is to eliminate or minimize the
                           adverse effects of natural gas and oil operations on endangered and threatened species.

                           The regulations under 30 CFR 250.33 require industry to submit to MMS an EP that
                           includes measures to protect the environment. The MMS reviews the EP, analyzes the
                           environmental effects, and determines appropriate mitigation before approving the
                           plan. Additionally, regulations under 30 CFR 250.34 require industry to submit a DPP
                           before development can occur. The MMS approves the DPP, if appropriate, taking
                           into account environmental, technical, and economic considerations. Many other
                           elements of offshore operations are covered in the MMS regulations that reflect the
                           mandates of the OCSLA.



                                                                                                                   2-1








                 For the Central and Western GOM, the MMS uses a three-step analytical procedure
                 (30 CFR 250.44-46) to evaluate potential air quality emissions and to determine
                 whether air quality standards will be met at the shoreline during offshore natural gas
                 and oil activities. For areas outside the Central and Western GOM, the
                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires that the corresponding onshore
                 regulations apply to pollution sources located within 25 miles of shore. (Note: The
                 EPA promulgated regulations at 40 CFR Part 55 in September 1992.)

                 Regulations under 30 CFR Part 251 contain the requirements for prelease geological
                 and geophysical (G&G) exploration for mineral resources on the OCS. Part 251
                 applies to G&G scientific research as well. These regulations prescribe the following:
                         cases where a permit or the filing of a notice is required to conduct G&G
                         exploration on the OCS
                         operating procedures for conducting exploration
                         requirements for disclosing data and information
                         inspection and selection of data and information and
                         conditions for reimbursing permittees for certain costs
                         other conditions under which activities shall be conducted


                 Many Federal departments and agencies, besides the USDOI, regulate specific aspects
                 of OCS operations. For example, the EPA regulates waste discharges; the
                 U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) regulates occupational safety and health,
                 the reporting and containment of oil spills, and the design of certain pipelines and
                 mobile offshore drilling units; and the U.S. Department of the Army, Corps of
                 Engineers (COE), regulates the placement of structures in navigable waters. Also,
                 affected States review EP's and DPP's for consistency with their CZM programs.

           2. 1 A Stipulations
                 Special stipulations, which are legally binding contractual provisions, often are
                 attached to OCS natural gas and oil leases in response to concerns of the MMS,
                 coastal States, fishing groups, Federal agencies, and others. For example, the
                 stipulations may require the following:
                         biological surveys of sensitive seafloor habitats
                         special environmental training for operational personnel
                         special waste-discharge procedures
                         archaeological resource reports
                         special operating procedures near military bases or their zones of activity

           2.1 B Notices to Lessees and Operators (NTL's)
                 The NTL's quickly notify operators within a particular OCS Region about changes in
                 MMS administrative practices or procedures for complying with rules, regulations, and
                 lease stipulations. Also, NTL's are issued to lessees to clarify requirements that are
                 already established.

          2-2








                  2.1 C Conditions of Approval
                         Often, conditions of approval are attached to approved permits, such as applications
                         for permit to drill. These conditions can range from administrative matters (such as the
                         required frequency of reports) to technical or environmental conditions (such as
                         requirements for the disposal of drilling muds). In all cases, they are specific
                         conditions that amplify or explain a requirement in the regulation or lease stipulation.


                  2.2 Offshore Inspection and Compliance Program
                         The OCSLA authorizes and requires the MMS to inspect natural gas and oil operations
                         and to schedule annual onsite inspections of each OCS facility subject to any
                         environmental or safety regulation. This annual inspection examines all safety
                         equipment designed to prevent blowouts, fires, spills, or other major accidents. In
                         addition, the OCSLA requires the MMS to conduct periodic inspections without
                         advance notice to the operators of such facilities to ensure compliance with
                         environmental and safety regulations.

                         The MMS performs these inspections using a national checklist called the Potential
                         Incident of Noncompliance list. This list is a compilation of yes/no questions derived
                         from all regulated safety and environmental requirements. It is divided into the
                         following sections:
                               ï¿½ drilling                           0 production
                               ï¿½ environmental                      9 production measurement
                               ï¿½ general                            * hydrogen sulfide
                               ï¿½ pipeline                           9 site security requirements

                         Upon detecting a violation, the MMS issues an Incident of Noncompliance (INC) to
                         the operator and uses one of two main enforcement actions (warning or shut-in),
                         depending on the severity of the violation. If the violation is not severe or threatening,
                         a warning INC is issued. The warning INC must be corrected within a certain amount
                         of time. For violations that threaten the safety of the facility or protection of the
                         environment, a shut-in INC is issued. The shut-in may be for a single component (a
                         portion of the facility) or the entire facility. The violation must be corrected before the
                         operator is allowed to continue the activity in question.

                         Passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 restored and expanded MMS's authority to
                         impose penalties for regulatory violations that constitute a serious hazard to safety or
                         the environment. Under this augmented authority, the MMS can assess a civil penalty
                         without first providing notice and time for corrective action in cases where a failure to
                         comply with applicable regulations resulted in a threat of serious, irreparable, or
                         immediate harm or damage. In 1991, the MMS used its new civil penalty authority in
                         two cases to initiate and assess fines.



                                                                                                                  2-3








             2.3 Environmental Studies Program
                    The MMS Environmental Studies Program (ESP) supports the OCS Program by
                    providing decisionmakers with information needed to predict, assess, and manage
                    impacts on the OCS and the affected nearshore areas. Studies provide information on
                    the status of the environment (human, marine, and socioeconomic) and the ways and
                    extent that OCS activities can potentially impact the environment and coastal areas.
                    The purpose of the ESP is to ensure that adequate environmental information needed
                    for decisionmaking is available.

                    From Fiscal Year (FY) 1987 through 1991, more than $114 million have been spent
                    through the ESP on studies. Table 2.3-1 and figure 2.3-1 summarize expenditures
                    throughout that timeframe by OCS Region and topic area, respectively.


                                       Table 2.3-1. Environmental Studies Program,
                                                   Expenditures by OCS Region,
                                                   1987 through 1991

                                                OCS Region                  FY 87-91

                                       Alaska                                  $36,597,790

                                       Atlantic                                 $8,088,921

                                       Gulf of Mexico                          $30,077,353

                                       Pacific                                 $31,594,202

                                       National Program                         $7,793,020
                                       Total                                 $114,151,286]

             2.4 Coordination with Federal Agencies, State Agencies,
                     and Local Governments
                    Coordination with other governmental agencies occurs both formally and informally.
                    Formal mechanisms exist through compliance with the many laws that govern the
                    OCS. Leasing and operating activities on the OCS are also subject to the requirements
                    of some 30 Federal laws administered by numerous Federal departments and agencies.
                    Among these laws are the following:









             2-4











                         Environmental Studies Program
                             Expenditures for FY 1987 through 1991
                                              0 in millions)



                                          Baseline - $0.2
                                              (0.2%)
            Endangered Species - $17.9                              Biology - $30.5
                                                                        (26.7%)
                                            .................
                     (15.7%)


           Fate &Effects- $10.7
                   (9.4%)                                                     Air Quality - $1.7
                                                                                   (1.5%)
                                                      @Kx
               Geology - $0.4                          ggg.;.k
                                                                              Other - $7.7
                                                                                 (6.7%)
                   (0.4%)

                                                                          Workshop - $2.7
                                                                              (2.4%)
                Physical Oceanography - $36.2                        Socioeconomic - $6.2
                             (31.7%)                                        (5.4%)



          Figure 2.3-1. Breakdown of ESP Expenditures from FY 1987 through 1991









                                                                                               2-5









                         ï¿½ The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 establishes
                           requirements for preparing environmental assessments and EIS's for major
                           Federal actions that could significantly affect the quality of the human, marine,
                           or socioeconomic environment.


                         ï¿½ The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 provides for protection of marine
                           mammals. It also allows for the incidental, but not intentional, taking of
                           depleted as well as nondepleted marine mammals. The incidental taking of
                           marine mammals is permitted by U.S. citizens under a Letter of Authorization
                           from the appropriate trust agency-the NMFS or the FWS.

                         ï¿½ The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) provides for State review of OCS
                           lease sales, EP's, and DPP's that affect the land and water uses and resources
                           of the coastal zone. This Act requires consistency, to the maximum extent
                           practicable, of Federal activities with federally approved CZM plans.

                         ï¿½ The Endangered Species Act of 1973 requires that Federal agencies ensure that
                           their actions are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any
                           threatened or endangered species.

                         ï¿½ The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (commonly known as the Clean
                           Water Act) requires that pollutants generated by OCS operations and
                           discharged into U.S. waters comply with the limitations and restrictions
                           included in a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
                           permit.

                         ï¿½ The Ports and Waterways Safety Act protects navigational safety.

                         ï¿½ The Deepwater Port Act of 1974 requires the USDOT to regulate ports and
                           terminals handling oil for transportation.

                         ï¿½ The National Historic Preservation Act requires that the MMS take into
                           account the effects of its leasing and permitting actions on any district, site,
                           building, structure, or object that is included in or eligible for inclusion in the
                           National Register of Historic Places. This Act also requires that the Advisory
                           Council on Historic Preservation be given a reasonable opportunity to comment
                           on these undertakings.

                         ï¿½ The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 establishes jurisdiction of air quality:
                           the USDOI regulates the OCS in the Western and Central GOM, and the EPA
                           regulates the remaining OCS areas.





            2-6









                            In addition, the following sections of the OCSLA require coordination with affected
                            States.
                                  ï¿½  Section 8(g) requires coordination between the USDOI and coastal States
                                     whenever a leasing proposal includes lands within 3 miles of State waters.

                                  ï¿½  Section 18 requires significant participation of affected States, Federal
                                     agencies, and the public during the development of a 5-year leasing program.

                                  ï¿½  Section 19 provides the framework for coordination and consultation with
                                     affected States and local governments for each proposed lease sale.

                                  ï¿½  Section 26 requires the Secretary of the Interior to provide the affected States
                                     with indexes and summaries of data to aid them in planning for the onshore
                                     impacts of OCS natural gas and oil activities.

                            To accommodate the different characteristics of the various OCS Regions and areas of
                            the Nation, the MMS implemented the Area Evaluation and Decision Process. This
                            process emphasizes information adequacy, conflict resolution, and responsiveness to
                            local concerns so that program decisions may be uniquely structured to each particular
                            OCS area. The goal of the process is to develop a natural gas and oil resource
                            management program that responds to the needs and concerns of affected States and
                            others, as well as to national energy and economic needs. Increased emphasis is placed
                            on consultation and coordination with interested parties in both the development and
                            implementation of the new OCS Program.

                            The OCS Advisory Board, established in 1975, provides a formal mechanism for the
                            USDOI to receive advice and recommendations from, and to provide a forum for,
                            coastal States, various Federal agencies, and public and private-sector representatives
                            affected by or interested in OCS minerals development. The following groups compose
                            the OCS Advisory Board: (1) the OCS Policy Committee, (2) the Regional Technical
                            Working Groups (RTWG's), and (3) the Scientific Committee. This three-part
                            structure provides for specialized consideration of the policy, technical, and scientific
                            aspects of the OCS Program.

                            The OCS Policy Committee advises the Secretary and other officers of the USDOI,
                            through the Director of the MMS, on the USDOI's responsibilities under the OCSLA.
                            These responsibilities include all aspects of leasing, exploration, development,
                            production, and protection of the OCS resources. This committee represents a public
                            forum wherein parties, both public and private, affected by OCS natural gas and oil
                            activities may discuss policy issues with the responsible USDOI officials.

                            The RTWG's advise the Director of the MMS, through the MMS Regional Directors,
                            on technical matters of regional concern regarding prelease and postlease activities.
                            The roles of the RTWG's range from providing public participation opportunities for

                                                                                                                          2-7









                 discussing technical issues and multiple-use concerns of offshore mineral activities to
                 providing for technical review of the various OCS Program documents. These working
                 groups also recommend future environmental studies. (Note: In 1993, the RTWG for
                 the GOM was rechartered as the GOM Offshore Advisory Committee, and the other
                 RTWG's were abolished.)

                 Finally, the Scientific Committee advises the Director of the MMS on the feasibility,
                 appropriateness, and scientific value of the ESP. The committee reviews the
                 information produced by the ESP and may recommend changes in the ESP's scope,
                 direction, or emphasis. The membership of the Scientific Committee reflects a balance
                 of scientific and technical disciplines considered important to the management of the
                 ESP.














































          2-8







                    3.0 Activities Associated with OCS Exploration,
                              Development, and Production

                    3.1 Geological and Geophysical Investigations
                            Under the authority of 30 CFR Part 251, the MMS issues permits for surveying
                            mineral resources and for scientific research on the OCS. These activities include
                            geophysical surveys (magnetic, gravity, electrical, sidescan sonar, and seismic) and
                            geological investigations (bottom sampling, coring, and test drilling operations). From
                            1987 through 199 1, the MMS issued a total of 1,281 G&G permits (table 3. 1- 1).


                        Table 3.1-1. G&G Exploration Permits Issued by the MMS OCS Regions, 1987 through 19

                                                                                  Gulf of Mexico
                                                                        Louisiana       Texas      MAFLA            Yearly
                          Year       Alaska     Atlantic    Pacif ic                                                Totals

                          1987         18           2           20          186           52            20           298


                          1988         13           4           33          172           64            27           313


                          1989         17           0           0           177           49             6           249


                          1990         19           1           4           157           64             6           251

                          1991           7          0           0           109           51             3           170

                            otal       74           7           57          801          280            a            1,281
                       __I_
                          MAFLA       Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida
                          Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991 (USDOI, MMS, 1992a)


                    3.1 A Geophysical Surveying
                            Geophysical survey data provide information on how the physical properties of the
                            earth's upper crust vary vertically and laterally beneath large areas of the OCS.

                            Gravity surveys measure the earth's gravity field to obtain information on large-scale
                            geological features beneath the OCS (e.g., the presence of large sedimentary basins
                            and the measurement of the average density of a rock formation). Similarly, aerial
                            magnetic surveys measure the earth's magnetic field to detect anomalies that may
                            reveal geological features of economic or other interest.

                            The seismic reflection method uses the travel time of seismic waves reflected from
                            different geological strata to determine subseafloor geology. Seismic surveys provide
                            more detailed information on the deep distribution of geological boundaries and better
                            resolution of the subsurface geology.



                                                                                                                             3-1









                  In a typical OCS seismic survey, seismic sources (sound wave generators) are towed
                  behind a ship. A streamer (2 to 3 miles in length) consisting of a cable and arrays of
                  pressure-sensitive hydrophones is towed farther behind the ship. Seismic waves
                  generated by the energy sources reflect off the seafloor and subseafloor strata to the
                  water column where they are detected by the hydrophones. Electrical signals generated
                  by the hydrophones are then transmitted to the survey ship where total travel times and
                  other properties of the seismic signals, such as amplitude and phase, are recorded on
                  magnetic tape.

                  After initial field data processing aboard ship and more extensive processing onshore,
                  these seismic profiles (vertical cross sections) are interpreted to identify structural
                  features that may act as potential hydrocarbon traps (e.g., sediments that are arched,
                  folded, faulted, or intruded by igneous rocks or by plastic-like sediments such as salt).

                  Additionally, characteristics of seismic sections are used to identify stratigraphic traps,
                  such as a change in the grain sizes of sediments or where a porous rock containing
                  hydrocarbons thins out horizontally between layers of impermeable rock to block the
                  route of fluids. Seismic sections also can provide information on the thickness of the
                  various sediment strata and on drilling depths to prospective locations in the
                  subbottom.


                  Other OCS geophysical methods include electrical surveys, which measure natural and
                  artificially @ induced electrical fields, and sidescan sonar, which maps seafloor
                  physiographic features (e.g., sand waves, rock outcrops, and mud slides) and
                  manmade features (e.g., pipelines, shipwrecks, ordnance, and cables).

            3.1 B Geological Sampling and Continental Offshore Stratigraphic
                    Test (COST) Wells
                  Methods to gather physical samples or other bottom data useful for engineering and
                  geological purposes are divided into three types: bottom sampling, core and shallow
                  drilling operations, and deep stratigraphic drilling operations.

                  Bottom samples are collected by dropping a weighted tube to the ocean floor and
                  recovering it with a wire line. Bottom samples provide the information necessary to
                  determine engineering properties and basic scientific information on the bottom
                  sediments.


                  Core and shallow drilling operations are conducted to obtain information such as the
                  lithology and geological age of the sediments, engineering properties, and stratigraphic
                  correlations. Currently, pursuant to 30 CFR Part 251, core and shallow test drilling
                  can penetrate no more than 50 feet of consolidated rock or 300 feet of unconsolidated
                  rock into the sea bottom without permits.



            3-2









                        Deep stratigraphic drilling operations (or COST wells) use rotary or core drills to
                        penetrate more than 50 feet of consolidated rock or more than 300 feet into
                        unconsolidated sediments. These holes are drilled to obtain regional geological
                        information and. exploratory drilling conditions, as opposed to other wells that are
                        drilled to find natural gas -and oil. A geological permit for mineral exploration or
                        scientific research is required from the MMS before conducting geological surveys on
                        the OCS. In addition to a geological permit for mineral exploration or scientific
                        research, a drilling permit and a geophysical permit, if necessary, are required for
                        COST wells. ,


                  3.2 Exploration Phase
                  3.2A The Exploration Plan
                        The OCS lessee bases exploration decisions on the estimated hydrocarbon potential,
                        the availability of rigs, and various economic and environmental factors. The lessee
                        conducts preliminary activities (such as G&G, cultural, and biological surveys) to
                        acquire information needed to prepare an EP-a detailed description of the proposed
                        exploratory activities.

                        The EP and its supporting documentation are submitted to the 1@MS for approval
                        (including the oil-spill contingency plan [OSCP]-a description of onshore/offshore
                        support facilities and activities, and an environmental analysis). Upon receipt of the
                        EP, the MMS reviews it for completeness and conformity with regulations. After
                        deeming the EP complete, the MMS has 30 days to approve or disapprove it. If not
                        complete, the EP is returned to the lessee for additional information.

                        The MMS conducts a technical and environmental review of the EP (in adherence with
                        NEPA regulations). The EP is forwarded to other Federal agencies (including FWS,
                        NMFS, EPA, COE, and the U.S. Coast Guard [USCG]), Governors of affected States,
                        and State agencies for comment (see fig. 3.2-1). A State's review also includes a
                        coastal zone consistency review pursuant to the CZMA-activities described in an
                        approved EP cannot be permitted until State coastal zone consistency concurrence is
                        received or conclusively presumed. Also, the EP is available for public review and
                        comment. By the end of the 30-day period, the MMS must inform the lessee of its
                        decision.


                        An EP is disapproved for the following reasons: (1) the proposed activities would
                        cause serious harm or damage to life (including marine life), property, minerals,
                        national security or defense, or the marine, coastal, or human environment; and (2) the
                        activities could not be modified to avoid such harm (30 CFR 250.33).





                                                                                                               3-3













                             EKPLANATION
                                                                                                                                                           ............. . . ....
                                         Federal                                      Exploration Plan
                                                                                                                                                                               XXX
                                                                                     submitted to MMS                                                                    ............
                                                                                                                                                                               .............
                                         Non-Federal
                                                                                                                                                             .. ..   ....
                                                                                                                                                           .. .......       ...................
                                                                                                                               I
                                                                                         10 working days
                                                                                                                                                                                 ...........
                                         Federal Decision
                                                                                                                                                                                 ...........
                                                                                                                                                                         me
                                                                                                                               ..................                                ......
                                                                                                                                                           ..........
                                                                                                                               ..............
                                                                                  ......                                       ...............
                                                                                                                                                                In
                                         Indus"
                                                                                                                                        NO -                      f.0
                                                                                                                                                                     rM
                                                                                                                                                                       ........... ......
                                                                                                                                                                     X
                                                                                                                               ..........................-                      ........
                                                                                                                               .. ................ ........
                                                                                  ...............
                                                                                                                               ....... ... .....
                                                                                  ...................                          ..............
                                                                                                                               ..............
                                ..............       ...                          - - --- - - -

                                                       .......                                                                 YES
                                                     a
                                              . .........
                                                    .............
                                 M::
                                      49
                                                                    2
                                                                                                                               .. .........
                          ... .............         ...........
                                                                                                                               ..............
                                                                                                                               P
                                                 ................
                                .. ............ ..................
                            ........ ......
                                ff          'S
                                                                                                                               ................... ......
                                                                                         ......                                ..............-.....................
                                                                  days
                                                                                                                               ........ ..
                                                    ...........                                                                ...
                                                    ...........                                                                .............
                                                                                                                               b"Itt ":d:,:.
                                                                                                                               ::::su m.e
                                                                                                                               .............


                                               ...........
                                      st 0001e$
                                         :@c
                                              P
                                              ...................
                                                                                  r.....      .......... .                     .........W
                                                                                           .............                       ..................... ...........
                                                                                                                               ............................
                                                                                  e-chh!                                       .. ........
                                                                                             W                                 :-envirohmon'tial-
                                                                                      ............. ...
                                                                                  ..........................:....              : -
                                                                                            :                                  ..........
                                                                                                                               ....... .................
                                                                                                                               ...................
                                                                                                                               .......................
                                                                                                                               ......... ... __ ..........
                                                                                  . ........ .                                 ......................
                                                                                                                               ............................
                                 Goyemor submits
                                                                                                                                                           NO
                                                                                  ........................................................................-
                                    ntten comments                                ...........................                  .... ..I......-... ........
                                rwodytte                                3
                                                                       days
                                                                                                                               ...... ....
                                                                                                                               .....................
                                                                                  ......                                       ...........-.....I...................
                                                                                                                               ...........
                                                                                     ....... Ex. l6m
                                                                                                                               :: an""
                                                                                  ...............
                                                                                                                               ti-               If disapproved, plan
                                                                                                                               oh Pl:*",*,*,*,*,*
                                                                                                                               .......... ........
                                                                                                                                                 may be resubmitted
                                                                                                                                   NO
                                                                                  .. . .......... ..                           . .................. ............. .........
                                                                                  ........                                                       if conditions change.
                             State CZM agencies notify                                                                         U                    (Leases may be
                                MMS of concurrence or                                                                          YES                     canceled in
                                 objection with CZM                               I---                                         I                   accordance with
                             consistency certification at                         Application for Permit                                           43 U.S.C. 1334.)
                             earliest practicable time.                                                                        mitted
                                                                                                                                                                      ..............
                           (Must notify MMS within 3
                             months of basis for further
                                                                                                                                                                     . .........

                                                                                                                                                                    . ...........
                                                                                                                                                                   .. ..........
                                                                                  ILO@
                                                                                                                                                               _p
                             delay, or concurrence is

                                                                                                                                                    or.    Q 'I. ca.
                                presumed.) State CZM                              .....-
                                                                                                                               .: .........                  diffi   V
                                                                                          ............                         .. ........
                                agency may take up to                                                                          t' b 6' NO
                                                                                                                                                           Or
                                                                                                                               ap                                         .......
                                                                                          .............
                                    6 months total.

                                                                                                                               YES
                                                                                                                                                                       ... .......


                                                                                                                               czm           NO
                                                                                  consistency                                  concurrence       NO

                                                                                                                               YES
                                                                                                                               . .... ... -_ NO  Lessee may request
                                                                                                                               ......            mediation or review
                                                                                                                               ............
                                                                                                                                                 by the Secretary of
                                                                                                                               .......................... X"
                                                                                  ..............                               ..............-................
                                                                                                                               ......... .. X-
                                                                                                                                                    Commerce.
                                                                                  ...............  ...........                 ......... ..... .. ...
                                                                                     .................... .                    ........ .......................
                                                                                                                                                 (See 15 CFR 930.)
                                                                                                                               YES
                                                                                  =E
                                                                                         xp'oral
                                                                                     submittc                                  SJ





                                                                                                                               '@@If disap


                                                                                                                               ' rN 0
                                                                                                                               tnce


                                                                                                                               s well
                                                                                  C                                            d
                                                                                     __Idr@ille

                       Figure 3.2-1. Exploration Plan Approval Process
                 3-4









                        If an EP is approved, and before any drilling can commence, the lessee must submit
                        and receive approval for an application for permit to drill (APD) for each well. The
                        APD describes in extensive detail the drilling program, the blowout prevention system,
                        the casing, the cementing, and the drilling mud program. The MMS reviews the APD
                        and frequently attaches to it "conditions of approval" that amplify or explain items in
                        the MMS regulations or that specify procedures that are unique to the well site. The
                        MMS cannot approve the APD until the affected State's coastal zone consistency
                        certification is received or conclusively presumed.

                        Additionally, the lessee must obtain other Federal permits before drilling begins. Such
                        permits address aids to navigation and certification of mobil offshore drilling units
                        (USCG), siting platforms in navigable waters (COE), and effluent discharges (EPA).

                  3.213 Rig Emplacement and Artificial Islands
                        During the exploration phase, the lessee drills one or more wells from a drilling unit
                        to determine whether the lease contains commercial quantities of natural gas or oil.
                        Drilling units used in natural gas and oil operations in the marine environment can
                        generally be classified as follows:

                        (1) Mobile (Floating) Units
                              ï¿½ Drillships are self-propelled vessels with a hole through the hull to allow
                                drilling operations. Some vessels with dynamic positioning capability use
                                thrusters rather than anchors to maintain their position over the drilling site.

                              ï¿½ Semisubmersible rigs are towed (some are self-powered) to the drill site,
                                partially submerged, then moored with lines and anchors extending out a mile
                                or slightly more. Some semisubmersibles have dynamic positioning capabilities
                                and do not require anchors.

                              ï¿½ Drilling barges are similar to the drillships but are not self-propelled.

                        (2) Mobile Bottom-Founded Units
                              ï¿½ Jack-up rigs have a hull and deck supported by retractable legs. These legs are
                                retracted while the rig is being towed, and then are lowered to rest on the
                                seafloor at the drill site. Once the legs are firmly positioned on the seafloor,
                                the hull is jacked up to the appropriate height, and the deck level is adjusted.

                              ï¿½ The submersible drilling unit includes several hull compartments (which are
                                flooded to submerge the unit) and rests on the seafloor.

                              ï¿½ Offshore the arctic areas of Alaska, wells are drilled from artificial islands
                                (gravel or ice) or specially designed units (concrete islands and mobile arctic
                                caissons). During the winter, construction materials for artificial islands


                                                                                                              3-5









                          (usually sand and gravel) are transported over ice and unloaded at the desired
                          location to form the island. During ice-free periods, islands are constructed by
                          dredging material from the sea bottom and delivering it to the construction site
                          by barge or pipeline. An advancement in the island building technique involves
                          pumping sand and gravel into a caisson. This method results in less disturbance
                          to the area where the gravel is collected and a considerable savings in material.

            3.2C Drilling
                  Regardless of the type of drilling rig used, the drilling methods are similar. A drilling
                  derrick is located on the vessel, rig, or island. A drill bit is attached to a hollow drill
                  pipe and rotated by an engine or an electric motor. Rotating the drill bit fractures the
                  subsurface rock into chips (cuttings). As the drilling progresses, drilling fluids are
                  circulated through the drill pipe and bit for the following reasons:
                        ï¿½ to remove cuttings from the bottom of the hole
                        ï¿½ to lubricate the drill string
                        ï¿½ to provide hydrostatic pressure to prevent the flow of formation fluids into the
                          wellbore
                        ï¿½ to support and seal the sides of the well

                  Although in some cases drilling muds and cuttings are barged ashore, usually they are
                  discharged directly from the drilling rig in accordance with limitations in the EPA-
                  issued NPDES permit.

                  As drilling progresses, the sides of the hole are supported by installing steel casing.
                  Blowout preventers are attached to the casing to close off the well in an emergency
                  situation, such as an unexpected change in well pressure.

                  Generally, an exploratory well takes from I to 6 months to drill. Once exploratory
                  drilling results are known, the lessee generally plugs the well and moves the drilling
                  equipment to a new site.


            3.3 Development and Production Phase

            3.3A The Development and Production Plan
                  When a natural gas or oil reservoir is discovered and its extent determined through
                  delineation drilling, the lessee begins the development and production phase of
                  operations. The lessee prepares a DPP-a detailed description of and schedule for
                  proposed development and production activities. The DPP and its supporting
                  documentation (such as an OSCP-a list of proposed environmental safeguards, an
                  assessment of environmental effects, and a report on offshore/onshore support
                  facilities) are submitted to the MMS for approval.



            3-6








                       After receiving the DPP, the MMS reviews it for completeness. After the MMS deems
                       the DPP complete, the technical review process begins. If not deemed complete, the
                       DPP is returned to the lessee for additional information.


                       The MMS conducts a technical and environmental review of the DPP (in adherence
                       with NEPA regulations). The DPP is forwarded to other Federal agencies (including
                       FWS, NMFS, EPA, COE, USCG), Governors of affected States, and State agencies
                       for comment (see fig. 3.3-1). A State's review also includes coastal zone consistency
                       review pursuant to the CZMA-activities described in an approved DPP cannot be
                       permitted until State coastal zone consistency concurrence is received or conclusively
                       presumed. In addition, the DPP is available for public review and comment. If an EIS
                       is not warranted, the MMS must inform the lessee of its decision by the end of a 120-
                       day period. Under the OCSLA, at least one DPP in each frontier area must be
                       declared a major Federal action, and the MMS must prepare an EIS.

                       A DPP is disapproved if the MMS determines any of the following:
                            ï¿½ The lessee failed to demonstrate compliance with applicable Federal laws and
                               regulations

                            ï¿½  The State's concurrence has not been conclusively presumed, or the State
                               objected to the consistency certification, and the Secretary of Commerce does
                               not authorize the activity pursuant to the CZMA

                            ï¿½  The proposed activities threaten national security or national defense

                            ï¿½  Exceptional circumstances exist (30 CFR 250.34), such as exceptional
                               geological conditions or exceptional resource values

                       As with an EP, when the MMS approves the DPP and before any drilling can
                       commence, the lessee must submit and receive approval for an APD for each well.
















                                                                                                        3-7












                               EXPLANATION
                                            Federal                                           Development & Production
                                                                                                                                                                                  A
                                                                                                                                                                     le
                                                                                                                                                                     an    umed:  .
                                                                                                                                                                     ...........
                                                                                              Plan submitted to MMS
                                            Non-Federal                                                                                                                    vpera
                                                                                                                                                                     ........... ......
                                                                                                                                                                     .........

                                                                                                                                                                     ..... ......
                                                                                                                                                                     .... ....    ....... .....
                                                                                              20 days maximum
                                            Federal Decision

                                                                                                                                                                                  . .........
                                                                                                                                                                                  ...........
                                                                                                                                                                     n.
                                                                                              ........................
                                            Industry                                          ......... ......................
                                                                                                                                         NO    .................           ......
                                                                                                                             cti
                                                                                              V 1
                                                                                                                             on


                                                                                                                                                     ..................    .. ..... .
                                                                                              an.
                                                                                                                  ... ........ ......
                                                                                                                             ..............
                                                                                                                                                      ...........
                                                                                                                                                        .................
                                  ............                                                ......                         .........
                               ...............                                                . ....... ...
                                                                                                                                                                     dli.`@
                                                                                                                  r
                               ..... ..........                                                                   YES
                               ................-
                               ...............                                                                                                                             ..........
                                                                                                                                                                     Va
                                                                                                                                                                     a .. to . ......
                                            ...........
                               ................
                               ............. .
                                                                                                                  ............. ...........
                                                                                                                  ..................................
                                                                                                                                                                     ........ .....
                                                                                                                  t.                                                 ..........
                                                                                                                                 .............................
                                                                                                                  n
                                                              -Woriking
                                   ..... ... .                                                Pov                 ........
                                                                                                                                                                     On
                                              ....................
                               :.::::::::::::Ah A
                                                    ..........                                                               ........
                                            :`                                                                                                                       . h dbl"'... ....
                                                                 Gays                         eemq                su m.r. ed:-
                                            d.......                                                                                                                 I. ...: .........
                                                                                                                                                        n i@@:       wz
                                                                                                                                                          .................
                                            ..........                                                            .. ....... . .
                                                                                                                             . ...... . . . . . . . .                       . . . . . . . . .

                               rec uast:'        e
                                                                                              .............       ......... ............              ...................
                                                 ..............                               . ....... .         ..... .......                                      ............. ..........
                                                                                              ..............
                                                                                              .............
                                                                                              .............
                                                                                                                                                                     @h
                                                                                              ..................             . ..........
                                                                                                                  .....................
                                                                                                                  ................
                                                                                              .............
                                                                                              :T h"n'l*::c:*:':a*:*I"&'*%'e'n'*v'*i'r*...onmeqt, V
                                                                                              ..... . ............. ... .
                                                                                                                  . . . . . ..........
                                                                       0                      ......              U- 61 * 0-, ..........
                                   Governor submits                  .6
                                                                                                                             ................
                                  written comments                  daYs.-0-.-_._
                                                                                              ... ........ ...
                                                                                              . . ......... .     ............   ...                  ........       ....
                                                                                                                                                                     01" ......

                                                                                                                                                    ... . .... . ..
                                                                                                                                                                           .........
                                                                                                                  ............................
                                                                                              ..............      ......
                                                                                                                                                                     ............
                                            Draft EIS se:n,
                                                                                                                  af@impa "t
                                                                                                                             r   X..
                                                                                              St                             7
                                                                                                                  1-.-fedui      ....
                                            to Governor
                                                                                                                  ....... .. .. .. .......
                                                                                                                  . ................ ..........
                                                                                                                             .............
                               State CZM agencies notify                                       NO, 60 days                                 60 days
                               MMS of concurrence or                                                              UM                               NO
                                  objection with CZM
                               consistency certification at                                                       consistency        N             Lessee may request
                               earliest practicable time.                                                         concurrence             N%,    mediation or review
                               (Must notify MMS within 3                                                                                           by the Secretary of
                               months of basis for further                                                        is                                  Commerce.
                               delay, or concurrence is                                       ............ .... .............                      (See 15 CFR 930.)
                               presumed.) State CZM
                                                                                              ,,Develp
                                                                                              pmv                            Uc,_!o6J
                                                                                              ..............................
                               agency may take up to
                                                                                              .......... an:::    pt.* ved.
                                                                                              .................-                               NO
                                                                                                                  .............
                                            6 months total.                                                                                    NO
                                                                                                                  S

                                                                                              Application for Per
                                            ....... ......                                                                   it
                                            ...... . . .. ............
                                                        ..............
                                              A     K
                                                                                              to Drill (APD) submitted]                            If disapproved, plan
                                                                                                                                                   may be resubmitted
                                                                                                                                                   if conditions change.
                                            ... .........

                                                              xv:
                                                   ica Jon":"..'
                                                                                                                                                      (Leases may be
                                                       ...........                            ....... .
                                                                                                                  .......... ........
                                                                                              .. . .............. ................. ..
                                                          ............
                                                                                              ...........         .......... . . . ........
                                            .......    ......                                 ..................  ...............                        canceled in
                                              ..........
                                                                                                                             .............
                                                                       N     ....
                                                                         0                    ......              .. ....    ....
                                            :iSUD016 M*gntW:::                                APD.4"''            'rove.     ........
                                                                                                                  P.........,
                                                                                                                  P                                   accordance with
                                                                                              .......             ........
                                                                                              ............. ............................ ....
                                                                                                                  ...........
                                                                                              . . ...........     ...................
                                                                                              .......                                                 43 U.S.C. 1334.)
                                                        ..........
                                                                                                                  YES
                                                                                                                  I
                                                                                              @@vs @maxlmum
                                                                                              20 da







































                                                                                                                                                  r





















                        Figure 3.3-1. Development and Production Plan Approval Process
                  3-8








                    3.313 Platform Emplacement
                            Development and production activities entail installation of a platform or other
                            production system (e.g., artificial island). Table 3.3-1 shows the number of OCS
                            platforms installed from 1987 through 1991. Usually, offshore development and
                            production activities are conducted on fixed-leg platforms that form an above-water,
                            stable working area. Platforms consist of a deck (or decks)-where drilling,
                            production, and other activities occur-supported by legs and cross members that rest
                            on pilings driven into the sea bottom. Platform legs are constructed onshore, barged to
                            the final location, and sunk into position. Pilings are driven through the legs to secure
                            the base; then the upper working structure is welded on. A production platform
                            accommodates from I to 100 production and injection wells and remains in place for
                            the life of the reservoir or field-usually over 30 years.


                                  Table 3.3-1. OCS Production Platform Installations and Removals,
                                                1987 through 1991

                                                       Gulf of Mexico                         Pacific

                                     Year      Installations     Removals        Installations      Removals

                                     1987           119                24              1                  0

                                     1988           178              102               0                  0

                                     1989           188              100               2*                 0

                                     1990           174              107               0                  0

                                     1991           143              115               0                  0

                                     Total          802              448               3                  0

                                     Note: No platform installations or removals for the Alaska and Atlantic OCS Regions
                                           *Only the jackets were installed
                                     Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991 (USDOI, MMS, 1992a)

                            In addition to the platform installation, onshore support facilities must be constructed if
                            they do not already exist. Such facilities include storage yards, pipelines, marine
                            terminals, and processing plants. These facilities also require MMS approval.

                    3.3C Drilling
                            Once a platform is installed, several wells are drilled from a single platform to develop
                            the surrounding area. Table 3.3-2 details the drilling status of wells on the OCS from
                            1987 through 1991. On the OCS, as many as 67 wells have been drilled from a single
                            platform; however, the average number is slightly more than 4-this average is highly
                            influenced by the smaller number of wells per platform in the GOM. The drilling
                            procedures are similar to those discussed above in the section on exploration. Drilling
                            and production involve many activities that could result in undesirable discharges or
                            emissions.




                                                                                                                           3-9







                                         Table 3.3-2 Well Drilling Status, by OCS Area, 1987 through 1991
                                            OCS Area                 New Well                                   Completions                                      Plugged and
                                                                            Starts            Oil                    Gas                    Other                Abandoned
                                                      ......... .                             .. .....                                                    ...........
                                                                                              ff     ... ff                                                ....... .
                                                 .............. ........                             ......
                                                   .......  ........
                                                                                                                                                                            ... .......
                                                                      .......................        .. .. ....-..                                               ..............
                                                                                                     -: .. . .. .. .. ... .......      . .... ..                         .........
                                         Alaska                                 2                    0                      0                       1                       0

                                         Atlantic                               0                    0                      0                       0                       0

                                         Central GOM                        579                      172               112                      118                      186

                                         Western GOM                        132                      14                     35                      34                   61

                                         Eastern GOM                            4                    0                      0                       0                       2

                                         Pacific                            43                       45                     2                       8                       4
                                         Total                              759                      231               149                      161                      253

                                                                                                                                ............ ...................
                                                                                                                                                    ..........
                                         '98                                                                                           X :q     :x:
                                                                                   ........... .                                       ........
                                         Alaska                                 1                    0                      0                       1

                                         Atlantic                               0                    0                      0                       0                       0

                                         Central GOM                        699                      376               139                      202                      301

                                         Western GOM                        270                      8                      50                      54                   100

                                         Eastern GOM                            1                    0                      0                       1                       1

                                         Pacific                            32                       32                     6                       7                       5
                                         Total                              1003                     416               195                      265                      408
                                             ............... ........       .......... .. ............        .....................                     .................................
                                                                                                        ..: . ..........  .........                    ............. .   ..............
                                                   ....................
                                      ........................... .............                                                                              ......


                                         Alaska                                 4                    0                      0                       0                       3

                                         Atlantic                               0                    0                      0                       0                       0

                                         Central GOM                        670                      140               151                      138                      228

                                         Western GOM                        213                      5                      49                      80                   70

                                         Eastern GOM                            2                    0                      0                       4                       0

                                         Pacific                            19                       18                     3                       8                       5
                                         Total                              908                      163               203                      230                      306

                                                                            ............                  ... ..........
                                                                                .......... ..
                                                                            .............     ......
                                         Alaska                                 2                    0                      0                       1                       6

                                         Atlantic                               0                    0                      0                       0                       0

                                         Central GOM                        728                      179               221                      199                      290

                                         Western GOM                        249                      2                      64                      67                   110

                                         Eastern GOM                            0                    0                      0                       0                       0

                                         Pacific                            17                       29                     11                      0                       2
                                         Total                              996                      210               296                      267                      408
                                            ............    ......- ........ ........                               ......... ..........................  %[email protected].......,.'.'..'.,".'.........@ .. .... ...........
                                             .................... .......  .......................................                                               ......... ..........
                                                 .:.- .:    --*       ...........                                                               ........ .               . .... ..
                                                                                       .....                                                    .......

                                                                                                                                                                            . ..........

                                         Alaska                                 3                    0                      0                       0                       3

                                         Atlantic                               0                    0                      0                       0                       0

                                         Central GOM                        478                      118               155                      166                      218

                                         Western GOM                        110                      2                      36                      32                   53

                                         Eastern GOM                            0                    0                      0                       1                       0

                                         Pacific                                8                    13                     1                       2                       3
                                         Total                              5"                       133               192                      201              ___L77

                                         Completions = each tubing string within a well bore.
                                         Other = includes injection, disposal, and water source completions.
                                         Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991 (USDOI, MMS, 1992a)


                      3-10








                         Some of these activities and the resulting discharges or emissions are discussed below.
                            ï¿½ Formation water is produced along with oil during petroleum production.
                              Formation fluid is derived from water that became trapped within sediment pore
                              spaces at the time the sediments were deposited. The amount of this produced
                              water depends on the method of production, field characteristics, and location. As
                              the volume of natural gas and oil production from a reservoir declines, the
                              amount of produced water increases. Disposal of produced water must be in
                              accordance with the limitations of the EPA-issued NPDES permit.

                              Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) exists in some formation
                              waters. Radioactive elements and their daughter products, such as radium 226
                              (RA116) and radium 228 (RA@11), can be leached from formations by reservoir
                              fluids and transported to the surface with produced water, oil, and gas. Radium
                              isotopes comprise over 90 percent of the total radioactivity in formation waters
                              (Laul et al., 1985; Snavely, 1989).

                            ï¿½ Other wastewaters (e.g., sanitary and domestic waste, deck drainage, cooling
                              water, and desalinization-unit discharges) are treated as required and are
                              discharged in accordance with the NPDES permit.

                            ï¿½ Air quality emissions from OCS facilities result from combustion, evaporation, or
                              venting of hydrocarbons. Commonly used equipment that generates air emissions
                              are diesel-powered generators and pumps. Operational emissions in the offshore
                              environment are generally low-level, constant, and long-termed. Types of air
                              pollutants include nitrogen oxides (NOJ, carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur oxides
                              (SOJ, total suspended particulates (TSP), and volatile organic compounds
                              (VOC). Ozone is not emitted directly by any source but is formed during a
                              photochemical reaction in the atmosphere involving VOC and NO,,.

                            ï¿½ Transportation aspects related to OCS natural gas and oil activities include the
                              conveyance of natural gas and oil to onshore processing facilities by pipeline,
                              shuttle tankers, or barges; and the transport of supplies, services, and personnel
                              by boats and helicopters.

                            ï¿½ During the production life of a field, the lessee conducts well workover or repair
                              operations to maintain a high production level. Such operations usually require
                              MMS approval.

                         Throughout the drilling and production phases, the MMS inspects the operations to
                         ensure compliance with regulations. This inspection further ensures operational safety
                         and pollution prevention. Also, the MMS requires drilling personnel involved with
                         well control to attend training given at MMS-certified schools.




                                                                                                              3-11








           3.31) Pipeline Construction
                 Installation of subsea pipelines is a short-term (days) activity for a particular location
                 but may cover extensive space (miles). There are several types of vessels used for
                 offshore pipelaying operations. The most common is the pipelaying barge on which the
                 pipe sections are welded together and laid in a continuous string from the center or
                 side of the barge. Newer variations to the pipelaying barge include semisubmersible
                 vessels, ship-shaped vessels, and reel barges (which use reels of pipe rather than
                 welded, straight sections). Pipelines are placed in trenches to protect them from the
                 forces of water currents and wave action in shallow water and to minimize impacts on
                 fish trawling activities. In the surf and beach zone, pipelines are pulled into a prepared
                 trench and covered to restore the area to its original configuration. Pipelines coming
                 ashore and crossing wetlands use specialized technologies including single ditch,
                 double ditch, and flotation canal methods.

           3.3E Platform Removal
                 Once platforms are no longer useful, they are removed, the wells are plugged, and the
                 surrounding seafloor is cleared of obstructions. Current technology available for
                 platform removal includes bulk explosives, shaped explosive charges, mechanical
                 cutters, and underwater arc cutters. The use of bulk explosive charges has been the
                 most common procedure (about 90 percent). Under this method, the pilings of the
                 platform are blown off below the seafloor, and the platform is loaded onto barges for
                 transportation away from the site.

           3.4 Non-Routine Events
                 For purposes of this report, an OCS-related oil spill is an accidental release of crude
                 oil or condensate originating from an OCS-related activity.

                 All crude oils contain a combination of hydrocarbon and nonhydrocarbon components;
                 the relative proportions of these components determine the oil's toxicity. The
                 hydrocarbon components usually make up the major portion of the crude oil-some
                 crude oils are more than 95 percent hydrocarbons (Kallio, 1976; National Research
                 Council [NRC], 1985). The principal classes of hydrocarbons found in crude oil are
                 alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons. Nonhydrocarbon components of
                 crude oil include sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and a variety of trace metals.

                 The chemical and physical properties of spilled oil change with time. The rate of
                 change depends on the initial chemical composition of the oil and on "weathering" or
                 aging. Generally, the longer spilled oil is weathered, the fewer ecologically damaging
                 constituents it will contain. Weathering tends to reduce the toxicity of spilled oil
                 because many of its acutely toxic components are lost through evaporation, dissolution,
                 or degradation from photo-oxidation and microbial activity. The impacts caused by
                 heavily weathered oil (tars and resins) are generally related to physical rather than
                 chemical properties.


           3-12








                               With or without fires, oil spills (including diesel fuels) and blowouts (uncontrolled
                               flows of gas, oil, or other well fluids into the atmosphere) emit pollutants. These
                               accidental emissions can include hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, NO,,, CO, SO.,, and
                               TSP. Table 3.4-1 enumerates all the Federal oil spills from OCS facilities from 1987
                               through 1991 that were greater than 1 barrel (bbl), and table 3.4-2 lists oil spills of
                               19000 bbl or greater from facilities on Federal OCS leases from 1987 through 1991.


                         Table 3.4-1. Number and Volume of Offshore Oil Spills Greater Than I bbl from Federal OCS
                                          Lease Facilities and Operations, 1987 through 1991

                                       Gulf of Mexico OCS                                        Pacific OCS

                                       Number of Spills             Total                  Number of Spills          Total       Total OCS
                                                                  Spillage                                         Spillage        Spillage
                                     > 1-50         > 50            (bbl)         Year      > 1-50       >50         (bbl)          (bbl)

                           1987        35              1                231        1987          3         0              12           243

                           1988        30              3            15,971         1988          2         0               3        15,9791

                           1989        24              1                476        1989          3         0               8           484

                           1990        35              3            19,307         1990          1         1             101        19,408

                           1991        33              1                570        1991          5         0              63           633

                           Total       157             9            369555        Total         14         1            187         36,747

                       'This total includes I spill of 5 bbl on the Alaska OCS.
                        Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Slafistics: 1992 (USD01, MMS,    1993a).




                                     Table 3.4-2. Offshore Oil Spills of 1,000 bbl or Greater from Federal OCS
                                                     Lease Facilities and Operations, 1987 through 1991
                                          Year              Location              Cause of Accident        T    Spillage (bbl)
                                          1988         Galveston             Anchor damage to pipeline               15,576
                                                       Block A-2

                                          1990         Ship Shoal            Anchor damage to pipeline               14,423
                                                       Block 281

                                          1990         Eugene Island         Trawl damage to pipeline                4,569
                                                       Block 314             valve


                        Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Stafistics: 1992  (USDOI, MMS, 1993a).










                                                                                                                                         3-13







                         4.0 Observed Effects of the OCS Program

                         4.1 Gulf of Mexico Region
                                   The Gulf of Mexico (GOM) Region is divided into three planning areas: Western,
                                   Central, and Eastern GOM (fig. 4. 1- 1). Figures 4.1-2 through 4.1-14 illustrate the
                                   various tracts and features of these planning areas. More detailed information relating
                                   to the OCS Program covering the period from 1987 through 1991 can be found in Guy"
                                   of Mexico Update (July 1986 - April 1988) (USDOI, MMS, 1988b), Gu6rof Mexico
                                   Update (May 1988 - July 1989) (Gould, 1989), and Guy"of Mexico Update: August
                                   1989 - June 1992) (Gdchter, 1992). There were 12 OCS lease sales held for the GOM
                                   between 1987 and 1991: 5 in the Western GOM, 6 in the Central GOM, and 1 in the
                                   Eastern GOM (table 4. 1- 1).


                               Table 4.1-1. Gulf of Mexico OCS Lease Sales, 1987 through 1991
                                                                Sale Offeri%                              Bids Made                 Leases Issued
                               Sale      Date           Area           Tracts      Acres        Number I Tracts        Acres      Tracts      Acres
                                                                                                          ... ........... ......              .... .. . .
                                                                                                        .............
                                                      .............. ................ ..-....... .. .....
                               t987'.                 ..........                                   ...........
                                                                                                          ..............
                                                                                                          ............ .. ........... ..... ..... .. .. ..... .
                               110       4/22/87 Central GOM            5,881 1 31,818,4721        385 1 313 11,636,3301 293               11,539,610
                               112       8/12/87 Westem Gom                       27,943,6061      519 1 367 12,021,0961 347               11,908,199
                                                      ................I..... ...
                                            .......... ........      ........     ...........
                                                      .....................
                                                                                                   . . . .......            ........ ..    .................. .......
                                                                                                                                           . ................. ........
                                                                                                                                                 ..............
                                                                                                                       .............
                                                                                                             .......... - - I. - ................. ............... .
                                                                                                                   . . . . .. ......... .........................
                                            .................. ...                                                 ....... .. ....
                                                                                                                           ............
                               S/S*      2/24/88 lCentral GOM                     51 593,971         20        14      142685       14        142,685

                               113       3/30/88 Central GOM            6229      33 580,661       931       684       3,523,205    662    3,416,759
                               115       8/31/88 Western GOM_           5,053     27,911,79        370       270       1'499P164    255    1,412,764
                               116-11  11/16/88 Eastern GOM 1           8,149     1 46,417,3921    135       115       657,3491     115    1  657,348
                                                                                                                                  ...............
                                   .:      -...                                                                             '-*-'-,.. ............
                                                ...................- ......                                                       ..............I............................
                                                                                                                                  ... .. ..... ................ .........
                                                                ..................................  .............          .........
                               :19                                                 ................  ...... .....                 ......
                                         ..........
                                                                                                                   ..........-                . ........
                                                                                  ..................                                       . . . . ..............
                               118       3/15/89 ICentral GOM           5,970 1 32,123,6751        821 1 591 12,972,5671 574 1 2,892,535
                               122       8/23/89 iWestem GOM            5,043 1   27,973,9971      676    1  488 12,759,4241 475 1 2,688,394
                                                                                                                              . .........
                                     ..........                                                 ......                 .... ... .....      .........
                                                                                                                                    a
                                         ....... ...                    .......                                  ............
                                                       .......... .........  .................. .. .. ..
                                                                                  ..........
                                                                                  ................. .. .............. .. .............. .. .. .....I........... ........ ..................

                               123       3/21/90 Central GOM            5,667                      840       538       2,671,597 525       2,604,259
                               125       8/22/90 JWestern GOM 4,792 26,295,305                     465       307       1,699,507 300       1,659,187
                                                                      ............. ..... ..

                                                                                                .. ...... . . .. .. .. ................


                               131       3/27/91 Central GOM            5,420 29,127,324           637       464       2,265,799 456       2,224,284
                                         8/ I/qd
                               135+2           1   Westem GOM           4,2871    23,616,034       18        142       792.5461 13'q          '7r@A n4Z
                                                                                  30 4=3 46
                                                                                  2
                                                                                      95 305
                                                                                   629







                               *OCS Salt and Sulphur Sale
                               Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Slafisfics.- 1991 (USDOI, MMS, 1992a)




                                                                                                                                                       4-1









                 During the 5 years covered by this report, the following OCS-related prelease and
                 postlease activities and associated discharges occurred in the Gulf of Mexico Region.
                          1,133 prelease G&G permits were issued
                          2,209 exploration wells were drilled
                          2,005 development wells were drilled
                          802 OCS platforms were installed
                          448 OCS platforms were removed
                          3,665 miles of OCS pipeline were installed
                          5.8 million barrels (MMbbl) of drilling muds were generated annually
                          1.8 MMbbI of drill cuttings were generated annually
                          0.15 MMbbI of produced sands were generated annually
                          660 MMbbl of produced waters were generated and discharged annually
                          about 1.47 billion barrels (Bbbl) of crude oil and condensate were produced
                          over 22.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas were produced
                          163 small spills (> 1-999 bbl) resulted in a total oil spillage of 1,987 bbl, and
                          3 large pipeline spills (> 1,000 bbl) resulted in a total oil spillage of
                          34,568 bbI
































          4-2

















                                                               950                                900                               850                               800

                                                                              AR                                                                                  SIC


                                                                                                   MS                  AL                      GA

                                                                              LA
                                             TX
                                                                                                                Mobile
                                0                                                                    Biloxi           Pensacoll           *Tallahassee
                                30
                                                  Houston                             New Orleans
                                                                                                                                                            FL

                                    Corpus                                                      Central                                                    Tampa
                                   Christi                                                  Gulf of Mexico
                                                          Western                                                                  Eastern
                                                      Gulf of Mexico                                                            Gulf of Mexico




                                0
                                25
                                                                                                                                                                IAN

                                                     Planning area
                                                     boundary
                                                                                 0         100         200        300         400

                                                                                                      Miles



                                                             950                                   goo                                  850



                             Figure 4.1-1. Gulf of Mexico OCS Planning Areas









                                            98,                                                           970                                                       960                                                      950


                                                                                                                                                                                       Houston


                                                            Offshore                                                                                                                                                          Galveston
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Bay
                                                                   Official Protraction Diagram
                                                                   boundary and names
                                                                                                                                                                                                               Texas City


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Galveston
                                                       NOTE:                                                                                                                                     Lake
                                                       The mairifirne boundaries and linds showri, as mll as                                                                                 Jackson
                                                       the divisions between the planning areas, am for inifial planning
                                                       purposes only and do not prajudce or affect U.S. jurisdiction
                                290                    in any way.                                                                                                     0 Bay               Freeport                                                            290
                                                                                                                                                                            city



                                                                                                                           Port             Matagorda                                                             Galveston
                                                         TEXAS                                                            Lavaca               Bay,
                                                                                                               San              Seadrift
                                                                                                            Antonio
                                                                                                               Bay
                                                                                                                                                                                    Brazos

                                                                                       Copare,
                                                                                         Bay
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Galveston
                                 26P                                                  Rockport                                               Matagorda                               Bmzos                         Addition                                    280
                                                                                                                                                Island
                                                                                                                                                                                 South Addition


                                                       Cofpus Christi

                                                                              Co/pus                                                            Mustang
                                                                              Christi                                                             Island
                                                                               Say                                 Mustang                    Ea,it Adi
                                                                                                                     Island

                                                                                                                                                                                                 East Breaks


                                                                                                                                                             Corpus
                                                                   -Ifin                                                                                     Christi
                                                                   say
                                                                                                      North                                                                                                                                                    270
                                27'                                                                   Padre             North
                                                                                                      Island
                                                                                                                     Padre Island
                                                                                                                    East Addition




                                                          Port Mansfield                                       South                                         Port                                Alaminos, Canyon
                                                                                                               Padre                                         Isabel
                                                                                                               Island
                                                                                                                                 South
                                                                                                                             Padre Island
                                                                                                                             EastAdditw



                                                o ran e
                                                  River                      Port Isabel                                                                                                                                                                       260
                                260                                                                                                                                           0       10         20       30       40        50

                                                                                                                                                                                             Statute Miles

                                                  980                                                       970                                                          960                                                      950

                           Source. Adapted from MIMS Gulf of Mexico source maps, 1994.


