Draft environmental impact statement for commercial ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) licensing

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
Draft Environmental Impact Statement

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
TD a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
194.5 K Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy
.D734 March 1981
~'~ 1981

METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS

Approximate Conversions to Metric Measure Approximate Conversions from Metric Measure

Symbol When You Know Multiply by To Find Symbol Symbol When You Know Multiply by To Find Symbol

LENGTH LENGTH

in Inches 2.54 centimeters cm mm millimeters 0.04 inches in
ft feet 30. centimeters cm cm centimeters 0.4 inches in
yd yards 0.9 meters m m meters 3.3 feet ft
fm fathoms 1.8 meters m m meters 1.1 yards yd
mi statute m;les 1.6 kilometers km m meters 0.6 fathoms fm
nmi nautical miles* 1.9 kilometers km km kilometers 0.6 statute miles mi
km kilometers 0.6 nautical miles* nml
*1 nautical m.le = 6,076 feet = 115 statute miles*
*1 nautical mile = 6,076 feet = 1.15 statute miles

AREA AREA

2 2 2
in square inches 65 square centimeters cm cm square centimeters 0.16 square inches in
ft2 square feet 0.09 square meters m2 m2 square meters 11 square feet ft2
yd2 square yards 0.8 square meters m2 m2 square meters 1.2 square yards yd2
ml2 square miles 2.6 square kilometers km2 km2 square kilometers 0.4 square miles mi2
nm.2 square nautical miles 3.4 square kilometers km2 km2 square kilometers 0.3 square nautical miles nml

MASS (weight) MASS (weight)

OZ ounces 28. grams 9 9 grams 0.4 ounces
lb pounds 0.45 kilograms kg kg kilograms 2.2 pounds lb
short tons (2.000 lb) 0.9 tonnes t tonnes 1.1 short tons (2.0W Ib)

1 tonne = 1,000 kg = 1 metric ton 1 tonne = 1,000 kg = I metric ton

VOLUME VOLUME

fl oz fluid ounces 30 milliliters ml ml milliliters 0.03 fluid ounces fl oz
pt pints 0.47 liters I I liters 2.1 pints pt
Ot quarts 0.95 liters I I liters 1.1 quarts qt
gal gallons 3.8 teras I I liters 0.3 gallons gal
gal gallons 0.004 cubic meters m m cubic meters 264 gallons gal
ft3 cubic feet 0.03 cubic meters m3 cubic meters 35. cubic feet ft3
yd 3 cubic yards 0.76 cubic meters m3 m3 cubic meters 1.3 cubic yards yd3

TEMPERATURE (exact) TEMPERATURE (exact)

OF Fahrenheit temperature 0.55 OF) -32 Celsius temperature C �C Celsius temperature 1.8 (IC) +32 Fahrenheit temperature OF

VELOCITY VELOCITY

in/sec inches per second 2.5 centimeters per second cm/sec cm/sec centimeters per second 0.4 inches per second in/ec
ft/sec feet per second 30. centimeters pr second /sec cm/sec centimeters per second 0.03 feet per second ft/sec
ft/min feet per minute 0.5 centimeters per second cm/sec cm/sec centimeters per second 2.0 feet per minute ft/min
mph mles per hour 1.6 kilometers per hour kph cm/sec centimeters per second 0.02 knots {nautical miles per hr)** kn
kn knots** 51. centimeters per second cm/sec kph kilometers per hour 0.6 miles per hour mph
kn knots Inautical m-Ies per hour) 1.9 kilometers per hour kph kph kilometers per hour 0.5 knots kn

**I knot= 1 15 mph * knot = 1.15 mph

FLOW RATE FLOW RATE

gal/sec gallons per second 3.8 liters per second i/sec i/sec liters per second 0.3 gallons per second gal/sec

gal/sec gallons per second 0.004 cubic meters per second m /sec m /sec cubic meters per second 264 gallons per second ga l/sea

ga,min gallons per minute 0.004 cubic meters per minute m /min m /min cubic meters per minute 264 gallons per second gal/min

DRAFT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT

FOR
COMMERCIAL OCEAN THERMAL
ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)
LICENSING

March 1981

U.S. Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOA~
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413

ABSTRACT
This environmental impact statement is prepared in response to the Ocean
Thermal Energy Conversion Act of 1980 (PL 96-320) and the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as amended, to identify and assess the
effects of licensing commercial OTEC development on human activities and
the atmospheric, marine, and terrestrial environments. Alternate regulatory
approaches for mitigating adverse environmental Impacts associated with
siting, design, and operation of commercial OTEC plants are evaluated, and
the preferred regulatory alternative identified.

Address inquiries or comments to:

Robert W. Knecht, Director
Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy
2001 Wisconsin Avenue
Washington, D.C. 20235
(202) 653-7695

Property of CSC Library

SUMMARY

This Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is prepared in compliance with
the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), as amended, which
requires an EIS for each major Federal action that significantly affects the
quality of the human environment. This EIS considers the reasonably
foreseeable environmental consequences inherent to commercial Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion (OTEC) development by the year 2000 under the legal regime
established by the OTEC Act of 1980. Regulatory alternatives for mitigating
adverse environmental impacts associated with construction, deployment, and
operation of commercial OTEC plants are evaluated, and the preferred
regulatory alternative is identified.

The information contained in this EIS is being used to help identify the
research needs for an environmental research plan required by the OTEC Act of
1980, and to develop a technical support document that will provide guidance
regarding the types of environmental information that might be submitted with
an OTEC application.

Purpose of and Need for Proposed Action

In response to the demonstration of OTEC as a viable alternate energy
source by the U.S. Department of Energy's OTEC program, Congress enacted two
public laws to accelerate and facilitate OTEC development as a commercial
energy technology. The OTEC Research, Development, and Demonstration Act (PL
96-310) calls for the acceleration of OTEC technology development to meet
specific national energy goals. The OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320) requires
the establishment of a legal regime to permit and encourage commercial OTEC
development.

The proposed action considered in this EIS is the establishment of a
commercial OTEC legal regime by the Administrator of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The purpose of the proposed action is to
promote energy self-sufficiency for the United States, protect the environ-
ment, and authorize and regulate OTEC activities subject to the jurisdiction
of the OTEC Act through a one-step licensing system. The need for the legal
regime is to ensure that commercial OTEC development will have due regard for
the marine environment, other ocean uses, special interests of the United
States, and rights and responsibilities of adjacent coastal states.

Initially, the cost of OTEC-generated electricity will be high, but will
decrease as OTEC technology progresses. Because electricity in the United
States' tropical-subtropical island communities is more expensive than on the
mainland, OTEC-generated electricity will become cost-competitive with
conventional power sources sooner in these areas. As conventional power
costs continue to increase, commercialization of OTEC in the continental
United States will become viable. A possible deployment scenario projects
that twenty-five OTEC plants producing baseload electricity could be in
operation in the Gulf of Mexico, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, the
Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands by the year 2000,
with a total output of 2100 megawatts (MWe). The energy-intensive product
scenario projects that eighteen 500-MWe ammonia plantships and three 400-MWe
aluminum plantships could be deployed by the year 2000.

Commercial OTEC plants utilize the temperature differential between warm
surface and cold deep-ocean waters to produce electric power. Several
different OTEC platform configurations and power cycle designs can be used to
produce electric power from the thermal gradients in the tropical-subtropical
oceans. The electricity produced could be delivered to local power grids
directly (for land-based plants) or by means of submarine transmission
cables. OTEC-produced electricity could also be used for the production of
energy-intensive products, such as ammonia or aluminum, on plantships
utilizing the thermal resources far from shore.

To utilize the ocean's thermal resource for the production of electricity,
OTEC plants must draw large volumes of warm, near-surface water and cold,
deep water across evaporator and condenser heat exchangers, respectively.
The volume of water required for OTEC plant operation decreases as the heat
exchanger efficiency and the thermal gradient increases. Assuming a
conservative thermal resource gradient of 20 C, a 400-MWe OTEC plant would
require a total volume of water equivalent to 20% of the average flow of the
Mississippi River.

Alternatives to the Proposed Action

The alternative to establishing a legal regime that permits and encourages
the commercial development of OTEC is the no-action alternative. Under the
no-action alternative, NOAA would not issue regulations to implement the OTEC
Act of 1980. The no-action alternative would result in:

a Use of existing regulations, which were not specifically prepared.
for the unique characteristics of OTEC, for controlling the use
of the environment and preventing adverse environmental impacts.

* Discouraged development of OTEC as a commercial energy industry
which could:

- Continue the dependence of the United States on imported
oil and other energy sources which pose higher
environmental and economic risks than OTEC.

-Discourage the development of industries that would

construct, assemble, operate, and maintain OTEC plants.

For these reasons, the preferred alternative in this EIS is the establishment
of a legal regime that permits and encourages commercial OTEC development.

The options f or the siting, design, and operation of OTEC plants provide
considerations for formulating regulatory alternatives within the proposed
action from which the preferred legal regime can be selected. In general,4
OTEC operation sites 'mist be chosen from candidate sites on the basis of
siting considerations which:

� Prevent interference with other ocean-use areas, such as
shipping lanes, military zones, marine sanctuaries,

ocean disposal sites, commercial and recreational fisheries,
ecologically-sensitive areas, and recreational areas.

� Minimize environmental disturbances.

* Minimize thermal inteference between OTEC plants.

Operation of single and multiple OTEC plants could result in adverse
environmental effects. The magnitude of the potential impacts could be
reduced by implementing various technological alternatives, including the
utilization of various intake and discharge structure designs and biocide
release methods. Alternative regulatory approaches for protecting the
environment through siting and plant design include the detailed regulation
approach, the moderate regulation approach, and the minimal regulation
approach.

Under the detailed regulation approach, the regulations would contain
detailed substantive provisions applying to all OTEC plant designs and siting
environments. Specific design And siting regulations could be too rigorous,
thereby unnecessarily increasing plant construction costs and reducing
flexibility in siting and plant design.

The moderate regulations would contain specific guidelines and performance

standards applying to all OTEC plants within a general ecosystem* This
approach is commonly used to regulate mature, stable industries in which the
nature of the technology and resulting environmental impacts are known.
Uniform guidelines and performance standards could restrict the flexibility
and experimentation required to develop OTEC as a commercial energy
technology.

Under the minimal regulation alternative, minimal guidelines encompassing
existing regulations would be prescribed in advance, with additional
regulations developed, as required, on a case-by-case basis for inclusion as
terms and conditions of a license. The minimal regulation alternative
results in maximum flexibility to deal with site-specific environmental
concerns, while still encouraging development of the nascent OTEC industry.

Because monitoring is required in all three alternate regulatory
approaches and the minimal regulation alternative preserves the flexibility
to deal effectively with site-specific environmental concerns, it is the
preferred alternative. The minimal regulatory system would accomplish the
goals of the OTEC Act of 1980 without interfering with technological
innovations and responsible experimentation, which are part of the
development of a new commercial power industry.

Affected Environment

Generically describing the atmospheric, marine, and coastal environmental
conditions within the OTEC thermal resource area is critical for assessing
environmental consequences of commercial OTEC development. The candidate
regions likely to be used for commercial OTEC power production by the year
2000 include the eastern Gulf of Mexico, several island communities (Puerto
Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Pacific Trust
Territories), and various plantship areas located in the open ocean.

Climates within the OTEC resource area are influenced by large-scale
atmospheric patterns, the sea-surface temperature of surrounding ocean
waters, and the proximity of landmasses. Large-scale atmospheric
disturbances (tropical cyclones) are commonly observed throughout the year in
various parts of the OTEC thermal resource area, but are most frequent in the
eastern and western North Pacific. Hurricanes are frequent occurrences in
the Gulf of Mexico.

vii

In general, the marine environment is composed of nearshore and off shore
environments. The nearshore environment extends f rom the shoreline seaward
to the continental shelf break and is inf luenced by continental conditions
such as terrestrial runoff, tidal mixing, and coastal upwelling. The
nearshore environment tends to be highly productive and is the location of
the major world fisheries. The offshore environment is minimally influenced
by continental conditions and is characterized by low productivity; however,
important commercial fisheries, (i.e., tuna) do exist in the offshore
environment.

The coastal environment includes the area that extends seaward and inland
from the shoreline" and includes the nearshore marine and terrestrial
environments. The coastal environment is heavily used by man for various
commercial, recreational, cultural, and military purposes, and contains many
ecologically-sensitive areas which may be affected by the deployment and
operation of OTEC plants.

Construction of land-based OTEC plants is most likely to occur in tropical
island communities that have an adequate thermal resource close to shore.
The terrestrial environments of these areas are diverse and support an
extensive flora and fauna with many endemic species. The coastlines of these
island communities range from minimally to extensively developed.

Environmental Consequences

Commercial OTEC development may potentially affect the atmosphere, the
terrestrial environment, the marine ecosystem, and various human activities
in the vicinity of deployment and operation sites. The net environmental
impacts from commercial OTEC development are expected to be minimal compared
to the impacts from fossil-fuel and nuclear power production; however, there
are uncertainties associated with the withdrawal and redistribution of large
volumes of ocean water that must be better assessed.

viii

Potential atmospheric effects from commercial OTEC development,

although less than those from equivalent fossil fuel combustion, include
climatic disturbances resulting from carbon dioxide releases and sea-surface
temperature cooling. Significant atmospheric effects are not expected to
occur as a result of single-plant deployments; however, under extensive
development scenarios, carbon dioxide releases and sea-surface cooling from
multiple-plant deployments may combine synergistically to cause climatic

alterations. Local air quality is not expected to be significantly affected
by emissions from industrial OTEC plants producing energy-intensive products.

Construction of land-based OTEC plants may necessitate the destruction of
existing terrestrial habitats and may have a local effect on noise levels,
air quality, and the aesthetic quality of the construction area. These
impacts will be similar to those from constructing conventional power plants.

The majority of environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC

development center on the marine ecosystem, since it is the source of evapo-
rating and condensing waters and the receiver of effluent waters used by the

plant. Marine environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC develop-
ment can be categorized as: (1) major (those potentially causing significant
environmental impacts), (2) minor (those causing insignificant environmental
disturbances), and (3) potential (those occurring only during accidents).
OTEC activities that cause environmental effects corresponding to these
categories include:

Major Effects:

� Platform presence - Biota attraction

* Withdrawal of surface - Organism entrainment and
and deep ocean waters impingement

* Discharge of waters - Nutrient redistribution

resulting in increased~
productivity

* Biocide release - Organism toxic reponse

Minor Effects:

a Protective hull-coating - Concentration of trace
release metals in organism tissues

0 Power cycle erosion and - Effect of trace constituent
corrosion release

* Implantation of cold- - Habitat destruction and
water pipe and trans- turbidity during dredging
mission cable

0 Low-frequency sound - Interference with marine
production life

0 Discharge of surfactants - Organism toxic response

* Open-cycle plant - Alteration of oxygen and
operation salt concentrations in
downstream waters

Potential Effects from Accidents:

a Potential working fluid - Organism toxic response
release from spills and
leaks

* Potential oil releases - Organism toxic response

Nekton populations will increase in the vicinity of the plant because of
attraction to structure and lights, but will decrease in downstream areas as
a result of entrainment of egg and larval stages and impingement of juvenile

and adult stages. Plankton populations will be reduced immediately down-
stream of OTEC plants, because of entrainment and biocide release; however,
the redistribution of nutrient-rich deep water into the photic zone may

stimulate plankton productivity, ultimately increasing plankton populations
and fisheries. Benthic community effects will center primarily on their
planktonic larval stages (meroplankton), potentially reducing recruitment
stocks and adult benthic populations downstream of the plant. The cumulative
effect of commercial OTEC development near island environments may signifi-
cantly affect terrestrial and coastal threatened and endangered species
at some sites. Commercial OTEC plant operation in oceanic regions, however, is
not expected to significantly affect local threatened and endangered species.

The magnitude of potentially adverse impacts can be mitigated or reduced
by implementing various siting and technology alternatives. Siting OTEC
rlants away from commercially-important, ecologically-sensitive, and
biologically-productive areas will reduce the effects of biota attraction and
avoidance, organism impingement and entrainment, and biocide release.
Organism avoidance of OTEC plants can be minimized by reducing lights and
noise on the platform to minimal levels required for safe plant operation.
Organism impingement and entrainment may be reduced by siting intake
structures at depths having the least number of organisms and by using
velocity caps to achieve horizontal flow fields. Adverse environmental
effects resulting from biocide release, sea-surface temperature alterations,
and nutrient redistribution may be reduced by discharging the effluent waters
below the photic zone. Employing alternate biocide concentrations and
release schedules will minimize the effects of biocide release.

harbors and shipyard facilities, will result in the creation of
construction-related jobs. The projected job impact of OTEC plant
construction will be significant for large depressed city areas, where most
shipyards are located. Approximately 2,000 worker-years of shipyard
employment would be required to construct a 40-MWe plantship. Operation and
support of OTEC plants will create additional employment opportunities.

Indirect effects of commercial OTEC development may result from the
manufacture of OTEC plants, alterations in existing resource demands, and
increased demands on the communities where OTEC plants are developed.
Commercial OTEC development will have a positive influence on island
economies by initiating a process for obtaining total energy independence,
thereby creating long-term price stability for economic development.
Generally, the island communities of the United States suitable for OTEC
development are almost totally dependent upon imported oil, with few other
viable alternatives available.

Organization of the Environmental Impact Statement

Chapter I specifies the purpose of and need for the proposed action, dis-
cusses legislation related to commercial OTEC development, describes OTEC
technology, and presents a possible commercial OTEC deployment scenario.
Chapter 2 identifies and evaluates alternatives to the proposed action, and
describes the preferred regulatory approach that provides the maximum flexi-
bility for OTEC siting and technology design, while maintaining environmental
quality. Chapter 3 generically describes the atmospheric, marine, and
coastal environments of the OTEC thermal resource area targeted for commer-
cial OTEC development. Chapter 4 analyzes the environmental consequences and
summarizes the cumulative environmental effects of commercial OTEC develop-
ment. Chapter 5 identifies the principal and contributing authors of the
EIS. Chapter 6 lists the agencies and individuals to whom the HIS was sent
f or review. Chapter 7 contains a glossary, a list of abbreviations, and a
list of references cited.

Several appendixes are included: Appendix A contains the texts of the
OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320) and the OTEC Research, Development, and Demon-
stration Act (PL 96-310). Appendix B summarizes the status of OTEC develop-
ment. Appendix C contains maps of the areas where OTEC commercialization is
most probable. Appendix D presents the calculations used in impact evalua-
tion.

xii

CONTENTS

Chapter Page

SUMMARY .............................................. iii

PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE PROPOSED ACTION . . . . . . . . 1-1

1.1 INTRODUCTION ............ .. 1-1
1.2 OTEC LEGISLATION AND CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . 1-3
1.3 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION ................ 1-7
1.3.1 OTEC Plant Configuration . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
1.3.2 Power-Cycle Description . . . . . . . . .. 1-16
1.4 DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO ......... . . . . . . .. 1-27
1.4.1 Baseload Electricity Scenario . . . . . . . . 1-28
1.4.2 Grazing Plantship Scenario . . . . . . ... 1-30

2 ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2.1 NO-ACTION ALTERNATIVE ................ 2-2
2.2 ALTERNATIVES UNDER THE PROPOSED ACTION . . . . . ... 2-5
2.2.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . ... 2-6
2.2.2 Regulatory Alternatives Under the Proposed
Action ....................a a**o** 2-10
2.3 THE PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15

xiii

Chapter Page

3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3.1 THE ATMOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.1.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment . . . 3-4
3.1.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.2 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
3.2.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment . . . 3-10
3.2.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3-15
3.3 THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3.3.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment . . . 3-24
3.3.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-24
3.4 THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-25
3.4.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment . . . 3-25
3.4.2 Description . . . . . .. . . . ... . .. 3-30

4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

4.1 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4.2 TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
4.2.1 Staging Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4.2.2 Construction Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
4.2.3 Completion Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.3 MARINE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.3.1 Discharge Plume Description . . .. .. 4-11
4.3.2 Major Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
4.3.3 Minor Effects *. . . . . ......... 4-24
4.3.4 Potential (Accidental) Effects . . . . . . . 4-27
4.4 EFFECTS ON HUMAN ACTIVITES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-29
4.4.1 Commercial and Recreational Fishing . . . . . 4-29
4.4.2 Shipping and Transporation . . . . . . . .. 4-30

4.4.3 Naval Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30

xiv

Chapter Page

4.4.4 Scientific Research .......... 4-30
4.4.5 Recreation ................ ......... 4-31
4.4.6 Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4-31
4.5 INDIRECT EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-31
4.5.1 Secondary Environmental Effects . . . . . . 4-31
4.5.2 Socioeconomic Effects . . . . . . . . . . .. 4-32
4.6 CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . 4-34
4.7 UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE EFFECTS AND MITIGATING

MEASURES . * * * * . . . * . . . . . ...... 4-37
4.7.1 Platform Siting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37
4.7.2 Intake Considerations .......... 4-40
4.7.3 Discharge Considerations ........ 4-41
4.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
AND MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM
PRODUCTIVITY..... ..................... 4-42
4.9 IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE RESOURCE COMMITMENT . . 4-43

5 LIST OF PREPARERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 5-1

5.1 PRINCIPAL AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
5.2 CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 5-3

6 COORDINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

7 GLOSSARY, ABBREVIATIONS, AND REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

GlAbbreviationssary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27
Abbreviations ............7-27
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29

APPENDIX A OTEC LEGISLATION ................... A-1

APPENDIX B OTEC PROGRAM STATUS ................. B-1
APPENDIX C CANDIDATE OTEC AREA MAPS . ............ C-1
APPENDIX D IMPACT AND RELATED CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . .. D-1

ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1-1 OTEC Development Schedule ......... ... ... 1-6
1-2 Moored OTEC Platform Designs . . . ..... . ..... 1-9
1-3 Typical Bottom-Resting Tower Design . . . . 1-10
1-4 Typical Land-Based Design .... . ....... ... 1-11
1-5 A Typical OTEC Plantship .................* * 1-12
1-6 Schematic Diagram of Closed-Cycle OTEC Power System . . . . 1-17
1-7 Tube-in-Shell Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-21
1-8 Plate-Type Heat Exchanger .............. ... 1-22
1-9 Schematic Diagram of an Open-Cycle OTEC Power System . . . 1-24
1-10 Schematic Diagram of a Hybrid-Cycle OTEC Power System . . . 1-25
1-11 Schematic Diagram of a Mist-Flow OTEC Power System . . . . 1-26
1-12 Schematic Diagram of a Foam OTEC Power System . . . . . . . 1-27
2-1 Comparative Annual Environmental Impacts (1,000 MWe System)
From Various Power Production Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
3-la The OTEC Thermal Resource Area (Pacific) . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3-lb The OTEC Thermal Resource Area (Atlantic) . . . . . . . .. 3-3
3-2 Monthly and Annual Average Storms for Major Ocean Basins . 3-6
3-3a Annual Frequency of Tropical Cyclones (Pacific) . . . . . 3-7
3-3b Annual Frequency of Tropical Cyclones (Atlantic) . . . . . 3-8
3-4 Recent Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Increases . . . . . . . . 3-9
3-5a Carbon Dioxide Outgassing Regions in the OTEC Resource
Area (Pacific) . . . . . . . . . . 3-11

xvi

Figure Page

3-5b Carbon Dioxide Outgassing Regions in the OTEC Resource
Area (Atlantic) . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 3-12
3-6a. Major Circulation Patterns in the OTEC Resoure Area
(Pacific) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-21
3-6b. Major Circulation Patterns in the OTEC Resoure Area
(Atlantic) .......................... . 3-22
3-7 Existing-Use Areas in Oahu, Hawaii . . . . . . .. . .. 3-26
3-8 Existing-Use Areas in the Island of Hawaii . . . . ... 3-27
3-9 Existing-Use Areas in Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-28
3-10 Existing-Use Areas in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico . . . . . 3-29
4-1 Environmental Effects of OTEC Operation . . . . . . . . . 4-10
4-2 Generalized Diagram of a Mixed Discharge Plume . . . .. 4-12

4-3 Rate of Fish Attraction to Floating Objects in Tropical
Nearshore Waters ...... .............. . 4-15
4-4 Biomass of Potentially-Entrained Phytoplankton and
Zooplankton between the Surface and 1000m . . . . . . . . . 4-17
4-5 Equivalent Number and Commercial Value of Adult Amberjack
(Seriola spp.) Lost as a Result of Ichthyoplankton
Entrainment with Various Deployment Scenarios . . . . . . 4-18

xvii

TABLES

Table Page

1-1 Intake and Mixed Discharge Flow Summary . . . . . . . . . 1-18
1-2 Characteristics of Candidate OTEC Working Fluids . . . . . 1-19
1-3 OTEC Deployment Scenario for Year 2000 . . . . . . . . . . 1-29
3-1 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of OTEC Resource
Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
3-2 Characteristics of the Plankton in the OTEC Resource Area 3-16
3-3 Threatened and Endangered Species of the OTEC Resource
Area (Marine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..* ... . . ..* 3-17
3-4 Typical Nearshore (Coastal, Upwelling) and Offshore
(Oceanic) Food Chains . * . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 3-19
3-5 Division of the Oceans into Provinces According to their
Level of Primary Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23
3-6 Proposed Jurisdictional Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-30
3-7 Threatened and Endangered Species of the OTEC Resource
Area (Terrestrial) . . . . . . . . . . . 3-31
4-1 Status of OTEC Oceanographic Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4-2 Estimated Biomass Entrained Daily by Various Sizes and
Number of OTEC Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16
4-3 Estimated Biomass (Wet Weight) Impinged Daily by
Various Sizes and Numbers of OTEC Plants . . . . . . . .. 4-20
4-4 Toxicity of Chlorine to Marine Organisms Based on 50%

Mortality or 50% Decrease in Productivity . . . . . . . . 4-22

xviii

Table Pae

4-5 Relative Hazards Presented by Candidate Protective
Hull-Coating Materials.................. 4-26
4-6 Relative Hazards Presented by Candidate Heat Exchanger
Materials . . . . . . . . .... * .. . ..... . 4-27
4-7 U.S. Ports with Suitable Facilities for OTEC Platform
Construction . . . . . . . . .... ... 4-33
4-8 Potentially Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigating
Measures ........................ ............. 4-38
5-1 List of Preparers .................... 5-1

xix

Chapter I

PURPOSE OF AND NEED FOR THE PROPOSED ACTION

As the supply of nonrenewable fuels is depleted and the
cost of foreign oil increases, the development of OTEC as
a commercial energy technology is becoming increasingly
important. A legal regime is necessary to permit and
encourage commercial OTEC development with due regard for
protection of the marine environment and other ocean
uses. The purpose of this EIS is to identify and assess
the environmental effects of commercial OTEC development
and evaluate regulatory alternatives that prevent, miti-
gate, or reduce significant impacts. This chapter dis-
cusses the status of the OTEC program, describes probable
OTEC technology, and presents a possible deployment
scenario to the year 2000.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a technique for the production
of power using the temperature differential between warm surface and cold
deep-ocean waters. The proposed action in this Environmental Impact State-
ment (EIS) is the establishment of a legal regime by the Administrator of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), as directed by the
OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320), to permit and encourage the commercial develop-
ment of OTEC. The purpose of this EIS is to evaluate the generic environ-
mental effects of commercial OTEC development, identify significant
environmental impacts, and to evaluate alternate regulatory approaches which
could mitigate or reduce adverse effects. This EIS is prepared in compliance
with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, which requires an EIS for
each major Federal action that significantly affects the quality of the human
environment. This EIS is programmatic in scope, considering the reasonably

1~-1

foreseeable environmental consequences associated with commercial OTEC
development, subject to the jurisdiction of the OTEC Act, in tropical and
subtropical waters by the year 2000.

The purpose of the proposed action is to promote energy self-sufficiency
for the United States, protect the environment, and authorize and regulate
commercial OTEC activities conducted by United States citizens. The proposed
action will provide a one-step licensing system, allowing an applicant to
file a single application for an OTEC plant license which encompasses
licenses and permits from all involved Federal agencies, with the exception
of the U.S. Coast Guard.

The need for commercial OTEC development, as specified in the OTEC
Research, Development, and Demonstration Act (PL 96-310), is evident because:

� Oil imported by the United States will continue to increase in
price.

* The supply of nonrenewable fuels in the United States and
throughout the world is slowly being depleted.

* OTEC is a renewable energy resource that can make a significant
contribution to the United States' energy needs.

A 400 megawatt (MWe) OTEC plant could power approximately 6 x 104
households for a year, saving 2 x 106 metric tons of coal or 6 x 106
barrels of oil per year. A 500-MWe OTEC plant producing ammonia would save 6
83
x 108 m of natural gas per year; a 400-MWe OTEC plant producing aluminum
113 3
would save 2 x 10 m of natural gas per year (Appendix D). Therefore,
it is in the national interest to accelerate efforts to commercialize OTEC.

As mandated in the OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320), the Administrator of NOAA
will, after consultation with the Secretary of Energy, State and Federal
government officials, and interested members of the general public, promul-
gate licensing regulations for commercial OTEC development. These regula-

1-2

tions will pertain to issuance, transfer, renewal, suspension, and termina-
tion of licenses and will establish procedures for the location, construc-
tion, ownership, and operation of OTEC facilities that are: (1) documented
under U.S. law, (2) constructed, owned, or operated by U.S. citizens, (3)
within the territorial seas of the United States, or (4) connected to the
United States by pipeline or cable.

The legal regime is needed to ensure that commercial OTEC development will
have due regard for: (1) the coastal marine and oceanic environment, (2)
other coastal, marine, and high sea uses, (3) the overall interests of the

United States, and (4) the rights and responsibilities of adjacent coastal
states (e.g., coastal zone management).

1.2 OTEC LEGISLATION AND CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

OTEC funding was initiated in 1972 by the National Science Foundation's
Research Applied to National Needs (RANN) Program. Since 1972, OTEC develop-
ment has passed several major program milestones:

Operation of Mini-OTEC as the world's first successful closed-
cycle OTEC plant (50 kilowatts (kWe), gross) to produce net
energy at sea (Donat et al., 1980).

� Operation of the preoperational 1-MWe test platform (Ocean
Energy Converter) for testing heat-exchanger materials and
performing biofouling tests (DOE, 1979b; Sinay-Friedman, 1979).

* Construction of Stage 1 of the Seacoast Test Facility that will
perform biofouling and corrosion experiments (ANL, 1980).

The Department of Energy (DOE) OTEC program, whose goal is to demonstrate
the technological, economical, and environmental feasibility of OTEC power-

plants (DOE, 1979a), is proceeding through interrelated subprograms of stra-
tegy and definition planning, engineering development and demonstration, and

1-3

technology development. The DOE OTEC program will culminate in the demon-
stration of at least one 40-MWe (net) pilot plant by 1986 (Sullivan et al.,
1980).

In response to the progress being made in OTEC technology development, the
U.S. Congress enacted two public laws to spur development of OTEC as a
commercial energy technology for electrical power production: the OTEC
Research, Development, and Demonstration Act (PL 96-310, signed into law
July 17 1980) and the OTEC Act of 1980 (PL 96-320, signed into law August 3
1980). The complete texts of these laws are included as Appendix A.

The OTEC Research, Development, and Demonstration Act calls for the accel-
eration of OTEC technology development to provide a technical base to meet
the following energy production goals:

� Demonstration by 1986 of at least 100 MWe of OTEC electrical
capacity or energy product equivalent (approximately 0.04% of
the projected U.S. energy demand).

� Demonstration by 1989 of at least 500 MWe of OTEC electrical
capacity or energy product equivalent (approximately 0.2% of
the projected U.S. energy demand).

� An average cost of OTEC electricity or energy-product
equivalent that is competitive, by the mid-1990's, with
conventional energy sources in the Gulf Coast region, islands,
and possessions and territories of the United States.

* Establishment of a national goal of 10,000 MWe (10 gigawatts;
GWe) of OTEC electrical capacity or energy product equivalent
by the year 1999 (approximately 3% of the projected U.S. energy
demand).

1-4

The OTEC development schedule to the year 2000 is shown in Figure 1-1 and
reflects these energy production goals and the program milestones achieved to

date. The current status of OTEC development is discussed in Appendix B.

The OTEC Act of 1980 directs:

0 The Administrator of NOAA to establish a stable legal regime
to foster commercial development of OTEC by (1) implementing a
licensing program, (2) preparing an environmental impact statement
covering each license application, (3) establishing a compliance
monitoring program, and (4) conducting necessary environmental
research on OTEC effects (Sections 102, 107, and 110).

* The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is
operating to establish and enforce procedures with respect to

OTEC facilities and plantships to:

- Promote safety of life and property at sea by lights and
other warning devices, safety equipment, and designation
of safety zones of appropriate size for OTEC operations.
Permitted activities within such zones will be consistent
with the purpose for which the zone was designated
(Section 108(a)).

- Prevent pollution of the marine environment
(Section 108(a)).

- Clean up any pollutants that may be discharged from OTEC

plants (Section 108(a)).

- Prevent or minimize any adverse impacts from construction
and operation of OTEC plants (Section 108(a)).

1-5

YEAR

11980 I I I 119851 I I 199o 1 9951
14,000-
A Aluminum Plantships A
(1.2 GWe, approximately 3 plants)

AAmmonia Plantships (9.0 GWe, approximately 18 plants)A

Baseload Electricity (4.0 GWe, approximately 25 plants) ,

500- A OTEC 1989
Development Goal
(500 MWe)

A OTEC1986
~ ~100- Development Goal
;O u (100 MWe)

I-z
uL 41- A OTEC Pilot Plant
-fa (40 MWe)
I-
z

1- A OTEC-1 (1MWe)

0.05- A Mini-OTEC (50 kWe)

Figure 1-1. OTEC Development Schedule

Ensure that the thermal plume of an OTEC plantship does
not unreasonably impinge on and thus degrade the thermal
gradient used by any other OTEC plantship or facility or
the territorial sea or area of national resource juris-
diction of any other nation unless the Secretary of State
has approved such impingement after consultation with such
nation (Section 109(c)).

a The Administrator of NOAA and the Secretary of the department
in which the Coast Guard is operating to share responsibilities
for enforcement of regulations under the Act (Section 303(a)).

* The Secretary of State, in cooperation with the Administrator
of NOAA and the Secretary of the department in which the Coast
Guard is operating, to conduct international negotiations as
necessary to assume noninterference between OTEC plants, safety
of navigation, and resolution of other matters relating to OTEC
plants that need to be resolved by international agreement

(Section 402).

a The Secretary of Energy to establish and enforce standards and
regulations necessary for safe construction and operation of
submarine electrical transmission cables and equipment asso-
ciated with OTEC plants (Section 404(a)).

1.3 TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION

OTEC employs the temperature differential between warm surface and cold
deep-ocean waters to produce electric power. The electricity can be supplied
to a local power grid or used for the production of energy-intensive products
(e.g., ammonia, aluminum) that can be sent to domestic or foreign markets via
conventional marine transportation methods. A large number of OTEC platform
designs and power cycles have been studied. Although the designs differ, the
engineering features that must be described for assessment of potential

1-7

environmental impacts or risk of credible accidents are similar. This
section describes the various platforms and power systems that may be used
for commercial OTEC plants. Because OTEC is presently a rapidly changing
technology, description of specific plant components and details does not
exclude technology which might change or become obsolete.

1.3.1 OTEC Plant Configuration

Specific descriptions of important OTEC plant components, including
platform configurations, intake structures, discharge structures, and sub-
marine transmission cables, are presented in the following subsections.

1.3.1.1 Platform Description - Several types of OTEC platform configurations
have been studied, including the moored platform, bottom-resting tower,
land-based plant, and grazing plantship. Following basic construction
standards, all types of plants are expected to be designed to survive
100-year storms and other catastrophic events at the selected sites (e.g.,
earthquakes and extreme winds, waves, and currents).

Moored Platforms - Moored OTEC platforms are floating structures that are
attached to the seabed by mooring lines. Moored platforms may have four
basic hull configurations: rectangular, cylindrical, spherical, or disc; and
may be surface-floating, semisubmerged, or totally submerged (Figure 1-2).

Riser cable systems may be used to link moored OTEC plants to high-voltage
transmission cables on the seafloor. The riser cables must withstand
stresses from current drag, strumming, platform motions, corrosion, and bio-
f ouling growth. The cables must be designed to withstand abrasion at the
touchdown point caused by the cable scouring the bottom as the platform moves
through its watch circle.

Bottom-Resting Tower - A bottom-resting tower (Figure 1-3) is a stationary

platform upon which an OTEC plant may be built. Freestanding-articulated or
derrick-type towers may be built in water depths less than 300 m. Guyed

1-8

Ship or Barge Disc-Shaped Spherical

Sernisubmersible Spar Prolate

Figure 1-2. Moored OTEC Platform Designs
Source: DOE, 1978b

Warm-Water
Intake

Discharge
300 m

Submarine
Transmission
Cable

Cold-Water
Inae1,000 m

Figure 1-3. Typical Bottom-Resting Tower Design
Source: Sullivan et al., 1980

towers, which use guy lines for added stability, may be installed in water
depths between 300 and 900 m. Shallow-water (less than 300 m depth) towers
will use a cold-water pipe that extends from the platform to the bottom, and
down the continental slope to the appropriate depth (Gibbs and Cox, 1979);
deepwater (guyed) towers may incorporate the cold-water pipe in the tower
legs. Towers built on the outer continental shelf may employ tunnels drilled
through the seafloor to the appropriate depth instead of a conventional
cold-water pipe (Green et al., 1980).

Land-Based Platforms - Land-based platforms (Figure 1-4) must be construc-
ted at sea level to avoid large power losses due to the pumps (Brewer et al.,

1979). The electricity produced could be linked directly into the power

grid. The warm water may be taken in through either an excavated channel or

through a pipe extending offshore. The cold-water intake may be a pipe

extending from the plant or a tunnel drilled through the seafloor down the

slope, to the appropriate depth. Due to plant configuration, warm and cold

water used by the plant will probably be discharged separately through

parallel pipes. It may be possible to discharge a portion of the nutrient-

rich condenser effluent into nearshore lagoons or holding tanks for mari-

culture of marine plants and animals, such as seaweed and oysters.

Warm-Water Intake (15 m)

Cold-Water Discharge (100 m)

Warm-Water Discharge (100 m) ~

~\Cold-Water
Intake (000 m)

Figure 1-4. Typical Land-Based Design

Plantships - OTEC grazing plantships (Figure 1-5) will produce energy-

intensive products (e.g., ammonia, aluminum). OTEC plantships will graze the

OTEC thermal resource area, using a ship-like hull configuration constructed

of prestressed reinforced concrete or steel. As shown in Figure 1-5, the

warm-water pumps could be in sponsons near the corners of the platform, with

the cold-water pipe attached midship and surrounded by the power system

(George and Richards, 1980).

D -- WA~~RM
> .s i ~~~~~~WATER
INTAKE

I ' .DISCHARGE

\ I I I
- WARM ' '
WATER
INTAKE COLD
WATER
INTAKE

Figure 1-5. A Typical OTEC Plantship
Source: George et al., 1979

Plantships will house a plant capable of producing energy-intensive

products (e.g., ammonia, aluminum), which will be delivered to market by

ocean-going freighters or tankers. Ammonia (NH3) will probably be produced

1-12

by the Haber process (DOE, 1977) in which pure hydrogen and nitrogen are
combined in a 3 to 1 ratio. Hydrogen will be obtained by the electrolysis of
desalinated seawater, while nitrogen will be extracted from the atmosphere by
liquification and fractional distillation (DOE, 1977). A 500-MWe plant can
produce approximately 5.2 x 105 metric tons of ammonia per year
(George and Richards, 1980). The United States' projected demand for ammonia
in 1981 is 1.9 x 10 metric tons (White, 1981).

Aluminum will be produced from alumina (brought to the plantship by
freighter) using an electrolytic process. The conventional Hall process will
probably not be used due to space requirements and platform motion problems.

Two likely candidates for the electrolytic process are the drained-cathode
Hall process and the new Alcoa process. These processes have a higher energy

efficiency, require less deck area, and are tolerant of platform motions

(Jones et al., 1980). In the drained-cathode Hall process, alumina is
dissolved in cryolite and reduced to form molten aluminum. The Alcoa process
involves the electrolysis of aluminum chloride, which is formed by a prior
reaction using alumina (Mark, 1978). A 400-MWe plantship could produce

5~~~~~~~~~~~~
approximately 3 x 105 metric tons of aluminum yearly (Jones et al., 1980),
resulting in the release of approximately 3.5 x 105 metric tons of carbon
dioxide per year. The United States' projected demand for aluminum in 1981
is 5.0 x 106 metric tons (St. Marie, 1981).

1.3.1.2 Intake Structure Description - OTEC plants require immense volumes
(10 m3 sec-I MWe- ) of warm and cold water for power production. The
warm-water intake will withdraw water from the upper 50 m of the water column
-1
at velocities ranging from 10 to 350 cm sec (Sullivan and Sands, 1980b).
The cold resource water will be transported from below 500 m to the plant
through either a single large pipe or several smaller pipes. A single
cold-water pipe, constructed of concrete, steel, fiberglass, polyethylene, or
nylon fiber neoprene will have a diameter of approximately 10 m for a 40-MWe
plant, 15 m for a 100-MWe plant, and 30 m for a 400-MWe plant.

The warm and cold water withdrawn by an OTEC plant must be screened to
prevent intake of materials that could clog the heat exchangers. Bar

1-13

screens, consisting of vertical parallel bars positioned over the intake,
will be used at the warm- and cold-water intake openings to prevent passage
of very large objects. Fine-meshed screens will not be placed over the cold-
water intake because screen maintenance at great depth is not feasible.
Thus, either static (fixed wire-mesh) or traveling screens will be located in
sumps immediately before the condensers to remove materials that could clog
the heat exchangers. Screen mesh sizes are generally half the heat exchanger
tube diameter, or distance between the plates.

Land-based plants can use conventional intake configurations. The cold-
water pipe will extend to depth and use the same screening methods mentioned
above. The warm-water intake may be pipes or a channel. The channel intake
may use screens at several different locations to minimize the number of

organisms impinged against any one screen.

OTEC warm- and cold-water intakes may be bellshaped to reduce flow veloci-

ties, or may employ velocity caps, which produce horizontal flow fields much
more readily sensed and avoided by fish than vertical flows (Hansen, 1978).
In addition, there are a large number of auxiliary devices that may be incor-
porated into OTEC systems for lessening the number of organisms withdrawn by
the warm-water intakes. Several fish-protection systems may be employed,
including: (1) fish-collection and removal devices, (2) fish-diversion
barriers, and (3) fish-deterrence systems.

1. 3. 1. 3Discharge Structure Description - A commercial OTEC plant may
discharge the warm and cold water at or near the thermocline to prevent
degradation of the thermal resource. Several different discharge configur-
ations have been considered, including mixed and separate discharges that
release either horizontally or vertically. Mixed discharges will dilute
nutrient-rich deep-ocean waters with nutrient-depleted surface waters, and

will minimize the temperature difference between the discharge plume and the
surrounding waters. Due to water density differences, mixed-discharge waters
will stabilize at greater depths than the separate warm-water discharge and

1-14

at shallower depths than the cold-water discharge. A vertical discharge
structure injects the plume deep into the water column, potentially limiting
recirculation and nutrient enrichment in the photic zone. A horizontal
discharge structure produces slightly larger dilutions than vertical
discharges (Ditmars and Paddock, 1979).

1.3.1.4 Protective Hull Coatings - To retard the buildup of macrofouling on
hull surfaces, which adds additional weight and drag to the platform and
increases the potential for component destruction by boring organisms,
protective hull coatings may be applied. Toxic coatings are not practical
for heat exchanger surfaces because their thickness interferes with heat
transfer. Protective hull coatings may incorporate heavy metal oxides,
organic compounds, or thermoplastic paints as their toxic constituent.

Protective hull coatings consist of a matrix containing a soluble toxic

constituent: either the toxic constituent diffuses out of the matrix, or the
entire coating gradually erodes to expose a fresh surface. Oxides of copper,

mercury, and zinc are often used. However, toxic metal oxides require a
protective primer coating when applied to metallic structures. Another
consideration with regard to heavy metal oxides is the Federal government
restriction of some paints (e.g., those based with mercury) because of
potential environmental effects (Jacoby, 1981).

Toxic organometallic compounds such as organotin, organolead, and
organotin fluorides are generally more effective protective coatings than
heavy metal oxides. The biocidal properties of these compounds have been
demonstrated in the paper industry and in antifouling coverings (Luij ten,
1972). Montemarano and Dyckman (1973) and Castelli et al. (1975) reported
that organometallic coatings have longer periods of effectiveness, due
primarily to their constant leaching rate. Organometallic coatings leach
approximately one order of magnitude slower than heavy metal oxides
(Montemarano and Dyckman, 1973); no protective primer coats are needed with

organometallic coatings.

1-15

1.3. 1.5 Electricity Transmission Cables - OTEC plants may supply baseload
electricity to electrical grids via submarine transmission cables. Moored
plants require both riser cables and bottom transmission cables, while
bottom-resting towers require only bottom cables. Two types of submarine
transmission cables being considered include the self-contained oil- or gas-
filled laminated dielectric cable and the extruded dielectric cable (Garrity
and Morello, 1979; Pieroni et al., 1979). Because of cost considerations,
cables probably will lie atop the seafloor, except in depths shallower than
100 m where they could be embedded 2 to 3 m into the substrate to avoid
interference with other marine activities and to avoid stresses related to
wave-induced forces. Cables may be imbedded at depths greater than 100 m
where their presence on the substratum would interfere with deep-ocean uses
such as trawling. Oil-filled dielectric cables have been used successfully
in traditional submarine cable crossings. However, no high-voltage power
cables have been laid to date at depths greater than 550 m (Pieroni et al.,
1979).

1.3.2 Power-Cycle Description

This EIS considers all major power-system designs being considered for
commercial OTEC plants, including closed-cycle, open-cycle, hybrid-cycle,
mist-flow systems, and foam systems. Although the closed-cycle system has
received the most study and use to date, the other power cycle systems are
being evaluated for possible second-generation application, as warranted by
technological developments and analyses. A brief description of each of the
power cycles is presented in the following subsections.

1.3.2.1 Closed-Cycle OTEC System - In the closed-cycle OTEC system, warm
water is pumped through a heat exchanger containing a working fluid. The
warm water vaporizes the working fluid, which drives a turbine and provides
electrical power. Once through the turbine, the working fluid vapor passes
through another heat exchanger where it is condensed using cold seawater.
The condensed working fluid is then pumped back into the warm-water heat
exchanger for reuse (Figure 1-6).

1-16

Electric Power
Warm Output
Water
Intake

.k;1\�High Pressure Low Pressure
.25'�C NH3 Vapor NH3 Vapor
25�c - * 1 Turbine.+
Generator
20rc L I 20C

A .. I iH .~//S / ,,N

:~ 1 ii //
X- ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ /

Evaporator... / Condenser /

:t ,,:?! // 00/ //
V: 10�C 10�C // /
i::~ ',i".::~i I Liquid / /
4~ | Pressurizer C
23c C High Pressure Low Pressure / /
NH3 Liquid NH3 Liquid //

Warm Cold Cold
Water Water Water
Exhaust Intake Exhaust

Figure 1-6. Schematic Diagram of a Closed-Cycle Power System
Source: Adapted from DOE, 1979a

The volumes of warm and cold water required for powering closed-cycle OTEC
plants are variable, depending on the adequacy of the thermal resource
gradient and efficiency of the heat exchangers and pumps. The volume of
water required decreases as the heat exchanger efficiency and the thermal
resource increases. Assuming a conservative thermal resource gradient of
200C, the volumes of warm and cold water required for powering 40-, 100-,
and 400-MWe closed-cycle OTEC plants are listed in Table 1-1. Based on these

flow rates, a 400-MWe plant would require a volume of water equivalent to 20%
of the average flow of the Mississippi River.

TABLE 1-1
INTAKE AND MIXED DISCHARGE FLOW SUMMARY (m3 sec-1)

Closed-Cycle
Intake/Discharge 40-MWe 100-MWe 400-MWe

Warm Water Intake 200 500 2,000
Cold Water Intake 200 500 2,000

Mixed Discharge 400 1,000 4,000

The candidate working fluids most likely to be used in closed-cycle heat

exchangers include ammonia, Freon 11, Freon 22, methyl chloride, methylene
chloride, nitrogen dioxide, methyl formate, methyl amine, and ethyl amine.
The Federal regulatory standing, physical characteristics, and human toxicity
of these working fluids are listed in Table 1-2.

A major consideration in choosing a working fluid is the amount of heat
exchanger surface area required per kilowatt of net power produced. Ammonia
has been found to be the most cost effective (Coffay and Horazak, 1980) and
require the least amount of heat exchanger surface area (Owens, 1978).
Estimated amounts of ammonia working fluid range between 200 and 1000 m

for a 40-MWe plant to 10,000 m3 for a 400-MWe plant.

1-18

TABLE 1-2. CHARACTERISTICS OF CANDIDATE OTEC WORKING FLUIDS

Physical Federal Water OSEHAd
State* Regulation Solubility* Explosion Disaster 8-Hour Exposure Human Carcino-
Fluid (200C) Standinga (in 100 ml H20) Flammability** Hazard** Hazard Limits (ppm) Toxicity**.e genicity**

AMMONIA Gas HAZARDOUS 90 g (0oC) 67loCb MODERATE MODERATELY DANGEROUS 50 HIGH NONE
SUBSTANCE (when (emits toxic fumes
exposed when exposed to heat)
to flame)

FREON 22 Gas Not regulated INSOLUBLE 632oCb No DANGEROUS (emits No Information LOW NONE
Information highly toxic fumes
when heated to decom-
position or on contact
with acid or acrid
fumes)

Atmospheric release
may contribute to
potential degradation
of the ozone layer.

FREON II Liquid Not regulated INSOLUBLE No Information Reacts DANGEROUS (emits No Information LOW NONE
violently highly toxic fumes
X~'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~with of fluorides and
aluminum chlorides when heated
to decomposition)

Atmospheric release
may contribute to
potential degradation
of the ozone layer.

MNEML Gas TOXIC 400g 632OCb MODERATE DANGEROUS (emits 100 MODERATE NONE
CHLORIDE POLLUTANT c<OoCc (Reacts highly toxic fumes
violently when heated to decom-
with position; reacts
aluminum) vigorously with
oxidizing materials)

METHYLENE Liquid TOXIC 2g(206C) 615oCb None under DANGEROUS (emits 500 MODERATE NONE
CHLORIDE POLLUTANT ordinary highly toxic fumes
conditions when heated to
decomposition)

NITROGEN Gas HAZARDOUS 7g(0�C) No Information Reacts DANGEROUS (emits 5 HIGH NONE
DIOXIDE SUBSTANCE violently highly toxic fumes
with when heated to decom-
aluminum position, reacts with
water or steam to
produce heat and
corrosive fumes)

TABLE 1-2. Characteristics of Candidate OTEC Working Fluids (Continued)

Physical Federal Water OSHAd
State*t Regulation Solubility*t Explosion Disaster 8-Hour Exposure Human Carcino-
Fluid (20oC) Standinga (in 100ml H20) Flammability** Hazard** Hazard Limitstt(ppm) Toxicity**.e genicity**

METHYL Liquid Not Regulated 30g(200C) 4650Cb MODERATE DANGEROUS (emits 100 MODERATE NONE
FORlMATE -2occ (when toxic fumes when
exposed to exposed to heat or
heat or flame; reacts with
flame) vigorously with
oxidizing materials)

METHYL Gas Not Regulated 807g(120C) 4300cb MODERATE DANGEROUS (reacts 10 MODERATE NONE
AMINE 00cc (when vigorously with
exposed to oxidizing materials)
spark or
flame)

ETHYL Liquid Not Regulated SOLUBLE 385oCb No DANGEROUS (reacts 10 HIGH NONE
AMINE <-17OCc Information vigorously with
oxidizing materials)

a - Clean Water Act, 1977;
b - Autoignition temperature
c - Flash point
N)s ~ d - Occupational Safety and Health Administration
O
e - Low - causes readily reversible tissue changes which disappear after exposure ceases.
-Moderate -may cause reversible or irreversible changes to exposed tissue, no permanent injury or death.
- High - capable of causing death or permanent injury in normal use; poisonous.

SOURCES: * - Holtzclaw, 1981
t - Hodgman, 1959
** - Sax, 1979
-t United States Department of Labor, 1971.

Closed-cycle heat exchangers may be of two designs: tube-in-shell or
plate. The tube-in-shell configuration (Figure 1-7) consists of many
parallel tubes with their ends mated to a flat tube sheet. A shell encloses
a bundle of these tubes between the sheets. Seawater is circulated inside
the tubes, with the working fluid applied to the outside of the tubes. In
this design, approximately 9.3 m2 of heat exchanger surface is required for
each kilowatt capacity of the OTEC plant (DOE, 1978c). The plate
configuration (Figure 1-8) consists of a series of thin metal plates sealed
together in pairs, with open spaces between each pair through which the
working fluid can circulate. In the plate design, approximately 7.1 m2 of
heat exchanger surface is required for each kilowatt capacity of the OTEC
plant (Rowan, 1980).

Various materials have been suggested for use in OTEC heat exchangers; the
most likely candidates are commercially-pure titanium, aluminum alloys, and
stainless steel alloys. Titanium was used in Mini-OTEC (Donat et al., 1980)
and OTEC-1 (Sinay - Friedman, 1979); however, it is expensive and limited in

Vapor

~~~~~~~~~~Water

Outlet

Figure 1-7. Tube-in-Shell Heat Exchanger
Source: Sands, 1980

1-21

Vapor Exit
(Evaporator)
Vapor Inlet
(Condenser)

Liquid Inlet
(Evaporator) .. Seawater
Liquid Exit Sawate
(Condenser)

Figure 1-8. Plate-Type Heat Exchanger
Source: Berndt and Connell, 1978

supply. Aluminum alloys are cheap and abundant but have the possible draw-
back of a higher corrosion rate in seawater and ammonia than titanium.
Stainless steel alloys would also be suitable since stainless steel is easily
formed, readily available, and has adequate thermal conductivities.

The heat transfer efficiency of the heat exchangers, which must be main-
tained above minimum specifications for optimal plant operation, is greatly
reduced by biofouling. To control fouling, a combination of techniques must
be used to maintain heat-exchanger surfaces at optimal efficiency. Two major
techniques for biofouling control include chemical and mechanical methods.
Chemical methods are usually used to slow biofouling rates, but do not remove
the material. Mechanical methods are used as necessary to remove the bio-
foulants.

Of the chemical methods, chlorination is the most viable method for use in
commercial OTEC plants due to its low cost and ease of preparation. Chlorine
could be generated electrolytically from seawater in commercial OTEC plants

1-22

to eliminate transport, storage, and handling of this hazardous gas. Other
possible chemicals for the control of biofouling include chlorine dioxide,
chlorine dioxide plus chlorine, bromine, bromine chloride, and ozone. These
biocides are from two to ten times more expensive than chlorine (Sands, 1980).

Mechanical methods are limited to use in tube-in-shell heat exchangers
(Hagel et al., 1977). Two mechanical systems have been designed: the
Amertap-ball and M.A.N. brush systems. The Amertap-ball system cleans heat
exchanger tubes using pliable foam rubber balls which are slightly larger in
diameter than the heat exchanger tubes. Amertap-balls continuously circulate
through the tubes removing slime and fouling layers from heat exchanger
surfaces. The M.A.N. brush system consists of cylindrical, tufted brushes in
a plastic cage, which scrub the deposits off heat exchanger walls as the
brushes are pumped back and forth through the tubes by reversing the flow
direction of the seawater.

Other biofouling control/removal methods being considered for commercial
OTEC plants include ultrasonics, abrasive cleaning, and thermal shock.
Further research is required to demonstrate the feasibility of ultrasonics
for OTEC plants. Abrasive cleaning is presently not practical for commercial
OTEC plants because of the large quantities of slurry medium required; the
entire U.S. annual production of diatomaceous earth (the most suitable
abrasive cleaning material) would be needed to make a one percent slurry for
a six-hour cleaning cycle of a 400-MWe OTEC plant (Sands, 1980). Thermal
shock, a method commonly used in conventional power plants, recirculates
heated effluent through the heat exchangers to control biofouling growth.
OTEC plants could achieve the temperatures required for thermal shock by
accepting a seven percent parasitic power loss (Westinghouse, 1978).

1.3.2.2 Open-Cycle Design - The open-cycle OTEC system operates in much the
same way as the closed-cycle system, except that seawater is used as the
working fluid, eliminating the need for heat-exchanger surfaces. Warm
surface seawater flows into a partially evacuated evaporator, where the
lowered pressure changes the seawater to steam (Figure 1-9). The steam

1-23

Vacuum
Pumps
~~~~~~~~~InI
Warm Loop I Turbine/Generator I Cold Loop
I I

Evaporator , Codne
Derister Do Condenser L
/ ._.~ Demister N~~ 1 _
N\

Degasifiers/Vacuum Pumps

I . ~ - ~j~ ~-~ ~ Water Pumps/Turbines.. --- - -

I ]~I

Warm Inlet - , .-
Warm Outlet Co _ - Cold Outlet
Control

Cold Inlet

Figure 1-9. Schematic Diagram of an Open-Cycle OTEC Power System
Source: Watt et al., 1977

passes through a turbine, providing power for the plant, and is then con-
densed by cold seawater (DOE, 1978b). A 40-MWe open-cycle OTEC plant will
3 -1 3 -1
require 200 m sec of warm water and 160 m sec of cold water (Watt
et al., 1977). Approximately one percent of the warm water entering the

evaporator is vaporized to steam allowing freshwater to be produced as a
byproduct if the steam is condensed using heat exchangers instead of direct

contact spray of cold seawater. Biofouling control measures, as described
for the closed-cycle design, must then be considered to maintain heat

exchanger efficiency. Freshwater production increases the salinity of the
unvaporized warm water by less than one percent at the discharge point.

1.3.2.3 Hybrid Design - Hybrid-cycle OTEC plants (Figure 1-10) combine
features from both the closed- and open-cycle systems. Hybrid plants flash-
vaporize warm seawater in partially evacuated evaporators. The resulting

1-24

Warm-Water Electric Power Output
Intake

Dernister Generator

Working Fluid

Cold-Water . i Con se+
Exhaust Condenser

Freshwater Cold-Water Cold-Water
Discharge Intake Exhaust
Figure 1-10. Schematic Diagram of a Hybrid-Cycle OTEC Power System

vapor is used to evaporate a second working fluid, which then performs as in
the closed-cycle OTEC system. Freshwater may be produced, as in the open-

cycle, if the vaporized warm seawater is condensed using heat exchangers

instead of direct contact spray of cold ocean water (Charwat et al., 1979).

Biofouling control measures, as described for the closed-cycle design, must

then be considered to maintain heat exchanger efficiency.

1.3.2.4 Mist-Flow Design - The mist-flow design (Figure 1-11) is a variation

of the open-cycle power system. Warm water is withdrawn near the surface,

allowed to fall down a penstock, and passed over a turbine producing elec-

tricity. The warm water is then sprayed into a low-pressure chamber, forming

a mist, which rises to the top of a duct. Here, the mist is condensed by

cold seawater and discharged (Ridgway, 1977). A 400-MWe mist-flow plant will
3 -1 3 -1
utilize 520 m sec of warm water and 1,560 m sec of cold water

(Ridgway, 1980). Fresh water may be a byproduct of the mist-flow design, as

in the open-cycle design, if heat exchangers are used to condense the mist
instead of a direct contact spray of cold seawater. Biofouling control

measures, as described for the closed-cycle design, must be considered to

maintain heat exchanger efficiency.

Condenser, Condenser

\ f ///@ .~Surface

Warm- / | From

Chamber

Water
Intake

Figure 1-11. Schematic Diagram of a Mist-Flow OTEC Power System
Source: Ridgway, 1977

1-26
1-2'6

1.3.2.5 Foam Design - The foam power cycle (Figure 1-12) is a variation on

the open-cycle power design. Warm seawater is mixed with a foam-promoting,

biodegradable surfactant and introduced into a low-pressure chamber, where

the warm seawater flash-vaporizes and large amounts of foam are formed. The

foam is drawn upward to the top of the chamber, condensed by cold seawater,

and allowed to fall through pipes leading to a hydraulic turbine. After

passing over the turbine and generating electricity, the condensed seawater-

surfactant mixture is discharged into the environment (Zener, 1977). A
3 -1
400-MWe foam plant will utilize approximately 300 m sec of warm water
3 -1
and 1200 m sec of cold water (Zener, 1981).

1. 4 DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO

The development of OTEC will probably progress from small (10- to

40-MWe) modular demonstration platforms to large-scale commercial plants

(100- to 400-MWe). This development may encompass closed-cycle, open-cycle,

Vapor
Condenser

Foam Liquid Liquid
Breakerr ~/ -Liqu

i Vapor \

Foam Foam
Foam
Generator
.----------
Warm- Warm-
Water Water
Intake / Intake

Hydraulic
Turbines

Discharged I ~
Liquid and
Condensed
Vapors Cold-Water
Intake

Figure 1-12. Schematic Diagram of a Foam OTEC Power System
Source: Zener, 1977

1-27

hybrid, mist-flow, and foam systems installed in moored, bottom-resting
tower, land-based, or grazing plantship configurations.

Several OTEC deployment scenarios have been developed to the year 2020
(General Electric, 1977; Jacobsen and Manley, 1979). The scenario in this
EIS combines the results of these studies, present and future technology,
electrical demands, and the goals of the OTEC Research, Development, and
Demonstration Act (PL 96-310) to provide an outline for baseload electricity
and industrial plantship development for the year 2000.

1.4.1 Baseload Electricity Scenario

Commercial OTEC development will become viable earlier in U.S. tropical
and subtropical island communities than on the mainland because OTEC-produced
electricity will be cost-competitive in those areas sooner. Electricity
costs range from two to eight times higher in island communities, which are
almost totally dependent on imported oil (Sullivan et al., 1980). In
addition, many island communities require freshwater, which is a beneficial
byproduct of open-cycle, hybrid-cycle, and mist-flow OTEC plants. As OTEC
designs are improved and conventional power costs continue to increase, OTEC
power will become cost-competitive in mainland areas.

The island markets of Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, Guam,
and the Northern Mariana Islands are expected to be major areas of OTEC
development. After establishment of commercial OTEC plants in these island
communities, large-scale commercialization will follow, based on entry into
the U.S. Gulf Coast region.

The projected commercial OTEC development for the island markets through
the year 2000 appears in Table 1-3. Twenty plants are projected to be in
operation in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hawaii, Guam, and the
Northern Mariana Islands by the year 2000, with a total output of approxi-
mately 2100 MWe (2.1 GWe). Thirteen of these plants are projected for Puerto
Rico and Hawaii. Because of the need for freshwater in island communities, a
portion of the plants may be open-cycle, hybrid-cycle, or mist-flow systems.

1-28

TABLE 1-3

OTEC DEPLOYMENT SCENARIO FOR YEAR 2000

| Plant Plant | Number of Total Percent of Total
Region Type I Size (MWe) Plants Output (GWe) Projected Need*

BASELOAD ELECTRICITY

Gulf of Mexico Closed-cycle 400 5 2.0 <1

Puerto Rico Closed-cycle (400, 100, 40) 4 0.94
Open-cycle 40 2 0.08
SUBTOTAL-PUERTO RICO 6 1.02 5

Virgin Islands
St. Croix Closed- or Open-cycle 40 1 0.04 100
St. Thomas Closed- or Open-cycle 40 1 0.04 100
SUBTOTAL-VIRGIN IS. 2 0.08 100

Hawaii
Oahu Closed-cycle (400,100) 3 0.60 80
Hawaii Closed- or Open-cycle 40 1 0.04 50
Kauai Closed-cycle 40 1 0.04 100
Maui, Lanai, and Molokai Closed- or Open-cycle 40 2 0.08 90
SUBTOTAL-HAWAII 7 0.76 80

Guam Closed- or Open-cycle (100,40) 3 0.18 100

Northern Mariana Islands Closed- or Open-cycle 10 2 0.02 90

BASELOAD TOTAL 25 4.06

AMMONIA PLANTSHIPS

Gulf of Mexico Closed-cycle 500 9 4.5
South Atlantic Closed-cycle 500 9 4. 5
TOTAL AMMONIA 18 9.0
PLANTSHIPS

ALUMINUM PLANTSHIPS

Gulf of Mexico Closed-cycle 400 1 0.4
South Atlantic Closed-cycle 400 1 0.4
North Pacific Closed-cycle 450 1 0.4
TOTAL ALUMINUM 3 1.2
PLANTSHIPS
GRAND TOTAL 46 14.26

*See Appendix D

1-29

The Gulf of Mexico is a primary location for offshore OTEC power gener-
ation. The total projected power production for the Gulf of Mexico is
dependent on the level of Federal incentives (Jacobsen and Manley, 1979).
Five baseload plants, with a total output of 2.0 GWe, are projected to be in
operation in the Gulf of Mexico by the year 2000, representing less than one
percent of the total projected electrical need for that region (Appendix D).

The determination of specific plant locations within the thermal resource
region is difficult to predict, as siting is dependent on a number of
variables. The area of the Gulf of Mexico that has an adequate thermal
resource for OTEC operation and proper depths for moored plants and
bottom-resting towers is shown in Appendix C, Figure C-5. Around islands,
moored, bottom-resting tower, and land-based plant siting will represent a
compromise between optimal thermal resources in deep-ocean areas, maximum
demand regions onshore, and engineering limitations.

1.4.2 Grazing Plantship Scenario

Plantships will generate electricity for onboard production of energy-
intensive products, such as ammonia or aluminum. Plantships present a method
of exploiting thermal resources located in areas either too deep or too far
from shore for use of a stationary OTEC platform or in areas in which the
thermal resource undergoes seasonal changes in location and magnitude.

The projected ammonia and aluminum plantship scenario is presented in
Table 1-3. The demand for ammonia is expected to increase by 3 percent
through the year 2000 (General Electric, 1977). If commercial plantship
operations are initiated in 1990, eighteen 500-MWe plantships could meet the
new demand for ammonia projected for the year 2000. General Electric (1977)
projected a 4.9 percent annual growth for aluminum and assumed demonstration
and deployment of three 400-MWe aluminum plantships by the year 2000.

1-30

Chapter 2

ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTION

In establishing a legal regime that permits and encour-
ages commercial OTEC development, it is essential to
evaluate alternate regulatory approaches for minimizing
adverse environmental impacts and protecting the in-
terests of other ocean users* This chapter discusses
the no-action alternative to the proposed action,
describes the regulatory alternatives considered under
the proposed action, and identifies the preferred
alternative.

Regulations are necessary to establish a legal regime that reduces legal
and regulatory barriers to construction and operation of commercial OTEC
facilities and plantships. Reduction of institutional barriers was the
primary reason that the U.S. Congress passed the OTEG Act of 1980 (PL
96-320). The Act legislatively-mandates a licensing system to be
administered by NOAA that permits and encourages development of OTEC as a
commercial energy technology, ensures that OTEC plants do not interfere with
ocean thermal resources used by other OTEC plants, protects the marine and
coastal environment, and ensures that commercial OTEC facilities anci
plantships licensed by NOAA comply with international treaty obligations of
the United States.

No OTEC plant of commercial size has yet been constructed or operated.

Many theoretical predictions have been made of the operating characteristics
and potential environmental impacts of commercial OTEC plants, but the
theoretical work has not been confirmed by actual experience. Consequently,

2-1

NOAA must devise a general regulatory approach which takes into account the
possibility of unexpected operating characteristics or environmental impacts,
while meeting the legislated goals for the regulatory system.

The alternatives to the proposed action considered in this document
include the no-action alternative and various regulatory alternatives for
minimizing adverse environmental impacts. Section 2.1 discusses the
no-action alternative, which would result in not establishing a commercial
OTEC legal regime. Section 2.2 discusses alternative regulatory approaches
under the proposed action which would minimize or mitigate the major
potential environmental effects identified in Chapter 4. Section 2.3
describes the preferred alternative.

2.1 THE NSO-ACTION ALTERNATIVE

Under the no-action alternative, NOAA would not issue regulations to
implement the OTEC Act of 1980. A decision to forgo issuance of regulations
would place the Administrator of NOAA in violation of Public Law 96-320.
Section 102(a) of the Act requires the Administrator to complete issuance
of final regulations by August 3, 1981.

Adoption of the no action alternative would leave in existence many of the
legal and regulatory uncertainties which the U.S. Congress intended to be
resolved by passage of the Act and could discourage the commercial
development of OTEC. Licensees would not be afforded the convenience of the
one-step licensing regime provided by the legal regime, requiring that
permits for OTEC plant ownership, construction, and operation be obtained
from each involved Federal, State, and local agency. In addition, failure to
implement the regulatory provisions of the Act could restrict Federal finan-
cial support for commercial OTEC development.

Discouraging commercial OTEC development could continue the dependence of
the United States and its associated island territories, trust territories,

2-2

and commonwealths on imported oil and other energy sources, which pose
greater environmental risks than OTEC. Figure 2-1 summarizes the magnitude
of environmental effects associated with various electricity generating
methods. Although the environmental effects associated with solar or geo-
thermal powerplants are expected to be less than those from OTEC, OTEC is
more environmentally acceptable than utilizing nuclear, oil, or coal-fired
plants for power production.

Adopting the no-action alternative could discourage the development of
industries that would construct, assemble, operate, and maintain OTEC
plants. The implication of discouraging potential OTEC-related industries
would be significant to high-unemployment areas, such as island communities
and large depressed city areas, where most major shipyards are located.
Construction, deployment, and support of OTEC plants could alleviate both
long-term and short-term unemployment by providing various employment
opportunities to local contractors and laborers. Francis et al., (1979)
estimated that approximately 2,000 worker-years of shipyard employment would
be required for the construction of a 40-MWe OTEC plantship.

If commercial OTEC development persisted in spite of legal obstacles and
lack of financial support, existing regulations for controlling the use of
the environment and preventing adverse environmental impacts would have to be
used. Since existing regulations were not specifically prepared for
commercial OTEC plants, adoption of the no-action alternative could: (1)
cause existing regulations to be imposed that are not applicable to com-
mercial OTEC plants' unique design and siting requirements, or (2) allow
commercial OTEC plants to interfere with other ocean uses or cause
significant environmental disturbances.

The United States is required by international treaties to ensure that its
citizens respect the rights of citizens of other countries in conducting
ocean activities. Development of OTEC as a commercial energy technoigy
without the legal regime specified by the OTEC Act of 1980 could place the

2-3

600-
500-

I-- L.

100

5 0-

,,, 40-: IWater Discharges+

10 -

o >- 2000
2000 . �.. .....

100-

50-

Deep-Mined Surface- I Onshore I Offshore I Imports I Natural I Nuclear I OTEC I
Mined Gas
Coal Oil

+water discharges = 3050 BTU for all power production methods except nuclear (5290 BTU)

'" '"":serious
P, . .5/// moderate

negligible
.<....:... moderate

Legend (severity of impact)

Figure 2-1. Comparative Annual Environmental Impacts (1,000 MWe Systems)
From Various Power Production Methods
Source: Adapted from Council on Environmental Quality, 1973

2-4

United States in violation of its international treaty obligations and create

a difficult international incident, in addition to causing environmental and
socioeconomic damages.

In summary, the no-action alternative would allow legal and regulatory
barriers to remain which could discourage or prevent development of a commercial
OTEC industry. If an OTEC industry were to develop despite those barriers,

no legal system would exist to protect the environment and the rights of other
ocean users. For these reasons, NOAA does not favor implementing the no-action

alternative.

2.2 ALTERN'ATIVES UNDER THE PROPOSED ACTION

The potentially significant environmental effects associated with the
commercialization of OTEC technology are identified in Section 4.7 of this

EIS, along with possible mitigating measures. These potentially significant
effects include:

* Biota attaction/avoidance * Biocide release
* Organism entrainment * Nutrient redistribution
* Organism impingement * Sea-surface temperature alterations

The magnitude of environmental disturbances associated with these issues
will depend upon site-specific characteristics of the proposed OTEC sl'te and
the technological design of the plant. As a consequence, regulatory
alternatives for minimizing environmental impacts from OTEC plants could
range from detailed regulations, which cover all of the possibilities
that may arise, to flexible regulations, which allow for site-specific
license terms. This section evaluates alternative regulatory approaches and

selects the approach which provides the maximum encouragement to commercial
OTEC development while maintaining acceptable environmental quality.
Section 2.2.1 describes the general siting and technology considerations for

2-5

mitigating environmental impacts and summarizes pertinent regulations
presently existing for protecting the environment. Section 2.2.2 contrasts
three alternate regulatory approaches for maintaining environmental quality.

2.2.1 General Considerations

2.2.1.1 Site Evaluation Considerations - OTEC sites may be of three types:
(1) small (10 to 1,000 km 2) areas that encompass all plant activities,
structures, and discharge plume effects; (2) large (1,000 to 10,000 km 2)
areas that encompass multiple OTEC deployments; or (3) very large (greater
than 10,000 km 2) oceanic regions for use by grazing plantships. The
adequacy of a potential OTEC site will depend on the following principal
environmental characteristics:

* Availability of an adequate thermal resource for continuous
OTEC operation.

* Current velocities high enough to replenish the thermal
resource and disperse the waters used by the plant, but not
exceeding platform structure design criteria.

Appropriately low frequency of occurrence of extreme
meteorological conditions that exceed plant operation or
survival limits.

* Appropriate geological and bathymetic conditions for moored and
land-based plants.

* Compatibility with existing and potential ocean uses.

In general, OTEC operation sites must be chosen from identified candidate
sites on the basis of minimizing interference with other major ocean use

areas, such as shipping lanes, military zones, marine sanctuaries, ocean
disposal sites, and commercially or ecologically sensitive areas. The impacts

2-6

on recreational activities and aesthetics must also be considered. The
location of single or multiple OTEC plants should be chosen so that localized
perturbations in water quality or other environmental conditions during
initial discharge plume mixing are reduced to normal ambient seawater levels
or to acceptable contaminant concentrations before reaching any beach,
shoreline, marine sanctuary, or known geographically-limited fishery. In
addition, OTEC operation sites must be evaluated on the basis of minimizing
thermal interference between OTEC plants.

2.2.1.2 Intake and Discharge Structure Design - The design of OTEC intake
and discharge structures directly influences the magnitude of impacts from
organism entrainment, organism impingement, biocide release, and nutrient
redistribution. Warm- and cold-water intake structure diameter, shape,
depth, orientation, withdrawal velocity, screen configuration, screen mesh
size, and ancillary structures (e.g., fish-return or -repelling systems) are
important factors for directly or indirectly determining entrainment and
impingement rates. OTEC discharge designs may include variations in the
angle, velocity, and depth of discharge, the use of mixed or separate
discharges, and the number of discharge ports. The design of OTEC discharge
structures and the environmental characteristics of the site determine the
discharge plume location within the water column, its behavior, and its rate
of dilution, all of which determine the populations affected by biocide
release and nutrient redistribution. Since commercial OTEC plants withdraw
and redistribute immense volumes of water, it is extremely important to
design intake and discharge structures to prevent unnecessary damage to
important biological populations.

2.2.1.3 Biocide Release - Biocide release is a likely consequence of OTEC
operation. Biocides are expected to significantly affect the local marine
environment because of their toxicity to nontarget organisms and the large
volumes that must be released to maintain OTEC heat exchanger efficiency.

Therefore, biocide release from OTEC plants must be regulated to prevent
unnecessary damage to ecologically-, commercially-, or recreationally-
important populations.

2-7

Alternative biocide release control methods include limits on biocide
concentrations and release schedules. The Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, as amended, established the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) to regulate point-source discharges. Several types of limit-
ations can be incorporated into an NPDES permit: (1) technology-based permit
limits that apply at the discharge point, (2) water quality standards, (3)
discharge limitations based on toxicity data, or (4) use of the steam-
electric industry guidelines (DOE, 1979c). In developing the best available
technology to control the release of certain effluents, EPA states that
greater emphasis will be placed on toxicity-based limits rather than
technology-based limits, particularly if the latter are inadequate for
toxicity elimination (DOE, 1979c). There are no established toxicity guide-
lines for organisms that occupy the OTEC resource area; however, studies
currently underway at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory will provide valu-
able information for the establishment of these guidelines (Venkataramiah,
1979).

At present, chlorine is the biocide-of-choice for maintaining heat
exchanger efficiency. Two alternative methods for its release are: (1)
continuous discharge of low concentrations of chlorine, and (2) intermittent
discharge of high concentrations of chlorine. Continuous, low-level
chlorination reduces the potential for acute impacts, but increases the
number of organisms affected by chlorine impacts. Intermittent high-level
chlorination causes acute and chronic effects only to those organisms in the
vicinity of the discharge during chlorine release. Because of the reduction
in environmental effects anticipated with intermittent chlorination
schedules, EPA has allowed the discharge of chlorinated cooling waters
from steam-electric generating plants at 0.2 mg liter for a maximum of
2 hours per day (EPA, 1974). New chlorination discharge standards have been
proposed for steam-electric generating plants and are scheduled for
implementation in late 1981 (Wright, 1981).

2.2.1.4 Existing Provisions for Maintaining Environmental Quality - In
general, compliance with the regulatory provisions contained in the Ocean

2-8

Discharge Criteria (40 CFR, Part 125), and other existing environmental
regulations which may apply to commercial OTEC plants, should provide
i ~ ~adequate environmental protection. The Ocean Discharge Criteria respond to
Section 403(c) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and Amendments
which called for guidelines for determining the degradation of the waters of
the territorial seas, the contiguous zone, and the ocean. The promulgated
Ocean Discharge Criteria allow the Administrator of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) to issue an 'NPDES permit for a discharge to such
waters if, on the basis of available information, the discharge will not
cause unreasonable degradation of the marine environment. Such a
determination is based on:

* The quantities, composition, and potential for bioaccumulation
or persistence of the pollutants to be discharged.

* The potential transport of such pollutants by biological,
physical, or chemical processes.

* The composition and vulnerability of the biological communities
which may be exposed to such pollutants, including the presence
of unique species or communities of species, the presence of
species identified as endangered or threatened pursuant to the
Endangered Species Act, or the presence of those species
critical to the structure or function of the ecosystem, such as
those important for the food chain.

* The importance of the receiving water area to the surrounding
biological community, including the presence of spawning sites,
nursery/forage areas, migratory pathways, or areas necessary
for other functions or critical stages in the life cycle of an
organism.

2-9

� The existence of special aquatic sites including, but not
limited to marine sanctuaries and refuges, parks, national and
historic monuments, national seashores, wilderness areas, and
coral reefs.

� The potential impacts on human health through direct and
indirect pathways.

* Existing or potential recreational and commercial fishing,
including finfishing and shellfishing.

* Any applicable requirements of an approved Coastal Zone
Management plan.

* Such other factors relating to the effects of the discharge as
may be appropriate.

� Marine water quality criteria developed pursuant to Section
304(a) (1).

2.2.2 Regulatory Alternatives Under the Proposed Action

NOAA has identified three possible general regulatory approaches under the
proposed action: (1) detailed regulation of OTEC activities, (2) moderate
regulation of OTEC activities, and (3) minimal regulation of OTEC
activities. Each approach would require the licensee to. perform monitoring
of environmental effects of OTEC operation (as stated in Section 110(3) of
the OTEC Act) and meet the requirements of the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) and Ocean Discharge Criteria; however, the three
approaches differ in the extent of regulation and the degree of plant design
and siting flexibility afforded the licensee. Each of these alternative
approaches is discussed in the following subsections.

2.2.2.1 Detailed Regulation of OTEC Activities - Under this approach, the
regulations would contain detailed substantive provisions specifying design

2-10

of OTEC plant components and siting criteria. NOAA would have to conduct
reviews of all aspects of the proposed OTEC plant in order to ensure full
compliance with the regulations. The information required to be submitted
with an application would have to be sufficiently detailed and would most
likely necessitate completion of design of the proposed OTEC plant prior to
preparation of the license application for submission to NOAA.

A licensee would have to demonstrate to NOAA compliance with all specific
requirements contained in the regulations. The monitoring of environmental
effects which the licensee is required to perform by Section 110(3) of the
OTEC Act would provide NOAA with the information needed to determine whether
some of its detailed regulatory requirements were stricter than necessary to
accomplish the regulatory goal. Those regulatory requirements found to be
too strict could then be relaxed.

Utilizing detailed regulations would require specifying intake and
discharge structure designs that cause minimal environmental effects for all
OTEC plant designs and representative siting environments. Insufficient
information is available to establish these regulations because of the
diversity in abundance, vertical and spatial distribution, and behavior of
local biological populations and the variability of other oceanographic

I ~ ~parameters* Since site- and species-specific considerations must be
evaluated to design intake and discharge structures which cause minimal
impacts, designation of specific designs may not maintain acceptable
environmental quality in all cases. In addition, designated intake and
discharge structure designs would be too rigorous for certain areas, thereby
unnecessarily increasing plant construction costs and reducing flexibility of
OTEC plant designers.

Utilizing the detailed regulatory approach would also require the estab-
lishment of standards for allowable biocide concentrations and release
schedules based upon technology considerations, toxicity studies, or existing

2-11

guidelines. Although the established standards should be sufficiently low to
prevent adverse environmental impacts, the detailed regulatory approach would
not allow OTEC licensees the flexibility of siting plants in areas where
slightly larger biocide releases would cause insignificant effects.

2.2. 2. 2Moderate Regulation of OTEC Activities - Under the moderate
regulation approach, the regulations would not contain detailed substantive
provisions specifying design of OTEC plant components. The regulations
would, however, contain specific guidelines and performance standards to
ensure adherence to the overall regulatory goals. A license applicant would
be required to demonstrate that his plant design and approach would meet each
of the specific guidelines and performance standards included in the
regulations. Guidelines and performance standards might relate to such

matters as warm-water intake design, discharge plume behavior and dilution,
and burial of pipelines and cables, where feasible. The information required
to be submitted with an application would be less voluminous than under the
detailed regulation alternative, but would have to include analyses and

predictions of the proposed OTEC plant's performance standards. While this
alternative would not require submission of a detailed design for the entire
proposed OTEC plant, the information needed to demonstrate compliance with at
least some of the guidelines and performance standards would probably not be
available until at least part of the OTEC plant detailed design is completed.4

The monitoring of environmental effects, which the licensee is required to
perform by Section 110(3) of the OTEC Act, would provide NOAA with the infor-
mation needed to determine whether some of its specific guidelines and per-
formance standards were stricter than necessary to accomplish the regulatory
goals, and would alert NOAA to additional areas in which specific guidelines
or performance standards were -needed.

Use of the moderate approach would result in NOAA establishing uniform
guidelines and performance standards applying to all OTEC plants within a
general ecosystem (e.g., nearshore, open-ocean). In some cases, the uniform
guidelines and performance standards would restrict design options which
might be environmentally-preferred for a particular OTEC plant or site. The

2-12

full consequences of such an instance would not be known at the time NOAA
adopted the original set of guidelines and performance standards because
there is no real-world experience with OTEC plants of commercial size on

which to rely. The guidelines for intake and discharge design, biocide
control strategies, and other aspects of OTEC under this alternative would
have a generic environmental basis rather than applying to all OTEC siting

environments.

The use of specific guidelines and performance standards as required by

this alternative is the approach commonly used to regulate mature, stable
industries in which many facilities exist and the nature of their technology
and resulting environmental impacts are known. However, when applied to a
nascent industry such as OTEC, this approach could have a limiting effect on
the flexibility and experimentation which will be necessary to learn the
designs which best meet the multiple goals of environmental protection, sound
engineering, and economic construction and operation. Because monitoring
would be required under all alternative approaches, and an alternative more
suitable to the current early developmental stage of the OTEC industry

exists, the moderate regulation alternative is not selected.

2.2.2.3 Minimal Regulation of OTEC Activities - Under the minimal regulation
alternative, NOAA would use minimal guidelines and performance standards to
conform to the goals and provisions of the OTEC Act of 1980. These

guidelines will be based on minimum NPDES regulations, Ocean Discharge
Criteria, and other applicable regulations as agreed upon by the
Administrator of NOAA, the Environmental Protection Agency, and other
pertinent responsible agencies.

Under the minimal regulation alternative, detailed environmental
guidelines and performance standards would not be prescribed in advance, but
would be developed for inclusion as terms and conditions of a license if they
were deemed necessary by the Administrator to prevent adverse environmental

impacts. The use of case-by-case license terms and conditions--rather than
uniform regulations--to address significant environmental issues would

2-13

require N�OAA to examine each applicant's assessment of the nature and rel-

ative magnitude of each type of problem which might occur as a result of
construction and operation of the proposed OTEC plant. Only those problems
which appeared to be significant would be analyzed in detail. The informa-

tion submitted to NOAA in a license application would not depend upon comple-
tion of detailed design, but would need to include descriptions of the

relevant operating features of the plant and an assessment of the potential
impacts resulting from construction and operation.

Although the minimal regulation alternative results in maximum flexibility
for plant design and operation, it also necessitates extensive monitoring to

ensure environmental compatibility. The monitoring of environmental effects,
which the licensee is required to perform by Section 110(3) of the OTEC Act,
would alert NOAA to significant problem areas which might need to become the
subject of future license terms and conditions.

Adoption of site-specific biocide regulations would allow the establish-
ment of biocide concentration levels and release schedules for specific OTEC

power systems and siting regions (i.e., nearshore, offshore). This approach
would provide optimal flexibility to OTEC license applicants for designing

OTEC plants and selecting operation sites while maintaining environmental
quality. Emnploying the minimal regulatory approach, which would allow each
OTEC plant to establish individual biocide release rates if subsequent moni-
toring demonstrates minimal environmental effects, might allow higher biocide
release rates for a specific OTEC plant than the detailed or moderate regula-
tory approach.