                            Figure 4.1-2. Western Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion) Official Protraction
                             4-4                                   Diagrams










                                                                                                                        Cameron                               Grand                                       92
                                            0                                                    0                                                         0
                                         95                                                   940S                                                     93    Chenipr                                         Varmlion
                                                                       TX                                         Sabine Pass                                                                                  Bay
                                                                    High Island                 Sabine                                                                                     LA
                                            Galveston                                            Pass
                                               Bay

                                                                                                                                                                                                                   Marsh
                                                                                                                                                                                                                   .and



                                    Galveston
                                                                                                                                                 Offshore


                                                                                                                                                     Official Protraction Diagram
                                                                                                                                                     boundary and names                                                 29@-
                                                                                  High Island                                                        Flower Garden Marine
                                    29  0                                                                                                            Sanclutary

                                                                                                             High
                                                                                                            Island
                                                                                                             East
                                                                                                           Adbiitlon                       NOTE:
                                                     Galveston                                                                             The madtime boundaries and limits shown, as well as
                                                                                                                                           the divisions between the planning areas, am for initial planning
                                                                                                                                           purposes only and do not prejudice or affect U.S. jurisdiction
                                                                                                                                           in my way.



                                                                                                                  High
                                                                                  High Island                     Island
                                                                                   South                          East                                 Gulf of Mexico
                                                    Galveston                     Addition                        Addition
                                                      South                                                       South                                                                                                 28
                                                                                                                Extension
                                                     Addition
                                     280




                                                                                        West                                  East
                                                                                  Flower Garden                         Flower Garden


                                                                                                                                                           Garden Banks


                                                                   East Breaks




                                                                                                                                                                                                                           27'

                               - 27'







                                                                                                                                                           Keathley Canyon

                                                                    Alaminas Canyon






                                                                                                                                                                                                                           26  0


                               - 26
                                                       0       10      20         30      40      50                                                                                  NG 15-8
                                                       6=L=6=k=6mnW
                                                95                    Statute Miles                   94@                                                  930                                                   92  0

                               Source: Adapted from MMS Gulf of Mexico source maps, 1994.
                                                                                                                                             9 @'                                                           - 19e

                                     Figure 4.1-3. Western Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion) Official Protraction
                                                                       Diagrams


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                4-5






                           TX                            cameron 0                        0 Grand Chenier                                   9121--               Louisa       )1@0                    910
                             @94                                                        q;f                                                       Ion
                                   Sabine             Sabine                                                 0J                                Bay                                           Morgan
                                   Pass                Pass                                                                                                                                   city             0 Houma
                                                                   West                                                                                       Marsh
                                                                 Cameron                                                                                      island     Atchafalaya
                                                                                                                                                                             Bay                        LA


                                                                                                East
                                                                                              Cameron                                          South
                                   0                                                                                 Vermilion                 Marsh                                                                     0
                             29                               West                                                                                                                                           isles    29-
                                                            Camero                                                                          Island                 Eugene                                 Dernieres
                                                              West                                                                                                 Island

                                                                                                                                                                                           Ship
                                                                                                                                                                                          Shoa/







                                                                       West                                                                 South
                                                                     Cameron                    East                 Vermilion              Marsh
                                                                       South                  Cameron                 South                 Island                 Eugene                  Ship
                                                                                                South                                       South                  Island                 Shoal
                                                                                                                                                                   South                   South


                             28'                                                                                                                                                                                     28'@-

                                                                                                                                                               Ewing Bank







                                                                                                                                                                       Green Canyon






                             27'                                                                                                                                                                                          0
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      27

                                                                    Offshore


                                                                         Official Protraction Diagram
                                                                         boundary and names




                                                                                                                                                                        Walker Ridge
                                                      NOTE:
                                                      The maritime boundades and limits shown, as well as
                                                      the divisions between the planning areas, are for initial
                                                      planning purposes only and do not prejudice or affect
                                                      U.S. jurisdiction in any way.



                                                                  0      10      20      30        40     50
                             26P                                                           1       1       t                                                                                                          26'-
                                                                               Statute Miles

                                                                                                                                                                        NG 15-9


                                   94P                                                 9f                                                   920                                                     910


                         Source: Adapted from MMS Guff of Mexico source maps, 1994.
                                                                                                                                                  E



                        Figure 4.1-4. Central Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion) Official Protraction
                                                         Diagrams


                         4-6













                                                                                0                                                                                                           0                                                0
                                                                             91                                                  9&                     MS                           89     Biloxi                         AL              8
                                                                          Baron                                                                                       Gulfport                      Pascagoula      j                                      Gulf
                                                                         Rouge                Lake                             Mandelville        1.        Bay                                                                        Mobile             shores
                                                                                          Maurepas                                                                                                                                       Bay
                                                                                                                                                        St. Louis                                        mississippi Sou   :@@
                                                                                                                         Lake
                                                                                                                    P chartrain
                                                                                                                                                     Lake                                                             M."".
                                              30  0                                                        Kenna                 New Orleans        Borg-                                                                                                        3oo-
                                                                                                                                                                                                              Chandele r
                                                                              LA                           Lake                                                        P,            Chandelour                  East          V- Knoll
                                                                                                         Salva@fp                                                             hand9leur
                                                                                                                                                                           C =Soun -I
                                                     Morgan
                                                       city                                                                                                                                                    Main Paw
                                                                              Houma                                                                                    Breton                                 South & East
                                                                                                                                                               Bretoh  Sound Z,4                                           E3
                                                At@twfalaya                                             Golden                                                 Sound                        Main Pass
                                                     Bay                                               Meadow
                                                                                                                                               Buras

                                                                                                                                      (Grand                          Venice
                                                                                                                                       Isle

                                                                  Islas                                                                                                          t                                         Viosca Knoll
                                                               Derrieres                                                                                                     AM
                                              29  0                         1                South                             Grand          West Delta                                                                                                         29'1-
                                                                                             Petro              say            W.                                     South                     South Pass
                                                                                                             Marchand                                                                             East

                                                                                "j,                                                            West Delta
                                                                                Shoal             South Timballer                                   uth                       South Paw
                                                                                                                                                                                  South



                                                                                                                                             E-g Bank                                       uss'-ppi
                                                                                                                                                                                            Canyon

                                                                                Ship              South Timbeler            South
                                                                                St.W                  South
                                                                                South                                                                                                                           0

                                              28'                                                               E-g Bank                                                                                                                                         289-





                                                                                                  Green Canyon                                                                              Atwater
                                                                                                                                                                                            Valley



                                              27'                                                                                                                                                                                                                27'@-
                                                                                                                                                                              Offshore
                                                                                                                                                                             El Pinnacle Trend
                                                                                                                                                                                     (Live Bottom Stipulation)

                                                                                                                                                                                     Official Protraction Diagram
                                                                                                                                                                                     boundary and names

                                                                                                  Walker Ridge                                  Lund


                                                                                                                                                               NOTE:
                                                                                                                                                               The manti     boundaries and limits shown, as well as
                                                                                                                                                               the division's'ebetween the planning areas, are for initial
                                                                                                                                                               planning purposes only and do not prejudice or affect
                                                                                                                                                               U.S. jurisdiction in any way.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 26Cm-
                                          -260                                                                                                                                0             10  20     30     40        50
                                                                                                     NG 15-9                          -rN. 16-7                                 6=mL==imnmL==im"
                                                                                                                                                                                            Statute Miles
                                          1                          91                                                        9011                                                  89'1                                                 88 1                           1
                                          Source: Adapted from MMS Gulf of Maxim source maps, 1994.


                                          Figure 4.1-5. Central Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion) Official Protraction
                                                                                Diagrams


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 4-7











                                      I                                                        I ,                                                         I                               QAG@@
                                      Up-                                                     97                                                           960                  Houston 40                         950
                                                Onshore                             Offshore                                                                                                  ea                       Galveston
                                                       Oilmfine,ms                        Active losses prior to 1987                                                                                                     Say
                                                       Ga. processing                     Leases let 1987-1991
                                                       plants                       13    Explmd/Relinquished leases                                                                              A
                                               ti.     Selected ports                     1987-1991                                                                                                     Texas City
                                                       Major pipeline               0     major platforms and
                                                       fabrication yards                  complexes                                                                                        Lake                                   Galveston
                                                16     Supply bases                       Minor platforms                                                                                  Jackson
                                                       Major pipeline                     Official Protraction Diagram                                                                     0 A
                                                       coating yards                      boundary                                                                      on 11
                                      29               Major platform                                                                                           0 Bay              Freeport                                                29'@-
                                              NIA      fabricafion yards                                                                                            city

                                              NOTE,
                                              The maritime boundaries and linuls shown, as -11
                                              the divisions between the planning areas, am for                     Port
                                              initial planning purposes only and do not pre-                                        Matago
                                              judice or affect U.S. jurisdiction In my way.                      Lavaca                 Bay
                                                                                                          n              Seadrift
                                                                                                      San
                                                                                                      Antonio
                                          TEXAS                                                       Say                                                              Wg*,ffl@ Ll 10
                                                                                                                                                           iW -IN.     77X7qj0
                                                                               Copano                                                                                         I ln@ 5a
                                                                                  Bay                                                                                          P. " 'J


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           28CL-
                                 -280                                           Rockport                                                       V on        I IMMILI
                                                                                                                                                     r ,   MEOW uENNIM III
                                                                                                                                                  Kq*" KI owl I I I I W
                                                                                                                                 g@T'l   I          I W                ME 1 0 IMMEN@@@
                                                                                                                                      1111  IN
                                                Corpus Christi
                                                           Al VA
                                                                         Corpus
                                                                         Christi
                                                    A                    Bay






                                                          Baffin
                                                           Bay

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           270-
                                      270                                                                                                                  ENE
                                                                                                                 "No[

                                                                                                      IN

                                                                                                      WEI I



                                                  Port Mansfield






                                                                                                                               ----------
                                                                                                                      ------------
                                                                                                                      ------------
                                      Ri. Guande ,,,a                                                                                                                                                                                      26CL-
                                          River                          Port Isabel
                                 -26      0                                                                                             0        10        20       30        40           50
                                                                                                                                          6=nl:==:lmwmE=6=W
                                                                                                                                                           Statute Miles
                                          980                                                         970                                                       960                                                       950


                                 Source, Adapted from MMS Gulf of Maxim source maps, 1994.


                                 Figure 4.1-6. Western Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion), Status of Leases


                                 4-8







                                           I IPA                                                                            Camero@@@l 0 Gr nd .                                                                   92
                                         95  0                                                   94  0                                                         0 Chenier                                             vermilion
                                                                        TX                                          Sabine Pass                                                                     LA                  Bay
                                             Galveston                High Island
                                                Bay

                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Marsh
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Island
                                                                                ,.A MRA            'R L71V
                                                                                              -'@ K
                                      PA
                                                                                                                                           Onshorn                           Offshore
                                    Galveston                               Q-tYULTEEM',,
                                                                                                                                           9@!B  Oil refineries                   Active leases prior to 1987

                                                                                                                                                 Gas processing                   Leases let 1987-1991
                                                                                                                                                 plants                           Expired/Relinquished leases                     29'
                                                                                                                                           TS@   Selected ports                   1987-1991
                                    29'
                                                                                                                                                 Major pipeline                   Major platforms and
                                                                                                                                                 fabrication yards           M    complexes

                                                                                                                                                 Supply bases                     Minor platforms

                                                                                                                                                 Major pipeline                   Concentration of small platforms
                                                                                                                                                 coaling yards                    Official Protraction Diagram
                                                                                                                                                 Major platform                   boundary
                                                                                                                                                 fabrication yards



                                                                                                                                           NOTE:
                                                                                                                                           The maritime boundaries and limits shown, as well as
                                                                                                                                           the divisions between the planning areas, are for initial planning
                                                                                                                                           purposes only and do nol prejudice or affect U.S. jurisdiction
                                                                                                                                           in any way.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 28

                               - 280


                                                                                 ...................














                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    27  0

                                     27 0












                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     26  0

                               - 26'                                                                                                                                                        . . . . . . . . ..

                                                        0       10        20       30         40      50
                                                        1         1        1        1         1       1
                                                 950                    Statute Miles                     ge                                                       0                                                       92

                                Source: Adapted from MMS Gulf of Maxim source maps, 1994.


                                      Figure 4.1-7. Western Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Status of Leases
                                                                                                                                                                       a
























































                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           4-9







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                                                                                                            1    0  1 .                                   1  0                      1                  1 1
                                                                10                                           90         N       MS                       89                                           88'
                                                               91
                                                             aton                                                                                            Biloxi    Pascagoula       AL                            Gulf
                                                           Rouge             Lake                         Mandelville                   ^I= Gulfport                                                 Mobile         Shor?s 1,
                                                                           Ma.rapas                                               Bay                                                                 Bay
                                                                                                                                St. Louis                                  Mississippi Sou
                                                             A                                       Lake
                                                                                                 Pontchartrain
                                                                            JA                                                Lake
                                     300                         PA                      Kenna              New Orleans       Borgne                                                                                       3&-

                                                                                         Lake
                                                                 LA                    Sal.@n                                             `;7 Chardeleur
                                                                                                                                                   Se-d
                                      Morgan City

                                                               Houma                                                                 Breton
                                       Atchafalaya                                   Golden                                              n
                                            ay                                      Meadow *I&                            Bura

                                                                                                 Or              Grand                     Venice
                                                                                                                  Isle

                                                      Isles
                                                                                                                 -Lon-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                           29P-
                                 -290






                                                                                                         Adlig-,









                                                                                                                                                                                                                           28L-
                                                                                                         @q
                                     28'












                                                                                                                                                                                                                           27
                                 -270


                                                                                                                                  See western half of this map for explanation of
                                                                                                                                  colors and symbols.
                                                                     L I  I
                                                                                                                          I    E] Pinnacle Trend (Live Bottom Stipulation)
                                                                                                                              NOTE:
                                                                                                                              The maritime boundaries and limits shown, as well as the
                                                                                                                              dmsions belw@n the planning areas, are for initial planning
                                                                                                                 I            purposes only and do not prejudice or affect U.S. jurisdiction
                                                                                                                              in any way.
                                                                                          + +                                                   0      10     20     30     40     50

                                                                                                                                                            Statute Miles                                                  26CL-
                                 -260



                                                         91                                                9001                                           8911                                          8&1
                                 Source@ Adapted from MIMS Gulf of Mexdco source maps, 1994.


                                       Figure 4.1-9. Central Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Status of Leases



                                                                                                                                                                                                                               4-11













                              ISO                                                        41.
                                         Onshore                              Offshore                                                                                       Houston                           .1950
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      GaNesion
                                        41ap    Oil refineries                A     Exploratory wells                                                                                                                    Bay
                                                Gas processing                E     Leases let 1987-1991
                                                plants                              Now production                                                                                                     Texas Ci
                                                Selected ports                      Official Protraction Diagram
                                                major pipeline                      boundary
                                                fabrication yards                                                                                                                     Lake                                      Galveston
                                                Supply bases                                                                                                                         Jackson
                                                major pipeline
                               290              coating yards                                                                                                                                                                             29 10L-
                                        "'s     Major platfornn                                                                                                    Bay           Freeport
                                                tab6cation yards                                                                                                   city

                                        NOTE:                                                                                                                                                             1A
                                        The mantinne boundaries and limits sII as wall as
                                        the divisions between the planning areas, am for
                                        Initial planning purposes only and do not pre-                         Port
                                                                                                            Lavaca              Matagorda                                             A]
                                        judice or affect U.S. jurisdation in my way,                                                Bay                                                     1 A X
                                                                                                San                 Seadrift                                             E3120 n1 V M F@ -                      I w
                                                                                                                                                            41diwi I i 1                    0 ROMMEM
                                                                                                ntonjo                                               AviC AWAl E@-:               ONE n                ME
                                                                                                 Say                                                          LIN                 01        ON -                      I
                                        TEXAS                                                                                                                      ". MEN             M             OMNI
                                                                         Coparc,                                                                           nNOMMIN                               I I   I  I
                                                                                                                                                          I MNE01 1          0    111 Ad
                                                                                                                                                                                  EEMEE A        1  -1 1
                               28o                                 Aid                                                                                                                   I I I   I                                        28o-
                                                                                                                                    A            11

                                                                                                                                        IA                                            IN I I     I  I  1              11
                                                                                                                                                                                         I I  I  IA1   11          -7.
                                         Corpus Christi

                                                                   Corpus
                                                                   Chfisti
                                                                   Bay                                                                     E9



                                                                                                  A



                                                                                                     A
                                                   Baffin
                                                    Bay
                          - 270                                                                                                     1 1              1     FI IF-F-T I 1                                                                  270-





                                           Pori Mansfield








                               Rio Grande
                                        er                         Port Isabel                                                                                                                                                            26 q_
                          - 260                                                                                                     0         10        20         30        40       50

                                                                                                                                                     Statute Miles

                                        980                                                   970                                                             960                                                        950
                                        1                                                      1                                                             1                                                            1
                          Source: Adapted horn MMS Gulf of Maxim source nrialps, 1994.


                          Figure 4.1-10. Western Gulf of Mexico (Western Portion), Exploration and
                                                                   Production Activities, 1987 through 1991


                          4-12









                                                                                                  I                        Cameron                             0 Grand                                              0
                                         9                              TX                        949                                                     9 0    Chenier                                        92   Bay
                                                                                                                                                                                                 LA
                                             Galveston               High Island
                                               Bay

                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Marsh
                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Island
                                     aili                                         A                                                      Onshore                            Offshore
                                    Galveston                                                  WAJ
                                                                                 N 191 1 NINE                                            Q=       Oil refineries             A   Exploratory wells
                                                                                         MAI MMAI              A
                                                                                    11111111 M I I M                                     A        Gas processing                 Leases let 1987-1991
                                                                                    - SEA                                                         plants                         New production                                  290t-
                                                                                    AIAIAM           JIM    1  1 NIL
                                                                                                     I I I  I  JAI It                    IS-      Selected ports                 Flower Garden Marine
                                    290                                                                          1                                Major pipeline                 Sanctutary
                                                                                                  ++1       i  i                                                            if
                                                                                                                                         &        fabrication yards              Official Protraction Diagram
                                                                                                                                                  supply bases                   boundary

                                                                                                                                                  Major pipeline
                                                                                                                                                  coating yards

                                                                                                                                                  Major platform
                                                                                                                                                  fabrication yards


                                                                                    A                                                     NOTE:
                                                                                    A         I ME                                        The maritime boundaries and limits shown, as well as the
                                                                                                                                          divisions between the planning areas, are for initial planning
                                                                                                                                          purposes only and do not prejudice or affect U.S. junsdiction
                                               A                                    A                  A                                  in any way.
                                                                                                               I I I INA                                                                                                         2EP-
                                             r          L                                                   0 MAI 1 11
                              - 280          7-         1                                                   AIAL.-I I I
                                                                                                                                                                                                   A




                                                                                        0         a
                                                                                                                      r











                                                                                                                                                                                                                                27'2-

                              - 270

















                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  260


                                    260
                                                                                                                                                                                    MERE
                                                               10       20 30              40 50                                                                               MEMEMMUMM
                                                        0                                                                                                                      so
                                                                                                                                                                                 MiNd        W1J
                                                        6=mL==6=mE==im"
                                               950                    Statute Miles                    940                                                     930                                                     92

                              Source: Adapted from MMS Gulf of Maxim source maps, 1994.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     ltz@


























                                     Figure 4. 1 -11. Western Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Exploration and
                                                                         Production Activities, 1987 through 1991


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   4-13







                              TAI                              Cameron                                   Grand Chenier                                92q-                    Loui. A-do                               I
                                         0                                                     9                                                                                                                       91,
                                                                                                                                                              ion
                                       9                                                                                                                                                         lls
                                                                                                                                                                                                 1@g   'a    Morgan              NR
                                                                                                                                                           Bay                                                city             a   Houma
                                                                                                                                                                                                                           ,26 * A01A

                                                                                                                          A                                                  mh
                                                  JAI                                                                    I                                                Island       Atchafalaya
                                                                                                                           I I I MAI                                                        Bay                        LA



                                 29P                                                                                                                                                                                         Isles      29P-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Dernieres











                                                               z    F9 t IAI



                                                                                                                                                              A III

                                                                                                                                                                  RIA
                                                                                                                                                              A IN
                                 28P                                                                                                                                                                                                   28'@-




                                                        Onshore                              Offshore
                                                        QID    Oil refineries                A      Exploratory wells

                                                               Gas processing                       Leases let 1987-1991
                                                        AA     plants                               New production
                                                        '111116 Selected ports                      Official Protraction Diagram
                                                        &      Major pipeline                       boundary
                                                               fabrication yards
                                 27    0                       Supply bases
                                                               Major pipeline                                                                                                                                                           27
                                                               coating yards                                                                                          -H-Ff+ -
                                                      ^@@A     Major platform                                                                                              - - - - - -                              A
                                                               fabrication yards                                                                                           - - - - - -

                                                                                                                                                                                                                    -4
                                                  NOTE:                                                                                                                    - - - - - -
                                                  The maritime boundaries and limits shown, as well as the amsions                                                         - - - - - -
                                                  between the planning areas, are for initial planning purposes onty                                                       - - -
                                                  and do not prejudice or affect U.S. jurisdiction in any way.






                                 260                                    0        10      20         30      40       50
                                                                         6mmL=Jmmk==6=w1                                                                                                                                                2e-
                                                                                        Statute Miles                                                                  I
                                       94'                                                      939                                                      920                                               291         0

                            Source: Adapted from MMS Gulf of Mexico source maps, 1994.


                            Figure 4.1-12. Central Gulf of Mexico (Western                                                                             Portion), Exploration and
                                                                   Production Activities, 1987 through 1991


                            4-14








                                                                                1 0                                                 1                                                   1 0                           1
                                                                                91                                                  go,                   MS                           89                                                  880                             1
                                                                             Baton                                                                                                         Biloxi     Pascagoula i AL                                        Gulf
                                                                             Rouge              Lake                             Mandelville                            Gulfport                                                                            ShoreS
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Wbil.
                                                                                             Mal'.P.D                                                        Bay                                                                           Bay
                                                                                                                                                          St. Louis                                         Mississippi Sou
                                                                  'g         A                               f,           Lake                                                          c-,
                                                                                                                           tchartmin
                                                                                               PA                                                       Lake
                                                                                                             Kenner                                   Bogr.            14                                                                                          30'm-
                                                 300                                za                                              Na Orleans
                                            A                                                        Ad
                                                                                                    *         Lake                                                       P,
                                                                                    LA                     Salvador                                                   1z:7 Chandoleur
                                                                                                                                                                               Somd
                                                  Morgan City 0
                                                          AAA
                                                                                Houma Aga
                                                                                          0                                                                      Blet-
                                                   Atchafalaya                                  J         Golden                                                 Sound
                                                       Be                                                Meadow                                                                                                                '7ir,'Ma -17111111111IXVW@
                                                                                                                                                  Buras                                                                    w -,1121  JOINV@qN -J'i% -

                                                                                                                                        Grand                           Venice                                I I


                                                                    Isles
                                                 29'               Dernieres                                                                                                                                                                                       29P-








                                            -280                                                                  A                                                                                                                                                28c@-








                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   27"@-
                                            -27                              H

                                                                                                                                                          *See wastem haff of this map for explanation of
                                                                                                                                                           colors and symbols.
                                                                                                                                                                 Pinnacle Trend (Live Bottom Stipulation)

                                                                                                                                                       NOTE:
                                                                                                                                                       The Maritime boundaries and limits shown, as well as the
                                                                                                                                                       divisions between the planning areas, are for initial planning
                                                                                                                                                       purposes only and do not prejudice or affect U.S. jurisdiction
                                                                                                                                                       in my way.

                                                                                                                                                                              0     10      20      30      40       50

                                                                                                                                                                                          Statute   Miles                                                          269-
                                                  26"                                                          1 1 1


                                                                                                         f
                                                                        91   01     w6,6@                                        90 0 1                                                8901                                                 88  0  1
                                            Source: Adapted from MMS Gulf of Mexico source maps, 1994.


                                            Figure 4.1-13. Central Gulf of Mexico (Eastern Portion), Exploration and Production
                                                                                    Activities, 1987 through 1991


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                4-15

















                               880                            860                            840                             820                          so 0



                         AL


                                   Pensacola

                   30  0                                                                                                                                              300
                                        %@w        41         AAk           Apalachicola..,                         FL
                                          A           IF A
                                                          L A

                                                          L
                                                      DESTIN DOME                APALACHICOLA GAINESVILLE







                       0                                                                                                                                              28
                   28                              DESOTO CANYON         FLORIDA MIDDLE GROUND TARPON SPRING               Tampa

                                                                                                                           St. Petersburg




                                                      LLOYD RIDGE                      THE ELBOW      ST. PETERSBURG





                       0                                                                                                               Naples
                   26                                     NG 16-5                  VERNON BASIN                CHARLOTTE HARBOR       0                               260



                                                                                            L
                                                          NG 16-8                     HOWELL HOO        An"J.'LLY RIDGE                   MIAMI
                                                                                                                                               KEY
                                                       NG 1                                                                                    WEST



                              Eastern Gulf of Mexico
                   24'               Planning Area                                                    DRY 7'OR rUGA S                                                 240

                                            Explanation



                                         Active lease



                                         Exploratory well

                                                                                                             Note:
                                                                                                             The maritime boundaries and limits shown above,
                                                                                                             as well as the divisions between planning areas,
                   220            0           50          100                                                are for initial planning purposes only and do not          0
                                  1           1             1                                                prejudice or affect United States jurisdiction in        22
                                          Statute Mile                                                       any way.



                                880                             860                              840                               82"



                 Figure 4.1-14. Eastern Gulf of Mexico, Status of Leases and Exploration Activities,
                                             1987 through 1991


                 4-16








                     4.1 A Physical Environment
                     4.1A1 Water Quality
                             From 1987 through 199 1, the GOM Region issued 1, 133 OCS G&G permits, as
                             shown in the table 4.1-2.



                                      Table 4.1-2. OCS G&G Perinits Issued by the Gulf of Mexico Region,
                                                   1987 through 1991

                                                                   Gulf of Mexico
                                                                                                     Yearly
                                           Year          Louisiana I Texas         MAFLA'            Totals

                                            1987            186           52             20           258

                                            1988            172           64             27           263

                                            1989            177           49              6           222

                                            1990            157           64              6           227

                                            1991            109           51              3           163

                                           Total            801           280            62          1,133
                                           'MAFLA - Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida
                                           Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991 (USD01, MMS, 1992a)

                             Effects of OCS Geological Sampling: Geological sampling is done during prelease,
                             postlease, and deep stratigraphic operations. Prelease piston coring operations,
                             averaging about 5-11 per year, are conducted at depths less than
                             6 meters (m) and are spaced every 4-10 kilometers (km). Postlease cores are only
                             taken as part of the shallow hazards survey requirement. Deep stratigraphic testing is
                             rarely done in the GOM.

                             Geological sampling activities alter and degrade water quality around the immediate
                             sampling site. Bottom sampling and shallow coring cause very minor sediment
                             suspension with an associated, temporary, localized increase in turbidity. However,
                             deep stratigraphic testing, being similar to rotary drilling of exploratory wells, results
                             in the discharge of drilling muds and cuttings. As a result, the receiving waters
                             experience increased amounts of suspended solids and trace metals. In general,
                             dilution, dispersion, and settling limit the effects of drill muds and cuttings on water
                             quality to the immediate vicinity of the discharge. These effects usually are not
                             detected beyond 1,000-2,000 m from the discharge source (NRC, 1983; Houghton
                             et al., 1980; Ayers et al., 1980a, b).

                             Conclusion: The studies mentioned above lead to the conclusion that any effects from
                                                                                                              I
























                             the limited number of shallow coring operations conducted in the GOM were
                             temporary and confined in spatial extent.


                                                                                                                         4-17









                 Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: Based on the number of OCS facilities
                 operating in the GOM from 1987 through 1991, an estimated 52,000 OCS-related
                 service vessel trips and 440 OCS-related barge trips occurred annually in the GOM.
                 Existing navigational channels were used, and no new channels were dredged for OCS
                 support vessels. According to Louisiana historical data (Turner and Cahoon, 1987), the
                 bulk of OCS support vessel trips during this period took place in the Calcasieu Ship
                 Channel to Cameron, the Atchafalaya River waterway to Morgan City, Freshwater
                 Bayou to Intracoastal City, and the Mississippi River passes (particularly the reach to
                 Venice). On average, OCS support vessel traffic represented approximately 12 percent
                 of the traffic using these navigational channels. Additionally, about 18 percent of the
                 barge traffic carrying oil between terminals or to refineries during this time was
                 OCS-related.


                 Support vessels degrade coastal water quality by the following means:
                    ï¿½ discharging bilge and ballast water, and treated sanitary and domestic wastes
                    ï¿½ increasing turbidity through bank erosion and maintenance dredging of access
                       channels
                    ï¿½ spilling oil

                 Operational discharges (e.g., bilge and ballast waters) from OCS service vessels
                 traversing the coastal zone, although diluted and discharged slowly over large lengths
                 of the channel, do contribute to some degradation of water quality in some
                 navigational channels used. Based on an average of 0.5 bbl/hr/vessel trip (NERBC,
                 1976), an estimated 21,400 bbl of bilge waters were discharged annually into
                 navigational channels from service vessel traffic during the period from 1987 through
                 1991.


                 From 1987 through 1991, it is estimated that OCS-related vessel traffic caused
                 approximately 147 hectares (ha) of sediments to erode annually from confined canals,
                 bayous, and river banks. This amount is based on the level of estimated OCS-related
                 vessel traffic in the GOM and on a rate of 1.5 m/yr of erosional widening of channels
                 (based on information in Johnson and Gosselink, 1982). The volume of material
                 dredged as part of maintenance operations was not known. Most Louisiana major
                 navigational channels were dredged every other year during 1987-1991 to maintain
                 water depth. Both channel bank erosion and dredging resulted in some localized, short-
                 term increases in turbidity and resuspension of contaminants in disturbed sediments.

                 Conclusion: Considering the possible acute effects of sedimentation from bank
                 erosion, bilge water discharge, and operational discharges, there were only minor,
                 localized, long-term changes in water quality characteristics in the confined portions of
                 the navigational channels used by OCS-associated vessel traffic in the GOM during
                 this time.




           4-18









                   Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: The main
                   operational wastes generated by OCS exploration and production are produced water,
                   drilling fluids and cuttings, ballast water, and storage displacement water. Other
                   wastes generated by OCS activities are as follows:
                     (1)  Drilling
                          ï¿½ waste chemicals
                          ï¿½ fracturing and acidifying fluids
                          a well completion and workover fluids

                     (2)  Production
                          * produced sands
                          * deck drainage
                          0 miscellaneous well fluids (cement, blowout preventor fluid)

                     (3)  Other sources
                          ï¿½ sanitary and domestic wastes
                          ï¿½ gas and oil processing wastes
                          e miscellaneous minor discharges

                   In general, oily wastes (produced waters and sands) and processing fluids are collected
                   into one drainage system and then sent to a sump tank. The oil is separated, and the
                   water is then either discharged overboard at the surface or shunted. The following
                   major contaminants or chemical properties exist in operational wastes.
                     ï¿½ high salinity              * various metals
                     ï¿½ sulfides                   * crude oil compounds
                     ï¿½ low pH                     9 organic acids
                     ï¿½ high biological and        * radionuclides
                        chemical oxygen demand

                   Based on the number of OCS activities that occurred in the GOM Region (2,209
                   exploratory wells and 2,005 development wells) and on the average quantities of
                   wastes generated per well from 1987 through 1991 (MMS, 1993a; EPA 1993), the
                   following annual amounts of discharges are estimated to have occurred: 5.8 MMbbl of
                   drilling muds, 1.8 MMbbl of drill cuttings, 0.15 MMbbl of produced sands, and 660
                   MMbbl of produced waters (496 MMbbl of which were disposed of offshore).
                   Offshore discharge of these wastes must be in accordance with an NPDES permit.

                   The Federal Water Pollution Control Act requires EPA to establish national effluent
                   limitation standards for wastewater discharges and to develop requirements for Federal
                   permits (NPDES). In November 1992, the EPA Region 6 issued a new NPDES
                   general permit for existing natural gas and oil operations in the Western GOM. This
                   permit was modified and reissued in December 1993. Significant new requirements
                   found in this permit include:


                                                                                      4-19









                     ï¿½ monitoring for toxicity of produced water
                     ï¿½ industry reporting of NORM levels, as well as a number of other contaminant
                        concentrations in produced water effluents and fish tissue

                  In addition, EPA incorporated into this permit the newly promulgated, more
                  restrictive, effluent limitation guidelines and new source performance standards for the
                  offshore oil subcategory. These standards:
                     ï¿½  decrease the allowable limits of oil and grease in produced water and well
                        treatment and completion fluids
                     ï¿½  permit the use of a static sheen test to determine free oil rather than visual
                        observation in most cases
                     ï¿½  restrict the levels of mercury and cadmium in the barite used in drilling fluids
                     ï¿½  prohibit the discharge of produced sands

                  In October 1993, EPA Region 6 published a proposed general permit for new sources
                  for the Western Gulf of Mexico OCS. The permit provides the same requirements as
                  the general permit for existing sources.

                  Neither of these permits cover the OCS areas east of the Mississippi River. This area
                  is under the authority of EPA Region 4-which plans to issue a general permit for
                  both new and existing sources for this area.

                  The fate and effects of OCS discharges around production platforms in open waters
                  have been investigated extensively (USDOI, MMS, 1990d). These studies included the
                  following:
                     ï¿½  Offshore Ecology Investigation in Louisiana Waters, conducted by Gulf
                        Universities Research Consortium (Ward et al., 1979)
                     ï¿½  Central Gulf Platform Study of the Continental Shelf off Louisiana, conducted by
                        Southwest Research Institute (Bedinger, 1981)
                     ï¿½  Buccaneer Field Study, conducted off Galveston, Texas, by the NMFS
                        (Middleditch, 1981a)
                     ï¿½  Produced Water Study, conducted by Battelle for the American Petroleum
                        Institute (Neff, Sauer et al., 1989)
                     ï¿½  Fate and Effects of Nearshore Discharges of OCS Produced Waters, conducted
                        by the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium (Rabalais et al., 1991)
                     ï¿½  Bioaccumulation of Trace Metals From Drilling Mud Barite by Benthic Marine
                        Animals (Neff, Hillman et al., 1989)
                     ï¿½  Input of Low-Molecular Weight Hydrocarbons From Petroleum Operations in the
                        Gulf of Mexico (Brooks et al., 1977)
                     ï¿½  Source and Distribution of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Gulf of Mexico:
                        Summary of Existing Knowledge, conducted by Texas A&M University (Brooks,
                        1979)




            4-20








                         Although the studies' conditions did not perfectly match OCS conditions (water depths
                         in the studies are less than the average depth of OCS platforms in the GOM), they still
                         provided insight into the fate and effects of OCS offshore operational discharges.

                         Conclusions of the research are summarized below:
                           ï¿½  Areas around many of the production platforms studied showed elevated
                              concentrations of components that could have come from the platform operations.
                              None of the studies found detectable trace metal or petroleum hydrocarbon
                              contamination of waters and sediments beyond 200 m from the platform.

                            ï¿½ Decreases in faunal diversity or in the number of benthic infauna were
                              documented around some platforms out to 300 m but, for most of the studies, not
                              beyond small areas near the platforms.

                            ï¿½ Some regional contamination of the GOM waters and sediments could be
                              attributed to OCS discharges. The broad areas that were studied in the Central
                              GOM were often characterized as contaminated with pollutants from man's
                              activities. Some implicated the Mississippi River as the probable source
                              (Bedinger, 1981); others attributed the contamination to the natural gas and oil
                              industry. Neff, Hillman et al. (1989) found barium present in sediments in the
                              study area at concentrations substantially higher than expected of clean sediments.
                              Neff projected that the excess barium may have been from areawide platform
                              discharges of barium-laden drilling muds and produced waters. In addition, two
                              reports (Brooks, 1977; Brooks et al., 1979) concluded that produced waters are a
                              source of light petroleum hydrocarbon contamination in the Texas-Louisiana shelf
                              waters, including particularly large amounts of low-boiling aromatics such as
                              benzene and toluene.


                         In addition, the MMS initiated the Gulf of Mexico Offshore Operations Monitoring
                         Experiment - Phase I: Sublethal Responses to Contaminant Exposure in late 1992. This
                         phase is a 3-year effort designed to assess the site-specific effects of offshore natural
                         gas and oil drilling in areas of the GOM with long histories of energy production. This
                         study analyzes the chemical contamination and biochemical responses immediately
                         beneath and adjacent to three OCS platforms that have been in production from 10 to
                         15 years. Study results will help the MMS minimize or prevent any long-term,
                         environmental damage from OCS activities.

                         Conclusion: Moderate petroleum contamination of superficial sediments occurred
                         around production platforms-at least out to 20 m, and possibly as far out as 200 m,
                         particularly in very shallow inner shelf sites. There was also some cumulative,
                         regional contamination of waters and sediments in the Central GOM shelf, primarily
                         from barium and low-boiling aromatic hydrocarbons.




                                                                                                             4-21








                  Effects of Nearshore Disposal of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: A portion of
                  the wastes generated from offshore natural gas and oil exploration and production
                  activities are brought ashore for nearshore disposal. During 1987 through 1991, wastes
                  typically taken to shore included some produced waters, liquid wastes (fracturing
                  fluids, emulsifiers, workover fluids, biocides, mud additives, etc.), produced sands,
                  and all oil-based drilling muds and cuttings. Some of these wastes can be contaminated
                  with NORM, toxic or hazardous compounds, heavy metals, and oil and grease.

                  The MMS funded two studies examining the fate and effects of OCS-generated coastal
                  discharges (Rabalais et al., 1991; Boesch and Rabalais, 1989a). In general, the studies
                  found "that sediment contamination and associated effects on the benthos extended
                  beyond the region in which acutely lethal concentrations of contaminants would be
                  expected to be found in waters receiving the dispersing plume" (Rabalais et al., 1991).
                  Locations of OCS-produced-water discharges in coastal Louisiana varied from shallow,
                  nearshore continental shelf areas to brackish and saline coastal environments with
                  moderately to poorly flushed waters. Other researchers examining coastal produced-
                  water discharges documented similar impacts. These researchers included Boesch and
                  Rabalais (1989b), Armstrong et al. (1979), Harper (1986), Kraemer and Reid (1984),
                  Mendelssohn and McKee (1987), Middleditch (1981a and b), Neff, Sauer et al.
                  (1989), and St. P6 (1990).

                  Conclusion: Significant localized impacts, especially around produced water outfalls,
                  occurred and contributed, to a minor extent, to the regional degradation of Louisiana
                  coastal waters. Primarily because of the results of studies, these discharges are no
                  longer legal and are being phased out.

                  Effects of Onshore Disposal of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: A portion of the
                  wastes generated from offshore natural gas and oil exploration and production
                  activities are brought ashore for disposal. During 1987 through 1991, wastes typically
                  taken to shore included some produced waters, liquid wastes (fracturing fluids,
                  emulsifiers, workover fluids, biocides, mud additives, etc.), produced sands, and all
                  oil-based drilling muds and cuttings. Some of these wastes can be contaminated with
                  NORM, toxic or hazardous compounds, heavy metals, and oil and grease.

                  About 25 percent (estimated at 165 MMbbl/yr) of the produced waters generated on
                  the OCS were piped onshore to Louisiana shoreline facilities for treatment rather than
                  discharged in surface coastal waters (Rabalais et al., 1991). No produced waters were
                  allowed to be transported to other States. The onshore storage and disposal of solid
                  wastes in nearshore areas caused impacts during 1987 through 1991. Those OCS waste
                  types brought onshore for disposal and not discharged into surface waters were
                  disposed of at waste treatment facilities or pits. These wastes were transported from
                  the platform by supply boats/barges to industry shore bases or commercial oil-field
                  waste transfer stations. Once ashore, many of these wastes were transported via barge
                  or truck to sites farther inland for storage and disposal. Disposal practices included


           4-22








                        commercial landfarming and landfilling, burial, or transfer to onshore pits. There were
                        no regulations requiring documentation of OCS-generated waste disposal until to 1990,
                        when the State of Louisiana enacted an oil-field waste manifest system.

                        A comprehensive study completed by the EPA found that improper storage of drums
                        and incorrect disposal of oil-field wastes adversely affected surrounding surface waters
                        and wetland areas in Louisiana (EPA, 1988). Furthermore, discarded oil-field
                        equipment and cleaning of the equipment affected human health and contaminated
                        surrounding storage sites, cleaning sites, scrap yards, and metal reclamation yards.
                        Production tubing, holding tanks, separators, heater treaters, and other like equipment
                        often are contaminated with scale material containing NORM. In 1990, the State of
                        Louisiana passed comprehensive oil-field waste management regulations that required
                        the cleanup of many oil-field wastes sites and imposed strict future disposal practices
                        (LAC Title 43: Part XIX, Amendment to Statewide Order No. 29-B). Louisiana's oil-
                        field storage and disposal sites received oil-field wastes from a number of sources,
                        including OCS-generated wastes.

                        Conclusion: The storage and disposal of non-OCS and OCS oil-field wastes and
                        contaminated oil-field equipment adversely affected surface and ground waters in
                        proximity to storage and disposal sites, cleaning sites, and scrap yards. However, the
                        State of Louisiana passed comprehensive oil-field waste management regulations in
                        1990 that will affect future cleanup procedures.

                        Effects of OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeline Emplacement: In the GOM from 1987
                        through 1991, 802 platforms were installed and 448 platforms were removed. During
                        this time, approximately 3,665 miles of pipeline also were constructed.

                        Sediment disturbance and suspension result from pile driving and anchoring during the
                        installation of offshore platforms and pipelines. Disturbance also results from dredging
                        during preparation of foundations for production platforms. For those pipelines laid in
                        water depths shallower than 61 m, NMS requires burial below the seafloor. About
                        5,000 ml of sediment is assumed to be displaced for each kilometer of pipeline buried.
                        These activities produce a local and temporary impact on water quality.

                        Conclusion: Construction and burial of pipelines and emplacement of platforms/
                        structures caused temporary and localized increases in turbidity and displacement of
                        sediment in the GOM Region from 1987 through 1991. However, no significant
                        cumulative impacts to water quality were identified.

                        Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, three large pipeline spills
                        (> 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM (see table 3.4-2). These spills originated 30-70
                        miles offshore. There were also 163 smaller (> 1-999 bbl) OCS spills totaling
                        1)987 bbl.



                                                                                                        4-23









                   The severity of an oil-spill effect on water quality depends on a number of factors:
                      ï¿½ type of oil
                      ï¿½ location

                        season
                        weather and sea conditions


                   In the open ocean and in moderate to high seas, spills are dispersed and weathered by
                   physical and biological processes such as evaporation, oxidation, emulsification, and
                   uptake and metabolism by marine organisms. In areas contacted directly by a spill,
                   before weathering has ceased, parameters such as oil and grease, trace metals,
                   dissolved oxygen, hydrocarbons, biological oxygen demand (BOD), and turbidity
                   change by several orders of magnitude. Hydrocarbon levels within affected areas may
                   be elevated up to 100+ lAgll (Fiest and Boehm, 1980). Much of the oil is dispersed
                   throughout the water column over several days to weeks.

                   Greater effects can occur if a spill contacts a sensitive nearshore area, where oil may
                   become entrained in suspended particles and bottom sediments. Compared to offshore
                   areas, the water quality in enclosed embayments and estuaries would be more highly
                   affected because the weathering processes and the wind and sea state are generally
                   much less severe. In addition, the BOD would be proportionally higher, as would toxic
                   compound levels, while light transmittance levels would be decreased.

                   Conclusion: Despite possible impacts, no cumulative effects on water quality from
                   OCS-related spills in the GOM Region from 1987 through 1991 were recorded.

            4.1 A2 Air Quality
                   Air quality is affected by emissions from all direct and support activities for OCS
                   natural gas and oil operations such as exploratory drilling, construction, development/
                   production operations, and support aircraft and vessel traffic. Other emission sources
                   are accidental events such as oil spills and blowouts.

                   The largest sources of pollution are power generation equipment on OCS platforms,
                   such as gas turbines and diesel engines used to run drilling rigs, and pumps. Most of
                   the emissions are NO.. Crew and supply boats are also major sources of NO.. The
                   exact amount of NO. emitted from these sources depends upon the operating
                   characteristics of the engines, such as the size, type and period of use, as well as the
                   type of fuel burned.

                   VOC emissions come from the transfer and transport of the oil to shore and from
                   fugitive sources. The majority of these compounds can be emitted during the loading
                   of barges carrying crude oil from the producing platforms to shore. Unless vapor
                   balance lines are used, hydrocarbon vapors from previous shipments remain in the
                   ship's hold until they are pushed out into the air when a new shipment of oil is loaded.


            4-24








                       Fugitive sources include valves, flanges, and pumping equipment through which oil
                       and gas are transported.

                       The sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions depend largely on the sulfur content of fuels used
                       (diesel or natural gas) and on the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) content of the gas that is
                       often produced with the crude oil and gas. Large amounts of SO@ can be emitted from
                       facilities producing sour natural gas, which contains a relatively high concentration of
                       H2S-

                       The TSP and CO are emitted from diesel engines in such small quantities that they are
                       not pollutants of concern with regard to the national ambient air quality standard
                       (NAAQS). Similarly, lead is not considered relevant to NAAQS because the amount
                       emitted from the burning of fuels in so small.

                       Table 4.1-3 summarizes the average annual emissions from all direct and support
                       activities for OCS natural gas and oil operations in the GOM for the period 1987
                       through 1991. These emissions are calculated using procedures and emission factors
                       presented in EPA AP-42 (EPA, 1985). According to calculations of the total annual
                       average emissions, table 4.1-3, NO. was emitted in the highest amounts, followed by
                       total hydrocarbons (THQ and CO.

                       In some areas of coastal Texas and Louisiana, ozone concentrations do not meet the
                       Federal standards (i.e., nonattainment areas). The EPA designated the following
                       Louisiana coastal parishes as nonattainment areas for ozone: St. Bernard, Orleans,
                       Jefferson, Lafourche, St. Charles, St. Mary, Lafayette, Calcasieu, Iberville,
                       Ascension, and St. James. Also, the EPA designated the following Texas counties as
                       nonattainment areas for ozone: Jefferson, Orange, Nueces, Victoria, Brazoria,
                       Galveston, Harris, and Chambers. Concentrations of pollutants other than ozone for
                       which health standards are set by EPA-nitrogen dioxide (NO@), SO2, CO, and
                       TSP-are within the NAAQS for all areas of the GOM.


















                                                                                                       4-25











                           Table 4.1-3. OCS Average Annual Air Quality Emissions in the Gulf of Mexico,
                                         1987 thro h 1991
                                                                     Pollutant Emissions (tons)     -F-
                                   Activity             NO,,        CO           S%          THC         TSP

                           Service Vessels               16,252       4,247       1,088           577      1,625

                           LTO Helicopters               3,597       11,882         317        3,760        396
                           Cruise Helicopters               350       1,000         75            82        100
                           Spills                             0           0          0            510          0
                           Barge Loading                       0          0          0            178          0
                           Barge Transit Loss                  0          0          0            340          0
                           Bargge/Tugboat Exhaust           651          32          8            29          39

                           Exploration Wells             6,142          902         522           203       389
                           Development Wells             4,130          606         349           137       261
                           Platforms                     94,669      12,354         168       35,945        232-
                           Pipeline Construction         4,442        1,451         750           481       447
                           Total                        130,233      32,474       3,277       -42,242     3,,1@9jj

                           LTO = landing/takeoff



                     The MMS performed several modeling analyses, using the Offshore and Coastal
                      Dispersion model, to examine cumulative effects of OCS activities on concentrations
                      of NO2, SOD CO, and TSP.
                         ï¿½  One modeling analysis (USDOI, MMS, 1986) examined the area offshore Grand
                            Isle, Louisiana, which contained 85 production complexes located from
                            5.6 to 45.0 km (3.5-28.0 mi) offshore. The study showed that the OCS activities
                            were responsible for 1.8 jAg/m-1 of the average annual N02 concentration in
                            onshore ambient air-this increase did not exceed the NAAQS.

                         ï¿½  Another modeling analysis (USDOI, MMS, 1989), covering the areas off
                            Galveston, Brazos, and High Island, Texas, examined 250 offshore sources. This
                            study showed that OCS sources increased the average annual N02 concentration
                            of onshore ambient air by less than 1.0 j4gW-this increase did not exceed the
                            NAAQS.

                         ï¿½  Finally, a modeling analysis (USDOI, MMS, 1991a), covering the area offshore
                            Texas, contained 47     OCS sources (31 existing platforms and 16 proposed
                                                    I                       I           I





















                            platforms). The highest annual increment of N02 concentration of onshore
                            ambient air was 0.08 jAg/m-1-this did not exceed the NAAQS.


              4-26









                           ï¿½ Recently, the MMS, in cooperation with EPA, conducted a cumulative analysis
                             of ozone using the Regional Oxidant Model. The analysis included onshore
                             emissions in Texas and Louisiana, and offshore emissions from State and OCS oil
                             operations. Two ozone exceedance episodes were selected for the years 1988 and
                             1990. The results indicated that the ozone concentrations over water ranged from
                             11 to 29 parts per billion, while over land contributions ranged from 5-8 parts
                             per billion. However, the model did not have sufficient resolution to allow a
                             quantitative evaluation of effects for specific areas onshore.

                           ï¿½ Currently, the MMS is conducting a study of the effects of OCS emissions on
                             ozone levels in coastal areas of Texas and Louisiana. This study was mandated
                             by the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments and examines the effect of emissions
                             from OCS oil and gas development activities on air quality in the following ozone
                             nonattainment areas: Houston-Beaumont and Galveston-Port Arthur in Texas and
                             Baton Rouge and Lake Charles in Louisiana.

                             The study consists of three phases: a comprehensive GOM emissions inventory; a
                             field program to collect meteorological and air quality data at offshore, onshore,
                             and aerial sites; and an evaluation of the contribution of OCS emissions to ozone
                             levels using the variable grid Urban Airshed Model.

                             This study, to be completed in 1995, will establish whether present OCS activity
                             significantly contributes to violations of the federal ozone standard in the
                             nonattainment areas. The study results will allow MMS to determine the effect of
                             changes in OCS emission levels on onshore air quality. Following completion of
                             the study, MMS will consult with the EPA to determine whether changes are
                             needed in the air quality regulations for the Central/Western GOM Planning
                             Areas.


                        Effects of OCS Drilling: From 1987 through 1991, approximately 2,209 exploration
                        wells and 2,005 development wells were drilled in the GOM Region. The average
                        annual emissions of regulated pollutants during the drilling activities are given in
                        table 4.1-3.


                        Conclusion: Drilling emissions are temporary, and concentrations are diluted as they
                        travel the distance from the offshore source to shore. Air quality modeling analyses
                        indicated that these OCS drilling activities did not contribute significantly to ambient
                        air pollutant,. concentrations onshore.

                        Effects of OCS Platform Operations and Associated Emissions: In the GOM, there
                        are approximately 3,800 OCS production platforms, 1,106 of which contain sources
                        that emit air pollutants (1,039 in Louisiana and 67 in Texas). These platforms are
                        distributed over an area of 30,000 m? off the Texas and Louisiana coasts. From 1987
                        through 1991, 802 platforms were installed, while 448 platforms were removed-a net


                                                                                                         4-27








                  increase of 354 platforms. However, as natural gas and oil are depleted over time,
                  production decreases; this decrease results in a downward trend in emissions. The
                  average annual regulated pollutants emissions from platforms in the GOM Region for
                  1987 through 1991 are presented in table 4.1-3.

                  Conclusion: Air quality modeling performed for the areas with high concentrations of
                  NO. emission sources, showed that estimated N02impacts at the shoreline were not
                  significant and did not cause the onshore N02concentrations to exceed the NAAQS.
                  There are no nonattainment areas for N02 in the GOM coastal areas.

                  Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: For the period 1987 through 1991,
                  approximately 1 million OCS-related helicopter trips (a trip being 1 takeoff and
                  1 landing), 440 barge trips, and 52,000 service vessel trips occurred annually in the
                  GOM Region. Emissions from these activities are presented in table 4.1-3. Their
                  combined NO. emissions represent about 16 percent of the total NQ,, emissions from
                  OCS activities in the GOM during this time.

                  Conclusion: Because of the small amount of emissions from OCS support vessel
                  traffic spread over the entire GOM Region, no significant effects to air quality from
                  this source occurred during this period.

                  Effects of OCS Hydrocarbon Venting and Offloading: In the GOM, the emission of
                  hydrocarbons (THQ occurs during the loading and transit of barges since no tankering
                  of OCS oil occurs in the GOM. The amount of material emitted (table 4.1-3) during
                  these activities is 1.2 percent of the total TUC emissions from OCS activities in the
                  GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                  Conclusion: Due to their relatively small quantity of emissions, these activities had no
                  significant effects on GOM air quality during 1987 through 1991.

                  Effects of OCS Pipeline Construction: For the period 1987 through 1991, 3,655
                  miles of pipeline were laid in the GOM Region using lay barges, tugs, and supply
                  boats (table 4.1-3). The THC emissions from this activity were 14 percent of the total
                  THC emissions from OCS activities in the GOM Region during this time.

                  Conclusion: Due to its relatively small quantity of emissions, this activity had no
                  significant effect on GOM air quality during 1987 through 1991.