Under the minimum regulation approach, NOAA, would consider and respond to
proposals made by license applicants, instead of prescribing standards for

the applicant to follow. The flexibility afforded the applicant under this
approach would allow the prospective OTEC plant owner to propose what he con-
siders to be the best environmental and engineering design for the plant and
to design a cost-effective means of mitigating or reducing adverse environ-
mental impacts resulting from plant operation. The flexibility would allow

2-14

incorporation of new technology into OTEC plant design as the technology is
developed, and provide for site-specific license terms and conditions to

protect the environment.

Because monitoring is required in all three alternative regulatory
approaches, and the minimal regulation alternative preserves the flexibility
to deal effectively with site-specific environmental concerns, it is the pre-
ferred alternative. The minimal regulatory system would accomplish the goals
of the OTEC Act of 1980 without interfering with technological innovations
and responsible experimentation, which are part of the development of a new
commercial power industry.

2.3 THE PREFERRED ALTERNATIVE

Minimal regulation of OTEC activities is the preferred alternative and has
been chosen as NOAA's preferred general approach. It offers the greatest
encouragement for creation of a commercial OTEC industry and realization of
the resulting major environmental and economic benefits to the United
States. The minimal regulation approach also provides the flexibility
necessary to avoid artificial prejudgement of environmental protection

measures at the current early stage in the development of OTEC technology.
The preferred alternative will provide maximum protection to the environment
by providing maximum flexibility to adapt to site-specific problems and
characteristics, while still maintaining general provisions where
appropriate. As such, it is considered to be the best approach to
maintaining a legal regime that will effectively satisfy the requirements of

the OTEC Act.

2-15

Chapter 3

AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

A generic description of the atmospheric, marine,
coastal, and terrestrial environments within the OTEC
resource area is critical for adequately assessing
the environmental effects of commercial OTEC
development. Typical environmental characteristics
which facilitate the assessment of impacts are
presented. Areas having environmental character-
istics that deviate significantly from the typical
are described.

This chapter provides a generic description of the oceanic, nearshore, and
coastal environments within the OTEC resource area. The OTEC resource area
(Figures 3-la and 3-ib) includes all tropical-subtropical regions of the
world that possess sufficient thermal gradients for OTEC operation. Several
candidate regions within the OTEC resource area are likely to be used for
commercial OTEC power production by the year 2000. These candidate regions
encompass the eastern Gulf of Mexico, various open-ocean plantship areas, and
several island communities, including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands,
the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Pacific Trust Territories. Detailed maps
of these candidate OTEC areas are presented in Appendix C.

This chapter is not intended to be a site-specific description. The
parameters which are considered: (1) describe the salient environmental and
economic features under which single or multiple OTEC deployments are
projected to operate, and (2) facilitate the assessment of impacts. Data
from numerous sources have been pooled to prepare this environmental
characterization. Section 3.1 presents the typical atmospheric conditions in
candidate OTEC areas. Section 3.2 generically describes marine environmental

3-1

__ ~~~~~ ~~~170 15K

200 190 :~ islands

20'000

Pacific Trust 2
Territories (Fig C-i)
230
Guam (~Fig C-2)

220 aii ln 'i
-~~~~~~~~ ~~~Region (Fig C-4)

20'000

440'000S

1 20'00'E 140'000? 160'000? 180,0001 160,0001 140'000? 120'0001 100,000? 80,000 W
........< 5O0m deep

* Contours indicate temperature differential ('C) between surface and 1000 m depth
"*Detailed charts of potential siting regions are presented in Appendix C.

Figure 3-1a. The OTEC Thermal Resource Area (Pacific)
Source: DOE, 1978a

- - - - -~~~~~~~ - - - -~~~~ - - - -- -0' 0 '

Puerto Rico
Eastern Fg7
Gulf of Mexico
(Fig C-5) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 180 160 ~~U.S.-Vir in sIsan:Cds..

200001

- ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~2'
- 21'- jij Caribbean Plant Ship Rgo

,/19.- 22I

LO ~~~~~~~~18, .210

170 ~~~~~20'000

/ 160 ri-~at-Ship Region,~

I i ~~~~~~~40'00'S

1 00000? W 80,0001 60'000? 40'0001 20'0001 01000 20'00'E

<SO00 r deep

*Contours indicate temperature differential C0C) between surface and 1000 mn depth
"*Detailed charts of potential siting regions are presented in Appendix C.

Figure 3-lb. The OTEC Thermal Resource Resource Area (Atlantic)
Source: DOE, 1978a

conditions within the OTEC resource area by summarizing differences between
nearshore and offshore environments. Coastal environments are discussed, and
existing-use areas identified, in Section 3.3. Terrestrial environments at
candidate land-based OTEC sites in island communities are generically
described in Section 3.4.

3.1 THE ATMOSPHERE

3.1.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment

Descriptions of typical weather patterns, carbon dioxide sinks and
sources, and climates within the OTEC resource area are important for
assessing the atmospheric effects of commercial OTEC development. The
occurrence of extreme meteorological conditions must be considered during
site selection because OTEC plants should be designed to operate and survive
in both typical and extreme wind, wave, and current conditions.

In addition to considering the effect of atmospheric conditions on OTEC
deployment and siting, the effect of OTEC operation on the atmosphere must
also be considered. OTEC plants will bring cold, carbon-dioxide rich, deep
water to the surface, releasing carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and causing
a decrease in sea-surface temperatures. Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations may influence global temperatures and climate patterns by
disrupting the natural equilibrium between incoming and outgoing radiation,
potentially causing average global temperatures to increase. The
near-surface discharge of cold water pumped from great depths and the
extraction of heat from surface waters could alter sea-surface temperatures,
which strongly influence weather and climatic patterns.

3.1.2 Description

3.1.2.1 Climate - Climates within the OTEC resource area are influenced by
large-scale atmospheric patterns, sea-surface temperatures of surrounding
ocean waters, and the proximity of landmasses. Two basic types of climates
occur within the OTEC resource area: maritime and oceanic. Maritime climate

3-4

is strongly influenced by both continental landmasses and oceanic waters and
is characterized by larger, more rapid temperature changes than the oceanic
climate. The oceanic climate is influenced to a greater degree by the
ocean's sea-surface temperature than the maritime climate, and is therefore
characterized by smaller, more gradual temperature changes.

Local maritime climates within the OTEC resource area are often influenced
by an onshore-offshore wind cycle caused by the differential heating of land-
masses and ocean waters. In areas with steep coastal mountain ranges, such
as the Hawaiian Islands, this wind cycle causes moisture-laden marine air to
cool as it rises against the coastal mountains, losing its moisture as
precipitation. Consequently, the windward sides of such islands typically
experience heavier rainfall than the leeward sides (University of Hawaii,
1973). Strong nearshore upwelling zones can modify this pattern. Surface
layers of cold upwelled water can cause the moisture-laden marine air to
precipitate its moisture before reaching land, resulting in heavy fogs and
arid desert-like coastlines.

3.1.2.2 Tropical Storms and Hurricanes - The OTEC thermal resource area is
within the tropical trade wind belt. Large-scale atmospheric disturbances in
this area are known as tropical cyclones and are classified according to
windspeed: tropical depressions are cyclones with maximum sustained wind-
speeds below 63 kilometers per hour (kph); tropical storms have windspeeds
between 63 kph and 119 kph; hurricanes are cyclones with windspeeds exceeding
119 kph. Figure 3-2 illustrates the monthly and annual average storm
occurrence for the major ocean basins. Tropical cyclones commonly occur from
May to November in the northern half of the trade wind belt, and from
December to June in the southern half (Crutcher and Quayle, 1974). Tropical
cyclones are most frequent in the eastern and western North Pacific. In the
western North Pacific and the North Atlantic, cyclones reach hurricane
intensity more often than in the eastern North Pacific (Figures 3-3a and
3-3b). Hurricanes frequently occur in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea.
No hurricanes have been observed in the South Atlantic.

3-5

Geographas J F M A M A S O N D ANNUAL

North
Atlantic
9.4

I, o o. 2 5 o1.5 2 o 4 o3 25
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.3 0 7 0.3 0.4 0.8 1.0 15 2.5 j- 4.1213 2.5

Eastern
North 15.2
Pacific
9.3

25.3

O~> ~ Western
North
Pacific
58 5.6 43

0.2 0.3 0.4 03 0.4 0.3 0.2 0. 0 3 0.2 .012 04 1.. 0.31 1 : .
Tropical.0. 0.5ra ..c Str. . 4.0 .

Southwest
Pacific
and
Australian
Area 14.8

3.4 4.1 3.7
2.07 ::-, . 1 5 . 2.0
0. . .. 1.3 *'.? 1 3 0 3 . 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 .1 0.1 0.4.0.3 7 15 0.:5.

Tropical Hurricanes Tropical Storms
Storms and Hurricanes
Figure 3-2. Monthly and Annual Average Storms for Major
Ocean Basins (Percent Frequency of Occurrence)
Source: Crutcher and Quayle, 1974

..-I , _.I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - -- 11111~

I40'00'N

1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~2 0'00'

230

M-Ak ~~~~~~~~~~iL ~~~ ~22'

9,PACIFIC TRU57
TERRITORIES

20'000

-40000'S
120'00'E 140'000? 160000' 180,000? 160'0001 140'000? 120'000 100000, 801000'W

< <0.1
0 10.1-1.0
1.0-3.0
LlUfhI3.0-6.0
*Contours indicate temperature differential ('0C between surface and 1000 m depth

Figure 3-3a. Annual Frequency of Tropical Cyclones (Pacific)
Source: Crutcher and Quayle, 1974

I I I I I ~~~~~40'000?N

20'000

E Q

U.) ~~~190 1712000

40'00'S

120'00'W 100000? 80000, 60,000? 40'000? 20'000? 01000 20000?E
r- < 0.1
0.1-1.0
1.0-3.0
ID3.0-6.0
*Contours indicate temperature differential ('C) between surface and 1'000 m depth

Figure 3-3b. Annual Frequency of Tropical Cyclones (Atlantic)
Source: Crutcher and Quayle, 1974

3.1.2.3 Carbon Dioxide - The atmosphere and the world oceans are the two
major reservoirs of carbon dioxide. The oceanic reservoir is estimated to
contain 3.5 x 1016 kg of carbon dioxide in various chemical forms, whereas
the atmosphere contains about 6.4 x 1014 kg (Brewer, 1978). The global
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is steadily increasing (Figure
3-4). Carbon dioxide levels prior the industrial revolution were about 270
to 290 parts per million (ppm) by volume; present-day levels are approxi-
mately 330 to 335 ppm (Keeling and Bacastow, 1977). The combustion of fossil
fuels is the major source of atmospheric carbon dioxide increases.
Additional sources are cement production, which involves the removal of
carbon dioxide from limestone, and massive reductions in terrestrial biomass
from the clearing of forests, burning of firewood, and large-scale
agricultural practices (Brewer, 1978). Although OTEC power production will
be a source of atmospheric carbon dioxide increase, the increase would be
significantly less than that which would occur with equivalent fossil-fueled
power production.

335 -
W - -710

> -

325 6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~90

320 6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~80

310o660
1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974
Year

Figure 3-4. Recent Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Increases
Source: Brewer, 1978

3-9

The influence of vegetation on atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is
evident in seasonal cycles of carbon dioxide concentrations (Figure 3-4).
This annual variation in concentration, averaging 6 to 7 ppm in the tropics,t
is attributed to the uptake of carbon dioxide by green plants during summer
growth periods and release of carbon dioxide through decomposition and
respiration during winter months (Brewer, 1978). Large-scale destruction of
forests in the tropical-subtropical regions has released large amounts of
carbon dioxide and significantly reduced the land's capacity to absorb
atmospheric carbon dioxide.

The deep ocean is the major sink for carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide
is less soluble in warm water than cold water, warm ocean waters contain less
carbon dioxide than colder ocean waters. In most tropical-subtropical
waters, carbon dioxide-rich water is sufficiently warmed to release carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere (Figures 3-5a and 3-5b); however, many regions
within the OTEC resource area are sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Although the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide can be readily
measured, the oceanic carbon dioxide increase is more difficult to detect.
Presently, the detection limit for carbon dioxide in seawater is 50 ppm.,
which approximates the total atmospheric increase of carbon dioxide since the
beginning of the industrial revolution. Consequently, it is difficult . to
estimate the impact of industrial carbon dioxide releases on oceanic carbon
dioxide concentrations and to predict the capacity of the oceans to
assimilate further increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide.

3.2 THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

3.2.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment

Physical, chemical, and biological parameters are required to evaluate the
environmental consequences of commercial OTEC development. Geological

3-10

-60 -45-' -3 0 '-15~~~~~~~~ 40'00'N
-I30 - 4 5 -60 4.-OT

__ N _ !::~~~~.>.:.. ~ ~~ ___ I:::~-3 20,00,

I IR -I '*

A.1-FW .M. O . *** *-.:.. x .
U ...*. 6... 'NNW~--:::** 0E

* .:.::: ~ . 4 . 0
. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . M
---- ------- EQ~~

120000'E 140~~~~~00' 16~0O0 l800 600$ 1000 200$1000 00'

Carbon~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ifi Dioid Qutasin Ara
Carbon Dioxide Sinks~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~M
Figure3-5a.CarbonDioxie OutassingRegios in te OTE Resorce Ara (Paific)
Contours are n carbon dioxde concentraions (parts pr million) frm saturation
5 ~ ~ ~~ore dpedfo rwr 98

,-30 - ( 40�00'N

HEY*~~~~~ -S1S~~~~~~ g020,000

.R .

;:.~:.:.:: '; ' ; *;.~ "":' ':'.. ....
E-0-

"'""'-:.. ~ ' ;-.�::: 5';'; � ' . 5'~./ , -5 *; ::";.:'.~. :: :40'00'S.~:::

1 00,00, .' W 8000 ' ':0 4000' 20.00. 000'. 20000'E

Carbon Dioxide Outgassing Areas

ICarbon Dioxide Sinks

Figure 3-5b. Carbon Dioxide Outgassing Regions in the OTEC Resource Area (Atlantic).
Contours are in carbon dioxide concentrations (parts per million) from saturation.
Source: Adapted from Brewer, 1978.
~~~~~~~~" ~'' "~~~~ .:""..."'..i":::.."' """.-"~ "... i~

parameters are important for siting and design of commercial OTEC plants, but
generally not for environmental impact evaluation. Therefore, the
variability of geological conditions within the OTEC resource area is not
further considered here.

Physical characteristics that are essential for assessing the effects of

commercial OTEC development on the marine environment include thermal

profiles, mixed-layer depths, circulation patterns, and photic-zone depths.
The thermal profile is fundamentally critical to OTEC operation; OTEC siting
0
areas should have an annual temperature difference of approximately 20 C
between surface and deep-ocean waters. The mixed-layer depth provides
information on the structure of the upper water column. The mixed-layer
depth must be deep enough to ensure that the warm-water resource is
continually available at the intake depth. The mixed-layer depth is also a
consideration in selecting the discharge depth because the depth of

discharge, in relation to the mixed-layer depth, influences the effects from
recirculation of OTEC discharged waters by downstream plants, sea-surface
temperature alterations, and -nutrient enrichment of the photic zone. The
photic-zone depth is used to estimate the increased biological productivity

that may result from nutrient redistribution.

Circulation patterns within the OTEC resource area are important because
of their effect on thermal resource renewal and discharge pJ~ume dynamics.
Circulation patterns will both replenish the withdrawn water and disperse the

discharged water used by OTEC plants, thereby maintaining the thermal

resource. Subsurface currents and internal waves will apply stress to the
cold-water pipe; winds, waves, and tidal currents will supply forces that act
on the platform.

Chemical characteristics relevant to OTEC environmental assessments
include nutrient and dissolved oxygen profiles from the surface to the
cold-water intake depth. These values are necessary for assessing the effect
of water mass redistribution. Table 3-1 summarizes the available physical
and chemical data for several major regions of the OTEC resource area. Other

3-13

TABLE 3-1
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF OTEC RESOURCE AREAS

ISLANDS OCEAN Gulf of
(Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, (Atlantic and Pacific) Mexico
Parameter Pacific Trust Territories, Guam)

Mixed-Layer Depth (m) 40-100 a,b,c 10-80 d,e 60-120 f
Photic-Zone Depth (m) 120-140 g,h 120-140 g,h 50-125
Nitrate 0-50 m 0.05-0.7 jkl 0.04-0.2 m, 0.17-1.0
(mg-atom m3) 125 m 0.6-0.7 kl 0.2-0.5 j'O 7 0
900 m 23-45 j,k,p 29-34 q 30 0
Phosphate 0-50 m 0.2-0.4 j,l,r 0.1-0.26 nqs 0.07-0.5it
(mg-atom m-3 ) 125 m 0.2-0.5 j,l,r 0.3-0.6 q 0.5 t
900 m 2.0-3.0 jr 1.4-2.0 mq 1.9 t

Silicate 0.50 m 1.0-4.8 oj 0.0-2.4 n,q 0.5-4.4
-3 o)j q 0
(mg-atom m 125 m 1.0-3.7 5-25 q 2
900 m 25-86 oj 20-150 q 25 o
Dissolved 0-50 m 4.8-7.5 jlu 4.3-4.8 mn,u 4.8 v
Oxygen 125 m 3.0-7.4 ,lu 3.0 n,u 3.6 o
(ml liter- ) 900 m 1.0-3.4 j,u,w 3.4 u 3.9 o

(a) ODSI, 1977a (i) EL-Sayed et al., 1972 (q) Sverdrup et al., 1942
(b) ODSI, 1977b (j) Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1980 (r) Halminski, 1975
(c) ODSI, 1979a (k) Atwood et al., 1976 (s) Schulenberger, 1978
(d) ODSI, 1979b (1) Gunderson and Palmer, 1972 (t) Churgin and Halminski, 1974
(e) Molinari and Chew, 1979 (m) Arsen'ev et al., 1973 (u) Gross, 1977
(f) ODSI, 1977c (n) Love, 1971 (v) Michel and Foyo, 1976
(g) Hargraves et al., 1970 (o) Cummings et al., 1979 (w) Gordon, 1970
(h) Gundersen et al., 1976 (p) Gundersen et al., 1972

important chemical parameters include ambient levels of trace constituents
and organohalogen compounds in the water column and in tissues of resident
organisms.

Assessing the environmental consequences of commercial OTEC development
requires a general description of the biological community inhabiting the
OTEC resource area. Descriptions of the vertical and geographical
distribution of phytoplankton and zooplankton populations are necessary
(Table 3-2), along with the biological productivity and commercial value of
fisheries in various areas. Special attention must be given to the distri-
bution and migration of threatened and endangered species (Table 3-3), and
species of commercial importance, such as tuna, billfish, dolphin, and
clupeid fish.

3.2.2 Description

Physical, chemical, and biological properties in marine waters within the
OTEC resource area are not homogeneous but do exhibit some similarities from
place to place, especially in terms of horizontal and vertical trends. One
of the most marked horizontal trends is the transition from nearshore to off-
shore marine environments. The nearshore environment is the region extending
seaward from the shore to approximately the edge of the continental shelf.
This region is influenced by continental conditions, such as terrestrial
runoff, tidal mixing, and coastal upwelling. The nearshore region is highly
productive and the location of most of the major world fisheries. The
offshore environment is minimally influenced by continental conditions. In
the OTEC resource area, the offshore environment is characterized by lower
productivity and fewer commercial fisheries than nearshore areas.

Nearshore areas generally support a greater density of marine life than
offshore areas because increased mixing, freshwater input, and coastal
upwelling continually restore essential nutrients to sunlit surface waters,
where primary production occurs. In addition, the shallow water in the
nearshore zone allows nutrients regenerated by the benthic community to be
mixed throughout the photic zone. Coastal and upwelling food chains are

3-15

TABLE 3-2
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANKTON IN THE OTEC RESOURCE AREA

ISLANDS OCEANIC Gulf of
(Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Atlantic and Pacific Mexico
Parameter Depth Virgin Islands) (Tropical)

Primary Productivity
mg C m-2 day 0-130 m 30-280 a,b 50-375 c,d,e 60-100 f

Chlorophyll-a 0-50 m 0.03-0.25 a,d,g,h,i 0.03-0.12 a,d,g,h,j,k,l,m 0.05-0.20 n
mg m-3 80-130 m 0.12-0.39 a,d,g,h,i 0.1-0.3 j,k,l,m 0.05-0.40 n

Microzooplankton 0-200 m 0.8 d 1.0 0 No Data
mg C m-3 200-350 m No Data 0.1 p No Data
350-1000 m No Data 0.01 q No Data

Macrozooplankton
Night/Day Biomass 0-150 m 1.25-1.65 c 1.1-1.8 o,r,s 2.3 t
Ratio

Macrozooplankton 0-150 m 0.5-0.8 u,v,w,x 0.1-3.0 o,p,r,s 0.1-6.0 t,y
Biomass mg C m73 150-350 m 0.2 v 0.1-0.7 s,z No Data
350-1000 m No Data 0.4 o 0.25 v

(a) Gilmartin and Revelante, 1974 (j) Scripps Institute of Oceanography, 1969 (s) Youngbluth, 1975
(b) Beers et al., 1968 (k) Venrick et al., 1973 (t) Howey, 1976
(c) Koblentz-Mishke et al., 1970 (1) Eppley et al., 1973 (u) Nakamura, 1955
(d) Gunderson et al, 1976 (m) Schulenberger, 1978 (v) King and Hida, 1954
(e) Mahnken, 1969 (n) El-Sayed et al., 1972 (w) King and Hida, 1957
(f) Jones et al., 1973 (o) Hirota, 1977 (x) Shomura and Nakamura, 1969
(g) Johnson and Horne, 1979 (p) Beers and Stewart, 1969 (y) Bogdanov et al., 1969
(h) Bathen, 1977 (q) Beers, 1978 (z) Vinogradov, 1961
(i) Hargraves et al., 1970 (r) Vinogradov and Rudyakov, 1973

TABLE 3-3
THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES OF THE OTEC RESOURCE AREA (MARINE)
Source: Sands, 1980.

Scientific Name Common Name iStatusi Distribution

Marine Mammals

Bal.aenoptera museuZus Blue whale E* Oceanic, Pacific, Atlantic

Balaenoptera borealis Sei whale E Oceanic, Pacific, Atlantic

Bat.aenoptera physal.us Finback whale E Oceanic, Southern Hemisphere

Eschrichtius gibbosus Grey whale E Oceanic, off western North America

Eubal.aena gZacial.is Right whale E Oceanic, Pacific, Atlantic

Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback whale E Oceanic, Caribbean, North Pacific,
Atlantic

Physeter catodon Sperm whale E Oceanic, Caribbean, Pacific,
Atlantic

Dugong dugong Dugong E Micronesia, Western Carolines,
TTPI**

Trichechus manatus Caribbean manatee E Off Florida, Caribbean

Monachus schauinslandi Hawaiian monk E Northwest Hawaiian Islands
seal

Monachus tropicalis Caribbean monk E Caribbean (extinct?)
seal

Sea Turtles

Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle T*** Hawaii
E Florida, Pacific coast of Mexico

Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill E Micronesia, TTPI , Gulf of Mexico

Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback E Micronesia, TTPI, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico

Lepidochelys kempii Kemp's ridley E Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico

Lepidochelys olivacea Olive ridley T Tropical circumglobal,
E Pacific coast of Mexico

Care tta caretta Loggerhead T Tropical circumglobal

Birds

Pel7ecanus occidentalis Brown pelican E Caribbean, U.S. west coast,
Gulf coasts

Puffinus puffinus Newel's Manx T Hawaiian Islands
newel.i.i shearwater

Pterodroma phaeopygia Hawaiian dark- E Hawaiian Islands
sandwichensis rumped petrel

*Endangered
**Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands
***Threatened

3-17

characteristically shorter (1 to 3 trophic levels) and have higher
efficiencies (15-20% between trophic levels) than oceanic food chains (5
trophic levels, 10% efficiency; Table 3-4). The total catch of pelagic
resources from the nearshore zone is an order of magnitude greater than from
the open sea, and the catch per unit area is almost 150 times greater on the
shelf than it is at sea (Moiseev, 1971). Furthermore, coral reefs on the
continental shelf are among the most highly productive communities, in terms
of biomass and species diversity (Pequegnat, 1964).

Nearshore environments contain a higher proportion of
ecologically-sensitive areas than offshore environments. The nearshore is
restricted in size, but serves as a nursery ground for many species of fish
and benthic invertebrates. In addition, the nearshore region is also used by
many marine reptiles and marine mammals for breeding and nursery grounds.

Characteristics of the nearshore and offshore marine environments in the
OTEC resource area are described in the following subsections.

3.2.2.1 Nearshore Environment - The nearshore marine environment is general-
ly defined as the region between the shoreline and continental shelf break,
encompassing the intertidal, subtidal, inner-continental shelf, and outer-
continental shelf regions. Circulation patterns of nearshore areas are
variable, and are primarily driven by winds and tides, with some influence
from large-scale oceanic currents. Strong tidal currents, seasonably
variable winds, and irregularities in circulation patterns cause increased
mixing of surface and bottom waters in nearshore areas.

Physical processes along the edge of continental margins may cause upward
mixing of nutrient-rich deep waters for some areas with narrow continental
shelves (e.g., west coast of North America, most island systems). This
upwelling process is caused by: (1) winds blowing parallel to shore, with
subsequent offshore Ekman transport of waters, or (2) current divergences
toward the surface caused by continental features (e.g., escarpments,
headlands, submarine canyons). Upwelling of nutrient-rich deep waters into

3-18

TABLE 3-4 TYPICAL NEARSHORE (COASTAL, UPWELLING) AND OFFSHORE
(OCEANIC) FOOD CHAINS
Source: Adapted from Ryther, 1969

Oceanic Food Chain (10% Efficiency)

Nannoplankton -- Microzooplankton Macrozooplankton------ Megazooplankton---
(small flagellates) (herbivorous (carnivorous (chaetognaths,
zooplankton and zooplankton) euphausiids)
protozoa)

--Planktivores - Piscivores - Human
(mesopelagic (tuna, squid, Consumption
fish) and saury)

Coastal Food Chain (15% Efficiency)

Phytoplankton _ Macrozooplankton - Planktivores
(diatoms, (herbivorous (clupeid fish)
dinoflagellates) zooplankton)

- Piscivores = Human Consumption
(tuna)

Upwelling Food Chain (20% Efficiency)

Planktivores
Macrophytoplankton ' *(clupeid fish
(large, chain-forming Human Consumption
species) " Megazooplankton* Piscivores
(euphausiids) (tuna)

surface layers of the water column results in higher productivity. The

shelf may be transported offshore by prevailing current systems.

Two types of nearshore environments are present in the OTEC resource

area. The Gulf of Mexico has a wide shallow shelf strongly influenced by

3-19

coastal processes. Wind-induced turbulence, freshwater input, tidal mixing
and partial isolation from the major ocean basins by the wide continental
shelf significantly affects the nearshore environment in the Gulf of Mexico,
causing high seasonal variability of physical, chemical, and biological
properties. Conversely, nearshore environments surrounding islands are
characterized by a narrow continental shelf, greatly influenced by offshore
(oceanic) processes, and experience less seasonal variation.

Differences in physical characteristics between island environments and
the Gulf of Mexico become evident when comparing the organisms comprising the
major fisheries in each region. Gulf of Mexico fisheries are primarily
benthic (e.g., shrimp and demersal fishes), reflecting the enhanced benthic
productivity resulting from mixing over the shallow continental shelf.
Fisheries around islands are mainly composed of migratory offshore pelagic
fish and reef fish, illustrating the influence of offshore and extreme

nearshore processes in these areas.

3.2.2.2 Offshore Environment - The offshore marine environment is generally
defined as the oceanic region seaward of the continental shelf break. Large-
scale oceanic currents prevail over most of this region and tidal and
continental influences are minimal. Major circulation patterns within the
OTEC resource area are shown in Figures 3-6a and 3-6b. Vertical mixing
occurs slowly, causing offshore waters to become vertically stratified.
Vertical stratification reduces the recirculation of nutrients into the
surface layer, resulting in typically low productivity (Table 3-5). The
nutrient-poor offshore environment supports small phytoplankton cells

resulting in long food chains (Ryther, 1969). The higher number of trophic
levels and the less efficient transfer of energy between each level results
in a smaller yield at the top of the food chain. Consequently, the open
ocean, despite its high initial biomass, supports a low total fish yield. in
areas such as the equatorial Pacific and the North Atlantic, where conditions
allow the influx of nutrients to the surface layer, the open ocean is moder-

ately productive.

3-20

1 40'00'N

1 51~~~~~~~~6

- --_ --------- 20

0" ~~~~~~~~210 1

orhEquatoria Current.- 22'

- ~~~Equatorial Counter Current e~~ISDR

MIOR !-EQ
South Equatorial Current

..21-

19' ~ 2'-~ 20000

------ ~~~~~~~170

West Wind Drift
40'0001
120'00'E 140'0001 160'0001 180,000? 160,0001 140 000? 1200001 100,000 80,000? 60'000'W

*Contours indicate temperature differential (0C) between surface and 1000 m depth

Figure 3-6a. Major Circulation Patterns in the OTEC Resource Area (Pacific).
Source: Sands, 1980

I I ~40'00'N

Loop Curret ~ -..~~-~

16-~ ~ ~ ~~~ -E

/ ~ ~ ~~~I I I 40000'S
1000' 800160040000 200010001'00'

Figre -6 Mao1iclto atern in then OGRsureAeQ(tatc

Source: Sands, ~~1980

TABLE 3-5. DIVISION OF THE OCEANS INTO PROVINCES
ACCORDING TO THEIR LEVEL OF PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
Source: Adapted from Ryther, 1969

Mean Primary Total Primary Percentage Number of Ecological Fish
Percentage Area Productivity Productivity of Total Trophic Efficiency Production
Province of Ocean (km2) (g dry weight (metric tons Productivity Levels (percent) (metric tons)
-2 year -1) year -1)

Open Ocean 90.0 326 x 106 50 16.3 x 109 81.5 5 10 1.6

Nearshore Zone* 9.9 36 x 106 100 3.6 x 109 16.0 3 15 120

Upwelling 0.1 3.6 x 106 300 0.1 x 10 0.5 1-1/2 20 120
Area

*Includes highly productive areas over the continental shelf.

Commercial offshore fisheries are mainly oriented around widely scattered,

migratory species such as billfish and tuna. These fisheries are seasonal

and operate on a low yield, high cash-return basis. Although open ocean

commercial fisheries represent only about one percent of the entire world

fish harvest (Rounsefell, 1973), their contribution to the world's fishing

economy is substantial. In 1975-1976, offshore fisheries in the Eastern

Tropical Pacific accounted for 30% of the total catch (Inter-American

Tropical Tuna Commission, 1981). This represented a yearly total cash value

in excess of $91 million.

The great depth of the water column in the offshore environment results in

a variety of vertical habitats which, combined with a large number of trophic

levels, creates a large diversity of organisms. Many of the species

aggregate at great depths during the day, and migrate to the surface at night

to feed in the more p;oductive photic zone.

3-23

3.3 THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

3.3.1 Data Requirements For Impact Assessment

Commercial OTEC plants located within the coastal zone will af fect both
the marine and terrestrial environments. The coastal zone is heavily used by
man and contains many existing-use areas which may be impacted by deploy-
ment and operation of OTEC plants. Information required to assess the
magnitude of OTEC-related effects on coastal areas include:

a Location of ecologically-sensitive areas, such as seagrass
beds, coral reefs, spawning grounds, and nursery areas.

* Location of existing-use areas, and any special regulations and
permits associated with their use.

* Location of State and Federal jurisdictional limits, 'which
determine the regulations which will affect OTEC operations.

3.3.2 Description

The coastal region extends seaward and inland from the shoreline and
includes the nearshore marine and terrestrial environments. The coastal
environment is heavily used by man for various commercial, recreational,

cultural, and military purposes. High-conflict areas such as restricted
military zones, marine sanctuaries, fishing grounds, and ecologically-
sensitive areas will require site- and design-specific assessments to
determine any possible impacts, whereas areas such as oil- and gas-lease
areas and nonrestricted military-use zones may accommodate OTEC facilities
without problems.

As a result of the increasingly high use of the coastal environment, the
U.S. Congress passed the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (amended in 1976
and 1978), which encouraged the preservation, protection, and development of
the coastal zone. The Act and amendments established policies by which

3-24

coastal states could identify, preserve, restore, and develop areas of
special environmental, cultural, or socioeconomic importance. Under the Act,
areas of particular concern (APC) and special management areas (SMA)can be
designated by each state. Any use or alteration of APC and SNA sites
requires special state permits issued after an environmental impact statement
on the proposed action has been prepared and approved.

OTEC plants may be sited in existing-use areas of the coastal region.
Figures 3-7 through 3-10 identify the existing-use areas in the coastal
environments most likely to be used for commercial OTEC development.
Locations of APC's and SMA's are shown for all areas with the exception of
the islands of Oahu and Hawaii, which presently designate their entire
coastlines as SMA's.

Current U.S. jurisdiction applicable to commercial OTEC development is
divided into two areas: (1) territorial sea and (2) the contiguous zone.
The draft treaty being developed by the Third United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea would allow 12-nautical mile territorial seas and 200-mile
economic zones; however, this treaty has not been finalized by the United
Nations and is not yet international law. Under current international and
domestic law, the U.S. has a 12 nautical mile contiguous zone and a
territorial sea of 3 nautical miles, except in areas which had wider
territorial seas when they became part of the U.S. The present territorial
sea and contiguous zone boundaries applicable to candidate U.S. OTEC
development areas are listed in Table 3-6.

3.4 THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT

3.4.1 Data Requirements for Impact Assessment

Land-based OTEC plant construction will disrupt the terrestrial envi-
ronment in the vicinity of the site. In order to assess the impact of land
based plant construction, a description of the existing flora and fauna found
within the resource area should be presented, the accessibility of

3-25

::* I Humpback Whale ' L I

...............!.. i::::IIIIII.... ........ r/ ea

Military = \
I . 11 1 i Firing t
Area
- 21340'N

'OAHU 2130'

/\G~ ~~~~etia Restricted

Nonm itubmarAnchorage Dumpsite
Anch Operatinges j

Elecrcal RRestricted Dredged
Military Material 2120'

* Existing Power Stations /I Area Disposal I21'10'
* Electrical Grid 4 Site Kilometers
= Restricted Military Areas /
_ -NonSubmarine Operating Area 10 20

Commercial Fishing Areas (Nos. Represen t Ranking to Hawaiian Economy)
Parks, Fishponds, Historical Districts, State and Federal Marine and Bird Refuges

158'30' 158'20' 158�l0' 158�00' 157�50' 157'40' 157'30'E

Figure 3-7. Existing-Use Areas in Oahu, Hawaii
Figure 3-7. Existing-Use Areas in Oahu, Hawaii

20530'N

Submarine Transit Lane

I ";\M HAWAII -O,,d

*-8. Exiistin ArStn Aiea in the Isand Haw
I3

X Humpback Whale f Kilometers
ticted MltrAreas ,High U se Area 2 00 i

*.i >iiii~!i Parks, Fishponds, Historical Dumpistricts, State and Federal Marine and Bird Refuges

156'00' 156�30' 155�00'E

Figure 3-8. Existing-Use Areas in the Island of Hawaii

3-27

PUE~~~~RTO rie RIC ElcrklRetice

~~~~~~ rpsdMainelantuarye

~~~~~~~-. CrtclAreas orEdned

i l l Restricted~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ MilitaryAea

LP ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 0 2 ~I~ Areas fPriua ocr
67~~00' 66~~30' Electr e

Figure~~~~~~~~~~~~-- 3--- Existing-UeAesi PowerSttoicon

LOUISIANA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 30'00'N

-EPlosives

Ex0 ,plosives
-~~--~'--~ Major Fishing Areas yes Dumpsile ~117 Dumpsi'

>~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~QQ9 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r MiiayUs0ra

Biological mpresrvesant idieRfg Areas

THERMAL RESOURCE ZONE
//i 20.6' Al Annually
20' AT Monthly Kilometers

0 20 401 60 2 '0

92'00; 90,00, 881001 06'00' 84'00' 82'00'E
Figure 3-10. Existing-Use Areas in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico

TABLE 3-6. CURRENT JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES IN OTEC AREAS

Territorial Contiguous
Area Sea (nmi) Zone (nmi)

Saint Croix 3 12
West Coast of Florida 9 12

Guam 3 12
Puerto Rico 10. 8 12

Hawaii 3 12

candidate sites described, and the degree to which the area has been
developed by -man identified. Special consideration should be given to
identifying any threatened and endangered species potentially affected by
construction activities.

3.4.2 Description

Five candidate sites represent typical environments in which the
construction of land-based OTEC plants is most likely to occur. These sites
include Punta Tuna, Puerto Rico; Kahe Point, Oahu; Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii;
Guam; and Saint Croix, Virgin Islands. Although each proposed area has a
unique terrestrial environment, with minor differences in topography and
meteorology, similarities between the individual communities do exist. All
are tropical island communities originally formed as a result of volcanic
activity. Each supports an extensive flora and fauna with many endemic
species, several of which are classified as threatened or endangered (Table
3-7). The coastlines of the candidate sites range from minimally to
extensively developed, with limited access to the shoreline. Populations
near candidate sites are small (except Guam and Oahu), and economies are
based primarily on agriculture and fishing. A brief description of these
candidate land-based OTEC areas are presented in the following subsections to
illustrate the diversity of terrestrial environments.

3-30

TABLE 3-7. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED
SPECIES OF THE OTEC RESOURCE AREA (TERRESTRIAL)
Source: Sands, 1980.

Scientific Name Common Name Istatus Distribution

Crocodiles and Alligators

Crocodyl.us acutus American crocodile E* South Florida

CrocodylZus novaequineae
mindorensis Philippine crocodile E Philippines (and Palau, TTPI**?)

Crocodylus rhombifer Cuban crocodile E Cuba (Caribbean?)

AZl.igator mississ-
ippiensis American alligator T Southeastern United States

Other Reptiles

Cyclura pinquis Anegada Island E Virgin Islands
ground iguana

Cycl.ura stejnegeri Mona Island T*** Puerto Rico
ground iguana

Epicrates inornatus Puerto Rican boa E Puerto Rico

Ameiva polops St. Croix E St. Croix, Virgin Islands
ground lizard

Amphibians

E9.eutherodactylus jasperi Goldon coqui | T Puerto Rico

Birds

Acrocephalus famil-iaris
kingi Nihoa miller-bird E Nihoa, Hawaiian Islands

Psittirostra cantans
cantans Laysan finch E Laysan, Hawaiian Islands

Anas 1aysannensis Laysan duck E Laysan, Hawaiian Islands

Anas wyvil.iana Hawaiian duck E Hawaiian Islands

Anas oustateti Marianas mallard E TTPI, Micronesia

Fulica americana aZai Hawaiian coot E Hawaiian Islands

Caprimulgus Puerto Rican E Puerto Rico
noctittherus whip-poor-will

Amazona vittata Puerto Rican parrot E Puerto Rico

Coz.wabia inornata
wetmorei Plain pigeon E Puerto Rico

Age1aius xanthomus Yellow-shouldered E Puerto Rico
blackbird

Falcon peregrinus American peregrine E North American, Carribean
ana tum falcon

Himantopus himantopus
knvudseni Hawaiian stilt E Hawaiian .Islands

GalZinu1.a chloropus
sandvicensis Hawaiian gallinule E Hawaiian Islands

Branta sandvicensis Hawaiian goose E Hawaiian Islands

*Endangered
**Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands
***Threatened

3-31

3.4.2.1 Punta Tuna, Puerto Rico - Punta Tuna is located in the Maunabo
Valley in southeast sector of Puerto Rico. The coastline is relatively level
with numerous rivers and streams. Annual rainfall is about 25 cm per year.
The landscape is forested but not tropical, and supports a myriad of wild-
life (DOC, 1978c). Cultivation of sugar cane is the predominant land use.
Extensive irrigation canals are present as a result of farming.

3.4.2.2 Kahe Point, Oahu - The substrate at Kahe Point is primarily composed
of coarse gravel and coral sand, underlain by coral reefs. Annual rainfall
is less than 25 cm per year. Vegetation near Kahe Point can be broken into 3
basic types: (1) a closed forest, consisting of trees 5-7 m in height and
uniform in distribution, (2) an open forest where trees are scattered and a
ground cover of herbs and grass exist, and (3) an open scrub grassland, where
trees are sparsely scattered, and numerous scrubs and tall grasses are
present. (Hawaiian Electric Company, 1973). No terrestrial threatened or
endangered species are present near Kahe Point. Land use is primarily
agricultural; however, some lands in the valley are designated as county and
state parks and beaches. The Nanakuli Beach Park, the largest park in the
area, encompasses 40 acres of the coastal zone north of the Kahe Electrical
Generating Station.

3.4.2.3 Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii - Ke-ahole Point is located on the Kona coast
of Hawaii. The coastline is somewhat level; however, some irregularities
occur. Lava is the prima.ry substrate, with its depth varying from 0.3 to
30 m. Annual rainfall is about 6 cm per year. Ground cover is sparse and
conditions are semi-desert. Candidate land-based OTEC sites can be divided
into three habitats: (1) the beach zone, containing an extremely diverse
plant life; (2) a northern area, termed "new lava", comprised of sparse
scattered vegetation; and (3) the remaining area, termed "old lava",
comprised of dry grasses and herbs (R. M. Towill, 1976).

3.4.2.4 Guam - The shoreline configuration of Guam is rocky coastline with
sandy beach. The rocky coastlines comprise 62% of the coast and the sandy
beaches 32%. Four terrestrial ecosystems, located along the southeastern
shores and on the northern half of the island, are presently being considered

3-32

as potential APC's. These unique ecosystems include wildlife refuges, lime-
stone forests, pristine ecological communities, and critical habitats
(DOG, 1978a). Each of these areas supports numerous types of native plants
in addition to many endangered plants and animals.

3.4.2.5 Saint Croix, Virgin Islands - The north and west coasts of Saint
Croix, the most likely areas for installation of land-based OTEC plants, are
characterized by coastal plains and drowned estuaries which have since become
mangrove lagoons (DOC, 1979b). The annual rainfall is about 16 cm per year.
Extensive alteration of the island's ecosystem, sugar cane agriculture, and
subsequent regrowth of vegetation have eliminated any free flowing streams
that once existed. There is endangered species critical habitat for leather-
back turtles at Sandy Point, St. Croix.

3-33

Chapter 4

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

Commercial OTEC facilities and plantships may affect
air quality, the terrestrial environment, the marine
ecosystem, and human activities in the vicinity of
deployment and operation sites. A quantitative and
qualitative assessment of major, minor, and potential
environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC
development is presented, along with a summary of
measures for reducing the magnitude of those effects
that may cause adverse environmental impacts.

Commercial OTEC development may affect the atmosphere, the terrestrial
environment, the marine ecosystem, and human activities in the vicinity of
deployment and operation sites. The net environmental impacts resulting from
commercial OTEC development are expected to be minimal compared to the
impacts from fossil-fuel and nuclear power production; however, commercial
OTEC development may result in significant environmental disturbances. Envi-
ronmental effects that may result from commercial OTEC development can be
related to specific plant activities. These activities and their associated
environmental effects include:

Platform presence Biota attraction or avoidance
Protective hull-coating release
Low-frequency sound
Pipe and transmission cable implantation
Interference with existing uses
Aesthetic impact

Warm- and cold-water Organism impingement
withdrawal Organism entrainment

4-I

Water discharge Biocide release
Ocean water redistribution
Working fluid release
Trace constituent release
Sea-surface temperature changes
Carbon dioxide release

Evaluation of potential environmental impacts associated with commercial
OTEC development is presently a matter of speculation; little data has been
collected near an operating OTEC plant (Sullivan et al., 1980). During the
first deployment of Mini-OTEC at Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii, the number and spe-
cies of fish attracted to the platform were monitored, chemical samples were
obtained, and discharge plume observations were made (Donat et al., 1980).
Environmental monitoring for the Ocean Energy Converter (OTEC-1), also near
Ke-ahole Point, has begun (Menzie et al., 1980), but it is presently too
early in the monitoring program to evaluate the results. Oceanographic
surveys are being conducted under Department of Energy (DOE) funding at
candidate OTEC sites (Table 4-1) to provide preliminary information, for
future studies (Wilde, 1980). Physical models are being developed to predict
OTEC plume dilution and dispersion and examine recirculation potentials from
various discharge configurations (Ditmars et al., 1980). Zooplankton and
fish toxicity studies are underway at the Gulf Coast Research Laboratory
(GCRL) and will provide information on organism tolerance to chlorine and
ammonia releases (Venkataramiah, 1979).

Several reports have made preliminary assessments of the potential envi-
ronmental effects associated with OTEC plants. The full range of environmen-
tal issues surrounding OTEC development, demonstration, and commercialization
was described in the DOE OTEC Environmental Development Plan (DOE, 1979a). An
Environmental Assessment (EA) was prepared (DOE, 1979b) and supplemented
(Sinay-Friedman, 1979) for OTEC-1. A draft of the OTEC Programmatic EA,
considering the environmental effects of the development, demonstration, and
commercialization of several OTEC plant designs, configurations, and power
usages, has been completed (Sands, 1980). A site- and design-specific EA was
prepared for the proposed second deployment of Mini-OTEC (Donat et al.,

4-2

TABLE 4-1
STATUS OF OTEC OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
(NUMBER OF SITE OCCUPATIONS)
Source: Wilde, 1980

Physical Chemical Biological
Site Measurements Measurements Measurements

Gulf of Mexico 8 6 6
South Atlantic 4 2 2
Puerto Rico 10 7 8
Virgin Islands 0 1 1
Hawaii - Ke-ahole Point 11 8 8
Oahu - Kahe Point 4 4 4

1980), and a generic EA has been completed for the 40-MWe OTEC Pilot Plant
Program (Sullivan et al., 1980).

This section quantitatively and qualitatively assesses the potential
atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine impacts associated with commercial OTEC
development. The potential for atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine effects
resulting from commercial OTEC development are considered in Sections 4.1,
4.2, and 4.3, respectively. The effects of commercial OTEC development on
human activities are discussed in Section 4.4. Indirect and cumulative
environmental effects of commercial OTEC development are summarized in
Sections 4.5 and 4.6, respectively. Section 4.7 identifies unavoidable
adverse effects associated with commercial OTEC development and describes
mitigating measures for reducing impacts. Section 4.8 discusses the
relationship between short-term use and long-term productivity, and
Section 4.9 describes the commitment of resources.

4-3

4.1 ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS

OTEC operations may affect local air quality and climate. Air quality may
be affected by emissions from OTEC plantships and electrical-generating
facilities. OTEC operation could affect local and global climate as a result
of carbon dioxide release and sea-surface temperature alterations. Carbon
dioxide releases from degassing of seawater and industrial processing by OTEC
plants may contribute to the warming of the atmosphere. Sea-surface
temperature alterations resulting from ocean water redistribution may
influence storm frequencies.

Under normal operating conditions, OTEC electrical-generating plants will
release few emissions to the atmosphere and will not adversely affect local
air quality. Industrial OTEC plantships, which produce energy-intensive
products (e.g., ammonia, aluminum), will reduce gaseous releases to the
atmosphere through byproduct recycling and the use of scrubbers. A catas-
trophic accident could release large volumes of working fluids which would
vaporize to the atmosphere and cause short-term air quality effects; however,
accidents of this magnitude will be extremely rare.

The carbon dioxide concentration in the earth's atmosphere is increasing
(Brewer, 1978), which may be causing average global temperatures to increase
through the greenhouse effect. Seawater degassing and industrial processing
by OTEC plants are not expected to cause a significant increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide. The amount of carbon dioxide efflux from a
400-MWe closed-cycle OTEC plant has been estimated to range from 1500 to 2500
metric tons per day (Sands, 1980), which is approximately 25% of the carbon
dioxide that a 400-MWe coal-fired plant produces (Ditmars, 1979). An
aluminum-producing plantship will emit an additional 930 metric tons of
carbon dioxide per day as a result of the manufacturing process

(Appendix D). A 40-MWe open-cycle OTEC plant, could release 2300 metric tons
of carbon dioxide per day (Appendix D), roughly 10 times as much as a
similar-sized closed-cycle OTEC plant, or about 2.5 times the carbon dioxide
released from a 40-MWe coal-fired plant. The projected OTEC operation by the
year 2000 would release about 28 x 106 metric tons of carbon dioxide per

4-4

year. Although OTEC operations will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere,

this contribution is insignificant when compared to the 18 x 10 9metric
tons of carbon dioxide added yearly from fossil fuel consumption (Brewer,
1978).

Potential sea-surface temperature alterations by OTEC plants have caused
environmental concern because climatic changes resulting from small (less
than I 0C sea-surface temperature changes over large ocean areas (greater
than 1000 km 2) have been reported (Barnett, 1978; Davis, 1978; White and
Haney, 1978; Namias, 1979). Two aspects of OTEC plant operation will
decrease sea-surface temperatures: (1) large quantities of cold water will
be brought to the surface for use in a plant's condenser units and be
discharged into the surrounding water column after use, and (2) large
quantities of warm water will be drawn across the evaporators and cooled by
several degrees before being discharged to the receiving waters. If the
discharged waters remain within the mixed layer, the sea-surface temperature
will be altered, potentially causing climatic changes.

The magnitude of the sea-surface temperature alteration will be determined
by the size of the plant, the discharge mode, the site, and the mixed-layer
depth. Several potential OTEC sites (e.g., Gulf of Mexico) are located in
source regions of tropical cyclones. Since these areas are sensitive to
changes in sea-surface temperature, OTEC operations could alter storm
frequency by increasing or inhibiting storm production. Altering storm
frequency could significantly affect distant regions to which storms migrate.

The magnitude and nature of climatic effects resulting from sea-surface
temperature alterations by commercial OTEC development have not been
ascertained; additional research is required to assess the magnitude of this
effect. Bathen (1975) estimated the area of heat loss associated with the
operation of 100-MWe and 240-XWe OTEC plants off Hawaii and concluded that
sea-surface temperature anomalies greater than the natural diel temperature
f luctuations (0.1I0C to 0.3 0C could occur, but these temperature changes

I ~ ~~were less than the seasonal variation of about I10C. The area over which
this temperature anomaly would spread was insignificant when compared to the

4-5

size of areas required f or changes in large-scale weather patterns. Esti-
mates of sea-surface temperature depression caused by the operation of one
hundred 200-MWe OTEC plants in the Gulf of Mexico indicate that the average
sea-surface temperature could decrease by about 0.05%0 over the entire Gulf
of Mexico (Martin and Roberts, 1977), which could potentially have climatic
implications. A numerical model of the Gulf of Mexico is being prepared by
Dynalysis of Princeton under DOE funding, and will provide information on the
effect of OTEC operation on sea-surface temperatures and weather patterns
over large ocean areas.

4.2 TERRESTRIAL EFFECTS

Construction of land-based OTEC plants will have similar effects on
coastal-marine and terrestrial environments as building fossil or nuclear
power plants along the coast. The magnitude of these disturbances will be
determined by the proximity of ecologically-sensitive areas, the nature of
the existing biological and physical environment, the design of the OTEC
plant, the accessibility of the site, and the proximity of the site to the
resources required for plant construction. Land-based plants should be sited
to minimize impacts on historically-, culturally-, and ecologically-sensitive
areas. Maximum effects to both land and biota will occur during the initial
staging phase of construction and diminish as the plant nears completion.
Permanent effects will be limited to the actual plant site and access routes
necessary for the operational workforce. Temporary effects will result from
the implantation of the warm- and cold-water pipes, connection of the OTEC
facility to existing utilities, and noise, fumes, and dust associated with
construction activities.

Construction of land-sbased OTEC plants consist of three phases: (1) a
staging phase, in which the site is prepared for the incoming workforce and
equipment, (2) a construction phase, in which the plant and any other
required construction is completed, and (3) a completion phase, where cleanup
of the site occurs and preliminary operational testing of the facility
begins. A cursory description of the potential effects of these phases isj

4-6

presented in the following subsections. A further assessment of impacts is
not possible until specific plant locations and design details have been
determined.

4.2.1 Stagin.Q Phase

The staging phase involves the construction of access roads, storage
areas, and housing facilities. Access roads leading to the construction site
must be built or sufficiently renovated to withstand traffic from heavy
construction equipment.

The primary effects from the staging phase will include ground cover
removal, habitat destruction, and material disposal. These changes to the
terrestrial environment may alter watershed runoff patterns and increase the
accessibility of the area. Any associated terrestrial impacts will be
localized and mitigating measures required by Federal, State, and local
regulations.

4.2.2 Construction Phase

Upon completion of the staging phase, construction of the power plant and
its components will begin with the manufacture and implantation of the cold-
and warm-water pipes and the excavation of heat exchanger troughs. These
activities will require extensive modification of the coastal region since
the pipes and heat exchangers must be placed approximately 20 m below sea
level (Brewer et al., 1979). Some of the candidate sites are located on a
lava base and blasting may be required. The construction phase will result
in increased noise levels and habitat disruption to the surrounding land and
adjacent waters, which could potentially damage or kill biota in the
immediate vicinity.

4-7

4.2.3 Completion Phase

Upon completion of the facility, areas surrounding the plant may be
restored to their original form. Lands adjacent to the facility, the coastal
region of pipe implantation, and all utility corridors will be landscaped.
Permanent effects to the surrounding areas will result from an increase in
human presence, the maintenance of access roads, and noise from plant
operation. Proper plant siting and design will minimize these effects.

4.3 MARINE EFFECTS

The majority of environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC
development center on the marine ecosystem because it is the source of evap-
orating and condensing waters and receiver of effluent waters used by OTEC
plants. Marine environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC
development (Figure 4-1) can be categorized as: (1) major (those potentially
causing significant long-term environmental impacts), (2) minor (those
causing insignificant long- or short-term environmental changes), and (3)
potential (short-term impacts occurring only during accidents). OTEC
activities that cause environmental effects corresponding to these categories
include:

Major Effects:

* Platform presence - Organism attraction or avoidance

� Withdrawal of surface - Organism entrainment and impingement
and deep-ocean waters

* Biocide release - Organism toxic response

� Discharge of waters - Nutrient redistribution, resulting in
increased productivity

4-8

Minor Effects:

� Protective hull- - Toxic effects and bioaccumulation of trace
coating release metals

� Power cycle component - Toxic effects and bioaccumulation of trace

erosion and corrosion constituents

� Implantation of cold- - Short-term habitat destruction and turbid-
water pipe and trans- ity during implantation
mission cable

� Low-frequency noise - Interference with organism behavior and
communication

= Discharge of surfactants - Toxic effects to resident organisms

� Open-cycle plant - Alteration of oxygen and salt
operation concentration of downstream waters

Potential Effects from Accidents:

* Potential working fluid - Organism toxic response
release from spills and
leaks

a Potential oil releases - Organism toxic response

A description of the downstream plume behavior is essential for assessing
the major, minor, and potential effects of commercial OTEC development. A
generalized summary of the predicted plume behavior from commercial OTEC
plants is presented in Subsection 4.3.1. The major, minor, and potential
(accidental) environmental effects associated with commercial OTEC develop-
ment are quantitatively and qualitatively discussed in Subsections 4.3.2
through 4.3.4.