                  Effects of OCS Oil Spills: During the period 1987 through 1991, three large
                  OCS-related pipeline spills (> 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM (see table 3.4-2).
                  These spills originated 30-70 miles offshore. There were also 163 smaller
                  (> 1-999 bbl) OCS spills that averaged 12 bbl.




           4-28








                         The 510 tons of THC emissions from the two largest OCS crude oil spills (table 4.1-3)
                         represented about 1.2 percent of the total THC emissions from OCS activities in the
                         GOM during this time.

                         Conclusion: Because of the transient and localized nature of these emissions (main
                         effects in proximity to the spill) and the relatively small amount of material released,
                         effects from OCS oil spills on the air quality levels of GOM onshore areas were minor
                         from 1987 through 1991.


                  4.1 B Biological Environment
                  4.1 B1 Lower Trophic Organisms
                         Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: From 1987
                         through 1991, approximately 5.8 MMbbl of drilling muds and 1.8 MMbbI of drill
                         cuttings were produced annually by OCS-related activities in the GOM.

                         In the GOM, about 90 percent of these OCS discharges settle and dilute rapidly,
                         usually within 1,000-2,000 m of the discharge points. Most water-based fluids are
                         nontoxic, with their effects limited to the immediate vicinity of the discharge (NRC,
                         1983). In addition to toxic effects, the discharges, particularly the cuttings, form a low
                         mound on the bottom. Nonmotile benthic organisms covered by cuttings can be
                         smothered. To the extent that this mound exhibits sediment characteristics (such as
                         grain size, organic content, etc.) different from the original bottom, the organisms
                         colonizing the mound will be different. These cuttings mounds are colonized and
                         reworked, and eventually become indistinguishable from the surrounding bottom
                         (Zingula, 1975). Menzie (1983) points out that it is the physical change of the
                         substrate rather than any toxic effects that causes a change in benthic fauna around
                         OCS platforms and structures.

                         In addition, approximately 660 MMbbVyr of produced water were generated by OCS
                         activities in the GOM from 1987 through 1991. Of this volume, an estimated
                         496 MMbbl were disposed of offshore, and 165 MMbbl were brought onshore (in
                         Louisiana) for disposal. Produced waters can be high in total dissolved solids, total
                         organic carbon, petroleum hydrocarbons, some trace metals, and elemental sulfur and
                         sulfide, and they may be low in dissolved oxygen. Therefore, produced waters can
                         affect lower trophic organisms if in high enough concentrations. Attempts to delineate
                         the actual contribution of OCS-produced waters to increased hydrocarbons measured in
                         the vicinity of OCS activities have been confounded by the widespread occurrence of
                         hydrocarbons across the OCS from natural seepage and the river transport of
                         terrigenous hydrocarbons (as documented by Gallaway, 1988). Neff, Hillman et al.
                         (1989) found higher levels of barium in areas where platform discharges had occurred,
                         and attributed these increased levels to the discharge of drilling muds and produced
                         waters.


                                                                                                                4-29









                  In general, decreases in faunal diversity or in the number of benthic infauna due to
                  OCS discharges (which included produced waters as well as drilling muds and
                  cuttings) were documented around some platforms out to a distance of 300 m.

                  Conclusion: For the period 1987 through 1991, the discharge of OCS-related drilling
                  muds and cuttings caused negligible impacts to the GOM's lower trophic organisms in
                  the water column and to benthic fauna in close proximity to the discharge points
                  (300 m for benthic fauna). Although water column and benthic organisms in the areas
                  surrounding GOM production platforms were negatively affected by OCS-related
                  produced water discharges, the areal extent of these effects was minimized by the
                  rapid dilution and mixing in the offshore environment.

                  Effects of OCS Pipeline Emplacement: Approximately 3,665 miles of pipeline were
                  constructed in the GOM from 1987 through 1991. The MMS estimates that 391 ha of
                  bottom habitat Were disturbed each year by the installation of these pipelines. In
                  addition, in water depths less than 61 m, OCS operators are required to bury the
                  pipelines. This burial resulted in an estimated 5,000 ni@ of sediments being
                  resuspended for each kilometer of pipeline installed.

                  In the immediate vicinity of pipeline construction, lower trophic organisms are
                  disturbed or killed by mechanical damage of the pipeline or by associated dredging and
                  anchoring activities. In addition, displacement or resuspension of sediments smothers
                  nonmotile benthic organisms, and increased turbidity clogs respiratory and
                  filter-feeding mechanisms of lower trophic organisms. Although no specific studies
                  were conducted to quantify these occurrences, studies have suggested that the effects
                  are highly localized, and recovery from pipeline construction would occur rapidly
                  (Wicker, 1989). Because disturbed areas did not experience a change in substrate,
                  recovery proceeded even sooner than was observed in the studies monitoring the
                  recolonization of benthic organisms following the discharge of muds and cuttings.
                  Benthic organisms, as a whole, are well adapted to bottom disturbance and turbidity
                  caused by storms and other natural events.

                  Conclusion: Although OCS-related pipeline construction activities negatively affected
                  the water column and benthic organisms in the GOM, increased turbidities resulting
                  from these activities were short term and quickly dissipated. Rapid recolonization of
                  benthic organisms occurred in the disturbed areas.

                  Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, three large OCS-related pipeline
                  spills (>than 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM (s@e table 3.4-2). These spills
                  originated 30-70 miles offshore. There were also 163 smaller OCS spills
                  (> 1-999 bbl), which spilled a total 1,987 bbl. No followup investigations of the
                  effects of these three spills were undertaken.




           4-30








                          Oil spills can cause death or disruption if sufficient concentrations of hydrocarbons
                          contact lower trophic organisms. Small surface spills, however, would cause only very
                          limited impacts to lower trophic organisms. Rapid dispersion and weathering of the oil
                          quickly reduces the concentrations of hydrocarbons. Oil from a surface slick can be
                          driven into the water, with measurable amounts documented at depths of about 20 m.
                          At this depth, however, the oil is found only at concentrations several orders of
                          magnitude lower than the amount shown to have an effect on marine organisms.

                          Larger subsurface spills from pipeline ruptures would have a greater potential to bring
                          high concentrations of oil in contact with lower trophic organisms. Information about
                          the fate of oil from subsurface spills is mainly based on the results of research teams
                          studying the non-OCS IXTOC I exploratory well blowout in Campeche Bay, Mexico.
                          Although most of the oil from subsurface spills surfaces quickly, approximately
                          3 percent of the IXTOC I oil was found to form a subsurface plume of oil droplets
                          suspended in a mixed layer at depths of 5-20 rn (Fiest and Boehm, 1980; Walter and
                          Pronti, 1980). This subsurface petroleum plume was transported by ocean currents
                          (Boehm and Fiest, 1982). The hydrocarbon components of the subsurface plume
                          usually are slower to weather than surface slicks, thus causing higher concentrations of
                          the more toxic components in the water column. The concentrations of individual
                          hydrocarbons in the dissolved fraction measured at the DCrOC I spill appeared to He
                          below the toxic range even in the "acute impact zone" (Boehm and Fiest, 1980).
                          However, the ranges for both low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons (the more toxic
                          fractions of the oil) and total waterborne oil were well within the range causing
                          observable effects to marine organisms.

                          Conclusion: It is probable that the three large OCS-related pipeline spills caused
                          disruption to lower trophic organisms in the upper water column (especially the top
                          6 rn of the water column, based on information from Fiest and Boehm, 1980).
                          However, lower trophic organisms of the benthos were probably unaffected since the
                          concentrations of oil reaching them were greatly diminished (except in the immediate
                          area of the pipeline ruptures).

                    4.1132 Special Benthic Communities
                          (a) Live Bo-ttoms (Pinnacle Trend)
                          Seventy lease blocks containing live bottoms are located in the northeastern portion of
                          the Central GOM and adjacent areas of the Eastern GOM. These blocks are
                          associated with the pinnacle trend located between 73- and 101-m water depths in the
                          Main Pass and Viosea Knoll lease areas (see fig. 4.1-5 for location of these lease
                          areas). The pinnacles include recently documented live-bottom areas that may be
                          sensitive to natural gas and oil activities. Since 1980, the OCS lease sales contain a
                          Live Bottom Stipulation-a regulation that prohibits lessees from siting platforms
                          directly on pinnacles.



                                                                                                               4-31









                  Prior to any OCS activities on the 70 lease blocks containing live bottoms, the lessee
                  must submit to the MMS a live bottom survey report containing a bathymetry map.
                  The map will verify the presence or absence of live bottoms that could be affected by
                  the proposed OCS activity. If live bottoms might be adversely affected by the proposed
                  OCS activity, the MMS will require the lessee to undertake any measure deemed
                  economically, environmentally, and technically feasible to protect the pinnacle area.
                  This stipulation is designed to protect the pinnacles from damage resulting from
                  drilling activities and anchor emplacement, the major OCS activities affecting these
                  live bottoms.


                  Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal: For the period
                  1987 through 1991, 802 OCS platforms were installed. Four of these structures were
                  installed on leases associated with the pinnacle trend. The MMS, through the Live
                  Bottom Stipulation, prohibits lessees from siting platforms directly on pinnacles. In
                  addition, 448 OCS platforms were removed; none of the removals were associated
                  with the pinnacle trend.

                  The placement of drilling rigs and platforms on the seafloor crushes the organisms
                  directly beneath the legs or the mat used to support the structure. The areas affected
                  by the placement of the platforms and rigs are soft-bottom regions where infaunal. and
                  epifaunal communities are common. Routine natural gas and oil operations can damage
                  small. portions of the benthic community. Damage from rig and platform emplacement
                  can devastate the usefulness of the pinnacles as habitat or shelter for commercial and
                  recreational fishes. However, OCS operators must comply with the Live-Bottom
                  Stipulation that protects the pinnacles from damage resulting from OCS-related
                  activities. Because of this stipulation, as well as the unevenness of the seafloor, a rig
                  or platform cannot be sited directly on the pinnacles.

                  Explosive and nonexplosive structure-removal operations also disturb the seafloor and
                  can affect nearby pinnacle communities. Structure removal using explosives (the most
                  common removal method) suspends sediments throughout the water column to the
                  surface and can substantially affect nearby habitats. Deposition of these sediments
                  occurs in the same manner as that for the discharge of drilling muds and cuttings.

                  Effects on the pinnacle area from OCS structure removal are minimal because of the
                  restricted regions affected by the shock from explosives, the limited duration and area
                  of impact associated with sediment resuspensions (about 1,000 m), and the low
                  number of structures near such regions. Localized damage can occur, but recovery to
                  preinterference conditions would be accomplished over a short time.

                  Conclusion: Because of the limitations and requirements of the Live Bottom
                  Stipulation, impacts to the pinnacle area from OCS structure emplacement and removal
                  in the GOM from 1987 through 1991 were minimal.



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                         Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: In the GOM
                         from 1987 through 1991, it is estimated that approximately 5.8 MMbb1 of drilling
                         muds, 1. 8 MMbbl of drill cuttings, 0. 15 MMbbl of produced sands, and 660 MMbbl
                         of produced waters (496 MMbbl of which were discharged offshore) were generated
                         annually as a result of OCS activities.

                         Drilling discharges affect biological communities and organisms via turbidity and
                         smothering of the benthos near the drill site. In the GOM Region, about 90 percent of
                         the discharge settles rapidly, usually within 1,000-2,000 m of the discharge point.
                         Most water-based fluids are nontoxic, and associated effects are limited to the
                         immediate vicinity of the discharge (NRC, 1983).

                         Deposition of drilling muds and cuttings on the pinnacle trend area did not
                         significantly impact the biota of the pinnacles or the habitat itself because the biota of
                         the seafloor surrounding the pinnacles are adapted to life in turbid conditions and to
                         high sedimentation rates. Also, existing currents in these regions prevent the
                         accumulation of muds and cuttings. Deep water dilutes the effluent to a significant
                         degree, and the pinnacles themselves are coated with a veneer of sediment. Additional
                         deposition and turbidity caused by a nearby well do not adversely affect the pinnacle
                         environment because such fluids are discharged into very large volumes of water (the
                         open GOM) and rapidly disperse. These fluids can be measured above background
                         levels only within 1,000-2,000 m of the discharge point, and they have few biological
                         effects except very close to the discharge point.

                         Conclusion: Due to their depth, the prevailing currents, and their distance from OCS
                         activities, live-bottom (pinnacle) communities were not affected by routine OCS
                         operational discharges in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                         Effects of OCS Pipeline Emplacement: Pipeline emplacement affects the benthic
                         communities by burying and disrupting the benthos and by resuspending sediments,
                         which clog filter-feeding mechanisms and gills of fishes and sedentary invertebrates.
                         During the report period, the MMS required OCS operators to comply with the Live
                         Bottom Stipulation and other protective measures that severely limit OCS natural gas
                         and oil activities in the immediate vicinity of the pinnacle communities.

                         Data gathered for the Mississippi-Alabama Marine Ecosystem Study (Brooks and
                         Giamonna, 1990) have shown that dense biological communities (i.e., live-bottom
                         communities) are concentrated on the pinnacle features themselves. Because the extent
                         of dense biological communities is sparse in the bottom sediments surrounding the
                         pinnacles, the effect of pipelaying activities on these communities is restricted to the
                         resuspension of sediments. At the community level, the severity of effects from
                         pipeline emplacement in the GOM was slight, with no measurable interference to the
                         general ecosystem.



                                                                                                             4-33









                 Conclusion: Because OCS activities in the immediate vicinity of the pinnacle
                 communities were restricted by the Live Bottom Stipulation, and the effect of
                 pipelaying activities was limited to the resuspension. of sediments, no measurable
                 interference to the general ecosystem of these areas occurred as a result of these
                 activities in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                 Effects of OCS Anchoring Activities: Anchor placement is the most serious threat to
                 live-bottom areas and can damage lush biological communities or the structure of the
                 pinnacles themselves. The size of the affected area depends on the depth of water,
                 length of chain, size of anchor and chain, method of placement, wind, and current.
                 Anchor damage includes crushing and breaking pinnacles and associated communities.
                 Anchoring often destroys a wide swath of habitat when the anchor is dragged or when
                 the vessel swings at anchor, causing the anchor chain to drag on the seafloor.

                 Conclusion: Because the MMS required OCS operators to comply with the Live
                 Bottom Stipulation (which prohibited lessees from siting platforms on pinnacles),
                 anchoring events did not affect live bottoms in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                 Effects of OCS Oil Spills: During 1987 through 1991, three large OCS-related
                 pipeline spills (>than 1,000 bbl) and 163 smaller (> 1-999 bbl) OCS oil spills
                 occurred in the GOM. The large pipeline spills originated 30-70 miles offshore.

                 Conclusion: None of the large OCS-related pipeline oil spills originated near the
                 pinnacle trend, and no adverse effects to the pinnacle trend from OCS spills were
                 reported.

          (b) Deep-Water Benthic (Chemosynthetic) Communities
                 The deep-water benthic communities, found in waters deeper than 400 m, derive their
                 energy from chemosynthetic processes rather than the photosynthetic processes of
                 shallow-water communities. The primary chemosynthetic organisms are bacteria, both
                 free-living (as "bacterial mats") and symbiotic in the tissues of other organisms,
                 especially in the gills. The predominant large benthic organisms are tube worms,
                 clams, and mussels. These deep-water benthic chemosynthetic communities are of low
                 density and are widespread throughout the deep-water areas of the GOM. These
                 chemosynthetic communities (living among natural gas and oil bubbles) use petroleum
                 hydrocarbons as a food source.

                 High-density, Bush Hill-type communities are areas of high biomass associated with
                 hydrocarbon seeps and natural gas- and/or oil-charged sediments. These
                 chemosynthetic. areas are considered most at risk from OCS natural gas and oil
                 operations. Because of the recent discovery of this type of community, its
                 vulnerability, recoverability, and general extent are unknown. To determine the
                 geological, geochemical, physiological, and ecological factors that control the
                 formation and continued existence of these communities, the I@MS initiated the Gulf of


          4-34








                         Mexico Chemosynthetic Ecosystems Study in 1991 (in progress). The MMS undertook
                         this study as an initial step to protect the chemosynthetic communities from harmful
                         OCS-related impacts. Remote sensing instruments, bottom samplers, and manned
                         submersibles are being used to collect site-specific samples and data to determine the
                         biological composition of these communities and the physical-chemical factors which
                         influence or limit their distribution, abundance, and growth.

                         The MMS NTL 88-11 (effective February 1, 1989) requires the mandatory
                         identification and avoidance of "plush" chemosynthetic communities (such as Bush
                         Hill-type) or areas supporting these communities. Under the provisions of this NTL,
                         the MMS requires lessees operating in water depths greater than 400 m to examine the
                         geophysical records for conditions that might support chemosynthetic communities. If
                         such conditions exist, the lessee must either move the operation or provide
                         photodocumentation of the presence/absence of the Bush Hill-type of chemosynthetic
                         communities. When such communities are present, no drilling operations are permitted
                         in the area. Although the NTL requirements are effective, a small percentage
                         (estimated 10- 15 %) of chemosynthetic community areas may not be properly
                         identified. As new information becomes available, the MMS will modify the NTL
                         requirements as necessary.

                         The OCS-related activities affecting deep-water benthic communities are those that
                         disturb the bottom: anchoring, drilling, pipeline installation, and seafloor blowout
                         accidents. Routine OCS natural gas and oil effluent discharges such as muds, cuttings,
                         and sanitary wastes do not affect chemosynthetic communities because of the rapid
                         dilution and dispersion of effluent components in deep water. In addition, MMS
                         NTL 88-11 prevents OCS-related activities from adversely affecting these
                         communities.


                         Effects of OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeline Emplacement and Anchoring
                         Activities: In the GOM for the period 1987 through 1991, 802 OCS platforms were
                         installed, and 3,665 miles of OCS pipeline were laid.

                         The presence of a conventional structure scours the surficial sediments (Caillouet et
                         al., 1981), and routine drilling disturbs the sea bottom. Pipelaying activities in the
                         OCS can destroy chemosynthetic organisms. In deep-water areas far from an existing
                         pipeline network, shuttle tankering transports the product, thus eliminating effects of
                         pipeline construction to these deep-water communities. Anchors or buoys from OCS
                         support vessels, floating drilling units, and pipelaying vessels disturb small areas of the
                         seafloor. The area affected depends on the water depth, length of the chain, size of the
                         anchor, and water current. Anchoring destroys those sessile organisms hit by the
                         anchor or anchor chain during anchoring or anchor weighing.

                         Conclusion: Because the MMS requires lessees to identify and avoid lush chemo-
                         synthetic communities (Bush-Hill type) when siting and anchoring OCS-associated


                                                                                                                4-35









                  structures and vessels (NTL 88-11), and absent the 10-15% misidentification rate, no
                  known effects occurred to these communities from these OCS-related activities in the
                  GOM during 1987 through 1991.

                  Effects of Reservoir Depletion: Little is known about how OCS-associated
                  hydrocarbon withdrawal affects chemosynthetic organisms, which use petroleum
                  hydrocarbons as a food source. The seeps and vents around which these organisms live
                  are pressurized from the deep reservoirs that force the gas or oil to the seafloor. When
                  all of the recoverable hydrocarbons from these reservoirs are withdrawn, the natural
                  gas and oil venting/seepage could slow or stop.

                  Current information is inconclusive as to whether decreasing the pressure driving the
                  seeps would be reduced quickly or whether there may be enough oil already in the
                  "conduit" to the surface to continue the seepage. Although this effect is not clearly
                  understood, the level of OCS development in deep-water areas is too low to deplete
                  the hydrocarbon energy source significantly. Ongoing and planned studies of these
                  communities by the MMS may provide additional information on the effects of
                  reservoir depletion.

                  Conclusion: No effects of reservoir depletion from OCS development were known to
                  occur in the GOM Region from 1987 through 1991.

            (c) Topographic Features
                  The sensitive biological habitats of the topographic features are rare occurrences of
                  hard-bottom communities in an otherwise soft-bottom environment. The organisms of
                  these habitats include typical reef occupants such as corals, coralline algae, sponges,
                  and reef fish. The areas of hard-bottom are quite small and are scattered generally
                  along the shelf break off Louisiana and Texas (USDOI, MMS, 1992c).

                  Topographic features inhabited by benthic hard-bottom communities characterize the
                  shelf edge of the Central and Western GOM. These habitats are important in several
                  respects:
                       ï¿½ They support hard-bottom communities of high biomass and high diversity, as
                         well as a large number of plant and animal species.

                       ï¿½ They support, either as shelter or food or both, large numbers of commercially
                         and recreationally important fishes.

                       ï¿½ They are unique to the extent that such habitats are small isolated areas of
                         communities in the vast, relatively monotonous GOM regions of much lower
                         biomass and diversity.




           4-36








                               * They (especially the East and West Flower Garden Banks) provide a relatively
                                 pristine area suitable for scientific research.

                               * They have an aesthetical intrinsic value.

                          The benthic organisms associated with topographic features are limited by temperature
                          and light (Rezak et al., 1983). Elevated temperatures result in thermal stress by
                          causing the corals' zooxanthellae to be expelled; where light is limited, coral growth is
                          inhibited. Therefore, coral growth is limited by water depth and by distance from the
                          surrounding substrate and the nepheloid (turbid) layer.

                          The Topographic Features Stipulation (part of appropriate leases in the GOM since
                          1973) establishes a "no activity zone" where no bottom-disturbing activities are
                          permitted. The stipulation also establishes other areas around the no activity zones in
                          which shunting of all drill effluents towards the sea bottom is required. The
                          effectiveness of this stipulation is well documented (Rezak et al., 1983; 1985).

                          To evaluate the adequacy of current MMS. stipulations that are designed to protect the
                          important biological resources of the Flower Garden Banks, the MMS began the
                          Flower Garden Banks Monitoring Study in 1994 (currently in progress). This study is
                          a cooperative effort with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's
                          (NOAA's) National Marine Sanctuary Program to monitor the environmental
                          conditions at the East and West Flower Garden submarine banks. The biological health
                          of the reef crest, especially coral reefs and coralline algae, will be monitored over a
                          long period of time to detect any subtle chronic effects from natural and man-induced
                          activities that potentially could endanger community integrity. Observations will be
                          used to evaluate coral reef diversity, growth rates, long-term changes in individual
                          coral colonies, accretionary growth, and general community health.

                          Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: Discharges of
                          OCS drilling muds and cuttings cause localized water turbidity, deposition on the
                          surrounding seafloor, and potential effects of low concentrations of toxic constituents.
                          Most water-based fluids are relatively nontoxic, and their effects are limited to the
                          immediate vicinity of the discharge (NRC, 1983); discharge of the more toxic
                          oil-based muds is prohibited by the EPA. The water depths from which the
                          topographic features rise range from 50 to 175 m, depths that dramatically increase the
                          dilution of drilling effluents. In the GOM, about 90 percent of the discharge settles
                          rapidly, usually within 1,000-2,000 m of the discharge site (NRC, 1983).

                          Choi (1982) found that drilling discharges (muds and/or cuttings with iron flakes) were
                          trapped in coral and coral rubble only up to a distance of 100 ni from the wellhead.
                          Coelobite communities therein were largely disturbed only up to 40 m from the drill
                          site, with minor changes evident out to 100 m. Effluents discharged at the water's
                          surface within 1,000 m of a bank affected the biota. of the bank, although the currents


                                                                                                               4-37









                   tended to keep the bank swept clean of fine sediments and would prevent the
                   accumulation of drilling muds.

                   Produced water, along with injection water and other additives, can be a hazard to the
                   biota of topographic features. This water contains high concentrations of inorganic
                   salts ranging from 3 to 300 parts per thousand. Conversely, hydrocarbons, other
                   organic compounds, and trace metals may be present at parts per million levels in the
                   produced water discharges (U.S. Department of Commerce [USDOC], NOAA,
                   National Marine Fisheries Service [NMFS], 1977; EPA, 1991). The Topographic
                   Features Stipulation requires that discharges in zones around the high relief banks be
                   shunted to prevent adverse effects to the biota of the banks.

                   Conclusion: Because the MMS required OCS operators to adhere to the Topographic
                   Features Stipulation, operational discharges (drilling muds, drill cuttings, and produced
                   waters) had little effect on the biota of the banks.

                   Effects of OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeline Emplacement and Anchoring
                   Activities: Structure emplacement (pipeline, drilling rig, or platform) and anchoring of
                   OCS pipeline, lay barges, drilling rigs, or service vessels disturb the benthic
                   environment. Topographic features could be disturbed or devastated by mechanical
                   damage from pipeline construction or associated dredging and anchoring activities.
                   Anchor damage is the most serious threat to the biota of the offshore banks (Bright
                   and Rezak, 1978; Rezak et al., 1985).

                   Conclusion: Because the Topographic Features Stipulation precluded these activities in
                   the "no activity zone," adverse effects to topographic features from these factors, as
                   well as factors associated with OCS structure removal, were prevented in the GOM
                   from 1987 through 1991.

                   Effect of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, three large OCS-related pipeline
                   spills (> 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM (see table 3.4-2), as did 163 smaller
                   (> 1-999 bbl) OCS spills. The large pipeline spills originated 30-70 miles offshore.

                   Conclusion: None of the large OCS-related pipeline spills originated on or proximate
                   to any lease block associated with topographic features during the report period, and
                   no adverse effects to these features from OCS oil spills were recorded.

            4.1 B3 Fish Resources
                   Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: Seismic surveys are systematically executed, and
                   any effects on fish resources constitute, at most, short-term avoidance behavior and do
                   not adversely affect harvestable fish populations in the GOM. The sources of
                   acoustical pulse used in seismic surveys are generated by air guns or water guns,
                   which have little effect on even the most sensitive fish eggs at distances of 5 m from


            4-38








                        the discharge (Chamberlain, 1991; Falk and Lawrence, 1973). In general, the
                        acoustical pulse from air guns or water guns has relatively little effect on marine
                        invertebrates, presumably due to t he invertebrates' lack of a swim bladder. Available
                        scientific information concerning the effects of acoustic pulses from air guns and water
                        guns on fish eggs and larvae indicates that commercial fishery resources are little
                        disturbed by seismic surveying (Wingert, 1988).

                        Conclusion: Commercial fisheries were not affected by OCS-related seismic surveying
                        conducted in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                        Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: From 1987
                        through 1991 in the GOM, approximately 5.8 NfWbl of drilling muds, 1.8 MMbb1 of
                        drill cuttings, 0. 15 NiMbbl of produced sands, and 660 MMbb1 of produced waters
                        were generated annually as a result of OCS activities. Approximately 165 MMbb1 of
                        these produced waters were annually disposed of at Louisiana onshore facilities.

                        Discharged drilling muds at the drill site contain materials toxic to fish resources, but
                        only at concentrations four or five orders of magnitude higher than those found more
                        than a few meters from the discharge point (NRC, 1983; Parrish and Duke, 1990).
                        Further, dilution is extremely rapid in offshore waters to such an extent that every
                        substance measured in the water column is at background levels found at a distance of
                        1,000 m from the discharge point (ECOMAR, Inc., 1980; Proni, 1984). Drill cuttings,
                        rock particles, or fragments displaced as the drill moves through various geological
                        formations are separated and washed free of any oil-based drilling muds and are not
                        toxic to marine fishes (NRC, 1983). Cuttings do not smother fish resources because of
                        the way cuttings settle to the bottom (Abernathy, 1989). In quiescent situations, a
                        cutting mound may develop and may be used by a number of benthic organisms. In
                        turn, these organisms may act as food for fish resources in the vicinity (Gallaway,
                        1981).

                        In addition to toxic trace elements and hydrocarbons in formation waters, there are
                        additional components and properties (such as hypersalinity and organic acids) that
                        affect fish resources. However, formation waters discharged offshore are diluted, are
                        dispersed rapidly, and are undetectable at a distance of 1,000 m from the discharge
                        point-detectable effects are limited to within 300 m of the source (Harper, 1986;
                        Rabalais et al., 1991).

                        The effects of formation waters discharged into inshore and protected waters are
                        considerable on highly localized populations of fish resources (Boesch and Rabalais,
                        1989a and b). Formation waters discharged into fish nursery areas can decrease or
                        eliminate food sources for juveniles of finfish. Direct ingestion of, or long-term
                        exposure to, contaminated sediments can have a lethal/sublethal effect on shellfish.
                        Oysters located near and inshore of discharge sites bioaccumulate hydrocarbons from
                        formation waters (Boesch and RabaWs, 1989a and b). This accumulation can render


                                                                                                              4-39









                   oysters unmarketable in the short term and can cause sublethal effects in the long term
                   to all life stages of oysters. The areal extent of sediment contamination and potential
                   adverse effects from formation waters discharged within inshore protected waters may
                   extend 50-1000 m. from the discharge point (Boesch and Rabalais, 1989a and b).
                   Sixteen GOM coastal facilities separate formation waters from product streams
                   originating in the OCS and discharge the formation waters at 11 sites, which are
                   located exclusively in Louisiana (Boesch and Rabalais, 1989a and b).

                   Some formation waters contain NORM because oil is extracted from reservoir rock
                   where NORM is formed by the radioactive decay of naturally occurring uranium and
                   thorium. Data collected from offshore platforms discharging NORM in formation
                   waters show that epifaunal and associated organisms within 3 m of the discharge do
                   not accumulate radium at high levels (Mulino and Rayle, 1992). The levels of
                   radioactivity measured in soft tissue and hard parts of all biota tested (barnacles,
                   mollusks, fish, blue crabs) were near the lower limit of detection. Any radium
                   concentrations above this lower limit were in inedible hard parts (shell or bone).

                   Conclusion: During the period 1987 through 1991, drilling muds and cuttings did not
                   adversely impact fish resources because of the processes of dilution and settling. In
                   fact, cutting mounds may attract benthic organisms that are a source of nourishment to
                   many fish resources. Also, NORM discharged into offshore formation waters did not
                   affect fish resources.


                   Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal: During 1987
                   through 1991, 802 OCS platforms were installed, and 448 were removed.

                   The presence of offshore structures can benefit fish resources. During the period 1987
                   through 1991, an average of 3,800 platforms operated throughout the GOM, extending
                   from offshore Alabama to the southern reaches of Texas. The areas occupied by
                   platforms constitute over 28 percent of the hard substrate found in this otherwise soft-
                   bottom environment (Gallaway, 1984; Stanley et al., 1991). Due to the limited amount
                   of hard-bottom substrate in the offshore waters from Mississippi to Texas, the
                   expansion of the natural gas and oil industry provided a significant proportion of the
                   habitat for organisms dependent on hard substrate and those that are structure-related,
                   such as snapper and grouper (Gallaway and Lewbel, 1982). Natural gas and oil
                   platforms in the GOM are popular fishing destinations for both sport and commercial
                   fishermen, thus providing evidence of their effectiveness as artificial reefs (Stanley and
                   Wilson, 1989).

                   Platform removal, however, can adversely affect fish. The MMS requires lessees to
                   remove all structures and underwater obstructions from their leases in the Federal OCS
                   within I year of the lease's relinquishment or termination of production. Lessees
                   removed 448 of these structures from the GOM during 1987 through 1991. Eighty
                   percent of multi-leg platforms in water depths less than 156 m are removed by


            4-40








                         severing their pilings with explosives placed 5 m below the seafloor. The resulting
                         concussive force is lethal to fish that have internal air chambers (swim bladders), are
                         demersal, or are in close association with the platform being removed
                         (Scarborough-Bull and Kendall, 1992; Young, 1991). Within the past decade, stocks of
                         reef fish have declined in the GOM. There is concern over a possible connection
                         between this decline and the explosive removal of platforms. To examine this issue,
                         the MMS entered into a formal Interagency Agreement with the NOAA to investigate
                         fish mortality associated with structure removal. This investigation will attempt to
                         relate the role of fish mortality from platform removals to the status of reef fish stocks
                         in the GOM (USDOI, MMS, 1990c).

                         The realization of the value of active platforms, while in place, to commercial and
                         recreational fishing has prompted Federal, State, and private interests to consider
                         expanded use of these structures as artificial reefs. Most obsolete platforms are
                         removed from the seabed and hauled ashore for salvage as scrap. In recent years,
                         however, the value of these structures as artificial habitat for marine life has been
                         widely recognized. Each of the coastal States in the GOM is active in developing local
                         plans and in permitting and siting artificial reefs. In fact, many of these plans involve
                         the siting of oil and gas structures (Gould et al., 1991).

                         The 1986 Louisiana Fishing and Enhancement Act established an artificial reef
                         program and required the development of a plan covering both State and Federal
                         waters off the Louisiana coast. Through 1991, 13 obsolete platforms were sited in
                         Louisiana artificial reef planning areas on the OCS. In 1989, Texas enacted a law
                         calling for an artificial reef plan advisory council and trust fund to facilitate the
                         development of a rigs-to-reef program offshore Texas. Through 1991, six platform
                         jackets were sited at Texas artificial reef sites (D. Cranswick, MMS GOM Region,
                         oral. comm., June 1994).

                         Conclusion: Platform emplacement provided additional habitat (hard substrate) not
                         usually found in the soft-bottom environment of the Gulf of Mexico. However, limited
                         local adverse effects from platform removals occurred (e.g., fish kills associated with
                         platform, removal).

                         Effects of OCS Oil Spills: During the period 1987 through 1991, three OCS-related
                         pipeline spills (> 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM. These spills originated 30-70 miles
                         offshore. Also, 163 smaller (> 1-999 bbl) OCS spills (totaling 1,987 bbl) occuffed in
                         the GOM during this time.

                         When an oil spill occurs, many factors limit the severity of effects and the extent of
                         damage to fish populations. The direct effects on fish result from the ingestion of oil
                         or oiled prey, the uptake of dissolved petroleum products through the gills and
                         epithelium by adults and juveniles, and the mortality of eggs and decreased survival
                         rate of larvae (NRC, 1985). Upon exposure to spilled oil, liver enzymes of fish


                                                                                                               4-41









                   oxidize soluble hydrocarbons into compounds that are easily excreted in the urine
                   (Spies et al., 1982). When contacted by spilled oil, floating eggs and larvae, with their
                   limited mobility and physiology, and most juvenile fish are killed (Linden et al., 1979;
                   Longwell, 1977). Ordinary environmental stresses also can increase the sensitivity of
                   fish to oil toxicity. These stresses include changes in salinity, temperature, and food
                   abundance (Evans and Rice, 1974; NRC, 1985).

                   Observations of non-OCS oil spills, including the Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William
                   Sound, Alaska, consistently indicate that free-swimming fish are rarely at risk from off
                   spills (Oil Spill Intelligence Report, 1991; NRC, 1985). Fish usually swim away from
                   spilled oil, and this behavior explains why there has never been a commercially
                   important fish-kill on record following an oil spill. The only recorded adult fish-kiH of
                   this type was on the French coast when several tons of small rock-clinging fish (not
                   commercially harvested) were killed at the site of the Amoco Cadiz wreck.

                   Conclusion: Despite possible impacts from OCS-related oil spills, no cumulative oil-
                   spill effects on fish resources were recorded in the GOM from 1987 through 1990.

            4.1 B4 Endangered or Threatened Species
                   The only endangered or threatened species found in the GOM Region from 1987
                   through 1991 were marine turtles and Alabama, Choctawhatchee, and Perdido Key
                   beach mice.


            (a) Marine Turtles
                   There are several types of GOM marine turtles: the loggerhead, Kemp's ridley,
                   hawksbill, green, and leatherback. Major factors affecting marine turtles are reviewed
                   in detail in Decline of the Sea Turtles; Causes and Prevention (NRC, 1990).

                   Effects of OCS Platform/Structure/Pipeflne Emplacement: During 1987 through
                   1991, 802 OCS platforms and 3,665 miles of OCS pipeline were installed. Structure
                   installation and pipeline placement affect marine turtle habitat by destroying the
                   seagrass beds and live-bottom communities used by these turtles. The physical
                   integrity, species diversity, and biological productivity of topographic features and live
                   bottoms where marine turtles occur may undergo temporary damage or disturbance
                   from these activities.


                   The MMS implemented biological stipulations for live-bottom areas to protect these
                   communities from OCS-related physical disturbance.

                   Conclusion: Any disturbances to marine turtle habitat, feeding behavior of marine
                   turtles, and prey availability during the report period were minor and temporary.




            4-42








                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: From 1987 through 1991, approximately
                         440 OCS-related barge trips and 52,000 OCS-related service vessel trips occurred
                         annually in the GOM. Noise from and contact with support vessels can affect marine
                         turtles.

                         Noise from OCS support vessel traffic can elicit a startle reaction from marine turtles
                         and can produce temporary sublethal stress (NRC, 1990). Vessel collision with marine
                         turtles is rare because turtles spend less than 4 percent of their total time at the sea's
                         surface (Byles, 1989; Lohoefener et al., 1990). Although vessel traffic (OCS and non-
                         OCS) is responsible for approximately 9 percent of all marine turtle deaths in the
                         southeastern United States (Teas and Martinez, 1992), the OCS support vessel
                         contribution of this percentage is unknown.

                         Conclusion: Besides the temporary effects from noise, OCS support vessels accounted
                         for a minor percentage of vessel traffic-related marine turtle deaths in the GOM from
                         1987 through 1991.

                         Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: During 1987
                         through 1991, approximately 5.8 MMbbl of drilling muds, 1.8 MMbbl of drill
                         cuttings, 0. 15 MMbbl of produced sands, and 660 MMbbl of produced waters
                         (496 MMbbl of which are discharged offshore) were generated annually as a result of
                         OCS activities. Offshore operational discharges are not lethal; they dilute and disperse
                         rapidly within 1 krn of the discharge point. Most water-based fluids are nontoxic, and
                         associated effects are limited to the immediate vicinity of the discharge (NRC, 1983).

                         Suspended particulate matter in offshore operational discharges reduces visibility and
                         displaces prey items in the vicinity. Marine turtles within I krn of discharge points
                         might be less successM in locating prey during the short time they traverse any
                         discharge plumes. However, unfavorable effects on marine turtle food sources by
                         OCS-related water quality degradation were not demonstrated during 1987-1991
                         (American Petroleum Institute, 1989; NRC, 1983).

                         Conclusion: The link between OCS-associated water quality degradation from the
                         discharge of routine operational wastes and health effects on migratory marine
                         vertebrates, such as marine turtles, is inconclusive-no OCS-related mortality estimates
                         are available (NRC, 1990).

                         Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Removal: Most OCS platforms and other
                         structures (well jackets and caissons) are efficiently and economically removed using
                         explosive charges. From 1987 through 1991, explosives were used to remove
                         448 OCS platforms in the GOM. However, aerial surveys in the Central GOM showed
                         that the only statistical correlation between marine turtles and OCS structures is near
                         the Chandeleur Islands, Louisiana (Lohoefener et al., 1990).



                                                                                                            4-43









                 Explosive platform removals can cause capillary damage, disorientation, and loss of
                 motor control in marine turtles@,(Duronslet et al., 1986). Although marine turtles far
                 from the site may suffer only disorientation, those near detonation sites can sustain
                 fatal injuries. To prevent marine turtles injuries, the MMS issued the following
                 guidelines (NTL 88-11) for explosive platform removal to offshore operators:
                         daylight-limited detonation
                         staggered charges
                         placement of charges 5 m below the seafloor
                         pre- and post-detonation surveys of surrounding waters

                 In addition to the above mitigation, the MMS and NMFS are investigating procedures
                 to determine the risk to sea turtles from OCS structure removals and to minimize
                 potential effects further.

                 Conclusion: Because of MMS mitigation, no mortalities to marine turtles due to OCS-
                 related platform/structure removals in the GOM were documented during 1987 through
                 1991.


                 Effects of OCS-Related Plastic Debris: Marine debris is a source of mortality and
                 debilitation for marine turtles (Plotkin and Amos, 1988; NRC, 1990). During the
                 period 1987 through 1991, the volunteer beach cleanup programs in Texas and
                 Louisiana picked up, on average, more than a ton of refuse and debris for every mile
                 of beach cleaned in those States. The predominant sources of this debris were
                 merchant shipping, the oil and gas industry (State and OCS being indistinguishable),
                 and fishing operations. In addition to the incremental amount of trash and debris
                 generated by the OCS program and other U.S. entities, marine debris is carried into
                 the GOM from South and Central America, Europe, and North Africa (Plotkin and
                 Amos, 1988; Hutchinson and Simmonds, 1992). The volume of nonbiodegradable
                 materials contributed by these sources is unknown.

                 Turtles that consume or become entangled in debris may die or become debilitated
                 (O'Hara, 1989; USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, 1989; Heneman and the Center for
                 Environmental Education, 1988). Ingestion of plastic and styrofoam materials could
                 result in drowning, lacerations, and reduced mobility followed by starvation (Carr,
                 1987; USDOC, NOAA, 1988; Heneman and the Center for Environmental Education,
                 1988; NRC, 1990).

                 The MMS prohibits the disposal of OCS equipment, containers, and other materials
                 into offshore waters by lessees (30 CFR 250.40). In addition, MARPOL Annex V,
                 Public Law 100-220 (101 Statute 1458), prohibits the disposal of any plastics at sea or
                 in coastal waters. The MMS-funded "Project MMS-Beach" (Amos, 1993 draft report)
                 will ascertain the effectiveness of MARPOL Annex V in reducing the manmade debris
                 littering barrier island beaches in Texas. Litter data were collected in 1987 and 1988
                 (before MARPOL Annex V was enacted) and again in 1991 and 1992. Preliminary

           4-44








                          findings show that items associated with the offshore oil industry (State and OCS) have
                          decreased-however, a relationship with MARPOL Annex V cannot be statistically
                          determined.


                          Conclusion: Despite various safeguards, marine turtles can become entangled in or
                          ingest offshore natural gas- and oil-associated debris. Distinguishing between State and
                          OCS programs is infeasible. However, there were no documented marine turtle deaths
                          due to OCS-associated plastic debris in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                          Effects of OCS Oil SpUls: During the period 1987 through 1991, three OCS-related
                          pipeline spills (> 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM (see table 3.4-2). These spills
                          originated 30-70 miles offshore. There were also 163 smaller (> 1-999 bbl) OCS
                          spills.

                          Contact with oil might not cause direct or immediate mortality, but cumulative
                          sublethal effects could impair the marine turtle's ability to function effectively in the
                          marine environment (Lutz and Lutcavage, 1989). When an oil spill occurs, the
                          severity of effects and the extent of damage to marine turtles depend on geographic
                          location, oil type and dosage, impact area, and oceanographic and meteorological
                          conditions (NRC, 1985). Spilled oil affects marine turtles by toxic external contact,
                          toxic ingestion or blockage of the digestive tract, disruption of salt gland functions,
                          asphyxiation, and displacement from preferred habitats (Witham, 1978; Vargo et al.,
                          1986; Lutz and Lutcavage, 1989). Marine turtles also become entrapped by tar and oil
                          slicks and are rendered immobile (Witham, 1978; Plotkin and Amos, 1988)-in the
                          past, tanker washings have been the main source of this oil (van Vleet and Pauly,
                          1987). Hatchling and small juvenile turtles are vulnerable to contacting or ingesting oil
                          because the currents that concentrate oil spills also form the debris mats in which these
                          turtles are sometimes found (Carr, 1980; Collard and Ogren, 1990). Fritts and
                          McGehee (1982) noted that contact with weathered oil released from the IXTOC I spill
                          off Mexico in 1979 damaged sea turtle eggs. During nesting season, the Kemp's ridley
                          turtle is vulnerable to harm from a large oil spill occurring in the immediate vicinity of
                          Tamaulipas, Mexico-the only known nesting beach for these turtles (Lutz and
                          Lutcavage, 1989).

                          In addition, oil-spill response activities, such as vehicular and vessel traffic, in shallow
                          areas of seagrass beds and live-bottom communities can affect sea turtle habitat and
                          can result in displacement. As mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, these areas
                          will receive individual consideration during oil-spill cleanup. Required oil-spill
                          contingency plans include special notices to minimize adverse effects from vehicular
                          traffic during cleanup activities and to maximize protection efforts to prevent contact
                          of these areas by spilled oil.

                          Conclusion: Despite possible effects, no adverse effects to marine turtles from OCS-
                          related,oil spills were reported in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.


                                                                                                                  4-45









           (b) Alabama, Choctawhatchee, and Perdido Key Beach Mice
                 Alabama, Choctawhatchee, and Perdido Key beach mice-designated protected species
                 under the Endangered Species Act-occupy restricted habitat behind coastal foredunes
                 in Florida and Alabama (Ehrhart, 1978; USDOI, FWS, 1987). Their range is in the
                 Perdido Key State Preserve (Florida), Grayton Beach State Recreational Area
                 (Florida), St. Andrews State Recreational Area (Florida), Gulf Islands National
                 Seashore (Alabama), and Gulf State Park (Alabama). Portions of these areas are
                 designated as critical habitat. Natural catastrophes, including storms, floods, droughts,
                 and hurricanes, have substantially reduced or eliminated these beach mice. In fact,
                 strong storms in the last decade caused local extinctions (Humphrey and Frank, 1992).

                 Effects of OCS Oil SpiHs: During the period 1987 through 1991, three OCS-related
                 pipeline spills C>-1,000 bbl) and 163 smaller (> 1-999 bbl) OCS spills occurred in the
                 GOM. These spills originated 30-70 miles offshore.

                 Beach mice habitat is located behind barrier dunes (Ehrhart, 1978), so an OCS oil spin
                 must breach the dunes to reach the mice, This contact could only occur if the OCS oil
                 spill coincided with a storm surge. Direct contact with spilled oil causes skin and eye
                 irritation, asphyxiation from inhalation of toxic fumes, food reduction, food
                 contamination, oil ingestion, increased predation, and displacement from preferred
                 habitat.


                 Vehicular traffic associated with OCS oil-spill activities can degrade the mice's
                 preferred habitat and can cause displacement. Protection efforts to prevent spilled oil
                 contact with mice habitats are mandated by the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. Because of
                 the critical designation and general status of protected species habitats, oil-spill
                 contingency plans include requirements to minimize adverse effects from vehicular
                 traffic during oil-spill cleanup activities and to maximize efforts for protection from
                 oil-spill contact.

                 Conclusion: Because OCS-associated oil spills did not reach the coastline near beach
                 mice habitats from 1987 through 1991 in the GOM Region, no OCS-related effects
                 occurred in these areas.


           4.1135 Marine Mammals
                 With the exception of the bottlenose dolphin and the Atlantic spotted dolphin, the
                 majority of marine mammals inhabiting the GOM belong to the Order Cetacea
                 (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and typically are found in the deep waters of the
                 continental shelf edge and beyond. Dolphins also inhabit nearshore and shelf waters
                 (Mullin et al., 1991).

                 Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: Seismic surveying uses an acoustic pulse
                 generated by compressed air. Sound pulses exceeding ambient noise levels affect


           4-46








                         cetacean communication and behavior. Although ambient noise levels in the marine
                         environment are highly variable, the effects of noise generated from seismic surveys
                         are limited because the noise dissipates to less than 200 dB at distances beyond 30 m
                         from the acoustic source (Gales, 1982). Seismic surveys are systematically executed,
                         and cetaceans could easily avoid the presence or approach of the acoustic source
                         within the open waters of the GOM. The effects of seismic surveys on cetaceans
                         constitute, at most, short-term avoidance behavior and do not adversely affect
                         populations within the GOM.

                         Conclusion: No effects of seismic surveying on marine mammals were noted in the
                         GOM during the period 1987 through 1991.

                         Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: From 1987
                         through 1991, approximately 5.8 NlMbbl of drilling muds, 1.8 MMbbl of drill
                         cuttings, 0. 15 MMbbl of produced sands, and 660 MMbbl of produced waters were
                         generated annually from OCS activities.

                         Routine OCS operational discharges affect cetaceans by displacing or removing food
                         sources or degrading water quality. When released in offshore areas, these discharges
                         rapidly dilute and disperse and are not lethal or detrimental to cetaceans (American
                         Petroleum Institute, 1989; NRC, 1983). Onshore discharges, however, can enter
                         coastal waters and degrade the water quality. Coastal populations of bottlenose
                         dolphins are susceptible to the effects from pollutants within these areas. Recent
                         studies (USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, 1990c) focusing on the cause of death and stranding
                         of several bottlenose dolphins within the southern United States found elevated levels
                         of contaminants within surrounding coastal waters subsequent to the "die offs." Results
                         from these studies, however, do not reveal any relationship between OCS operational
                         discharges and recent dolphin die-offs.

                         Conclusion: There was no documented evidence showing that routine OCS operational
                         wastes discharged in the GOM from 1987 through 1991 detrimentally affected marine
                         mammals living offshore or in coastal waters.

                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: For the period 1987 through 1991,
                         approximately I million helicopter trips (a trip being 1 takeoff and 1 landing),
                         440 barge.trips, and 52,000 service vessel trips occurred annually in the GOM Region
                         from OCS-related activities.


                         Helicopters and support vessels traveling near cetaceans can elicit a startle response
                         and avoidance or evasive behavior. Although these effects are sublethal, they can
                         disrupt temporarily any ongoing feeding, mating, resting, or migratory behavior, or
                         can cause the dispersion of a social group.




                                                                                                             4-47









                  Cavitation and irregularities of the propeller are the sources for underwater noise from
                  OCS support vessels. Other noises are emitted from the main engine(s) and auxiliary
                  machinery. The response of cetaceans to noise is species specific and depends on
                  several factors: function of sound intensity, distance that the noise source is in motion
                  (compared to a static and nonchanging source), season (primarily mating season), and
                  individual variability in cetacean behavior. Certain whales reduced their use of areas
                  heavily traveled by ships, though the continued presence of other whale species in the
                  same area indicates a considerable degree of tolerance to ship noise and disturbance
                  (Richardson et al., 1991). Groups of dolphins and porpoises are often attracted to
                  vessels to bowride or, in the case of fishing vessels, to take advantage of discarded
                  bycatch.

                  Any OCS support vessel surveying, servicing, or shuttling can collide with cetaceans,
                  especially larger species and those remaining at the surface for extended periods of
                  time (United Press International, 1986). Many of the larger species of nonendangered
                  cetaceans are deep-diving odontocetes (toothed) which commonly spend extended
                  periods of time at the surface to restore oxygen levels within their tissues. The normal
                  distribution of these mammals is beyond the continental shelf edge, well into the
                  bounds of the continental slope, and beyond most locations of OCS activities.
                  Cetaceans inhabiting the continental shelf and nearshore waters, such as bottlenose and
                  spotted dolphins, are agile swimmers. They often approach and are able to avoid
                  vessels even when in narrow navigational passes and waterways.

                  Conclusion: Noise from OCS helicopter and service vessel traffic periodically
                  disturbed marine mammals in the GOM during 1987 through 1991. No collisions
                  between marine mammals and OCS support vessels were reported during this time.

                  Effects of OCS-Related Operational Noise: From 1987 through 1991, 2,209 OCS
                  exploration wells and 2,005 OCS development wells were drilled. During this
                  timeframe, an average of 3,800 OCS platforms operated throughout the GOM,
                  extending from offshore Alabama to the southern reaches of Texas.

                  The OCS exploration, delineation, and production structures and drillships produce an
                  acoustically wide range of sounds at various frequencies and intensities, many of
                  which are detectable by cetaceans. Odontocete cetaceans use sounds for acoustic
                  echolocation and communication at frequencies higher than the those generated by
                  OCS drilling and production activities. Baleen whales utter sounds at frequencies
                  below 1 kilohertz, which overlap broadly with the dominant frequencies in many
                  industrial sounds (Malme et al., 1989; Richardson et al., 1991). The drilling noises
                  from conventional OCS metal-legged structures and semi-submersibles are not intense
                  and are strongest at low frequencies, averaging 5 hertz and 10-500 hertz, respectively.
                  The OCS drillships produce higher levels of underwater noise than other types of
                  platforms (Richardson et al., 1991).



           4-48









                        Conclusion: There was no evidence to show that the relatively continuous, static
                        noises produced by OCS drilling and production operations permanently displaced
                        marine mammals or caused observable disruption of their behavior in the open waters
                        of the GOM during 1987 through 1991.

                        Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Removal: For the period 1987 through 1991,
                        448 OCS platforms were removed. Removal of offshore platforms using explosive
                        charges (the most common method) can affect cetaceans.

                        The effects on marine mammals of underwater detonation of explosive charges depend
                        on several factors: the amount of explosive used, distance from the charge, and the
                        mammal's body mass. Hemorrhaging in and around the lungs is the primary source of
                        injury to submerged marine mammals, as well as injuries from the effects of explosive
                        impact upon gas bubbles within the intestines (Goertner, 1982). Explosions can
                        damage the ears of submerged cetaceans, thus affecting communication, feeding, and
                        navigation. Although OCS-related mortalities and permanent injuries to marine
                        mammals could occur, none were documented from 1987 through 1991 in the GOM.
                        The preventive measures issued by the MMS (e.g., NTL 88-11, discussed under
                        endangered or threatened marine turtles) ensure that explosive platform removals do
                        not affect marine mammals within the GOM.


                        Conclusion: During the period 1987 through 1991, no marine mammal injuries or
                        mortalities were observed in conjunction with explosive platform removals in the
                        GOM.


                        Effects of OCS-Related Plastic Debris: From 1987 through 1991, the volunteer beach
                        cleanup programs in Texas and Louisiana picked up, on average, more than a ton of
                        refuse and debris for every mile of beach cleaned in those States. The predominant
                        sources of this debris were merchant shipping, the oil and gas industry (State and OCS
                        being indistinguishable), and fishing operations. In addition to the incremental amount
                        of trash and debris generated by the OCS program and other U.S. entities, marine
                        debris is carried into the GOM from South and Central America, Europe, and North
                        Africa (Plotkin and Amos, 1988; Hutchinson and Simmonds, 1992). The volume of
                        nonbiodegradable materials contributed by these sources is unknown.

                        Pollution of the marine environment with nonbiodegradable plastic debris discarded
                        from offshore sources (OCS structures and OCS-related and non-OCS vessels) and
                        coastal sources (litter and solid waste disposal) is an issue of increasing concern,
                        especially with regard to entanglement of and ingestion by marine mammals.
                        Typically, marine mammals become entangled in various types of debris and inactive
                        or active fishing gear (mostly fishing lines of various types). Plastic debris was found
                        in the gut contents of several stranded marine mammals; in some cases, ingestion of
                        such material was determined to be the cause of death (Barros and Odell, 1990;
                        Sadove and Morreale, 1990; Tarpley, 1990). Apparently, the animals either mistook


                                                                                                          4-49









                   the plastic material suspended in the water column as a food item or, in the case of
                   larger baleen whales, ingested it along with prey species (Sadove and Morreale, 1990).

                   Regulations prohibiting disposal of plastic debris and other materials are addressed
                   earlier in this report in the discussion on endangered or threatened marine turtles.