4-9

~0 ~~~Turbidity4. Resultn Platform
Turbidity Resulting From Biota Attraction/Avoidance
'1 . ,~. Cable Implantation (Short-Term)ull Coating Releases
-:* Hull Coating Releases
2-

~~~~ 3- _ ..Discharge Plume;
' _3 - G l \ _* � Redistribution of Nutrien'ts
X'~ s < S - - �C} < 1 * Chlorine Releases
4 - 0 Trace Metal Releases

r 5- Intake
XB~ 6-~ *� ~e Impingement and r
3- 6- \ Entrainment of
0S O erganee
E 75

10-
X 10 - - \ Electrical
Cable
,11 -Cold Water Intake
11-
11nh - Withdrawal of
Nutrient-Rich Waters
12-
Cable
13 - 2Mooring
13 -
Bottom Scouring
14

Figure 4-1. Environmental Effects of OTEC Operation
Source: Sullivan et al., 1980

4.3.1 Discharge Plume Description

As the OTEC discharge effluent enters the ocean, it will have a different
density than the' surrounding ambient water. The behavior of the discharge
plume will be dominated by the discharge momentum and buoyancy forces
resulting from the initial density difference (Figure 4-2). Within several
hundred meters from the point of discharge, the discharge plume will: (1) be
diluted by the ambient ocean water, (2) sink or rise to reach au equilibrium
level within the water column where the average density difference between
the diluted plume and surrounding ambient water vanishes, and (3) lose
velocity until the difference between the plume's velocity and the ambient
current velocity is small. This initial region is referred to as the
near-field regime (Ditmars and Paddock, 1981).

When the discharge effluent from the plant has reached its equilibrium
depth, it has lost its jet-like characteristics and has a velocity only
slightly different than the ambient current; this region is referred to as
the intermediate-field regime. The intrusion of the effluent into the
stratified ocean causes the plume to collapse vertically due to residual
buoyancy forces and spread laterally due to gravity forces. The interaction
of the spreading layer and the ambient current in the near-field produces a
plume that extends upcurrent of the plant and grows in width downcurrent due
to gravity spreading until gravity forces become small and turbulent
diffusion takes over as the dominant mixing process (Ditmars and Paddock,
1979).

Mixing in the intermediate-field is greatly reduced compared to the
near-field region. The magnitude of the ambient current dominates the
behavior of the discharge plume in the intermediate-field, although local
ambient density stratification and initial near-field dilution will have some
influence on the width and thickness of the resultant plume. Further
downstream, buoyancy-driven motions become small and diffusion (by means of
ambient turbulence in the ocean) becomes the dominant mixing and spreading
mechanism. This region of passive turbulent diffusion is referred to as the
far-field regime.

4-11

4. ~~near field

I -intermediate field ~ .frfeld

2~~~~~~r -

4.-

0 24681,0
Distance In Kilometers

nearf field
I-4-- ~intermediate field -~ -l-far field

0 km I1km 5 km

Figure 4-2. Generalized Diagram of a Mixed Discharge Plume.
Ambient current velocity assumed to be 100 cm set-1.

4-12

Predicting the detailed external flow field in the near-field region of
OTEC discharge plumes is complicated by the strong influence that the
discharge-structure design, ambient currents, water column stratification,
and proximity of the warm-water intake to the outfall have on plume behavior.
Schematic laboratory-scale experiments on OTEC discharge plume behavior have
been conducted by Sundaram et al. (1977, 1978) and Jirka et al. (1977,
1980); detailed physical model tests are currently underway (Adams et al.,
1979; Coxe et al., 1981). These studies indicate that, in the case of
separate evaporator and condenser discharges, the density of the evaporator
effluent will be only slightly above ambient if discharged into the mixed
layer. The plume will reach its equilibrium level within the mixed layer if
discharged horizontally, or slightly below the mixed layer if initially
directed downward. The condenser effluent will be strongly, negatively-
buoyant, but mixing with ambient water in the mixed layer will cause the
condenser effluent to reach an equilibrium level only slightly below the
mixed layer (within the thermocline). If discharged vertically below the
thermocline, mixing will prevent the condenser effluent from sinking more
than 50 to 100 m below the point of discharge. A combined- or

mixed-discharge effluent will behave much like the condenser effluent, except
that the equilibrium depth will probably be slightly higher due to the
smaller initial density difference.

Although the near-field dilution will vary with the discharge structure
design and ambient environmental conditions, near-field dilution will range
-1
between 5-10 for currents below 50 cm sec and 15-20 for currents between
-1
80 and 100 cm sec e Once the diluted OTEC effluent has reached the
equilibrium level in the intermediate-field, plume spreading is governed by
current velocity and strength of the ambient water column stratification. In
areas with low current velocities (approximately 10 cm sec- ), the plume
will be 10-12 km wide and approximately 20 m thick within 10 km downstream
of the plant. Large currents (approximately 100 cm sec-) would produce
narrow plumes only 1 km wide at 10 km downstream of the plant (Ditmars and
Paddock, 1981). The discharge plume will have to travel several hundred
kilometers in the far-field region in order to obtain additional dilution
comparable to the original near-field dilution of 5-10.

4-13

4.3.2 Major Effects

Major environmental effects of commercial OTEC development may potentially
cause significant environmental impacts. These major effects, including
biota attraction and avoidance, organism entrainment, organism impingement,
biocide release, and nutrient redistribution, are described in the following
subsections.

4.3.2.1 Biota Attraction and Avoidance - OTEC plants will attract epipelagic
organisms similar to those that concentrate around offshore structures,
floating objects, and artificial reefs (Carlisle et al., 1964; Wickham et
al., 1973; Gooding and Magnuson, 1967; Hastings et al., 1976). Motile
organisms will be attracted by the plant structure and nighttime illumination
of the plant (Wickham et al., 1973; Isaacs et al., 1974; Longhurst, 1976),
while weakly swimming and nonmotile organisms will settle on the plant. As a
result of new habitat formation, populations near the plant will increase,
compounding the magnitude of environmental impacts associated with OTEC
deployment and operation. Conversely, organisms sensitive to human
activities and presence may avoid OTEC areas as a result of construction
activities, plant operational support activities, and plant operation noise.

Siting of OTEC plants is a critical consideration for reducing the effects
from biota attraction and avoidance. In nearshore environments, platform
attraction rates will be rapid (Figure 4-3) and include high concentrations
of both neritic and oceanic biota. In contrast, an offshore OTEC platform
will attract lower numbers of organisms, primarily through opportunistic
encounters. Multiple plant deployments could result in higher numbers of
attracted organisms because the new habitat formed may be larger than the sum
of the habitats produced by individual plants. Biota avoidance of OTEC
plants will have a greater effect in nearshore environments than in offshore
environments because nearshore organisms are generally less motile and have
more restricted habitats. OTEC plants should be sited away from breeding
grounds, calving areas, and migration routes of sensitive organisms.

4-14

3000

2500-

I 2000 -

E D
* 1500-
zo

yo o
0E 1000-

0iv" o~~~~~~
500- 0

0 10 20 30 40 50
Days After Mooring

Figure 4-3. Rate of Fish Attraction to Floating Objects
in Tropical Nearshore Waters
Source: Hunter and Mitchell, 1967

4.3.2.2 Organism Entrainment - Small marine organisms will be withdrawn from
the water column and passed through OTEC plants. Organisms withdrawn at the
cold-water intake are expected to suffer 100% mortality as a result of the
physical abuse, large temperature (20 C) and pressure (100 atmosphere)
changes, and biocidal stress associated with passage through the plant.
Similarly, survival of organisms withdrawn by the warm-water intakes of
open-cycle, hybrid, mist, and foam OTEC plants will be negligible; however,
survival of organisms withdrawn by the warm-water intake of closed-cycle OTEC
plants may be possible.

Preliminary estimates (Table 4-2) indicate more organisms will be entrained
at the warm-water intake than at the cold-water intake because the concentra-
tion of plankton in tropical oceanic environments decreases dramatically

4-15

TABLE 4-2
ESTIMATED BIOMASS ENTRAINED DAILY BY VARIOUS SIZES AND NUMBER OF OTEC PLANTS
Source: Sands, 1980

Phytoplankton Microzooplankton Macrozooplankton
Size of Intake Biomass Biomass Biomass
Operation Entrained Entrained Entrained
(kg C) (kgs C) kgC)

Warm-Water 120 2.3 81.0
Intake
40-HWe Cold-Water 0 0 5.4
Intake

Total 120 2.3 86.4

Warm-Water 1,200 24 830
Intake
400-KWe Cold-Water 0 0 50
Intake

Total 1,200 24 880

Warm-Water 9,600 190 6,640
Intake
Cluster Cold-Water 0 0 400
(8 Plants; Intake
3200-MWe)

Total 9,600 190 7,040

below 300 m (Figure 4-4). Entrainment at the warm- and cold-water intakes

will primarily affect macrozooplankton. Phytoplankton and microzooplankton

populations will not be seriously affected by OTEC operation because the

majority of their biomass is concentrated between the warm- and cold-water

intake depths (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, 1980; Beers, 1978). The

ecological impact of macrozooplankton entrainment is difficult to predict

because knowledge on the dynamics of the tropical-subtropical ecosystem

(i.e., trophic relationship, population dynamics, and community structure) is

incomplete. However, the mortality of a large percentage of the macrozoo-

plankton population within an area could affect higher trophic levels and

potentially become apparent to man through a reduction in commercial

fisheries.

Entrainment of the eggs and larvae of benthic invertebrates (meroplankton)

and fish (ichthyoplankton) may be the single-most serious biological impact

resulting from commercial OTEC operation. Preliminary estimates indicate

4-16

100

200

300

400-

500-

600 -

700 -

800 -

900 -

1000
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
mgC m-3

Figure 4-4. Biomass of Potentially-Entrained Phytoplankton
and Zooplankton Between the Surface and 1000 m.
Source: Data from Johnson and Horne (1979); King and Hida (1954).

that entrainment of eggs and larvae by commercial OTEC plants may signifi-

cantly impact the adult population of ecologically- and commercially-

important species (Sands, 1980; Sullivan et al., 1980). This is of

particular concern around islands where maintenance of local larval

populations is vital to adult population existence and limited recruitment
stocks are available. It has been estimated that a 400-MWe OTEC plant would

entrain daily approximately 0.05 percent and 0.2 percent of the total

meroplankton biomass around the Hawaiian Islands and Puerto Rico,

respectively (Sands, 1980), eventually causing a reduction in the adult

benthic invertebrate population downstream of the plant.

Entrainment of ichthyoplankton by commercial OTEC plants may significantly
affect fishery resources in the vicinity of the operation site. The effects

of ichthyoplankton entrainment on the fisheries of Oahu, Hawaii, were

4-17

predicted for three different deployment scenarios (Figure 4-5). Three

commercially-important fish were investigated (Appendix D); however, only the

commercially-important amberjack (SeriolZa sp.) is discussed here as an

example which best illustrates siting and spacing considerations. Clustering

of OTEC plants near a spawning area could cause a loss of a potential fishery

resource equivalent to $67,000 per year. In contrast, clustering of OTEC

plants in an area of low larval abundance could cause a negligible threat to

the island's fishery resources. Scattered plant spacing may cause an impact

of intermediate magnitude because larval abundance varies greatly with

geographic location.

Another entrainment issue concerns the secondary entrainment of organisms

into the discharge plume. Because of the large discharge volumes and rapid

near-field dilution, this secondary entrainment may be significant. A

vertically oriented discharge structure would provide secondarily entrained

waters with a net downward momentum, which may transport the organisms below

Waimea A Waimea Waimea
Bay / \ Bay Bay

Total Year1I Evenly Spaced Deployment Cluster off Kahe Point Cluster off Waimea Bay

Entrained
Larvae 1.5 x 108 4.0 x 108 Negligible

Equivalent
Adults 1500 4000 Negligible

Commercial
Dollar Value 25 000 67 000 Negligible
Spawning areas
400-MWe OTEC Plant
See Appendix D for larval density information and catch statistics

Figure 4-5. Equivalent Number and Commercial Value of Adult
Amberjack (SerioZa spp.) Lost as a Result of Ichthyoplankton
Entrainment with Various Deployment Scenarios.

4-18

their optimum habitat, strongly reducing their chances for survival. The
effects from displacing organisms from the surface layers to deeper depths
cannot be assessed with the available information, but could cause increased

organism mortality.

4.3.2.3 OrRanism Impingement - Large marine organisms with limited avoidance
capabilities will be subjected to impingement on intake screens of OTEC
plants. Impingement may cause significant reductions in local fish, squid,
and shrimp populations and could directly or indirectly affect the fishery
resources of an area. Disposal of impinged organisms killed or damaged on
the intake screens may result in increased feeding activity downstream of an
OTEC plant. Impingement rates at conventional land-based generating plants
were used to provide an order-of-magnitude estimate of potential impingement
at a land-based OTEC plant. Extrapolating from existing data suggests that a

400-MWe land-based OTEC plant could impinge between 50 and 4400 kg of large
motile nekton per day (Appendix D). Nekton impingement rates for OTEC plants
cannot be precisely estimated because no impingement studies have been
performed for offshore power plants.

Preliminary estimates indicate that micronekton (mesopelagic fish, squid,
and shrimp) impingement will be higher for warm-water than cold-water intakes
(Table 4-3) because micronekton vertically migrate from 500 m to concentrate
near the surface at night. Micronekton impingement will indirectly affect
nekton through food chain interactions since many commercially-important
species of nekton (e.g., tuna) rely upon micronekton as a major food source.
However, the direct and indirect effects of impingement on commercially-
important species cannot be fully evaluated with the available data.

4.3.2.4 Biocide Release - OTEC plants may use biocides to control biofouling
on the seawater side of heat exchanger surfaces. Biocides may adversely
affect the local marine environment because of their toxicity to nontarget
organisms and the large volumes that must be released to maintain heat
exchanger efficiency (Sullivan et al., 1980). Candidate biocides include
chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine chloride, and ozone. Evaluation of the
effect of biocide release on the marine environment is difficult, because

4-19

TABLE 4-3
ESTIMATED BIOMASS (WET WEIGHT) IMPINGED DAILY
BY VARIOUS SIZES AND NUMBERS OF OTEC PLANTS
Source: Sands, 1980.

Size of Micronekton Gelatinous Organism
Operation Intake Biomass Impinged (kg) Biomass Impinged (kg)

Warm-Water 130 8.3
Screen
40-MWe Cold-Water 82 6.7
Screen

Total 212 15

Warm-Water 1,300 84
Screens
400-4We Cold-Water 790 64
(i Plant) Screens

Total 2,090 148

Warm-Water 10,400 672
Screens
Cluster Cold-Water 6,300 512
(8 Plants; Screens
3200-MWe)

Total 16,700 1,184

insufficient information exists on the seawater chemistry, toxicity, and

dilution rate of the various biocides within the discharge plume. Chlorine,

the most likely biocide to be used in commercial OTEC plants, will be

discussed as an example of the effects of biocide release because it is the

most studied of the alternative biocides.

The chemistry of chlorine in seawater is complex (Opresko, 1980; Macalady

et al., 1977; Block et al., 1976; Davis and Middaugh, 1975). In general,

chlorine decays rapidly when exposed to sunlight, forming various organic and

inorganic compounds that may persist for long periods of time. It is not

possible to confidently predict the organic and inorganic compounds generated

by chlorinating natural seawater (Block et al., 1977); however, more organic

compounds may be formed than inorganic compounds (Zika, 1981). The organic

compounds may be more toxic than either the inorganic compounds or the

initially introduced chlorine (Zika, 1981). Chlorinated organic compounds

are resistant to degradation and may be accumulated in organism tissues

(Goldman, 1979).

4-20

Chlorine toxicity varies widely with the nature of the affected organism
(Table 4-4). In general, phytoplankton are the most sensitive to chlorine,
exhibiting a 50% reduction in photosynthesis after 24 hour exposures to
concentrations as low as 0.075 mg liter 1 (Gentile et al., 1976). Plank-
tonic larvae of benthic invertebrates (meroplankton) demonstrate a 50%
mortality after a 96-hour exposure to chlorine concentrations as low as
0.005 mg liter1 (Bender et al., 1977). Chlorine concentrations below
-1
0.005 mg liter are not likely to significantly affect marine organisms.
As chlorine decays, the concentration of organic and inorganic compounds will
increase, potentially reaching toxic levels. The lack of information on the
toxicity of chlorine-seawater reaction products to marine organisms (Macalady
et al., 1977; Opresko, 1980) hinders the further assessment of chlorine dis-
charges. Sublethal effects of persistent chlorine-seawater reaction products
may reduce the survivorship of organisms downstream of commercial OTEC plants.

The release of biocides by commercial OTEC plants could adversely affect
the marine environment; therefore, unless other methods (e.g., thermal shock,
abrasive cleaning, ultrasonics) are employed to control biofouling, an
acceptable level of impact will have to be determined. For instance, if the
region within 100 km of an OTEC plant can be affected without causing
significant environmental disturbances, an initial chlorine concentration of
less than 0.125 mg liter-1 at the discharge point would have to be
maintained (assuming 25-fold dilution). If an OTEC plant can affect a 30 km
region downstream of the plant without causing adverse impacts, the point
source chlorine concentration would have to be limited to 0.06 mg liter-1
(assuming 12-fold dilution). In ecologically-sensitive areas, where the
adverse effects associated with chlorine release are not acceptable, low
( 0.005 mg liter -1) chlorine concentrations at the discharge point will be
required. This may be possible by chlorinating heat exchanger modules
individually and diluting the chlorinated effluent with chlorine-free
effluent waters from the remaining heat exchanger modules which are not being
chlorinated. These examples illustrate that determining biocide release
concentrations and schedules will depend on the level of environmental
disturbance NOAA is willing to accept at a particular site.

4-21

TABLE 4-4. TOXICITY OF CHLORINE TO MARINE ORGANISMS BASED ON 50% MORTALITY OR
50% DECREASE IN PRODUCTIVITY.

(Chlorine units in mg liter-).

Exposure Period (Hours)

Organism <1 2-4 4-12 24 48 96

0.1 a
Phytoplankton 0.2 b 0.09 e
0.2-0.8 c 0.1 f 0.033-0.24 g 0.075-0.33 b No Data No Data
0.49 d

Zooplankton 0.23-0.82 h e 0.9 0.15 j 0.090-0.178 n
(Holoplankton) 1.82 i 1.0 b 0.15-1.0 b 0.38 m <0.05 m 0.22 m
2.5-10 b 1.4-1.5 i
2.5 k

Zooplankton
(Meroplankton) 0.25-0.30 o No Data No Data No Data <0.005 m 0.005 g
0.005 g 0.024-0.12 P

0.037-0.062 t
Fish Larvae 0.70 q 0.075 r 0,05 r 0.19-0.32 s 0.17-0.21 1 0.028 r
0.22 q 0.20-0.24 s 0.040 t

0.7 q 0.22 q 0.037-0.27 m
Adult Fish 1.2 u 0.56-0.67 u 0.21 u 0.08-0.28 m 0.037-0.27 m 0.080 t
2.5 b 0.64 m 0.1 b 0.27 s

(a) Fox and Moyer, 1975 (h) Goldman and Ryther 1976 (o) Capuzzo et al., 1977
(b) Gentile et al., 1976 (i) Ginn and O'Connor 1978 (p) Roberts, 1978
(c) Gentile, 1972 (j) Patrick and McLean .1970 (q) Fairbanks et al., 1971
(d) Carpenter et al., 1972 (k) McLean 1973 (r) Alderson, 1974
(e) Davis and Coughlan, 1978 (1) Johnson et al. 1977 (s) Morgan and Prince, 1977
(f) Eppley et al., 1976 (m) Roberts et al. 1975 (t) Alderson, 1970
(g) Bender et al., 1977 (n) Thatcher 1978 (u) Engstrom and Kirkwood,

4.3.2.5 Nutrient Redistribution - The transport of large volumes of
nutrient-rich deep water into surface layers by an OTEC plant is comparable
to the natural phenomenon of upwelling. Increased nutrients in the surface
layers of the water column may result in increased phytoplankton populations,

thereby leading to the enhancement of zooplankton populations and the entire
food chain. Entrained organisms killed during their passage through the
plant provide on additional nutrient source as particulate organic carbon.
Nutrient redistribution is expected to enhance biological productivity and
potentially create valuable fishery resources; however, nutrient redistri-
bution could stimulate toxic red tides that occur in certain regions of the
OTEC resource area (i.e. Gulf of Mexico) .

The cold, nutrient-rich waters discharged by commercial OTEC plants may
stabilize below the one percent light-penetration depth, where phytoplankton
growth is limited. Therefore, increased productivity resulting from nutrient
redistribution may not be an issue. However, if the cold, nutrient-rich
water discharged from OTEC plants remains within the photic zone, enhanced
primary production will result, potentially increasing phytoplankton biomass
to 3 times the ambient concentration for a 40-MWe plant (Sullivan et al.,
1980) and 30 times the ambient concentration for a 400-MWe plant (Sands,
1980).

Increases in phytoplankton biomass downstream of OTEC plants may result in
changes to the existing marine food chain by making additional food avail-
able, thereby potentially increasing zooplankton and other higher trophic-
level populations. An order-of-magnitude estimate indicates that the
nutrients discharged by a 400-MWe OTEC plant in a day would sustain 4.1 kg of

tuna through a long, oceanic food chain (Appendix D). However, increasing
the productivity of an area may make the marine food chain shorter ind more
efficient. The same amount of nutrients as used in the previous example
would sustain between 1,000 and 16,000 kg of tuna if shorter, more efficient
food chains develop as a result of the upwelled waters (Appendix D).
Therefore, commercial OTEC plants have the potential for artificially
enriching downstream areas and supporting valuable fishery resources.

4-23

Increased productivity downstream of the plant could potentially result in
adverse impacts. Within the phytoplankton, a group of dinoflagellates exists
that cause the phenomenon known as red tide. Red tide refers to the
discolored patches of seawater caused by large aggregations of
dinoflagellates that produce a neurotoxin lethal to marine organisms (Lackey
and Hines, 1955). Exact causes of red tides are not known, but an abundant
nutrient source is required to sustain a bloom. The redistribution of
nutrient-rich deep waters into the surface layers by an OTEC plant could
potentially cause a red tide outbreak, especially in areas having a large
population of red tide-producing organisms (i.e. Gulf of Mexico).

4.3.3 Minor Effects

Minor environmental effects result from OTEC activities that cause
insignificant changes to the marine environment. These minor effects,
including protective hull-coating and trace constituent releases, submarine
cable and pipe implantation, and low-frequency sound production, are
described in the following subsections.

4.3.3.1 Protective Hull-Coating Release - OTEC plants will use protective
hull coatings on exposed surfaces to minimize biofouling. Protective hull
coatings may contain heavy metal oxides, organic compounds, or thermoplastic
paints as their toxic constituent. Protective hull-coating releases are not
expected to cause acute (lethal) effects to marine organisms (Sands, 1980;
Sullivan et al., 1980); however, chronic impacts resulting from bioaccumul-
ation may occur.

Bioaccumulation, or the uptake and assimilation of toxic materials within
organism tissues, occurs through absorption and ingestion (Phillips and
Russo, 1978). Organisms in the immediate vicinity of the plant may be
exposed to metal concentrations above background levels that could be
absorbed through their skin or gill tissues. Organisms that have absorbed
metals may be ingested by predators, thereby passing the metals to higher
trophic levels within the food chain.

4-24

Bioaccumulation of metals in commercial fish and shellfish will probably
not create a hazard to man (Table 4-5). Copper and zinc pose a low risk to
humans because of their low toxicities and tendency to accumulate in non-
edible tissues. Arsenic bioaccumulation in edible tissues of most fish is
quite low; however, levels associated with shellfish can be high and may be
toxic to humans. Mercury is readily accumulated in muscle tissues and is the
most toxic of the four metals; for these reasons, the Federal government has
restricted the use of mercury in protective hull coatings (Jacoby, 1981).

4.3.3.2 Trace Constituent Release - Trace constituent releases will occur
from the seawater corrosion and erosion of structural elements within OTEC
plants (e.g., heat exchangers, pump impellers, metallic piping). Heat
exchangers, the major source of trace constituent releases from an OTEC
plant, will be constructed of titanium, aluminum, or stainless steel, all of
which have low toxicities to marine organisms and slow bioaccumulation rates
(Table 4-6). In addition, preliminary estimates indicate that OTEC trace
constituent release rates will be extremely low (Sands, 1980; Sullivan et
al., 1980). Therefore, no adverse environmental effects are expected.

4.3.3.3 Cable/Pipe Implantation - The benthic community will be affected by
bottom scouring from mooring lines and bottom trenching during implantation
of submarine transmission cables and cold-water pipes. Bottom scouring will
cause a small disturbance at depths greater than 300 m. Because of the
relatively small area disturbed, and the low benthic productivity below
300 m, the surrounding benthic community will not be significantly impacted
(Sullivan et al., 1980).

The effects of cable and pipe implantation include burial, turbidity-
induced clogging of respiratory and feeding surfaces, and habitat 4estruc-
tion. These effects should not be serious except in ecologically-sensitive
areas, such as spawning grounds and coral reefs. The effects of implantation
must be fully assessed after the dredging route has been determined and
before construction proceeds.

4-25

TABLE 4-5
RELATIVE HAZARDS PRESENTED BY CANDIDATE PROTECTIVE HULL-
COATING MATERIALS
Source: Phillips and Russo, 1978.

Toxicity Bioaccumulative Tendency Human Hazard
to Humans Freshwater Marine Marine Rating
From Oral Fish Fish Shellfish or
Metal Ingestion Muscle Muscle Crustaceans

Copper Low Low Low High Low
Zinc Low Low Low High Low
Arsenic High Low High High Low
Mercury Low High High High High

4.3.3.4 Low-Frequency Sound - OTEC plants may produce low-frequency sound as
a result of pump operation, passage of water through intake tubes, and cavi-
tation within the plant. The sound emitted from an OTEC plant could inter-
fere with low-frequency signals used for communication among marine mammals
and various other marine life forms. Information on the frequency and
intensity of OTEC sound emission is not presently available. A study of the
military implications and applications of OTEC operation (prepared for the
DOE by Tracor, Inc.) contains information on sound output from OTEC opera-
tion; however, this study is not available for public review. Considering
the numerous human-related sources of low-frequency sounds in the ocean,
sound emitted from OTEC operation is not expected to have a significant
impact on marine life (Appendix D). However, special consideration should be
given to studying the effects of low-frequency sound from OTEC plants on the
endangered humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) during its winter
breeding and calving activities near the Hawaiian Islands.

4.3.3.5 Surfactant Release - The environmental effects of discharging
surfactants along with the effluent from OTEC foam power plants is not
known. Various surfactants are currently being tested at the Carnegie-Mellon
University (Noriega, 1981); presently, no biodegradable surfactant has been
identified. Until an acceptable biodegradable surfactant is chosen, no

definite impacts can be assessed.

4-26

TABLE 4-6
RELATIVE HAZARDS PRESENTED BY CANDIDATE HEAT EXCHANGER MATERIALS
Source: Phillips and Russo, 1978; HEW, 1979.

Toxicity Bioaccumulative Tendency Human Hazard
to Humans Freshwater Marine Marine Rating
From Oral Fish Fish Shellfish or
Metal Ingestion Muscle Muscle Crustaceans

Titanium Low Low Low Low Low

Aluminum Low High Low Low Low

Stainless
Steel

Chromium Low Low Low Low Low

Nickel Low Low Low Low Low

Iron Low High High High Low

4.3.3.6 Open-Cycle Plant Operation - Release of deaerated water from an
open-cycle plant will not cause adverse effects, because rapid mixing of the
discharge plume will increase oxygen concentrations to ambient levels before
the end of the near-field (Sands, 1980). Release of higher-than-ambient
salinity waters from open-cycle plants will not cause adverse environmental
effects, because the difference in salinity between the discharge and ambient
waters will not exceed 0.35 ppt (Appendix D).

4.3.4 Potential (Accidental) Effects

Operations in the marine environment present several unique hazards or
potential for accidents. Collisions, extreme meteorological conditions,
military action, political terrorism, or human error may cause catastrophic
spills of OTEC working fluids and petroleum products stored aboard the

platform. The effects of these releases during normal plant operation and
during catastrophic events are described in the following subsections.

4-27

4.3.4.1 Working Fluid Release - OTEC heat exchangers will have extensive
surface areas exposed to constant physical and chemical stresses. Leaks may

develop in the heat exchangers or working fluid transport system, resulting
in working fluid release. Toxicity data is only available for one of the
candidate working fluids, ammonia, which is the most likely working fluid to
be used in commercial OTEC plants. Natarajan (1970) reported ammonia
concentrations of 55.0 to 71.1 mg liter inhibited photosynthesis in
unspecified marine phytoplankton. Toxicity studies on Sargassum shrimp
(Latreutes fucorum) and filefish (Monocanthue lispidue) indicate that the

lethal, ammonia concentration for both species is approximately 1.0 mg
-1
liter (Venkataramiah, 1979).

Ammonia release from heat exchanger leaks during normal OTEC operation is
not expected to cause adverse environmental effects because low concentra-
tions of ammonia stimulate primary productivity. Ammonia concentrations can
only reach lethal levels in the event of a catastrophic spill (Appendix D). A
catastrophic spill would kill zooplankton and fish stocks over a 63 km2
area, resulting in a significant short-term environmental impact. A catas-

trophic spill from an ammonia-producing plantship would release up to
4.3 x 107 kg of ammonia, which could potentially affect a 428 km2 area
around the plantship (Appendix D).

4.3.4.2 Oil Releases - Oilspills from accidents at sea or petroleum leaks
from minor spills may occur because of increased ship traffic resulting from
OTEC operation. Oil releases could also occur during the deployment of the
cold-water pipe. One proposed method for deploying the cold-water pipe
consists of filling an insert within the pipe with 10,000 m3 of oil for
buoyancy and floating the pipe to the deployment site. The cold-water pipe
would then be upended during deployment activities by pumping the oil out of
the steel insert into a nearby barge or tanker (Moak et al., 1980). An
accident during such an operation could cause total release of the oil,
resulting in significant environmental impacts.

4-28

The toxic effects of petroleum product spills have been summarized by Cox
(1977). The potential damages to marine organisms from oil pollution include:

* Coating and asphyxiation of organisms
a Contact poisoning of organisms
a Exposure to water-soluble toxic components of oil

A large oilspill could potentially affect the entire local environment and
disrupt local populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton, nekton, marine
mammals, and birds. A complete assessment of the effects of an oilspill
resulting from OTEC activities cannot be provided until additional environ-
mental and engineering information is available. However, careful consider-
ation of the risk of potential accidents must accompany the design of OTEC
plants to ensure that accidental oil releases will not create significant
problems.

4.4 EFFECTS ON HUMAN ACTIVITIES

The major human activities in the OTEC resource area include commercial
and recreational fishing, shipping and transportation, naval activities,
scientific research, and recreation. The effects of commercial OTEC develop-
ment on these activities are discussed in the following subsections.

4.4.1 Commercial and Recreational Fishing

Commercial and recreational fishing may be significantly affected by the
siting and operation of OTEC plants. Fish attracted to OTEC plants will
concentrate in the general vicinity of the plant, increasing the recreational
yield of the area. However, the entrainment of egg and larval stages, the
impingement of juvenile and adult fish stages, and the discharge of biocides

may reduce the fish population downstream of the plant. These losses may be
partially compensated by the redistribution of nutrients and resulting
enhanced productivity. The net effect of OTEC operation on fishing depends
on the biological productivity of the region. In highly productive regions

4-29

OTEC operation may slightly decrease the fishery resources, whereas in areas
of low productivity, the net effect could benefit commercial and recreational
fishing.

4.4.2 Shipping and Transportation

The effect of commercial OTEC development on shipping and transportation
will be minimal because the sites will be designated for the production of
baseload electricity or energy-intensive products, and should not interfere
with commercial shipping. The location and boundaries of OTEC plants will be
clearly marked on navigational charts and a Notice to Mariners issued by the
U.S. Coast Guard. Shipping lanes may be established in areas having multiple
OTEC plant deployments.

4.4.3 Naval Operations

U.S. Naval operations may occur in the vicinity of commercial OTEC plants;
however, only minimal interference is expected. The Hydrographic Center of
the Defense Mapping Agency is responsible for issuing a Notice to Mariners in
the event of naval maneuvers or any other hazard to vessel operations.
Submarine operation areas exist in the OTEC resource area and submarine
traffic is a potential hazard to the cold-water pipe and mooring cables of
OTEC plants. However, OTEC-use areas will be clearly marked on navigation
charts. The military implications and applications of OTEC operation has
been studied by Tracor, Inc., but the results are not available for public
review.

4.4.4 Scientific Research

Commercial OTEC development will not have significant detrimental effects
on scientific research activities. Deployment and operation of OTEC plants
may stimulate scientific research through site evaluation and monitoring
studies required for licensing.

4-30

4.4.5 Recreation

Recreational areas af fected by commercial OTEC development are primarily
concentrated in coastal regions. Most coastal states in which OTEC plants
are likely to be located have Federally-approved coastal zone management
programs, which will ensure that effects to recreational areas are mitigated.

4. 4. 6 Aesthetics

The analysis of aesthetic impact is complex, because a great variety of

natural and man-made conditions exist in the OTEC resource area. OTEC
development may have an adverse impact on aesthetics; the magnitude of the
impact depends upon the nature and number of OTEC plants and their location.
Degradation of aesthetics could decrease the public's enjoyment of beaches
and coastal waters. This in turn may affect tourism, especially in highly-
scenic areas. These effects should be assessed at the State and local level
prior to deployment of OTEC plants.

4.5 INDIRECT EFFECTS

indirect effects of commercial OTEC development may result from the manu-
facture of OTEC plants, alterations in existing resource demands, and
increased demands on the communities where OTEC plants are developed. The
nature and magnitude of these indirect impacts are dependent on the number
and type of plants that will be built and characteristics of the construction
site, deployment site, and transportation routes. The secondary
environmental and socioeconomic effects of commercial OTEC development are
discussed in the following subsections.

4.5.1 Secondary Environmental Effects

The development of OTEC as a commercial energy technology will have sev-
eral indirect environmental effects. Modifications to existing shipyard
facilities will be required for concrete platform designs (Table 4-7).
Construction of a concrete OTEC plant would require deep graving docks and

4-31

protected shallow- and deep-water areas. Adequate graving docks are not
presently available at U.S. shipyards. Puget Sound is the only U. S. port
having adequate shallow- and deep-water protected areas (Table 4-7). Steel
OTEC designs will require minimal modifications to existing shipyard
facilities.

Impacts related to OTEC plant construction will be short-term and
mitigated by controls imposed by existing Federal, State, and local
regulations. For example, the placement of structures, such as piers and
wharfs, will require Corps of Engineers approval and prior notification to
the U.S. Coast Guard so that appropriate warnings to navigators can be
issued. Any major construction or harbor modification will require an EIS,
EA, or Finding of No Significant impact, in accordance with the requirements
of the National Environmental Policy Act (FL 91-190). Most of the coastal
states in which construction facilities are likely to be located have
Federally-approved coastal zone management programs which influence the
design and impacts of facilities constructed along the coast. These measures
will minimize the impact of harbor and shipyard modifications required for
the manufacture of OTEC plants and will ensure that unacceptable environ-
mental impacts do not occur.

Ship traffic will increase in the vicinity of OTEC sites as a result of
OTEC plant deployment, operation, and the transport of products manufactured
on plantships. Increased ship traffic could interfere with commercial
fishing vessels, recreational boating, and commercial vessels not associated
with the OTEC plant. Atmospheric emissions and landscape alterations will
result from mining and smelting of mineral ores for OTEC plant components;
the associated impacts cannot be accurately predicted without specific
information on material requirements.

4.5.2 Socioeconomic Effects

In general, the island communities of the United States suitable for OTEC
development are almost totally dependent upon imported oil, with few viable
alternatives available (Sullivan et al., 1980). Thus, these island

4-32

TABLE 4-7. U.S. PORTS WITH SUITABLE FACILITIES FOR OTEC

PLATFORM CONSTRUCTION.

Source: Modified from Delta Marine Consultants, 1980.

Initial Construction Secondary Construction

Platform Hull Adequate Access Graving Dock Protected Shallow Protected Deep
Type Material** Channel Water Site Water Site
(Fig. 1-2)

nwc Puget Sound, WA None Puget Sound, WA Not Required
Corpus Christi, TP

Concrete ship Puget Sound, WA
(external heat Long Beach, CA
exchanger) lwc San Francisco, CA
Corpus Christi, TX* None Puget Sound, WA Not Required
Galveston, TX*
Hampton Roads, VA*

Puget Sound, WA
Long Beach, CA
San Francisco, CA
nwc Corpus Christi, TX* None Puget Sound, WA Not Required
Concrete ship Galveston, TX*
(external heat Baltimore, MD*
exchangers,
sexhangers, Hampton Roads, VA*
upside down
construction) 11 sites on East Coast
9 sites on Gulf Coast
lwc 8 sites on West Coast None Puget Sound, WA Not Required
Hawaii
Puerto Rico

Puget Sound, WA
Long Reach, CA
owe San Francisco, CA
Corpus Christi, TX None Puget Sound, WA Puget Sound, WA
Concrete spar Galveston TX
(external heat Hampton Roads, VA*
exchanger)
11 sites on East Coast
9 sites on Culf Coast
lwc 8 sites on West Coast None Puget Sound, WA Puget Sounl, WA
Hawaii
Puerto Rico

nwc Puget Sound, WA None Not Rsquired None
Concrete spar
(internal heat Puget Sound, WA None Not Required Puget Sound, WA
exhanger) lwC Corpus Christi, TX*
Galveston, TX*

San Diego, CA Puget Sound, WA
San Francisco, CA Long Beach, CA
Tampa, FL San Francisco, CA
New Orleans, LA+ Corpus Christi, TX*
Quincy, MA Galveston, TX*
Baltimore, MD+ Baltimore, VA*
Steel ship Steel Available at all U.S. Pascagoula, HS+ Hampton Roads, VA
(external and ports with adequate Brooklyn, NY Grays Harbor, WA* Not Required
internal heat construction facilities. Chester, PA+ Freeport, TX*
exchanger) Newport Naws, VA New York, NHY
Norfolk, VA+ Port Everglades, FL
Portland, OR Puerto Rico*
Sparrow Point, ND
San Francisco, CA+

*Proposed
*nwc, normal weight concrete; lwco light weight concrete
+Adequate floating dock available.

4-33

communities are highly vulnerable to oil price increases and future oil
embargoes. Commercial OTEC development will have a positive influence on
island economies by initiating a process for obtaining total energy
independence, thereby creating long-term price stability for economic
development.

OTEC plant components will be manufactured at shipyards and industrial
facilities in island communities and the continental United States. The
manufacture and assembly of OTEC plants, and the modification of existing
harbors and shipyard facilities will result in the creation of construction-
related jobs. The projected job impact of OTEC plant construction will be
significant for large depressed city areas, where most shipyards are
located. Approximately 2,000 worker-years of shipyard employment would be
required to construct a 40-MWe plantship (Francis et al., 1979).

Operation and support of OTEC plants will create additional employment
opportunities. Estimates indicate that approximately 20 to 30 persons would
be required to operate a commercial OTEC plant (Moak et al., 1980), and an
additional number of people would be employed in a support capacity. Jobs
provided by commercial OTEC development would most likely replace any jobs
lost at facilities powered by fossil fuels.

There may be significant short-term impacts to the population character-
istics of communities near OTEC plant assembly sites, depending on the
characteristics of the site and the local community infrastructure.
Temporary housing and community services (water, electricity, sewage) may be
needed for construction crews. Population impacts would probably be reduced
to minimal levels after the construction of an OTEC plant is complete and
operation begins.

4.6 CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Effects of OTEC development may include (1) habitat disruption,
(2) attraction to the platform, (3) toxic effects from biocide release,
working fluid spills, and other discharges, (4) redistribution of food

4-34

resources from platform attraction, impingement, entrainment, and nutrient
redistribution, (5) changes in ocean water properties, and (6) human activity
alterations. Marine organisms may be affected either directly or indirectly
by these effects and by synergistic interactions between these effects.
Nekton populations will increase in the vicinity of the plant because of
attraction to structure and lights, but could decrease in downstream areas as
a result of entrainment of eggs and larval stages and impingement of juvenile
and adult stages. Plankton populations will be reduced immediately
downstream of OTEC plants as a result of entrainment and biocide release;
however, the redistribution of nutrient-rich deep water into the photic zone
may stimulate plankton productivity and ultimately increase plankton and
nekton populations. Benthic community effects will center primarily on their
planktonic larval stages, which may be reduced as a result of entrainment and
biocide release. Impacting the egg and larval stages of benthic organisms
has the potential of reducing recruitment stocks and adult benthic
populations downstream of the plant.

The size of the area influenced by OTEC operations will be determined by
the size of the plant and the spacing distance between plants. Decreasing
interplant distance will increase the magnitude of plant operational effects,
while reducing the geographic region affected. In addition, clustering of
plants may synergistically increase the magnitude of environmental effects
associated with multiple plant operations.

In general, OTEC operation will affect nearshore environments to a greater
degree than offshore environments because:

* The coastal zone is highly biologically-productive and used as
spawning, breeding, and calving grounds for many species of
marine organisms; therefore, disturbances in nearshore regions
are likely to affect commercially-important and ecologically-
sensitive areas.

* Nearshore populations rely on local recruitment from life
stages concentrated in small areas and can be severely
disrupted by localized impacts.

4-35

*The nearshore has, less horizontal homogeneity than the off shore
environment, which limits the ability of nearshore organisms to
move away from disturbances without leaving their preferred
environment.

The cumulative effect of commercial OTEC development may significantly
affect threatened and endangered species. Specific plant locations are
required to predict the potential cumulative effect of commercial OTEC
development on threatened and endangered species. OTEC development near
island communities may impact threatened and endangered species which are
endemic to the area, or affect species which migrate to the area for
reproductive or feeding purposes. These species inhabit or make use of
nearshore areas around islands, and OTEC plants would be sited either on land
or close to shore. Migratory threatened and endangered species could abandon
areas impacted by OTEC operation; however, this could disrupt their breeding,
calving, or feeding activities. Endemic threatened and endangered species
could be directly affected if their habitat is disrupted by OTEC develop-
ment. To avoid or mitigate impacts to threatened and endangered species,
plant siting should avoid critical habitats and ecologically-sensitive areas
of threatened and endangered species.

OTEC development in oceanic regions of the Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean,
and Atlantic Ocean is not expected to significantly affect threatened and

endangered species. Plants will be located far offshore, where threatened
and endangered species are highly motile and have worldwide distributions.
Thus, oceanic threatened and endangered species should be able to avoid any
localized impacts associated with OTEC operation.

Commercial OTEC development in climatically-sensitive areas may alter
weather patterns as a result of sea-surface temperature changes and carbon
dioxide release. The magnitude and nature of climatic effects resulting from
commercial OTEC development have not been ascertained; additional research is

required.

4-36

4.7 UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE EFFECTS AND MITIGATING MEASURES

Preliminary estimates demonstrate that single and multiple deployments of
40-, 100-, and 400-MWe OTEC plants have the potential for significantly
impacting marine and terrestrial environments through unavoidable adverse
effects associated with their siting, construction, and operation. The
identified unavoidable effects associated with commercial OTEC development
include:

� Biota attraction and avoidance

a Entrainment of planktonic organisms, particularly larvae

0 Impingement of ecologically- or commercially-important species

a Biocide release

a Ocean water redistribution, particularly nutrient redistribu-
tion and sea-surface temperature alterations

The potential for, and magnitude of, environmental impacts resulting from
these OTEC development issues can be mitigated or reduced by implementing
various siting and design considerations (Table 4-8). In general, these
measures are related to platform siting, and intake and discharge structure
design. The following subsections evaluate the effectiveness of these
mitigating measures.

4.7.1 Platform Siting

Siting is the single-most important determinant of the potential for
environmental impact. Platform siting will determine the magnitude of
environmental impacts related to OTEC activities, because the local
populations define the ecological sensitivity of an area. For instance,
areas of low ecological or commercial importance are less likely to
experience significant impact from OTEC development than areas of high

4-37

TABLE 4-8. POTENTIALLY ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
ANDMITIGATING MEASURES

Community Affected

Issue Plankton Nekton Benthos Threatened and Man's Mitigating Measures Research Needs
Endangered Activities (Ranked by
Species Effectiveness)

Increased Increased Colonization Possible -Increased -Site away from -Site evaluation
Biota number of number of exposed avoidance fishing. breeding and nursery studies to deter-
Attraction organisms organisms structures. of area due grounds. mine ecological
and due to due to to human -Loss of sensitivity of
Avoidance attraction attraction to presence and desired -Reduce lights and areas.
to lights. structure and noise. faunal noise to minimum
lights. diversity. needed for safe -Determine biota
operation. attraction and
avoidance to dif-
-Reduce attraction ferent platform
surfaces. configurations
and lighting
systems.

Reduction in -Reduction in Reduction in Possible reduc- Potential -Site intakes away -Site evaluation
population population size population tion in food decrease in from ecologically- studies to deter-
size. due to mortal- size due to resources. fishery sensitive areas. mine ecological
ity of eggs and mortality of resources. sensitivity of
larvae. planktonic -Site intakes at area.
co) Organism larval stages. depths that will
Entrainment -Potential entrain the least -Determine verti-
reduction in number of organisms. cal distribution
food of local popu-
resources. -Reduction in through- lations.
plant shear forces.
-Entrainment mor-
tality studies
that determine
plant induced
mortality.

None. Reduction in None. None. Potential -Use velocity caps to -Site evaluation
population reduction in achieve horizontal flow studies to deter-
size due to fishery fields. mine ecological
mortality of resources. sensitivity of
juveniles and -Use fish return area, and size,
Organism adults. system. structure, and
Impingement vertical distri-
-Site intakes at depths bution of fish
that will impinge the populations.
least number of
organisms. -Impingement
mortality
-Reduce intake prevention studies.
velocities.

Table 4-8. Potentially Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigating Measures (Continued)

Community Affected

Issue Plankton Nekton Benthos Threatened and Man's Mitigating Measures Research Needs
Endangered Activities (Ranked by
Species Effectiveness)

Reduction in -Decreased -Reduction in -Possible -Potential -Discharge below photic -Site evaluation
population metabolic population size avoidance of reduction of zone. studies to deter-
size. activity and due to mortal- plume. fishery mine ecological
plume avoid- ity of plank- resources. -Use alternate methods sensitivity of
ance by adults. tonic larval -Possible for biofouling control. area.
stages. reduction of -Decreased
-Reduction in food resource. aesthetics. -Rapid dilution through -Acute and chronic
Biocide population -Chronic or use of diffusers. toxicity and bio-
Release size due to acute effects assay studies on
mortality of on adults. -Site specific biocide representative
eggs and release schedule and organisms.
larvae. concentration.

-Site discharges away
from ecologically-
sensitive areas.

Increased Potentially Potentially Potentially -Potential Discharge into photic Determine discharge
productivity. increased food increased food increased food increase in zone. plume stabilization
Nutrient resource. resource. resource. fishery depth and downstream
Redistribution resource. mixing rate so that
physical models can
-Potentially Discharge below photic be calibrated.
decreased zone.
aesthetics.

Sea-Surface None. None. None. None. Potential Discharge below the Monitor temperature-
Temperature climatic thermocline. density profiles from
Alterations alterations. OTEC discharges to
calibrate predictions.

ecological or commercial value. Siting away from ecologically-sensitive
areas (such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, reproductive areas, and critical
habitats for threatened or endangered species) and important fishery-resource
areas is the most effective and fundamental means available for minimizing
significant adverse impacts. Avoidance of OTEC plants by organisms sensitive
to human activities can be minimized by reducing light and noise levels on
OTEC platforms to the minimum required for safe operation.

4.7.2 Intake Considerations

Unavoidable adverse effects associated with the withdrawal of resource
waters by OTEC plants include organism entrainment and impingement. Entrain-
ment of planktonic organisms and the larvae of oceanic and nearshore
organisms may reduce the food resource for higher trophic levels, and reduce
adult fish and benthic invertebrate populations downstream of the plant.
Impingement of juvenile and adult organisms may also reduce the food resource
for higher trophic levels and reduce existing and future population sizes.
Both entrainment and impingement effects have the potential for adversely
affecting the fishery resources in the OTEC resource area.

The design of OTEC intake structures will determine, in part, the number
of organisms withdrawn and the associated mortality rate. Impingement and
entrainment may be reduced by taking advantage of the natural vertical
stratification of marine organisms and locating the intakes at depths with
low organism concentra- tions. Entrainment mortality may be effectively
reduced by minimizing the physical abuse to which entrained organisms are
subjected during passage through the plant. Low intake velocities will
minimize shear and acceleration stresses, and the number of pipe bends and
constrictions could be reduced to minimize abrasion and impaction of
entrained organisms.

Conventional power plants use various intake designs and technology con-
siderations for reducing organism impingement rates. Similar design con-
siderations should be made for commercial OTEC plants. OTEC intakes should
be engineered to attract the least number of organisms possible, either

4-40

through structure design, such as screening the water prior to entry into a
land-based plant's warm-water intake, or the placing intakes as far as
possible from structures that attract organisnms. Fish sense and avoid
horizontal flow fields more readily than vertical flow fields; there fore,
commercial OTEC plants may impinge fewer organisms if the resource water is
withdrawn horizontally rather than vertically, either through intake
orientation or the use of a velocity cap (Hansen, 1978). Reducing intake
flow velocities to a point at which most fish, squid, and shrimp could escape
withdrawal may further reduce organism. impingement rates. Fish-return
systems could also be used to reduce impingement losses.

4.7.3 Discharge Considerations

Significant environmental effects resulting from the discharge of warm and
cold 'water by OTEC plants include organism mortality from biocide release,
increased productivity from the upwelling of nutrient-rich waters, and sea-
surf ace temperature alterations from ocean water redistribution. The
magnitude of these environmental effects will be determined by the discharge
plume's dilution rate and stabilization depth (Sullivan and Sands, 1980b).

Plume behavior can be controlled through discharge structure design.
Plume~ temperature and density, discharge orientation, discharge velocity,
discharge depth and the number of discharge ports or diffusers can all be
modified to produce desired plume behavior (Sullivan and Sands, 1980b).
Mixing cold and warm discharges will result in a plume density between that
of warm- and cold-water discharges and cause the mixed plume to stabilize
deeper than warm-water plumes and shallower than cold-water plumes. The
plume from a discharge structure oriented vertically downward tends to
stabilize deeper than the plume from a horizontal discharge, due to the
initial downward momentum and the entrainment of denser deep water. High
discharge velocities tend to increase turbulence in the plume, increasing
mixing and dilution rates. The plume stabilization depth is influenced by
the discharge depth, and the number of discharge ports affects plume dilution
rates.

4-41

Plume stabilization below the photic zone will reduce the potential for
adverse impacts, decrease the potential of degrading the warm-water resource
downstream of the plant, and minimize sea-surface temperature alterations.
The most effective means for reducing the adverse effects of OTEC effluent
discharges is to employ biofouling control methods which do not require the
release of biocides. If biocide release is necessary to maintain heat
exchanger efficiency, designing the discharge structure to allow the
discharge plume to dilute rapidly and stabilize below the photic zone will
reduce environmental effects because:

� Phytoplankton, the organisms most sensitive to biocides, are
limited to depths receiving sufficient light for
photosynthesis, and would, therefore, not be affected.

* Chlorine degradation to potentially toxic organic compounds is
slower below the photic zone, allowing greater plume dilutions
before formation of the compounds.

� Depths below the photic zone have far fewer organisms,
commercially-important species, and ecologically-important
groups than do photic zone waters.

Discharging the effluent below the photic zone, however, also decreases the
potential for an increase in primary productivity that could result from the
release of nutrients into the photic zone. The benefits and advantages of

various discharge plume behaviors should be weighed on a site-by-site basis
to select the alternative with the least adverse impact.

4.8 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERK USE OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND MAINTENANCE

AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY

The proposed action in this EIS, the encouragement of commercial OTEC
development, is not a short-term use of the environment. Rather, it is a
long-term commitment to an energy technology which could assist im promoting
energy self-sufficiency for the United States. Commercial OTEC development

4-42

will primarily occur in tropical-subtropical communities which have an
adequate thermal resource and require a renewable, unlimited energy source
which is free from foreign control. Commercial OTEC plants may cause
environmental disturbances in the vicinity of deployment and operation sites,
but careful consideration of the environmental characteristics at candidate
OTEC sites during the design of OTEC plants will reduce the magnitude of
environmental impacts to acceptable levels and maintain the long-term

productivity of the region.

4.9 IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE RESOURCE COMMITMENT

Resources that would be irreversibly or irretrievably committed upon
implementation of the proposed action include:

� Raw materials used in the construction of commercial OTEC
plants.

* Energy in the form of- fuel required for construction,
transportation, operation, and maintenance of OTEC plants.

� Plant constituents, such as trace metals and chemical biocides,
released during normal plant operation because technology is
not adequate to recover them efficiently.

* Use of the deployment site for other purposes, and commitment
of nearby areas for plant access.

* Flora and fauna impacted by OTEC development, which may affect
commercial resources of localized areas.

4-43

Chapter 5

LIST OF PREPARERS

The preparation of the EIS was a joint effort employing members of the
scientific and technical staff of Interstate Electronics Corporation (IEC)
and the Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy (OME) of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Technical advice was provided by consul-
tants selected by IEC. The preparers of the EIS and the sections for which
they were responsible are presented in Table 5-1.

TABLE 5-1
LIST OF PREPARERS

Author Affiliation Summary Chapter Appendix
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A B C D
Principal Authors
J. R. Donat IEC X X X X X X X
S. M. Sullivan IEC X X X X X X
L. F. Martin NOAA-OME X X
E. P. Myers NOAA-OME X X
R. D. Norling NOAA-OME X X

Contributing Authors
K. D. Green IEC X X
P. D. Jepsen IEC X X X X X
C. E. Olshesky IEC X X X
J. F. Villa IEC X X X X
J. D. Ditmars ANL X
R. A. Paddock ANL X
A. M. Barnett MEC X X X
R. E. Pieper USC X X

5-1

5.1 PRINCIPAL AUTHORS

John R. Donat
Mr. Donat holds a B.S. degree in chemical oceanography and is an OTEC
Project Manager for Interstate Electronics Corporation. As a principal
author of this EIS, Mr. Donat directed the preparation of the Summary and

Chapters 1, 5, and 6, and Appendix A, contributed to Chapters 2 and 4 and
Appendix D, edited all chapters, and maintained liaison with NOAA-OME.

Mr. Donat has two years' experience in the preparation of EIS's on deep-
ocean waste disposal and spent one year assisting in the preparation of the
Draft OTEC Programmatic Environmental Assessment (EA) and the OTEC Pilot
Plant EA. Mr. Donat was the principal investigator for the EA on the pro-
posed second deployment of Mini-OTEC.

Mack Sullivan
Mr. Sullivan holds a B.S. degree in biological oceanography and is the
OTEC Program Manager for Interstate Electronics Corporation. As a princi-
pal author of this EIS, Mr. Sullivan directed the preparation of the Summary,
Chapters 3 and 4, and Appendix B and C, contributed to Chapter 2, edited all
chapters, and maintained liaison with NOAA-OME.

Mr. Sullivan has over three years' experience in OTEC-related projects and
has served in both technical and project management roles. In addition to
being a major contributor to the OTEC-1 Environmental Assessment and the
Mini-OTEC EA, he was a chapter editor for the OTEC Programmatic EA, and prin-
cipal investigator for the Environmental Assessment of OTEC Pilot Plants.
Mr. Sullivan has authored technical publications on OTEC environmental issues
and has given formal presentations at several OTEC conferences.

Lowell F. Martin
Mr. Martin holds a B.S. degree in mechanical engineering and an M.S.
degree in machine design. Mr. Martin, as the OTEC Licensing Program Manager
for NOAA-OME, provided general guidance, and contributed to the preparation
of the Summary and Chapter 2 of the EIS.

5-2

Edward P. Myers

Dr. Myers holds a Ph.D. in Environmental Engineering Science and is the
OTEC Environmental Program Manager for NOAA-OME, Dr. Myers provided
technical guidance throughout the EIS and contributed to the preparation of
the Summary and Chapter 2.

Richard D. Norling
Mr. Norling holds a B.S. degree in mathematics and B.A., M.A., and M.Phil.
degrees in political science. Mr. Norling, as the OTEC Program Coordinator
for NOAA-OME, provided general guidance, and contributed to the preparation
of the Summary and Chapter 2 of the EIS.

5.2 CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Karen Green
Ms. Green, an Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics Corporation, holds
a B.S. degree in marine biology, and is a candidate for an M.S. degree in
marine biology. Ms. Green contributed to the preparation of Appendix D and
was responsible for assessing the effects of cable/pipe implantation,
entrainment, impingement, and attraction in Chapter 4. She also edited all
chapters.

Ms. Green, has two years' experience in assessing the environmental
effects of power plant entrainment and impingement, and one year's experience
in preparing EIS's.

Peter D. Jepsen
Mr. Jepsen holds a B.S. degree in oceanography and is an Associate
Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics Corporation. Mr. Jepsen was
responsible for assessing the environmental effects of sea-surface
temperature changes, carbon dioxide release, and biocide release in Chapter
4. He also was responsible for preparing Chapter 7 and Appendix C, assisted
in the preparation of Chapter 3 and Appendix D, and edited all chapters.

Mr. Jepsen has one year's experience in preparing EIS's, and was a major
contributor to the Environmental Assessment of OTEC Pilot Plants.

5-3

Christine E. Olshesky
Ms. Olshesky holds a B.S. degree in chemical oceanography and is an
Associate Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics Corporation. Ms.
Olshesky was responsible for the preparation of the OTEC technology
description in Chapter 1 and assisted in the preparation of Chapters 5 and
7. Ms. Olshesky has one year's experience in preparing EIS's on ocean
disposal of dredged material.

Joseph F. Villa
Mr. Villa, an Associate Oceanographer with Interstate Electronics
Corporation, holds a B.A. degree in biology. Mr. Villa was responsible for
assessing the effects of trace constituent releases, protective hull-coating
releases, and nutrient redistribution in Chapter 4, and for the preparation
of Appendix A. Mr. Villa also assisted in the preparation of Chapter 3,
coordinated the publication of the EIS, and edited the art work.

Mr. Villa has three years' experience in preparing EIS's and was a major
contributor to the Environmental Assessment of OTEC Pilot Plants.

John D. Ditmars
Dr. Ditmars holds a Ph.D. degree in civil engineering and is the Director
of the Water Resources Section (Energy and Environmental Systems Division) of
Argonne National Laboratory. Dr. Ditmars has extensive experience in
modeling thermal plume dynamics, and four year's of experience in modeling
OTEC discharge plumes. Dr. Ditmars prepared the description of OTEC
discharge plume behavior in Section 4.3, Marine Effects.

Robert A. Paddock
Dr. Paddock holds a Ph.D. degree in physics and is an Environmental
Scientist in the Water Resources Section of Argonne National Laboratory. Dr.
Paddock has five year's experience modeling thermal plume dynamics, and four
years' of experience in modeling OTEC discharge plumes. Dr. Paddock prepared

the description of OTEC discharge plume behavior in Section 4.3, Marine
Effects.

5-4

Arthur M. Barnett
Dr. Barnett holds a Ph.D. degree in biological oceanography and is
president of Marine Ecological Consultants in Solana Beach, California. Dr.
Barnett edited Chapters 2, 3, and 4.

Richard E. Pieper
Dr. Pieper holds a Ph.D. degree in biological oceanography. Dr. Pieper
has been a Research Scientist at the University of Southern California's
(USC) Institute of Marine and Coastal Studies and an Associate Research

Professor in the Department of Biology at USC for the past ten years* Dr*
Pieper assisted in the preparation of Chapter 3, and edited Chapter 4.

5-5

Chapter 6

COORDINATION

In compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, NOAA
developed an Environmental Issues Discussion Document and held a public
scoping meeting prior to preparing this Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
on Commercial OTEC Development. The public scoping meeting was held 30
October 1980 in Washington, D.C., to determine the scope of issues to be
addressed in the EIS, and to identify the significant issues related to
establishing a legal regime for the commercial development of OTEC. Notice
of the scoping meeting and the availability of the discussion paper was
published on pages 63543 and 63544 of the Federal Register, September
25, 1980. Attendees of this meeting included representatives of Federal,
State, and local agencies, private industry, academic institutions, special
interest groups, and members of the general public.

This EIS has been reviewed by individuals from the Main Line Components
(MLC) of NOAA. In addition, copies of this EIS have been sent to the
following agencies and individuals for review:

AFL-CIO American Association of Port
Maritime Trades Department Authorities
Ms. Jean Ingrao, Administrator Mr. Michael J. Giari
815 - 16th Street, N.W., Suite 510 1612 K Street, N.W., Suite 502
Washington, D. C. 20006 Washington, D. C. 20006

6-1

American Bureau of Shipping Mr. Enrique Aflague
Carma Pereira Chief Commissioner
65 Broadway P. 0. Box 786
New York, New York 10006 Agana, Guam 96910

American Farm Bureau Federation American Society of Planning Officials
Mr. Bruce Hawley Devon Schneider
425 13th Street, N.W. 1313 East 60th Street
Washington, D. C. 20004 Chicago, Illinois 60637

American Fisheries Society Advisory Council on Historic Preservation
Carl R. Sullivan Ms. Katherine Raub Ridley
5410 Grosvenor Lane 1522 K Street, N. W., Suite 510
Bethesda, Maryland 20014 Washington, D. C. 20005

American Gas Association Atomic Industrial Forum
J.P. Whitman Ms. S. Nakamura
1515 Wilson Boulevard, 11th Floor 1016 16th Street, N.W. Suite 850
Arlington, Virginia 22209 Washington, D. C. 20036

American Industrial Development American Shore and Beach Preservation
Council Association
Dr. Joseph P. Furber Dr. M. P. O'Brien
1207 Grand Avenue, Suite 845 412 O'Brien Hall
Kansas City, Missouri 64106 University of California

Berkeley, California 94720

American Petroleum Institute
Mr. Steve Chamberlain Orlando Anglero
2101 L Street, Room 792 Division Head of Environmental Protection
Washington, D. C. 20037 Quality Assurance and Nuclear
Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority

American Society of Civil Engineers San Alberto Building
Mr. Orville T. Magoon Room 517
Condado Avenue
P. 0. Box 26062 CnaoAeu
Santurce, Puerto Rico 00908
San Francisco, California 94126

6-2

Boating Industry Association Center for Law and Social Policy
Jeff W. Napier Mr. James M. Barnes
401 North Michigan Avenue 1751 N Street, N.W.
Chicago, Illinois 60611 Washington, D. C. 20036

Bureau of Marine Resources Center For Natural Areas
Mr. Richard L. Leard Brian O'Sullivan
Post Office Drawer 959 1525 New Hampshire Avenue, N. W.
Long Beach, Mississippi 39560 Washington, D. C. 20036

Mr. Julio Brady Chamber of Commerce of the
Virgin Islands Federal Programs Office United States
1001 Connecticut, N. W. Mr. Jeffrey B. Conley
Washington, D. C. 1615 H Street, N.W., Room 456
Washington, D. C. 20062

Eduardo Lopez-Ballori
Conservation Foundation
Director, Office of Energy Conservation Foundation
Mr. John Clark
Apartado 41089
~~Estacion Minillas ~1717 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.
Estacion Minitlas
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936 3rd Floor
Washington, D. C. 20036

Dr. Juan A. Bonet, Jr.
Director Council of State Planning Agencies

Centro para Estudios Energeticos y Mr. Robert Wise
Ambientales de Puerto Rico 444 North Capitol Street
Caparra Heights Station Washington, D. C. 20001
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00935
Honorable Paul M. Calvo

Honorable Carlos Romero-Barcelo Governor of Guam
~~~~~Governor ~Agana, Guam 96919
Governor
La Fortaleza
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00912 The Cousteau Society
Mr. Norman Solomon
777 Third Avenue
New York, New York 10017

6-3

Honorable Peter T. Coleman Department of the Army
Governor Hr. Donald Bandel
Governor's Office 20 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W.
Government of American Samoa Room 2109 (DAEN-MTO-B)
Pago Pago, American Samoa Washington, D. C. 20314

Honorable Carlos S. Camacho Department of Justice
Governor Mr. Bruce Rashkow
Commonwealth of the Northern Chief, Marine Resources Section
Mariana Islands 9th and Pennsylvania Avenue, N. W.
Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950 Room 2644

Washington, D. C. 20530
Carribean Fishery Management Council
Suite 1108 Banco de Ponce Building Department of Agriculture
Hato Ray, Puerto Rico 00918 Mr. Warren Zitzmann

Soil Conservation Service, Room 6117
Division of Recreation and Parks
14th and Independence Avenues, N. W.
c/o Florida Department of Natural
Washington, D. C. 20013
Resources
202 Blount Street, Crown Building
Tallahassee, Florida 32301 Department of Energy
Mr. Emmett Turner

Honorable Francisco Diaz Federal Building, Room 2113 or 2109
i12th and Pennsylvania Avenues, N. W.
Mayor of Saipan
Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950 Washington, D. C. 20472

Department of Defense Department of the Interior

Mr. Francis Rohe haL&A Mr. Paul Stang
Office of Assistant Secretary PPA, Room 4144
Pentagon, Room 3D761 18th & C Streets, N. W., Room 3150
Washington, D. C. 20240
Washington, D. C. 20301

6-4

Department of Transportation Environmental Law Institute
Martin Convisser, Director Mr. Frederick Anderson, Suite 620
Office of Environment & Safety 1346 Connecticut Avenue, N. W.
Room 9422 Washington, D. C. 20036
400 7th Street, S. W.
Washington, D. C. 20590 Friends of the Earth
Elizabeth Kaplan

Department of Health and Human Services 530-7th Street, S. E.
Mr. Gerald Britten Washington, D. C. 20003
Office of Secretary Program Systems
Room 447 Mr. David Flores
200 Independence Avenue, S. W. Guam Economic Development Authority
Washington, D. C. 20201 Administrator
P. 0. Box 3280

Department of Housing and Urban Agana, Guam 96910
Development

Hr. Mel Wachs Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
Room 7262 Dr. Schuster
451 7th Street, S. W. Room 3000
Washington, D. C. 20410 825 North Capitol Street, N. E.
Washington, D. C. 20426

Department of Commerce
Mr. William H. Brennan Honorable Bob Graham
Economic Development Administration Governor
14th Constitution Avenue, Room 6001 State of Florida
Washington, D. C. 20230 The Capitol
Tallahassee, Florida 32304

Environmental Policy Center
Hs. Hlope Robertson Guam Energy Office
317 Pennsylvania Avenue, S. E. Mr. Jay Lather
Washington, D. C. 20003 Administrator
P. 0. Box 2950

Environmental Defense Fund, Inc. Agana, Guam 96910
Mr. Ed Thompson
1525 18th Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20036

6-5

Guam Environmental Protection Agency Institute for the Human Environment
Administrator Mr. Norman T. Gilroy
P. 0. Box 2999 World Affairs Center
Agana, Guam 96910 312 Sutter Street
San Francisco, California 94108
Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council
Lincoln Center, Suite 881 Interstate Natural Gas Association
5401 West Kennedy Boulevard of America
Tampa, Florida 33609 Mr. Lawrence Ogden

1660 L Street, N. W., Suite 601

General Services Administration Washington, D. C. 2036

Mr. Carl W. Penland
Mr. Hideto Kono
Public Buildings Service, Room 2329
Director
19th & F Streets, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20405 Department of Planning
and Economic Development
250 King Street
Global Marine Development
P. 0. Box 2359
Mr. Curtis Crooke
P.O. Box 3010 Honolulu, Hawaii 96804

Newport Beach, CA 92663
Honorable Juan Luis
Governor
Heritage Conservation and Recreation
United States Virgin Islands
Service
Government House
Mr. Richard Gardner
Charlotte Amalie
440 G Street, N. W.
St. Thomas, U. S. Virgin Islands
Room 215
00801
Washington, D. C. 20243
Mr. Matt Le'i
Industrial Union of Marine Acting Director
and Shipbuilding Workers of America Office of Energy
Mr. Arthur E. Batson, Jr. Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799

1126 - 16th Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20036 Legislative Council
Aitofle Sagapolu
Legislature of American Samoa
Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799

6-6

Lockheed missiles and Space Marine Mammal Commision
J.E. Wenzel Ms. Lisa Posternak
Department 57-01 1625 I Street, N. W.
Building 568 Washington, D. C. 20006
P.O. Box 504
Sunnyvale, CA 94086
National Association of

Honorable Sonny McCoy Conversation Districts
Mayor Mr. Robert E. Williams
City of Key West 1025 Vermont Avenue, N. W.
Key West, Florida 33040 Washington, D. C. 20034

Marine Technology Society National Marine Manufacturers
Ms. Annena McKnight Association
1730 M Street, N.W., Suite 412 Mr. George Rounds
Washington, D. C. 20036 Box 5555
Grand Central Station

Ms. Jennie Myers New York, New York 10017
Coast ALliance
1346 Connecticut Avenue, N. W., Room 723 National Association of Home

Washington, D. C. 20036 Builders

William J. Ehrig
Mr. Jose Marina 15th and M Streets, N. W.
Engineer Washington, D. C. 20005
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
Apartado 4267 National Association of Realtors
San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936 Mr. Joe Winkelmann
925 - 15th Street, N. W.
Maritime Administration Washington, D. C. 20005
Mr. James Carman
Office of Port and Intermodal Development National Audubon Society
Department of Commerce 1511 K Street, N. W.
Room 4888 Washington, D. C. 20005
14th and E Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20230

6-7

National Coalition for Marine National Society of Professional
Conservation, Inc. Engineers
Mr. Christopher M. Weld Donald G. Weinert, P.E.
100 Federal Street, 18th Floor Executive Director
Boston, Massachusetts 02110 2029 K Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20006

National Farmers Union,
M. Woodrow Wilson National Wildlife Federation
1012 14th Street, N.W., Room 600 Mr. Kenneth S. Kamlet
Washington, D. C. 20005 1412 16th Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20036

National Fisheries Institute
Gustave Fritschie National.Waterways Conference
1101 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. Mr. Harry N. Cook
Suite 700 1130 17th Street, N. W., Room 200
Washington, D. C. 20006 Washington, D. C. 20036

National Ocean Industries Association The Nature Conservancy
Mr. Tony Mazzaschi Hardy Wieting, Jr./Ray Culter
1100 - 17th Street, N. W., Suite 410 1800 North Kent Street
Washington, D. C. 20036 Arlington, Virginia 22209

National Recreation and Park Association Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Mr. Barry Tindall Mr. Frank Young
1601 North Kent Street Office of State Programs, Room 7512
Arlington, Virginia 22209 Maryland National Bank Building
7735 Old Georgetown Road

National Research Council Bethesda, Maryland 20014
Mr. Jack W. Boller
2101 Constitution Avenue, N. W. Honorable Dr. Herman Padilla

Washington, D. C. 20418 Alcalde
Municipio de San Juan

Natural Resources Defense Council Apartado 4355
1725 I Street, N. W., Suite 600 San Juan, Puerto Rico 00905

Washington, D. C. 20006

6-8

Ms. Ana M. Rodriguez Mr. Xalaetasi Togafau
1410 Longworth House Office Building 1709 Longworth House Office Building
Washington, D. C. 20515 Washington, D. C. 20515

Mr. Jean Romney T.R.W., Inc.
Administrator A.F. Butler
Christiansted, St. Croix, I Space Park
U. S. Virgin Islands 00820 Building 81/ 1673

Redondo Beach, CA 90278
Sierra Club
330 Pennsylvania Avenue, S. E. Urban Research and Development
Washington, D. C. 20003 Association, Inc.

Mr. Martin C. Gilchrist
Soil Conservation Society of America 528 North New Street
7515 N. E. Ankeny Road Bethlehem, Pennsylvania 18018
Ankeny, Iowa 50021
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
Sport Fishing Institute Rennie Sherman
Mr. Gil Radonski, Suite 801 20 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W.
608 - 13th Street, N. W. Room 219 (DAEN-1,1TO-B)
Washington, D. C. 20005 Washington, D. C. 20314

Sea Solar Power, Inc. U. S. Coast Guard
J. Hilbert Anderson Lt. Cmdr. Richard Lyons
President 400 - 7th Street, S. W., Room 7306
2422 South Queen Street Washington, D. C. 20590
York, Pennsylvania 17402

U. S. Department of Energy
Honorable Tommy Tanaka Lloyd Lewis
Speaker Division of Ocean Energy Systems
Guam Legislature Room 421
Agana, Guam 96910 600 E Street N. W.

Washington, D. C. 20585

6-9

U. S. Department of Energy Wildlife Management Institute
Helen McCammon, Director Wire Building, Suite 709
Ecological Research Division 1000 Vermont Avenue, U. W.
Washington, D. C. 20545 Washington, D. C. 20005

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Congressman Antonio Won Pat
William Beller (Code WH-548) 2441 Rayburn Building
Ocean Program, Room 2817 (Call) Washington, D. C. 20515
401 4 Street, S. W.
Washington, D. C. 20460 Western Pacific Fishery Management
Council

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency 1164 Bishop Street, Room 1608
Rich Walentowicz, Oceans Programs Branch Honolulu, Hawaii 96813
401 M Street, S. W.
Washington, D. C. 20460

6-10

Chapter 7

GLOSSARY, ABBREVIATIONS, AND REFERENCES

Glossary

ABUNDANCE Relative degree of plentifulness.

ACUTE EFFECT The death or incapacitation of an organism caused by
an action or a substance within a short time (normally
96 hours).

ADVECTION The process of transport of water or of an aqueous
property solely by the mass motion of the the oceans,
most typically via horizontal currents.

AESTHETICS Pertaining to the natural beauty or attractiveness of
an object or location.

AIR BUBBLE SCREEN A barrier of air bubbles designed to impede the
passage of fish.

ALUMINA Aluminum oxide (A1203)- Intermediate material in
the production of aluminum from bauxite.

AMBIENT Pertaining to the existing conditions of the
surrounding environment.