                   Conclusion: During 1987 through 1991, there were documented marine mammal
                   deaths attributed to plastic debris ingestion or entanglement; however, the sources of
                   these plastic materials were difficult to ascertain. In fact, OCS lessee/operator
                   adherence to MMS policy and MARPOL regulations reduced the disposal of
                   OCS-related plastic debris into the waters of the GOM.

                   Effects of OCS Oil SpUls: During the period 1987 through 1991, three large
                   C> 1,000 bbl) OCS oil spills and 163 smaller (> 1-999) OCS oil spills occurred in the
                   GOM. The three large pipeline spills originated 30-70 miles offshore. Although oil
                   spills and oil-spill response activities can affect cetaceans, there were no documented
                   effects on marine mammals from these occurrences in the GOM during this time.

                   Direct contact with oil and/or tar can result in irritation and damage to skin and soft
                   tissues (such as mucous membranes of the eyes), fouling of baleen plates so as to
                   hinder the flow of water and interfere with feeding, and incidental ingestion of oil
                   and/or tar. Studies by Geraci and St. Aubin (1982, 1985a) have shown, however, that
                   the cetacean epidermis functions as an effective barrier to noxious substances found in
                   petroleum. Penetration of such substances into cetacean skin is impeded by tight
                   intercellular bridges, the vitality of the superficial cells, the thickness of the epidermis,
                   and the lack of sweat glands and hair follicles. Cetacean skin is free from hair or fur,
                   which in other marine mammals (such as pinnipeds and otters) tends to collect oil
                   and/or tar; this collection of oil reduces the skin's insulative properties (Geraci, 1990).

                   Inhalation of toxic vapors can result in irritated respiratory membranes, lung
                   congestion, and pneumonia. Subsequent absorption of volatile hydrocarbons into the
                   bloodstream may accumulate into organs such as the brain and liver, causing
                   neurological disorders and damage (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1982; Hansen, 1985;
                   Geraci, 1990). Geraci and St. Aubin (1982) determined that toxic vapor concentrations
                   found just above the water's surface (where cetaceans draw breath) could reach critical
                   levels for the first few hours after a spill, prior to any evaporation of volatile aromatic
                   hydrocarbons and other light fractions. Cetaceans do not use their sense of smell to
                   detect and avoid such slicks.


                   The effect on cetaceans swimming through an oiled area depends on their ability to
                   escape from the vicinity, their health, and their immediate response to stress. Spilled
                   oil temporarily alters migration routes and reduces or contaminates prey. Cetaceans
                   can ingest oil-contaminated food or floating or submerged oil or tar.



            4-50








                         Cetaceans exhibit various reactions to spilled oil, with evidence of direct avoidance or
                         obvious indifference in even heavily oiled areas. Observations of most cetaceans
                         confronting spilled oil show them behaving normally in the vicinity, and in some cases
                         in the midst, of a spill. It is unknown whether these animals are unaffected by the
                         presence of oil or if they are drawn to the area in search of prey organisms attracted to
                         the oil's protective surface shadow (Geraci, 1990). However, controlled experiments
                         on detection and avoidance response of bottlenose dolphin to oil films found that
                         dolphins can see oil at the surface and that they avoid it (Geraci et al., 1983; Smith et
                         al., 1983; St. Aubin et al., 1985).

                         Oil-spill response activities include applying dispersant chemicals designed to break up
                         oil on the water's surface into minute droplets, which then break down in seawater.
                         Nothing is known about the effects of oil dispersants on cetaceans; however, removing
                         the oil from the water's surface reduces the risk of oil contact and the likelihood of oil
                         adherence to skin, baleen plates, or other body surfaces (Neff, 1990). When compared
                         with that of crude oils and refined products, the acute toxicity of most oil dispersant
                         chemicals is low. The rate of biodegradation of dispersed oil is equal to or greater
                         than that of undispersed oil (Wells, 1989). Biodegradation is another process for
                         removing petroleum hydrocarbons from the marine environment, using chemical
                         fertilizers to augment the growth of naturally occurring hydrocarbon-degrading
                         microorganisms. The toxic effects of these fertilizers on cetaceans are currently
                         unknown.


                         Conclusion: Studies indicated that responses of some marine mammal species to
                         surface spills varied, and those animals not avoiding spills could have been exposed to
                         lethal concentrations. However, no OCS-related marine mammal mortalities were
                         documented in conjunction with the OCS oil spills that occurred in the GOM during
                         the period 1987 through 1991.

                  4.1 B6 Coastal and Marine Birds
                         The GOM and its contiguous waters and wetlands are populated by five main groups
                         of resident and migratory species of coastal and marine birds: seabirds, shorebirds,
                         wading birds, marsh birds, and waterfowl.

                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: Transporting supplies, materials, and
                         personnel between the coastal infrastructure and OCS structures is accomplished using
                         helicopters and a variety of service vessels. For 1987 through 1991, approximately
                         1 million helicopter trips (a trip being 1 takeoff and I landing), 440 barge trips, and
                         52,000 service vessel trips occurred annually in the GOM Region as a result of
                         OCS-related activities.







                                                                                                               4-51









                   Mechanical noise or the physical presence (or wake) of OCS-related traffic can disturb
                   coastal birds. The degree of disturbance exhibited by groups of coastal birds to air or
                   vessel traffic is highly variable, depending upon the following:
                      ï¿½ species
                      ï¿½ type of vehicle
                      ï¿½ altitude or distance of the vehicle
                      ï¿½ frequency of occurrence of the disturbance
                      9 season


                   Encounters with vessel traffic can cause temporary cessation of feeding, resting,
                   breeding, and/or nesting activities of coastal and marine birds. Disturbance can also
                   lead to a permanent desertion of active nests or of critical or preferred habitat. This
                   desertion could contribute to the relocation of a species or group to less favorable
                   areas or to a decline of species populations through reproductive failure.

                   The Federal Aviation Administration (Advisory Circular 91-36C) and corporate
                   helicopter policy in the GOM state that helicopters must maintain a minimum altitude
                   of 700 feet while in transit offshore, and 500 feet while working between platforms.
                   When flying over land, helicopters must maintain a minimum altitude of 1,000 feet
                   over unpopulated areas or across coastlines, and 2,000 feet over populated areas and
                   biologically sensitive areas (wildlife refuges and national parks) (USDOI, MMS,
                   1992c).

                   When operational altitude is constrained by inclement weather, low-flying aircraft,
                   especially helicopters, can startle birds, causing short-term disruptions in normal
                   behavior. Generally, this startle response lasts for only a few minutes after which birds
                   return to their normal behavior with no lasting effect. However, during the breeding
                   season, low-flying helicopter traffic may cause birds to abandon their nests
                   temporarily. This abandonment can result in reduced productivity by exposing eggs
                   and young to extreme temperatures, predation, and injuries. This startle response is
                   tempered, to a large degree, by the well-known ability of birds to habituate to
                   regularly occurring, chronic noises (Krebs, 1980; Johnson et al., 1985; Stephen, 1961;
                   Langowski, 1969; Sharp, 1987). The time required and degree of habituation vary
                   with the species, previous experience, frequency and nature of the disturbance, and
                   time of year.

                   Conclusion: Disturbance to coastal and marine birds from OCS support vessel traffic
                   from 1987 through 1991 was from low-flying helicopters whose operational altitude
                   was constrained by inclement weather. Traffic at standard operational altitudes,
                   however, did not appear to disturb birds in GOM coastal areas during this time.

                   Effects of OCS-Related Plastic Debris: During the period 1987 through 1991, the
                   volunteer beach cleanup programs in Texas and Louisiana picked up, on average,
                   more than a ton of refuse and debris for every mile of beach cleaned in those States.

            4-52









                         The predominant sources of this debris were merchant shipping, the oil and gas
                         industry (State and OCS being indistinguishable), and fishing operations. In addition to
                         the incremental amount of trash and debris generated by the OCS program and other
                         U.S. entities, marine debri's is carried into the GOM from South and Central America,
                         Europe, and North Africa (Plotkin and Amos, 1988; Hutchinson and Simmonds,
                         1992). The volume of nonbiodegradable materials contributed by these sources is
                         unknown. Regulations prohibiting the disposal of plastic debris and relevant MMS-
                         funded programs were already addressed in the discussion on endangered and
                         threatened marine turtles.


                         Coastal and marine birds are highly susceptible to entanglement in floating,
                         submerged, and beached marine debris, specifically plastics discarded from both
                         offshore sources and from land-derived litter and waste disposal (Heneman and Center
                         for Environmental Education 1988). Studies in Florida reported that 80 percent of the
                         brown pelicans showed signs of injury from entanglement with fishing gear (Clapp and
                         Buckley, 1984). In addition, seabirds ingest this debris more frequently than do any
                         other taxon (Ryan, 1990). Ingested debris has three basic effects on seabirds (Ryan,
                         1990; Sileo et al., 1990): irritation and blockage of the digestive tract, impairment of
                         foraging efficiency, and release of toxic chemicals.

                         Long-term effects of plastic ingestion include physical deterioration from
                         malnutrition-plastics often cause a distention of the stomach, thus preventing its
                         contraction and simulating a sense of satiation (Ryan, 1988). Some birds also feed
                         plastic debris to their young, which could result in reproductive failures. In addition to
                         obstruction and impaction of the gut, some plastics can have high levels of chemical
                         toxicity and can pose a significant hazard (Fry et al., 1987). Sileo, et al. (1990) found
                         that the prevalence of ingested plastic found within the gut of examined birds varied
                         greatly among species. Those species that seldom regurgitate indigestible stomach
                         contents are most prone to the aforementioned adverse effects (Ryan, 1990). Within
                         the GOM, these species include the phalaropes, petrels, storm-petrels, and
                         shearwaters.


                         Conclusion: From 1987 through 1991, there were some documented coastal and
                         marine bird deaths and injuries attributed to plastic debris ingestion or entanglement;
                         however, the sources of the debris are difficult to ascertain. Adherence by OCS
                         lessees/operators to MMS policy and MARPOL regulations served to reduce disposal
                         of OCS-related plastic debris into the waters of the GOM.

                         Effects of OCS OU Spills: During the period 1987 through 1991, there were 166 OCS
                         oil spills in the GOM: 3 large pipelines spills (> 1,000 bbl-see table 3.4-2) and
                         163 smaller (> 1-999 bbl) OCS platform and pipelines spills averaging 12 bbl. The
                         three large pipeline spills originated 30-70 miles offshore.




                                                                                                               4-53









                   The birds most vulnerable to direct oil-spill effects include those species that spend
                   most of their time swimming on and under the sea surface, and that often aggregate in
                   dense Rocks (Piatt et al., 1990; Vauk et al., 1989). This group includes loons, grebes,
                   sea ducks and pochards, and cormorants. Coastal birds (including shorebirds, waders,
                   marsh birds, and certain waterfowl) may be the hardest hit indirectly through
                   destruction of their feeding habitat and/or food source (Hansen, 1981; Vermeer and
                   Vermeer, 1975). Direct oil contact with birds usually has fatal effects, such as
                   hypothermia, shock, drowning, and starvation (Knaus, 1990; Vermeer and Vermeer,
                   1975; Fry and Lowenstine, 1985). Oil and tar readily fouls and mats plumage, with
                   subsequent loss of water repellency, thermal insulation, buoyancy, and the ability to
                   fly and forage (Ambrose, 1990; Fry et al., 1985; Clark and Gregory, 1971). An oiled
                   bird will preen its contaminated feathers and down to remove the oil and/or tar, often
                   denuding areas of the body; this accelerates the loss of body heat. Preening also results
                   in incidental ingestion and inhalation of oil, with accompanying secondary toxic effects
                   (Butler et al., 1988; Levy, 1983). Oil can also be directly transferred by the adult to
                   incubating eggs or chicks.

                   Consequential toxic effects of ingested oil are highly variable, depending upon the type
                   of oil and amount ingested. Toxicity can be acute, with resultant physiological changes
                   and damage to internal organs, or it can produce long-term effects in exposed adults,
                   in chicks exposed to oil or fed contaminated food, and in chicks hatched from eggs of
                   exposed birds (Fry et al., 1985).

                   Oil-spill cleanup methods often require heavy trafficking of beaches and wetland areas,
                   application of oil dispersant and bioremediation chemicals, and distribution and
                   collection of oil-containment booms and absorbent material. The presence of humans-
                   along with boats, aircraft, and other technological creations-could result in additional
                   disturbance of coastal birds after a spill. Investigations show that oil-dispersant
                   mixtures pose a threat to the reduction of productivity in birds similar to the threat
                   from oil (Albers, 1979; Albers and Gay, 1982). The external exposure of adult birds
                   to oil-dispersant emulsions may reduce chick survival more than exposure to oil alone;
                   however, successful dispersal of a spill will generally reduce the probability of
                   exposure of coastal and marine birds to oil (Butler et al., 1988).

                   Conclusion: Despite potential effects from OCS-related oil spills, no effects to coastal
                   and marine bird populations in the GOM Region were reported during the report
                   period.

            4.1137 Coastal Wetlands
                   The MMS defines "wetlands" as those areas periodically inundated or saturated by
                   surface or ground water and that predominantly support vegetation typically adapted
                   for life in saturated soil conditions. Coastal wetlands are affected by canals, pipelines,
                   navigational traffic, support facilities, and oil spills. Structures engineered to mitigate


            4-54








                        secondary adverse impacts are effective when maintained for the life of the
                        topographic modifications they were designed to mitigate. If not properly maintained,
                        these structures can cause the following adverse significant impacts:
                           ï¿½ saltwater intrusion
                           ï¿½ reduction of freshwater head
                           ï¿½ sediment erosion and export
                           ï¿½ expansion of tidal influence
                           ï¿½ habitat conversion


                        For example, dams, weirs, or bulkheads are constructed across canals to impede the
                        exchange of water through canals. Success of this type of mitigation depends on
                        hydrologic patterns, soil characteristics, facility maintenance, erosion rates, and
                        subsidence rates in the affected vicinity of the project. A poorly designed or poorly
                        maintained mitigation structure can cause more damage to wetlands than it was
                        designed to prevent.

                        Dredged material from construction and maintenance dredging should be considered
                        for use as a sediment supplement in deteriorating wetland areas to enhance and
                        increase wetland acreage, where appropriate. Disposal of dredged material for marsh
                        enhancement has been done only on a limited basis in the GOM. Based on the COE
                        mission, increased emphasis has been placed on the use of dredged material for marsh
                        creation.


                        Effects of OCS-Related Vessel Traffic on Navigational Channels: All OCS-related
                        vessel traffic in the GOM uses existing navigational channels; the OCS fraction
                        accounts for about 12 percent of all vessel use. The 40 existing channels used by
                        OCS-related vessels in the GOM from 1987 through 1991 are composed of canals,
                        bayous, and rivers found in the coastal regions; these channels totalled 2,158 km and
                        1,023 km, respectively, in the Central and Western GOM.

                        Navigational channels are regularly surveyed to determine the need for maintenance
                        dredging. The resulting spoil usually is deposited onto existing spoil banks or
                        established spoil deposition areas. New spoil disposal areas are permitted and mitigated
                        through the permitting process of the COE and State CZM programs. Some dredged
                        material intended for placement on a spoil bank is inadvertently placed in adjacent
                        wetlands or shallow water. The resulting wetland loss is offset by wetland creation, as
                        adjacent margins of shallow water are filled. Hence, effects of spoil disposal on
                        wetlands are minimal, with some localized, significant, hydrological problems.

                        In addition, the use of waterways by vessels destroys wetlands and natural levees by
                        creating wakes and water surges which, in turn, erode channel banks and flush
                        sediments from adjacent wetlands. Based on information from Johnson and Gosselink
                        (1982), the MMS estimates that OCS-used navigational channels widen at a rate of
                        1. 5 m/yr.

                                                                                                         4-55









                  Conclusion: The widening of navigational channels in the GOM caused the loss of
                  approximately 1,220 ha of wetlands during 1987 through 1991. Based on the fraction
                  of OCS-related vessel use, 12 percent of this loss (approximately 147 ha) was
                  attributable to OCS activities.


                  Effects of OCS-Related Onshore Pipeline Construction: Pipeline construction affects
                  approximately 1.05 ha/krn in the deltaic region of Louisiana and 0.68 ha/km in other
                  areas of the Central and Western GOM. (MMS estimates are based on information
                  from Turner and Cahoon, 1987, and Wicker et al., 1989).

                  Modem installation methods and planning procedures have reduced the levels of
                  impacts from these activities on wetlands. Directional boring to emplace pipelines at
                  barrier beach landfalls and under sensitive surface features eliminates adverse impacts
                  to those features. After backfilling, a pipeline right-of-way revegetates or remains as a
                  shallow-water body (Tabberer et al., 1985; Turner and Cahoon, 1987; Wicker et al.,
                  1989). Turner and Cahoon (1987) determined that 77 percent of all existing
                  OCS-related pipeline canals were backfilled, partially filling the canal. In areas where
                  soils have high organic content, a canal is not usually fined completely after
                  backfilling. In areas with soils containing low organic content, most of the canal length
                  is usually filled and naturally revegetated after backfilling.

                  Structures constructed to mitigate effects associated with pipeline construction
                  frequently fail (Johnson and Gosselink, 1982), resulting in significant effects on
                  wetlands (Johnson and Gosselink, 1982; Tabberer et al., 1985; Turner and Cahoon,
                  1987). This failure can lead to the following:
                          expansion of tidal influence   9 saltwater intrusion
                          flank subsidence               * impounded submergence
                          hydrodynamic alterations       9 accelerated erosion
                          sediment export                e induced development
                          habitat conversion


                  These effects are geographically variable, primarily in relation to the distribution of
                  OCS activities, maintenance of mitigation structures, and organic content of surface
                  sediments. The effects are more severe in wetland habitats of Louisiana's Deltaic Plain
                  where soils have the highest organic content and where OCS production occurs
                  nearby. The effects are progressively lower in regions where soils are lower in organic
                  content and where OCS production and supply centers are not proximate-such as in
                  the Louisiana Chenier Plain region, and in the States of Mississippi, Alabama, and
                  Texas.


                  Conclusion: Many OCS-related inland pipelines and mitigative efforts contributed to
                  locally significant cumulative effects on the coastal wetlands of the GOM during 1987
                  through 199 1.



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                          Effects of OCS Oil Spills: During 1987 through 1991, three OCS-related pipeline
                          spills (> 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM (see table 3.4-2). These spills originated 30-
                          70 miles offshore. There were also 163 small (> 1-999 bbl) OCS spills, totaling
                          1,987 bbl.

                          Offshore oil spills can come from platform accidents, pipeline breaks, or navigational
                          accidents. When these spills contact wetlands, the oil can affect wetland vegetation for
                          long periods of time.

                          Onshore OCS-related oil spills can come from pipeline accidents and barge or shuttle
                          tanker accidents during transit or offloading operations. These oil spills are usually
                          either confined within facility containment levees and do not contact wetlands, or they
                          are contained and managed as a result of spill prevention and central countermeasure
                          plans required for such facilities, thereby having little effect on wetlands.

                          Numerous investigators studied the immediate effects of oil spills on wetland habitats
                          in the GOM area. Often, diverse conclusions were generated by these studies because
                          of different oil concentrations contacting vegetation, the kinds of oil spilled (heavy or
                          light crude, diesel, fuel oil, etc.), the types of vegetation affected, the season of year,
                          the pre-existing stress level of the vegetation, and numerous other factors.
                          In overview, the data suggest that light oiling effects include plant die-back, with
                          recovery within two growing seasons or less without artificial replanting; this effect is
                          considered short term and reversible. In stressed environments such as those found in
                          coastal Louisiana, wetlands are more sensitive to oil contact than elsewhere in the
                          GOM (Webb et al., 1985; Alexander and Webb, 1987; Lytle, 1975; Delaune et al.,
                          1979; Fischel et al., 1989).

                          The only effective mitigation for oil spills is rapid and timely deployment of oil-spin
                          containment and cleanup personnel and equipment to avoid oil contact with wetlands
                          and to reduce the duration and oil-concentration of contact where it does occur.


                          Shoreline erosion is accelerated at those sites where oil spills damage the vegetation
                          fringing and protecting canal banks and other shorelines, shoreline erosion is
                          accelerated at those sites (Alexander and Webb, 1987). Although significant and long-
                          term damage to marsh vegetation may not occur, important components of marsh
                          productivity (infauna, epifauna, and epiflora) can be destroyed. The extent of this loss
                          depends upon the nature of the oil spill, the extent of vegetation killed, the water
                          levels while oil is present, and the time of year.

                          Conclusion: For the period of 1987 through 1991, significant impacts to wetlands
                          from OCS oil spills were not reported.





                                                                                                                 4-57









           4.1 C Socioeconomic Environment
           4.1 C 1 Employment and Demographic Conditions
                 The social and economic well-being of 75 coastal and inland counties/parishes in the
                 five States bordering the GOM coastal zone are directly or indirectly affected by the
                 OCS natural gas and oil industry. The counties/parishes include areas where offshore
                 natural gas and oil support activities are known to exist. Also included are entire
                 Metropolitan Statistical Areas in cases where at least one county/parish of the area
                 contains known offshore natural gas- and oil-related activities.

                 The OCS-related socioeconomic factors are direct, secondary, and tertiary in nature.
                 Direct employment associated with the OCS natural gas and oil industry consists of
                 those workers involved in the following activities (covered under the Standard
                 Industrial Classification Code 13-Oil and Gas Extraction):
                    ï¿½ natural gas and oil exploration, development, and production operations
                    ï¿½ geophysical and seismographic surveys
                    ï¿½ exploratory drilling
                    ï¿½ well operations
                    ï¿½ maintenance
                    ï¿½ other contract support services

                 Secondary activities from the primary natural gas and oil extraction industry include
                 the following:
                    ï¿½ natural gas and crude oil processing in refineries, natural gas plants, and
                      petrochemical plants
                    ï¿½ oil and natural gas transportation
                    ï¿½ related machinery manufacturing

                 Finally, induced activities in numerous tertiary industries (e.g., service and trade
                 establishments) are attributable to direct and secondary offshore activities. Induced
                 employment in tertiary industries is generated from both direct and indirect
                 employment and consists of jobs that are created or supported by the expenditures of
                 employees in primary and secondary industries. Induced employment results from the
                 demand for consumer goods and services such as food, clothing, housing, and
                 entertainment. It includes, but is not limited to, employment associated with the
                 following activities:
                    ï¿½ construction
                    ï¿½ manufacturing
                    ï¿½ transportation and public utilities
                    ï¿½ wholesale and retail trade
                    ï¿½ services





          4-58








                         The MMS completed three contracted studies in the GOM Region which analyzed and
                         documented the relationship of OCS natural gas and oil activity to onshore
                         employment   effects. The first study (Resource Economics & Management Analysis,
                         Inc., 1987) discussed in-house preparation of a regionalized input/output model to
                         estimate indirect employment and population effects. The second study (Centaur
                         Associates, Inc., 1986) examined the locational distribution of direct OCS employment
                         by place of work versus place of residence. The third investigation (McKenzie et al.,
                         1993) addressed the direct employment and population effects of the downturn in OCS
                         activity since 1986.

                         To determine what effects OCS-related activities had on employment and demographic
                         conditions, conversions of actual OCS activities to direct, secondary, and tertiary
                         employment and population effects are done. The following direct effects are assumed:
                           ï¿½ One exploratory rig can drill an average of nine wells per year with
                              approximately 133 workers.
                           ï¿½ One platform rig can drill an average of six wells per year with a crew of
                              approximately 155 workers.
                           ï¿½ One offshore platform can operate with an average crew of 28 workers.

                         The following secondary and tertiary effects are made:
                           ï¿½ The ratio of secondary employment to direct employment is 0.67.
                           ï¿½ The ratio of tertiary employment to the sum of direct and secondary employment
                              is 0.33.
                           ï¿½ The ratio of population to total employment effect is approximately 2.0.

                         These conversions allow estimates of total direct, secondary, and tertiary employment
                         and population effects for any year based on actual OCS activity. These OCS-related
                         estimates are then compared to total (i.e., OCS and non-OCS related) population and
                         employment levels in the coastal region, as provided by the USDOC to determine the
                         level of OCS-related impact.

                         Conclusion: As a percentage of total employment and population, the OCS-related
                         impact varies with the coastal subarea. Outside coastal Louisiana, OCS-related activity
                         accounted for less than I percent of total employment and population-this amount is
                         negligible. Within coastal Louisiana (particularly in the southwest portion),
                         OCS-related activity accounted for as much as 10 percent of the total employment and
                         population.

                         Estimates of OCS-related direct employment and total employment in the GOM Region
                         for the calendar years 1987 through 1991 are listed in table 4.1-4.






                                                                                                            4-59









                                    Table 4.14. Estimated Direct OCS-Related Employment
                                                  and Population in the Gulf of Mexico Region,
                                                  1987-1"1

                                                               Direct                Total
                                          Date of           OCS-Related           OCS-Related
                                         Estimate           Emplo                 Employment       I
                                    October 1987               49,600                104,800
                                    September 1988             39,500                 83,600

                                    June 1989                  36,100                 72,000

                                    Septe      1990            37,600                 83,700
                                    June 1991                  37,500-1               83,400

             4.1 C2 Sociocultural Issues, Public Services, and Community
                         Inf rastructure
                    For purposes of this analysis, sociocultural issues include:
                        ï¿½ traditional occupations
                        ï¿½ social structure
                        ï¿½ language
                        ï¿½ family life
                        ï¿½ other forms of cultural adaptation to the natural and human environment

                    Public services and community infrastructure, on the other hand, commonly include
                    the following public, sernipublic, and private services and facilities:
                        ï¿½ education                        * police and fire protection
                        ï¿½ sewage treatment                 e solid-waste disposal
                        ï¿½ water supply                     * recreation
                        ï¿½ transportation                   * health care
                        ï¿½ housing                          e other utilities

                    The following occurrences can affect social and cultural elements:
                        ï¿½ changes in traditional occupation
                        ï¿½ disruption in the viability of extant subcultures
                        ï¿½ social and community dysfunction
                        ï¿½ detrimental effects on individual or family life

                    Effects on public services and community infrastructure arise when the use rate of
                    services significantly exceeds or falls below the capability of a local area to provide a
                    satisfactory level of service.





             4-60








                        The GOM Region funded one socioeconomic study, Impact of Offshore Oil
                        Exploration and Production on the Social Institutions of Coastal Louisiana, currently
                        undergoing draft review process. Five other MMS-funded studies were conducted
                        pertaining to social or economic topics:
                          ï¿½  Survey of Recreational Fishing at Platforms
                          ï¿½  IXTOC I Oil Spill Economic Impact Study
                          ï¿½  Socioeconomic Indicators of Gulf Oil and Gas Activity
                          ï¿½  Socioeconomic Indicators of Gulf Oil and Gas Activity Phase 2
                          ï¿½  Socioeconomic Impacts of Declining Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas
                             Activities in the GOM


                        In addition, several symposia on socioeconomics and the natural gas and oil industry
                        were held at the annual GOM Region Information Transfer Meetings.

                        In November 1992, an assessment (NRC, 1992) of MMS's social and economic
                        studies by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) found that no systematic program
                        existed during 1987-1991 for identifying and analyzing important socioeconomic issues
                        in the GOM Region. In response, the MMS funded a workshop, through the
                        University Research Initiative, to recommend a social science research agenda for the
                        MMS. This workshop is the first step in designing a systematic program for social
                        sciences in the GOM Region and in addressing the problems identified in the NAS
                        report.

                        Effects of OCS-Related Employment: Estimates of OCS-related employment in the
                        GOM Region from 1987 through 1991 are found in table 4.1-4. Overall, the direct
                        OCS-related employment declined by approximately 24 percent between 1987 and
                        1991.


                        The OCS extended work schedule (7 days on, 7 days off) allowed for part-time
                        participation in more traditional occupations (fishing, trapping, etc). The relationship
                        between OCS natural gas and oil activities and traditional culture in the coastal
                        subareas of Louisiana has been mostly positive (Forsythe, 1992, written comm.). The
                        extended work schedule changed the practice of traditional familial roles, in an
                        adaptive response to absence. In the majority of cases, familial adaptations to the
                        extended work schedule were successful. However, the inability of some families to
                        cope with changing familial roles associated with the periodic absence of a spouse
                        placed some demands on social service agencies for counseling and other forms of
                        assistance.


                        During the decline of OCS natural gas and oil activity, stress from decreased family
                        income and loss of security associated with OCS-related job layoffs affected family
                        life. Demand for public services was greater between 1987 and 1989 than from 1989
                        to 1991. As the level of employment in OCS-related industry decreased, more persons
                        engaged in traditional occupations (such as trapping and shrimping) to supplement their

                                                                                                       4-61









                 income. As well, the exodus of relatively high paying OCS-related jobs allowed small
                 businesses to draw from a larger pool of potential employees; however, these jobs
                 were generally lower paying than those associated with OCS activities. In fact,
                 deleterious impacts to the family life occurred in pertinent individual cases as a result
                 of relative income differences, particularly from 1987 to 1989 (Laska et al., 1993).

                 Conclusion: The large demand for public services between 1987 and 1989 resulted
                 from the significant decline in OCS-related employment. The family life was affected
                 as a result of fluctuations in OCS-related employment, particularly from 1987 to 1989.

                 Effects of OCS-Related Population Change: Total OCS-related population
                 (table 4.1-4) decreased from 1987 through 1989, then increased slightly and stabilized
                 through 1991. Labor force requirements of OCS natural gas and oil activities required
                 little to no in-migration from 1987 through 1991. In OCS-related staging centers and
                 administrative centers, out-migration from the overall decline in OCS-related
                 population caused a drop in population growth rates and a loss of population. Family
                 life was affected by the departure of extended family members, and there was some
                 loss of cohesion within some of the communities that served as staging and
                 administrative centers.


                 Conclusion: The decline in OCS-related population in 1987 through 1989 caused a
                 greater demand for public services. Stresses on community infrastructure lessened as
                 OCS-related population declined. Deleterious impacts to the family life occurred in
                 pertinent individual cases as a result of fluctuations in OCS-related population and
                 demographic change, particularly from 1987 to 1989.

           4.1 C3 Commercial Fisheries
                 The GOM provides nearly 40 percent of the commercial fish landings in the
                 continental United States. During 1988, commercial landings of all fisheries in the
                 Gulf totaled nearly 1.8 billion pounds, valued at about $649 million (USDOC, NOAA,
                 NMFS, 1990a) -representing an 18 percent decrease in landings and a 7 percent
                 decrease in value from 1987. Adverse weather, decreased effort, and possible declines
                 in available stocks contributed to declines in landings. Also, the heavy freeze in late
                 December 1989 affected all inshore species (USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, 1990b).

                 Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: Seismic surveys are systematically executed, and
                 any effects on fish resources constitute, at most, short-term avoidance behavior and do
                 not adversely affect harvestable fish populations in the GOM. The sources of
                 acoustical pulse used in seismic surveys are generated by air guns or water guns,
                 which have little effect on even the most sensitive fish eggs at distances of 5 m from
                 the discharge (Chamberlain, 1991; Falk and Lawrence, 1973). In general, the
                 acoustical pulse from air guns or water guns has relatively little effect on marine
                 invertebrates, presumably due to the invertebrates' lack of a swim bladder. Available


           4-62









                         scientific information concerning the effects of acoustic pulses from air guns and water
                         guns on fish eggs and larvae indicates that commercial fishery resources are little
                         disturbed by seismic surveying (Wingert, 1988).

                         Conclusion: Commercial fisheries were not affected by OCS-related seismic surveying
                         conducted in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: For the period 1987 through 1991,
                         approximately 1 million helicopter trips (a trip being I takeoff and I landing),
                         440 barge trips, and 52,000 service vessel trips occurred annually in the GOM Region
                         as a result of OCS-related activities. Offshore service vessels do not interfere with
                         commercial fisheries because these vessels tie directly to platforms or to nearby sea
                         buoys. Service vessels travel well established routes within shipping fairways and
                         navigable waterways, and dock at special facilities that do not service the fishing fleet.

                         Conclusion: Commercial fisheries were not affected by OCS support vessel traffic in
                         the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                         Effects of NORM in OCS-Produced Formation Waters: See sections 3.4 Non-
                         Routine Events and 4. lB3 Fish Resources for discussions on how NORM is formed
                         and what effects, if any, NORM has on fish resources and, subsequently, on
                         commercial fisheries. Numerous studies specific to the questions concerning NORM in
                         the food chain and in seafood were initiated or completed since 1991 (Snavely, 1989;
                         Hamilton et al., 1992; and Mulino, 1992). Results and available information from
                         these investigations will be discussed in the next 20(e) report.

                         Data collected from offshore platforms discharging NORM in formation waters show
                         that epifaunal and associated organisms within 3 in of the discharge do not accumulate
                         radium at high levels (Mulino and Rayle, 1992). The levels of radioactivity measured
                         in soft tissue and hard parts of all biota tested (barnacles, mollusks, fish, blue crabs)
                         were near the lower limit of detection. Any radium concentrations above this lower
                         limit were in inedible hard parts (shell or bone).

                         A 1990 investigation concerning the health risk for radium in seafood harvested near
                         outfalls of onshore formation waters was performed by Hamilton et al. (1992). The
                         study concluded that the health risks associated with the discharge of produced
                         formation waters containing radium are comparable to those expected to result from
                         background concentrations of radium in Louisiana coastal waters. The authors state
                         that they were purposely conservative and overestimated the concentration of radium in
                         fish and shellfish and overestimated the amount of seafood harvested near outfalls. In
                         addition, the authors used EPA risk factors that they believed overestimated the health
                         risks associated with small amounts of radium.




                                                                                                                 4-63









                  Conclusion: The likelihood of consuming seafood available for commercial harvest
                  that contains higher than normal radium levels was minimal. The prospect that NORM
                  discharged in offshore formation waters affected commercial fishery species and
                  subsequently increased human intake of radium was virtually none.

                  Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal: During 1987
                  through 1991, 802 OCS platforms were installed and 448 OCS platforms were
                  removed in the GOM. The emplacement of a production platform in about 60 m of
                  water, with a surrounding 100-m navigational safety zone, results in the loss of
                  approximately 6 ha of bottom trawling area to commercial trawl fishermen. In
                  addition, GOM fishermen experienced some economic loss from gear conflicts;
                  however, the economic loss for a fiscal year, historically, has been less than 1 percent
                  of the value of that same fiscal year's commercial fisheries landings. Most financial
                  losses from gear conflicts were covered by the Fishermen's Contingency Fund, as
                  shown below.



                              Table 4.1-5 Fishermen's Con * ency Fund Claims in the
                                          Gulf of Mexico Region, 1987 through 1991

                                Fiscal       Number of                           Total
                                 Year          Claims           Appeprreoevnetd  Paid

                              1987               127                85          $612,993
                              1988               123                87          $595,730
                              1989               172                86          $783,372
                              1990               198                77          $836,799

                              1991               128                91          $511,947



                  The presence of offshore structures can also benefit commercial fisheries. During the
                  period 1987 through 1991, an average of 3,800 platforms operated throughout the
                  GOM, extending from offshore Alabama to the southern reaches of Texas. The areas
                  occupied by platforms constitute over 28 percent of the hard substrate found in this
                  otherwise soft bottom environment (Gallaway, 1984; Stanley et al., 1991). Due to the
                  limited amount of hard bottom substrate in the offshore waters from Mississippi to
                  Texas, the expansion of the natural gas and oil industry provided a significant
                  proportion of the habitat for organisms dependent on hard substrate and commercial
                  fishery resources that are structure-related, such as snapper and grouper (Gallaway and
                  Lewbel, 1982). Natural gas and oil platforms in the GOM are popular fishing
                  destinations for both sport and commercial fishermen, thus providing evidence of their
                  effectiveness as artificial reefs (Stanley and Wilson, 1989).

                  However, platform removal can cause adverse effects on commercial fisheries. The
                  MMS requires lessees to remove all structures and underwater obstructions from their


           4-64








                        leases in the Federal OCS within I year of the lease's relinquishment or termination of
                        production. Lessees removed 448 of these structures from the GOM during 1987
                        through 1991. Eighty percent of multi-leg platforms in water depths less than 156 m
                        are removed by severing their pilings with explosives placed 5 ni below the seafloor.
                        The resulting concussive force is lethal to fish that have internal air chambers (swim
                        bladders), are demersal, or are in close association with the platform being removed
                        (Scarborough-Bull and Kendall, 1992; Young, 1991). Within the past decade, stocks of
                        reef fish have declined in the GOM. There is concern over a possible connection
                        between this decline and the explosive removal of platforms. To examine this issue,
                        the MMS entered into a formal Interagency Agreement with the NOAA to investigate
                        fish mortality associated with removal of OCS structures. This study will attempt to
                        relate the role of fish mortality from platform removals to the status of reef fish stocks
                        in the GOM (USDOI, MMS, 1990d).

                        Conclusion: During 1987 through 1991, limited local impacts on commercial fisheries
                        occurred as a result of platform emplacement because the areas occupied by platforms
                        were no longer accessible to trawl fishermen. Also, the concussive force associated
                        with platform removal killed nearby demersal fish, and the removal of platforms
                        eliminated hard substrate habitat. However, platforms also provided habitat (hard
                        substrate) not usually found in the soft bottom environment of the Gulf of Mexico.

                        Effects of OCS Pipeline Construction: In the GOM Region, from 1987 through
                        1991, 3,665 miles of pipeline were laid. Gear conflicts from underwater OCS
                        obstructions (such as pipelines) cause loss of trawls and shrimp catch, business
                        downtime, and vessel damage to commercial fisheries. However, all pipelines in water
                        depths less than 69 m (200 ft) are buried, and their locations are made public (Alpert,
                        1990). Spatial loss from construction is temporary.

                        Boesch and Robilliard (1985) reviewed the potential effects on coastal habitats from
                        OCS natural gas and oil activities. In this report, pipelines are one of the causes of
                        long-term damage to wetlands. Since approximately 92 percent of commercially
                        important fish species are estuarine, the loss of GOM wetlands as nursery areas is a
                        threat to the commercial fishing industry (Angelovic, written comm., 1989; Christmas
                        et al., 1988; EPA, 1989). However, most loss of wetland nursery areas is from
                        channelization, river control, and subsidence of wetlands (Turner and Cahoon, 1987).
                        Turner and Cahoon (1987) found that OCS activities were directly responsible for only
                        4 percent of the loss of commercial fish nursery areas.

                        Conclusion: OCS pipeline construction activities temporarily affected commercial
                        fisheries in the GOM, but OCS pipelines did not significantly affect commercial
                        fisheries from 1987 through 1991.

                        Effects of OCS Oil SpiHs: During the period 1987 through 1991, three large
                        OCS-related pipeline spills (> 1,000 bbl) occurred in the GOM (see table 3.4-2).


                                                                                                          4-65









                   These spills originated 30-70 miles offshore. There were also 163 small (> 1-999 bbl)
                   spills, averaging 12 bbl.

                   The effects and extent of damage from an oil spill to commercial fisheries are
                   restricted by time and location. Oil spills that contact coastal bays, estuaries, and OCS
                   waters have the greatest effect on commercial fishery resources when pelagic eggs and
                   larvae are present. Oil spills that contact nearshore open waters could impact
                   migratory species, such as mackerel, cobia, and crevalle. An oil spill contacting a low-
                   energy inshore area affects localized populations of commercial fishery resources such
                   as menhaden, shrimp, and blue crabs. Chronic oiling in an inshore area affects all life
                   stages of a localized population of a sessile fishery resource such as oysters.
                   However, concerns about the possible impact of spilled oil on the breeding cycle of
                   commercial fishery resources have proven to be false (Oil Spill Intelligence Report,
                   1991; Baker et. al., 1991).

                   Fish produce eggs on an enormous scale; the overwhelming majority of these eggs die
                   at an early stage, generally as food for predators. Even a heavy mortality from an oil
                   spill has no detectable effect on an adult population that is exploited by a commercial
                   fishery. This has been confirmed during and after the Torrey Canyon spill off
                   southwest England and the Argo Merchant spill off Nantucket, Massachusetts. In both
                   cases, a 90-percent mortality of pilchard and pollack eggs and larvae was observed in
                   the affected area, but this mortality rate had no impact on the regional commercial
                   fishery (Baker et al., 1991).

                   Development abnormalities in juveniles occur naturally in wild fish populations, and
                   the frequency of these abnormalities is increased in populations chronically exposed to
                   oil. These abnormal fish do not survive long. However, like the effects from mortality
                   immediately following an oil spill, delayed mortality has a negligible effect on
                   commercial fisheries.


                   For OCS-related oil spills to affect a commercial fishery resource, whether estuary-
                   dependent or not, eggs and larvae would have to be abnormally concentrated in the
                   immediate spill area. Oil components also must be present in highly toxic
                   concentrations when both eggs and larvae are in the pelagic stage (Longwell, 1977).

                   Conclusion: Despite possible impacts, no significant cumulative effects from OCS-
                   related spills on commercial fisheries were documented in the GOM Region during
                   this period.

            4.1 C4 Recreation and Tourism
                   Coastal recreational activities popular in the GOM include swimming, fishing, scuba
                   diving, beach use, sunbathing, windsurfing, birdwatching, shelling, and hunting.
                   Major State and Federal parks, wildlife refuges and management areas, and local


            4-66








                        recreation areas cover large expanses of the coastline and many of the barrier islands.
                        Tourism is a major component of many coastal economies, regionally estimated in
                        billions of dollars and millions of people. Potential effects to recreation and tourism
                        may result from activities that cause visual effects, land-use conflicts, and oil-spill
                        impacts.

                        Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal: The
                        emplacement of platforms can adversely affect the aesthetic nature of the coastline
                        when constructed close enough to shore to be seen and to obscure a relatively large
                        portion of the natural environment (Nassauer and Benner, 1982). However, these same
                        structures function as high profile artificial reefs attracting both fish and fishermen.
                        The GOM contains the largest concentration of offshore platforms in the United States
                        (3,800 in Federal waters alone). Approximately 230 large platforms are located in
                        State and Federal waters in sight of the Louisiana coast, and approximately 50 are
                        located within view of the Texas coast. In addition, several clusters consisting of
                        numerous small platforms are found in view of the Louisiana and Texas coasts.
                        Approximately one-half of the structures visible from shore are in Federal waters off
                        the coast of Louisiana. Only in recent years have natural gas and oil drilling operations
                        been visible in nearshore waters off the coasts of Mississippi and Alabama.

                        Three studies examined the impact of these sights from the coast (Nassauer and
                        Benner, 1982; Dornbusch and Company et al., 1987; Kearney, 1991). These studies
                        showed that visitors most disliked nearby facilities that obstructed the view of the
                        natural environment, and facilities or structures at any distance that were not neat and
                        clean. No data were collected to indicate whether the residents, businesses, or visitors
                        to the GOM coastal areas have changed their coastal recreational patterns, other than
                        fishing, because of the sight of offshore structures.

                        Platforms located near the coast offer beneficial impacts to recreational diving and
                        fishing. Roberts and Thompson (1983) demonstrated that scuba divers in Louisiana
                        were willing to pay considerable sums for the unique opportunity of diving around
                        offshore natural gas and oil structures. According to the NMFS's Marine Recreational
                        Fishing Statistics Survey, an estimated 400,000 fishing trips were made to GOM
                        petroleum platforms in 1989 (Sports Fishing Institute, 1992).

                        Platforms in State and Federal waters serve as navigational aids and even refuges in
                        storms. For a long time, recreational fishermen have been attracted to these platforms.
                        Platforms act as a reef in the ocean, attracting numerous species of fish-many of
                        these species are of interest to recreational and commercial fishermen. The NMFS
                        determined that up to 70 percent of all recreational fishing offshore Louisiana was
                        directly associated with petroleum structures (Witzig, 1986). Most recreational fishing
                        and scuba diving around petroleum structures take place within 20 miles of shore
                        (Ditton and Auyong, 1984). However, expanding deep-water natural gas and oil
                        operations are attracting some GOM fishermen to areas located 25 to over 100 miles


                                                                                                          4-67









                  from shore. Hence, the construction of large numbers of platforms off the coasts of
                  Louisiana and Texas has led to a substantial growth in offshore recreational fishing,
                  which has benefited recreation and tourism in the coastal zone of these States.


                  Since the platforms nearest the coasts were generally sited earliest-over 40 years
                  ago-many are now being removed. Removing those platforms reduces the number
                  available for recreational fishing, thereby reducing the beneficial cumulative impact on
                  that activity. The construction of permitted artificial reefs replaces some of the
                  100 production platforms removed annually off the Louisiana and Texas coasts. Over
                  the last 5 years, almost 40 obsolete petroleum structures have been converted into
                  designated artificial reefs by the GOM States.

                  Conclusion: Despite any aesthetic effects, OCS natural gas and oil development in the
                  GOM continued to stimulate, expand, and enhance offshore recreational fishing off the
                  Texas and Louisiana coasts during the period 1987 through 1991.

                  Effects of OCS-Related Trash and Debris: Some of the trash washed up on coastal
                  beaches in Texas and Louisiana comes from OCS natural gas and oil activities. The
                  proportions attributed to the various marine industries (shipping, fishing, military
                  activities, boating, and petroleum) are indeterminable-however, there is ample
                  evidence to implicate all user groups as contributors to the cumulative problem.
                  Significant strides are being made to improve waste handling and disposal practices
                  within the natural gas and oil industry through the efforts and encouragement of the
                  Texas General Lands Office, the MMS, the EPA, private conservation groups, and
                  natural gas and oil operators.

                  Results of the annual "Take Pride Gulf-wide" beach cleanup estimate that, on average,
                  1 ton of trash and debris is removed per mile by citizen volunteers along Texas and
                  Louisiana coastal beaches each year during the fall cleanup (Center for Marine
                  Conservation, 1992). Two ongoing scientific surveys are assessing trash and litter
                  trends affecting GOM coastal beaches. Preliminary results from the MMS-supported
                  investigation of marine debris impacting Mustang Island beaches over the last 2 years
                  indicate a detectable reduction in most large trash items associated with man's use of
                  the GOM. However, small items or "microtrash" has shown an increase over this
                  same time period, which coincides with the implementation of new international
                  prohibitions and restrictions on offshore garbage disposal (Amos, 1992). With the
                  exception of hard hats, pallets, and plastic strapping, debris items generally associated
                  with the oil industry have shown a decline since 1989 at Mustang Island.

                  Summary results from systematic surveys of marine debris inventoried in national
                  parks associated with GOM coastal beaches in Texas (Padre Island National Seashore)
                  and Mississippi and Florida (Gulf Islands National Seashore) show average
                  accumulation rates going up over the last 3 years (Cole et al., 1992). During the 1991
                  survey, beaches at Gulf Island National Seashore had a mean quarterly accumulation


           4-68








                        rate of 803 items/km. With an average quarterly accumulation rate of 22,476 debris
                        items/km, Padre Island National Seashore has the dubious recognition as the most
                        littered beach in the nation. No attempt has been made in the National Park Service
                        survey program to isolate specific trends associated with debris items believed to be
                        coming directly from offshore natural gas and oil operations. However, special
                        tracking of 55-gallon drums has shown a marked decline of this debris item in recent
                        years at Padre Island National Seashore.

                        In addition, many plans and regulations were implemented to reduce marine debris,
                        including the following:
                           The natural gas and oil industry, through the Offshore Operators Committee, has
                           mounted an intensive campaign to eliminate trash generated by its operations and
                           those of its subcontractors (Herbert and Foreman, 1992). In addition, MMS
                           regulations (30 CFR 250.40) prohibit the discharge of trash and other solid waste
                           materials associated with OCS operations.

                           In 1991, through the EPA's Gulf of Mexico Program, a regional Marine Debris
                           Action Plan was developed and endorsed by public and private interest groups.
                           Implementation of this plan should lead to the enhancement of the coastal recreation
                           environment in the next few years.

                           The MMS prohibits the disposal of OCS equipment, containers, and other materials
                           into offshore waters by lessees (30 CFR 250.40). In addition, MARPOL Annex V,
                           Public Law 100-220 (101 Statute 1458), prohibits the disposal of any plastics at sea
                           or in coastal waters. The OCS lessee's/operator's adherence to MMS policy and
                           MARPOL regulations served to reduce disposal of OCS-related plastic debris into
                           the waters of the GOM.


                        Conclusion: During the period 1987 through 1991, OCS-related activities continued to
                        contribute to marine debris impacts on Texas and Louisiana beaches. However, new
                        legal restrictions on offshore garbage disposal, regional plans, anti-litter programs, and
                        industry initiatives have decreased and should further decrease future natural gas and
                        oil debris effects on GOM coastal beaches.


                        Effects of OCS Oil SpiUs: Three large OCS-related pipeline spills (see table 3.4-2)
                        and 163 small (> 1-999 bbl) OCS oil spills (averaging 12 bbl) occurred in the GOM
                        during 1987 through 1991. The large pipeline spills originated 30-70 miles offshore.

                        Oil spills reaching coastal recreational areas affect aesthetics and recreation by coating
                        beaches and temporarily make them unsuitable for recreational use. This effect can
                        result in reduced economic intake for local recreation-oriented businesses. The loss is
                        usually immediate but does not extend beyond the removal of the oil and fouled coastal
                        land base (Restrepo et al., 1982).


                                                                                                         4-69









                   Conclusion: Although OCS oil spills occurred in the GOM during 1987 through 1991,
                   no impacts on coastal recreation and tourism from these spills were recorded.

            4.1 C5 Archaeological Resources
                   Archaeological resources in the GOM include historic shipwrecks and submerged
                   prehistoric sites. Natural gas and oil exploration and production activities have the
                   potential to affect both prehistoric and historic archaeological resources on the OCS.

                   Dredging, anchoring, and siting drilling rigs, production platforms, and pipelines
                   could destroy artifacts or disrupt the provenience and stratigraphic context of artifacts,
                   sediments, and paleoindicators. Oil spills could destroy the ability to date prehistoric
                   sites by radiocarbon dating techniques. Ferromagnetic debris associated with OCS
                   natural gas and oil activities would tend to mask magnetic signatures of significant
                   historic archaeological resources.

                   Four studies were funded in an effort to minimize impacts to archaeological resources
                   in the GOM Region (Coastal Environments, Inc., 1977, 1982, 1986; Garrison et al.,
                   1989). The studies have developed predictive models to identify areas of the OCS
                   where there is a high probability for the occurrence of archaeological resources. These
                   studies are periodically updated using archaeological, geological, and geophysical
                   information generated since the preparation of the original study (or last update).

                   The Archaeological Resource Stipulation (established in 1973) requires the lessee to
                   conduct lease-specific archaeological resource surveys in those areas having a high
                   potential for archaeological resources. If a potential archaeological resource is
                   identified, the operator is required to avoid the potential resource or to conduct
                   additional studies to determine its significance. Where possible, all operators have
                   chosen to avoid the potential resources identified.

                   Effects of OCS Drilling: From 1987 through 1991 in the GOM Region, there were an
                   average of 2,209 exploration wells and 2,005 development wells drilled on the OCS.
                   The location of any proposed activity within a lease block that has a high probability
                   for the occurrence of historic shipwrecks or submerged prehistoric archaeological sites
                   requires archaeological clearance prior to operations. That clearance is based on an
                   analysis of remote-sensing survey data required by the Archaeological Resource
                   Stipulation.

                   Conclusion: OCS drilling activities in the GOM between 1987 and 1991 did not affect
                   historic shipwrecks or prehistoric archaeological sites on the OCS.

                   Effects of OCS Pipeline Emplacement: During 1987 through 1991, 3,665 miles of
                   pipelines were laid in the GOM. A portion of this total was laid in areas having a high
                   probability for the occurrence of archaeological resources; however, this emplacement


           4-70








                         had no adverse effects on these resources. Pipelines laid within these areas must have
                         archaeological clearance prior to construction operations.

                         Conclusion: There were no effects on historic shipwrecks or prehistoric archaeological
                         sites on the OCS as a result of OCS pipeline emplacement in the GOM OCS between
                         1987 and 1991.


                         Effects of OCS-Related Dredging Activities: Waterways accessing the OCS in the
                         GOM Region periodically require dredging to ensure access for deep draft vessels. All
                         navigational channels are outside of MMS jurisdiction since they lie within State-
                         controlled waters. The COE is responsible for ensuring compliance with all pertinent
                         archaeological laws and regulations pertaining to these waterways. Impacts by
                         dredging activities to a historic shipwreck, the Santa Ma?ia de Yciar, in the Port
                         Mansfield entrance channel have been documented (Espey, Huston, & Associates,
                         1990). The percentage of OCS-related natural gas and oil activity usage of this
                         particular channel is negligible (table 4-15, USDOI, MMS, 1992c).

                         Conclusion: Although there were reported impacts to a historic shipwreck from
                         maintenance dredging of the Port Mansfield entrance channel, the percentage of OCS
                         natural gas- and oil-related use of this channel is negligible.

                         Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement and/or Removal: -In the GOM
                         from 1987 through 1991, 802 OCS platforms were installed, and 448 were removed.
                         Some of these was installed within areas having a high probability for the occurrence
                         of archaeological resources. All platform installations in these areas must have
                         archaeological clearance as required by the Archaeological Resource Stipulation.
                         Platform removals did not impact archaeological resources because an archaeological
                         clearance was required prior to platform installation.

                         Conclusion: There were no effects to archaeological resources as a result of OCS
                         platform installation and/or removal in the GOM from 1987 through 1991.

                         Effects of OCS Ferromagnetic Debris: The OCS natural gas and oil activities in the
                         GOM from 1987 through 1991 included drilling 2,209 exploration wells and 2,005
                         development wells, installing 802 OCS platforms, and laying 3,665 miles of pipelines.
                         Archaeological clearance of these operations protected historic shipwrecks from
                         impacts.

                         Ferromagnetic debris related to OCS exploration and development activities can mask
                         magnetic signatures of historic shipwrecks. An MMS-funded study (Garrison et al.,
                         1989) found an increase in ferromagnetic materials on the seafloor in OCS blocks on
                         which natural gas and oil activities occurred. The change of survey linespacing (from
                         150 to 50 m) in areas having a high probability for historic shipwrecks provides better
                         data, which are necessary for clearance of OCS operations.


                                                                                                            4-71









                  Surveying lease blocks (with high potential for historic shipwrecks) prior to OCS
                  operations provided the MMS with baseline information on seafloor objects before the
                  OCS natural gas- and oil-associated ferromagnetit debris was introduced. Using this
                  baseline information resolved the problem of masking the magnetic signatures of
                  historic shipwrecks.

                  Conclusion: Because the archaeological stipulation precluded OCS-related bottom
                  disturbing activities in areas of archeological resource potential, adverse effects from
                  the OCS factors were prevented.

                  Effects of OCS Oil SpiHs: During the period 1987 through 1991, three large (> 1,000
                  bbl-see table 3.4-2) OCS-related pipeline spills and 163 smaller (> 1-999 bbl) OCS
                  platform and pipeline spills (totaling 1,987 bbl) occurred in the GOM. The large
                  pipeline spills originated 30-70 miles offshore.

                  Conclusion: The OCS-related oil spills that occurred in the GOM from 1987 through
                  1991 did not contact submerged prehistoric sites located beneath the seafloor, and
                  there were no reported effects to historic shipwrecks from these spills.































            4-72







                   4.2 Pacific Region
                          The Pacific Region is divided into four planning areas: Southern California, Central
                          California, Northern California, and Washington/Oregon (fig.4.2-1). More detailed
                          information relating to the OCS Program can be found in Pacific Summary
                          ReportlIndex, (November 1984 - February 1986) (Risotto and Rudolph, 1986). No
                          lease sales were held in the Pacific Region between 1987 and 1991.

                          Postlease activities took place in the Southern California Planning Area between 1987
                          and 1991 (see fig. 4.2-2). During the 5 years covered by this report, the following
                          OCS-related activities and associated discharges occurred in the Pacific Region:
                                0    119 wells were drilled: 12 exploration and 107 development wells
                                0    over 152 MMbb1 of crude oil and condensate were produced
                                0    over 257,000 million cubic feet of natural gas were produced
                                0    3 OCS structures were installed: 1 platform and 2 jackets
                                0    29 line miles of OCS pipelines were constructed
                                0    187 bbl of OCS crude oil and condensate were spilled
                                0    390)000 bbl of drilling muds were discharged
                                0    200,000 bbl of drill cuttings were discharged
                                0    210,000 bbl of produced formation waters were discharged


                   4.2A Physical Environment
                   4.2A1 Water Quality
                          From 1987 through 1991, there were 57 OCS G&G permits issued (see table 4.2-1).


                                                Table 4.2-1 OCS G&G Permits Issued by the
                                                             Pacific Region, 1987 through
                                                             1991*

                                                                          Number


                                                  1987                        20


                                                  1988                        33


                                                  1989                        0


                                                  1990                        4


                                                  1991                        0
                                               FTotal                         57

                                                All permits issued were for projects offshore California.
                                                Source: Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991 (USD01, MMS, 1992a)




                                                                                                                    4-73












                                         1300                   1250                1200                 1150










                                                                              Seattle
                                                                                 WA                              MT
                450
                                                Washington/
                                                    Oregon              Portland                                            45  0

                                                                              OR
                                                                Gold Beach                               ID


                400                          Northern           Eureka
                                             California                                                                    L

                                                                                                                         - 400
                                                                                             NV                      UT

                                       Central                        San Francisco
                                     California
                350                                                                 CA

                                                                              Santa
                                                                              Barbara                                         35'
                                                                              110'r-    0 Los Angeles                AZ
                                                                     Southern
                                                                       aliforma-
                                                                                                San Diego



                300      0        100        200       300       400                             Planning area
                                             Miles                                               boundary
                                                                                                         I               -    300
                                             1250                         1200                         1150



              Figure 4.2-1. Pacific OCS Planning Areas
              4-74


















                                                                  Southern California
                                                                     Planning Area

                                                                          Explanation                                                      Santa
                                                                                                                             anta          Monica                               N
                                                                  Active lease                                               nice Bay
                                                                                                                            Los Angeles
                                                                                                                             International                            Los Angeles, CA
                                                      A           Exploratory well                                             Airport                                    0 .,_,5 Mi
                                                                  Production platform                                                                                     6          Km

                                                                  3 - mile line

                                                                                                                                                                                Long
                                                                                                                                                                                 Beach
                                                       10                                                   40
                                                                             Statute Miles                                                                             San Pedro Bay                 Huntington
                                                                          Mo                                            Pacific Ocean                                                                   Beach
                                                                           Bay                                                                                     Edith                   Ellen
                                                                                 San Luis
                                                                                 Obispo                                                                             Elly



                                                                                                                                                                          Eureka





                                                                                                  Santa
                                                                                        Pt. Sal   Maria                                       Hillhouse
                                                                                                                                                Henfy                  Houchin
                                                                                            P risma Pt.
                                                                                                                                                    gnomon
                                                                                                Irene                                               C  B A
                                                                                                  *LOMPOC                                   Habitat                       Hogan

                                                                                           Pt. Arguello
                                                                                                                    Gaviota                              Santa
                                                                                                                                           Goleta Pt.   Barbara               Carpinteria
                                                         Hidalgo                                                                                                                        Grace
                                                                                                                                                                                            Pitas Pt.
                                                            Harvest                                                                                                                           Gilda

                                                            Hen77osa                                                                                                                          0 Ventura
                                                                                                  Heritage    Harmony          Hondo

                                                                                                                                                              Gail
                                                                                                            Wilson
                                                                                                              Rock                                                                 Anacapa
                                                            Pacific                Richard on                                                      Santa Cruz                     04".06             /.na
                                                                                      Rocks                                 Santa Ros                  Island                      Island
                                                            Ocean                               San M                         Island
                                                                                                  lslMuel                                                       Channel Islands

                                                            Note:
                                                            The maritime boundaries and limits shown above,
                                                            as well as the divisions between planninq areas,
                                                            are for initial planning purposes only and-do not
                                                            prejudice or affect United States jurisdiction in
                                                            any way.




                                      Figure 4.2-2. Southern California Planning Area, Status of Leases and
                                                                       Exploration and Production Activities, 1987 through 1991                                                                                         4-75









                Effects of OCS Geological Sampling: Geological sampling activities in the Pacific
                Region have been limited: only 13 geological sampling permits were issued.

                Water quality around the immediate sampling site is altered and degraded in several
                ways during geological sampling activities. Bottom sampling and shallow coring cause
                minor sediment suspension and an associated increase in turbidity. Deep stratigraphic
                testing, being similar to rotary drilling of exploratory wells, results in the additional
                discharge of small amounts of drilling muds and cuttings and in the associated increase
                in levels of suspended solids and trace metals in the receiving water. (These effects are
                discussed further below.) However, the effects on water quality resulting from bottom
                sampling and coring activities are limited to a few tens of meters within the immediate
                area of operation (USDOI, U.S. Geological Survey [USGS], 1976).

                Conclusion: Given the small amount of geological sampling conducted in the Pacific
                Region from 1987 through 1991 and the temporary and localized nature of the effects
                associated with bottom sampling and coring, no significant cumulative effects on water
                quality occurred as a result of geological sampling during this period.

                Effects of Offshore Discharge of OCS Muds and Cuttings: From 1987 through
                1991, approximately 390,000 bbl of drilling muds and 200,000 bbl of cuttings were
                discharged in the Paciflc Region as a result of drilling 12 exploratory wells and 107
                development wells. Nearly 90 percent of the OCS drilling activity in the Pacific
                Region and, in turn, the discharge of muds and cuttings occurred in the Santa Barbara
                Channel and Santa Maria Basin.


                When discharged into the surrounding waters, drilling muds and cuttings may create
                detectable turbidity plumes several thousand meters long. Near the discharge site,
                benthic infauna may be affected by smothering as the plume settles and by change of
                bottom sediment characteristics. However, dilution is extremely rapid in offshore
                waters; drilling fluids discharged into the ocean are usually diluted to very low
                concentrations within 1,000-2,000 m downcurrent from the discharge point
                (Ayers et al., 1980a, b; ECOMAR, Inc., 1978, 1983; Houghton et al., 1980; Northern
                Technical Services, 1983; Neff, 1987).

                Suspended solids associated with these discharges may cause mortality or deleterious
                effects in sensitive species and juveniles in the water column. Generally, experts
                believe that suspended solid levels and metal concentrations return to background
                levels once they are 1,000-2,000 m from the discharge site (ECOMAR, Inc., 1980;
                NRC, 1983). However, in a field study of drilling fluids from an exploratory well in
                the Santa Barbara Channel, Jenkins et al. (1989) found sediment concentrations of
                barium to be above background levels as far as 2,500 m downcurrent from the well.
                They also observed statistically significant increases in the bioaccumulation of barium
                in two species of marine invertebrates at stations as far as 1,500 ni from the well, but
                they concluded that the soluble form of the element was not present in sufficient


          4-76








                       quantities to cause toxicity. Similarly, Neff, Hillman et al. (1989), who conducted
                       laboratory tests of trace metal bioaccumulation by several species of marine
                       invertebrates, concluded that metals associated with drilling mud barite are virtually
                       unavailable to marine organisms.

                       The California OCS Phase II Monitoring Program (CAMP II) was a 5-year,
                       multidisciplinary study designed to monitor potential environmental changes resulting
                       from natural gas and oil development in the Santa Maria Basin (Battelle Ocean
                       Sciences, 1991). In the course of this study, drilling discharges were monitored in the
                       vicinity of Platform Hidalgo in 1987 and 1988. Barium concentrations in sediments
                       increased within several kilometers of the platform during this period, but decreased
                       following,termination of drilling. Although increased levels of petroleum hydrocarbons
                       were observed at Platform Hidalgo, it was unclear whether this increase was due to
                       drilling discharges or natural oil seeps.

                       Peak fluxes of 400-500 mg/m`/day of drilling solids were measured within 1.5 km of
                       Platform Hidalgo, and 4 of 22 hard-bottom invertebrate taxa showed significant
                       reductions in mean abundances at high-flux stations after drilling began. However, the
                       concentrations of chemical contaminants in suspended particles associated with the
                       drilling discharges were below toxic levels. This observation suggested that any
                       biological changes due to the drilling muds were related to physical effects of the
                       increased particle loading.

                       CAMP III, which is currently under way, will continue monitoring hard-bottom
                       organisms near drilling activities in the Santa Maria Basin for 3 years. This study will
                       provide information that can be used to separate natural background variation from
                       potential low-level cumulative effects of OCS drilling activities.

                       As the result of a Memorandum of Agreement with EPA Region 9, the MMS has
                       conducted compliance monitoring of California OCS natural gas and oil facilities on
                       behalf of EPA since 1990. The MMS inspects records and collects produced water
                       samples at all OCS facilities off California that discharge these effluents into the
                       marine environment. The EPA conducts the laboratory analysis of the samples and is
                       responsible for any necessary enforcement if violations are discovered. Prior to any
                       mud dumps, the MMS also collects samples to be tested for biotoxicity.

                       Because of dilution, dispersion, and settling, the effects of drilling muds and cuttings
                       on water quality are limited to the immediate vicinity of the discharge and are
                       generally not detectable beyond 2,000 m from the discharge. The accumulation of
                       trace metals and hydrocarbons in area waters due to periodic releases of drilling muds
                       and cuttings is unlikely.





                                                                                                         4-77









                 Conclusion: Although localized effects were detected, no significant cumulative effects
                 on water quality in the Pacific Region were identified as a result of the discharge of
                 drilling muds and cuttings.

                 Effects of Construction of OCS-Related Onshore Facilities: One onshore
                 construction project occurred in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991. In 1988,
                 Exxon began construction of a separation, treatment, and gas processing plant at Las
                 Flores Canyon/Corral Creek in Santa Barbara County as part of their Santa Ynez Unit
                 (SYU) project.

                 The New England River Basin Commission (1976) reviewed the procedures and
                 environmental impacts related to OCS onshore facility construction. The authors claim
                 that land clearing and earth movement during construction promote surface runoff
                 containing elevated levels of suspended solids (organic and inorganic) and possibly
                 heavy metals. This runoff may affect nearby streams and rivers; however, these effects
                 are limited by erosion and runoff control procedures employed during construction.
                 Adverse effects on water quality are temporary and localized.

                 The effects on ground and surface water quality from onshore construction in the
                 Pacific Region were addressed in various EIS's or reports (e.g., Arthur D. Little
                 [ADL], 1985; URS Company, 1986) in response to Federal and State requirements.
                 Permit conditions of the final DPP for the SYU project required the implementation of
                 an Environmental Quality Assurance Program. This program was designed to ensure
                 that the project complied with permit conditions pertaining to environmental protection
                 and public concern. Permit compliance was monitored by the Santa Barbara County
                 Resource Management Department. In relation to possible degradation of water
                 quality, erosion and siltation control measures were applied to bluff-top areas and
                 along Corral Creek; these measures were maintained throughout the construction
                 period. The surface water quality of Corral Creek was monitored on a regular basis.
                 Remedial measures were taken to recover soil stockpiles and to remove trench spoils
                 from the Corral Creek mouth, and mitigation efforts were judged effective (ERC
                 Environmental and Energy Services Co., 1991).

                 Conclusion: The final compliance report for the project (ERC Environmental and
                 Energy Services Co., 1991) indicated no significant cumulative effects on water
                 quality in the Pacific Region from the construction of the Las Flores Canyon gas
                 processing plant-the only OCS-related onshore facility constructed during this report
                 period.

                 Effects of Offshore Discharge of OCS-Produced Formation Waters: An estimated
                 210,000 bbl of produced formation water were discharged from OCS activities in the
                 Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991-an average of 42,000 bbl per year. At
                 present in the Pacific Region, produced water is discharged into the ocean only in the
                 Santa Barbara Channel. Produced water from platforms in the Santa Maria Basin is


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                         shipped to shore and disposed of in onshore wells; produced formation water from
                         platforms off Long Beach is disposed of in waterflood and disposal wells.

                         Although the harmful components of produced water (such as petroleum hydrocarbons
                         and trace metals) accumulate in surface sediments near the discharge point, they
                         remain in the water column for relatively short periods (Armstrong et al., 1979;
                         Grahl-Nielsen et al., 1979; Middleditch, 1981b). The distance required to reach
                         background levels varies depending on the volume and characteristics of each
                         discharge, but mixing and dilution are very rapid after discharge. Produced water is
                         considered to be only mildly toxic (Neff, 1987) since its water-soluble components are
                         believed to dilute rapidly to levels well below those suspected to cause significant
                         biological responses, based on laboratory tests (Montalvo and Brady, 1979;
                         Middleditch, 1981b; Rose and Ward, 1981; Payne et al., 1987).

                         Conclusion: Currently, it is possible to conclude that only minor and localized effects
                         on water quality resulted from the discharge of produced water into the Santa Barbara
                         Channel from 1987 through 1991. These poorly defined effects were limited to the
                         immediate vicinity of continuous produced water discharge points.

                         Effects of OCS, Pipeline Construction: Approximately 29 line miles (46 kni) of
                         pipeline were constructed from 1987 through 1991 in the southern Santa Maria Basin
                         and the Santa Barbara Channel.


                         During pipeline construction, resuspension of bottom sediments occurs because of
                         trenching and placement of equipment on the seafloor. These activities cause an
                         increase in turbidity and result in a decrease in sunlight penetration if the resuspended
                         plume reaches the photic layer (from the surface to 30-100 rn deep depending on the
                         local, natural turbidity conditions). The magnitude of the sediment displacement
                         depends on the sediment type, grain size, direction and strength of the prevailing
                         currents, and the duration of the instigating activity.

                         The Conditions of Approval for pipeline and power cable installation in the SYU
                         specified that Exxon use offshore installation techniques that minimize turbidity and
                         dynamically positioned vessels to lay all pipelines and power cables from platform to
                         shore. Exxon 9s use of these vessels involved about 22 anchor settings and retrievals in
                         Federal waters. This use resulted in a reduction of 200-300 anchoring events compared
                         to operations involving standard lay barges. Consequently, there was a proportional
                         decrease in the levels of turbidity from resuspended sediments (USDOI, MMS,
                         1991b). Pipelaying activities were monitored by MMS inspectors throughout the
                         construction period.

                         The MMS regulations also require that newly installed pipelines be hydrostatically
                         pressure tested to verify their integrity. These tests are conducted by the operators and
                         monitored by the MMS. Samples of hydrotest water discharges are collected and


                                                                                                            4-79









                  transported to an EPA-approved laboratory for analysis to ensure that NPDES permit
                  conditions are being met.

                  To reduce the danger of rupture during earthquakes, pipelines installed on the OCS in
                  the Pacific Region have not been buried. The amount of turbidity created during
                  pipeline construction is, therefore, much more limited than in regions where pipelines
                  are commonly buried. The only mechanical burial along the route occurs when the
                  pipeline traverses the intertidal zone, and onshore. Thus, suspended sediment
                  associated with the pipeline construction is limited and settles rapidly.

                  Conclusion: Although some temporary and localized increases in turbidity occurred
                  from the construction of offshore pipelines in the Pacific Region during 1987 through
                  1991, no significant cumulative effects to water quality from this construction were
                  identified.


                  Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, 15 OCS-related oil spills
                  (> 1 bbl) were recorded in the Pacific Region. These spills totaled 187 bbl of oil, for
                  an average of 37.4 bbl per year. The largest single spill, 100 bbl, occurred on
                  Platform Habitat when the crew was changing over the drilling fluid and inadvertently
                  repositioned the wrong valve allowing drilling mud, laden with mineral oil, to be
                  pumped into the ocean. Another spill of 50 bbl occurred when a workboat snagged a
                  pipeline near Platform Gina in the eastern Santa Barbara Channel while grappling for
                  an anchor chain buoy. The remaining 13 spills occurred at platforms and ranged in
                  volume between 1 and 10 bbl.


                  The severity of an oil-spill effect on water quality depends on a number of factors,
                  such as the following:
                            type of oil
                            location

                            season
                            weather and sea conditions


                  In the open ocean and in moderate to high seas, spills are dispersed and weathered by
                  physical and biological processes such as evaporation, oxidation, emulsification, and
                  uptake and metabolism by marine organisms. In areas contacted directly by a spill,
                  before weathering has been completed, parameters such as oil and grease, trace
                  metals, dissolved oxygen, hydrocarbons, BOD, and turbidity change by several orders
                  of magnitude. Hydrocarbon levels within affected areas may be elevated up to 100+
                  Ag11 (Fiest and Boehm, 1980). Much of the oil is dispersed throughout the water
                  column over several days to weeks.

                  Greater effects could occur if -a spill contacts a sensitive nearshore area, where oil may
                  become entrained in suspended particles and bottom sediments. Compared to offshore
                  areas, the water quality in enclosed embayments and estuaries would be more highly


           4-80









                         affected, since the weathering processes and the wind and sea state are generally much
                         less severe. In addition, the BOD would be proportionally higher, as would toxic
                         compound levels, while light transmittance levels would be decreased.

                         Each offshore facility in the Pacific Region is required to maintain on-site, oil-spill
                         cleanup equipment that is capable of cleaning up small spills quickly. Periodic drills
                         monitored by the MMS test the readiness of personnel and equipment to respond to a
                         spill at a facility. Cleanup help is also available from response vessels stationed in San
                         Luis Bay, in the Point Conception area; at Santa Barbara by the Clean Seas oil-spill
                         cooperative; and in the Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor by the Clean Coastal Waters
                         cooperative.

                         The MMS conducts regular inspections of all offshore facilities and has issued INC's
                         to operators even for small spills. As a result of its accident investigation of the
                         Platform Gina oil spill described above, the MMS issued an NTL and other actions
                         designed to reduce the likelihood of such a spill reoccurring.

                         Conclusion: All the OCS crude oil spills recorded in the Pacific Region from 1987
                         through 1991 were small. With the exception of a single 50-bbl pipeline spill and one
                         100-bbl platform spill, the spills averaged less than 3 bbl. For comparison, natural
                         seeps in the Santa Barbara Channel have been estimated to introduce 40 to 670 bbl of
                         oil into the marine environment per day (Fischer, 1978), and about I bbl of oil per
                         day seeps into the Channel as a result of the Santa Barbara 1969 spill (USDOI, MMS,
                         1988a). All the OCS-related spills from 1987 through 1991 were quickly cleaned up,
                         and no significant effects on water quality were observed.

                  4.2A2 Air Quality
                         Air quality is affected by emissions from all direct and support activities for natural
                         gas and oil operations such as exploratory drilling, construction, development and
                         production operations, and support craft activities. Table 4.2-2 summarizes the
                         estimated emissions from all OCS direct and support activities in the Pacific Region
                         for 1987 through 1991.

                         The MMS developed and uses the Offshore and Coastal Dispersion Model to
                         determine the onshore impact of inert emissions released from offshore sources. The
                         model accommodates the unique dispersion regime and source characteristics of
                         overwater pollutant releases and their relation to shoreline and overland terrain
                         dynamics. Based on an in-house MMS modeling analysis, the onshore impacts from
                         individual facilities, and cumulatively from several facilities in a common area, were
                         less than I jug/m' for the inert pollutants.

                         Air quality modeling is a tool used to demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship
                         between emissions and ambient air quality. Photochemical models are applied because


                                                                                                           4-81









                  ozone production in the ambient air is nonlinear, as are the emission relationships of
                  the ozone precursors, reactive organic compounds, and NO, The models are computer
                  programs that simulate the atmosphere and calculate ambient ozone concentrations
                  using atmospheric dispersion and photochemical algorithms. These algorithms employ
                  day-specific emission inventories and meteorology. Ozone is the major pollutant of
                  concern for the onshore regions, which are designated as nonattainment areas for the
                  Federal and State standards for ozone. A cooperative air quality study for the Santa
                  Barbara Channel area, the Joint Interagency Modeling -Study (JIMS), assessed the
                  cumulative impacts of emissions from direct and indirect OCS activities on onshore
                  ozone concentrations in Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties. The study was conducted
                  in cooperation with the Santa Barbara and Ventura Air PollutionControl Districts
                  (APCD's), the EPA, the California Air Resources Board, and the MMS. Three distinct
                  meteorological scenarios entailing site-specific data were used to represent
                  meteorological conditions that are highly conducive to ozone formation. For
                  meteorological conditions similar to the three scenarios analyzed by JIMS, it was
                  estimated that the maximum onshore concentrations from existing OCS operating
                  facilities are less than I part per hundred million for ozone. By comparison, the
                  NAAQS for ozone is 12 parts per hundred million. The JIMS estimation is based on
                  the location and number of OCS operations in conjunction with onshore receptors.

                  The MMS modeling analysis placed the levels of the inert emissions associated with
                  offshore sources at less than 1 /Ag/rn@. By comparison, the average annual NAAQS for
                  N02 is 100 tig/m'. A photochemical modeling analysis was performed for the JIMS
                  study to assess the effect of OCS operations on air quality in the South Central Coast
                  Air Basin in California. The results of the analysis showed concentrations well below
                  the NAAQS.























           4-82











                                    Table 4.2-2. Estimated Emissions from OCS Direct and Support Activities in the
                                                  Pacific Region, 1987 through 1991

                                             Activity                              Pollutant Emissions (tons)

                                                                    NO,,          CO           S02         VOCII           TSP

                                    Exploration Drilling                445           80            41             15            92

                                    Construction:

                                     Pipeline                            75            19            9              2             8

                                     Platform                           884          198            86             25            71

                                    Development/Production            5,464        1,442           953         5,939            219

                                    Vessel Traffic3                   3,450          458           186           298            215

                                    Oil Spills                           -                          -            295             -

                                    'Fugitive hydrocarbon emissions not included.
                                    'Assumes 250 bbl of fuel/mi. Based on emission factors from table 3.4-1,
                                    Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors (EPA, 1985).
                                    3Vessel NO. emissions (Kearney, 1991); remaining vessel emissions are MMS estimates.


                               Effects of OCS Drilling/Construction/Production Activities: Exploratory drilling
                               activities produce emissions primarily from the prime movers used in both power and
                               propulsion equipment and from resultant flaring associated with well testing. A total of
                               12 exploratory wells was drilled between 1987 and 1989 in the Pacific Region, with no
                               new exploration drilling in 1990 and 1991. It takes an average of 80-120 days to
                               perform all of the exploratory operations necessary for determination of the prospect.
                               Exploration drilling is considered a temporary activity, and it is unlikely that an
                               activity of such limited duration would hinder the efforts of an area to attain or
                               maintain ambient air quality standards.

                               Construction operations include emissions from platform installation, pipeline and
                               power cable construction, and onshore support facilities. Approximately 29 line miles
                               (46 km) of OCS pipelines were constructed in the Pacific Region between 1987
                               through 1991. Pipeline construction emissions were identified and mitigated by
                               applying available control technologies for marine vessels including ignition timing
                               retard, turbocharging, and other controls to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted.

                               Construction operations involving platform installations in the Pacific Region occurred
                               in 1987 with the topside installation of Platform Gail, and in 1989 with the jacket
                               installations of Platforms Harmony and Heritage. Construction emissions were
                               mitigated through agreements between the facility operators and the APCD's in
                               Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties. Mitigations involved controls on the marine
                               vessels mentioned above and emission offset requirements specified by the APCD's.

                                                                                                                                         4-83









                   One onshore construction project occurred in 1988 to support OCS operations at the
                   SYU. Exxon constructed a separation, treatment, and gas processing plant at Las
                   Flores Canyon in Santa Barbara County. The particulate emissions associated with land
                   clearing and earth movement were mitigated, consistent with the California
                   Environmental Quality Act and local laws and regulations.

                   Through 1991, there was a total of 24 OCS natural gas and oil facilities (20 producing
                   platforms, 1 oil and gas processing platform, 2 nonproducing jackets, and 1 Offshore
                   Storage and Treatment [OS&T] vessel) operating in the Pacific Region. Emission
                   generating activities from production operations entail power production,
                   flaring/venting, and various intermittent sources such as cranes, emergency generators,
                   firewater pumps, and support vehicle operations. Power production demand may be
                   divided into two parts, a relatively stable base-load and a load dependent on production
                   levels of natural gas and oil. Of the 24 OCS facilities, 10 platforms and the OUT are
                   covered by agreements with onshore air pollution control agencies. These agreements
                   involve several control technologies, including the use of low sulfur fuel, injection
                   timing retard, water injection, waste heat recovery, and inspection and maintenance
                   programs to minimize fugitive hydrocarbon emissions. These mitigations minimize air
                   quality effects both locally at the platform and cumulatively in the Pacific Region, and
                   emissions from these facilities are being monitored by the respective air pollution
                   control agencies. The emissions associated with production activities are included in
                   table 4.2-2.


                   Production operations in the Pacific OCS also include support activities that use crew
                   and supply boats and helicopters to transport personnel and supplies to the offshore
                   facilities. Typical operations include two crew boats per day, two supply boats per
                   week, and three-five helicopter trips per week. Emissions from these support
                   operations are quantified in table 4.2-2.

                   Conclusion: No significant cumulative effects on air quality from natural gas and oil
                   drilling/construction/production operations in the Pacific Region have been identified
                   from 1987 through 1991.

                   Effects of OCS Oil SpiHs: From 1987 through 1991, a total of 187 bbl of oil from
                   15 OCS-related spills were recorded in the Pacific Region. These spills resulted in no
                   significant incremental or cumulative effects to air quality. Table 4.2-3 summarizes
                   crude, diesel, and other petroleum spills occurring in the Pacific Region for 1987
                   through 1991. In addition, an estimated 365 bbl of oil seepage per year continues as a
                   result of the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill (USDOI, MMS, 1988a).

                   Once on the ocean surface, oil spreads into a thin layer due to the combined effects of
                   wind and ocean currents. This direct exposure to the atmosphere results in the
                   evaporation of the more volatile fractions of the crude, with weather and sea
                   conditions playing major factors in the release rate. Emissions from these 15 oil spills


            4-84









                           measured an estimated 0. 16 tons per day. By comparison, natural seeps in the Santa
                           Barbara Channel are estimated to release 6 tons per day of reactive hydrocarbons into
                           the atmosphere (Chambers Group, Inc., 1986). The resultant emissions from oil spills
                           from OCS operations and continued seepage from the Santa Barbara spill are
                           quantified in table 4.2-2.



                                               Table 4.2-3. OCS Crude, Diesel, or Other Spills in
                                                             the Pacific Region, 1987 through 1991
                                                     Year         Spill Size (bbl) T Fluid Spilled

                                                     1987                      1.0  Crude Oil

                                                                               2.5  Crude Oil


                                                                               8.0  Crude Oil

                                                     1988                      1.0  Condensate

                                                                               1.5  Condensate

                                                     1989                      1.2  Crude Oil

                                                                               2.0  Crude Oil

                                                                               5.0  Hydraulic Oil

                                                     1990                      1.0  Crude Oil


                                                                             100.0  Mineral Oil


                                                     1991                      1.0  Crude Oil

                                                                               1.0  Crude Oil

                                                                               1.3  Crude Oil


                                                                              10.0  Crude Oil

                                                                              50.0  Crude Oil



                           Conclusion: No significant cumulative effects on air quality resulting from OCS oil
                                            c
                           spills in the Pa   ific Regions, 1987-1991, were identified.










                                                                                                                          4-85








            4.2B Biological Environment
            4.2B1 Lower Trophic Organisms
                  Effects of Offshore Discharge of OCS Muds and Cuttings: From 1987 through
                  1991, approximately 390,000 bbI of drilling muds and 200,000 bbl of cuttings were
                  discharged in the Pacific Region as a result of drilling 119 exploratory and
                  development wells. Nearly 90 percent of this activity and concomitant discharges of
                  muds and cuttings occurred in the Santa Barbara Channel and Santa Maria Basin.

                  The lower trophic organisms of concern in the vicinity of Pacific Region muds and
                  cuttings discharges are bottom-inhabiting invertebrates. Most of the bottom habitat in
                  the Pacific Region consists of soft sediments where organisms live primarily within the
                  sediment below the surface. Fewer organisms live on the bottom's surface. Since soft
                  bottom communities remain essentially the same for miles at similar depths (Fauchald
                  and Jones 1977), no significant cumulative effects on soft-bottom benthic communities,
                  except immediately around platforms, were identified.

                  The other type of habitat in the Pacific Region is hard bottom. In this rare habitat,
                  nearly all lower trophic organisms live on the surface and are more directly exposed to
                  sedimentation. Thus, due to greater direct exposure and the scarcity of habitat, the
                  rocky hard-bottom communities have a greater potential of being affected by muds and
                  cuttings discharges.

                  Drilling muds and cuttings can affect lower trophic organisms through burial, clogging
                  of respiratory or feeding structures, or toxicity. Particularly in the case of hard or
                  rocky bottoms, settlement of appreciable amounts of drilling sediments could change
                  the composition of the bottom surface and favor a different species composition more
                  compatible to softer bottoms. According to Neff, Rabalais et al. (1985) sublethal
                  effects on certain bottom organisms occur several orders of magnitude lower than
                  lethal effects. However, the authors concluded that organisms in the water column,
                  such as plankton, will never be exposed to drilling muds long enough to show even
                  sublethal effects because the rate of mud dilution is so rapid. Effects in the immediate
                  vicinity of the platform may occur because of the slight toxicity of drilling muds; a
                  bioaccumulation of barium and chromium; and slight accumulations of copper,
                  cadmium, and lead.

                  The area of sea bottom covered by drilling muds will vary significantly with depth and
                  currents. The horizontal distance reached by drilling muds is greater than that of drill
                  cuttings because of the muds' lighter weights. Studies by NRC (1983) and Battelle
                  (1990) suggest that drilling fluids can be deposited several kilometers from the
                  platform, but effects, if they occur, are at lesser horizontal distances. The MMS-
                  funded CAMP sampling in the Santa Maria Basin (Battelle Ocean Sciences, 1991)
                  reported possible discharge-related effects on hard bottoms within 400-500 m of



           4-86








                          drilling operations. However, Menzies et al. (1980) reported effects on benthic
                          communities out to distance of 800 ni from drilling muds on Georges Bank.

                          The biological stipulation, which has been in effect for all exploratory or development
                          processes, effectively requires the lessee either to avoid sensitive hard substrate areas
                          (hard-bottoms areas) by relocating the wells or platform site or to conduct a biological
                          survey to determine the area's composition or sensitivity. One biological survey was
                          conducted during exploratory drilling on POCS-0456, a tract associated with the Point
                          Arguello Field. Since 1987, the original exploratory well drilling plans have been
                          modified on at least three tracts to avoid hard bottoms.


                          Battelle Ocean Sciences (1991) conducted a monitoring study of the impacts caused by
                          drilling discharges on hard-bottom communities in the Santa Maria Basin along a
                          gradient of increasing distances from the production platform in the Pt. Arguello Field.
                          The monitoring study is continuing with its objectives of separating natural background
                          variation from potential low-level cumulative effects caused by drilling activities.

                          Battelle Ocean Sciences (1991) reported that the populations of hard-bottom species
                          within 400-500 ni of Platform Hidalgo in the Santa Maria Basin exhibited some
                          changes that were possibly caused by the deposition of drilling muds and cuttings.
                          Several variables such as water depth, relief of the rocky outcrop, and current
                          direction were involved; however, conclusions about drilling fluids causing effects
                          could not be definitive. The study is being continued to attempt to get a better line on
                          the actual cause of the effects. The effects do not include the formation of a sediment
                          mound, and mortality by burial is not involved. Boesch and Robilliard (1985),
                          however, reported that the deposition of drill cuttings may, depending on water depth,
                          create a mound that ranges up to a few meters high and covers an area 100-200 rn in
                          diameter. These mounds contain substantial quantities of biological materials (such as
                          mussel shells) originally attached to the platforms legs, but with the death of the
                          organism, these materials have fallen to the ocean floor. These mounds have altered
                          the original communities-becoming richer communities in terms of biomass and
                          productivity. However, since the habitat remains a sediment habitat, it is comprised of
                          different numbers of many of the same species that were present prior to drilling. This
                          altered community will last at least the life of the platforms (approximately 25 years).

                          The biological stipulation curbs most drilling on hard bottoms, and no platform in the
                          Pacific Region is located directly on hard bottoms. Platform Hidalgo, however, is
                          located near several hard-bottom outcrops. No mounds have formed on the hard
                          bottoms, but there may be a slight change in the distribution of several of the species
                          due to the discharge of drilling fluids. Although some effects to hard-bottom species
                          occurred near Platform Hidalgo as the result of drill muds and cuttings, cumulative
                          effects to hard-bottom communities were not significant. This fact will remain true as
                          long as hard bottoms are avoided.



                                                                                                                 4-87









                   Conclusion: Although burial caused soft-bottom population deaths within 200 m of
                   platforms and community alterations within 500 m of platforms, significant cumulative
                   effects to the soft-bottom community did not occur. Also, because the biological
                   stipulation requires OCS operators to avoid hard bottoms, significant effects to hard-
                   bottom communities did not occur. Measured impacts to these communities, if they
                   actually are caused by drilling muds and cuttings, are minor.

                   Effects of OCS Pipeline Construction: The effects associated with the installation of
                   subsea oil and gas pipelines are the smothering and crushing of the subtidal and
                   intertidal soft- and hard-bottom lower trophic organisms. These effects result from the
                   positioning and setting of lay barge anchors and cables, and pipelaying. The total
                   amount of disturbance to subtidal benthic communities would depend on the methods
                   of pipeline and anchoring installation (URS Company, 1986; USDOI, MMS, 1987).
                   Approximately 29 miles of OCS pipelines were constructed in the southern Santa
                   Maria Basin and Santa Barbara Channel in the Pacific Region between 1987 through
                   1991.


                   The studies of Centaur Associates, Inc. (1984), ADL (1985), and Chambers Group,
                   Inc. (1986) have determined that at certain soft-bottom areas in southern California the
                   positioning of anchors can result in anchor scars (trenches and mounds) on the
                   seafloor. The scars from natural gas and oil operations ranged from 50 to 540 ni in
                   length and could remain for 2-5 years in fine soft-bottom sediments. Such seafloor
                   disturbances were not continuous from pipeline to anchor, but occurred at a horizontal
                   distance of 3 to 7 times the depth of the anchor. Additionally, the anchor cables could
                   disturb bottom areas for a length of approximately 490 m per anchor and could create
                   a 0.6-m swath. The anchor scars serve as traps for fine sediment and organic material.
                   The resulting microhabitat from this disturbance (sediment alteration) in the affected
                   areas could be different from that of the surrounding environment. This difference
                   could result in a temporary change in species composition since soft-bottom infauna
                   are dependent upon grain size of the sediment.

                   Temporary and localized sediment scouring would result from the anchoring events.
                   Theoretically, this scouring would reduce dissolved oxygen concentrations and
                   interfere with the nourishment of suspension feeding benthic species, thus causing
                   alteration of ecological relationships, displacement/reduction of some species, or
                   enhancement of the population of others. These effects are presumed to ce@se after I
                   or 2 years (USDOI, MMS 1992b). The installation of pipelines would cause a
                   temporary 20-m (65 ft) wide disturbance along their axis. However, the pipeline itself
                   generally causes less of an effect than anchor scars and consists of an insignificant
                   interference with ecological impacts lasting for less than a year.

                   According to ADL (1985), Chambers Group, Inc (1986), URS Company (1986), and
                   USDOI, MMS (1987), the installation of pipelines and associated anchoring activities
                   would cause loss of attached hard-bottom organisms due to crushing and displacement


           4-88








                         of the biota and hard substrate in the 20-m (65-ft) corridor combined with a small
                         portion under the positioning anchors. Hard substrates are rare, and they support
                         diverse and long-lived communities. Hard-bottom communities would require longer
                         than 5 years to recover from disturbances caused by pipeline construction activities.
                         This delay is due to the slow recovery of the hard-bottom's biotic community. Because
                         hard bottoms are rare and sensitive and require long recovery periods, they are
                         avoided during pipelaying in the OCS whenever possible (e.g., the Pt. Arguello and
                         SYU projects).

                         The biological stipulation, which effectively requires a developer either to avoid a
                         particularly sensitive area (hard-bottoms areas) or to conduct a biological survey to
                         determine the composition or sensitivity of the area, has been in effect for pipeline
                         construction as well as exploratory or developmental processes. Although no biological
                         survey has been conducted as a result of pipeline routes since 1987, pipeline
                         construction operations have had to avoid placing anchors on hard bottoms. In fact, the
                         Conditions of Approval for pipeline and power cable installation in the SYU specified
                         that Exxon use offshore installation techniques to minimize turbidity, and that they use
                         dynamically positioned vessels to lay all pipelines and power cables from platforms to
                         shore. This use involved about 22 anchor settings and retrievals in Federal waters.
                         These actions resulted in a reduction of 200-300 anchoring events compared to
                         operations involving standard lay barges; consequently, there was a proportional
                         decrease in the levels of turbidity from resuspended sediments (USDOI, MMS,
                         1991b). Pipelaying activities were monitored by MMS inspectors throughout the
                         construction period. As another measure of safety, pipelines in the Pacific Region have
                         not been buried to reduce the danger of rupture during earthquakes.

                         Conclusion: Although soft-bottom populations experienced a temporary (less than a
                         year) change in species composition caused by anchor scars or anchor disturbances,
                         significant cumulative effects to the soft-bottom community did not occur from
                         pipeline construction from 1987 through 1991. Because the biological stipulation
                         requires OCS operators to avoid hard bottoms, pipelines were not placed on these
                         habitats.


                         Effects of Offshore Discharge of OCS-Produced Formation Waters: From 1987
                         through 1991, an estimated 210,000 bbl of produced formation waters were discharged
                         from OCS activities in the Pacific Region. Produced water is discharged offshore only
                         into the Santa Barbara Channel. However, produced water from platforms in the Santa
                         Maria Basis is shipped to shore and disposed of in onshore wells, while that from
                         platforms off Long Beach is disposed of in down-waterflood and disposal wells. The
                         lower trophic organisms affected by produced formation water are the temporary
                         drifting planktonic species. Since OCS-produced water is discharged only into the
                         Santa Barbara Channel, effects to lower-trophic-level plankton occurred only there.




                                                                                                              4-89









                  In 1989, in conjunction with the MMS-funded Southern California Educational
                  Initiative, scientists at the University of California, Santa Barbara, began field and
                  laboratory studies on the effects of produced formation waters on the reproductive
                  lifestages of several species of marine invertebrates. The field work focused on an
                  outfall located at a depth of 10-12 ni in the Santa Barbara Channel near Carpinteria.
                  The studies are ongoing, but preliminary results have been obtained. Although these
                  studies have not demonstrated acute toxicity to marine organisms from produced water
                  (Krause et al., 1992), sublethal effects have been observed in sea urchin embryos in
                  the laboratory (Baldwin et al., 1992) and in adult mussels (Osenberg et al., 1992)
                  outplanted at distances of up to 100 ni from the source (Cherr et al., 1992).

                  The studies begun under the Southern California Educational Initiative indicate that
                  planktonic larvae can be affected by produced water plumes, even from discharges in
                  open-coast environments such as that found at the Carpinteria outfall (Raimondi and
                  Schmitt, 1992). However, it is impossible at this stage to determine whether the
                  discharge of produced water results in effects on marine organisms at the population
                  level.


                  Recent field studies by Raimondi and Schmitt (in press) have shown that abalone
                  larvae held in containers within 100 ni of produced water diffusers for 4 continuous
                  days showed as much as a 30-percent reduction in survival. Also, settlement of the
                  larvae onto hard, benthic substrates was also delayed. Although the 4-day exposure
                  period used in the test is not truly representative of the short exposure periods
                  planktonic larvae are expected to encounter on the OCS, exposure for far shorter
                  periods and distances less than 100 ni from the diffuser resulted in several effects to
                  the larvae. The larvae temporarily stop swimming, slowly sink, and then return to
                  normal behavior slowly only after exposure has ceased. Effects such as these may
                  cause reduced survival rates in the marine environment. As the authors suggest, this
                  question seems worthy of further study. The evidence does not suggest, however, that
                  the effects on the population are significant enough to alter population levels, with the
                  possible exception of individuals that may settle on or within a small distance from a
                  platform. This latter supposition has not been documented.

                  Conclusion: From 1987 through 1991, some settling by temporary driffing plankton
                  larvae was hindered by the discharge of OCS-produced formation waters from the
                  exploration and production wells drilled in the Santa Barbara Channel. However,
                  alteration of the population levels was not documented.

                  Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, 15 small (> I bbl) accidental
                  OCS-related oil spills (totalling 187 bbl) from platforms or pipelines occurred on the
                  Pacific OCS. Lower trophic organisms affected by oil spills are those inhabiting
                  estuaries and intertidal habitats. None of the OCS-associated spilled oil reached shore.




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                          Subtidal benthic organisms can be affected by contact with an oil spill, especially in
                          shallow areas. However, they are less susceptible to impacts for two reasons: (1) They
                          are not subject to prolonged direct contact with oil as are intertidal organisms, which
                          can be completely covered with oil when exposed during an entire low tide period. On
                          flat surfaces, there are no currents, waves, or dissolution to remove oil from intertidal
                          organisms during low tide. (2) The water motion of waves and currents is also
                          involved. Subtidal benthic organisms are subject to currents, and shallow-water
                          subtidal benthic organisms are subject to the energy of both waves and currents. Oil in
                          high-energy environments with a lot of forceful water movement, such as occurs on
                          the Pacific coast, breaks up or moves too rapidly or forcibly to remain in contact with
                          benthic organisms very long, particularly when compared with oil in an estuary.

                          In the intertidal habitat, oil can remain in contact with lower trophic organisms for
                          relatively long periods (lasting for several hours), when the water has receded at low
                          tide and when the organisms are exposed directly to the oil and can become oiled
                          again during the next tide. Communities on large, flat, or gently sloping rocky
                          intertidal habitats have the greatest potential for impacts from oil spills on the ocean
                          coast. Another factor that causes greater impacts is calm water without appreciable
                          waves or currents, often referred to as low-energy environments. The habitat that most
                          exemplifies calm water is the estuary.

                          Estuaries are shallow and have very little wave action. Oil under these conditions does
                          not break up and disperse. It can remain in contact with a lower-trophic-level organism
                          for relatively long periods and can settle to the bottom and penetrate into bottom
                          sediments where it can become particularly harmful to plants and animals. Since
                          estuaries in southern California are rare, closed part of the year, or with narrow
                          openings, it is unlikely that the spill would enter an estuary.

                          The studies of ADL (1985), Bechtel Petroleum, Inc. (1985), Chambers Group, Inc.
                          (1986) and USDOI, MMS (1983 and 1990b) suggqst that the severity of impact by oil
                          spills on rocky intertidal communities varies depending on sea state, residence time of
                          the oil prior to contact, and isolation and configuration of the site contacted.
                          Generally, isolated and flat rocky intertidal areas are more severely affected. Due to
                          gravity, oil remains longer on flat surfaces than on sloped surfaces, thus resulting in
                          smothering and toxic impacts to biological communities.

                          Help in oil-spill cleanup is available from response vessels stationed in San Luis
                          Obispo Bay, the Point Conception area, and Santa Barbara by the Clean Seas oil-spill
                          cooperative, and in the Los Angeles/Long Beach Harbor by the Clean Coastal Waters
                          cooperative. Also, each offshore facility in the Pacific Region is required to maintain
                          on-site oil-spill cleanup equipment capable of cleaning up small spills quickly. Periodic
                          drills monitored by the MMS test the readiness of personnel and equipment to respond
                          to a spill at a facility. These readiness requirements are primarily designed to ensure,
                          to the fullest extent possible, that an oil spill would be contained or diverted from


                                                                                                                4-91








                  areas containing rich and sensitive lower-trophic-level organisms. The oil-spin
                  response requirement is intended to prevent an oil spill from reaching the shoreline or
                  estuaries and wetlands by maintaining state-of-the-art oil-spill containment and cleanup
                  equipment and capabilities on site and in the vicinity of the drilling operations. This
                  measure helps ensure that the actual physical equipment necessary for an adequate oil-
                  spill response capability exists and is in a state of readiness and that oil-spill personnel
                  are properly trained.

                  Conclusion: Because none of the oil spilled during 1987 through 1991 from OCS-
                  related accidents reached shore, no impacts to shoreline, estuarine, or bottom lower-
                  trophic-level organisms occurred in the Pacific Region.

           4.2B2 Fish Resources
                  Effects of OCS Geophysical Surveying: Geophysical survey activities in the Pacific
                  Region have been limited: 44 geophysical seismic survey permits were issued.
                  Acoustic signals from air gun or water gun arrays used during deep seismic surveys
                  can have lethal or sublethal behavioral effects on various life stages of fishery
                  resources. These effects can be translated into effects on the fish populations as a
                  whole and, consequently, on the fishermen who harvest those resources.

                  Because of the short duration of air gun sounds, Battelle Marine Research Laboratory
                  and BBN Laboratories (Battelle and BBN) (1987) concluded that the effective detection
                  thresholds of 110-130 decibels (dB) re 14Pa for air gun sounds are probably not masked
                  by background noise. Battelle and BBN (1987) estimated that rockfish (Sebastes sp.)
                  could hear survey sounds at a distance of 34 nautical miles (63 km) from a 250-dB
                  source level for an air gun array and a 25Log(R) transmission loss.

                  Fish or invertebrate eggs and larvae may be damaged or killed if exposed to intense
                  acoustic energy at close range. Northern anchovy yolk-sac larvae (2-4 days old)
                  suffered significantly reduced-. survival and growth rates when exposed to sound
                  pressures three to four times the levels that would occur normally if a full seismic
                  array passed directly over the larvae at a distance of 3 m; however, eggs and larvae
                  (15-22 days old) were not significantly affected (Holliday et al., 1987). Pearson et al.
                  (1988) reported that peak sound pressures as high as 231 dB re 14Pa did not
                  significantly affect Dungeness crab early larvae (zoea) survival, developmental rates,
                  or behavioral responses. Pressure levels emanating from air guns may damage the
                  swim bladders of juvenile and adult fishes at a fairly close range. No significant
                  mortality occurred at a distance of 6 m, although juvenile cod were disoriented for up
                  to 2 days. Damage to swim bladders of adult northern anchovy occurred at about
                  0.6-1.5 m at sound pressure levels of 233 dB (Holliday et al., 1987).

                  Fish hear and respond to single air gun or air gun array sources if they are exposed to
                  moderately high sound pressure levels for at least several minutes. Pelagic schooling


           4-92








                        fish, such as herring and whiting, reacted to air gun-generated sound pressure levels of
                        180-188 dB re 1APa by swimming away, either to deeper water or to another area
                        (Dalen and Knutsen, 1986; Dalen, 1973 [as cited in Battelle and BBN, 1987];
                        Chapman and Hawkins, 1969).

                        Battelle and BBN (1987) observed that several species of rockfish gave alarm and
                        startle responses to sounds from a single air gun. Startle responses (reflexive flexions,
                        shuddering, rapid swimming) were not observed in caged rockfish below 200 dB re
                        1APa. The threshold for alarm responses (changes in schooling behavior, vertical
                        distribution, and activity level) was about 180 dB re 1APa. Some subtle changes in
                        behavior became evident at 161 dB re APa. The fish appeared to return to their
                        previous behavior within minutes after the air gun noise ceased. However, under
                        conditions of the experiment, the fish may have become habituated to the noise.

                        The limited scientific evidence available suggests that significant effects on pelagic fish
                        eggs and larvae would probably only occur relatively close to an operating air gun
                        array. It seems unlikely that individual eggs and larvae would normally be exposed to
                        more than one to two shots within the near-field influence of an air gun array during
                        an actual seismic survey because of the following:
                              ï¿½   the spacing and pattern of shot lines during actual geophysical surveys
                              ï¿½   the extensive spawning areas of most species compared with the survey
                                  tracklines
                              ï¿½   the high reproductive rates characteristic of species with pelagic eggs and
                                  larvae
                              ï¿½   the patchy distribution of pelagic eggs and larvae
                                  the passive movement of eggs and larvae due to ocean currents and other
                                  transport processes
                                  the diel periodicity and vertical migrations characteristic of the larvae of
                                  many species

                        The probability is extremely low that populations or year classes of adult fish would be
                        significantly affected by mortalities of pelagic eggs, larvae, or juveniles killed during
                        seismic surveys. Behavioral effects are difficult to quantify, difficult to interpret
                        relative to specific impacts, and difficult to assess at the population level. However,
                        according to the few studies conducted thus far, the major effect of seismic surveys
                        appears to be on the behavior of juvenile and adult fish, not on their survival.
                        Behavior tends to return to normal shortly after the noise ceases, although habituation
                        to sustained noise may occur.

                        Conclusion: No significant cumulative effects of seismic surveys on fish resources
                        were documented for the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991.





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                   Effects of Offshore Discharge of OCS Muds and Cuttings: From 1987 through
                   1991, approximately 390,000 bbl of drilling muds and 200,000 bbl of cuttings were
                   discharged in the Pacific Region as a result of drilling 119 exploratory and
                   development wells. Nearly 90 percent of the drilling activity and, in turn, the
                   discharge of drilling muds and cuttings occurred in the Santa Barbara Channel and
                   Santa Maria Basin.


                   After studying the extensive research done on the effects of drilling muds and cuttings,
                   the NRC (1983) concluded that "the effects of individual discharges are quite limited
                   in extent and are confined mainly to the benthic environment." Neff (1987) concluded
                   that "water column organisms will never be exposed to drilling fluids long enough and
                   at sufficiently high concentrations to elicit any acute or sublethal responses."

                   Battelle Ocean Sciences (1991) found that variations in benthic epifauna did not seem
                   to be related to the chemical toxicity of drilling mud constituents, and suggested that
                   elevated concentrations of barium in suspended particles were unlikely to cause any
                   toxic effects in hard-bottom epifauna. In a conclusion based on the results of many
                   studies, Battelle Ocean Sciences (1991) found that "adverse biological effects on the
                   benthos, when observed, have been limited to within about 1 kni of the discharge
                   source .... Results of the present study suggest that any biological effects due to the
                   drilling muds were related to physical effects of the increased particle loading."

                   Drilling muds are from practically nontoxic to slightly toxic to fish (Neff, 1987).
                   Increased bottom topographic relief caused by accumulations of cuttings, fallout of
                   mussels and other fouling organisms from submerged platform structures, and the
                   structures themselves tend to create an artificial reef effect that attracts fish and motile
                   invertebrates to the area for feeding.

                   Potential impacts to target species are mitigated, to the maximum extent practical, by
                   discharge requirements imposed by the EPA through the issuance of NPDES permits.
                   Under these permits, the volume, frequency, and contents of all discharges are
                   regulated to protect fish and other marine life from adverse effects.

                   Biological effects of drilling muds are probably related to the physical effects of
                   increased sedimentation, not to the toxic effects of chemicals in the muds. The
                   magnitude of impact of drilling muds and cuttings on benthic organisms is related to
                   the amounts discharged and to the environmental conditions. More material
                   accumulates in low-energy environments, thereby enhancing artificial reef effects.
                   Discharged muds and cuttings will bury food organisms in the area and render them
                   unavailable to bottom-feeding fish, resulting in temporary displacement of these fish,
                   until drilling stops and resettlement occurs.

                   Very little is known about the effects of drilling muds on pelagic fish. Drilling
                   discharges might cause brief temporary changes in their distribution near the discharge


            4-94









                         point if they avoid the discharge plume. However, plume avoidance would not cause
                         any discernible long-term impacts on the normal distribution, behavior, and
                         catchability of pelagic fish.

                         Conclusion: Because direct and indirect effects on fish resources and their food
                         supplies are localized, no significant cumulative effects from discharges of drilling
                         muds and cuttings on fish resources were documented for the Pacific Region from
                         1987 through 1991.

                         Effects of Offshore Discharge of OCS-Produced Formation Waters: An estimated
                         210,000 bbl of produced formation waters were discharged from OCS activities in the
                         Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991.

                         The discharge of formation waters introduces low levels of sulfur, hydrocarbons, and
                         heavy metals into the marine environment. Gallaway (1981) concluded that produced
                         waters are only slightly toxic and directly affect only the area within a few meters of
                         the discharge point. Long-term effects, including the implications of the effects of
                         heavy metals, remain to be assessed.

                         Studies addressing the long-term localized or areawide impacts from formation water
                         discharges were not undertaken or completed in the Pacific Region during 1987-1991.
                         Potential effects on target species are mitigated, to the maximum extent practical, by
                         discharge requirements imposed by EPA through the issuance of NPDES permits.
                         Under these permits, the volume, frequency, and contents of all discharges are
                         regulated to protect fish and other marine life from adverse effects.

                         Given the rapid dilution of discharged produced water in offshore waters and given the
                         similarity in composition of produced water and normal marine water, the effects of
                         produced water on fish resources are expected to be limited. Additional information on
                         this topic will become available once NMS-funded studies undertaken by the
                         University of California at Davis and Santa Barbara are completed.

                         Conclusion: During this report period, no significant cumulative effects of produced
                         water on fish resources were documented for the Pacific Region.

                         Effects of OCS OU Spills: Although no substantive impacts from OCS-related oil
                         spills have been observed for more than 20 years (USDOI, MMS, 1991b),
                         environmental degradation that might result from such spills continues to be one of the
                         greatest causes of concern about OCS development.

                         During the period 1987-1991, 15 small (> I bbl) OCS-related spills occurred in the
                         Pacific Region. These spills, all of which occurred at platforms or pipelines, averaged
                         37 bbl per year. Seepage of oil from the 1969 Santa Barbara spill continues at the rate
                         of about 365 bbl per year (USDOI, MMS, 1988a). For comparison, natural seeps in


                                                                                                              4-95










                    the Santa Barbara Channel are estimated to introduce 40-670 bbI of oil into the marine
                    environment each day (USDOI, MMS, 1988a).