AMERTAP-BALL A slightly oversized foam rubber ball that is used to
clean heat exchanger surfaces. Such balls are
continually circulated through heat exchanger tubes to
remove slime and fouling layers.

ANTIFOULING COATING A special paint containing a toxic substance, such as
copper, used on ship hulls to prevent marine organisms
from attaching themselves.

AREA OF PARTICULAR A coastal resource area subject to serious or potential
CONCERN (ARC) use conflicts. Established under considerations
outlined in 15 CFR 923.21 (d).

ARTICULATING TOWER A tower constructed with one or more flexible joints
to absorb stress.

7-1

ASSEMBLAGE A group of organisms having a common habitat.

ASSIMILATION The conversion of nonliving matter into tissue by
living organisms.

ATMOSPHERE A unit of pressure equal to the air pressure at mean
sea level, comparable to a 760-mm column of mercury.

AUTOIGNITION The temperature at which ignition can occur spontaneously.
TEMPERATURE

BACKGROUND LEVEL The naturally occurring concentration of a substance
within an environment that has not been affected by
unnatural additions of that substance.

BALEEN WHALE A whale of the suborder Mysticeti, which feeds using
whalebone (baleen) to strain plankton.

BAR SCREEN A screen constructed of heavy gauge bars to prevent
passage of large objects.

BASELINE SURVEYS Surveys and the data collected before the initiation of
AND BASELINE DATA actions that may alter an existing environment.

BATHYMETRY The measurement of ocean depths to determine the sea
floor topography.

BATHYMETRIC GRADIENT The rate of change of depth in a body of water.

BATHYPELAGIC ZONE The biogeographic realm of the ocean lying between
depths of 1,000 and 4,000 m.

BENTHOS All marine organisms living on or in the bottom of the
sea.

BENTHIC COMMUNITY A community of organisms living on or in the bottom of
the sea.

BILLFISH A fish, such as a marlin, with long slender jaws.

BIOACCUMULATION The uptake and assimilation of substances, such as
heavy metals, leading to a concentration of these
substances within organism tissues.

BIOCIDE A substance capable of destroying living organisms.

BIODEGRADABLE Capable of being broken down especially into innocuous
products, by the action of living organisms, such as
microorganisms.

BIOFOULING The adhesion of various marine organisms to underwater
structures.

7-2

BIOTA Collectively, the plants and animals of a region.

BIOTIC Pertaining to life and living organisms.

BIOTIC GROUPS Organisms that are ecologically, structurally, or
taxonomically grouped.

BIOMASS The weight of living matter, including stored food,
present in a population, expressed in terms of a given
area or volume of water or habitat.

BLOOM A relatively high concentration of phytoplankton in a
body of water, resulting from rapid proliferation
during a time of favorable growing conditions
generated by nutrient and sunlight availability.

BOTTOM-RESTING TOWER An OTEC plant design in which the plant is placed on a
tower that rests on the ocean bottom at a depth of
300 m or less.

BREEDING GROUND An area used by animals to produce or bring forth
their young.

BRITISH THERMAL A unit of heat energy that is equal to 2.93 x 10-4 kWh.
UNIT (BTU)

CANDIDATE SITES Specific areas being considered for OTEC deployment.

CARANGID Any of the large Carangidae family of marine
spiny-finned fishes. Includes important food fishes
such as jacks, pompanoes, and yellowtail.

CARBON FIXATION Process by which primary producers (phytoplankton)
absorb inorganic carbon for production of energy
during photosynthesis.

CARNIVOROUS Subsiding or feeding on animal tissues.

CENTERLINE DILUTION Dilution that occurs along the center of a plume.

CENTIGRADE DEGREE Unit of thermometric scale on which the interval
between the freezing point and boiling point of water
is divided into 100 degrees with 0o representing the
freezing point and 1000 the boiling point; alsd
called Celsius degree.

7-3

CHAETOGNATH A phylum of small plank-
tonic, transparent, worm-
like invertebrates also
known as arrow-worms;
they are often used as 2am
water-mass tracers.

CHLOROPHYLL A group of green plant pigments that function as
photoreceptors of light energy for photosynthesis.

CHLOROPHYLL a A pigment used in photosynthesis that serves as a
convenient measure of phytoplankton biomass.

CHRONIC EFFECT A sublethal effect of a substance on an organism which
reduces the survivorship of that organism after a long
period of exposure to the substance.

CLOSED-CYCLE SYSTEM An OTEC power cycle in which the working fluid does
not enter or leave the system but is continuously
recycled.

CLUPEID Any of the large family Clupeidae of soft-finned bony
fishes having a laterally compressed body and a forked
tail, such as herring and pilchard.

COASTAL ZONE The region, which extends seaward and inland from the
shoreline, and that is significantly influenced by
both marine and terrestrial processes.

COLD-WATER PIPE That component of the OTEC plant through which cold
water is drawn, it extends to about 1000 m depth.

COMPENSATION DEPTH The depth at which oxygen production by photosynthesis
equals that consumed by phytoplankton respiration
during a 24-hour period.

CONDENSER The portion of a heat exchanger that conducts heat
from the gaseous working fluid to the cold water
system. In this process the vapor is changed, or
condensed, from a gas to a liquid.

CONDUIT A channel through which a material is transported.

CONTIGUOUS ZONE An area of the high seas adjacent to a State's terri-
torial sea, in which the State may exercise the
control necessary to prevent infringement of the
customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary regulations
within its territory or territorial sea. This zone
extends 12 nmi from the baseline from which the terri-
torial sea is measured. The zone is part of the high

7-4

seas, and the Coastal State exercises no sovereignty
over these waters other than to the extent covered by
the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the
Contiguous Zone.

CONTINENTAL MARGIN The zone separating the emergent continents from the
deep sea floor; generally consists of the Continental
Shelf, Continental Slope, and Continental Rise.

CONTINENTAL RISE A gentle slope with a generally smooth surface between
the Continental Slope and the deep ocean floor.

CONTINENTAL SHELF That part of the Continental Margin adjacent to a
continent extending from the low water line to a
depth, generally 200 m, where the Continental Shelf
and the Continental Slope join.

CONTJINENTAL SLOPE That part of the Continental Margin consisting of the
declivity from the edge of the Continental Shelf down
to the Continental Rise.

COPEPODS A large diverse group of small 4mm
planktonic crustaceans, mostly
between 0.5 and 10 mm in length,
representing an important link
in marine food chains.

CORROSION The gradual erosion of a surface, especially by
chemical means.

CRITICAL-TEMPERATURE The vapor pressure of a substance when the liquid
PRESSURE and gas phases are in equilibrium.

CRUSTACEANS Animals with jointed appendages and a segmented
external skeleton composed of a hard shell. The group
includes barnacles, crabs, shrimps, and lobsters.

CRYOLITE A mineral, Na3AIF6, used in the reduction of
aluminum ore.

CUMULATIVE IMPACT Impact resulting from the additive effect of
individually harmless or less harmful factors.

CURRENT DRAG Resistance caused by the friction of a fluid moving
past a stationary body.

CURRENT SHEAR The measure of the rate of change of current velocity
with distance. A shear force caused by current
action, see SHEAR FORCE.

7-5

DECIBEL (db) In the measurement of sound intensity, a unit for
describing the ratio of two intensities, or the ratio
of an intensity to a reference intensity.

DECOMPOSER An organism, such as bacteria, which converts the
bodies or excreta of other organisms into simpler
substances.

DEEP SOUND CHANNEL A region in the water column in which sound velocity
reaches a minimum value. Above this region, sound
rays are bent downward, below it, they are bent
upward; the sound rays are consequently channeled into
this region. Sound traveling in this channel can be
detected thousands of miles from the sound source.

DELTA t Difference in temperature between ocean depths.

DEMERSAL Living on or near the bottom of the sea.

DENSITY The mass per unit volume of a substance.

DESALINATION The process of removing salts from seawater.

DIATOMS Microscopic phytoplankton characterized by a cell wall
of overlapping silica plates. Populations in the
water column and in sediments vary widely in response
to changes in environmental conditions.

40jum
80 Am

150JIm

DIEL CYCLE Pertaining to, or occurring within, a 24-hour cycle.

DIEL MIGRATION The cyclical pattern of vertical migration that occurs
within a 24-hour period. Usually, organisms that
display this pattern migrate toward the surface during
the night and away from the surface during the day.

DIFFUSER The section of discharge pipe that is modified,
usually through the addition of numerous ports or
holes, to promote rapid mixing of the discharge with
the ambient waters.

7-6

DIFFUSION Transfer of material (e.g. salt) or a property (e.g.
temperature) by eddies or molecular movement.
Diffusion causes dissemination of matter under the
influence of a concentration gradient, with movement
from the stronger to the weaker solution.

DILUTION A reduction in concentration through the addition of
ambient waters. Expressed as the ratio of the sum of
the volumes of ambient water plus plume water to the
volume of plume water. A dilution of 5 indicates

4 parts ambient water + I part plume water
I part plume water

DINOFLAGELLATES A large diverse group of phytoplankton with whip-like
appendages, with or without a rigid outer shell, some
of which feed on particulate matter. Some members of
this group are responsible for toxic red-tides.

DISCHARGE FIELD An area of the water column into which a fluid is
discharged.

DISCHARGE PLUME The fluid volume, released from the discharge pipe,
which is distinguishable from the surrounding water.

DISCHARGE PORT The opening through which fluid is released to the
environment.

DISPERSION Dissemination of discharged water over large areas by
the natural processes of ocean turbulence and ocean
advection.

DISSOLVED OXYGEN The quantity of oxygen (expressed in mg liter-1, ml
liter-1, or parts per million) dissolved in a unit
volume of water. Dissolved oxygen is a key parameter
in the assessment of water quality.

7-7

DIVERSITY A measure of the variety of species in a community
that takes into account the relative abundance of each
species.

DOLPHIN Either of two active pelagic food fishes of the genus
Cor'yphaena (suborder Percoidea) of tropical and
temperature seas. Any of various small toothed whales
of the family Delphinidae.

DOWNWELLING A downward movement of water generally caused by
converging currents or the higher density of a water
mass relative to the surrounding water.

DRY WEIGHT The weight of a sample of material or organisms after
all water has been removed; a measure of biomass when
applied to organisms.

ECOSYSTEM Au ecological community considered as a unit together
with its physical environment.

EDDY A circular mass of water within a larger water mass
that is usually formed where currents pass obstruc-
tions, where two adjacent currents flow counter to
each other, or along the edge of a permanent current.
An eddy has a certain integrity and life history,
circulating and drawing energy from a flow of larger
scale.

EFFLUENT In this case, a liquid discharged from an OTEC plant
that has thermal or chemical properties that differ
from the ambient water.

EFFLUX An action or process of flowing out; effluent.

ELECTRICAL GRID Network of conductors for distribution of electric
powers

ELECTROLYSIS The process of chemical changes effected by passage of
an electric current through a nonmetallic electric
conductor.

ELECTROLYTIC Reduction through electrolysis.
REDUCTION

7-8

ENDANGERED SPECIES Any species which is in danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of its range
other than a species of the class Insecta determined
by the Secretary of the Interior to constitute a pest
whose protection under the Endangered Species Act
would present an overwhelming and overriding risk to
man. (Endangered Species Act of 1973, PL 93-205).

ENHANCED HEAT Heat exchanger with increased surface area, either by
EXCHANGER addition of fins or surface coating.

ENDEMIC Restricted or peculiar to a locality or region.

ENERGY INTENSIVE Material, such as aluminum and ammonia, which requires
PRODUCTS large amounts of energy to produce.

ENTRAINMENT The process by which organisms are drawn into the
intake pipes of an OTEC plant; the process by which
ambient waters are mixed with the discharge plume.

EPIPELAGIC Of, or pertaining to that portion of the oceanic zone
extending from the surface to a depth of about 200m.

EUPHAUSIID Shrimp-like, planktonic 10m
crustaceans which are
widely distributed in
oceanic and coastal waters,
especially in cold waters.
These organisms, also known
as krill, are an important
link in the oceanic food
chain.

EVAPORATOR The chamber in which the working fluid is vaporized
prior to passing through the turbine.

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC An area, established by the Third United Nations
ZONE (EEZ) Conference on the Law of the Sea, which extends
seaward to a distance of 200 nmi from the baseline
from which the breadth of the territorial sea is
measured, in which the bordering country has exclusive
rights to the natural resources of the seabed and the
subsoil of the continental shelf. The EEZ has not
been adopted by the U.S. Congress.

FACILITY A structure that is built, installed, or established
to serve a particular service (e.g. an electricity
generating facility).

7-9

FAR FIELD The region where natural ocean processes become the
dominant factors in the mixing of discharge waters.

FAUNA The animal population of a particular location,
region, or period.

FEDERAL ACTION Actions which include: (1) recommendations on
legislation by Federal agencies, (2) projects and
activities directly undertaken, supported or otherwise
approved by Federal agencies, and (3) the
establishment or modification of Federal regulations,
rules, procedures, and policy. Fully defined in 40
CFR 1500.5.

FILE FISH Fish of the order Plectognathi with rough granular
leathery skins (genera Aluterus, Cantherhines, and
Monacanthus).

FIN WHALE A whale of the suborder Mysticeti, genus Balaenoptera
physaZus:

FLAGELLATE An organism with one or more whip-like locomotory
organelles. A protozoan of the class Mastigophora.

FLASH POINT The lowest temperature at which vapors from a volatile
liquid will ignite upon the application of a small
flame.

FLOATING DOCK A form of dry dock which can be partially submerged by
controlled flooding to receive a vessel, then raised
by pumping out water so that the vessel's bottom can
be exposed.

FLORA The plant population of a particular location, region,
or period.

FLOW FIELD The velocity and density of a fluid as functions of
distance and time.

FOOD CHAIN A group of organisms involved in the transfer of
energy from its primary source to herbivores and
finally to carnivores and decomposers.

FOOD WEB A complex pattern of several interlocking food chains
in a complex community, or between several communities.

FOSSIL FUELS Fuel ultimately derived from living organisms of a
past geologic age.

7-10

FRACTIONAL The process of separating components of a mixture
DISTILLATION through differences in physical or chemical properties.

GALVANIC CORROSION The corrosion, above -normal corrosion of a metal,
associated with the flow of electric current to a less
active metal in the same solution and in contact with
the more active metal.

GELATINOUS ORGANISMS Generally, the large organisms composed of a- jellylike
substance, including the cnidarians, salps, and
ctenophores.

GENERIC Relating to, or characteristic of, a whole group or
class.

GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS A geologic condition that poses a potential danger to
life and property, such as earthquake, mudf low, or
faulting.

GIGAWATT ELECTRIC One billion (109) watts, or 1,000 MWe, of electric
(We) power.

GRADIENT The change in value of a quantity with change in a
given variable, such as distance (e.g. change in
temperature with depth).

GRAVING DOCK A form of dry dock, consisting of an artificial basin
fitted with a gate, into which a vessel can be floated
and water pumped out to expose the vessel's bottom.

GRAZING The feeding of zooplankton upon phytoplankton. In
relation to OTEC, refers to plantships that travel
through an area to exploit optimum thermal resources.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT War-Ming of the earth's surface and lower layers of the
atmosphere that tends to increase with increasing
atmospheric carbon dioxide and is caused by the
selective transmission, reradiation, and absorption
of solar radiation.

GROUNhD CREEP A slow, more or less continuous, downward and outward
movement of slope-forming soil or rock; slow deforma-
tion resulting from long application of a stress.

GUY A rope, chain, or rod attached to something as a brace.

GUYED TOWERS A tower supported by a guy.

HABITAT A place or type of site where an organism normally
lives or where individuals of a population live.

HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE A substance listed by the EPA in the Clean Water Act
as a hazardous substance (Section 311(b) (2)).

7-11

HEAT EXCHANGER A material (usually metal) with a high coefficient of
thermal conductivity which is used to exchange heat
between the working fluid and the heat source or sink.

HEAVY METALS OR Elements that possess a specific gravity of 5.0 or
ELEMENTS greater.

HERBIVOROUS Feeding or subsisting principally or entirely on
plants or plant products.

HERTZ (Hz) A unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.

HIGH SEAS The open sea beyond and adjacent to the territorial
sea, which is subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of
no one nation. May include the contiguous zone. Also
an informally defined oceanic region, see OCEANIC.

HOLOPLANKTON Organisms that spend their complete life cycle as
plankton.

HUMAN ENVIRONMENT All the factors, forces, or conditions that affect or
influence the growth and development or the life of
humans.

HURRICANE A cyclonic storm, usually of tropical origin, covering
an extensive area and containing winds of 120
kilometers per hour or greater.

HYDRAULIC TURBINE A rotary engine actuated by the impulse of a current
of water.

HYPOBROMOUS ACID An acid, HOBr, which forms very quickly upon the
addition of chlorine to seawater.

ICHTHYOPLANKTON Fish eggs and weakly motile fish larvae.

IMPINGEMENT A situation in which an organism is forced against a
barrier, such as an intake screen, as a result of the
intake of water into a facility such as a powerplant.

INDIGENOUS Having originated in and being produced, growing, or
living naturally in a particular region or environment.

INITIAL MIXING The dispersion or diffusion of liquid, suspended-
particulate, and solid phases of a material, which
occurs immediately after relase. This type of mixing
occurs in the near-field zone.

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS Compounds not containing carbon.

7-12

IN SITU In the natural or original position; pertaining to
samples taken directly from the environment in which
they occur.

INVERTEBRATES Animals without backbones.

ION An electrically charged group of atoms, either
negative or positive.

JET A forceful stream of liquid or gas discharged from a
narrow opening.

JUVENILE A young individual resembling an adult of its kind
except in size and reproductive activity.

KILOWATT ELECTRIC One thousand (103) watts of electric power.
(kWe)

KILOWATT HOUR A unit of energy used in electrical measurement equal
(kWh) to energy converted or consumed at a rate of 1,000
watts during a 1-hour period.

LAND-BASED DESIGN An OTEC design in which the plant is built on land,
with the intake and discharge pipes projecting into
the water.

LANTERNFISH Any of the family Myctophidae of bony fish which bear
individual light organs over the sides of the body.
Commonly found in the mid-water region of the
subtropical and tropical ocean.

acm

LARVA A young and immature form of an organism that must
usually undergo one or more form and size changes
before assuming characteristic features of the adult.

LEGAL REGIME Management program based upon legal guidelines.

LETHAL Capable of causing death.

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE A type of concrete made with a lightweight inert
material. Used to make structures of low weight and
high insulation.

7-13

LIQUEFACTION The process of making or becoming liquid.

MACROZOOPLANKTON Zooplanktonic organisms with lengths between 200 and
2,000 microns, composed mainly of copepods,
chaetognaths, and fish larvae.

MACROPHYTOPLANKTON Phytoplanktonic organisms with lengths between 200 and
2,000 microns.

MACROFOULING Sessile organisms, visible to the naked eye, which
ORGANISMS affix themselves to structures exposed to seawater
(e.g. barnacles, mussels, and sea anemones).

M.A.N.TM BRUSHES Machinefactory Augsburg-Nurenberg brushes that travel
through heat-exchanger tubes for removal of micro-
fouling organisms.

MARINE Pertaining to the sea.

MEGAWATT ELECTRIC One million (106) watts of electric power.
(MWe)

MEGAWATT HOUR (MWH) One thousand (103) kilowatt hours. See kilowatt
hour.

MEGAZOOPLANKTON Zooplanktonic organisms with lengths greater than
2,000 microns, includes euphausiids, and large
copepods and chaetognaths.

MEROPLANKTON Organisms that spend only a portion of their life
cycle as plankton; usually composed of floating
developmental stages (i.e., eggs and larvae) of
benthic and nektonic organisms. Also known as
temporary plankton.

MESOPELAGIC Relating to the oceanic depths between 200 m and
1,000 m.

METEOROLOGICAL Relating to the atmosphere and its phenomena,
especially to weather and weather forecasting.

METRIC TON A unit of weight equal to 1,000 kg or about 2200
pounds.

MICROCLIMATE The essentially uniform local climate of a small site
or habitat.

MICROFOULING Organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye
ORGANISMS which accumulate on the hull of a structure exposed to
seawater and appear as a slime film.

7-14

MICROGRAM (pg) A unit of mass equal to one millionth (10-6) of a
gram.

MICROGRAM-ATOM Mass of an element numerically equal to its atomic
(Vg-at) weight (in grams) divided by 106.

MICROMETER A unit of length equal to one millionth (10-6) of a
meter.

MICRON See MICROMETER.

MICRONEKTON Small weak-swimming nekton such as mesopelagic fish,
small squid, gelatinous organisms, and fish larvae.

MICRO-ORGANISMS Microscopic organisms, including bacteria, protozoans,
fungi, viruses, and algae.

MICROZOOPLANKTON Planktonic animals with lengths between 20 and 200
microns, composed mainly of protozoans and juvenile
copepods.

MIGRATORY ORGANISM Organism that peridically moves from one locality to
another.

MINI-OTEC A modified barge designed to demonstrate the technical
feasibility of OTEC power and to provide design,
fabrication, and operation experience.

MITIGATE To make less severe.

MIXED LAYER The upper level of the ocean that is well mixed by
wind and wave activity. Within this layer, tempera-
ture, salinity, and nutrient concentration values are
essentially homogeneous with depth.

MODULAR Of, relating to, or based on, any of a series of
standardized units for use together.

MOLE That amount of substance containing the same number of
atoms as exactly 12 g of pure carbon-12. The mass in
grams of a mole of a substance is equal to the atomic
or molecular weight.

MONITORING As considered herein, the observation of environmental
effects of OTEC operations through biological,
physical and chemical data collection and analyses.

MOORED PLANTSHIP An OTEC plantship moored on the water by single- or
multiple-anchor systems.

7-15

MORTALITY The death of individuals of a population.

MOTILE Exhibiting or capable of spontaneous movement.

MULTIPLICATIVE Tending or having the power to increase greatly in
numbers.

NANNOPLANKTON Minute planktonic plants and animals that are 50
microns or less in size and include algae, bacteria,
and protozoans. Individuals of this size will pass
through most nets and are usually collected in
centrifuges.

NEAR FIELD The region in which the plume momentum is the dominant
factor controlling entrainment and mixing of the plume
with the ambient receiving waters.

NEARSHORE ZONE The zone extending seaward from the shore to a
distance where the water column is under minimal
influence from continental conditions.

NEKTON Free-swimming aquatic animals, essentially moving
independent of water movements.

NERITIC Pertaining to the region of shallow water adjoining
the seacoast and extending from the low-tide mark to a
depth of about 200 m.

NET ENERGY Energy output from generating system after deduction
of energy involved in system operation.

NET POWER Total power remaining after deduction of power
required for system operation.

NEUROTOXIN A poisonous protein complex that acts on the nervous
system.

NONCONVENTIONAL A pollutant not listed by the EPA in the Clean Water
POLLUTANT Act as a toxic pollutant (Section 307 (a) (1)) or a
conventional pollutant (Section 304 (b) (4)).

NONRENEWABLE FUELS Fuels, such as fossil fuels, which are regenerated at
a slower rate than they are consumed, or which cannot
be regenerated.

NONTARGET PLANKTON Plankton, usually outside the generating plant, toward
which biofouling control methods are not expressly
directed.

7-16

NUISANCE SPECIES Organisms of no commercial value, which, because of
predation or competition, may be harmful to commer-
cially important organisms.

NURSERY A protected area where the larval and juvenile stages
of organisms can feed and develop.

NUTRIENT Any substance that promotes growth or provides energy
for biological processes.

OCEANIC The portion of the pelagic zone seaward from the
approximate edge of the continental shelf.

OFFSHORE ZONE A region in which physical properties are influenced
only slightly by continental conditions.

OIL TRACT A parcel of land designated by the U.S. Department of
the Interior for exploration and recovery of oil
resources.

ONE-HUNDRED YEAR The most severe storm expected to occur in a one
STORM hundred year period.

ONE-PERCENT LIGHT The depth at which light has been attenuated to 1%
PENERATION DEPTH of its surface value, used to define the photic zone,
that depth above which net productivity of phytoplank-
ton can occur.

OPEN-CYCLE SYSTEM An OTEC power system in which both coolant and working
fluid are seawater and pass through the plant only
once before being discharged.

OPERATING CONDITIONS The maximum values of winds, waves, or currents below
which an OTEC plant is able to operate.

OPERATIONAL SITE Location of an operating OTEC plant.

ORGANIC COMPOUND A compound containing carbon.

ORGANOHALOGEN A molecule containing a carbon-halogen linkage.

ORTHO-PHOSPHATE One of the possible salts of orthophosphoric acid; one
of the components in seawater of fundamental
importance to the growth of marine phytoplankton.

OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion.

OTEC-1 A 1-MWe OTEC test platform that is presently testing
power system designs, materials, and cleaning methods
at Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii.

7-17

OUTGASSING Removal of gasses from a material or space.

OXIDANT SPECIES An atom, molecule, or ion that is capable of per-
forming as an oxidizing agent.

OXIDATION Thie combination of a substance with oxygen; a reaction
in which the atoms in an element lose electrons and
the valence of the element is correspondingly
increased. Examples of oxidation are the rusting of
iron, the burning of wood in air, and the decay of
animal and plant material.

OXYGEN MININUM LAYER A subsurface layer in the water column in which the
concentration of dissolved oxygen is lower than in the
layers above or below.

PARAMETERS Any of a set of arbitrary physical properties whose
values determine the characteristics or behavior of
something (e.g., temperature, pressure and density); a
characteristic element.

PARTIALLY EVACUATED Having a partial vacuum.

PARTS PER THOUSAND A unit of concentration of a mixture that denotes the
(ppt, 0/00) number of parts of a constituent contained per
thousand parts of the entire mixture (e.g., gkg1
ml liter -1). For example, the average salinity of
sea water is usually reported to be 35 0/00,
indicating 35 parts total salts per 1,000 parts sea-
water (including the salts).

PELAGIC Pertaining to the open sea or organisms not associated
with the bottom.

PENSTOCK A sluice or gate for regulating a flow. A conduit or
pipe for conducting water.

PHOTIC ZONE The layer of the ocean from the surface to the depth
where light has been attenuated to 1% of the surface
value. The zone in which primary production shows a
net increase.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS Synthesis by chlorophyll-containing plant cells of
organic compounds from carbon dioxide and a hydrogen
source, with simultaneous liberation of oxygen.

PHYTOPLANKTON Mostly microscopic passively floating plant life of-a
body of water; the base of the food chain in the sea.

7-18

PISCIVORES Organisms which feed or subsist principally or
entirely on fish.

PLANKTIVORES Organisms which feed or subsist principally or
entirely on plankton.

PLANKTON Organisms whose movements are determined by the
currents and not by their own locomotive abilities.

PLANT(S) The land, building, machinery, apparatus, and fixtures
employed in carrying on a trade or an industrial
business (e.g. an OTEC plant).

PLANTSHIP An OTEC plant situated on a floating self-propelled
platform that also contains facilities for the
manufacture of an energy-intensive product.

PLUME See DISCHARGE PLUME.

PLUME DYNAMICS The motion of a plume under the influence of forces
which originate outside the plume. That branch of
fluid mechanics which deals with the motion of a plume
under the influence of outside forces.

POINT SOURCE A source having a definite position but no extension
in space; this is an ideal that is a good approxima-
tion for distances from the source that are large
compared to the dimensions of the source.

POMACENTRID Tropical fishes, 5 to 25 cm long, of the family
Pomacentridae, also called damselfish.

POPULATION DYNAMICS The sequence of population changes characteristic of
particular organisms. The study of population change.

POTENTIAL IMPACT Impact resulting from an accident, such as the
accidental release of working fluid.

POWER GRID See ELECTRICAL GRID.

POWER SYSTEM The power-producing portion of a generating plant
(e.g., turbine and working fluid system).

PREDATOR An animal that procures food primarily through the
killing and consuming of other animals.

PRIMARY PRODUCTION The amount of organic matter synthesized by organisms
from inorganic substances per unit time and unit
volume of water, or in a column of water of unit area
extending from the surface to the bottom.

7-19

PROTOZOA Mostly microscopic, single-celled animals which
constitute one of the largest populations in the
ocean. Protozoans play a major role in the recycling
of nutrients.

REACTIVITY The tendency of a substance to combine (react) with
another substance.

RECRUITMENT Increase in a population through the addition of new
individuals.

RECRUITMENT STOCK That portion of a population from which recruitment
can occur.

RED TIDE A red or reddish-brown discoloration of surface waters
most frequently found in coastal regions, caused by
high concentrations of dinoflagellates.

REFERENCE OR The volume of water that may be potentially affected
AFFECTED WATER by OTEC operation.
COLUMN

RENEWABLE ENERGY Energy derived from a source that is quickly
regenerated.

RESIDUAL CHLORINE See TOTAL RESIDUAL CHLORINE.

RESPIRATION The interchange of gases between an organism and its
environment. The liberation of energy within, and its
utilization by, a cell, also called internal
respiration,

RESPIRATORY SURFACE The tissue of an organism that is used for the inter-
change of gases between the organism and its environ-
ment.

SALINITY The amount of dissolved salts in seawater measured in
grams per kilogram, or parts per thousand.

SALT Any substance that yields ions other than hydrogen or
hydroxyl ions. Obtained by displacing the hydrogen of
an acid by a metal.

SARGASSUM SHRIMP A shrimp of the species Latreutus fucorum.

SAURY A billfish of the species Scomberesox saurus (family
Belonidae). It is distributed worldwide in temperate
and warm seas.

7-20

SCOMBROID Any of the suborder Scombroidea of marine spiny
fishes, such as mackarels, tunas, and albacores, of
great economic importance as food fishes.

SCRUBBER A device for the removal or washing out of entrained
fluid droplets, dust, or undesired gas components.

SEA BED See SEA FLOOR.

SEA FLOOR The bottom of the ocean.

SEA STATE The numerical or written description of wind-generated
waves on the surface of the sea, ranging from 1
(smooth) to 8 (mountainous).

SERIOLA SPP. A large vigorous sport fish of the family Carangidae.
Commonly called amberjack. See CARANGID.

SHEAR FORCES Applied forces that cause or tend to cause two
adjacent parts of a substance to move relative to each
other in a direction parallel to their plane of
contact.

SHELLFISH Any invertebrate, usually of commercial importance,
having a rigid outer covering, such as a shell or
exoskeleton, includes some molluscs and arthropods.
Term is the counterpart of finfish.

SHORELINE The boundary between a body of water and the land at
high tide.

SIGNAL A detectable physical quantity or impulse by which
messages or information can be transmitted.

SLIDE The descent of a mass of earth or rock down a slope.

SLOPE The angle at which an inclined surface deviates from
the horizontal. Any portion of the earth's surface
that deviates from the horizontal.

SOFAR An acronym derived from the expression "sound fixing
and ranging". See DEEP SOUND CHANNEL.

SPAR A long, thin, typically cylindrical structure
ballasted at one end so that it floats in an
approximately vertical position.

SPAR BUOY RISER An independently moored, retrievable pipe that is
buoyant, allowing connection to the mother ship.

7-21

SPAWNING GROUND An area used by aquatic animals for the release of
sperm and eggs.

SPECIES A group of organisms having similar characteristics
and capable of interbreeding and producing viable
offspring. A taxon forming basic taxonomic groups
that closely resemble each other structurally and
physiologically and, in nature, interbreed and produce
fertile offspring.

SPONSON Any structure projecting from the side of a ship or
hull.

STABILIZATION DEPTH The depth at which a mass of water will neither rise
nor sink.

STANDING STOCK The biomass or abundance of living material per unit
volume or area.

STATIC SCREENS Intake screens that are fixed in position.

STRESSED A state caused by factors that tend to alter an
existent equilibrium or normal state.

STRUMMING The establishment of transverse vibrations in a cable
with fixed endpoints, usually caused by current or
wind.

SUBLETHAL Less than lethal, injurious but not fatal.

SUBSTRATE The solid material upon which an organism lives, or to
which it is attached (e.g., rocks, sand).

SUMVP A pit or reservoir serving as a drain or receptacle
for liquids.

SURFACTANT A soluble compound that reduces the surface tension of
a liquid or reduces interfacial tension between two
liquids or a liquid and a solid. It often works
through the production of a liquid foam.

SURVEILLANCE Systematic observation of an area by visual,
electronic, photographic, or other means for the
purpose of ensuring compliance with applicable laws,
regulations, permits, and safety regulations.

SURVIVAL CONDITIONS The maximum intensities of winds, waves, and currents
that a structure can endure without sustaining
permanent damage.

7-22

SUSPENDED SOLIDS Finely divided particles of a solid temporarily
suspended in a liquid (e.g., sediment particles in
water), expressed as a weight per unit volume.

SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS Effects capable of acting in synergism.

SYNERGISM The interaction between two or more effects to produce
an effect greater than the sum of the individual
effects.

SQUID Any of numerous 10-armed cephalopods having a long
tapered body, a caudal fin on each side, and usually a
slender internal chitonous support (especially genus
Loligo and Ommstrephes).

26cm

TAXA Two or more of a hierarchy of levels in the biological
classification of organisms.

TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION The distribution of a parameter over a period of time.

TERRIGENOUS Produced of or from land.

TERRITORIAL SEA The area of the ocean bordering a nation over which it
has exclusive jurisdiction except for the right of
innocent passage of foreign vessels. Its seaward
limit is less than or equal to 12 nmi. The United
States has traditionally claimed 3 nmi, with the
exception of Puerto Rico, which claims 10.8 nmi, and
Florida and Texas, which claim 9 nmi in the Gulf of
Mexico.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY The heat flow across a surface per unit area per unit
time, divided by the negative of the rate of change of
temperature with distance in a direction perpendicular
to the surface.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY The ratio of the work done by a heat engine to the
heat energy absorbed by it.

THERMAL GRADIENT The change in temperature with a change in distance,
usually depth.

7-23

THERMAL RESOURCE The source of temperature differential required for
OTEC operation. A temperature differential of 200C
between surface waters and 1,000 m is usually
considered an adequate thermal resource. A good
thermal resource has a strong temperature gradient and
a well established thermocline, and consequently is
not easily depleted.

THERMAL SHOCK A state of profound depression of an organism's vital
processes induced by an abrupt change in ambient
temperature.

THERMOCLINE The region of the water column where temperature
changes most rapidly with depth.

THERMOPLASTIC PAINT Paint that is capable of softening or fusing when
heated and of hardening again when cooled.

THREATENED SPECIES Any species which is likely to become an endangered
species within the foreseeable future throughout all
or a significant portion of its range. (Endangered
Species Act of 1973, P.L. 93-205).

TISSUE An aggregate of cells, usually of a particular kind,
together with their intercellular substance, that form
one of the structural materials of a plant or animal.

TOTAL RESIDUAL The summation of the concentrations of various chlorine
CHLORINE (TRC) compounds in water, including hypochlorous acid, hypo-
chiorite ion, chloramines, and other chlorine
derivatives.

TOXICITY The degree to which a substance is poisonous to an
organism.

TOXICITY STUDY The addition of a specific pollutant to a sample of
natural waters containing a number of test organisms
to determine the toxicity of the pollutant to the
organisms.

TOXIC POLLUTANT A pollutant listed by the EPA in the Clean Water Act
as a toxic pollutant (section 307(a)(11)).

TRACE CONSITITUENT An element or compound found in the environment in
extremely small quantities.

TRACE METAL OR An element found in the environment in extremely small
ELEMENT quantities; usually includes metals constituting 0.1%
(1,000 ppm) or less, by weight, in the earth's crust.

7-24

TRADE WINDS The wind system that occupies most of the tropics,
generally blowing from the subtropical highs towards
the equatorial trough. The winds are northeasterly in
the Northern Hemisphere and southeasterly in the
Southern Hemisphere.

TRAVELING SCREEN Mesh screen attached to an OTEC plant intake to
prevent the intake of materials that could clog the
heat exchangers.

TROPHIC LEVELS Discrete steps along a food chain in which energy -is
transferred from the primary producers (plants) to
herbivores and finally to carnivores and decomposers.

TROPICAL CYCLONE A type of atmospheric disturbance, originating between
250 north and south latitudes, characterized by
masses of air rapidly circulating (clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere) around a low-pressure centers
Tropical cyclones are usually accompanied by stormy,
often destructive, weather.

TSUNAMI A long period sea wave produced by a submarine
earthquake or volcanic eruption.

TUNA Any of numerous large vigorous scombroid food and
sport fishes. See SCOMBROID.

TURBIDITY A reduction in transparency, as in seawater, caused by
suspended particulate such as sediments or plankton.

TURBINE A rotary engine actuated by the reaction or impulse,
or both, of a current of fluid or vapor subject to
pressures

TURBULENT DIFFUSION The transfer of matter by turbulent eddies in a fluid.

TURBULENT EDDY An eddy in which the instantaneous velocities exhibit
irregular and apparently random fluctuations.

TURNOVER RATE The time necessary to completely replace the standing
stock of a population; generation time.

UPWELLING The rising of water toward the surface from subsurface
layers of a body of water. Upwelling is most promi-
nent where persistent winds blow parallel to a coast-
line so that the resultant water current sets away
from the coast. The upwelled water, besides being
cooler, is rich in nutrients, so that upwelling
regions generally have rich fisheries.

7-25

ULTRASONIC Having a f requency higher than the human ear's audi-
bility limit of about 20,000 cycles per second.

UTILITY CORRIDOR A strip of land designated for the transfer of a
public utility.

UTILITY TERMIN~US Either end of a utility distribution system.

VACUUM A space in which the pressure is so f ar below normal
atmospheric pressure that the remaining gases do not
affect processes being carried on.

VAORIZE The conversion of a substance from liquid or solid
state to a vapor state by the application of heat,
reduction of pressure, or both.

VAPOR PRESSURE The pressure exerted by the molecules of a given vapor.

VELOCITY CAP Restriction plate placed over intake ports to change
direction and velocity of inflow.

VERTICAL. DISTRIBUTION The frequency of occurrence over an area in the
vertical plane.

WARN-WATER PIPE That component of the OTEC plant through which the
warm surface water used to vaporize the working fluid
is drawn.

WATCH CIRCLE RADIUS The horizontal distance between a free-floating vessel
and the buoy or anchor to which it is tethered.

WATER COLUMN A vertical section of the ocean used in relation to
descriptions of oceanographic parameters.

WATER MASS A body of water usually identified by its tempera-
ture-salinity (T-S) curve or its chemical content,.

WATT A unit of power equal to the rate of work represented
by one ampere under a pressure of one volt; taken as
the standard in the U.S.

WORKING FLUID The medium in an OTEC plant that is vaporized by warm
ocean water, passed over a turbine to generate elec-
tricity, and finally condensed by cool ocean water.

ZOOPLANKTON The passively floating or weakly swimming animals of
an aquatic ecosystem.