                    An oil spill that contacts fish or shellfish can kill or harm individuals or affect entire
                    populations. Sublethal effects include inhibition of feeding, growth, development,
                    energetics, and reproduction. The nature and severity of the biological effects of oil
                    exposure depend on the kind of oil involved, the extent to which the oil has weathered,
                    and the sensitivity of the lifestage (e.g., egg, larva, juvenile, adult) of the organism
                    involved. These effects are modified by the ability of an organism to accumulate and
                    metabolize hydrocarbons. Metabolism of these compounds affects their transformation
                    into more or less toxic derivatives and affects their deposition within or elimination
                    from an organism.

                    Fishes with more limited distributions within southern California that are vulnerable to
                    oil-spill effects include bay and estuarine fishes. Pacific herring would be most
                    vulnerable to oil spills during spawning (primarily December-February) within bays
                    and estuaries. A large oil spill contacting these areas during spawning could
                    contaminate spawning substrate; affect availability of food supplies; and cause egg,
                    larval, or adult mortalities either directly or indirectly. While sublethal/lethal effects
                    on individual Pacific herring could occur in locally affected areas, the magnitude of
                    resulting mortality is likely to be too small to be measurable as a decline in overall
                    population size since the majority of the California population is located outside the
                    area. Replacement of reduced local stocks is expected to be rapid Oess than 2 years),
                    as areas are recolonized from abundant and mobile stocks, which mature rapidly,
                    spawn several times during their lives, and are prolific breeders.

                    The sensitivity of early developmental stages, the observed impairment of reproductive
                    processes, and the potential long-term effects on populations suggest that chronic
                    exposure to oil may alter the dynamics of benthic populations, including those of
                    demersal fish (Capuzzo, 1987). However, the NRC (1985) concluded that "a direct
                    impact [of oil spills] on fishery stocks has not been observed."

                    Conclusion: No significant cumulative effects of OCS oil spins on fish resources were
                    documented in the Pacific Region during the report period.

            4.2B3 Endangered or Threatened Species
                    The various endangered or threatened species in the Pacific Region include whales, sea
                    otters, and birds. These are discussed below.

            (a) Endangered Whales
                    Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: During OCS exploratory operations, deep seismic
                    surveys are made to investigate geological formations before drilling to help locate
                    natural gas and oil reserves. The surveys are conducted by reflecting acoustic energy


            4-96








                         off subsurface layers and recording the reflections. The high-energy acoustical pulses
                         used in seismic surveys are generated by air guns or water guns. From 1987 through
                         1991, 44 seismic surveys were conducted in the Pacific Region off northern
                         California, in the Santa Barbara Channel, and off San Diego. Seismic surveys in these
                         areas were conducted 5-95 km offshore and averaged 640 km of trackline (with a
                         range of 30-3,700 km).

                         If the acoustic waves generated during seismic surveys exceed the ambient
                         "background" noise, they can produce sublethal effects in endangered whales by
                         interfering with communication or altering behavior. In controlled experiments, gray
                         whales have exhibited startle responses, avoidance reactions, and other behavioral
                         changes when exposed to seismic pulses at levels above 160 dB, which corresponds to
                         a distance of about 3.6 km from an air-gun array (Malme et al., 1989). Less consistent
                         reactions have occurred at received volume levels of 140-160 dB (Malme et al., 1983;
                         1984; 1989). However, Malme et al. (1989) concluded that baleen whales seem to be
                         quite tolerant of noise impulses produced by marine seismic exploration.

                         Endangered Species Act biological opinions issued by the NMFS for 1987-1991 OCS
                         activities concluded that geophysical seismic activities may create a stressful situation
                         but are not likely to present a barrier to whale migration. Indeed, extensive
                         geophysical exploration has been conducted off the California coast for more than 35
                         years. Over this period, the gray whale has recovered to population levels at or above
                         precommercial whaling levels (Reilly, 1984) and is proposed for removal from the List
                         of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. Humpback and blue whales have also been
                         sighted in increasing numbers in southern California waters in recent years.

                         Conclusion: Given the findings discussed above and the limited number of seismic
                         surveys conducted in the Pacific Region during 1987 through 1991, seismic operations
                         had no significant effect on endangered whale populations.

                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: Noise and disturbance from OCS support
                         vessel and helicopter traffic may be sources of impacts to endangered whales. Support
                         vessels for activities in the Santa Barbara Channel and Santa Maria Basin operate out
                         of bases in the Santa Barbara Channel; support vessels traveling to and from the four
                         platforms in the Beta Unit operate out of Long Beach. Support vessels average 16 trips
                         per week per platform, helicopters 3 to 5 trips per week per platform.

                         Noise from helicopter and service-vessel traffic may elicit a startle reaction from
                         endangered whales or mask their sound reception. The reactions of gray whales to
                         aircraft and/or certain aircraft noises have been examined systematically (Malme et al.,
                         1989). Although sensitivity varies with whale activity, reactions including hasty dives,
                         turns, and other altered behaviors have been observed (Ljungblad et al., 1983;
                         Ljungblad et al., 1987; Malme et al., 1983; 1984). There is no evidence that single or
                         occasional aircraft overflights cause long-term displacement (Malme et al., 1989).


                                                                                                                4-97









                   Service vessels comprise the greatest amount of marine traffic associated with OCS
                   activities. Although gray whales seem to ignore most low-amplitude vessel sounds,
                   avoidance and approach responses have been observed in field studies (Watkins, 1986;
                   Malme et al., 1989; Richardson et al., 1991). There is little information on the sound
                   levels involved. Migrating gray whales have been observed to avoid the approach of
                   vessels to within 200-300 m (Wyrick, 1954), summering grays to within 350-550 m
                   (Bogoslovskaya et al., 1981).

                   Wolman and Rice (1979) hypothesized that increased vessel traffic off southern
                   California might be causing greater numbers of whales to migrate farther offshore.
                   The estimated percentage of gray whales using offshore routes through the Southern
                   California Bight has increased over the years (Rice, 1965; Dohl, Norris et al., 1981;
                   Dohl, Guess et al., 1983; MBC Applied Environmental Services, 1989a), but it is
                   possible that earlier investigators may have simply overlooked the importance of
                   offshore routes. As noted in the section on seismic surveying, the gray whale
                   population has grown steadily in recent decades, and humpback and blue whales are
                   appearing in increasing numbers. There is no evidence that increased vessel traffic has
                   resulted in adverse impacts on any endangered cetaceans, including migrating gray
                   whales.


                   In December 1991, in conjunction with the installation of offshore pipelines and power
                   cables for the SYU expansion project in the western Santa Barbara Channel, Exxon
                   was required to implement a marine mammal monitoring program (Exxon, 1991;
                   Woodhouse and Howorth, 1992). The monitoring program was designed to lessen
                   possible impacts by reducing physical contact between construction vessels and
                   equipment and marine mammals that begin migrating southward through the Santa
                   Barbara Channel in December, particularly gray whales. Using a dedicated vessel, the
                   region was monitored for 86 days. The monitoring vessel observed and tracked
                   migrating gray whales through the construction area and alerted crew boats and
                   construction vessels to the presence of whales. Relatively few gray whales were
                   sighted in the construction area, but the lack of comprehensive baseline data on gray
                   whale use of the area made it impossible to determine whether migratory pathways
                   were being altered (Woodhouse and Howorth, 1992). Although two major pathways
                   were identified, there was no evidence that the construction activities interfered with
                   the gray whale migration.

                   Under the authority of the Marine Mammal Protection Act, the NMFS proposed
                   regulations to provide greater protection to whales, dolphins, and porpoises by not
                   allowing people, vessels, and aircraft to approach them closer than a specified distance
                   (57 FR 34101, August 3, 1992). The proposed rule sets a minimum vessel approach
                   distance of 100 yards (91.4 m) for whales. It also prohibits aircraft from operating
                   within 1,000 feet (304.8 m) of cetaceans. Research involving any closer approach to
                   animals would require a research permit.



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                        Through an Information to Lessees (rM), lessees in the Pacific Region are provided
                        with guidelines for protecting marine mammals and birds from aircraft. This ITL
                        states that
                             Aircraft should operate to reduce effects of aircraft disturbances on
                             seabird colonies and marine mammals, including migrating gray
                             whales, consistent with aircraft safety, at distances from the coastline
                             and at altitudes for specific areas identified by the U.S. Fish and
                             Wildlife Service (FWS), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS),
                             and the California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG). A
                             minimum altitude of 1,000 feet is recommended near the Channel
                             Islands National Marine Sanctuary to minimize potential disturbances.
                             The CDFG and FWS recommend minimum altitude restrictions over
                             many of the rookeries and colonies.

                        Based on experiences in southern California, the belief is that accidental collisions
                        between endangered whales and support-base traffic are unlikely events. Although
                        large cetaceans were occasionally struck by freighters or tankers and sometimes by
                        small recreational boats, no such incidents were reported with crew or supply boats off
                        California (I. Lagomarsino, NMFS, pers. comm.) during 1987 through 1991.

                        Conclusion: During the report period, there was no evidence that OCS-related support
                        vessel traffic in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991 adversely affected any
                        endangered cetacean, including migrating gray whales.

                        Effects of OCS Oil SpiHs: During the period from 1987 through 1991, 15 OCS-
                        related oil spills (> 1 bbl) occurred in the Pacific Region, spilling a total 187 barrels
                        of oil. The spilled oil contacted a very small percentage of habitat available to
                        endangered whales and other endangered cetaceans.

                        Several recent studies (reviewed by Geraci and St. Aubin, 1985b and 1990) attempted
                        to determine the possible effects of oil on marine mammals. These studies focused on
                        a marine mammal's ability to detect and avoid oil, behavioral effects, thermal effects,
                        tissue damage due to oil contact, inhalation of oil, and ingestion of oil including
                        toxicity and bioaccumulation.

                        A field study of the reactions of migrating gray whales to naturally occurring oil slicks
                        in the Santa Barbara Channel (Evans, 1982) recorded mainly subtle and short-tem
                        responses to the presence of oil, such as changes in direction. When the 1969 Santa
                        Barbara oil spill occurred, gray whales were beginning to arrive in the Santa Barbara
                        Channel on their northward migration, passing through or west of the slick (Brownell,
                        1971); at least one group of gray whales was sighted moving northward through the
                        slick, blowing as they swam (Easton, 1972; Geraci, 1990).




                                                                                                         4-99









                   Geraci and St. Aubin (1982, 1985b) conducted experiments to test the effect of
                   petroleum hydrocarbons on cetacean skin and found that cetacean epidermis is nearly
                   impenetrable to even the highly volatile components in oil. They concluded that
                   realistic contact with oil would be less harmful than had previously been proposed
                   (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1980; Albert, 1981).

                   However, the toxic, volatile fractions in fresh crude oils could irritate and damage
                   cetacean soft tissues, such as the mucous membranes of the eyes and airways, with
                   effects as severe as death in extreme cases (Geraci, 1990). A whale or dolphin unable
                   or choosing not to leave the area during the first few hours after a spill, when vapor
                   concentrations are still high, would inhale vapors and might be harmed. The extent of
                   injury would depend on the health of the animal, the state of its lungs, and its response
                   to stress (Thomson and Geraci, 1986). Although sudden mortality could result if rapid
                   breathing were compounded by a sudden release of adrenalin, it is most likely that the
                   animals would experience some irritation of respiratory membranes and absorb
                   hydrocarbons into the blood stream (Geraci, 1990).

                   It is also possible that oil residues might adhere to baleen plates, block the flow of
                   water, and interfere with feeding. Geraci and St. Aubin (1982; 1985b) studied the
                   fouling effects of oil on the baleen of several species, including gray whales. They
                   concluded that a spill of heavy oil or residual patches of weathered oil could foul
                   plates enough to interfere with feeding efficiency for several days, and that such
                   effects would probably be cumulative in heavily fouled areas such as the center of a
                   spill or a contaminated bay.

                   It was suggested that cetaceans could consume damaging quantities of oil while
                   feeding, but Geraci (1990) believes it is unlikely that a whale or dolphin would ingest
                   much floating oil. Because of their feeding habits, however, gray whales could
                   possibly consume floating tar balls (CaWns, 1979) or contaminated bottom sediments
                   (Hansen, 1992).

                   Baleen whales-such as blue, fin, or humpback whales-in the vicinity of a spin could
                   ingest oil-contaminated food (especially zooplankton, which actively consume oil
                   particles) (Geraci, 1990). Feeding gray whales might ingest oil-contaminated benthic
                   amphipods, since many benthic invertebrates can accumulate toxic residues from
                   bottom sediments (Gilfillan and Vandermeulen, 1978). Thus, these whales could ingest
                   petroleum long after a spill had dissipated.

                   On the basis of gray whales' restricted foraging habitat and benthic feeding strategy,
                   WOrsig (1990) rates them as the baleen whale most vulnerable to the effects of oil.
                   However, most of this risk is assumed to occur at the species' Alaskan feeding
                   grounds. On the other hand, migrating gray whales, which do little feeding (Nerini,
                   1984; Oliver et al., 1984), are apparently much less vulnerable to the effects of spilled
                   oil.


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                       The only OCS-related oil spill in the Pacific Region to contact endangered cetaceans
                       resulted from a blowout on Union Oil's Platform A in the eastern Santa Barbara
                       Channel in January 1969. When the Santa Barbara Channel oil spill began, gray
                       whales were beginning to arrive in the Channel on their northward migration. By
                       April, as much as 70,000 bbl of oil was spilled, and as much as 2,000 krr? of water
                       surface were contaminated (Geraci, 1990). Gray whales moved northward through the
                       slick during this period. Although six dead gray whales were recovered in the area
                       between January and the end of March, no link was established between oil
                       contamination and mortality. In fact, one report (Battelle Memorial Institute, 1969)
                       concluded that the whales avoided the oil or were unaffected by contact with it. In
                       other words, no effects on the gray whale population or migration were observed.

                       Conclusion: The OCS-related oil spills in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991
                       were all small Gess than 187 bbl total) and contacted a very small percentage of the
                       habitat available to endangered cetaceans. No adverse impacts on endangered cetaceans
                       from accidental oil spills in the Pacific Region were observed.

                 (b) Sea Otters
                       Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: From 1987 through 1991, 44 seismic surveys
                       were conducted in the Pacific Region off northern California, in the Santa Barbara
                       Channel, and off San Diego. These surveys were conducted 5-95 km offshore and
                       averaged 640 kni of trackline (with a range of 30-3,700 km). No OCS seismic surveys
                       were conducted off the sea otter's mainland range from 1987 through 1991.

                       Sea otters in California reside in waters less than 18 ni deep and rarely move more
                       than 2 km offshore (Riedman, 1987). Generally, seismic surveys in the Pacific Region
                       are conducted a minimum of 5 km from shore. Part of the seismic noise studies
                       conducted by Malme et al. (1983, 1984) and Riedman (1983, 1984) monitored the
                       behavior of sea otters exposed to seismic pulses along the California coast. The sea
                       otters did not display any overt reactions at distances as close as 0.9 km from the air
                       gun array, suggesting that sea otters are less responsive to noise pulses from marine
                       seismic exploration than are certain baleen whales (Richardson et al., 1991).

                       Conclusion: Because no seismic surveys were conducted offshore the sea otters'
                       mainland range during 1987 through 1991, no impacts from these activities occurred in
                       the Pacific Region.

                       Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: Support vessels for activities in the Santa
                       Barbara Channel and Santa Maria Basin operate out of bases in the Santa Barbara
                       Channel; those traveling to and from the four platforms in the Beta Unit operate out of
                       Long Beach. Support vessels average 16 trips per week per platform, helicopters 3 to
                       5 trips per week per platform.




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                  No systematic studies have been made of the reaction of sea otters to aircraft and
                  helicopters (Richardson et al., 1991). During aerial surveys of the California sea otter
                  range conducted at an altitude of about 90 m (Bonnell et al., 1983), the otters did not
                  react to the two-engine survey aircraft.

                  Although sea otters will often allow close approaches by boats, they will sometimes
                  avoid heavily disturbed areas (Richardson et al, 1991). Garshelis and Garshelis (1984)
                  reported that sea otters in southern Alaska tend to avoid areas with frequent boat
                  traffic, but will reoccupy those areas in seasons with less traffic.

                  Conclusion: Because of the following reasons, no effects on sea otters from OCS
                  support vessel traffic in the Pacific Region, 1987 through 1991, were detected: (1)
                  OCS helicopter traffic operated out of Santa Maria, Lompoc, and airports in the Santa
                  Barbara Channel and was routed south of the main sea otter range; (2) Supply and
                  crew vessel traffic associated with the Pacific OCS was based at ports in the Santa
                  Barbara Channel, and vessel traffic in the Santa Maria Basin passed well offshore of
                  the sea otter range.

                  Effects of OCS Oil Spins: From 1987 through 1991, 15 OCS oil spills (> 1 bbl)
                  occurred in the Pacific Region, spilling a total 187 bbl of oil. These OCS-related spills
                  were all associated with platform operations and pipelines wen offshore of the sea
                  otter habitat.


                  Sea otters are among the marine mammals most sensitive to the effects of oil
                  contamination because they rely almost entirely on maintaining a layer of warm, dry
                  air in their dense underfur as insulation against the cold (Kooyman et al., 1977; Geraci
                  and St. Aubin, 1980; Geraci and Williams, 1990). Even a partial fouling of an otter's
                  fur, equivalent to about 30 percent of the total body surface, can result in death
                  (Kooyman and Costa, 1979). This was clearly demonstrated by the non-OCS 1989
                  Eaon Valdez oil spill in Alaska (Davis, 1990). Earlier experimental studies had
                  indicated that sea otters would not avoid oil (Barabash-Nikiforov, 1947; Kenyon,
                  1969; Williams, 1978; Siniff et al., 1982), and many otters were fouled by oil during
                  this Alaskan spill.

                  Greater protection of sea otters from the effects of oil spills resulted from California
                  Senate Bill 2040 in 1990, which provides for the construction of a permanent facility
                  to clean and rehabilitate oiled sea otters. A statewide program to address the needs of
                  all oiled wildlife is also being developed. The sea otter facility, which win be located
                  at the University of California's Long Marine Laboratory on Monterey Bay, is
                  scheduled to be operational in 1994. Prior to completion of the permanent cleaning and
                  rehabilitation center, five interim facilities located on the central and southern
                  California coasts will be equipped and maintained.




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                        Conclusion: Because OCS-related spills occurring between 1987 through 1991 were all
                        associated with platform operations and pipelines that were well offshore of the sea
                        otter habitat, no documented effects on sea otters from spilled oil occurred in the
                        Pacific Region.

                 (c) Endangered Birds
                        Endangered birds in the Southern California OCS Planning Area during the report
                        period included the California brown pelican and least tem.

                        Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: Vessel and helicopter traffic associated with
                        OCS activities in the Pacific Region can cause disturbances to endangered birds, such
                        as the California brown pelican and the California least tem, especially during the
                        nesting season. Each platform in the Pacific Region may be visited by as many as 16
                        crew and supply vessels per week. Vessel traffic originates from the ports of Long
                        Beach and Port Hueneme, and other ports along the Santa Barbara Channel. Three to
                        five helicopter flights to each platform may occur weekly depending on the status and
                        type of activity. Helicopter flights originate out of airports in Long Beach, Oxnard,
                        and Santa Maria, California, depending on the location of the platform being serviced.

                        Low-flying aircraft, especially helicopters, can startle birds, causing short-term
                        disruptions in normal behavior. Generally, this startle response lasts for only a few
                        minutes after which birds return to their normal behavior with no lasting effect.
                        However, during the breeding season, low-flying helicopter traffic may cause birds to
                        abandon their nests temporarily. This abandonment can result in reduced productivity
                        by exposing eggs and young to extreme temperatures, predation, and injuries. This
                        startle response is tempered, to a large degree, by the well-known ability of birds to
                        habituate to regularly occurring, chronic noises (Krebs, 1980; Johnson et al., 1985;
                        Stephen, 1961; Langowski, 1969; Sharp, 1987). The time required and degree of
                        habituation vary with the species, previous experience, frequency and nature of the
                        disturbance, and time of year. There is some speculation that repeated disturbances
                        will cause birds to abandon a favored roost, but this has not been documented.
                        However, during 1987-1991, the populations of both the brown pelican and the least
                        tem in California increased dramatically (D. Anderson, pers. comm. Oct. 1, 1993;
                        Massey 1993).

                        The MMS provides OCS lessees with guidelines for protecting birds and marine
                        mammals from aircraft through an ITL, which is discussed in section 4.2133 on
                        endangered whales.

                        To date, no studies have been conducted on the effects of OCS-related air and support
                        vessel traffic on birds in southern California. However, air and vessel traffic almost
                        constantly occur along the coast of southern California, and most bird populations have
                        strongly acclimated to these sources of disturbance. In the United States, California
                        brown pelican colonies occur on the Channel Islands, and air traffic over the islands is

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                   restricted to altitudes greater than 1,000 feet. The FWS and CDFG consider this
                   altitude buffer sufficient to minimize potential disturbances to bird colonies. Air traffic
                   over the coastline, where California least terns breed from May through August, is
                   also restricted by Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations to altitudes
                   greater than 1,000 feet.

                   Conclusion: There is no evidence that OCS-related air and support vessel traffic
                   affected endangered bird species in the Pacific Region during the report period. In
                   fact, the populations of both brown pelicans and least terns in California increased
                   dramatically from 1987 to 1991.

                   Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, there were 15 small OCS-related
                   oil spills in the Pacific Region. These spills were all very small in size, ranging from
                   1 to 100 barrels.


                   A detrimental impact to endangered birds, including the California brown pelican and
                   California least tern, would occur if contact is made with oil. Hunt (1985) and Nero
                   and Associates (1983), state that direct contact with oil results in the following:
                        ï¿½   matting of plumage, reducing flying and swimming abilities
                        ï¿½   loss of buoyancy, causing exhaustion and resulting in drowning
                        ï¿½   loss of insulation, resulting in loss of body heat
                        ï¿½   ingestion or accumulation of toxic petroleum hydrocarbons, resulting in
                            increased physiological stresses and reproductive failures

                   Long-term or sublethal effects of oil also include delayed and depressed egg laying,
                   reduced hatching, and reduced growth rate due to poor nutrient uptake (Hunt, 1985).

                   There has been no formal monitoring of the cumulative effects of OCS-related oil
                   spills on endangered birds in the Pacific Region. However, a radio-telemetry study of
                   brown pelicans oiled during the non-OCS American Trader spill of February 1990 is
                   being conducted. Subsequent to the oil spill, these pelicans were rehabilitated and
                   released. Preliminary results from this study are encouraging and indicate that brown
                   pelicans may return to normal behavior patterns within 1-2 years after oiling and
                   rehabilitation.


                   The OCS lessees in the Pacific Region are required by stipulation to maintain state-of-
                   the-art oil-spill containment and cleanup equipment onsite and in the vicinity of
                   exploratory drilling, in accordance with the requirements of USCG Notice No. 5740.
                   Lessees are further required to provide suitable means of deployment and personnel
                   trained in deployment and use of off-spill, containment equipment. To manage larger
                   spills, lessees are required to maintain state-of-the-art equipment on vessels stationed
                   so that they can reach a spill within 2 to 4 hours. These measures protect most birds
                   from small oil spills like those that occurred in the Pacific Region from 1987 through
                   1991. In fact, during this period, the populations of both the brown pelican and the

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                         least tern in California increased dramatically (D. Anderson, pers. comm. Oct. 1,
                         1993; Massey, 1993). To date, there remains only one documented incident of oil-spin
                         impacts to birds in the Pacific Region that is directly attributed to OCS activities-the
                         1969 Santa Barbara oil spill.

                         Conclusion: No oiled endangered birds were reported as a result of the small OCS-
                         related spills that occurred in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991. Because of
                         the small size of these spills and their distribution over time, no cumulative effects on
                         bird populations in southern California occurred. Because the populations of both
                         brown pelicans and least terns in California increased dramatically from 1987 to 1991,
                         there is no evidence that OCS-related oil spills had a long-term cumulative impact on
                         these species in the Pacific Region during this period.

                  4.2134 Marine Mammals
                         Marine mammals in the Pacific Region during this report period included cetaceans
                         (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and pinnipeds (seals and sea lions).

                         Effects of OCS Se6mic Surveying: During the OCS exploration phase, the lessee
                         conducts seismic surveys to investigate geological formations for natural gas and oil
                         reserves. Acoustic energy is reflected off subsurface layers and recorded. The high-
                         energy acoustical pulses used during these surveys are generated by air guns or water
                         guns. From 1987 through 1991, 44 seismic surveys were conducted in the Pacific
                         Region. Surveys during this period were conducted off northern California, in the
                         Santa Barbara Channel, and off San Diego. Seismic surveys in these areas were
                         conducted 5-95 km offshore and averaged 640 km of trackline (with a range of 30-
                         3,700 km). If the acoustic waves generated during seismic surveys exceed the ambient
                         "background" noise, they may produce sublethal effects in marine mammals by
                         interfering with communication or by altering behavior.

                         The effects of seismic noise on baleen whales are discussed in section 4.2B3 under
                         endangered whales. No direct testing of the effects of seismic noise on toothed whales
                         or pinnipeds has occurred (Malme et al., 1989; Richardson et al., 1991). Since their
                         hearing sensitivity is greatest at frequencies of several thousand Hertz (Hz) (Aubrey et
                         al., 1988), toothed whales may be relatively insensitive to the low-frequency seismic
                         pulses (<500 Hz) emitted by air guns (Malme et al., 1989). Although ambient sound
                         levels in marine environments are highly variable, seismic sound pressure dissipates to
                         under 200 dB at distances beyond 30 m from the acoustic source (Gales, 1982).

                         The most probable effect of geophysical noise on pinnipeds would be a temporary
                         change in distribution away from the activities. Richardson et al. (1991) hypothesized
                         that pinnipeds strongly attracted to an area for feeding or breeding activities would
                         tolerate such intense impulse sounds when produced at distances greater than 5 km.



                                                                                                              4-105









                   Geophysical seismic activities can result in behavioral responses in marine mammals
                   (brief flight responses or a temporary change in direction of movement), but direct
                   injury (physical impairment of hearing), even at a close range, is unlikely. Considering
                   the wide range of habitat available to marine mammals and the relatively small range
                   of potential disturbance, encounters with seismic activities are infrequent.

                   Conclusion: Given the findings discussed above and the limited number of seismic
                   surveys conducted in the Pacific Region during 1987 through 1991, seismic operations
                   had no significant effect on marine mammal populations.

                   Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: Noise and disturbance from OCS support
                   vessels and helicopter traffic may affect whales. Support vessels for activities in the
                   Santa Barbara Channel and Santa Maria Basin operate out of bases in the Santa
                   Barbara Channel; support vessels traveling to and from the four platforms in the Beta
                   Unit operate out of Long Beach. Helicopters are routed to rigs or platforms in the
                   Santa Maria Basin or Santa Barbara Channel from Santa Maria, Lompoc, and airports
                   along the Santa Barbara Channel. Helicopters fly direct routes from point to point and
                   adhere to the general FAA-recommended minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet. Support
                   vessels average 16 trips per week per platform, helicopters 3 to 5 trips per week per
                   platform. Noise and disturbance from helicopter and service-vessel traffic may elicit a
                   startle reaction from marine mammals or may mask their sound reception.

                   The reactions of baleen whales to aircraft noises have been examined (Malme et al.,
                   1989) and are discussed in the section on endangered whales. The responses of toothed
                   whales to aircraft noise have not been studied systematically (Richardson et al., 1991),
                   although the whales have been observed to dive abruptly or swim away from fixed-
                   wing aircraft when closely approached (Malme et al., 1989). In contrast, dolphins and
                   porpoises are indifferent to the presence of helicopters overhead at altitudes of 300-
                   550 rn (Au and Perryman, 1982; Barlow, 1988). There is no evidence that single or
                   occasional aircraft overflights cause long-term displacement (Malme et al., 1989).

                   Pinnipeds are susceptible to the impacts of air traffic in coastal areas, where traffic
                   near haulouts and rookeries may disrupt activities. Low-flying aircraft, especially
                   helicopters, can frighten pinnipeds hauled out on beaches or offshore rocks, potentially
                   separating pups from their mothers. If such disturbance occurs at pinniped rookeries
                   during the pupping season, an increase in pup mortality and reduced pupping success
                   may occur (Johnson, 1977; Bowles and Stewart, 1980). Bowles and Stewart (1980)
                   found that California sea lions and northern elephant seals at San Miguel Island did not
                   react to the approach of light aircraft at altitudes above 30 m and did not react to jet
                   aircraft or helicopters above 300 m. They concluded that these species were less
                   sensitive to aircraft noise than harbor seals.


                   Service vessels comprise the greatest amount of marine traffic associated with OCS
                   activities. Toothed whales, particularly dolphins and porpoises, are well known to be


             4-106








                        attracted to vessels (Barham et al., 1980; Shane, 1980; Watkins et al., 1981; Shane et
                        al., 1986; Richardson et al., 1991). Most studies of the effects of vessel disturbance
                        on baleen whales have focused on gray whales.

                        In December 1991, in conjunction with the installation of offshore pipelines and power
                        cables for the SYU expansion project in the western Santa Barbara Channel, Exxon
                        was required to implement a marine mammal monitoring program (Exxon, 1991;
                        Woodhouse and Howorth, 1992). This program is discussed in section 4.2B3 under the
                        effects of OCS support vessel traffic on endangered whales.

                        Under the authority of the Marine Mammal Protection Act, the NMFS proposed
                        regulations for providing greater protection to whales, dolphins, and porpoises. These
                        regulations are also discussed in section 4.2B3.

                        There is no evidence that routine OCS air traffic affected marine mammals in the
                        Pacific Region during the 1987-1991 period. The conclusion is that, based on
                        experiences in southern California, accidental collisions between marine mammals and
                        support-base traffic are unlikely events. Although large cetaceans were occasionally
                        struck by freighters or tankers and sometimes by small recreational boats, no such
                        incidents were reported with crew or supply boats off California (I. Lagomarsino,
                        NMFS, pers. comm.).

                        Conclusion: During the report period, there was no evidence that OCS-related support
                        vessel traffic adversely affected cetaceans.

                        Effects of OCS, Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, 15 OCS-related oil spills
                        (> 1 bbl) occurred in the Pacific Region, spilling a total 187 bbl of oil. The spilled oil
                        contacted a very small percentage of habitat available to marine mammals. The only
                        OCS-related oil spill in the Pacific Region known to contact marine mammals was the
                        1969 Santa Barbara Channel spill.

                        Several recent studies (reviewed by Geraci and St. Aubin, 1985b; Geraci, 1990) have
                        attempted to determine the possible effects of oil on marine mammals. These studies
                        have focused on the marine mammals' ability to detect and avoid oil; behavioral
                        effects; thermal effects; tissue damage due to oil contact, inhalation and ingestion of
                        oil, and toxicity and bioaccumulation.

                        Baleen whales can detect oil (Geraci, 1990). It also has been experimentally
                        demonstrated that dolphins can detect and will avoid a surface layer of oil (Geraci et
                        al., 1983; Smith et al., 1983; St. Aubin et al., 1985). However, a field study of
                        bottlenose dolphin reactions to the non OCS-related Mega Borg oil spill in the Gulf of
                        Mexico in 1990 indicated that dolphins can detect but do not avoid contact with most
                        oil types except mousse (Smultea and WOrsig, 1991). The dolphins did not avoid slick
                        oil in most circumstances, although there was some evidence of a change in behavior


                                                                                                        4-107








                   in response to slick oil: interindividual. spacing and respiration rates tended to decrease
                   as though the dolphins were huddling closer together and staying below the surface
                   longer.

                   Pinnipeds, including California sea lions, possess reasonably acute vision (Nachtigall,
                   1986) and a good sense of smell. Thus, they appear to be physiologically and
                   anatomically able to detect the presence of oil (St. Aubin, 1990). Although there is
                   some evidence of oil-spill avoidance by phocid seals (Mansfield, 1970; Cowles et al.,
                   1981), a number of observations have been made of seals, sea lions, and fur seals
                   swimming in oil slicks (e.g., Geraci and Smith, 1976; Reiter, 1981; Shaughnessy and
                   Chapman, 1984).

                   Spilled oil could interfere with the normal behavior of pinnipeds such as the California
                   sea lion. For example, oiling of pinniped fur could mask olfactory recognition of
                   young pups by nursing females. The sense of smell has been reported to be important
                   in mother/pup bonds in harbor seals (Renouf et al., 1983) and is probably important in
                   other seals as well.


                   The most serious potential impact of direct oil contact on pinnipeds is the effect on
                   thermoregulation. Most adult pinnipeds rely on a thick layer of subcutaneous fat for
                   insulation and appear to be little threatened by the thermal effects of fouling
                   (St. Aubin, 1990). However, newborn pups, which have little subcutaneous fat and are
                   thought to rely greatly on their natal coat for insulation, may be more vulnerable to the
                   thermoregulatory impacts of oiling. Fur seals, like sea otters, depend on their dense
                   underfur for insulation and, thus, are very vulnerable to the thermal effects of oiling.
                   Petroleum removes the natural oils that waterproof the pelage of fur seals and sea
                   otters (St. Aubin, 1990). Kooyman et al. (1976; 1977) demonstrated that fouling with
                   oil can double the rate of heat transfer through fur seal pelts.

                   Fouling by oil may also interfere with locomotion, especially in young animals. Gray
                   seal pups whose flippers had been stuck to their sides by oil have been observed
                   drowning after oil spills in the Atlantic (Davis and Anderson, 1976; St. Aubin, 1990).

                   The toxic, volatile fractions of crude oils could irritate and damage a marine
                   mammal's soft tissues, with effects as severe as death in extreme cases (Geraci, 1990;
                   St. Aubin, 1990). An animal unable to leave the area during the first few hours after a
                   spill, when vapor concentrations are still high, would inhale vapors and might be
                   harmed. In their study of the reactions of bottlenose dolphins to the 1990 Mega Borg
                   spill, Smultea and Wfirsig (1991) believed that the greatest threat to the dolphins was
                   exposure to toxic source fumes. WOrsig (1990) has suggested that, based on life
                   history patterns, pelagic delphinids are behaviorally vulnerable and sensitive to oil-
                   spill-related stress.




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                         No direct studies have been made on the effects of hydrocarbon inhalation on
                         pinnipeds. Based on indirect data from immersion studies and data extrapolated from
                         terrestrial mammals, St. Aubin (1990) concluded that, although it is unlikely that
                         petroleum vapors could become sufficiently concentrated to present a threat to most
                         pinnipeds, brief exposure to relatively low concentrations might be fatal to animals
                         stressed by parasites (especially parasitic lung disease) or other metabolic disorders.

                         Hydrocarbons (especially low molecular-weight fractions) can also damage epidermis
                         by removing protective lipids from the skin surface, penetrating between epidermal
                         cells, disrupting cellular membranes, and eliciting an inflammatory response in the
                         dermis (Lupulescu et al., 1973). Although necrotic skin is sloughed, leaving ulcers,
                         such lesions rarely have been observed on oil-fouled seals (Geraci and Smith, 1976;
                         St. Aubin, 1990). Eye irritation (including severe conjunctivitis, swollen nictitating
                         membranes, and corneal abrasions and ulcers) due to exposure to oil-covered water
                         has been experimentally demonstrated in ringed seals (Smith and Geraci, 1975);
                         however, similar effects have been observed to occur naturally (St. Aubin, 1990).

                         Studies on the effect of petroleum hydrocarbons on cetacean skin have concluded that
                         cetacean epidermis is nearly impenetrable to oil (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1982; 1985).
                         However, it was suggested that cetaceans could consume damaging quantities of oil
                         while feeding, although Geraci (1990) believes it is unlikely that a whale or dolphin
                         would ingest much floating oil. Baleen whales in the vicinity of a spill are more likely
                         to ingest oil-contaminated food (especially zooplankton, which actively consume oil
                         particles) (Geraci, 1990). However, since the principal prey of most baleen whales
                         have a patchy distribution and a high turnover rate, an oil spill would have to persist
                         over a very large area to have more than a local, temporary effect. Most toothed
                         whales and pinnipeds are mobile, wide-ranging predators feeding at the top of the food
                         chain and are less likely to ingest oil-contaminated prey (Geraci, 1990; WUrsig, 1990).

                         Conclusion: Despite possible effects, there is no evidence that OCS-related oil spills
                         occurring in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991 affected marine mammals.

                  4.2B5 Marine and Coastal Birds
                         The coastal and offshore waters of the Pacific Region support an abundant and diverse
                         population of birds-more than 100 species occur in the region on a regular basis. As
                         with most coastal areas of the world, the seasonal occurrence and abundance of birds
                         are complex and ever-changing. The bird population is dominated by birds that either
                         move through the area during migration or spend their nonbreeding period in the area.
                         Common marine birds of the Pacific Region include loons, grebes, shearwaters, storm-
                         petrels, cormorants, scoters, and alcidae. The region also supports several breeding
                         species, including the common muffe, Cassin's auklet, Leach's storm-petrel, Brandt's
                         cormorant, and western gull.



                                                                                                             4-109









                   A variety of coastal bird populations occupies the sandy beaches, rocky shores,
                   offshore rocks, and wetlands (marshes, sloughs, and bays) of the Pacific Region.
                   Common coastal birds found within the region include waterfowl, herons, egrets, rails,
                   plovers, sandpipers, gulls, and tems.

                   Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: Support vessels for activities in the Santa
                   Barbara Channel and Santa Maria Basin operate out of bases in the Santa Barbara
                   Channel; support vessels traveling to and from the four platforms in the Beta Unit
                   operate out of Long Beach. Helicopters are routed to rigs or platforms in the Santa
                   Maria Basin or Santa Barbara Channel from Santa Maria, Lompoc, and airports along
                   the Santa Barbara Channel. Helicopters fly direct routes from point to point and adhere
                   to the general FAA-recommended minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet. Support vessels
                   average 16 trips per week per platform, helicopters 3 to 5 trips per week per platform.
                   Vessel and helicopter traffic associated with OCS activities can cause disturbance to
                   birds, especially during the nesting season.

                   The MMS provided OCS lessees in the Pacific Region with an ITL for protecting
                   marine mammals and birds from aircraft. This ITL and effects from low-flying aircraft
                   are discussed earlier in the section 4.2B3(c).

                   Helicopter and vessel traffic can affect birds in areas where these sources of
                   disturbance are rare and the birds have not had an opportunity to acclimate to them.
                   Effects studies in the Arctic indicate that the arctic tern, black brant, and common
                   eider all show lower nesting success in disturbed areas (Gollup et al., 1974). In
                   addition, Schweinsberg (1974) reported that snow geese were particularly sensitive to
                   aircraft disturbance during the premigratory staging period in the Arctic. Repeated
                   aircraft flights (not related to OCS activities) near several seabird colonies in the
                   Bering Sea region may be one factor contributing to fewer nesting attempts and
                   reduced reproductive success (Biderman and Drury, 1978; Hunt et al., 1978).
                   However, effects studies by Ward and Sharp (1974) and Gollup et al. (1974) indicate
                   that long-term displacement or abandonment of important molting and feeding areas
                   due to occasional aircraft disturbance is unlikely.

                   Although no studies have been conducted on the effects of air and vessel traffic on
                   birds in southern California, the problems observed in the Arctic and Bering Sea
                   studies are not expected to occur in this area because air and vessel traffic are almost a
                   constant occurrence along the coast of southern California, and most bird populations
                   have strongly acclimated to this source of disturbance. Also, the largest and most
                   important seabird colonies in southern California occur on the Channel Islands where
                   air traffic is restricted to altitudes greater than 1,000 feet, a buffer considered
                   sufficient by the FWS and CDFG to minimize potential disturbances.





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                         Conclusion: There was no evidence that OCS-related aircraft and vessel traffic
                         affected marine and coastal birds in the Pacific Region during the 1987 through 1991
                         period.

                         Effects of OCS Oil Spills: Compared to other potential OCS-related impacts, oil
                         spills, by far, can have the most serious effect on marine and coastal birds. During
                         1987 through 1991, there were 15 small OCS-related oil spins in the Pacific
                         Region-ranging from 1 to 100 bbl in size. The effects on marine and coastal birds
                         from oil contact are discussed in section 4.2B3(c).

                         Conclusion: Although a few birds may have been oiled from OCS spills from 1987
                         through 1991, none were reported. The conclusion, based on the small size of these
                         spills and their distribution over time, is that no cumulative effects on marine and
                         coastal bird populations in southern California occurred during this time period.


                   4.2C Socioeconomic Environment
                         There was considerable opposition to OCS Sales 91 and 95 in the Pacific Region from
                         the public sector and State and local governments. The issues raised at public meetings
                         sponsored by the Pacific Region included:
                               ï¿½   potential for oil spills
                               ï¿½   effects of oil and gas exploration and development on marine organisms
                                   effects on air and marine water quality
                               ï¿½   conflicts between other users of waters offshore California including the
                                   military, commercial fishermen, shipping, and recreational interests
                               ï¿½   effects on local economic conditions including increased pressure on local
                                   communities to provide services
                               ï¿½   transportation of hydrocarbons (e.g., tankering)

                         The MMS attempted to address all the issues raised by holding many public scoping
                         meetings for each sale, acknowledging the issues raised at these meetings, and
                         thoroughly and objectively analyzing the issues in environmental impact analyses.

                         President Bush established a task force to collect information on OCS oil and gas
                         development offshore California and to recommend directions the OCS Program
                         should take. The MMS cooperated extensively with the task force by providing
                         requested information and participating in public meetings conducted by the task force.
                         Ultimately, the President canceled OCS Sales 91 and 95 and ordered that additional
                         studies be completed before additional leasing activities occur in the Pacific OCS
                         Region.





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            4.2C1 Public Services and Community Infrastructure
                  As of December 1991, the Pacific Region had 24 offshore facilities: 20 producing
                  platforms, I oil and gas processing platform, 2 nonproducing platforms with jackets
                  only, and 1 OUT vessel. Platform Gail off Southern California was brought 'on line
                  during 1987-1991.

                  Employment associated with natural gas and oil development and production can affect
                  the demographic and economic conditions of local communities. Variations in the labor
                  demands associated with these activities can influence housing and other public service
                  requisites in adjacent local communities. The large short-term labor demands
                  accompanying the construction of facilities usually bring many new workers and
                  families into local communities. Facilities in the production phase typically employ
                  fewer workers with different job skills than they employ in the construction phase of
                  the project. The local communities and their infrastructure (schools, hospitals, water,
                  roads, etc.) may be affected by the number of new residents, the demographic changes
                  resulting from the evolution of job skills required, and the perceived lack of
                  predictability of the development and production processes.

                  As a consequence of the offshore petroleum industry's relatively small size and its
                  location in a very large and diverse metropolitan area, the industry has a very modest
                  influence on countywide or regional employment and demographic statistics. The
                  MMS-funded study Cumulative Socioeconomic Impacts of Oil and Gas Development in
                  the Santa Barbara Channel Region: A Case Study (Centaur Associates, Inc., 1984)
                  observed that from 1960 to 1983 Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties experienced
                  significant economic and demographic growth.
                       Oil and gas development played a relatively small role in that growth,
                       and, in the absence of oil and gas development, the growth in the two
                       counties would have been very similar. Federal oil and gas activity
                       was shown to have a slightly greater impact than State oil and gas
                       activity, although neither can be construed as a dominant force in the
                       development of Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties (p. 19).

                  To monitor the effects of the offshore industry's development projects on the local
                  infrastructure, the counties of Santa Barbara, Ventura, and San Luis Obispo joined
                  together to implement a socioeconomic monitoring and mitigation program.
                  Developers of natural gas, oil, and pipeline projects were required to participate in this
                  program by providing data on a number of social variables, (e.g., number of
                  employees, number and age of dependents, place of residence, schools attended, etc.).
                  The intent of the program was to monitor continuously the local socioeconomic
                  impacts associated with in-migration to the community during the development phase
                  of those projects and to assess the compensation needed to offset adverse impacts as
                  they occur.



            4-112








                         During the period 1986-1990, the offshore petroleum industry paid $2.55 million and
                         $1.39 million in compensation to Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties, respectively
                         (Patton, 1993). San Luis Obispo County, initially involved in the program, was
                         dropped from active participation because of a low impact of offshore oil operations
                         anticipated for that county (Molotch and Woolley, 1993). An evaluation of this
                         socioeconomic mitigation and monitoring program found that less money was paid for
                         mitigation than expected (Molotch and Woolley, 1993). The reason for lower
                         payments was that actual effects from offshore oil development were less severe than
                         anticipated.

                         Conchision: During the period of 1987 through 1991, the OCS-related activities in the
                         Pacific Region modestly affected local communities and their infrastructure.

                  4.2C2 Coastal Land Use
                         From 1987 through 1991, OCS activities used existing coastal facilities in the Pacific
                         Region: 15 onshore oil and gas processing facilities, and 12 refineries (tables 4.2-4
                         and 4.2-5).

                         The California Coastal Commission-approved local coastal programs, and Port Master
                         Plans, regulate land use within the coastal zone. Any development (industrial or other)
                         occurring within the coastal zone is subject to the land-use controls of the local
                         jurisdictions as stated in their local coastal programs. Development outside the coastal
                         zone is subject to the land- -use controls of the local jurisdictions, as specified in their
                         general plans or area-specific plans.

                         Land use in the coastal zone is further controlled by county or city regulations. For
                         example, the cities of Morro Bay and San Luis Obispo and the county of San Luis
                         Obispo have passed ballot measures which either (1) prohibit any onshore facilities that
                         would directly or indirectly support OCS activity, or (2) require voter approval of such
                         facilities prior to issuance of required local permits. In June 1988, San Luis Obispo
                         County voters rejected a development plan application by Shell Western Exploration
                         Production Inc. (San Miguel Field) by voting 55 percent to 45 percent against the
                         subject ballot measures. In Santa Barbara County, any modification of existing
                         facilities will occur according to existing policies and/or within previously designated
                         industrial areas.


                         Conclusion: Because OCS activities used existing coastal facilities during 1987
                         through 1991, no change from previous land-use conditions occurred in the Pacific
                         Region.







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                        Table 4.24. Onshore Natural Gas and Oil Processing Facilities in the Pacific Region,
                                       1987 through 1991
                                              Facility                                        Location
                        Santa Maria Crude Refinery                              Guadalupe, San Luis Obispo County
                        Battles Gas Processing Plant                            Santa Maria, Santa Barbara County
                        Lompoc Separation Facility                              Lompoc, Santa Barbara County
                        Point Conception Separation and Treatment Facility      Government Point, Santa Barbara
                                                                                County
                        Gaviota Separation and Treatment/Gas Processing         Gaviota, Santa Barbara County
                        Facility (Chevron)
                        Gaviota Separation and Treatment/Gas Processing         Gaviota, Santa Barbara County
                        Facility (ARCO)
                        Offshore Storage and Treatment Facility                 Offshore Santa Barbara County
                        POPCO Separation and Treatment/Gas Processing           Santa Barbara County
                        Facility
                        Las Flores Separation and Treatment/Gas                 Santa Barbara County
                        Processing Facility
                        Dos Pueblos Separation and Treatment Facility           Dos Pueblos, Santa Barbara County
                        Ellwood Separation and Treatment Facility               Ellwood, Santa Barbara County
                        Carpinteria Separation and Treatment/Gas                Carpinteria, Santa Barbara County
                        Processing Facility
                        La Conchita Separation and Treatment Plant              La Conchita, Ventura County
                        Rincon Separation and Treatment/Gas Processing          Rincon, Ventura County
                        Facility
                      [Mandalay Beach Separation and Treatment/Gas              Mandalay Beach, Ventura County
                        P Oct
                        Processing Facility

                      Source: MMS Pacific Region, April 1994



















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                                 Table 4.2-5. Onshore Natural Gas and Oil Refineries in the Pacific Region,
                                                1987 through 1991
                                                   Facility                                     Location
                                 ARCO                                           Carson, Los Angeles County
                                 Chevron                                        El Segundo, Los Angles County
                                 Edgington Oil                                  Long Beach, Los Angeles County
                                 Fletcher Oil and Refting Co.                   Carson, Los Angeles County
                                 Huntway Refining Co.                           Wilmington, Los Angeles County
                                 Mobil Oil Corporation                          Torrance, Los Angeles County
                                 Shell Oil Co.                                  Wilmington, Los Angeles County
                                 Texaco Refining and Marketing                  Wilmington, Los Angeles County
                                 Union Pacific Resources Co.                    Wilmington, Los Angeles County
                                 Unocal Corp.                                   Wilmington, Los Angeles County
                                 Unocal Corp.                                   Santa Maria, Santa Barbara County
                                 Western Oil Refining, Inc.                     Long Beach, Los Angeles County

                               Source: MMS Pacific Region, April 1994


                     4.2C3 Commercial Fisheries

                             Annual landings of commercial fish and invertebrate species at southern California
                             ports vary considerably from year to year. During the period 1982 through 1985,
                             commercial fisheries landings were dramatically affected by a major El Nifio event,
                             which resulted in substantial declines in landings throughout the region. The lowest
                             volume of commercial harvest occurred in 1985 when approximately 200 million
                             pounds of fish were landed at southern California ports (USDOC, NOAA, NMFS,
                             1986). Since 1985, commercial fish landings have shown a general increase from the
                             low levels associated with the El Nifio. During the period 1987 through 1991, landings
                             in southern California were highest in 1988, with more than 315 million pounds landed
                             (CDFG, 1989). They were lowest in 1991, with approximately 204 million pounds
                             landed (USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, 1992). These fluctuations in total commercial fish
                             landings are independent of oil and gas operations in the region; they reflect weather
                             conditions, market demand, harvest regulations, and resource availability.

                             The MMS requires OCS operators to conduct activities without interfering with fishing
                             activities. Some MMS mitigation measures include notifying fishermen and the USCG
                             about proposed activities, structures, or debris that might affect fishing operations. The
                             Joint Oil/Fisheries Liaison Office and the Joint Oil/Fisheries Committee, established in
                             1983, address and resolve conflicts between the fishing and oil industries.
                             Additionally, the California Sea Grant Extension Program publishes a monthly Oil and
                             Gas Project Newsletter for Fishermen and Offshore Operators.




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                  Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: From 1987 through 1991, 44 seismic surveys
                  were conducted in the Pacific Region. Surveys during this period were conducted off
                  northern California, in the Santa Barbara Channel, and off San Diego. Seismic surveys
                  in these areas were conducted 5-95 km offshore and averaged 640 kni of trackline
                  (with a range of 30-3,700 km).

                  Geophysical survey activities may impede or prevent commercial fishing, damage
                  fishing gear or boats, disperse target species of fish, harm or kill fish, or affect
                  fishermen's catches. Fishermen may be forced to move from a seismic survey am to
                  other fishing grounds. This move could potentially result in lost fishing opportunity,
                  increased competition among fishermen, reduced catches, loss of fishery product
                  markets, and attendant economic losses. In addition, commercial dive fishermen may
                  experience health and safety problems when exposed to loud noises produced during
                  underwater seismic surveys. Possible effects of OCS seismic surveying on fish
                  populations and behavioral patterns are discussed in section 4.2B2.

                  The available evidence indicates that the abundance of fish in an area near seismic
                  operations could be reduced, especially if several seismic vessels operated in a
                  relatively small area. However, further field experiments are required to elucidate the
                  spatial and temporal extent of the effects of sounds from air gun arrays on fish
                  catches.


                  Conclusion: No significant cumulative effects of seismic surveys on commercial
                  fisheries were documented for the Pacific Region during 1987 through 1991.

                  Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement: By the end of this report period,
                  the Pacific Region had 24 offshore facilities (20 producing platforms, I oil processing
                  platform, 2 non-producing platforms with jackets only, and I OS&T vessel). The
                  placement of these facilities precluded an estimated 23 mi? from commercial fishing in
                  the Pacific Region during this time (table 4.2-6). The eastern Santa Barbara Channel
                  area has the highest density of platforms and pipelines in the Pacific Region and is also
                  an area important to commercial trawling of ridgeback and spot shrimp and California
                  halibut.


                  Commercial fishermen assert that considerable areas in the Santa Barbara Channel
                  have been excluded from historical trawling grounds because of OCS natural gas and
                  oil structure emplacements and debris.










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                                    Table 4.2-6. Estimated Area Lost to Commercial Fishing in the
                                                 Pacific Region, 1987 through 1991
                                                                           Area Lost To Commercial Fishing
                                                  Species                            (Square Mles)

                                    Califomia Halibut                                       9
                                    Ridgeback Shrimp                                        9
                                    Spot Prawn/Rockfish                                     2
                                    Rockfish                                                3



                           Although the area occupied by a platform is usually about 0.3 mil (USDOI, MMS,
                           1992b), each platform can exclude fishing activity from about 1 m? surrounding the
                           platform. The exclusion area may be larger for some types of fishing (e.g., trawling
                           and drift gill netting) and smaller for other types (e.g., hook and line fishing). If
                           platforms are located close together (and especially if gathering lines connect the
                           platforms), the area of spatial exclusion may be larger than the sum of the areas
                           excluded by individual platforms. The trawl fishery is particularly affected because
                           trawlers lose the capability to fish between platforms outside individual platform buffer
                           zones. The presence of debris from natural gas and oil operations and other sources
                           may also exclude additional fishing areas or increase the operational hazards to
                           trawlers.


                           Operations involved in installing or removing platforms may exclude fishermen from a
                           relatively larger area (about 3 m?) around each platform. However, such temporary
                           operations last ofily about 3-6 months and do not substantially increase the long-term
                           cumulative impacts on commercial fisheries.

                           From 1987 through 1991, one platform and two platforms jackets were emplaced on
                           the OCS. Chevron began installing Platform Gail in April 1987 and completed the task
                           at the end of August 1987. In consultation with FWS and CDFG, the MMS required
                           the operator, Chevron, to modify its oil-spill contingency plan. These modifications
                           required the plan to protect endangered species and to maintain 1,500 feet of open-
                           ocean boom, an open-ocean oil skimming device, and 15 bales of oil-sorbent material
                           on the platform. In June and October 1989, Exxon installed two platform jackets in its
                           SYU. To minimize conflicts with commercial fishermen, Exxon paid fishermen not to
                           fish in the vicinity of the jackets for 3 years. The MMS required Exxon to do the
                           following:

                                      submit a plan detailing how claims by commercial fishermen would be
                                      handled
                                      conduct a postinstallation geophysical survey around the platform site and
                                      along the pipeline and power cable corridors to detect any debris that could
                                      affect commercial fishing operations


                                                                                                                       4-117









                          ï¿½    recover any detected debris
                          ï¿½    identify and locate debris that was not recovered and explain why it was not
                               recovered
                          ï¿½    use construction techniques that minimize turbidity
                          ï¿½    conduct a fisheries and wildlife training program for all Exxon offshore
                               personnel
                          ï¿½    list conditions when pipelaying operations would not be conducted
                          ï¿½    prepare a detailed anchoring plan to reduce impacts to bard substrate features

                    Conclusion: OCS platform and rig emplacement caused limited local impacts on
                    commercial fisheries in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991 because the areas
                    occupied by platforms were no longer accessible to trawl fishermen.