7-26

Abbreviations

APC Area of Particular Concern
atm atmosphere
BTU British Thermal Unit
C carbon
CO2 carbon dioxide
cm centimeter(s)
-1
cm sec centimeters per second
CW cold water
�C degrees Celsius or centigrade
dB decibel
DOC United States Department of Commerce
DOE United States Department of Energy
EA environmental assessment
EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
FWPCA Federal Water Pollution Control Act
GCRL Gulf Coast Research Laboratories
-2 -1
g C m yr -1 grams carbon per square meter per year
GWe gigawatt electric
HEW U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare
Hz hertz
IEC Interstate Electronics Corporation
kg kilogram(s)
kg C kilogram(s) carbon
kg C day kilogram(s) carbon per day
km kilometer(s)
km2 square kilometer(s)
kWe kilowatt electric
kWh kilowatt hour(s)

7-27

m meter(s)
2
m square meter(s)
m cubic meter(s)
-1
m sec meters per second
3 -1
m day I cubic meters per day
3 -
m MWe- cubic meters per megawatt electric
3 -1
m sec cubic meters per second
MWe megawatt electric
MWh megawatt hour
NH3 ammonia
NEPA National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
nmi nautical miles
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
OME Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy
OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
ppm parts per million
ppt parts per thousand
SMA Special Management Area
sec second(s)
S/N signal-to-noise ratio
SST sea-surface temperature
-1
tons C yr tons of carbon per year
Y micron
Ag microgram

7-28

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7-46

Appendix A

OTEC LEGISLATION

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION ACT OF 1980
(PL 96-320 - AUGUST 3, 1980)

94 STAT. 974 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 975

Public Law 96-320 SEC. 3. DEFINITIONS. 42 USC 9102.
96th Congress As used in this Act, unless the context otherwise requires, the
An Act term-
(1) "adjacent coastal State" means any coastal State which is
Aug. 3, 1980 To regulate commerce, promote energy self-sufficiency, and protect the environ- required to be designated as such by section 105(aX1) of this Act
[S. 24921 ment, by establishing procedures for the location, construction, and operation of or is designated as such by the Administrator in accordance with
ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and plantships to produce electricity section 105(a)(2) of this Act;
and energy-intensive products off the coasts of the United States; to amend the National
Merchant Marine Act, 1936, to make available certain financial assistance for
construction and operation of such facilities and plantships; and for other Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
purposes. (3) "antitrust laws" includes the Act of July 2, 1890, as
amended, the Act of October 15, 1914, as amended, and sections
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 73 and 74 of the Act of Augunst 27, 1894, as amended; 15 Use 1,12,8, 9.
Ocean Thermal United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act may be (4) "application" means any application submitted under this
Eonersion Act cited as the "Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Act of 1980". Act (A) for issuance of a license for the ownership, construction,
of 1980. SEC. 2. DECLARATION OF POLICY and operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion facility or
42 USC 9101 plantship; (B) for transfer or renewal of any such license; or (C)
note. . (a) It is declared to be the purposes of the Congress in this Act to- for any substantial change in any of the conditions and provi-
42 USC 9101. (1) authorize and regulate the construction, location, owner- sions of any such license;
ship, and operation of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities (5) "coastal State" means a State in, or bordering on, the
connected to the United States by pipeline or cable, or located in Atlantic, Pacific, or Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, Long
the territorial sea of the United States consistent with the Island Sound, or one or more of the Great Lakes;
Convention on the High Seas, and general principles of interna- (6) "construction" means any activities conducted at sea to
tional law; supervise, inspect, actually build, or perform other functions
(2) authorize and regulate the construction, location, owner- incidental to the building, repairing, or expanding of an ocean
ship, and operation of ocean thermal energy conversion plant- thermal energy conversion facility or plantship or any of its
ships documented under the laws of the United States, consistent components, including but not limited to, piledriving, emplace-
with the Convention on the High Seas and general principles of ment of mooring devices, emplacement of cables and pipelines,
international law; and deployment of the cold water pipe, and alterations, modifica-
(3) authorize and regulate the construction, location, owner- tions, or additions to an ocean thermal energy conversion facility
ship, and operation of ocean thermal energy conversion plant- or plantship;
ships by United States citizens, consistent with the Convention (7) "facility" means an ocean thermal energy conversion
on the High Seas and general principles of international law; facility;
(4) establish a legal regime which will permit and encourage (8) "Governor" means the Governor of a State or the person
the development of ocean thermal energy conversion as a com- designated by law to exercise the powers granted to the Governor
mercial energy technology; pursuant to this Act;
(5) provide for the protection of the marine and coastal envi- (9) "high seas" means that part of the oceans lying seaward of
ronment, and consideration of the interests of ocean users, to the territorial sea of the United States and outside the territorial
prevent or minimize any adverse impact which might occur as a sea, as recognized by the United States, of any other nation;
consequence of the development of such ocean thermal energy (10) "licensee" means the holder of a valid license for the
conversion facilities or plantships; ownership, construction, and operation of an ocean thermal
(6) make applicable certain provisions of the Merchant Marine energy conversion facility or plantship that was issued, trans-
Act, 1936 (46 U.S.C. 1177 et seq.) to assist in financing of ocean ferred, or renewed pursuant to this Act;
thermal energy conversion facilities and plantships; (11) "ocean thermal energy conversion facility" means any
(7) protect the interests of the United States in the location, facility which is standing or moored in or beyond the territorial
construction, and operation of ocean thermal energy conversion sea of the United States and which is designed to use tempera-
facilities and plantships; and ture differences in ocean water to produce electricity or another
(8) protect the rights and responsibilities of adjacent coastal form of energy capable of being used directly to perform work,
States in ensuring that Federal actions are consistent with and includes any equipment installed on such facility to use such
approved State coastal zone management programs and other electricity or other form of energy to produce, process, refine, or
applicable State and local laws. manufacture a product, and any cable or pipeline used to deliver
(b) The Congress declares that nothing in this Act shall be con- such electricity, freshwater, or product to shore, and all other
strued to affect the legal status of the high seas, the superjacent associated equipment and appurtenances of such facility, to the
airspace, or the seabed and subsoil, including the Continental Shelf. extent they are located seaward of the highwater mark;
(12) "ocean thermal energy conversion plantship" means any
vessel which is designed to use temperature differences in ocean
water while floating unmoored or moving through such water, to
produce electricity or another form of energy capable of being
used directly to perform work, and includes any equipment

94 STAT. 976 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3,1980 94 STAT. 977

installed on such vessel to use such electricity or other form of trator, after consultation with ie Secretary of State, to be compati-
energy to produce, process, refine, or manufacture a product, and ile with licenses issued pursue ' to this Act.
any equipment used to transfer such product to other vessels for ib) The Administrator shal upon application and in accordance
transportation to users, and all other associated equipment and with the provisions of this Act, issue, transfer, amend, or renew
appurtenances of such vessel; licenses for the ownership, construction, and operation of-
(13) "plantship" means an ocean thermal energy conversion (1) ocean thermal energy conversion plantships documented
plantship; , under the laws of the United States, and
(14) "Person" means any individual (whether or not a citizen of (2) ocean thermal energy conversion facilities documented
the United States), any corporation, partnership, association, or under the laws of the United States, located in the territorial sea
other entity organized or existing under the laws of any nation, of the United States, or connected to the United States by
and any Federal, State, local or foreign government or any entity pipeline or cable.
of any such government; (c) The Administrator may issue a license to a citizen of the United License issuance,
(15) "State" means each of the several States, the District of States in accordance with the provisions of this Act unless- prerequisites.
Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, (1) he determines that the applicant cannot and will not
the United States Virgin Islands, Guam, the Commonwealth of comply with applicable laws, regulations, and license conditions;
the Northern Marianas, and any other Commonwealth, terri- (2) he determines that the construction and operation of the
tory, or possession over which the United States has jurisdiction; ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship will not be
(16) "test platform" means any floating or moored platfTrm, in the national interest and consistent with national security and
barge, ship, or other vessel which is designed for limited-scale, at other national policy goals and objectives, including energy self-
sea operation in order to test or evaluate the operation of sufficiency and environmental quality;
components or all of an ocean thermal energy conversion system (3) he determines, after consultation with the Secretary of the
and which will not operate as an ocean thermal energy conver- department in which the Coast Guard is operating, that the
sion facility or plantship after the conclusion of such tests or ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship will not be
evaluation; operated with reasonable regard to the freedom of navigation or
(17) "thermal plume" means the area of the ocean in which a other reasonable uses of the high seas and authorized uses of the
s _'a differencein temperature, a de n .e d inregulationsContinental Shelf, as defined by United States law, treaty,
by the AdminisLtrator, occurs as a result of the operation of an convention, or customary international law,
ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship; and (4) he has been informed, within 45 days after the conclusion of
(18) "United States citizen" means (A) any individual who is a public hearings on that application, or onproposed licenses for
citizen of the United States by law, birth, or naturalization; (B) the designated application area, by the Administrator of the
vo any Federal, State, or local government in the United States, or Environmental Protection Agency that the ocean thermal
any entity of any. such government;. or (C) any _corporation, energy conversion facility or plantship will not conform with all
partnership, association, or other entity, organized or existing applicable provisions of any law for which he has enforcement
under the 'aws of the U States, or of any State, which has asity;
holdepresidemtoiohereete officeran individualwhaa ofth e(5) he has received the opinion of the Attorney General,
board of directors, or holerofsiilr ffce a idiidalhoispursuant to section 104 of this Act, stating that issuance of the
a United States citizen and which has no more of its directors license would create a situation in violation of the antitrust laws,
who are not United States citizens than constitute a minority period provided in section 104 has expired;
the number required for a quorum necessary to conduct theorte9-apridrvddinscon14hsxie;
the number requireds for t he quorum necar d . t (6) he has consulted with the Secretary of Energy, the Secre-
business of the board. tary of Transportation, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of
the Interior, and the Secretary of Defense, to determine their
TITLE 1-REGULATION OF OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY views on the adequacy of the apllication, and its effect on
CONVERSION FACILITIES AND PLANTSHIPS programs within their respective jurisdictions and determines on
the basis thereof, that the application for license is inadequate;
42 USC 9111. SEC. 101. LICENSE FOR THE OWNERSHIP, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPER. (7) the proposed ocean thermal energy conversion facility or
ATION OF AN OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION plantship will not be documented under the laws of the United
FACILITY OR PLANTSHIP. States;
(a) No person may engage in the ownership, construction, or (8) the applicant has not agreed to the condition that no vessel
operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion facility which is may be used for the transportation to the United States of things
documented under the laws of the United States, which is located in produced, processed, refined, or manufactured at the ocean
the territorial sea of the United States, or which is connected to the thermal energy conversion facility or plantship unless such
United States by pipeline or cable, except in accordance with a vessel is documented under the laws of the United States;
license issued pursuant to this Act. No citizen of the United States (9) when the license is for an ocean thermal energy conversion
may engage mn the ownership, constraction or operation of an ocean facility, he determines that the facility, including any submarine
thermal energy conversion plantahip except in accordance with a electric transmission cables and equipment or pipelines which
license issued pursuant to this Act, or in accordance with a license are components of the facility, will not be located and designed so
issued by a foreign nation whose licenses are found by the Adminis- as to minimize interference with other uses of the high seas or

94 STAT. 978 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 979

the Continental Shelf, including cables or pipelines already in tion. In the case of components lying on or below the seabed,.the
position on or in the seabed and the possibility of their repair; Administrator may waive the disposal or removal requirements if he
(10) the Governor of each adjacent coastal State with an finds that such removal is not otherwise necessary and that the
approved coastal zone management program in good standing remaining components do not constitute any threat to the environ-
16 USC 1451 et pursuant to the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (33 U.S.C. ment, navigation, fishing, or other uses of the seabed.
seq. 1451 et seq.) determines that, in his or her view, the application is (e) Upon application, a license issued under this Act may be License transfer.
inadequate or inconsistent with respect to programs within his or transferred if the Administrator determines that such transfer is in
her jurisdiction; the public interest and that the transferee meets the requirements of
(11) when the license is for an ocean thermal energy conversion this Act and the prerequisites to issuance under subsection (c) of this
facility, he determines that the thermal plume of the facility is section. .
expected to impinge on so as to degrade the thermal gradient (f) Any United States citizen who otherwise qualifies under the
used by any other ocean thermal energy conversion facility terms of this Act shall be eligible to be issued a license for the
already licensed or operating, without the consent of its owner; ownership, construction, and operation of an ocean thermal energy
(12) when the license is for an ocean thermal energy conversion conversion facility or plantship.
facility, he determines that the thermal plume of the facility is (g) Licenses issued under this Act shall be for a term of not to License term and
expected to impinge on so as to adversely affect the territorial sea exceed 25 years. Each licensee shall have a preferential right to renewal.
or area of national resource jurisdiction, as recognized by the renew his license subject to the requirements of subsection (c) of this
United States, of any other nation, unless the Secretary of State section, upon such conditions and for such term, not to exceed an
approves such impingement after consultation with such nation; additional 10 years upon each renewal, as the Administrator deter-
(13) when the license is for an ocean thermal energy conversion mines to be reasonable and appropriate.
plantship, he determines that the applicant has not provided 42 usc. 9112.
adequate assurance that the plantship will be operated in such a SEC. 102. PROCEDURE. 42 USC 9112.
way as to prevent its thermal plume from impinging on so as to (a) The Administrator shall, after consultation with the Secretary Regulations.
degrade the thermal gradient used by any other ocean thermal of Energy and the heads of other Federal agencies, issue regulations
energy conversion facility or plantship without the consent of its to carry out the purposes and provisions of this Act, in accordance
owner, and from impinging on so as to adversely affect the with the provisions of section 553 of title 5, United States Code,
territorial sea or area of national resource jurisdiction, as recog- without regard to subsection (a) thereof. Such regulations shall
nized by the United States, of any other nation unless the pertain to, but need not be limited to, application for issuance,
Secretary of State approves such impingement after consultation transfer, renewal, suspension, and termination of licenses. Such
with such nation; and regulations shall provide for full consultation and cooperation with
(14) when a regulation has been adopted which places an upper all other interested Federal agencies and departments and with any
limit on the number or total capacity of ocean thermal energy potentially affected coastal State, and for consideration of the views
conversion facilities or plantships to be licensed under this Act of any interested members of the general public. The Administrator
for simultaneous operation, either overall or within specific is further authorized, consistent with the purposes and provisions of
geographic areas, pursuant to a determination under the provi- this Act, to amend or rescind any such regulation. The Administrator
sions of section 107(bX4) of this Act, issuance of the license will shall complete issuance of final regulations to implement this Act
cause such upper limit to be exceeded. within 1 year of the date of its enactment.
Issuance (dX1) In issuing a license for the ownership, construction, and (b) The Administrator, in consultation with the Secretary of the Consultation.
conditions. operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plant- Interior and the Secretary of the department in which the Coast
ship, the Administrator shall prescribe conditions which he deems Guard is operating may, if he determines it to be necessary, prescribe
necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act, or which are regulations consistent with the purposes of this Act, relating to those
otherwise required by any Federal department or agency pursuant to activities in site evaluation and preconstruction testing at potential
the terms of this Act. ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship locations that
Written (2) No license shall be issued, transferred, or renewed under this may (1) adversely affect the environment; (2) interfere with other
agreement of Act unless the licensee or transferee first agrees in writing that (A) reasonable uses of the high seas or with authorized uses of the Outer
compliance, there will be no substantial change from the plans, operational Continental Shelf; or (3) pose a threat to human health and safety. If
systems, and methods, procedures, and safeguards set forth in his the Administrator prescribes regulations relating to such activities,
application, as approved, without prior approval in writing from the such activities may not be undertaken after the effective date of such
Administrator, and (B) he will comply with conditions the Adminis- regulations except in accordance therewith.
trator may prescribe in accordance with the provisions of this Act. (c) Not later than 60 days after the date of enactment of this Act, Expertise or
Disposal or (3) The Administrator shall establish such bonding requirements of Energy, the Administrator of the Environmental statu iity
removal other assurances as he deems necessary to assure that, upon the Protection Agency, the Secretary of the department in which the descriptions.
requirements. revocation, termination, relinquishment, or surrender of a license, Coast Guard is operating, the Secretary of the Interior, the Chief of
the licensee will dispose of or remove all components of the ocean Engineers of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, and the
thermal energy conversion facility or plantship as directed by the heads of any other Federal departments or agencies having expertise
Waiver. Administrator. In the case of components which another applicant or concerning, or jurisdiction over, any aspect of the construction or
licensee desires to use, the Administrator may waive the disposal or operation of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities or plantships,
removal requirements until he has reached a decision on the applica- shall transmit to the Administrator written description of their

94 STAT. 980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 981

expertise or statutory responsibilities pursuant to this Act or any required by law. Each agency or department involved shall review Application
other Federal law. the application and, based upon legal considerations within its area review.
Application (dX1) Within 21 days after the receipt of an application, the of responsibility, recommend to the Administrator the approval or
receipt anBd Administrator shall determine whether the application appears to disapproval of the application not later than 45 days after public
notic. contain all of the information required by paragraph (2) of this hearings are concluded pursuant to subsection (g) of this section. In
Publication in subsection. If the Administrator determines that such information any case in which an agency or department recommends disapproval,
Register.al appears to be contained in the application, the Administrator shall, it shall get forth in detail the manner in which the application does
no later than 5 days after making such a determination, publish not comply with any law or regulation within its area of responsi-
notice of the application and a summary of the plans in the Federal bility and shall notify the Administrator of the manner in which the
Register. If the Administrator determines that all of the required application maybe amended or the license conditioned so as to bring
information does not appear to be contained in the application, the it into compliance with the law or regulation involved.
Administrator shall notify the applicant and take no further action (g) A license may be issued, transferred, or renewed only after Notice,
with respect to the application until such deficiencies have been public notice, opportunity for comment, and public hearings in comments, and
remedied. accordance with this subsection. At least one such public hearing hearings.
(2) Each application shall include such financial, technical, and
(2) Each application shall include such financial, technical, and shall be held in the District of Columbia and in any adjacent coastal
other information as the Administrator determines by regulation to State to which a facility is proposed to be directly connected by
toState to which a facility is proposed to be directly connected by
be necessary or appropriate to process the license pursuant to section pipeline or electric transmission cable. Any interested person may
pipeline or electric transmission cable. Any interested person may
101.
Area (eX1) At the time notice of an application for an ocean thermal present relevant material at any such hearing. After the hearings
publicrtion in energy conversion facility is published pursuant to subsection (d) of required by this subsection are concluded, if the Administrator
desciptin, (1) t th tim notce f anapplcatin fr anocea themalrequired by this subsection are concluded, if the Administrator
Federal this section, the Administrator shall publish a description in the determines that there exist one or more specific and material factual
Federal this section, the Administrator shall publish a description in the ise hc a ersle yafra vdnir erna
Register. Federal Register of an application area encompassing the site pro-lved by a formal evidentiary hearing, at
posed in the application for such facility and within which the least one adjudicatory hearing shall be held in the District of
thermal plume of one ocean thermal energy conversion facility might Columbia in accordance with the provisions of section 554 of title 5,
be expected to impinge on so as to degrade the thermal gradient used United States Code. The record developed in any such adjudicatory Record.
by another ocean thermal energy conversion facility, unless the hearing shall be part of the basis for the Administrator's decision to
application is for a license for an ocean thermal energy conversion approve or deny a license. Hearings held pursuant to this subsection Consolidation of
facility to be located within an application area which has already shall be consolidated insofar as practicable with hearings held by hearings.
been designated. other agencies. All public hearings on all applications with respect to
Additional (2) The Administrator shall accompany such publication with a call facilities for any designated application area shall be consolidated
license for submission of any other applications for licenses for the owner- and shall be concluded not later than 240 days after notice of the
applications. ship, construction, and operation of an ocean thermal energy conver- initial application has been published pursuant to subsection (d) of
sion facility within the designated application area. Any person this section. All public hearings on applications with respect to ocean
intending to file such an application shall submit a notice of intent to thermal energy conversion plantships shall be concluded not later
file an application to the Administrator not later than 60 days after than 240 days after notice of the application has been published
the publication of notice pursuant to subsection (d) of this section, and pursuant to subsection (d) of this section.
shall submit the completed application no later than 90 days after (h) Each person applying for a license pursuant to this Act shall Application fee.
publication of such notice. The Administrator shall publish notice of remit to the Administrator at the time the application is filed a
any such application received in accordance with subsection (d) of nonrefundable application fee, which shall be deposited into miscella-
this section. No application for a license for the ownership, construc- neous receipts of the Treasury. The amount of the fee shall be
tion, and operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion facility established by regulation by the Administrator, and shall reflect the
within the designated application area for which a notice of intent to reasonable administrative costs incurred in reviewing and processing
file was received after such 60-day period, or which is received after the application.
such 90-day period has elapsed, shall be considered until action has (i1) The Administrator shall approve or deny any timely filed Application
been completed on all timely filed applications pending with respect application with respect to a facility for a designated application area appral or
to such application area. suomitted in accordance with the provision of this Act not later thanenia
() An application filed with the Administrator shall constitute an 90 days after public hearings on proposed licenses for that area are
application for all Federal authorizations required for ownership, concluded pursuant to subsection (g) of this section. The Administra-
construction, and operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion tor shall approve or deny an application for a license for ownership,
facility or plantship, except for authorizations required by documen- construction, and operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion
tation, inspection, certification, construction, and manning laws and plantship submitted pursuant to this Act no later than 90 days after
Api n regulations administered by the Secretary of the department in the public hearings on that application are concluded pursuant to
Appl which the Coast Guard is operating. At the time notice of any subsection (g)ofthissection.
copies. application is published pursuant to subsection (d) of this section, the (2) In the event more than one application for a license for Applications for
Administrator shall forward a copy of such application to those ownership, construction, and operation of an ocean thermal energy same area.
Federal agencies and departments with jurisdiction over any aspect conversion facility is submitted pursuant to this Act for the same
of such ownership, construction, or operation for comment, review, or d esignated application area, the Administrator, unless one or a
recommendation as to conditions and for such other action as may be specific combination of the proposed facilities clearly best serves the

94 STAT. 982 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 983

national interest, shall make decisions on license applications in the SEC. 104. ANTITRUST REVIEW. 42 USC 9114.
order in which they were submitted to him. (a) Whenever any application for issuance, transfer, or renewal of Application
Facility (3) In determining whether any one or a specific combination of the any license is received, the Administrator shall transmit promptly to c ital topy,
selecrmration, proposed ocean thermal energy conversion facilities clearly best the Attorney General a complete copy of such application. Within 90 Attorney
factors. serves the national interest, the Administrator, in consultation with days of the receipt of the application, the Attorney General shall General.
the Secretary of Energy, shall consider the following factors: conduct such antitrust review of the application as he deems appro-
(A) the goal of making the greatest possible use of ocean priate, and submit to the Administrator any advice or recommenda-
thermal energy conversion by installing the largest capacity tions he deems advisable to avoid any action upon such application by
practicable in each application area; the Administrator which would create a situation inconsistent with
(B) the amount of net energy impact of each of the proposed the antitrust laws. If the Attorney General fails to file such views
ocean thermal energy conversion facilities; within the 90-day period, the Administrator shall proceed as if such
(C) the degree to which the proposed ocean thermal energy views had been received. The Administrator shall not issue, transfer,
conversion facilities will affect the environment; or renew the license during the 90-day period, except upon written
(D) any significant differences between anticipated dates and confirmation by the Attorney General that he does not intend to
commencement of operation of the proposed ocean thermal submit any further advice or recommendation on the application
commencement of operation of the proposed ocean thermal during such period.
energy conversion facilities; and during such period.
(E) any differences in cilosts of consctoruction Vandoperation to the in n(b) The issuance of a license under this Act shall not be admissible
p ropos ed o cean thermal s n cst o construcion and pertion o the in any way as a defense to any civil or criminal action for violation of
en a heraenaergsy cnversion facilitiesc to the the antitrust laws of the United States, nor shall it in any way modify
extent that such differentials may significantly affect the ulti- or abridge any private right of action under such laws. Nothing in
mate cost of energy or products to the consumer. this section shall be construed to bar the Attorney General or the
42 USC 9113. SEC. 103. PROTECTION OF SUBMARINE ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION CABLES Federal Trade Commission from challenging any anticompetitive
AND EQUIPMENT. situation involved in the ownership, construction, or operation of an
Penalties and (a) Any person who shall willfully and wrongfully break or injure, ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship.
fines. or attempt to break or injure, or who shall in any manner procure, SEC. 105. ADJACENT COASTAL STATES. 42 USC 9115.
counsel, aid, abet, or be accessory to such breaking or injury, or (a)(1) The Administrator, in issuing notice of application pursuant
attempt to break or injure, any submarine electric transmission cable to section 102(d) of this title, shall designate as an "adjacent coastal
or equipment being constructed or operated under a license issued State" any coastal State which (A) would be directly connected by
pursuant to this Act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and, on electric transmission cable or pipeline to an ocean thermal energy
conviction thereof, shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not conversion facility as proposed in an application, or (B) in whose
exceeding 2 years, or to a fine not exceeding $5,000, or to both fine and waters any part of such proposed ocean thermal energy conversion
imprisonment, at the discretion of the court. facility would be located, or (C) in whose waters an ocean thermal
(b) Any person who by culpable negligence shall break or injure energy conversion plantship would be operated as proposed in an
any submarine electric transmission cable or equipment being con- application.
structed or operated under a license issued pursuant to this Act shall (2) The Administrator shall, upon request of a State, designate such
be guilty of a misdemeanor and, on conviction thereof, shall be liable State as an "adjacent coastal State" if he determines that (A) there is
to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 months, or to a fine not a risk of damage to the coastal environment of such State equal to or
exceeding $500, or to both fine and imprisonment, at the discretion of greater than the risk posed to a State required to be designated as an
the court. "adjacent coastal State" by paragraph (1) of this subsection or (B) that
(c) The provisions of subsections (a) and (b) of this section shall not the thermal plume of the proposed ocean thermal energy conversion
apply to any person who, after having taken all necessary precau- facility or plantship is likely to impinge on so as to degrade the
tions to avoid such breaking or injury, breaks or injures any subma- thermal gradient at possible locations for ocean thermal energy
rine electric transmission cable or equipment in an effort to save the conversion facilities which could reasonably be expected to be
life or limb of himself or of any other person, or to save his own or any directly connected by electric transmission cable or pipeline to such
other vessel. State. This paragraph shall apply only with respect to requests made Publication in
Suit for (d) The penalties provided in subsections (a) and (b) of this section by a State not later than the 14th day after the date of publication of Federal
damages. for the breaking or injury of any submarine electric transmission notice of application for a proposed ocean thermal energy conversion
cable or equipment shall not be a bar to a suit for damages on account facility in the Federal Register in accordance with section 102(d) of
of such breaking or injury. this title. The Administrator shall make any designation required by
Indemnity. (e) Whenever any vessel sacrifices any anchor, fishing net, or other this paragraph not later than the 45th day after the date he receives
fishing gear to avoid injuring any submarine electric transmission such a request from a State.
cable or equipment being constructed or operated under a license (b)(1) Not later than 5 days after the designation of adjacent coastal Application
issued pursuant to this Act, the licensee shall indemnify the owner of State pursuant to this section, the Administrator shall transmit a copy,
transmittal to
such vessel for the items sacrificed: Provided, That the owner of the complete copy of the application to the Governor of such State. The State Governor.
vessel had taken all reasonable precautionary measures beforehand. Administrator shall not issue a license without consultation with the
Repair cost. (f) Any licensee who causes any break in or injury to any submarine Governor of each adjacent coastal State which has an approved
cable or pipeline of any type shall bear the cost of the repairs. coastal zone management program in good standing pursuant to the

94 STAT. 984 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 985

Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (16 U.S.C. 1451 et seq.). If the ment which may occur as a result of deployment and operation of
Governor of such a State has not transmitted his approval or large numbers of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and
disapproval to the Administrator by the 45th day after public plantships;
hearings on the application is concluded pursuant to section 102(g) of (3) the nature and magnitude of any oceanographic, biological
this title, such approval shall be conclusively presumed. If the or other changes in the environment which may occur as a result
Governor of such a State notifies the Administrator that an applica- of the operation of electric transmission cables and equipment
tion which the Governor would otherwise approve pursuant to this located in the water column or on or in the seabed, including the
paragraph is inconsistent in some respect with the State's coastal hazards of accidentally severed transmission cables; and
zone management program, the Administrator shall condition the (4) whether the magnitude of one or more of the cumulative
license granted so as to make it consistent with such State program. environmental effects of deployment and operation of large
(2) Any adjacent coastal State which does not have an approved
coastal zone management program in good standing, and any other numbers of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and plant-
interested State, shall have the opportunity to make its views known ships requires that an upper limit be placed on the number or
to, and to have them given full consideration by, the Administrator total capacity of such facilities or plantships to be licensed under
regarding the location, construction, and operation of an ocean this Act for simultaneous operation, either overall or within
thermal energy conversion facility or plantship. specific geographic areas.
Agreement or (C) The consent of Congress is given to 2 or more States to negotiate (c) Within 180 days after enactment of this Act, the Administrator Plan submittal
compact between and enter into agreements or compacts, not in conflict with any law shall prepare a plan to carry out the program described in subsec- to Congress.
States. and enter into agreements or compacts, not in conflict with anytCne
or treaty of the United States, (1) to apply for a license f or the tions (a) and (b) of this section, including necessary funding levels for
ownership, construction, and operation of an ocean thermal energy the next 5 fiscal years, and submit the plan to the Congress.
conversion facility or plantship or for the transfer of such a license, (d) The program established by subsections (a) and (b) of this section
and (2) to establish such agencies, joint or otherwise, as are deemed shall be reduced to the minimum necessary to perform baseline
necessary or appropriate for implementing and carrying out the studies and to analyze monitoring data, when the Administrator
provisions of any such agreement or compact. Such agreement or determines that the program has resulted in sufficient knowledge to
compact shall be binding and obligatory upon any State or other make the determinations enumerated in subsection (b) of this section
party thereto without further approval by the Congress. with an acceptable level of confidence.
42 USC 9116. SEC. 106. DILIGENCE REQUIREMENTS. (e) The issuance of any license for ownership, construction, and
Regulations. operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship
Regulations. (a) The Administrator shall promulgate regulations requiring each opershall be deemed to be a major Federal action significantly affecting
licensee to pursue diligently the construction and operation of the
ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship to which the 102(2)C) of the N ational E nvironment for purposes of section
102(2)C of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C.
license applies.
License (b) If the Administrator determines that a licensee is not pursuing 4332(2)(C)). For all timely applications covering proposed facilities in Environmental
termination. diligently the construction and operation of the ocean thermal energy a single application area, and for each application relating to a statement.
conversion facility or plantship to which the license applies, or that proposed plantship, the Administrator shall, pursuant to such section
the project has apparently been abandoned, the Administrator shall 102(2XC) and in cooperation with other involved Federal agencies and
cause proceedings to be instituted under section 111 of this title to departments, prepare a single environmental impact statement,
terminate the license. which shall fulfill the requirement of all Federal agencies in carrying
out their responsibilities pursuant to this Act to prepare an environ-
42 USC 9117. SEC. 107. PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT. mental impact statement. Each such draft environmental impact
Environmental (a) The Administrator shall initiate a program to assess the effects statement relating to proposed facilities shall be prepared and
assessment on the environment of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and published within 180 days after notice of the initial application has
program. plantships. The program shall include baseline studies of locations been published pursuant to section 102(d) of this title. Each such draft Ante, p. 979.
where ocean thermal energy conversion facilities or plantships are environmental impact statement relating to a proposed plantship
likely to be sited or operated; and research;' and monitoring of the shall be prepared and published within 180 days after notice of the
effects of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and plantships application has been published pursuant to section 102(d) of this title.
in actual operation. The purpose of the program shall be to assess the Each final environmental impact statement shall be published not Hearings.
environmental effects of individual ocean thermal energy facilities later than 90 days following the date on which public hearings are
and plantships, and to assess the magnitude of any cumulative concluded pursuant to section 102(g) of this title. The Administrator
environmental effects of large numbers of ocean thermal energy may extend the deadline for publication of a specific draft or final
facilities and plantships. environmental impact statement to a later specified time for good
(b) The program shall be designed to determine, among other causeshowninwriting.
(1) any short-term and long-term effects on the environment (f) An ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship Vessel or
which may occur as a result of the operation of ocean thermal licensed under this title shall be deemed not to be a "vessel or other floating craft.
energy conversion facilities and plantships; floating craft" for the purposes of section 502(12)(B) of the Federal
(2) the nature and magnitude of any oceanographic, atmos- Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (33 U.S.C. 1362(12)(B)).
pheric, weather, climatic, or biological changes in the environ-

94 STAT. 986 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3,1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 987

42 USC 9118. SEC. 108. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AND SAFETY OF LIFE Guard is operating may require compliance with those vessel docu-
AND PROPERTY AT SEA. mentation, inspection, and manning laws which he determines to be
(a) The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is appropriate.
operating shall, subject to recognized principles of international law, (2) Within 1 year after the date of enactment of this Act, the Facility or
prescribe by regulation and enforce procedures with respect to any Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating plantship
ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship licensed under shall promulgate regulations under paragraph (1) of this subsection Regulations.
this Act, including, but not limited to, rules governing vessel move- which require that any ocean thermal energy conversion facility or
ment, procedures for transfer of materials between such a facility or plantship-
plantship and transport vessels, designation and marking of anchor- (A) be documented;
age areas, maintenance, law enforcement, and the equipment, train- (B) comply with minimum standards of design, construction,
ing, and maintenance required (1) to promote the safety of life and alteration, and repair; and
property at sea, (2) to prevent pollution of the marine environment, (C) be manned or crewed by United States citizens or aliens
(3) to clean up any pollutants which may be discharged, and (4) to lawfully admitted to the United States for permanent residence,
otherwise prevent or minimize any adverse impact from the construc- unless-
tion and operation of such ocean thermal energy conversion facility (i) there is not a sufficient number of United States
or plantship. citizens, or aliens lawfully admitted to the United States for
Regulations. (b) The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is permanent residence, qualified and available for such work,
operating shall issue and enforce regulations, subject to recognized or
principles of international law, with respect to lights and other (ii) the President makes a specific finding, with respect to
warning devices, safety equipment, and other matters relating to the the particular vessel, platform, or moored or standing struc-
promotion of safety of life and property on any ocean thermal energy ture, that application of this requirement would not be
conversion facility or plantship licensed under this Act. consistent with the national interest.
(c) Whenever a licensee fails to mark any component of such an (3) For the purposes of the documentation laws, for which compli-
ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship in accordance ance is required under paragraph (1) of this subsection, ocean
with applicable regulations, the Secretary of the department in thermal energy conversion facilities and plantships shall be deemed
which the Coast Guard is operating shall mark such components for to be vessels and, if documented, vessels of the United States for the
the protection of navigation, and the licensee shall pay the cost of purposes of the Ship Mortgage Act, 1920 (46 U.S.C. 911-984).
such marking. (f) Subject to recognized principles of international law, the Secre-
Safety zone. (d)(1) Subject to recognized principles of international law and after tary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating shall
consultation with the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of the promulgate and enforce such regulations as he deems necessary to
Interior, the Secretary of State, and the Secretary of Defense, the protect navigation in the vicinity of a vessel engaged in the installa-
Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating tion, repair, or maintenance of any submarine electric transmission
shall designate a zone of appropriate size around and including any cable or equipment, and to govern the markings and signals used by
ocean thermal energy conversion facility licensed under this Act and such a vessel.
may designate such a zone around and including any ocean thermal
energy conversion plantship licensed under this Act for the purposes SEC. 109. PREVENTION OF INTERFERENCE WITH OTHER USES OF THE 42 USC 9119.
of reorganizational safety and protection of the facility or plantship. HIGH SEAS.
The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is (a) Each license shall include such conditions as may be necessary
operating shall by regulation define permitted activities within such and appropriate to ensure that construction and operation of the
zone consistent with the purpose for which it was designated. The ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship are conducted
Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating with reasonable regard for navigation, fishing, energy production,
shall, not later than 30 days after publication of notice pursuant to scientific research, or other uses of the high seas, either by citizens of
section 102(d) of this title, designate such safety zone with respect to the United States or by other nations in their exercise of the freedoms
any proposed ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship. of the high seas as recognized under the Convention of the High Seas
Rules and (2) In addition to any other regulations, the Secretary of the and the general principles of international law.
regulations department in which the Coast Guard is operating is authorized, in (b) The Administrator shall promulgate regulations specifying Regulations.
accordance with this subsection, to establish a safety zone to be under what conditions and in what circumstances the thermal plume'
effective during the period of construction of an ocean thermal of an ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship licensed
energy conversion facility or plantship licensed under this Act, and to under this Act will be deemed-
issue rules and regulations relating thereto. (1) to impinge on so as to degrade the thermal gradient used by
Regulations, (e)(1) The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is another ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship, or
enforcement and operating shall promulgate and enforce regulations specified in (2) to impinge on so as to adversely affect the territorial sea or
compliance. paragraph (2) of this subsection and such other regulations as he area of natural resource jurisdiction, as recognized by the United
deems necessary concerning the documentation, design, construction, States, of any other nation.
alteration, equipment, maintenance, repair, inspection, certification, Such regulations shall also provide for the Administrator to mediate
and manning of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and or arbitrate any disputes among licensees regarding the extent to
plantships. In addition to other requirements prescribed under those which the thermal plume of one licensee's facility or plantship
regulations, the Secretary of the department in which the Coast impinges on the operation of another licensee's facility or plantship.

94 STAT. 988 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 989

(3) Except in a situation involving force majeure, a licensee of (2) if such failure is knowing and continues for a period of 30
an ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship shall days after the Administrator mails notification of such failure by
not permit a vessel, registered in or flying the flag of a foreign registered letter to the licensee at his record post office address,
state, to call at, load or unload cargo at, or otherwise utilize such revoke such license.
a facility or plantship licensed under this Act unless (A) the No proceeding under this section is necessary if the license, by its
foreign state involved has agreed, by specific agreement with the terms, provides for automatic suspension or termination upon the
United States, to recognize the jurisdiction of the United States occurrence of a fixed or agreed upon condition, event, or time.
over the vessel and its personnel, in accordance with the provi- (b) If the Administrator determines that immediate suspension of
sions of this Act, while the vessel is located within the safety the construction or operation of an ocean thermal energy conversion
zone, and (B) the vessel owner or operator has designated an facility or plantship or any component thereof is necessary to protect
agent in the United States for receipt of service of process in the public health and safety or to eliminate imminent and substantial
event of any claim or legal proceeding resulting from activities of danger to the environment established by any treaty or convention,
the vessel or its personnel while located within such a safety the Administrator may order the licensee to cease or alter such
zone. construction or operation pending the completion of a judicial pro-
Regulations, (c) The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is ceeding pursuant to subsection (a) of this section.
enforcement. operating shall promulgate, after consultation with the Administra- SEC. 112. RECORDKEEPING AND PUBLIC ACCESS TO INFORMATION. 42 USC 9122.
tor, and shall enforce, regulations governing the movement and . . Rerts
navigation of ocean thermal energy conversion plantships licensed (a) Each licensee shall establish and maintain such records, make Reorts.
under this Act to ensure that the thermal plume of such an ocean such reports, and provide such information as the Administrator,
thermal energy conversion plantship does not unreasonably impinge after consultation with other interested Federal departments and
on so as to degrade the thermal gradient used by the operation of any agencies, shall by regulation prescribe to carry out the provisions of
other ocean thermal energy conversion plantship or facility except in this Act. Each licensee shall submit such reports and shall make
case of force majeure or with the consent of owner of the other such available such records and information as the Administrator may
plantship or facility, and to ensure that the thermal plume such of an request.
ocean thermal energy conversion plantship does not impinge on so as (D) Any information reported to or collected by the Administrator Confidential
to adversely affect the territorial sea or area of national resource under this Act which is exempt from disclosure pursuant to section information.
jurisdiction, as recognized by the United States, of any other nation 552(bX4) of title 5, United States Code (relating to trade secrets and
unless the Secretary of State has approved such impingment after confidential commercial and financial information), shall not-
consultation with such nation. (1) be publicly disclosed by the Administrator or by any other
42 USC 9120. SEC. 110. MONITORING OF LICENSEES' ACTIVITIES. officer or employee of the United States, unless the Administra-
42 USC 9120. SEC. 110. MONITORING OF LICENSEES' ACTIVITIES. tor has-
Each license shall require the licensee- (A) determined that the disclosure is necessary to protect
(1) to allow the Administrator to place appropriate Federal the public health or safety or the environment against an
officers or employees aboard the ocean thermal energy conver- unreasonable risk of injury, and
sion facility or plantship to which the license applies, at such (B) notified the person who submitted the information 10
times and to such extent as the Administrator deems reasonable days before the disclosure is to be made, unless the delay
and necessary to assess compliance with any condition or regula- resulting from such notice would be detrimental to the
tion applicable to the license, and to report to the Administrator public health or safety or the environment, or
whenever such officers or employees have reason to believe there (2) be otherwise disclosed except-
is a failure to comply; (A)(i) to other Federal and adjacent coastal State govern-
(2) to cooperate with such officers and employees in the mentdepartments and agencies for official use,
performance of monitoring functions; and
performance of monitoring functions; and (ii) to any committee of the Congress of appropriate
(3) to monitor the environmental effects, if any, of the oper- junsdiction, or
ation of the ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plant- (B) when the administrator has taken appropriate steps to
ship in accordance with regulations issued by the Administrator, inform the recipient of the confidential nature of the infor-
and to submit such information as the Administrator finds to be mat
necessary and appropriate to assess environmental impacts and
to develop and evaluate mitigation methods and possibilities. SEC. 118. RELINQUISHMENT OR SURRENDER OF LICENSE. 42 USC 9123.
42 USC 9121. SEC. 111. SUSPENSION, REVOCATION, OR TERMINATION OF LICENSE. ( a) Any licensee may at any time, without penalty, surrender to the
Administrator a license issued to him, or relinquish to the Adminis-
(a) Whenever a licensee fails to comply with any applicable provi- trator, in whole or in part, any right to conduct construction or
sion of this Act or any applicable rule, regulation, restriction, or operation of an ocean terrmal energy conversion facility or plant-
condition issued or imposed by the Administrator under the author- including part or all of any right ofway which may have been
ity of this Act, the Attorney General, at the request of the Adminis- grantd in conunction with such license: Provided, That such surren- Liability.
trator, shall file an action in the appropriate United States district the licensee of any obligation
court to- or liability established by this or any other Act, or of any obligation or
(l) suspend the license;or liability for actions taken by him prior to such surrender or relin-

94 STAT. 990 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 991

quishment, or during disposal or removal of any components required after such decision is made, seek judicial review of such decision in
to be disposed of or removed pursuant to this Act. the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. A
Right of way. (b) If part or all of a right of way which is relinquished, or for which person shall be deemed to be aggrieved by the Administrator's
the license is surrendered, to the Administrator pursuant to subsec- decision within the meaning of this Act if he-
tion (a) of this section contains an electric transmission cable or (1) has participated in the administrative proceedings before
pipeline which is used in conjunction with another license for an the Administrator (or if he did not so participate, he can show
ocean thermal energy conversion facility, the Administrator shall that his failure to do so was caused by the Administrator's failure
allow the other licensee an opportunity to add such right of way to his to provide the required notice); and
license before informing the Secretary of the Interior that the right of (2) is adversely affected by the Administrator's action.
way has been vacated. SEC. 116. TEST PLATFORMS AND COMMERCIAL DEMONSTRATION OCEAN 42 USC 9126.
42 USC 9124. SEC. 114. CIVIL ACTIONS. THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION FACILITY OR PLANTSHIP.
(a) Except as provided in subsection (b) of this section, any person (a) The provisions of this title shall not apply to any test platform
having a valid legal interest which is or may be adversely affected which will not operate as an ocean thermal energy conversion facility
may commence a civil action for equitable relief on his own behalf in or platform after conclusion of the testing period.
the United States District Court for the District of Columbia when- (b The provisions of this title shallnot apply to ownership,
ever such action constitutes a case or controversy- construction, or operation of any ocean thermal energy conversion
(1) against any person who is alleged to be in violation of any facility or plantship which the Secretary of Energy has designated in
provision of this Act or any regulation or condition of a license writing as a demonstration project for the development of alternative
issued pursuant to this Act; or energy sources for the United States which is conducted by, partici-
(2) against the Administrator where there is alleged a failure of pated in, or approved by the Department of Energy. The Secretary of
the Administrator to perform any act or duty under this Act Energy, after consultation with the Administrator, shall require such
which is not discretionary. demonstration projects to abide by as many of the substantive
Suits. In suits brought under this Act, the district courts of the United requirements of this title as he deems to be practicable without
States shall have jurisdiction, without regard to the amount in damaging the nature of or unduly delaying such projects.
controversy or the citizenship of the parties, to enforce any provision SEC. 117. PERIODIC REVIEW AND REVISION OF REGULATIONS. 42 USC 9127.
of this Act or any regulation or term or condition of a license issued The Administrator and the Secretary of the department in which
pursuant to this Act, or to order the Administrator to perform such the Coast Guard is operating shall periodically, at intervals of not
the Coast Guard is operating shall periodically, at intervals of not
act or duty, as the case may be. more than every 3 years, and in consultation with the Secretary of
>to~ (bN) No civil action may be commenced- Energy, review any regulations promulgated pursuant to the provi-
g:)I ~~~~(1) under subsection (aXl) of this section- sions of this title to determine the status and impact of such
(A) prior to 60 days after the plaintiff has given notice of regulations on the continued development, evolution, and commer-
the violation to the Administrator and to any alleged viola- cialization of ocean thermal energy conversion technology. The Review results.
tor; or
()ithAdiittor; or teAoryGnrahs results of each such review shall be included in the next annual
e(B) if the Administrator or the Attorney Generinal has report required by section 405. The Administrator and such Secretary Post, p. 999.
commenced and is diligently prosecuting a c ivil or criminal are authorized and directed to promulgate any revisions to the then
ac tio n with respect to such matters in an ourt of the Unite effective regulations as are deemed necessary and appropriate based
States, but in any such action any person may intervene as a
States, of right; or o nypesn ayiteveeas on such review, to ensure that any regulations promulgated pursuant
2matter sbeto 2)of right;i sior t60dyafeto the provisions of this title do not impede such development,
(2) under subsection (aX2) of this section prior to 60 days after evolution, and commercialization of such technology. Additionally, Proposals by
the plaintiff has given notice of such action to the Administrator. the Secretary of Energy is authorized to propose, based on such Seceta'of
Notice. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~the Secretary of Energy is authorized to propose, based on such Secretayo
Notice. Notice under this subsection shall be given in such a manner as the review, such revisions for the same purpose. The Administrator or ner.
review, such revisions for the same purpose. The Administrator orEnry
Administrator shall prescribe by regulation.
c) In any a ction under this section, the Administrator or the such Secretary, as appropriate, shall have exclusive jurisdiction with
(c) In any action under this section, the Administrator or the
Attorney General, if not a party, may intervene as a matter of right. respect to any such proposal by the Secretary of Energy and,
pursuant to applicable procedures, shall consider and take final
Litigation costs. (d) The court, in issuing any final order in any action pursuant to applicable procedures, shall consider and take final
Litgatoncoss. (d)Thecortinissuing any final or brought action on any such proposal in an expeditious manner. Such consider- Hearing.
pursuant to subsection (a) of this section, may award costs of litiga- ation shal include at least one informal hearing pursuant to the
tion (including reasonable attorney and expert witness fees) toatosl incas onei frahainpusntot
any party whenever the court determines that such an award isn section 553 of title, United States Code.
appropriate. TITLE II--MARITIME FINANCING FOR OCEAN THERMAL
(e) Nothing in this section shall restrict any right which any person
or class of persons may have under any statute or common law to seek ENERGY CONVERSION
enforcement or to seek any other relief. SEC. 201. DETERMINATIONS UNDER THE MERCHANT MARINE ACT. 1936. 42 USC 9141.
42 USC 9125. SEC. 115. JUDICIAL REVIEW. (a)(1) For the purposes of section 607 of the Merchant Marine Act,
Any person suffering legal wrong, or who is adversely affected or 1936 (46 U.S.C. 1177), any ocean thermal energy conversion facility or
aggrieved by the Administrator's decision to issue, transfer, modify, plantship licensed pursuant to this Act, and any vessel providing
renew, suspend, or terminate a license may, not later than 60 days shipping service to or from such an ocean thermal energy conversion