                    Effects of Offshore Use Conflicts: Some OCS-related activities and equipment may
                    cause damage or loss of commercial fishing gear and vessels. Service vessels
                    traversing crab or lobster fishing areas, trap storage areas, longline fishing areas, or
                    set or drift gillnet fishing areas also may damage or destroy fishing gear. Centaur
                    Associates (1981) conducted an extensive assessment of space-use conflicts between
                    the fishing and petroleum industries. The authors indicated that the impacts, although
                    typically localized and limited, included exclusion from fishing areas, vessel and gear
                    damage, and short- and long-term effects on fish stocks.

                    Under Title IV of the OCSLA Amendments of 1978, commercial fishermen can file
                    claims for compensation for fishing gear and vessel damage or loss caused by OCS
                    natural gas and oil operations. The Fishermen's Contingency Fund compensates
                    commercial fishermen for these economic losses. Fishermen's claims for such losses
                    decreased substantially during 1990-1991 as OCS natural gas and oil activity
                    decreased. During this period, the Fishermen's Contingency Fund received 44 claims
                    in the Pacific Region and reimbursed commercial fishermen $177,440 (table 4.2-7).



                                     Table 4.2-7. Fishermen's Contingency Fund Claims in
                                                   the Pacific Region, 1987 through 1991
                                              Fiscal            Number            Dollar
                                              Year              of Claims        Amounts

                                              1987                  11            50,845

                                              1999                  12            51,096
                                              1989                  14            SS,123
                                              1990                  2             2,736
                                              1991                  S             17,640





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                        The MMS requires operators to conduct activities in such a manner as to avoid undue
                        interference with fishing activities. Mitigation measures include those listed at the
                        beginning of this section on commercial fisheries and those under the "Effects of OCS
                        Platform/Structure Emplacement."

                        Conclusion: No significant cumulative impacts on commercial fisheries occurred in the
                        Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991 due to uncompensated economic losses
                        resulting from OCS-related offshore use conflicts.

                        Effects of OCS Pipeline Construction: A total of 194 miles of OCS pipelines was
                        constructed in the Pacific Region through 1991, 29 of which were constructed during
                        1987 through 1991. To reduce the danger of rupture during earthquakes, pipelines on
                        the Pacific OCS are not buried. Offshore pipeline installations may cause temporary
                        impacts by foreclosing the use of pipeline corridors and adjacent areas to commercial
                        fishing during construction. Such impacts are usually minor and tend to disappear once
                        construction activities are completed. On the other hand, anchor scars and mud
                        mounds created by lay barges along construction corridors may impact trawl fishing
                        for several years. However, once pipelines are in place, they often function as
                        artificial reefs and attract fishery resources. Commercial fishermen may continue to
                        trawl in such areas despite the danger of snagging on a pipeline.

                        During 1987 through 1991, commercial fishing operations experienced problems with
                        the Grace-to-Hope pipelines. In 1980, Chevron U.S.A. Inc. installed these 10-inch and
                        12-inch pipelines in the Santa Barbara Channel. Anchor scars and mud mounds created
                        by the lay barge, along much of the 11.5- by 1-mile construction corridor precluded the
                        area to halibut and ridgeback shrimp trawlers due to mudding of gear. In 1983,
                        experimental trawling indicated that the area was fishable. However, during 1987
                        through 1991, commercial fishermen continued to experience problems when trawling
                        in the vicinity of the Grace-to-Hope pipelines.

                        The cause of the trawling gear damage associated with the Grace-to-Hope pipelines
                        was unclear. The damage could have been caused by thin sheet metal protrusions
                        associated with field joint outer wraps that were delaminating from the underlying
                        coating along most of each pipeline's length. Or, the heavy steel doors of the trawls
                        could have collided with the pipelines and gouged out areas of the concrete pipe
                        coating, thereby leaving sharp edges potentially capable of snagging a trawl net. Since
                        early 1991, Chevron worked with the Southern California Trawlers Association and
                        the Joint Oil/Fisheries Liaison Office to negotiate acceptable measures to compensate
                        trawl fishermen for the adverse effects of the Grace-to-Hope pipelines.

                        In conjunction with the installation of offshore pipelines and power cables for the SYU
                        expansion project in the western Santa Barbara Channel, the MMS required Exxon
                        Company U.S.A. to adopt several mitigating measures. These measures were designed
                        to ensure that no significant haza ds to trawling are present or likely to occur in the


                                                                                                          4-119









                   future as a result of the pipeline span rectification portion of the SYU project in the
                   "fan channel" area.


                   Commercial fishermen can submit claims for gear damage or loss in the vicinity of
                   any pipeline to the Fishermen's Contingency Fund as well as to any OCS operator
                   responsible for the damage or loss.

                   Conclusion: No significant cumulative, uncompensated impacts to commercial fishing
                   from OCS pipeline construction were documented in the Pacific Region from 1987-
                   1991.


                   Effects of OCS OU Spills: No major OCS-related oil spills occurred in the Pacific
                   Region during 1987 through 1991, although there were 15 small spills ranging from I
                   to 100 bbl.


                   Impacts to commercial fisheries can occur if oil spills decrease the abundance of
                   important species or reduce fishing efforts. Decreased abundance can result from fish
                   kills due to toxic effects, avoidance of contaminated habitat, or impairment of
                   reproductive success. Reduction of fishing effort may be caused by fishermen's
                   avoidance of spill areas to prevent fouling of boats and gear, confinement to port by
                   oil-spill containment equipment, or inability to market catches because of tainting or
                   contamination (particularly of shellfish). Commercial fishermen can suffer severe
                   economic losses from any of these impacts, depending on such factors as the size and
                   duration of the spill, the sizeand importance of the habitat affected, the relationship of
                   the spill to major commercial fishing grounds, and the vulnerability of each species
                   during the season when the spill occurs. Significant impacts to fisheries can also cause
                   economic losses for numerous support industries.

                   Many oil-spill prevention and response measures are in effect to protect the marine
                   environment and fishermen. In the event that commercial fishermen sustain economic
                   losses, they may apply for compensation to the Fishermen's Contingency Fund, the
                   Fishing Vessel and Gear Damage Compensation Fund, and/or the Offshore Oil Spill
                   Pollution Fund.


                   Conclusion: Insignificant cumulative impacts on commercial fisheries occurred from
                   1987 through 1991 in the Pacific Region from uncompensated economic losses
                   associated with OCS-related oil spills.









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                  4.2C4 Recreation and Tourism
                          The California coastline is an outstanding visual resource of great variety, grandeur,
                          contrast, and beauty and contributes to the economic success of the tourist industry.
                          The following major recreational activities occur along the coastline:
                               ï¿½   sightseeing      0 beachcombing          0    picnicking
                               0   birdwatching     o whalewatching         0    boating
                               ï¿½   swimming         0 wading                0    sunbathing
                               ï¿½   diving           0   surfing             0    sportfishing

                          Recreational use along the beaches of southern California is the most intense of all
                          areas on the West Coast. Santa Monica Bay has the highest density of use, with beach
                          attendance exceeding 75 million per year (Granville Corporation, 1981).

                          Important recreational resources within the area include the Santa Monica Mountains
                          National Recreation Area (located from Point Mugu to Santa Monica) and the Channel
                          Islands National Marine Sanctuary. The sanctuary boundaries encompass the ocean
                          area extending from the mean high-tide line to a distance of 6 nautical miles around
                          San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, and Santa Barbara Islands. The islands
                          themselves are not part of the sanctuary, but constitute the emergent portion of the
                          Channel Islands National Park.


                          Tourism in the California coastal counties generated more than $3 billion in income in
                          1982 (Dombusch and Company et al., 1987). Although this value only considers the
                          spending of visitors from outside each of the coastal counties, it shows the magnitude
                          of the recreation industry in the California coastal area.

                          One measure of tourism is hotel occupancy rates. The trends in annual occupancy rates
                          for 1987-1991 (Santa Barbara Visitors Bureau, pers. comm., October 7, 1993) were as
                          follows:
                               ï¿½   Along the south coast of Santa Barbara County, there was a decrease from
                                   72.7 percent to 64.9 percent.
                               ï¿½   Nationally, hotel occupancy rates fell by 3 percent.
                               ï¿½   California showed a decline of 5.9 percent.

                          Although most of the OCS natural gas and oil activities occur offshore southern Santa
                          Barbara County, there is no evidence to demonstrate that OCS-related activities
                          adversely affected tourism in that area. Previous studies (Dornbusch and Company et
                          al., 1987) found no significant tourism impacts related to OCS activities. The decline
                          in hotel occupancy rates recorded in California during 1987-1991 reflects a national
                          trend and probably represents the effects of weak economic conditions.





                                                                                                              4-421








                   Effects of OCS PlatfonWStructure Emplacement: During the period from 1987
                   through 1991, one platform (Gail 1987) and two jackets (Heritage and Harmony,
                   1989) were installed in the Santa Barbara Channel area. Platform Gail is located
                   approximately 10 miles from shore, and Heritage and Harmony are located 6 and
                   8 miles from shore, respectively. The average distance from shore for OCS platforms
                   in the Pacific Region is 6.3 miles.

                   Platform installation and operations affect recreational resources by inserting a
                   manmade structure into a 0.3 mile area which had previously been open water; this
                   area may have been suitable for boating or sailing. These platforms (primarily those
                   within 5 mi of the coast) are seen from the scenic highways and have altered the visual
                   environment along the coast.

                   Two studies (Granville Corporation, 1981; Dornbusch and Company et al., 1987)
                   considered the visual effects from offshore platforms. These studies determined
                   impacts using the expected change in the aesthetic resource of the area based on OCS
                   development. The effects were based on the platforms (singly or in groups of four)
                   being 3 miles from shore. Platforms located from 3 to 6 miles would result in a
                   noticeable change in the local scenery. While platforms between 6 and 10 miles would
                   result in a slight change, beyond 10 miles no change was considered since the platform
                   would be barely discernible to the naked eye.

                   The only platform installed in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991 was
                   approximately 10 miles offshore and approximately 7 miles from Anacapa Island. The
                   presence of this platform caused, at the most, only a slight change in the local scenery.

                   Natural gas and oil platforms also offer habitat to a number of recreationally important
                   fish species. Although much of the seafloor in the Southern California OCS Planning
                   Area is a featureless combination of mud and sand, a natural gas and oil platform
                   provides a solid structure where invertebrate organisms and fish concentrate.
                   Recreational fishermen are aware of this relationship and actively pursue fish in the
                   vicinity of existing OCS facilities.

                   Conclusion: Studies on tourism and recreation did not indicate any significant changes
                   in usage due to offshore platform emplacement from 1987 through 1991. In addition,
                   platform emplacement was beneficial to recreational fishing.

                   Effects of OCS Oil Spills: During the period 1987 through 1991, 15 OCS-related oil
                   spills (> I bbl), totalling 187 bbl, occurred in the Pacific Region. None of the spilled
                   oil reached shore.


                   Oil spills may affect beaches, making them unpleasant or unusable, thus reducing the
                   economic intake for local recreation-oriented businesses. The loss is usually immediate
                   but does not extend beyond the removal of the oil (Restrepo et al., 1982). The severity


             4-122








                         of the oil-spill impact on recreational resources depends on several factors, such as the
                         following:

                                  season
                                  area affected
                                  aesthetic quality of the affected coast
                                  oil retention of the area contacted
                                  amount of oil contacting the shoreline
                                  effectiveness of cleanup operations

                         The OCS lessees in the Pacific Region are required to maintain state-of-the-art oil-spill
                         containment and cleanup equipment onsite and in the vicinity of exploratory drilling
                         and development and production operations. In addition, suitable means of deployment
                         and personnel trained in deployment and use of this equipment must be available. To
                         manage larger spills, lessees are required to maintain state-of-the-art equipment on
                         vessels stationed within a 2- to 4-hour travel time from the spin.

                         The volume of oil spilled from OCS-related activities during 1987 through 1991 in the
                         Pacific Region was small (187 bbl). As a comparison, natural seeps in the Santa
                         Barbara Channel normally discharge between 40 and 670 bbl of oil per day. The
                         largest of the natural seeps are located off Coal Oil Point, within a mile or two of
                         beaches near the University of California campus in Santa Barbara. These large seeps
                         have been reported to discharge as much as 900 bbl of oil per day (Wilson et al.,
                         1974). However, recreational use of Santa Barbara County beaches has been
                         unaffected by these seeps.

                         Tourism has not decreased in Santa Barbara and Ventura Counties. Instead, there has
                         been a marked increase in tourism (about 350 percent) in this area (Dornbusch and
                         Company et al., 1987; Santa Barbara Chamber of Commerce, 1971), which has the
                         most intense offshore natural gas and oil activity in the Pacific Region. The only
                         recorded decrease in tourism occurred during the oil shortage of 1974 and, to a lesser
                         degree, in 1979.

                         Conclusion: Because OCS-related oil spills occurring in the Pacific Region from 1987
                         through 1991 were all small (187 bbl total) and did not reach shore, no effects on
                         recreation and tourism were noted.

                  4.2C5 Archaeological Resources
                         To minimize impacts to archaeological resources in the Pacific Region, the MMS
                         funded three baseline studies: (1) An Archaeological Literature Survey and Sensitivity
                         Zone Mapping of the Southern California Bight, (2) California Outer Continental Shelf
                         Archaeological Resource Study from Morro Bay to the Mexican Border, and
                         (3) California, Oregon, and Washington Archaeological Resource Study. These studies
                         attempted, through the compilation of information on known archaeological resources


                                                                                                          4-123









                  and the use of predictive models, to identify areas of the OCS where there is a high
                  probability of archaeological resources. These baseline studies are updated for each
                  lease sale. The updates include analysis and synthesis of data-archaeological,
                  geological and geophysical-generated since the preparation of the original study (or
                  the last update).

                  The Archaeological Resource Stipulation (established 1973) requires the lessee to
                  conduct lease-specific archaeological resource surveys in those areas having a high
                  probability for archaeological resources. If a potential archaeological resource is
                  identified, the operator is required to avoid the potential resource or to conduct
                  additional studies to determine its significance. Where possible, operators have chosen
                  to avoid the potential resources identified.

                  Effects of OCS Platform/Structure/PipeUne/Onshore Facilities Emplacement: From
                  1987 through 1991, one platform (Gail, 1987) and two jackets (Heritage and
                  Harmony, 1989) were installed in the Santa Barbara Channel area. Platform Gail is
                  located approximately 10 miles from shore, and the two jackets (Heritage and
                  Harmony) are located 6 and 8 miles from shore, respectively. Approximately 29 miles
                  (46 km) of OCS pipeline were constructed during 1987 through 1991 in the southern
                  Santa Maria Basin and the Santa Barbara Channel. Also, one onshore construction
                  project occurred in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991. In 1988, Exxon began
                  construction of a separation, treatment, and gas processing plant at Las Flores
                  Canyon/Corral Creek in Santa Barbara County as part of their SYU project.

                  To date, 36 archaeological surveys have been conducted in the Pacific Region. All
                  operators avoided the potential resources identified.

                  Conclusion: Because the archaeological stipulation precluded OCS-related activities in
                  areas of archaeological resource potential, adverse effects from OCS factors were
                  prevented from 1987 through 1991.

                  Effects of OCS Oil Spills: During 1987-1991, 15 OCS-related oil spills (> 1 bbl)
                  were recorded in the Pacific Region. These spills totaled 187 bbI of oil.

                  The severity of the oil-spill impact on archaeological resources depends on a number
                  of factors: type of oil, location, and weather and sea conditions. In the open ocean and
                  in moderate to high seas, spills are dispersed and weathered by physical and biological
                  processes such as evaporation, oxidation, emulsification, and uptake and metabolism
                  by marine organisms. Much of the oil is dispersed throughout the water column over
                  several days to weeks.

                  Although there are some historic shipwrecks in Federal waters, most archaeological
                  sites are relatively close to shore. Therefore, a spill contacting the shoreline has a
                  greater chance of affecting these sites, resulting in a temporary degradation of the


            4-124








                          viewshed of any historic or prehistoric sites in the contact area. If the spilled oil sinks
                          and settles to the bottom, submerged sites could be affected, resulting in hydrocarbons
                          contamination of the organic site material.

                          The crisis atmosphere during a spill's cleanup period could result in accidental damage
                          and/or total destruction of unidentified sites. Careful coordination during cleanup
                          operations would provide a measure of protection for this resource.

                          The OCS lessees in the Pacific Region are required to maintain state-of-the-art oil-spill
                          containment and cleanup equipment onsite and in the vicinity of exploratory drilling
                          and development and production operations. In addition, suitable means of deployment
                          and personnel trained in deployment and use of this equipment must be available. To
                          manage larger spills, lessees are required to maintain state-of-the-art equipment on
                          vessels stationed so that they can reach a spill within 2 to 4 hours.

                          The 15 oil spills occurring in the Pacific Region from 1987 through 1991 were all
                          small (totalling 187 bbl), and none of the spills reached shore. Surface slicks may
                          occur as a result of small spills, but beach fouling is unlikely due to wind and wave
                          dispersal, distance from shore, and the effectiveness of cleanup operations.

                          Comparatively, natural seeps in the Santa Barbara Channel normally discharge
                          between 40 and 670 bbl of oil per day. The largest of the natural seeps is located off
                          Coal Oil Point, within 1-2 miles of beaches near the University of California campus
                          in Santa Barbara. These large seeps have been reported to discharge as much as 900
                          bbl of oil per day (Wilson et al., 1974).

                          Conclusion: There were no discernible effects from OCS-related oil spills on
                          archaeological resources during 1987-1991.



















                                                                                                                4-125








              4.3     Alaska Region
                      The Alaska Region comprises 15 planning areas within three subregions: Gulf of
                      Alaska, Bering Sea, and Arctic. (fig. 4.3-1). More detailed information relating to the
                      OCS Program can be found in Alaska Update: September 1988-January 1990, Outer
                      Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Activities (Gould et al.. 1990) and Alaska Update:
                      February 1990-April 1992, Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Activities (Frangois
                      and Gdchter, 1992). There were five OCS lease sales held in the Alaska Region from
                      1987 through 1991 (table 4.3-1).



                   Table 4.3-1. Alaska OCS Lease Sales, 1987 throgg 1991
                                                Sale Offering              I         Bids Made              Leases Issued
                   Sale I Date           Area          Tracts    Acres     I Number I Tracts I Acres Trac;f Acres

                   97      3/16/88 Beaufort            3,344     18,277,806     276      218   1 198099 202        1,110,721

                   109     S/25/88 Chukchi             4S66     2S631,122       6S3      3S1   1,982,565 3SO       1,976,912

                   92    10/11/88 No. Aleutian            990              2     31       23     12117S4 23          121'7S4
                   124     6/26/91 Beaufort            3,417     18,556,9761     60   1   57  1  277,0041 57      1  277,00411
                   126 1   8/28/91 Chukchi          1 3,476  1 18,987,5911       30   1   28  1  159,213r 28      1  15921311

                   Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Stafistics: 1991 (USDOI, MMS, 1992a)


                      Prelease and postlease activities took place in the Alaskan OCS Planning Areas
                      between 1987 and 1991. During the 5 years covered by this report, the following
                      OCS-related activities occurred in the Alaska Region:

                         * 74 G&G exploration permits were issued
                         * 11 exploratory wells were drilled
                         * 10,000 bbl of drilling muds and cuttings were discharged
                         * 5 bbl of lubricating oil were spilled















              4-126










                                                                       650                                  7&                    1700            1800            1700          1600        1500        1400         1300
                                                                         IN,


                                600

                                                                Planning area
                                                                boundaty



                                                                                                                                                          Chukchi Sea                     Beaufort Sea

                                                                                                                                                                            Barro

                                55  0                                                                                                                                                  Pru 0
                                                                                                                                                     Hope                                Bay
                                                                                                                                                     Basin


                                                                                                                                                                              Alaska
                                                                                                                                                        Nome
                                                                                                                                           Norton
                                                                                                                                                 Basin                         Fairbanks
                                                                                 Aleutian Basin         Navarin Basin         St.Ma tthe.-
                                                                                                                                   Hall

                                500                                                                                                                                              Cook Inlet

                                                                                                                                                                                           Anchorage
                                                      Aleutian Arc            Bowers Basin


                                                                                                                                                North
                                                                                                                     St.George Basin          Aleutian

                                                                                                                                                Basin



                                450                                                                                                                                                                       Gulf of Alaska

                                                                                                                                                                           Kodiak


                                                                                                                                           Shumagin



                                            0      100     200      300     400


                                                          Miles



                                            1800                                          1700                                          1601,                                  1500                                 1400



                                         Figure 4.3-1. Alaska OCS                                 Planning Areas








            4.3A Physical Environment
            4.3A1 Water Quality


                                           Table 4.3-2. OCS G&G Permits Issued by
                                                       the Alaska Region,
                                                       1987 through 1991

                                                 Year                Number


                                                 1987                      18


                                                 1988                      13


                                                 1989                      17


                                                 1990                      19


                                                 1991                      7

                                                 Total                     74


                                          Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statistics: 1991
                                                  (USD01, MMS, 1992a)

                    Effects of OCS Geological Sampling: Geological sampling activities in the Alaska
                    Region were limited: 74 OCS G&G permits were issued from 1987 through 1991
                    (table 4.3-2), and approximately 27,000 trackline miles of seismic survey were run.

                    Water quality around the immediate site is altered and degraded in several ways during
                    geological sampling activities. Bottom sampling and shallow coring cause sediment
                    suspension and an increase in turbidity; however, the amount of disturbance is minimal
                    and limited to the immediate area of operations. Sediment levels return to background
                    levels within several hundred meters from the activity.

                    Conclusion: Given the limited amount of geological sampling conducted in the Alaska
                    OCS Region from 1987 through 1991 and the temporary and localized nature of the
                    effects associated with bottom sampling and coring, no significant cumulative effects
                    on water quality occurred.

                    Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: Drilling of
                    11 exploratory wells from 1987 through 1991 (table 4.3-3) discharged approximately
                    10,000 bbl of drilling muds and cuttings in the Alaskan OCS.

                    All discharges from OCS natural gas and oil exploration, development, and production
                    facilities are regulated by the EPA. The EPA issues a general NPDES permit that
                    establishes relevant effluent limitations, prohibitions, reporting requirements, and other
                    conditions. During the period covering 1987 through 1991, the EPA issued 75 NPDES
                    permits regulating OCS activities in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas.


             4-128









                                         When discharged into the water column, drilling fluids typically form two plumes. The
                                         heavier materials settle to the seafloor slightly downcurrent of the discharge point.
                                         Deposition occurs within 100 m of the discharge point, with trace-metal and
                                         suspended-solid concentrations generally reaching background levels within 1,000-
                                         2,000 m (ECOMAR, Inc., 1980; NRC, 1983). Because of dilution, dispersion, and
                                         settling, the effects of drilling muds and cuttings on water quality in the Alaska Region
                                         were limited to the immediate vicinity of the 11 drilling sites (figs. 4.3-2 and 4.3-3).

                                         During drilling, contaminated water quality exists only during periods of actual dis-
                                         charge and rapidly dissipates on completion. Studies conducted in the Alaska Region
                                         (Houghton et al., 1980; ECOMAR, Inc., 1983; Jones and Stokes Associates, Inc.,
                                         1983, 1990; Tetra Tech, 1984) indicate that the effects of drilling muds and cuttings
                                         discharges on water quality are temporary, limited in spatial extent, and not
                                         accumulative.



                                                 Table 4.3-3. Alaska OCS Drilling History, 1987 through 1991

                                                               Prospect/Unit              Block          Operator               Spud Date                         tel
                                                               ... . .......... ..........
                                                                                                                                                                  ..........
                                                                                                                                              ........ ... ............
                                                                                                                                                                    ...........
                                                    . . .............. ..... .. .
                                                                                               @i@:BEAUFORT         EX:
                                                    . ..........................
                                               . ..... ....... ............. .. .. .. . .. .. .............. ..

                                                    B F        Tern                     788/789          SWEPI                  02-10-87                 05-10-87

                                                    87         Aurora                       890          Tenneco                11-02-87                 08-31-88

                                                    87         Belcher                      767          Amoco                  09-06-88                 08-29-89

                                                    71         Fireweed                     883          ARCO                   10-19-90                 12-24-90

                                                    97         Diamond                      620          Chevron                09-11-91                 10-05-91

                                                    97         Galahad                      412          Amoco                  09-18-91                 10-14-91

                                                    87         Cabot                        644          ARCO                   11-01-91                 02-26-92

                                                               .................                                                              .......
                                                               .......... .. .. .. ..
                                                                                                                                                   .. ........
                                                                                                                                       ..........
                                                                                                                                 ...........
                                                                                                   HUKCHI:::SEA
                                                                                                                                 .............
                                                                 . .............. ..                                            .......... --  ..... .....
                                                 ...........        .......................... .. .. .........              ...... .......    .. .....        . .... . ... .
                                               .. .............. .   .. ..............                                                   .. . .. ........         .........

                                                    109        Klondike                     287          SWEPI                  07-09-89                 09-14-89

                                                    109        Burger                       718          SWEPI                  09-29-89                 08-22-90

                                                    109        POPCOM                       150          SWEPI                  10-14-89                 09-23-90
                                             ILI-0-9-i Crackedack                           718          SWEPI                  09-23-90                 08-31-9L-jl
                                                    Plugged and Abandoned Date
                                                  Source: Adapted from Alaska Update: February 1990-April 1992 (Fran(jois and Gichter, 1992)

                                         Conclusion: Because of the limited amount of exploratory drilling that occurred during
                                         the 1987-1991 period and the limited and temporary nature of effects from muds and
                                         cuttings discharges, impacts on water quality in the Alaska Region were minimal.





                                                                                                                                                                                4-129



















                                                                                                                                                                    Note
                                                                                                                                                                    The ntaritime boundades and linvht shown below,
                                                                                                                                                                    as well as Me divisions between planning areas,
                                                                                                                                                                    am for initial planning purposes only and do not
                                                                                                                                                                    prejudoe or affect United States jurisdiction in
                                                                                                                                                                    any way.




                                                                                                                                                                                      Chukchi Sea Planning Area
                                                                                                                                                                                                    Explanation


                                                                                                                                                                                  Chukchi Sea Planning Area
                                                                                                                                                                                  boundary

                                                                                                                                                                                         Active lease



                                                                                                                                                                                            Exploratory well



                                                                                                                                                             0                                     50                                   100
                                                                                                                                                             I                               I      I       ,       I      ,       I


                                                                                                                                                                                         Statute Miles
                                                                                   Chukchi
                                                                                        Sea







                                                                                                                                                                               Barrow









                                                                                                                   /Cy
                                                                                                                  Cape

















                                                     Point
                                                     Hop
                                                                          jV
















                               Figure. 4.3-2. Chukchi Sea Planning Area, Status of Leases and Exploration
                                                                      Activities, 1987 through 1991
                            4-130














                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Beaufort Sea

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Explana
                                                                                                                                                          Arctic                                                                              -Beaufort Sea
                                                                                                                                                          Ocean                                                                                            boundary
                                                           Chukchi                                                                                                                                                                                             Active leas
                                                               Sea                                                                                                                                                                                           Exploratory

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              0                                5



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Statute





                                                                                                                                                                                      Beaufort Sea



                                                                                                                                                   Lin
                                                                                                    Barrow






                                                                                                                                                                                  L                       L

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            K,




                                                           Note:                                                                                                                            Prudhoe
                                                           The rn-awn. boundaries and lirnh. h-n b-,,                                                                                          Bay
                                                           as @11 as the dMsions he@een planning a-,
                                                           am for initial planning purposes only and do not
                                                           prejudice or affe@t United States jurisdiction in
                                                           any ay.                                                                                                                    ALASKA



                                                Figure. 4.3-3. Beaufort Sea Planning Area, Status of Leases and Exploration
                                                                                 Activities, 1987 through 1991









                  Effects of OCS Oil Spills: During 1987 through 1991, one OCS-related oil spill
                  (totalling approximately 5 bbl of oil) occurred when a helicopter sling hook broke and
                  dropped a pallet of lubricating oil. The oil, which landed on solid ice, was completely
                  removed.


                  Conclusion: No impacts on water quality from OCS oil spins in the Alaska Region
                  from 1987 through 1991 were identified.

           4.3A2 Air Quality
                  Air quality is affected by emissions from all direct and support activities for OCS
                  natural gas and oil operations, such as exploratory drilling, construction, development
                  and production operations, and support craft activities.

                  Emissions from all direct and support activities for OCS natural gas and oil operations
                  affect air quality. In the Alaska Region, OCS emissions came from the drilling units
                  and vessel traffic associated with drilling 11 exploratory wells in the Beaufort and
                  Chukchi Sea Planning Areas. No more than three exploration wells were drilled in any
                  given year, and the drill sites were located from 9 krn to over 31 km offshore. As
                  shown in table 4.3-4, these diesel-burning vessels emitted NO,,, TSP, VOC, S02, and
                  Co.



                                   Table 4.34. Emissions from Alaska OCS-Related
                                               Exploration Activities,
                                                1987 through Mi
                                         Pollutant      Activity Emissions (tons)

                                           NO@                     445

                                           TSP                     92

                                          Voc                      15

                                           so,                     41

                                           co                      80



                  Onshore areas adjacent to the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Planning Areas are Prevention
                  of Significant Deterioration (PSD) Class II areas-where air quality is relatively
                  pristine, with ambient air concentrations of criteria pollutants far below the NAAQS
                  and the State of Alaska air quality status and regulations (EPA, 1978). Within these
                  areas, there are only a few small, localized emissions from widely scattered sources,
                  principally from diesel-electric generators in small villages. The only major local
                  sources of industrial emissions are adjacent to the Beaufort Sea Planning Area in the
                  Prudhoe Bay/Kuparuk oil-production complex-the subject of two monitoring
                  programs (Environmental Research & Technology, Inc., 1987; Environmental Science
                  and Engineering, Inc., 1987). In each program, two monitoring sites were selected:


            4-132








                       one was influenced by emissions from nearby industrial activities, and the other was
                       more representative of air quality in the general Prudhoe Bay area. The results
                       demonstrated that, generally, most ambient-pollutant concentrations met the
                       ambient-air-pollution standards, even for sites deemed subject to localized industrial
                       sources.


                       From 1987 through 1991, OCS-related emissions in the Alaska Region did not exceed
                       pollutant exemption levels. Less than 5 percent of the allowable PSD increments for
                       any criteria pollutant were used. In fact, criteria pollutant concentrations in the existing
                       ambient air of onshore areas remained well below the NAAQS.

                       During this time, only one OCS-related'oil spill (totalling approximately 5 bbI of oil)
                       occurred. The oil, which was being transported via helicopter, landed on solid ice and
                       was completely removed. As a result, no oil-spill impacts on air quality were
                       identified in the Alaska Region.

                       Conclusion: Related emissions from OCS activities did not exceed pollutant exemption
                       levels, and the amount of air pollutants from OCS-related activities reaching the
                       Alaskan shores was spatially and temporally negligible.


                 4.3B Biological Environment
                 4.3B1 Lower Trophic Organisms
                       Lower-trophic-level organisms in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas are categorized as
                       planktonic (living in the water column), epontic (living on the underside of sea ice), or
                       benthic (living on or in the sea bottom), depending on their general location (USDOI,
                       MMS, 1990a).

                       The planktonic communities in these regions comprise phytoplankton and zooplankton.
                       Abundance of phytoplankton appears to be greatest in nearshore waters with
                       decreasing numbers offshore. Zooplankton communities found by Johnson (1956) were
                       richer in the Chukchi Sea and western part of the Beaufort Sea-possibly reflecting the
                       shallower depths in the west.

                       Epontic communities are composed of those plants and animals living on or in the
                       undersurface of sea ice. The epontic communities are made up of microalgae (pennate
                       diatoms and microflagellates). Microalgae are found in sea ice as it forms in the fall,
                       but the origin of the cells is not known (Homer and Schrader, 1982). One theory is
                       that those species that eventually thrive in the ice may be present in low numbers in
                       the water column and may be incorporated into the ice as it forms (Homer and
                       Schrader, 1982).




                                                                                                      4-133









                  The benthic communities are made up of macrophytic algae (large seaweeds), benthic
                  microalgae, bacteria, and benthic invertebrates (mysids, amphipods, copepods,
                  isopods, and euphausiids). Boulder Patch, the largest kelp community, occurs in
                  Stefansson Sound near the coast in the central portion of the Beaufort Sea Planning
                  Area (Dunton and Schonberg, 1981; Dunton, 1984). In general, macrophytes are most
                  likely to occur in areas free from ice gouging or landfast ice, and where hard
                  substrates occur.


                  Effects of OCS SeisnAc Surveying: Approximately 27,000 trackline miles of seismic
                  survey were run in the Alaska Region from 1987 through 1991. Seismic surveys use
                  explosives and air guns as acoustical energy sources.

                  Since most algae do not contain critical gas chambers, effects of seismic exploration
                  on marine plants are minor. In general, even high explosives (e.g., dynamite) have
                  relatively little effect on marine invertebrates, presumably due to a lack of air-
                  containing chambers such as the swim bladder of fish (Falk and Lawrence, 1973).
                  High-level explosives have relatively little effect on other lower trophic organisms.
                  Gowanloch and McDougall (1946), cited by Falk and Lawrence (1973), found no
                  effect from dynamite explosions on shrimp beyond 15 m.

                  Conclusion: Because of the small number of seismic surveys conducted in the Alaska
                  Region and the low occurrence of effects observed, there was little effect from these
                  activities on lower trophic communities during 1987 through 1991.

                  Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: Drilling
                  11 exploratory wells from 1987 through 1991 (see table 4.3-3) resulted in
                  approximately 10,000 bbl of drilling muds and cuttings being discharged in the
                  Alaskan OCS. The discharges produced by drilling create plumes of material that
                  disperse rapidly in the water column (NRC, 1983; Tetra Tech, 1984). Most drill
                  cuttings land on the sea bottom within 1,000 m of the discharge point. The EPA
                  regulates discharges by issuing NPDES permits. In fact, discharges within 1,000 m of
                  the Boulder Patch are prohibited by the EPA Beaufort Sea NPDES permit.

                  More than 70 drilling fluids have been tested for their impact on lower-trophic-level
                  marine organisms. Test results found that most water-based drilling fluids are
                  relatively nontoxic to lower trophic forms and that little bioaccumulation of metals
                  from drilling fluids occurs (NRC, 1983).

                  Conclusion: Because of compliance with NPDES regulations, and the small amount
                  and low toxicity levels of routine OCS operational wastes, there were no measurable
                  effects on lower trophic communities in the Alaska Region from 1987 through 1991.





             4-134








                         Effects of OCS Platform/Structure Emplacement: All OCS-related construction
                         from 1987 through 1991 in the Alaska Region was restricted to the temporary
                         placement of 11 drilling structures/vessels. However, construction and trenching
                         associated with OCS platform placement could affect small areas of the sea bottom that
                         support benthic invertebrates and marine plants.

                         Construction activities on the OCS could beneficially alter habitats of benthic or
                         epibenthic animals and plants. Platforms, and to some extent causeways, add a three-
                         dimensional structure to the environment, which may provide habitat for refuging
                         fishes or for invertebrates and plants requiring hard substrate or sediment. On the
                         other hand, organisms that rely on soft substrates could be adversely affected when the
                         sea bottom is altered for platform and pipeline construction. The more mobile
                         organisms tend to avoid these areas of disturbance.

                         Trenching can affect marine organisms by the following means (Starr et al., 1981;
                         Lewbel, 1983):
                           ï¿½ physically altering the benthic environment
                           ï¿½ increasing sediments suspended in the water column
                           ï¿½ displacing sediments and smothering some benthic organisms
                           ï¿½ altering water currents by modifying benthic topography
                           ï¿½ killing some organisms directly through mechanical actions

                         Conclusion: Despite possible effects, construction and trenching activities associated
                         with drilling 11 OCS exploration wells in the Alaska Region during 1987-1991 had
                         little impact on lower-trophic-level communities because of the small area affected by
                         OCS platforms, the widespread distribution of natural benthic habitat, and the
                         beneficial effects of platform habitat for many organisms.

                         Effects of OCS OR Spills: From 1987 through 1991, one OCS-related oil spill
                         occurred when a helicopter sling hook broke and dropped 5 bbl of lubricating oil. The
                         oil, which landed on solid ice, was completely removed.

                         Conclusion: The one OCS-related oil spill that occurred in the Alaska Region during
                         the report period did not affect the lower-trophic-level organisms.

                  4.3B2 Fish Resources

                         The fish resources occurring in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas fall into three basic
                         categories: freshwater species that make relatively short seaward excursions from
                         coastal rivers, anadromous species that spawn in freshwater and migrate seaward as
                         juveniles and adults, and marine species that complete their entire lifecycle in the
                         marine environment.





                                                                                                             4-135









                   Freshwater fish that venture into the coastal waters are found almost exclusively in
                   fresh or brackish waters extending offshore from major river deltas. These species
                   include arctic grayling, round whitefish, and burbot. Anadromous species found in
                   nearshore waters include Pacific salmon (pink and chum); arctic char; arctic, least,
                   and Bering cisco; rainbow smelt; and humpback and broad whitefish. Also, sockeye,
                   coho, chinook, and king salmon; arctic lamprey; inconnu; and nine- and three-spine
                   stickleback are occasionally found in Alaskan coastal waters. The marine fishes of this
                   area include arctic staghorn; fourhorn, shorthorn and twohorn sculpins; arctic and
                   saffron cod; Canadian eelpout; and arctic flounder.

                   Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: During the period 1987 through 1991, there were
                   approximately 27,000 trackline miles of seismic surveys conducted in the Alaska
                   Region.

                   Seismic surveys that employ air guns, or their close equivalents, have only a limited
                   areal/time-disturbance effect on fish. Experiments testing the effects of air guns on
                   caged coho salmon smolts found no harmful effects (Weaver and Weinhold, 1972).
                   Also, air guns had little effect on even the most sensitive fish eggs at distances of
                   1.5 m from the discharge source and were not observed to have any effect on larvae.
                   The disturbance from the acoustic energy generated during the survey may disperse
                   fish from the immediate area of the survey line and may cause a temporary cessation
                   of feeding (Skalski, Pearson, and Malme, 1992). However, these impacts probably
                   would occur only during the minutes when the acoustic energy source is strongly
                   perceived by the fish.

                   Conclusion: The limited seismic surveys conducted on the Alaskan OCS from 1987
                   through 1991 caused only temporary, minimal disturbances to fish.

                   Effects of Offshore Discharge of Routine OCS Operational Wastes: From 1987
                   through 1991, 11 OCS exploratory wells discharged approximately 10,000 bbl of
                   drilling muds and cuttings offshore Alaska. The EPA regulates these discharges
                   through NPDES permits. In fact, the Beaufort Sea NPDES permit prohibits drilling
                   discharges within 1,000 ni of the Boulder Patch.

                   Drilling discharges (muds, cuttings, fluids, wastes, and sometimes formation waters)
                   can alter the benthic habitat for demersal fish. In the water column, these discharges
                   can affect water quality to the detriment of demersal, semi-demersal, and pelagic
                   finfish. However, a number of studies, conducted in different areas of the OCS,
                   showed that drilling discharges affect only very limited areas (Jones and Stokes
                   Associates, 1983; Dames and Moore, 1978; Neff, Bothner et al. 1989; Menzie, 1982)
                   over very short time periods (usually only during the discharging).





             4-136








                         Conclusion: Drilling discharges from the 11 exploratory wells in the Alaska Region
                         transpired outside the times and locations of fish occurrence and had virtually no
                         adverse impacts on them.

                         Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, one OCS-related oil spill
                         (totalling approximately 5 bbl of oil) occurred when a helicopter sling hook broke and
                         dropped a pallet of lubricating oil. The oil, which landed on solid ice, was completely
                         removed. As a result, there were no impacts on Alaska Region fish resources from
                         this spill.

                         Conclusion: Despite the possible effects, the 5 bbl of oil spilled during Alaskan OCS
                         activities from 1987 through 1991 did not affect demersal, semi-demersal, or pelagic
                         fish that inhabit or migrate through Alaskan OCS waters.

                  4.3B3 Endangered or Threatened Species
                         Species inhabiting the Alaskan OCS that are listed as endangered or threatened include
                         whales (blue, fin, humpback, gray, right, bowhead, sei, and sperm); birds (short-tailed
                         albatross, Aleutian Canada goose, and arctic and American peregrine falcons); and the
                         Steller sea lion.


                         Between 1987 and 1991, natural gas and oil activities on the Alaskan OCS were
                         limited to prelease and exploration operations. Exploration activities, including seismic
                         surveys and operation of drilling rigs and support vessels and aircraft, took place in
                         the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, with up to three wells drilled each year. Because no
                         OCS-related activities occurred near the short-tailed albatross, Aleutian Canada goose,
                         peregrine falcon or Steller sea lion populations, none of these species were affected by
                         these activities during this time. However, OCS-related activities did take place near
                         endangered whale populations.

                   (a) Endangered Whales
                         The distribution, abundance, and behavior of bowhead whales are monitored by MMS
                         personnel and contractor scientists through aerial surveys in the Beaufort and Chukchi
                         Seas during each fall migration period (Treacy, 1992; Moore and Clarke, 1992).
                         These surveys provide information on potential impacts of seismic exploration,
                         drilling, and associated activities on migrating bowhead whales. They also provide
                         real-time data to the MMS and the NMFS on the progress of migration for use in
                         implementing limitations on exploratory activities. The surveys are also used to
                         monitor temporal and spatial trends in distribution, abundance, habitat, and behaviors
                         of these whales. In addition, underwater acoustic arrays and aerial survey grids
                         surrounding exploratory seismic and drilling operations in the Beaufort Sea (required
                         by the Industry Site-Specific Bowhead Whale-Monitoring Program) have been
                         monitored for bowhead whale presence and behavior by oil industry contractors.
                         Results from both of these programs indicate that no serious or irreparable impacts on


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                  bowhead whales due to OCS activities have occurred; however, some instances of
                  unusual local distribution or temporary changes in behavior were observed.

                  The distribution of 72 bowhead whales in October 1991 near the Galahad drill. site
                  (Gallagher et al., 1992) probably was due to a combination of the ice cover and
                  operation of the drillship and ice-management vessels, as well as two nonindustry
                  boats. The offshore distribution of bowheads near Point Barrow and the Cabot drill
                  site during fall 1991 (Gallagher et al., 1991) probably was not due to lease operations
                  since the offshore migration was farther offshore all across the Alaskan Beaufort Sea
                  in 1991 (Treacy, 1992).

                  The MMS has adopted several stipulations and ITL's to protect endangered species:
                     ï¿½ the Protection of Biological Resources Stipulation (which may require surveys of
                       biologically important areas and alteration of industry operations)

                     ï¿½ the Oil-Spill Response Preparedness Stipulation

                     ï¿½ the ITL Information on Bird and Marine Mammal Protection (which advises
                       lessees concerning pertinent sections of the Marine Mammal Protection Act and
                       the Endangered Species Act, the possible repercussions of disturbing wildlife, and
                       the recommended distances to be maintained between wildlife concentrations and
                       aircraft and vessels)

                     ï¿½ the ITL Information on Areas of Special Biological and Cultural Sensitivity
                       (which lists major wildlife concentration areas)

                     ï¿½ the ITL Information on Endangered RUIes and MMS Monitoring Program
                       (which advises lessees that the MMS will continue its endangered whale
                       monitoring program and may limit operations whenever bowhead whales are
                       subject to harm)

                     ï¿½ the ITL Information on Consultation with NMFS to Protect Bowhead VMales in
                       the Spring-Lead System (which advises lessees that the MMS and the NMFS will
                       review EP's to determine if endangered species consultation will be required for
                       activities planned during the spring season)

                  Strict industry adherence to provisions of these stipulations and advisory measures
                  effectively mitigate most potential impacts to these species.

                  Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying, Drilling, and Support Vessel Traffic: During
                  the 1987-1991 period, MMS aerial surveys of bowhead whale distribution, abundance,
                  and behavior in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas (Treacy, 1992) and industry-conducted
                  site-specific monitoring studies in the Beaufort Sea (Moore and Clarke, 1992)
                  indicated that OCS activities had no serious or irreparable impacts on bowhead whales.

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                         However, some instances of unusual local distribution or temporary changes in
                         behavior were observed, as noted above.

                         Conclusion: While results of marine mammal monitoring programs (Gallagher et al.,
                         1992; Brueggeman et al., 1992; Moore and Clarke, 1992; Treacy, 1992) suggest that
                         there were some temporary impacts on local distribution and behavior of bowhead
                         whales during fall migration periods, no loss of endangered bowhead or other whale
                         species from OCS activities was evident. However, MMS-contracted studies
                         comparing the behavior of eastern and western (Alaskan) arctic bowhead stocks
                         concluded that some significant east-west differences in behavior were evident,
                         particularly during the fall migration period. These differences may be due to the
                         substantial level of disturbance from overall human activities in Alaskan waters
                         (Richardson and Finley, 1989; Miller et al., 1991).

                         Effects of OCS Oil SpUls: During the period 1987 through 1991, 5 bbl of lubricating
                         oil were spilled as a result of Alaskan OCS activities. This oil was completely
                         removed, and there was no documented report of this oil contacting endangered
                         whales.


                         Conclusion: The small amount of lubricating oil spilled (5 bbl) was completely
                         removed, and there were no effects from oil spills on endangered whales in the Alaska
                         Region from 1987 through 1991.

                  (b) Endangered Birds
                         Species inhabiting the Alaskan OCS that are listed as endangered or threatened include
                         the short-tailed albatross, Aleutian Canada goose, and arctic and American peregrine
                         falcons.


                         In Alaska, the short-tailed albatross ranges from the Gulf of Alaska to St. Lawrence
                         Island, primarily during the summer months. Known breeding populations of the
                         Aleutian Canada goose nest on Buldir, Chagulak, Kiliktagik, and Anowik Islands
                         (USDOI, MMS, 1984). During the fall, the geese leave the nesting islands and
                         migrate eastward along the Aleutian Islands to staging areas on the north coast of
                         Unimak Island. From there, they migrate directly over the North Pacific to their
                         wintering areas (USDOI, MMS, 1984). The endangered American peregrine falcon
                         nests on cliffs in interior Alaska, south of Seward Peninsula and Brooks Range.
                         Threatened arctic peregrine falcons nest in the tundra regions of Alaska, north of the
                         Brooks Range, and on the Seward Peninsula on cliffs, bluffs, and low hills (USDOI,
                         MMS, 1992d). Peregrine falcon nest sites closest to the coast occur on shoreline cliffs
                         from Norton Sound north to Cape Lisburne. On the North Slope, nesting sites nearest
                         the coast occur about 20 miles inland (Ambrose, pers. comm., 1991).

                         The Aleutian Canada goose and arctic and American peregrine falcon populations are
                         monitored periodically by the FWS. Marine bird monitoring sponsored by the MMS

                                                                                                           4-139








                  has provided baseline trend information on abundance and productivity for several key
                  species.

                  In addition to these monitoring programs, the MMS adopted several stipulations and
                  ITL's to protect endangered species (see 4.3B3(a)).

                  The OCS activities, and the resultant amount of oil spilled (5 bbl), were located in the
                  Beaufort and Chukchi Seas-outside the ranges of these endangered or threatened
                  birds.


                  Conclusion: Because activities associated with OCS exploration and the accidental
                  release of 5 bbl of oil did not take place in the vicinity of Alaskan endangered or
                  threatened bird populations during the period 1987-1991, no OCS-related effects on
                  these species were documented.

            (c) Steller Sea Lions
                  Steller (northern) sea lions occur over the continental shelf throughout the Bering Sea
                  and Gulf of Alaska. Sea lion rookeries are located on the Pribilof Islands, on Amak
                  Island north of the Alaskan Peninsula, throughout the Aleutian Islands, in the western
                  Gulf of Alaska to Prince William Sound, and on Forrester Island in southeastern
                  Alaska. Haulout areas are numerous throughout the breeding range, and some in the
                  northern Bering Sea are also used. Sea lions disperse extensively throughout their
                  Alaskan range after the breeding season.

                  The OCS activities, and the resultant amount of oil spilled (5 bbl), were located in the
                  Beaufort and Chukchi Seas-outside the ranges of the Steller sea lion.

                  Conclusion: Because activities associated with OCS exploration and the accidental
                  release of 5 bbl of oil did not take place in the vicinity of Steller sea lion populations
                  during the period 1987-1991, no OCS-related effects on these species were
                  documented.


           4.3134 Marine Mammals
                  Nonendangered marine mammal species occurring in Alaska include cetaceans
                  (belukha, minke, and killer whales, and Dall's porpoise), pinnipeds (walrus and
                  ringed, fur, harbor, spotted, ribbon, and bearded seals) and carnivores (polar bear and
                  sea otter).

                  Natural gas and oil activities on the Alaskan OCS were limited to exploration
                  operations during 1987 through 1991. These activities included seismic surveys and
                  both floating and bottom-founded operations, with associated ice-management vessels
                  and support and aerial survey aircraft. Exploration occurred in the Beaufort and



            4-140








                         Chukchi Seas, with at least one well drilled each year. Oil spills associated with OCS
                         activities in Alaska had no measurable effect on marine mammals.


                         Monitoring of the Gulf of Alaska harbor seal population status has recently been
                         undertaken by the NMFS and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG); in
                         several locations these trend-site-monitoring efforts occur on an annual basis. The
                         NMFS also has recently undertaken aerial and shipboard surveys for the harbor
                         porpoise and killer whales in the coastal waters of Alaska, and recently reviewed and
                         updated information on belukha whales in Cook Inlet. Results from surveys conducted
                         by the NMFS, ADFG, and FWS, and from industry-sponsored site-specific monitoring
                         efforts indicate that there were no population-level impacts on nonendangered marine
                         mammals due to natural gas- and oil-related activities on the Alaskan OCS from 1987
                         through 1991.

                         From 1987 through 1991, one OCS-related oil spill (totalling approximately 5 bbi of
                         oil) occurred when a helicopter sling hook broke and dropped a pallet of lubricating
                         oil. The oil, which landed on solid ice, was completely removed. As a result,
                         negligible impacts on marine mammals in the Alaska Region were identified.

                  (a) Cetaceans
                         Most routine OCS activities can cause adverse responses from one or more of these
                         species through production of disturbing levels of noise, particularly from underwater
                         and/or visual stimulus. The type and degree of response depend on the sound-level
                         frequency and intensity, distance between individual and sound source, behavior of
                         moving source, presence of ice, and duration of exposure. Also, plumes of drilling
                         muds and cuttings may bury benthic prey populations, making them unavailable to
                         foraging individuals. Oil or fuel spills may affect whales by contacting the skin,
                         fouling the baleen, causing membrane irritation or ulceration, or causing respiratory
                         distress from inhalation of hydrocarbon fumes. Consumption of some prey items or
                         benthic substrate contaminated by oil spills could also impact cetaceans. The MMS
                         uses the same stipulations and ITL's that protect endangered whales to protect the
                         nonendangered whales.

                         From 1987 through 1991, MMS personnel and contractor scientists continued to
                         monitor the distribution, density, and behavior of belukha whales through aerial
                         surveys in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas during each fall migration period. Within
                         site-specific monitoring areas, these whales were observed entering and transiting the
                         areas. Although the studies were not designed to detect short-term impacts of industrial
                         activities, short-term deflections in the belukhas' swimming directions occurred as they
                         encountered noise (such as icebreaker activities near drilling operations). Oil industry
                         contractors also used underwater acoustic arrays and aerial surveys at and near seismic
                         and drilling operations in the Beaufort to monitor belukha whale presence and
                         behavior.



                                                                                                            4-141









                   Conclusion: Results from monitoring programs indicated that OCS activities had no
                   deleterious impacts on these whales. In fact, industrial activity does not seem to have
                   any long-term or population-level impacts on arctic belukha whales. Other cetaceans
                   (killer and minke whales, harbor and Dall's porpoise) in the Alaska Region were not
                   exposed to OCS natural gas and oil activities (i.e., drilling and ice-management)
                   during the review period.

            (b) Pinnipeds
                   Nonendangered pinnipeds inhabiting Alaska include the walrus and ringed, fur, and
                   harbor seals. Although no OCS leasing activity in the Gulf of Alaska occurred from
                   1987 through 1991, several studies on these species were conducted. Brueggeman et
                   al., 1990, 1991, and 1992 studied walrus distribution, and the impacts of industrial
                   activity on ringed seals in the Arctic were studied by several different investigators in
                   the 1980's (1981-82, Kelley et al., 1988; 1985-87, Frost and Lowry, 1988). In
                   addition, the NMFS and ADFG have increased their monitoring of harbor seal trend
                   sites in the Gulf of Alaska since the non-OCS Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989.

                   No OCS exploratory activity occurred in the Gulf of Alaska during the review period;
                   thus, no effects on harbor seals from OCS-related activities occurred. Nonetheless, the
                   NMFS and ADFG monitoring of harbor seal trend sites in the Gulf of Alaska since the
                   non-OCS Exxon Valdez oil spill indicates a precipitous decline in harbor seal numbers
                   throughout the Gulf-from approximately 25,000 seals in 1979 (Pitcher and Calkins,
                   1979) to about 2,500 in 1992 (T. Loughlin, oral comm., 1992).

                   Although fur seals were not exposed to OCS gas- or oil-related activities, they are still
                   considered depleted. However, it is questionable whether the population is stable or
                   still in decline. The causes of decline and depletion are unknown but have not been
                   linked to OCS natural gas and oil activities.

                   Walrus studies (Brueggeman et al., 1990, 1991, 1992) indicate that in 1989, 1990, and
                   1991, walrus were primarily associated with the presence of pack ice and showed no
                   major shifts in distribution in response to industrial activities. However, they did show
                   some reaction to icebreaker activity. Most reactions occur at distances less than
                   0.93 km.


                   Studies on ringed seals (Kelley et al., 1988; Frost and Lowry, 1988) indicated that
                   seismic activities had variable impacts on seals in their lairs, leading in some cases to
                   abandonment of the lair, while in others there was no apparent impact. Some seals
                   were affected up to 150 m from the seismic lines. However, monitoring efforts
                   indicated no broad-scale impact from these activities on ringed seal abundance and
                   distribution in the Beaufort Sea.


                   Conclusion: Because no OCS exploratory activity occurred in the Gulf of Alaska
                   during 1987 through 1991, no effects on harbor seals occurred. In addition, the causes

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                         of decline and depletion of fur seals are unknown but were not linked to OCS natural
                         gas and oil activities.

                         Monitoring efforts indicated no broad-scale impact from OCS-related activities on
                         ringed seal abundance and distribution in the Beaufort Sea. However, studies indicated
                         some walrus reaction to icebreaker activity.

                  (c) Carnivores
                         The sea otter and the polar bear are nonendangered carnivorous marine mammals
                         inhabiting areas in Alaska. Sea otters range from the tip of the Aleutian Islands east to
                         Prince William Sound. Polar bears regularly occur only as far south as the Bering
                         Strait and St. Lawrence Island. In both the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, polar bears
                         follow the receding pack-ice edge northward in spring and early summer and
                         southward as ice forms in the fall.


                         From 1987 through 1991, natural gas and oil activities on the Alaskan OCS were
                         limited to exploration operations. These activities have included seismic surveys and
                         both floating and bottom-founded drilling operations, with the associated
                         ice-management vessels as well as support aircraft. Exploration has occurred in the
                         Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, with at least one well drilled each year.

                         Sea otter populations were not exposed to industrial activity along their ranges within
                         the Alaskan OCS during 1987 through 1991. The FWS is in the process of completing
                         their Statewide surveys for sea otters; as yet, these survey results are incomplete.
                         Polar bears were exposed to OCS natural gas and oil activities in the Arctic-in both
                         the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. Polar bears have been associated with the pack ice and
                         along the shear zone and have occurred in the vicinity of drilling activity.

                         Effects of OCS Drilling and Support Vessel Traffic: In 1989, 1990, and 1991,
                         site-specific monitoring for polar bears in the Chukchi Sea was performed in
                         conjunction with OCS exploratory activities (Truett, 1993). These bears have
                         responded variably to these activities-by being attracted to them or by exhibiting
                         avoidance response. Polar bears have shown a short-term avoidance response to some
                         icebreaker activity and will exhibit a flight response to low-flying aircraft.

                         Conclusion: The polar bear population exposed to OCS activities in the Arctic
                         exhibited no population-level impacts, but individual polar bears showed short-term
                         avoidance or attraction to these activities.


                         Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, one OCS-related oil spill
                         (totalling approximately 5 bbl of oil) occurred when a helicopter sling hook broke and
                         dropped a pallet of lubricating oil. The oil, which landed on solid ice, was completely
                         removed. Sea otter populations were not exposed to OCS activity along their ranges



                                                                                                         4-143









                 within the Alaskan OCS from 1987 through 1991. The polar bear population was not
                 exposed to this spill.

                 Conclusion: Although otters are vulnerable to oil spills, the one OCS-related oil spin
                 in the Alaska Region occurred outside of their range and was completely cleaned up.
                 Also, this spill had no cumulative effect on polar bear population.

           4.3B5 Coastal and Marine Birds
                 Major groups of coastal and marine birds occurring in Alaska include loons,
                 procellariids (e.g., albatrosses, fulmars, shearwaters, storm petrels), gulls and terns,
                 cormorants, alcids (e.g., murres, auklets, murrelets, puffins), ducks and geese,
                 shorebirds, and raptors (eagles, hawks, falcons).

                 During the period from 1987 through 1991, trends in seabird abundance and
                 productivity were monitored at St. George Island, Cape Pierce, Saint Lawrence Island,
                 and Bluff in the Bering Sea, Little Diomede Island in the Bering Strait, and Capes
                 Thompson and Lisburne in the Chukchi Sea. This program has been carried out under
                 an interagency agreement with the FWS. During the period 1987-1991, a monitoring
                 protocol for arctic waterfowl and marine birds was designed and tested in Beaufort Sea
                 lagoons (Johnson, 1990). Initiation of a program using this protocol would provide
                 comparative trend information on the abundance and habitat use of Beaufort Sea
                 waterfowl and seabirds in industrial and nonindustrial areas. Marine bird use of
                 Kasegaluk lagoon in the Chukchi Sea was also monitored during this period. Marine
                 bird monitoring sponsored by the MMS has provided baseline trend information on
                 abundance and productivity for several key species (Fadely et al., 1989; Mendenhall,
                 1991; Johnson et al. 1992).

                 The MMS applies the endangered birds stipulations and ITL's to protect the
                 nonendangered coastal and marine birds of the Alaska Region. Strict industry
                 adherence to provisions of these stipulations and advisory measures recommended by
                 the MMS will effectively mitigate most potential OCS impacts on these species (see
                 section UB3(a)).

                 Most routine activities for OCS natural gas and oil operations are marginal in their
                 potential for disturbing coastal and marine birds. The primary adverse effects on
                 marine and coastal birds from OCS exploration and development activities could come
                 from oil pollution of the marine environment, noise and disturbance of bird
                 populations, and alteration of bird habitats. Operations other than aircraft-support
                 flights did not occur sufficiently near breeding areas to result in disturbance of nesting
                 seabirds.







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                         Effects of OCS Support Vessel Traffic: From 1987 through 1991, activity on the
                         Alaskan OCS was limited to prelease and exploration operations. Exploration activity,
                         including seismic surveys and operation of drill rigs and support vessels and aircraft,
                         took place in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, with up to three wells drilled each year.

                         Any aircraft-support flights near seabird colonies during the breeding season are likely
                         to cause mortality if frightened nesting birds dislodge eggs or young from the ledges.
                         Any exposed eggs and young left alone are prone to predation and weather. Routine
                         operation of aircraft near waterfowl or raptor nesting areas may result in levels of
                         disturbance sufficient to result in nest abandonment or decreased reproductive success.

                         Conclusion: Activities associated with OCS support vessel traffic did not take place
                         near marine or coastal bird concentration areas (nest sites, feeding areas, staging
                         areas, sheltered areas, etc.) sufficiently to result in disturbance of these species' at a
                         population level, nor have these activities been of a magnitude or duration to displace
                         species from any areas of known or potential importance.

                         Effects of OCS Oil Spills: From 1987 through 1991, one OCS-related oil spill
                         (totalling approximately 5 bbl of oil) occurred when a helicopter sling hook broke and
                         dropped a pallet of lubricating oil. The subsequent spill, which landed on solid ice,
                         was completely removed; thus, it did not affect any coastal or marine birds.

                         Conclusion: Despite the possible effects, there were no known oil-spill effects to
                         marine and coastal birds in the Alaska Region during 1987 through 1991 from OCS
                         activities.



                  4.3C Socioeconomic Environment
                         From 1987 through 1991 in the Alaska Region, OCS activities have proceeded only as
                         far as the exploratory phase. Approximately 27,000 trackline miles of seismic surveys
                         were run, and I I exploratory wells were drilled. These activities can affect various
                         factors of a region's socioeconomic environment, such as employment and
                         demographics, coastal land uses, commercial fisheries, recreation and tourism,
                         archaeological resources, and subsistence.

                  4.3C1 Employment and Demographics
                         Oil and gas exploration on the OCS, as well as onshore and offshore service facilities,
                         may result in changes in an area's socioeconomic characteristics relating to
                         employment and demographics. The degree to which an area is affected by these
                         economic changes depends primarily on the size and nature of the activities and the
                         area's economic base. Some important socioeconomic indicators are as follows:




                                                                                                            4-145









                ï¿½ current levels of employment and income
                ï¿½ availability of housing and public services
                ï¿½ existing oil and gas infrastructure

              Although direct OCS employment projections are based on the exploration activities
              themselves, estimates of income, population, and housing are based on total or new
              OCS resident employment using gross region- or industry-specific ratios such as:
                ï¿½ average payroll per employee
                ï¿½ population-employment ratio
                ï¿½ average housing units per population

              Coastal towns and villages in the Alaska Region have experienced some short-term,
              minimal effects from OCS activities from 1987 through 1991. Warehouses, docks, and
              airfields were used by offshore operators. However, these facilities were generally in
              place and originally constructed for fishing, onshore oil production, or other industrial
              uses. In some cases, such facilities were improved (e.g., airport facilities at Prudhoe
              Bay). Since OCS activities in the Alaska Region proceeded only as far as the
              exploratory phase, most OCS employment during 1987 through 1991 resulted from
              prelease evaluations and surveys and the drilling of exploratory wells. Although these
              activities are labor-intensive, employment effects were limited due to the lack of
              development in the Alaska Region. Also, the effort expended in cleaning up the 5 bbl
              of OCS oil spilled during this time was negligible.

              More severe impacts have been occurring to the socioeconomic environment of Alaska
              because of the downturn in natural gas and oil activities in Alaska rather than because
              of their existence. Alaskan residents, including Alaskan Natives, depend on the cash
              economy created by the jobs associated either directly or indirectly with the oil
              industry.

              Conclusion: The cumulative effects of OCS activities in the Alaska Region from 1987
              through 1991 on the economic dimensions of employment, income, housing, and
              population were minimal because OCS activities were relatively short-lived and limited
              to exploration only.

         4.3C2 Coastal Land Uses
              From 1987 through 199 1, only 11 OCS exploratory wells were drilled in the Beaufort
              and Chukchi Seas. Onshore support for Beaufort Sea wells used existing facilities
              originally constructed for the development of Prudhoe Bay. Similarly, support for the
              Chukchi Sea wells used existing facilities. Most of the drilling units used on the
              Alaskan OCS were self-contained units-rigs capable of staying onsite throughout the
              drilling season, with a minimal need of resupply. Associated shore-based traffic was
              minimal and confined largely to helicopter ferry flights from established air support
              bases.



          4-146








                         During 1987 through 1991, no commercially recoverable hydrocarbons were
                         discovered, and no DPP's were filed.

                         Conclusion: Because existing onshore facilities were used to support OCS exploratory
                         activities, there was no new construction of any OCS-related facilities. Thus, OCS
                         activities during this time had a minimal effect on Alaska's coastal land use.

                  4.3C3 Commercial Fisheries
                         Impacts from OCS activities that can affect commercial fishing on the OCS include
                         loss of fishing areas and fishing gear, loss or damage to fishing vessels, competition
                         for support services, and oil exposure to fisheries.

                         Most of the Alaskan commercial fishing occurs outside of the Beaufort and Chukchi
                         Seas. In areas on the Alaskan OCS where commercial fishing occurs, the only OCS-
                         related activity that occurred from 1987 through 1991 was seismic surveying. Since
                         oil-related industrial activities prior to 1987 were more intense in areas where
                         commercial fishing is conducted on the Alaskan OCS, the following mitigation
                         measures were developed in the form of lease sale stipulations and ITL's:
                           ï¿½  a stipulation for an orientation program requiring the oil industry to develop a
                              program to help prevent potential conflicts by educating support vessel operators
                              on commercial fishing gear, areas, and seasons

                           ï¿½  a stipulation requiring that the oil industry design pipelines and subsea wellheads
                              so that fishing gear will not be snagged, and that their exact locations be
                              documented so that they may be avoided

                           ï¿½  an ITL encouraging the oil industry to keep commercial fishermen advised of
                              industry plans and to conduct meetings with fishermen

                           ï¿½  a publication by the Oil/Fisheries Group of Alaska (composed of fishermen and
                              oil industry representatives) entitled Geophysical Operations in Fishing Areas of
                              Alaska to improve communications and avoid potential conflicts between seismic
                              vessel activities and commercial fishing activities

                         Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: Approximately 27,000 trackline miles of seismic
                         surveys were conducted on the Alaskan OCS from 1987 through 1991. Concerns have
                         been expressed regarding potential conflicts between the marine geoacoustical surveys
                         and commercial fishing operations. A major concern is the possibility that the energy
                         pulse from acoustic arrays used in geophysical surveys may disperse fish, thereby
                         reducing fish catches or complicating fishing procedures. A variety of studies has been
                         conducted on commercial species off California addressing potential impacts of seismic
                         surveying on fish larvae (Holliday et al., 1987), crab larvae (Pearson et al., 1988),
                         and rockfish (Pearson et al., 1987). The studies showed no major effect on the
                         subjects from exposure to air guns. Some larvae and egg mortalities occurred when


                                                                                                           4-147









                  sound was used at greater levels and at a closer range than would be experienced in
                  situ. Air gun studies also demonstrated that some scattering of rockfish occurred, but
                  the length of time they were disturbed was not determined, nor were the effects of a
                  multiple array versus a single gun. The potential impacts of an array may be
                  minimized by the alignment of the guns.

                  Conclusion: During this period (1987 through 1991), there were no reports of
                  conflicts between commercial fishing and seismic surveying in the Alaska Region.

                  Effects of OCS OU Spills: From 1987 through 1991, one OCS-related oil spill
                  (totalling approximately 5 bbl of oil) occurred when a helicopter sling hook broke and
                  dropped a pallet of lubricating oil. The oil, which landed on solid ice, was completely
                  removed. Thus, there were no effects to commercial fisheries.

                  Conclusion: There was no report of the 5-bbI spill of lubricating oil affecting
                  commercial fisheries in the Alaska Region from 1987 through 1991.

           4.3C4 Recreation and Tourism

                  Both offshore and onshore recreational resources in Alaska are abundant. Tourists visit
                  such places as Lake Clark, Lake Iliamna, Cold Bay, Bethel, Saint Paul, Saint George,
                  Barrow, Prudhoe Bay, and many national and State parks. Fishing, hunting, boating,
                  hiking, sightseeing, and other recreational activities are some of the many ways to
                  enjoy Alaska's recreational resources. In addition, tourists are drawn to Prudhoe Bay
                  to see the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System and its associated facilities. Access and
                  transportation services to wild rivers and many lakes and scenic landscapes are limited.
                  Tourists can see oil facilities and oil rigs when traveling by air to recreational sites.
                  During 1987-1991, there were no substantial changes to the recreational resources
                  from OCS-related exploration in the Alaska Region.

                  Most of the drilling units used on the Alaskan OCS from 1987 through 1991 were
                  self-contained units-rigs capable of staying onsite throughout the drilling season with
                  a minimal need of resupply. Associated shore-based traffic was minimal and confined
                  largely to helicopter ferry flights from established air support bases.

                  Conclusion: Tourism has increased slightly in North Slope communities. However,
                  because of the limited OCS-related activity during this time, the local recreation and
                  tourism economies of Nome, Kotzebue, Point Hope, Wainwright, Kaktovik, and other
                  communities were not affected.









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                  4.3C5 Archaeological Resources
                         From 1987 through 199 1, OCS operators drilled 11 exploration wells (in the Beaufort
                         and Chukchi Seas) and ran approximately 27,000 trackline miles of seismic surveys.

                         OCS exploration and development activities, and any cleanup of OCS-related oil spills,
                         can affect archaeological resources by disturbing prehistoric sites or shipwrecks.

                         In 1992, the MMS published an in-house study (Tornfelt and Burwell, 1992), compiled
                         from an extensive literature search, on historic shipwrecks that occurred in Alaska
                         from earliest Russian times (1741) to the pre-World War II era. This report
                         summarized the historic context of Alaskan shipwrecks and provided a general
                         discussion of shipwreck causes and locations. This comprehensive database enables the
                         MMS to ensure that OCS activities avoid, protect, and preserve important shipwreck
                         resources.


                         Prior to approval of any permits within areas considered to have potential for
                         archaeological resources, the MMS requires OCS lessees to prepare an archaeological
                         analysis of marine geophysical survey data. If these data indicate areas of
                         archaeological resource potential, the OCS operator must either avoid the potential
                         resource or conduct further investigations to determine whether an archaeological
                         resource does exist at the site of the proposed OCS operation.

                         Conclusion: Given the MMS requirement to avoid archaeological resources and the
                         limited number of OCS exploration activities conducted in Alaska from 1987 through
                         1991, no cumulative effects to archaeological resources were documented.

                  4.3C6 Subsistence
                         "Subsistence uses" are those traditional Alaskan uses of fish, wildlife, and vegetation
                         for personal, family, and community needs that are accorded priority in State and
                         Federal law. Examples include the harvesting of wildlife for domestic consumption;
                         the harvesting of wildlife for use in traditional forms of trade and barter; and the use
                         of by-products from such harvests (i.e., walrus ivory, whale baleen, or caribou hides)
                         in the manufacture of traditional arts and crafts for sale. Examples of harvests that are
                         not given subsistence priority include commercial salmon harvests, harvests for sale of
                         salmon meat, and such "wasteful" harvests as the taking of walrus solely for its ivory.

                         Subsistence also has a cultural sense. Many native Alaskans express identity through
                         convictions based on the harvest, distribution, and sharing of wild resources. This
                         importance goes beyond the significant role of subsistence food in the local diet to
                         include many of the shared activities and values that help hold Alaska's rural
                         communities together (Stephen R. Braund and Associates, 1993a, b). As such,
                         subsistence remains "a focus for maintaining a sense of identity ...... (Nelson, 1965).



                                                                                                            4-149









                   To date, the OCS Program in Alaska has led to only limited exploration-related
                   activities. Prior to this review period, support bases were constructed and later
                   decommissioned in Yakutat, Unalaska (Dutch Harbor), and on Saint Paul Island. There
                   were no reported effects on subsistence harvests from these activities. During this
                   review period, exploration activities in Federal waters were confined to the Arctic's
                   Beaufort and Chukchi Seas. No more than three wells were drilled in these areas in
                   any one year.

                   Mitigating measures attached to Alaskan OCS leases from 1987 through 1991 included
                   the stipulation for OCS operators to prepare and conduct an orientation program
                   stressing natural resources and cultural dimensions of subsistence. In the Arctic
                   Region, a stipulation for subsistence whaling and other subsistence activities also
                   established a process for informing subsistence whaling communities and organizations
                   about OCS activities. This stipulation encourages lessees to conduct themselves in a
                   responsible manner with regard to native subsistence needs and thereby avoid adverse
                   impacts on local harvests and cultural values. The Oil/Wbalers Cooperative Program
                   for the Beaufort Sea, in effect from 1986 to 1989, between Nuiqsut and Kaktovik
                   whaling captains and oil industry companies, is an example of such coordination and
                   cooperation.

                   Of the factors capable of affecting subsistence, probably the most consequential during
                   the review period was the need for village residents to defend the cultural and
                   economic importance of subsistence at public hearings and meetings, the need for
                   residents to enter into negotiations and lawsuits to defend subsistence, and even the
                   need for residents to participate in studies on subsistence (Impact Assessment Inc.,
                   1990a, b, and c).

                   Studies, meetings, and hearings carried out prior to OCS frontier leasing have been
                   stressful for many residents of areas located near proposed lease-sale areas, requiring
                   time commitments and travel costs to meet the timetables of outside institutions. Arctic
                   residents have steadfastly advocated for protection of their subsistence lifestyle and
                   have consistently expressed the view that technology is insufficient to clean up oil
                   spilled in polar ice.

                   Conclusion: In the Alaskan arctic during the review period, no declines in subsistence
                   harvest levels due to OCS oil-related activities were documented. No direct loss of
                   subsistence resources was reported from routine and accidental OCS events in the
                   Beaufort and Chukchi Seas, the areas where exploration drilling occurred. However,
                   one impact of OCS activities in the Alaska Region was an increase in stress by arctic
                   residents due to the need to repeatedly defend subsistence and to raise this concern.






             4-150








                   4.4 Atlantic Region
                          The Atlantic Region comprises four OCS planning areas: North Atlantic, Mid-Atlantic,
                          South Atlantic, and Straits of Florida (fig. 4.4-1). More detailed information relating
                          to the OCS Program can be found in Atlantic Update: July 1986-June 1990, Outer
                          Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Activities (Karpas and Gould, 1990). Because of leasing
                          moratoria, no lease sales were held in the Atlantic Region between 1987 and 1991, but
                          the active leases in the Atlantic Region during this time are shown in figure 4.4-2.

                          During the 5 years covered by this report, the only OCS-related activities that
                          occurred in the Atlantic Region resulted from the issuance of seven G&G permits.
                          (table 4.4-1).


                                                 Table 4.4-1. OCS G&G Permits Issued by
                                                              the Atlantic Region,
                                                              1987 through 1991
                                                       YL-1                 Number

                                                       1987                      2


                                                       1988                      4


                                                       1989                      0


                                                       1990                      1


                                                       1991                      0


                                                       Total                     7


                                                   Source: Adapted from Federal Offshore Statislics
                                                          (USDOI, MMS, 1992a)


                   4.4A Biological Environment
                   4.4A1 Fish Resources
                          Effects of OCS Seismic Surveying: During OCS exploratory operations, deep seismic
                          surveys are made to investigate geological formations before drilling to help locate
                          natural gas and oil reserves. The surveys are conducted by reflecting acoustic energy
                          off subsurface layers and recording the reflections. Seismic surveying activities in the
                          Atlantic Region were limited from 1987 through 1991: only seven G&G permits were
                          issued.








                                                                                                                    4-151












                                                    80"                     750                      700                     650                       600

                                                                                                                                                                              450




                                                                                                          ME


                      450                                                                   VT
                                                                                                           Portland
                                                                                                 NH
                                MI                                               NY              MA       Boston                                                              400
                                                                                               CT
                                                                             New Yo     ity            Ri North Atlantic
                                                                       PA DE
                      400 -JN                OH
                                                         Wv                                  Mid-Atlantic                                                                 __350
                                                                      VA
                                    KY                                     Norfolk


                                 TN                                  NC
                      350
                                                          SC
                                           GA            Charleston                                                                                                       -300
                               AL                                    South Atlantic



                                               Jackson ille
                      300-


                                                          FL
                                                                                                                                                                              250
                                                              Miami            Straits                                             Planning area
                                                                            of Florida                                             boundary
                                                              N
                      250-
                                                                                                                     0        100        200        300       400


                                                                                                                                        Miles


                               850                                      800                                750                                 700


                      Figure 4.4-1. Atlantic OCS Planning Areas

                    4-152











                                                     PA                                                          Long Island
                                                                                                                                                   North
                                                                                                                                                  Atlantic
                                                                                                                                                  Planning

                                                                                                                                                   Arm
                                                                                       NJ
                                                         MD



                                                                                           Cape May
                                                                               DE


                                            VA


                                                                                                                               Atlantic
                                                                                                                               Ocean
                                                                              Cape Charles


                                                               Norfolk






                                           NC
                                                            Manteo              Cape            Manteo
                                                                                                 Area                              Mid-Atlantic
                                                                               Hatteras it-                                  Planning Area Boundary

                                                                                                                                  South Atlantic
                                Wilmington                    Cape                                                           Planning Area Boundary
                                                             Lookout




                                         Cape Fear





                                                                                                                            Mid and South Atlantic
                                                                                                                                Planning Areas

                                                                                                                                   Explanation
                                                                                                                                 Planning Area boundary

                                    Note:                                                                                       Active lease
                                    The maritime boundaries and limits shown above,
                                    as well as the divisions between planning areas,                                 0           50           100        150
                                    are for initial planning purposes only and do not
                                    p
                                    r            i                                                                   6000MIL                  I           I
                                    ejudice or affect Un led States jurisdiction in
                                    any way.
                                                                                                                                  Statute Miles




                         Figure 4.4-2. Mid- and South Atlantic Planning Areas, Status of Leases,
                                                1987 through 1991                                                                                       4-153








                  Acoustic signals from air gun or water gun arrays used during deep seismic surveys
                  can have lethal or sublethal behavioral effects on various life stages of fish resources.
                  These effects can be translated into effects on the fish populations as a whole and,
                  consequently, on the fishermen who harvest those resources.

                  Fish hear and respond to single air gun or air gun array sources if they are exposed to
                  moderately high sound pressure levels for at least several minutes. Pelagic schooling
                  fish, such as herring and whiting, reacted to air-gun-generated sound pressure levels of
                  180-188 dB re /Ra by swimming away, either to deeper water or to another area
                  (Dalen and Knutsen, 1986; Dalen, 1973 [as cited in Battelle and BBN, 1987];
                  Chapman and Hawkins, 1969).

                  Battelle and BBN (1987) observed that several species of rockfish gave alarm and
                  startle responses to sounds from a single air gun. Startle responses (reflexive flexions,
                  shuddering, rapid swimming) were not observed in caged rockfish below 200 dB re
                  t4Pa. The threshold for alarm responses (changes in schooling behavior, vertical
                  distribution, and activity level) was about 180 dB re /xPa. Some subtle changes in
                  behavior became evident at 161 dB re pPa. The fish appeared to return to their
                  previous behavior within minutes after the air gun noise ceased. However, under
                  conditions of the experiment, the fish may have become habituated to the noise.

                  The limited scientific evidence available suggests that significant effects on pelagic fish
                  eggs and larvae probably would only occur relatively close to an operating air gun
                  array. It seems unlikely that individual eggs and larvae would normally be exposed to
                  more than one to two shots within the near-field influence of an air gun array during
                  an actual seismic survey because of the following:
                     ï¿½ the spacing and pattern of shot lines during actual geophysical surveys
                     ï¿½ the extensive spawning areas of most species compared with the survey tracklines,
                     ï¿½ the high reproductive rates characteristic of species with pelagic eggs and larvae
                     ï¿½ the patchy distribution of pelagic eggs and larvae
                     ï¿½ the passive movement of eggs and larvae due to ocean currents and other
                       transport processes
                     ï¿½ the diel periodicity and vertical migrations characteristic of the larvae of many
                       species

                  The probability is extremely low that populations or year classes of adult fish would be
                  significantly affected by mortalities of pelagic eggs, larvae, or juveniles killed during
                  seismic surveys. Behavioral effects are difficult to quantify, difficult to interpret
                  relative to specific impacts, and difficult to assess at the population level. However,
                  based on the few studies conducted thus far, the major effect of seismic surveys
                  appears to be on the behavior of juvenile and adult fish, not on their survival.
                  Behavior tends to return to normal shortly after the noise ceases, although habituation
                  to sustained noise may occur.



            4-154








                          Conclusion: No significant cumulative effects of OCS seismic surveys on fish
                          resources were documented for the Atlantic Region from 1987 through 1991.

                   4AA2 Endangered or Threatened Marine Mammals
                          The endangered or threatened marine mammals that occur in the Atlantic Region
                          include whales and the West Indian manatee.


                   (a) Endangered Whales
                          Five species of endangered cetaceans occur regularly on the Atlantic OCS. These are
                          the right whale (Balaena glacialis), humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), fin
                          whale (Balaenoptera physalus), sei whale (B. borealis), and sperm whale (Physeter
                          macrocephalus). The blue whale (B. musculus) occurs only very rarely on the North
                          Atlantic OCS (Mead, 1975; Cetacean and Turtle Assessment Program, 1982; Wenzel
                          et al., 1988).

                          All endangered cetaceans of the western Atlantic are migratory. In particular, the four
                          baleen species follow a predictable pattern of north to south seasonal movement. These
                          whales usually spend the warm months offshore Maine south to Cape Cod. In winter,
                          right and fin whales occur on the Atlantic OCS from Cape Cod south to Florida. The
                          humpback whale does not occur on the Atlantic OCS during winter, and the winter
                          location of Atlantic sperm, fin, sei, and right whale populations is uncertain.

                          Effects of OCS Seisinic Surveying: During OCS exploratory operations, deep seismic
                          surveys are made to investigate geological formations before drilling to help locate
                          natural gas and oil reserves. The high-energy acoustical pulses used in seismic surveys
                          are generated by air guns or water guns. From 1987 through 1991, only seven G&G
                          permits were issued in the Atlantic Region.

                          If the acoustic waves generated during seismic surveys exceed ambient "background"
                          noises, they can produce sublethal effects in endangered whales by interfering with
                          communication or altering behavior. In controlled experiments, gray whales have
                          exhibited startle responses, avoidance reactions, and other behavioral changes when
                          exposed to seismic pulses at levels above 160 dB, which corresponds to a distance of
                          about 3.6 km from an air-gun array (Malme et al., 1989). Less consistent reactions
                          have occurred at received volume levels of 140-160 dB (Malme et al., 1983; 1984;
                          1989). However, Malme et al. (1989) concluded that baleen whales were quite tolerant
                          of noise impulses produced by marine seismic exploration. Recent Endangered Species
                          Act biological opinions issued by the NMFS for OCS activities in 1987 concluded that
                          geophysical seismic activities may create a stressful situation but are not likely to
                          present a barrier to whale migration.





                                                                                                              4-155








             Conclusion: Given these findings and considering the limited number of seismic
             surveys conducted in the Atlantic Region from 1987 through 1991, no significant
             cumulative effects of seismic surveys on endangered whale populations were
             documented.


         M Sirenians
             The herbivorous West Indian manatee (Tfichetus m. latirostfis) is the only sirenian
             found in U.S. waters. Population size along the southeastern Atlantic coast, and
             throughout this species' range, has not been adequately described. However, the total
             population, including those animals occurring in the Straits of Florida and western
             Florida, is thought to be between 700 and 1,000 individuals (USDOI, FWS, 1988).
             Most of the West Indian manatee population is located in eastern Florida. Not
             restricted to freshwater habitat, individuals of this species make seasonal migrations up
             the Atlantic coast. The northernmost area occupied seasonally on a regular basis is
             coastal North Carolina (Lee and Socci, 1989), although this species is occasionally
             reported as far north as the Chesapeake Bay. However, with the onset of cooler
             seasonal temperatures, manatees return to the warmer waters of Florida.

             Conclusion: From 1987 through 1991, seven G&G permits were issued for the
             Atlantic Region-one permit was issued to conduct a seismic survey in the Straits of
             Florida. During this report period, there were no documented effects from OCS
             seismic surveying on this species.


        4.2B Socioeconomic Environment
             During the 5 years covered by this report, the only OCS-related activities that
             occurred in this Region resulted from the seven G&G permits issued by the MMS.
             The G&G surveys conducted put money into local economies through docking fees;
             purchase of welding and other services; and the purchase of supplies, such as fuel and
             food. No calculations were done to examine the impacts or any multiplier effect on the
             coastal economies from G&G monies that were spent. (A multiplier effect occurs when
             money enters a local economy and begins to exchange hands as goods or services are
             purchased.) However, any measurable effects would have been localized.

             Although, most of the Atlantic Region was under leasing moratoria during this review
             period, socioeconomic effects in the Atlantic Region centered around the public and
             community response to the OCS Program itself. Many Atlantic coast residents feared
             that offshore drilling would cause catastrophic degradation of the physical and
             biological environments. While the OCS Program has produced large volumes of
             natural gas and crude oil more safely than many other sources (e.g., tanker
             transportation), it is perceived as a source of devastating effects on local areas. These
             effects include:




         4-156








                            ï¿½ air and water pollution
                            ï¿½ hazards to biological resources
                            ï¿½ beach fouling; changes in land and water uses
                            ï¿½ degradation of ocean vistas, national and State parks, wildlife refuges, and other
                              public recreation areas

                         Residents were particularly averse to risks over which they had little or no control or
                         that were associated with other memorable events. Thus, the already prevalent concern
                         that OCS natural gas and oil activities could result in a damaging oil spill was
                         heightened by the catastrophic non-OCS Exxon Valdez tanker accident and the
                         consequential damage to Alaskan coastal resources. This event reinforced many coastal
                         residents' apprehensions about the adequacy of oil-spill prevention, containment, and
                         cleanup equipment and procedures as well as their concerns about potential damages to
                         highly-valued beaches, shorelines, and marine resources.

                         Residents also were opposed to risks that are not well understood or that are
                         unpredictable, such as those associated with events such as earthquakes, underwater
                         landslides, and hurricanes. Such events, they feared, posed threats to offshore
                         exploration and development equipment and facilities, and could result in the release of
                         hydrocarbons or the loss of life. One concern was that emergency response capabilities
                         of local governments would be already strained during and after hurricanes, thus
                         making it difficult to deal with an oil spill at the same time.

                         The fear of oil spills has grown to such an extent that many people are unwilling to
                         accept any risk involving the possibility of an oil spill occurring. This fear has resulted
                         in a growing resistance to OCS natural gas and oil development off the Atlantic coast.
                         Illustrative of this point was the extensive public protest over the EP submitted by the
                         Mobil Oil Company to drill a single well in the Manteo Prospect located 45 miles east-
                         northeast off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. In 1989, public hearings held for the
                         single well proposal were attended by approximately 1,300 people.

                         Additional concerns included apprehensions that economic instabilities and changes in
                         land use and onshore infrastructure would occur. A major contributor to these
                         concerns was the boom-and-bust economies that have occurred in areas heavily
                         dependent on natural gas and oil production. In addition, commercial fishermen often
                         expressed concerns that their livelihood could be diminished or threatened by natural
                         gas and oil activities. Their concerns have included effects of seismic surveys on fish
                         eggs and larvae, the distribution and feeding of fish populations, and the exclusion of
                         commercial and sports fishing from areas around drilling rigs.

                         Recreation and tourism are an important industry in many coastal areas. During the
                         time covered by this report, many residents believed that these industries would be
                         harmed by natural gas and oil operations. They contended that tourists would choose
                         other areas to visit because of oil-spill risks, effects of oil rig and platform sights on


                                                                                                              4-157









              coastal aesthetics, reduction in the quality of marine resources which support coastal
              tourism, and construction and operation of industrial support facilities onshore.
              Residents also believed that the locations of onshore support areas, natural gas and oil
              processing facilities, and transportation systems could affect coastal property values
              and could be incompatible with existing or planned land-use patterns. Such onshore
              facilities might also result in population growth that would generate additional demands
              on local governments for public facilities and services. Because of this fear of local
              growth associated with potential natural gas and oil development, some coastal
              communities have passed zoning laws prohibiting land use for gas or oil infrastructure.

              Conclusion: The only cumulative effect from OCS-related activities spanning 1987 to
              1991 on the Atlantic socioeconomic environment was the increased public concern
              over the OCS Program.




































          4-158







                  5.0 OCS Marine Minerals Program

                  5.1   Program Administration
                        The term "minerals, as defined in the OCSLA, includes oil, gas, sulphur,
                        geopressured-geothermal and associated resources, and all other minerals that are
                        authorized by an act of Congress to be produced from "public lands," as defined in
                        section 103 of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (43 U.S.C.
                        1702). Section 8(k) of the OCSLA Amendments authorizes the Secretary of the
                        Interior to lease minerals, other than oil, gas, and sulphur, on the OCS on the basis of
                        competitive bidding and under such terms and conditions as may be prescribed at the
                        time of the lease offering. Included within this authority is the Secretary's
                        responsibility to design, implement, and manage the OCS minerals policy and
                        development.

                        The basic goals of the MMS marine minerals program are to:
                           ï¿½ evaluate and achieve the potential of the OCS as a domestic supply source for
                             strategic and other nonenergy mineral resources
                           ï¿½ safeguard the ocean and coastal environments by ensuring that all OCS mineral
                             activity is environmentally sound and acceptable
                           ï¿½ ensure that OCS mineral activities are fully coordinated and compatible with
                             other uses of the ocean
                           ï¿½ provide an effective consultation process for coastal States and the Federal
                             Government regarding offshore minerals

                        Fulfillment of these goals provides a regulatory climate conducive to exploration and
                        development of offshore hard minerals while safeguarding the marine environment.
                        Accordingly, a three-tiered regulatory regime was established in 1988 and 1989
                        specifically for offshore minerals. These regulations govern prospecting activities (30
                        CFR Part 280), leasing activities (30 CFR Part 281), and operations on offshore
                        mineral leases (30 CFR Part 282). The regulations were designed to recognize the
                        differences between OCS activities associated with the discovery, development, and
                        production of oil, gas, and sulfur and those associated with other minerals. Together,
                        these three rules outline the requirements for data and information gathering ventures
                        associated with G&G prospecting and scientific research relating to OCS hard
                        minerals. These regulations also establish leasing procedures, basic mineral lease
                        conditions, and general procedures to govern discovery, development, and production
                        activities on a lease.


                        Within the MMS, the Office of International Activities and Marine Minerals
                        (INTERMAR) develops policy for, and coordinates the exploration, development, and
                        recovery of, OCS nonenergy minerals. With the cooperation of adjacent coastal States,
                        joint Federal-State task forces assess leasing potential. If leasing is determined to be


                                                                                                           5-1









                  economically feasible, resource and environmental studies will follow. The task forces
                  recommend appropriate actions to the Secretary of the Interior and the State
                  Governor(s). Federal decisions to proceed to lease sales are made by the Secretary,
                  with review and comment from the Govemor(s).

                  From 1987 through 1991, INTERMAR's marine mineral activities focused on the
                  following resources (fig. 5. 1 - 1):
                     ï¿½ cobalt-rich manganese crusts offshore Hawaii and Johnston Island
                     ï¿½ phosphorites offshore North Carolina
                     ï¿½ heavy-mineral placers and phosphorites offshore Georgia
                     ï¿½ sand and gravel and heavy-mineral placers offshore the Gulf Coast States
                     ï¿½ heavy-mineral placers offshore Alaska
                     ï¿½ black sand deposits containing chromite offshore Oregon
                     ï¿½ aggregates offshore New England

                  Accordingly, cooperative arrangements existed between the Federal Government and
                  Oregon, Alaska, Hawaii, North Carolina, Georgia, the Gulf Coast States, and the New
                  England States (fig. 5. 1-1). Cumulative effects of these activities on the marine
                  environment will be discussed at the end of this chapter.

           5.2 Associated Activities
                  Various activities are associated with the marine minerals research program. Typical
                  activities, which are described below, include the following:
                     ï¿½ magnetic and high-resolution              *  side-scan sonar surveys
                       seismic profiling                         9  coring devices (including
                     ï¿½ vibralifts                                   vibracores)
                     ï¿½ heat-measuring probes                     e  benthic grab sampling
                     ï¿½ bottom trawling and dredging              *  seabird and marine mammal
                     ï¿½ water sampling                               observations
                     ï¿½ submersible observations


           5.2A Geophysical Equipment
                  Magnetic and high-resolution seismic profilers emit a signal and a sharp sound which
                  echo back from the seabed and various reflecting surfaces beneath the seabed to give
                  an analog of the sub-seabed in section. This profiler is used in mineral exploration to
                  detect favorable locations for heavy mineral deposits, and in natural gas and oil
                  exploration to detect shallow geologic hazards, such as active faults and mudslides or
                  areas of potential instability.

                  Side-scan sonar is similar to the seismic profiler except that the sound does not
                  penetrate the bottom but reflects from the seabed on either side of the towed
                  instrument, thus producing an analog relief map up to I or 2 kni wide.


           5-2





                             TITANIUM              GOLD, PLATINUM
                             TITANIUM




                              GOLD



                                                                                                                ...... ........

                          CHROMITE












                                                                                                                     P
                             PHOSPHORITE                                                                           SAIN
                                                                                                                PHOSPH
                       AGGREGATES Al                 16                          SAND & SHELL   HEAVY       HEAVY MIN
                       TIN                                                                      MINERALS

                    GOLD                                                                     M New England

                                               MANGANESE CRUSTS                                   Alaska

                  PLATINUM
                              ALASKA                HAWAII                                        Oregon         EZ



                        Figure 5.1-1. INTERMAR Marine Mineral Activities Conducted Under State/Federal Ag

              tA
              t:0








           5.2B Sediment-Sampling Equipment
                 Freefall benthic grab samplers or corers may be used to take a small sample generally
                 at a depth of 0.5 to 2 m. Samples may be about 0.5 m' in size. The sampling
                 instruments may be tethered to a winch or may be of the boomerang type which
                 releases an expendable weight of about 10 kilograms on impact and returns to the
                 surface under its own buoyancy. Grabs are usually about 0.3 ml in contact area and
                 penetrate 15-20 cm, while corers may be 5-10 cm in diameter and penetrate from less
                 than 0.5 ni to 2 m in soft sediments. These tools are virtually useless in rock or hard
                 sediment.


                 Heat-measuring probes are directly towed or driven through the sediment surface. Heat
                 conductance generally requires the measurement of heat flow through a stationary
                 probe in the seabed. The probes may be less than 2 m long and 5 cm wide.

                 The vibracore/vibralift device, used in marine mineral investigations off Oregon and
                 Georgia, is actually one drilling device that can be modified to operate in two distinct
                 modes. The unit basically uses a pneumatic vibrator mounted to a core barrel to assist
                 in driving the barrel into the sediment surface. As a vibracore, the unit will pull up a
                 continuous core of sediment; as a vibralift, the unit acts essentially as a vacuum
                 cleaner to suck up a slurry of water and unconsolidated sediment. Unlike typical
                 coring devices, the vibracore/vibralift has achieved penetrations as deep as 6 m in soft,
                 sandy sediments.

                 Bottom trawlers or dredges usually consist of a chain or mesh bag that is dragged for a
                 distance along the seabottom to obtain samples of rock, benthic organisms, or fish that
                 lie within the path of the device.

           5.2C Biological Sampling and Observations and Water Sampling
                 In addition to the bottom trawling mentioned above, seabird and marine mammal
                 observations have taken place during marine mineral research cruises to obtain a
                 general picture of those populations in the sampling area. Deep-diving submersibles
                 have been used to observe marine life in areas where water depth precludes the use of
                 divers; samples have been obtained using the extendible probes of the submersibles.
                 Water samples and chemical analysis were conducted off Alaska to determine the
                 mercury content evident within the water column.


           5.3   Summary of Marine Mineral Activities
                 During the period covered by this report (1987 through 1991), the MMS sponsored
                 research efforts in the following areas to support its marine minerals program: Gorda
                 Ridge, Hawaii, Georgia, Alaska, and Oregon. These efforts are summarized below.



           5-4








                  5-3A Gorda Ridge
                        The Gorda Ridge Task Force, established in 1984, was charged with technically
                        assessing the economic, engineering, and environmental aspects of possible ocean
                        mining of polymetallic sulfides from the Gorda Ridge, an oceanic spreading center
                        located offshore southern Oregon and northern California. A scientific program was
                        funded, and logistical support was provided by the MMS, the USGS, the NOAA, and
                        the U.S. Navy.

                        In the early stages, the Task Force initiated several studies to confirm the existence of
                        active hydrothermal venting on the Gorda Ridge. One such study analyzed trace metal
                        content in the water column overlying probable areas of hydrothermal venting. In this
                        study, towed instruments were used to detect thermal and particle anomalies, and
                        water samples were collected and analyzed for manganese and other trace metals.
                        Heat-flow measurements were also obtained from three locations in the Escanaba
                        Trough, a sediment-filled area within the Gorda Ridge. This study used a scientific
                        temperature measuring device composed of a cylindrical weight partially filled with
                        lead to drive a 5-meter-long pipe outfitted with thermistors into the sediment surface.
                        This device measured the temperature differential between the bottom water and the
                        sediment. The temperature difference, as a function of the depth, is the thermal
                        gradient. High-heat flow values recorded during the study indicated that there were
                        indeed areas of active hydrothermal activity.

                        A key component of the research work overseen by the Task Force was a series of
                        submersible dives undertaken aboard the U.S. Navy's deep-diving submersible Sea
                        Cliff in 1986 and 1988. During these dives, extensive deposits of massive iron-rich
                        sulfides were actually observed, some of which were several tens of meters wide and
                        more than 100 ni long. Various exotic forms of marine life were also observed.

                 5.3B Hawaii
                        Because of various examinations and studies conducted in the late 1960's and early
                        1970's, a Federal-State of Hawaii Task Force was established in 1984 to evaluate the
                        possible development of cobalt-rich manganese crust deposits located near Hawaii and
                        Johnston Island. These deposits were in water depths ranging from 800 to 2,400 m.
                        Recognition of the crust's resource potential and the presence of various crust-
                        associated strategic metals led to further studies sponsored, at least partially, by MMS.

                        Research cruises sponsored by the MMS and organized by the Resource Systems
                        Institute of the East-West Center and the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics were designed
                        to provide the following:
                           ï¿½ SeaMARC and seismic data (on individual seamounts of particular importance)
                           ï¿½ manganese crust and substrate materials (for study and chemical analysis)
                           ï¿½ detailed bathymetry
                           ï¿½ bottom photographs of the cobalt-crust material


                                                                                                            5-5









                  At most of the sites, an initial acoustic survey using the SeaMARC side-scan sonar
                  mapping system aided the selection of stations for subsequent photography and
                  sampling. Color photographs were obtained by a trigger-weight-actuated stereo camera
                  system. Samples were obtained by rock corers, chain-bag dredges, and pipe dredges.

                  In November and December 1986, along with the USGS and the Bureau of Mines
                  (BOM), the MMS sponsored a research cruise aboard the German research vessel
                  RV Sonne to study manganese crusts in the Marshall Islands and in the Johnston Island
                  Exclusive Economic Zone. The research work included dredging operations using
                  various chain-bag dredges to recover manganese crusts and substrate rocks. A
                  television-controlled grab device recorded the following:
                     ï¿½ sampling of loose cobbles and fragments of manganese crusts
                     ï¿½ sediment sampling by gravity corer and spade corer
                     ï¿½ water sampling
                     ï¿½ underwater photography and television records
                     ï¿½ current meter deployments

                  Camera profiles, in combination with video tapes and bathymetric mapping using the
                  Seabeam system, showed the variability of the microtopography, the crust abundance,
                  and an initial resource evaluation of metals potential.

                  In September 1987 under a cooperative agreement with the NOAA, the MMS
                  sponsored a study of the cobalt-rich manganese crusts of Cross Seamount and the
                  hydrothermal deposits of Loihi Seamount off the coast of Hawaii. Shipboard-tethered
                  bottom cameras and bottom samples collected by the submersible Pisces V allowed for
                  study of the geological setting and stratigraphy of the manganese crusts located around
                  these two seamounts.


           5.3C Georgia
                  In September 1989, the MMS and the State of Georgia signed a cooperative agreement
                  to:
                     ï¿½ acquire four to six vibracore samples on Tybee and Skidaway Islands
                     ï¿½ conduct seismic surveys to relate the offshore and onshore cores
                     ï¿½ identify buried channels in the offshore area
                     ï¿½ acquire and analyze vibracore samples
                     ï¿½ complete the analysis of eight U.S. Navy cores
                     ï¿½ conduct a radioactive sled survey
                     ï¿½ sponsor a workshop to present results of these studies

                  The seismic work was completed during summer 1989, and the Georgia Geologic
                  Survey completed drilling four cores on Tybee and Skidaway Islands during February
                  1990-the data are being analyzed. The seismic lines obtained were particularly
                  valuable since the trackline plan was specifically designed to correlate several existing


           5-6









                         borings and wells. The work will serve to.define further the regional stratigraphy of
                         the phosphate-bearing Miocene-age deposits located offshore Georgia. In addition, the
                         buried channel data may indicate areas of heavy mineral concentration since these
                         deposits tend to concentrate along erosional shorelines (scarps) as well as erosional
                         segments of accretional shorelines. Lag concentrations of reworked phosphorite may
                         also exist within these buried features.


                         In June 1990, the Continental Shelf Division of the Marine Minerals Technology
                         Center (MMTC), an institution associated with the University of Mississippi,
                         conducted a seismic survey and a bulk sediment sampling experiment off the coast of
                         Georgia. Initially, a seismic survey was conducted along the Georgia coast to provide
                         additional data to delineate the geometry and trend of the previously mentioned buried
                         channel features. A 2-ton phosphate bulk sample was collected in the area of the
                         Savannah Light Tower for chemical analysis by the BOM Salt Lake City Research
                         Center. The sample was collected using the MMTC Remote Placer Drill (a vibracoring
                         device) modified for the project as a mini-borehole mining device.

                         In the MMTC experiment, the modified placer drill, along with an air compressor and
                         crane, was mounted on a conventional COE barge. The drill was powered by a
                         compressed air motor with pressured water pumped to the drill bit. This configuration
                         provided enhanced drilling capacity and the ability to wash out a small cavity. After
                         anchoring at the drill site, the crew set up a sample recovery system using a cyclone
                         separator and a series of settling tanks to allow for recovery of fine-grained sediment
                         before the water was returned to the ocean. The drill hole was successfully completed
                         with a maximum penetration of 5.5 m, and enough phosphatic material was obtained
                         to fill six 55-gallon containers. About 3 m of unconsolidated overburden consisting of
                         medium to coarse sand, silt, and shell hash were initially penetrated; the drill then
                         encountered a very hard layer of phosphatic, silty carbonate about 8-13 millimeters
                         thick. The remaining 2.1 to 2.4 m consisted of alternating layers of phosphatic sand
                         and clay.

                         After the bulk sample was obtained, cement was mixed with the remaining sediments
                         in the separating tank, and a slurry was pumped successfully back into the drill hole.
                         Underwater video recordings and diver observations of the experiment indicated that
                         no sediment plume or turbidity occurred during the drilling or pumping operations.
                         The information provided by this experiment will be useful to evaluate what appears to
                         be an environmentally attractive technology for scientific research and potential for
                         future recovery of offshore phosphate deposits (Drucker et al., 1991).

                         Analysis of the U.S. Navy cores was completed, and a report was produced in 1992
                         (Manheim, 1992). The report provides information on lithology, stratigraphy,
                         phosphate distribution, and supporting chemical information on the eight cores, as well
                         as interpretations of phosphorite genesis and the regional geologic and resource
                         significance of the core data.


                                                                                                            5-7









                The results of the radioactive sled survey are contained in Henry and Idris, 1992. The
                sled survey data helped evaluate the economic potential of the heavy mineral deposits
                found in core and sediment samples obtained from the Georgia shelf.

                A workshop was held at the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography, Savannah, Georgia,
                in April 1991 to present the results of much of the work conducted offshore Georgia.

         5.313 Alaska
                In November 1987, the Governor of Alaska requested that the MMS join the State in
                evaluating the feasibility of developing mineral resources in the waters offshore Norton
                Sound, Alaska. On February 5, 1988, the Secretary of the Interior signed a
                cooperative agreement establishing a Federal-State coordination team.

                During the preparation of an EIS, concerns arose regarding the potential for
                bioaccumulation of toxic trace metals in organisms and the accuracy of existing
                water-quality data in the Norton Sound. The MMS subsequently contracted with
                Battelle Northwest to acquire trace-metal data using state-of-the-art seawater
                collections and analytical techniques. To conduct trace-metal analyses, human hair
                samples were also obtained from native women of childbearing age in Nome. The
                water sampling was conducted in June and September 1989; the human hair samples
                were collected during October and November 1989 and analyzed for levels of various
                trace metals, primarily mercury and arsenic. The results of these surveys indicate that
                the trace metal levels are not an environmental concern (MBC Applied Environmental
                Sciences, 1989b).

         5.3E Oregon
                Several research cruises took place offshore Oregon in September and October 1990.
                The objectives of this field program were to identify successfully the concentration,
                quality, and distribution of placer minerals deep in the sand section in at least two
                targets on the Oregon shelf, and to collect information on living resources and
                geology. The sampling plan for these cruises included the following activities:
                     side-scan sonar surveys to identify and avoid areas of hard-bottom substrate
                     magnetic and high-resolution seismic profiling
                     vibracoring of sand samples 4 inches wide and up to 30 feet long
                     vibralifting using a coring device to pump sand samples from the core barrel onto
                     the research vessel
                     benthic grab sampling
                     bottom trawling to collect small fish and other animals
                     seabird and marine mammal observations


                At each of the targets identified for study, geophysical surveys located the targets and
                provided some preliminary information on the nature of the deposits. These surveys
                used magnetometers, high-resolution seismic profiling with a low-power sonic signal


         5-8








                           generator, and side-scanning sonar. On the basis of the information collected, a
                           continuous core (vibracore) was drilled through the center of the presumed deposit,
                           and a grid for bulk samples was established. Some difficulty was encountered during
                           the vibracore operations which resulted in an insufficient quantity of material for
                           analysis. Vibralift samples, however, were obtained and were returned to shore-based
                           installations for examination. Observers onboard the research vessel kept note of visual
                           sightings of seabirds and marine mammals. A report completed in June 1991 (Marine
                           Taxonomic Services, 1991) contains the data and resulting analyses obtained from the
                           benthic grab samples and bottom trawling. The collected data established a good
                           baseline of information for the area surveyed.

                    5.4    Observed Effects
                           No adverse effects to the marine environment were reported during the field exercises
                           or research activities associated with the MMS marine minerals program during 1987
                           through 1991.

                           Seismic profilers used for marine minerals investigations are less powerful than the
                           normal seismic exploration systems used for deep penetration during natural gas and
                           oil exploration. The sound is generated by a spark, air gun, or electromechanical
                           clapper; explosives are almost never used. The towed string of sensors does not extend
                           out behind the survey vessel as is common for natural gas- and oil-related seismic
                           surveys. A deeply towed sled that "flies" several hundred meters over the seabottom is
                           used sometimes.


                           Sampling devices used to obtain marine minerals or sediment samples disturb only an
                           inconsequential amount of actual seabed material. Core samples are generally on the
                           order of 5-10 cm in diameter, and penetration is usually no more than 2 m deep into
                           the subsurface, except in the case of the vibracore/vibralift where penetration in very
                           soft sediments may approach 6-7 m. As mentioned earlier, grab samples are usually
                           about 0.3 ml in contact area and penetrate 15-20 cm. Since most marine mineral
                           coring systems use sea water flushings, there has been no introduction of foreign
                           materials during drilling or sampling operations. After the bulk sample was obtained in
                           the Georgia experiment, cement was mixed with the remaining sediments in the
                           separating tank, and a slurry was pumped successfully back into the drill hole.
                           Underwater video recordings and diver observations of the experiment indicated that
                           no sediment plume or turbidity occurred during the drilling or pumping operations.

                           The amount of biological samples obtained during these field activities was small in
                           amount compared to the known populations. Marine life was not disturbed by the
                           marine minerals research activities during the report period.





                                                                                                                  5-9








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         6-32









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          6-36                                                          *U.S. G.P.O.:1995-301-078:00415

































































                  HT je
                                The Department of the Interior Mission

                                As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility
                                for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering
                                sound use of our land and water resources; protecting our fish, wildlife, and biological diversity;
                                preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places;
                  H 3           and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses
                                our energy and mineral resources and works to ensure that their development is in the best
                                interests of all our people by encouraging stewardship and citizen participation in their care.
                                The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities
                                and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.

                                The Minerals Management Service Mission

                                As a bureau of the Department of the Interior, the Minerals Management Service's (MMS)
                                primary responsibilities are to manage the mineral resources located on the Nation's Outer
                                Continental Shelf (OCS), collect revenue from the Federal OCS and onshore Federal and Indian
                                lands, and distribute those revenues.

                                Moreover, in working to meet its responsibilities, the Offshore Minerals Management Program
                                administers the OCS competitive leasing program and oversees the safe and environmentally
                                sound exploration and production of our Nation's offshore natural gas, oil and other mineral
                                resources. The MMS Royalty Management Program meets its responsibilities by ensuring the
                                efficient, timely and accurate collection and disbursement of revenue from mineral leasing and
                                production due to Indian tribes and allottees, States and the U.S. Treasury.

                                The MMS strives to fulfill its responsibilities through the general guiding principles of: (1) being
                                responsive to the public's concerns and interests by maintaining a dialogue with all potentially
                                affected parties and (2) carrying out its programs with an emphasis on working to enhance the
                                quality of life for all Americans by lending MMS assistance and expertise to economic
                                development and environmental protection.
































































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