94 STAT. 992 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 993

facility or plantship, shall be deemed to be a vessel operated in the aids in financing, including reimbursement of an obligor for expendi-
foreign commerce of the United States. tures previously made for, construction, reconstruction, or recondi-
(2) The provisions of paragraph (1) of this subsection shall apply for tioning of a commercial demonstration ocean thermal energy
taxable years beginning after December 31,1981. conversion facility or plantship owned by citizens of the United
(b)Fortth e purpsesofheMerchantMarineAct, 1936(46U.S.C. 1177 States. Guarantees or commitments to guarantee under this subsec-
et seq.) any vessel documented under the laws of the United tion shall be subject to all the provisos, requirements, regulations,
States and used in providing shipping service to or from any ocean and procedures which apply to guarantees or commitments to guar-
thermal energy conversion facility or plantship licensed pursuant to antee made pursuant to section 1104(aXl) of this title, except that- 46 USC 1274.
the provisions of this Act shall be deemed to be used in, and used in an "(1) no guarantees or commitments to guarantee may be made Exceptions.
essential service in, the foreign commerce or foreign trade of the by the Secretary of Commerce under this subsection before
United States, as defined in section 905(a) of the Merchant Marine October 1,1981;
Act, 1936 (46 U.S.C. 1244(a)). "(2) the provisions of subsection (d) of section 1104 of this title
shall apply to guarantees or commitments to guarantee for that
SEC. 202. AMENDMENTS TO TITLE XI OF THE MERCHANT MARINE ACT, portion of a commercial demonstration ocean thermal energy
1936. conversion facility or plantship not to be supported with appro-
(a) Section 1101 of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936 (46 U.S.C. 1271), priated Federal funds;
is amended- "(3) guarantees or commitments to guarantee made pursuant
(1) in subsection (b) by striking "and" immediately before to this section may be in an aggregate principal amount which
"dredges" and inserting in lieu thereof a comma, and by insert- does not exceed 87Y2 percent of the actual cost or depreciated
ing immediately after "dredges" the following. "and ocean ther- actual cost of the commercial demonstration ocean thermal
mal energy conversion facilities or plantships", energy conversion facility or plantship: Provided That, if the
(2) in subsection (g) by striking "and" after the semicolon, commercial demonstration ocean thermal energy conversion
(3) in subsection (h) by striking "equipping" and inserting in facility or plantship is supported with appropriated Federal
lieu thereof"equipping and", and funds, such guarantees or commitments to guarantee may not
(4) by adding at the end thereof a new subsection (i) to read as exceed 87Y2 percent of the aggregate principal amount of that
follows: portion of the actual cost or depreciated actual cost for which the
Definition. "(i) The term 'ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plant- obligor has an obligation to secure financing in accordance with
ship' means any at-sea facility or vessel, whether mobile, floating the terms of the agreement between the obligor and the Depart-
unmoored, moored, or standing on the seabed, which uses tempera- ment of Energy or other Federal agency; and
ture differences in ocean water to produce electricity or another form "(4) the provisions of this section may be used to guarantee
of energy capable of being used directly to perform work, and obligations for a total of not more than 5 separate commercial
includes any equipment installed on such facility or vessel to use such demonstration ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and
electricity or other form of energy to produce, process, refine, or plantships or a demonstrated 400 megawatt capacity, whichever
manufacture a product, and any cable or pipeline used to deliver such comes first.
electricity, freshwater, or product to shore, and all other associated "(b) A guarantee or commitment to guarantee shall not be made
equipment and appurtenances of such facility or vessel, to the extent under this section unless the Secretary of Energy, in consultation
they are located seaward of the highwater mark". with the Secretary of Commerce, certifies to the Secretary of Com-
(b) Section 1104(aX1) of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936 (46 U.S.C. merce that, for the ocean thermal energy conversion facility or
1274(aX1)), is amended by striking "or (E)" and inserting in lieu plantship for which the guarantee or commitment to guarantee is
thereof "(E) as an ocean thermal energy conversion facility or sought, there is sufficient guarantee of performance and payment to
plantship; or (F)". lower the risk to the Federal Government to a level which is
(c) Section 1104(bX2) of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936 (46 U.S.C. reasonable. The Secretary of Energy must base his considerations on
1274(bX2)), is amended by striking "vessel;" and inserting in lieu the following: (1) the successful demonstration of the technology to be
thereof "vessel: Provided further, That in the case of an ocean used in such facility at a scale sufficient to establish the likelihood of
thermal energy conversion facility or plantship which is constructed technical and economic viability in the proposed market; and (2) the
without the aid of construction-differential subsidy, such obligations need of the United States to develop new and renewable sources of
may be in an aggregate principal amount which does not exceed 87�2 energy and the benefits to be realized from the construction and
percent of the actual cost or depreciated actual cost of the facility or successful operation of such facility or plantship.
plantship;". "(c) A special subaccount in the Federal Ship Financing Fund, to be OTEC
known as the OTEC Demonstration Fund, shall be established on Demonstration
SEC. 203. OTEC DEMONSTRATION FIUND. October 1, 1981. The OTEC Demonstration Fund shall be used for
(a) Title XI of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936 (46 U.S.C. obligation guarantees authorized under this section which do not
1271-1279b) is further amended by adding at the end thereof a new qualify under other sections of this title. Except as specified other-
section 1110 to read as follows: wise in this section, the operation of the OTEC Demonstration Fund
Guarantees. "SEC. 1110. (a) Pursuant to the authority granted under section shall be identical with that of the parent Federal Ship Financing
46 USC 179c. 1103(a) of this title, the Secretary of Commerce, upon such terms as Fund: except that, notwithstanding the provisions of section 1104(g), 46 USC 1274.
he shall prescribe, may guarantee or make a commitment to guaran- (1) all moneys received by the Secretary pursuant to sections 1101
tee, payment of the principal of and interest on an obligation which through 1107 of this title with respect to guarantees or commitments 46 USC
1271-1279.

94 STAT. 994 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 995

to guarantee made pursuant to this section shall be deposited only in (3) to forcibly assault, resist, oppose, impede, intimidate, or
Notes or the OTEC Demonstration Fund, and (2) whenever there shall be interfere with any such authorized officer or employee in the
obligations. outstanding any notes or other obligations issued by the Secretary of conduct of any search or inspection described in paragraph (2) of
46 usc 1275. Commerce pursuant to section 1105(d) of this title with respect to the this section;
OTEC Demonstration Fund, all moneys received by the Secretary of (4) to resist a lawful arrest for any act prohibited by this
46 USc Commerce pursuant to sections 1101 through 1107 of this title with section; or
1271-1279. respect to ocean thermal energy conversional facilities or plantships (5) to interfere with, delay, or prevent, by any means, the
Transfer of shall be deposited in the OTEC Demonstration Fund. Assets in the apprehension or arrest of another person subject to this section
assets. OTEC Demonstration Fund may at any time be transferred to the knowing that the other person has committed any act prohibited
parent fund whenever and to the extent that the balance thereof by this section.
exceeds the total guarantees or commitments to guarantee made
pursuant to this section then outstanding, plus any notes or other SEC. 302. REMEDIES AND PENALTIES. 42 USC 9152.
obligations issued by the Secretary of Commerce pursuant to section (a)(1) The Administrator or his delegate shall have the authority to Orders, issuance
1105(d) of this title with respect to the OTEC Demonstration Fund. issue and enforce orders during proceedings brought under this Act. and
The Federal Ship Financing Fund shall not be liable for any guaran- Such authority shall include the authority to issue subpenas, admin- enforcement.
tees or commitments to guarantee issued pursuant to this section. ister oaths, compel the attendance and testimony of witnesses and
The aggregate unpaid principal amount of the obligations guaranteed the production of books, papers, documents, and other evidence, to
with the backing of the OTEC Demonstration Fund and outstanding take depositions before any designated individual competent to
at any one time shall not exceed $2,000,000,000. administer oaths, and to examine witnesses.
Noltes or "(d) The provisions of section 1105(d) of this title shall apply (2) Whenever on the basis of any information available to him the
obligations.
46 USC 1275. specifically to the OTEC Demonstration Fund as well as to the Fund: Administrator finds that any person subject to section 301 of this title
Provided, however, That any notes or obligations issued by the is in violation of any provision of this Act or any rule, regulation,
Secretary of Commerce pursuant to section 1105(d) of this title with order, license, or term or condition thereof, or other requirements
respect to the OTEC Demonstration Fund shall be payable solely under this Act, he may issue an order requiring such person to
from proceeds realized by the OTEC Demonstration Fund. comply with such provision or requirement, or bring a civil action in
Interest. "(e) The interest on any obligation guaranteed under this section accordance with subsection (b) of this section.
shall be included in gross income for purposes of chapter 1 of the (3) Any compliance order issued under this subsection shall state
26 USC 1 et seq. Internal Revenue Code of 1954.". with reasonable specificity the nature of the violation and a time for
(bX1) Section 1103(f) of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936 (46 U.S.C. compliance, not to exceed 30 days, which the Administrator deter-
1273(f)) is amended by striking out "$10,000,000,000." and inserting in mines is reasonable, taking into account the seriousness of the
lieu thereof "$12,000,000,000, of which $2,000,000,000 shall be limited violation and any good faith efforts to comply with applicable
to obligations pertaining to commercial demonstration ocean ther- requirements.
mal energy conversion facilities or plantships guaranteed pursuant (b)(1) Upon a request by the Administrator, the Attorney General
Ante. p. 992. to section 1110 of this title.", shall commence a civil action for appropriate relief, including a
Effective date. (2) The amendment made by paragraph (1) of this subsection shall permanent or temporary injunction, any violation for which the
46 USC 1273 take effect October 1, 1981. Administrator is authorized to issue a compliance order under
note. subsection (a)(2) of this section.
TITLE III-ENFORCEMENT (2) Upon a request by the Administrator, the Attorney General
shall bring an action in an appropriate district court of the United
42 USC 9151. SEC. 301. PROHIBITED ACTS. States for equitable relief to redress a violation, by any person subject
It is unlawful for any person who is a United States citizen or to section 301 of this title, of any provision of this Act, any regulation
national, or a foreign national on board an ocean thermal energy i ssued pursuant twho is found by the Administrator, after notice Liability
conversion facility or plantship or other vessel documented or num- and an opportunity for a hearing in accordance with section 554 of
bered under the laws o f the United States, or who is subject to the title 5, United States Code, to have committed an act prohibited by
jurisdiction of the United States by an international agreement to section 301 of this title shall be liable to the United States for a civil
which the United States is a party- penalty, not to exceed $25,000 for each violation. Each day of a
(1) to violate any provision of this Act, or any rule, regulation, continuing violation shall constitute a separat violation. Theday of a
or order issued pursuant to this Act, or any term or condition of amount of such civil penalty shall be assessed by the Administrator,
any license issued to such person pursuant to this Act; or his designee, by written notice. In determining the amount of such
(2) to refuse to permit any Federal officer or employee author- penalty, the Administrator shall take into account the nature,
ized to monitor or enforce the provisions of sections 110 and 303 circumstances, extent and gravity of the prohibited acts committed
of this Act to board an ocean thermal energy conversion facility and, with respect to the violator, the degree of culpability, any history
or plantship or any vessel documented or numbered under the of prior offenses, ability to pay, and such other matters as justice may
laws of the United States, for purposes of conducting any search
or inspection in connection with the monitoring or enforcement q
or inspection in connection with the monitoring or enforcement (2) Any person against whom a civil penalty is assessed under Review.
of this Act or any rule, regulation, order, term, or condition paragraph (1) of this subsection may obtain a review thereof in the
referred to in paragraph (11 of this section; appropriate court of the United States by filing a notice of appeal in

94 STAT. 996 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 997

such court within 30 days from the date of such order and by services, equipment, including aircraft and vessels, and facilities of
simultaneously sending a copy of such notice by certified mail to they other Federal agency or department, and may authorize officers
Filing of Administrator. The Administrator shall promptly file in such court a or employees of othe r departments or agencies to provide assistance
certified copy. certified copy of the record upon which such violation was found or
such penalty imposed, as provided in section 2112 of title 28, United as necessary in carrying out subsection (b) of this section. The
States Code. The findings and order of the Administrator shall be set Administrator and the Secretary of the department in which the
aside by such court if they are not found to be supported by Coast Guard is operating may issue regulationsjointly or severally as
substantial evidence, as provided in section 706(2) of title 5, United may be necessary and appropriate to carry out their duties under this
States Code. section.
Assessment, (3) If any person subject to section 301 fails to pay an assessment of (b) To enforce the provisions of this Act on board any ocean thermal
failure to pay. a civil penalty against him after it has become final, or after the energy conversion facility or plantship or other vessel subject to the
appropriate court has entered final judgment in favor of the Adminis- provisions of this Act, any officer who is authorized by the Adminis-
trator, the Administrator shall refer the matter to the Attorney trator or the Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is
General of the United States, who shall recover the amount assessed operating may-
Review. in any appropriate court of the United States. In such action, the (1) board and inspect any vessel which is subject to the
validity and appropriateness of the final order imposing the civil provisions of this Act;
penalty shall not be subject to review. (2) search the vessel if the officer has reasonable cause to
(4) The Administrator may compromise, modify, or remit, with or believe that the vessel has been used or employed in the violation
without conditions, any civil penalty which is subject to imposition or of any provision of this Act;
which has been imposed under this subsection. (3) arrest any person subject to section 301 of this title if the
(d)(1) Any person subject to section 301 of this title is guilty of an officer has reasonable cause to believe that the person has
offense if he willfully commits any act prohibited by such section. committed a criminal act prohibited by sections 301 and 302(d) of
(2) Any offense, other than an offense for which the punishment is this title;
prescribed by section 103 of this Act, is punishable by a fine of not (4) seize the vessel together with its gear, furniture, appurte-
which te violaion coninues.(4) seize the vessel together with its gear, furniture, appurte-
more than $75,000 for each day during which the violation continues.
Anyoffens2), (3), (4), and() of section 301 nances, stores, and cargo, used or employed in, or with respect to
Any offense described in paragraphs (2), (3), (4), and (5) of section 301
is punishable by the fine or imprisonment for not more than 6 which it reasonably appears that such vessel was used or em-
months, or both. If, in the commission of any offense, the person ployed in, the violation of any provision of this Act if such seizure
subject to section 301 uses a dangerous weapon, engages in conduct is necessary to prevent evasion of the enforcement of this Act;
that causes bodily injury to any Federal officer or employee, or places (5) seize any evidence related to any violation of any provision
any Federal officer or employee in fear of imminent bodily injury, the of this Act;
-'" offense is punishable by a fine of not more than $100,000 or imprison- (6) execute any warrant or other process issued by any court of
['.2\,~ ~ment for not more than 10 years, or both. competent jurisdiction; and
(e) Any ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship (7) exercise any other lawful authority.
licensed pursuant to this Act and any other vessel documented or (c) Except as otherwise specified in section 115 of this Act, the
numbered under the laws of the United States, except a public vessel district courts of the United States shall have exclusive original
engaged in noncommercial activities, used in any violation of this Act jurisdiction over any case or controversy arising under the provisions
or of any rule, regulation, order, license, or term or condition thereof, of this Act. Except as otherwise specified in this Act, venue shall lie in
or other requirements of this Act, shall be liable in rem for any civil any district wherein, or nearest to which, the cause of action arose, or
penalty assessed or criminal fine imposed and may be proceeded wherein any defendant resides, may be found, or has his principal
against in any district court of the United States having jurisdiction office. In the case of Guam, and any Commonwealth, territory, or
thereof, whenever it shall appear that one or more of the owners, or possession of the United States in the Pacific Ocean, the appropriate
bareboat charterers, was at the time of the violation a consenting court is the United States District Court for the District of Guam,
party or privy to such violation. except that in the case of American Samoa, the appropriate court is
42 Usc 9153. SEC. 303. ENFORCEMENT. the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii. Any such
Responsibility of (a) Except where a specific section of this Act designates enforce- court may, at any time-
NOAA ment responsibility, the provisions of this Act shall be enforced by the (1) enter restraining orders or prohibitions;
Administrator. Administrator. The Secretary of the department in which the Coast (2) issue warrants, process in rem, or other process;
Guard is operating shall have exclusive responsibility for enforce- (3) prescribe and accept satisfactory bonds or other security;
ment measures which affect the safety of life and property at sea, and
shall exercise such other enforcement responsibilities with respect to (4) take such other actions as are in the interest of justice.
vessels subject to the provisions of this Act as are authorized under (d) For the purposes of this section, the term "vessel" includes an Definitions.
other provisions of law, and may, upon the specific request of the ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship, and the term
Administrator, assist the Administrator in the enforcement of any "provisions of this Act" or "provision of this Act" includes any rule,
provision of this Act. The Administrator and the Secretary of the regulation, or order issued pursuant to this Act and any term or
department in which the Coast Guard is operating may, by agree- condition of any license issued pursuant to this Act.
ment, on a reimbursable basis or otherwise, utilize the personnel,

94 STAT. 998 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980 94 STAT. 999

TITLE IV-MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS (c)(1) For the purposes of the customs laws administered by the
Secretary of the Treasury, ocean thermal energy conversion facilities
42 USC 9161. SEC. 401. EFFECT OF LAW OF THE SEA TREATY. and plantships documented under the laws of the United States and
licensed under this Act shall be deemed to be vessels.
If the United States ratifies a treaty, which includes provisions licensed under this Act shall be deemed to be vessels.
with respect to jurisdiction over ocean thermal energy conversion (2) Except insofar as they apply to vessels documented under the
activities, resulting from any United Nations Conference on the Law laws of the United States, the customs laws administered by the
of the Sea, the Administrator, after consultation with the Secretary Secretary of the Treasury shall not apply to any ocean thermal
of State, shall promulgate any amendment to the regulations promul- energy conversion facility or plantship licensed under the provisions
gated under this Act which is necessary and appropriate to conform of this Act, but all foreign articles to be used in the construction of
such regulations to the provisions of such treaty, in anticipation of any such facility or plantship, including any component thereof, shall
the date when such treaty shall come into force and effect for, or first be made subject to all applicable duties and taxes which would
otherwise be applicable to, the United States. be imposed upon or by reason of their importation if they were
imported for consumption in the United States. Duties and taxes
42 USC 9162. SEC. 402. INTERNATIONAL NEGOTIATIONS. shall be paid thereon in accordance with laws applicable to merchan-
The Secretary of State, in cooperation with the Administrator and dise imported into the customs territory of the United States.
the Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is
ethe S ecretary of the departme nten in which the Coast Guard Js SEC. 404. SUBMARINE ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION CABLE AND EQUIPMENT 42 USC 9164.
operating, shall seek effective international action and cooperation in SAFETY.
support of the policy and purposes of this Act and may initiate and
conduct negotiations for the purpose of entering into international (a) The Secretary of Energy, in cooperation with other interested Safety standards
agreements designed to guarantee noninterference of ocean thermal Federal agencies and departments, shall establish and enforce such and regulations.
energy conversion facilities and plantships with the thermal gradi- standards and regulations as may be necessary to assure the safe
ents used by other such facilities and plantships, to assure protection construction and operation of submarine electric transmission cables
of such facilities and plantships and of navigational safety in the and equipment subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. Such
vicinity thereof, and to resolve such other matters relating to ocean standards and regulations shall include, but not be limited to,
thermal energy conversion facilities and plantships as need to be requirements for the use of the safest and best available technology
resolved in international agreements. for submarine electric transmission cable shielding, and for the use of
42 USC 9163. SEC. 403. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LAWS. automatic switches to shut off electric current in the event of a break
in such a cable.
(aX 1) The Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States shall in ucha cble
(aX The Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States shal (b) The Secretary of Energy, in cooperation with other interested Reportto
*apply to an ocean thermal energy conversion facility or plantship Federal agencies and departments, is authorized and directed to Congress.
licensed under this Act and to activities connected, associated, or
LAu~~~~ ~potentially interfering with the use or operation of any such facility report to the Congress within 60 days after the date of enactment of
or plantship, in the same manner as if such facility or plantship were this Act on appropriations and staffing needed to monitor submarine
an area of exclusive Federal jurisdiction located within a State. electric transmission cables and equipment subject to the jurisdiction
Nothing in this Act shall be construed to relieve, exempt, or immu- of the United States so as to assure that they meet all applicable
nize any person from any other requirement imposed by Federal law, standards for construction, operation, and maintenance.
regulation, or treaty. SEC. 405. ANNUAL REPORT. 42 USC 9165.
(2) Ocean thermal energy conversion facilities and plantships
licensed under this Act do not possess the status of islands and have Within 6 months after the end of each of the first 3 fiscal years after Submittal to
no territorial seas of their own. the date of enactment of this Act, the Administrator shall submit to Sesient of
(b)(l) Except as may otherwise be provided by this Act, nothing in the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Speaker of
this Act shall in any way alter the responsibilities and authorities ofa Representatives a report on the administration of this Act during House.
State or the United States within the territorial seas of the United such fiscal year. Such report shall include, with respect to the fiscal
States. year covered by the report-
(2) The law of the nearest adjacent coastal State to which an ocean (1) a description of progress in implementing this Act;
thermal energy conversion facility located beyond the territorial sea (2) a list of all licenses issued, suspended, revoked, relin-
and licensed under this Act is connected by electric transmission quished, surrendered, terminated, renewed, or transferred;
cable or pipeline, now in effect or hereafter adopted, amended, or denials of issuance of licenses; and required suspensions and
repealed, is declared to be the law of the United States, and shall modifications of activities under licenses;
apply to such facility, to the extent applicable and not inconsistent (3) a description of ocean thermal energy conversion activities
with any provision or regulation under this Act or other Federal laws undertaken pursuant to licenses;
and regulations now in effect or hereafter adopted, amended, or (4) the number and description of all civil and criminal pro-
repealed: Provided, however, That the application of State taxation ceedings instituted under title III of this Act, and the current
laws is not extended hereby outside the seaward boundary of any status of such proceedings; and
Enforcement. State. All such applicable laws shall be administered and enforced by (5) such recommendations as the Administrator deems appro-
the appropriate officers and courts of the United States outside the priate for amending this Act.
seaward boundary of any State.

94 STAT. 1000 PUBLIC LAW 96-320-AUG. 3, 1980

42 USC 9166. SEC. 406. AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS.
There are authorized to be appropriated to the Secretary of
Commerce, for the use of the Administrator in carrying out the
provisions of this Act, not to exceed $3,000,000 for the fiscal year
ending September 30, 1981, not to exceed $3,500,000 for the fiscal year
ending September 30, 1982, and not to exceed $3,500,000 for the fiscal
year ending September 30, 1983.
42 USC 9167. SEC. 407. SEVERABILITY.
If any provision of this Act or any application thereof is held
invalid, the validity of the remainder of the Act, or any other
application, shall not be affected thereby.
Approved August 3, 1980.

LEGISLATIVE HISTORY:
HOUSE REPORT No. 96-994 accompanying H.R. 6154 (Comm. on Merchant Marine
and Fisheries).
SENATE REPORT No. 96-721 (Comm. on Commerce, Science, and Transportation).
CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, Vol. 126 (1980):
July 2, considered and passed Senate.
July 21, H.R. 6154 considered and passed House; passage vacated and S. 2492
passed in lieu.
WEEKLY COMPILATION OF PRESIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS, Vol. 16, No. 32:
Aug. 4, Presidential statement.
0

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION RESEARCH,
DEVELOPMENT, AND DEMONSTRATION ACT

(PL 96-310 - JULY 17, 1980)

PUBLIC LAW 96-310--JULY 17, 1980 94 STAT. 941 94 STAT. 942 PUBLIC LAW 96-310-JULY 17,1980

*Public Law 96-310 ;States, its possessions and its territories, an average cost of
Public Law 96-3:10 electricity or energy product equivalent produced by installed
96th Congress ocean thermal energy conversion systems that is competitive
An Act with conventional energy sources; and
(4) establish as a national goal ten thousand megawatts of
To -provide for a research, development, and demonstration program to achieve July 17, 1980 electrical capacity or energy product equivalent from ocean
early technology applications for ocean thermal energy conversion systems, and [H.R. 7747] thermal energy conversion systems by the year 1999.
for other purposes.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the COMPREHENSIVE PROGRAM MANAGEMENT PLAN
United States ofAmerica in Congress assembled, That this Act may he Ocean Thermal 42 USC 9002. SEC. 3. (a)(1) The Secretary is authorized and directed to prepare a
cited as the "Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Research, Develop- Conversion comprehensive program management plan for the conduct under this
ment, and Demonstration Act". Research, Act of research, development, and demonstration activities consist-
Development, ent with the provisions of sections 4, 5, and 6.
FINDINGS AND PURPOSES and Consultation. (2) In the preparation of such plan, the Secretary shall consult with
SE. 2. (a) The ongress fAct. the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
on rnea . 42 USC 9001 istration, the Administrator of the Maritime Administration, the
(1) the supply of nonrenewable fuels in the United States s notAdministrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
slowly being depleted; 42 USC 9091.
(2) alternativingdepleted; 42 USC 90md1. tion, and the heads of such other Federal agencies and such public
(2) alternative sources of energy must be developed;
(3) ocean thermal energy is a renewable energy resource that and private organizations as he deems appropriate.
on ther energy ieneesou th Transmittal to (b) The Secretary shall transmit the comprehensive program man-
can make a significant contribution to the energy needs of the congessional agement plan to the Committee on Science and Technology of the
U nited States; committees. House of Representatives and the Committee on Energy and Natural
(4) the technology base for ocean thermal energy conversion
has improved over the pyast two years, and has consequently Resources of the Senate within nine months after the date of the
has improved over the past two years, and has consequently enactment of this Act.
lowered the technical risk involved in constructing moderate- enactmentofthisAct.
sizdplowerd pnthe witechane ical rlednof aboute- (c) The detailed description of the comprehensive plan under this
sized pilot plants with an electrical generating capacity of about- section shall include but need not be limited to-
ten to forty megawatts; (1) the anticipated research, development, and demonstration
(5) while the Federal ocean thermal energy conversion pro- objectives to be achieved by the program;
gram has grown in size and scope over the past several vyears. it is ob ecti
in the national interest to accelerate efibrts to commercialize (2) the program strategies and technology application and
r ocean thermal energy conversion by buildmng pilot and demon- market development plans, including detailed milestone goals to
ocean thermal energy conversion by building pilot and demon- be achieved during the next fiscal year for all major activities
stration facilities and to begin planning for the commercial ac the ext year for all major actties
demonstration of ocean thermal energy conversion technology; (3) a five-year implementation schedule for program elements
(6) a strong and innovative domestic industry committed to the with associated budget and program management resources
commercialization of ocean thermal energy conversion must be requirements;
established, and many competent domestic industrial groups are (4) a detailed description of the functional organization of the
already involved in ocean thermal energy conversion research
and del involved in lopment activityon and reseaprogram management including identification of permanent test
)and deelopment activity: andings oftheDomesticPolicyReviefacilities and of a lead center responsible for technology support
(7) consistent with the findings of the Domestic Policy Review and project management;
on Solar Energy, ocean thermal energy conversion energy can (5) the estimated relative financial contributions of the Federal
potentially contribute at least one-tenth of quad of energy per Government and non-Federal participants in the pilot and dem-
year by the year 2100. onstration projects;
(b) Therefore, the purpose of this Act is to accelerate ocean thermal (6) supporting research needed to solve problems which may
energy conversion technology development to provide a technical inhibit or limit development of ocean thermal energy conversion
base for meeting the following goals: systems; and
(1) demonstration by 1986 of at least one hundred megawatts of (7) an analysis of the environmental, economic, and societal
electrical capacity or energy product equivalent from ocean thermal energy conversion facilities.
thermal energyfconversion systems; htdiications. (d)(1) Concurrently with the submission of the President's annual
(2) demonstration by 1989 of at least five hundred megawatts of budget for each subsequent year, the Secretary shall transmit to the
Congress a detailed description of modifications which may be neces-
thermal energy conversion systems; sary to revise appropriately the comprehensive plan as then in effect.
(3) achievement in the mid-1990's, for the gulf coast region of setting forth any changes in circumstances which may have occurred
the continental United States and for islands in the United since the plan or the last previous modification thereof was transmit-
ted in accordance with this section.
(2) Such description shall also include a detailed justification of any
such changes, a detailed description of the progress made toward
achieving the goals of this Act, a statement on the status of inter-

59-139 0 - 8o (1371

PUBLIC LAW 96-310-JULY 17, 1980 94 STAT. 943 94 STAT. 944 PUBLIC LAW 96-310-JULY 17, 1980

agency cooperation in meeting such goals, any comments on and provide energy to United States offshore States, its territories, and its
recommendations for improvements in the comprehensive program possessions and (2) seek satisfactory cost-sharing arrangements when
management plan made by the Technical Panel established under he deems such arrangements to be appropriate.
section 8, and any legislative or other recommendations which the
Secretary may have to help attain such goals. TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Consultation. SEC. 6 (a) The Secretary shall, in consultation with the Administra-
42 USC 9005. tor of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the
SEC. 4. (a) The Secretary shall initiate research or accelerate 42 usc 9003. Administrator of the Maritime Administration, the Administrator of
existing research in areas in which the lack of knowledge limits the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and the Techni-
development of ocean thermal energy conversion systems in order to cal Panel established under section 8, prepare a comprehensive
achieve the purposes of this Act. technology application and market development plan that will
(b) The Secretary shall conduct evaluations, arrange for tests, and permit realization of the ten-thousand-megawatt national goal by the
disseminate to developers information, data, and materials necessary year 1999. Such plans shall include at a minimum-
to support the design efforts undertaken pursuant to section 5. (1) an assessment of those Government actions required to
Specific technical areas to be addressed shall include, but not be achieve a two-hundred- to four-hundred-megawatt electrical-
limited to- commercial demonstration of ocean thermal energy conversion
(1) interface requirements between the platform and cold systems in time to have industry meet the goal contained in
water pipe; section 2(bX2) including a listing of those financial, property, and
(2) cold water pipe deployment techniques; patent right packages most likely to lead to early commercial
(3)heatexchangers; demonstration at minimum cost to the Federal Government;
(4) control system simulation; (2) an assessment of further Government actions required to
(5) stationkeeping requirements; and permit expansion of the domestic ocean thermal energy conver-
(6) energy delivery systems, such as electric cable or energy sion industry to meet the goal contained in section 2(b)(3);
product transport. (3) an analysis of further Government actions necessary to aid
(c) The Secretary shall, for the purpose of performing his the industry in minimizing and removing any legal and institu-
reponsibilities pursuant to this Act, solicit proposals and evaluate tional barriers such as the designation of a lead agency: and
any reasonable new or improved technology, a description of which is (4) an assessment of the necessary Government actions to
submitted to the Secretary in writing, which could lead or contribute assist in eliminating economic uncertainties through financial
to the development of ocean thermal energy conversion system incentives, such as loan guarantees, price supports, or other
technology. inducements.
Transmittal to (b) The Secretary shall transmit such comprehensive technology
PILOT AND DEMONSTRATION PLANTS Congress. application and market development plan to the Congress within
three years after the date of enactment of this Act, and update the
SEC. 5. (a) The Secretary is authorized to initiate a program to 42 USC 9004. plan on an annual basis thereafter.
design, construct, and operate well instrumented ocean thermal (c) As part of the competitive procurement initiative for design and
energy conversion facilities of sufficient size to demonstrate the construction of the pilot and demonstration projects authorized in
technical feasibility and potential economic feasibility of utilizing the section 10(c), each respondent shall include in its proposal (1) a plan
various forms of ocean thermal energy conversion to displace non- leading to a full-scale, first-of-a-kind facility based on a proposed
renewable fuels. To achieve the goals of this section and to facilitate demonstration system; and (2) the financial and other contributions
development of a strong industrial basis for the application of ocean the respondent will make toward meeting the national goals.
thermal energy conversion system technology, at least two independ-
ent parallel demonstration projects shall be competitively selected. PROGRAM SELECTION CRITERIA
(b) The specific goals of the demonstration program shall include at
a minimum- 42 USC 9006. SEC. 7. The Secretary shall, in fulfilling his responsibilities under
(1) the demonstration of ocean thermal energy conversion this Act, select program activities and set priorities which are
technical feasibility through multiple pilot and demonstration consistent with the following criteria:
plants with a combined capacity of at least one hundred (1) realization of energy production costs for ocean thermal
megawatts of electrical capacity or energy product equivalent by energy conversion systems that are competitive with costs from
the year 1986; conventional energy production systems;
(2) the delivery of baseload electricity to utilities located on (2) encouragement of projects for which contributions to proj-
land or the production of commercially attractive quantities of ect costs are forthcoming from private, industrial, utility. or
energy product; and governmental entities for the purpose of sharing with the k eder-
(3) the continuous operation of each pilot and demonstration al Government the costs of purchasing and installing ocean
facility for a sufficient period of time to collect and analyze thermal energy conversion systems;
system performance and reliability data. (3) promotion of ocean thermal energy conversion facilities for
(c) In providing any financial assistance under this section, the coastal areas, islands, and isolated military institutions which
Secretary shall (1) give full consideration to those projects which will are vulnerable to interruption in the fossil fuel supply;

PUBLIC LAW 96-310-JULY 17, 1980 94 STAT. 945 94 STAT. 946 PUBLIC LAW 96-310-JULY 17, 1980

(4) preference for and priority to persons and domestic firms DEFINITIONS
whose base of operations is in the United States as will assure 42 USc 9008. SEC. 9. As used in this Act, the term-
that the program under this Act promotes the development of a (1) "ocean thermal energy conversion" means a method of
United States domestic technology for ocean thermal energy converting part of the heat from the Sun which is stored in the
conversion; and surface layers of a body of water into electrical energy or energy
(5) preference for proposals for pilot and demonstration proj- product equivalent;
ects in which the respondents certify their intent to become an (2) "energy product equivalent" means an energy carrier
integral part of the industrial infrastructure necessary to meet including, but not limited to, ammonia, hydrogen, or molten salts
the goals of this Act. or an energy-intensive commodity, including, but not limited to,
electrometals, fresh water, or nutrients for aquaculture; and
TECHNICAL PANEL (3) "Secretary" means the Secretary of Energy.
SEC. 8. (a) A Technical Panel of the Energy Research Advisory 42 USC 900, AUTHORIZATION FOR APPROPRIATION
Board shall be established to advise the Board on the conduct of the
ocean thenral energy conversion program. 42 US 9oo09. SEC. 10. (a) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated to carry
(bMI) The Technical Panel shall be comprised of such representa- Membership out the purposes of this Act the sum of $20,000,000 for operating
tives from domestic industry, universities, Government laboratories, expenses for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1981, in addition to
financial, environmental and other organizations as the Chairman of any amounts authorized to be appropriated in the fiscal year 1981
the Energ yResearch Advisory Board deems appropriate based on his 42 USC 7270. Authorization Act pursuant to section 660 of Public Law 95-91.
gy R~esearch Advisory Board deems appropriate based on his (b) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated to carry out the
assessment of the technical and other qualifications of such repre- (b) There is hereby auct thorized to e appropriated to carry out the
sentative. purposes of this Act the sum of $60,000,000 for operating expenses for
(2) Members of the Technical Panel need not be members of the full the fiscal year ending e appropriated for fiscal year
Energy Research Advisory Board. (c) Funds are hereby authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year
)Energy Researchnical Panel shall be in complianBoard. 1981 to carry out the purposes of section 5 of this Act for plant and
(c) The activities of the Technical Panel shall be in compliance with capital equipment as follows:
any laws and regulations guiding the activities of technical and fact- Project 81-ES-I, ocean thermal energy conversion demostration
finding groups reporting to the Energy Research Advisory Board. plants with a combined capacity of at least one hundred megawatts
(d) The Technical Panel shall review and may make recommenda- Review and electrical or the energy product equivalent, sites to be determined,
tions on the following items, among others: recommendations. conceptual and preliminary design activities only 83,000,000.
(1) implementation and conduct of the programs established by (d) Funds are hereby authorized to be appropriated for fiscal year
this Act; 1982 to carry out the purposes of section 5 of this Act for plant and
(2) definition of ocean thermal energy conversion system capital equipment as follows:
performance requirements for various user applications; and Project 81-ES-I, ocean thermal energy conversion demonstration
(3) economic, technological, and environmental consequences plants with a combined capacity of at least one hundred megawatts
of the deployment of ocean thermal energy conversion systems. electrical or the energy product equivalent, sites to be determined,
(e) The Technical Panel shall submit to the Energy Research Report, conceptual and preliminary design activities only $25,000,000.
Advisory Board on at least an annual basis a written report of its Uonlittal o
findings and recommendations with regard to the program. Such Approved July 17,1980.
report, shall include at a minimum--
(1) a summary of the Panel's activities for the preceding year;
(2) an assessment and evaluation of the status of the programs
mandated by this Act: and
(3) comments on and recommendations for improvements in
the comprehensive program management plan required under
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~section 3. ~LEGISLATIVE HISTORY:
(f) After consideration of the Technical Panel report, the Energy Submittal to
Research Advisory Board shall submit such report, together with any Secretary. HOUSE REPORT No. 96-1092 aComm. on Sciencergy and Technology).
SENATE REPORT No 96-501 accompanying S. 1830 (Comm. on Energy and Natural
comments such Board deems appropriate, to the Secretary. Resources).
(g) The heads of the departments, agencies, and instrumentalities Cooperation by CONGRESSIONAL RECORD, Vol. 126 i9lSt0:
of the executive branch of the Federal Government shall cooperate agency heads. Jan. 25, S. 18:30 considered and passed Senate.
June 16, 17, H.R 7474 considered and passed House.
with the Technical Panel in carrying out the requirements of this June 28, considered and passed Senate. amended.
section and shall furnish to the Technical Panel such information as July 2, House concurred in Senate amendment to the title and concurred in
the Technical Panel deems necessary to carry out this section Senate amendment to the text with an amendment; Senate concurred
(h) The Secretary shall provide sufficient staff, funds, and other Support. WEEKLY COMPILATION OF PRESIDENTIAL DOCUMENTS. Vol. 16 No. 29:
support as necessary to enable the Technical Panel to carry out the July 18, Presidential statement.
functions described in this section. 0

Appendix B

OTEC PROGRAM STATUS

The concept of using the temperature differential between warm surface and
cold deep ocean waters as a source of energy was first proposed by Jacques
D'Arsonval in 1881. In 1930, Georges Claude constructed an open-cycle OTEC
power plant off the coast of Cuba, but his experiments were not successful in
demonstrating that net electrical power could be produced by the OTEC
concept. Minimal interest was given to OTEC as a potential energy resource
until 1972, when the declining supply of nonrenewable fuels and increased
price of imported oil forced the United States to assess alternative methods
for achieving its energy requirements. OTEC funding in the U.S. was initiated
in 1972 by the National Science Foundation (NSF) Research Applied to National
Needs (RANN') Program. The Ocean Systems Branch of the Department of Energy
(DOE) is presently responsible for managing the OTEC Program.

Prior to 1977, OTEC program development centered primarily on component
research and system feasibility studies. At that time, a body of influential
opinion held the OTEC concept to be, at best, economically unsound and, at
worst, unworkable. Results received from DOE-funded studies after 1977 showed
that OTEC engineering problems were surmountable and that the fundamental
theoretical calculations were sufficiently sound to warrant construction of
small-scale test platforms. The DOE and private industries initiated the
development of several OTEC test platforms, which have recently begun
operation. A brief summary of the status of these projects is presented in
the following subsections.

The DOE OTEC program is proceeding toward its goal of demonstrating the
technological, economic, and environmental feasibility of OTEC power plants
through interrelated subprograms of strategy and definition planning,
engineering development, and commercial demonstration. The DOE OTEC program
will culminate in the demonstration of a 40-MWe (net) pilot plant by 1986.
The OTEC Pilot Plant program is briefly described in section B.4.

B.1 Mini-OTEC

Mini-OTEC is a modified U.S. Navy barge which became the world's first
successful closed-cycle OTEC plant to produce net energy at sea. The first
deployment of Kini-OTEC occurred near Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii and was a joint
venture between the State of Hawaii, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company
(LMSC), Dillingham Corporation, and other participants. The general
objectives of the Mini-OTEC project were to:

Develop an operating at-sea OTEC system

* Gain "real-world" operating experience on an OTEC system

* Provide a subsystem, component, and technology facility that can
be used for test purposes

Expand public awareness of the OTEC potential.

The Mini-OTEC power plant was designed and assembled by LMSC, the titanium
heat exchangers were loaned by Alfa Laval Thermal of Sweden, and Dillingham
Corporation modified the barge and installed the cold-water pipe. Offsite
construction of heat exchangers and other plant components began in late 1978,
and shipyard modifications to the barge began in January 1979. The barge was
deployed to the mooring site off Ke-ahole Point in July 1979 and the first
successful production of net OTEC power occurred on 2 August 1979. Mini-OTEC
produced an average of 18 kWe net electrical power from a seawater temperature
differential of 210C. Plant operation was concluded in November 1979, after
operating for a total of approximately 620 hours.

B-2

Plans are being made by the DOE to redeploy Mini-OTEC and demonstrate
either the transmission of OTEC-produced electricity to shore through a
submarine transmission cable, or the production of energy-intensive products,
such as hydrogen or ammonia.

B.2 OTEC-1

OTEC-1, a converted T-2 tanker renamed the Ocean Energy Converter, is a
test platform from which various OTEC plant components can be tested at sea.
The primary objectives of the OTEC-1 project are to operate and test modular
components, without generating electricity, to evaluate:

a Engineering designs and construction materials,
a Heat exchanger performance,
� Corrosion and biofouling control methods, and
� Potential environmental impacts.

OTEC-1 was deployed in September 1980, and began operating in January
1981. The first deployment, curtailed to six months as a result of funding
constraints, evaluated the titanium tube-in-shell heat exchanger design.
After refitting, OTEC-1 will be redeployed in 1983 to test titanium and
aluminum plate-type heat exchangers and tube-in-shell heat exchangers
constructed from materials other than titanium.

B.3 Seacoast Test Facility

The Seacoast Test Facility (STF) will be located at the Natural Energy
Laboratory of Hawaii at Ke-ahole Point, Hawaii. The Seacoast Test Facility is
a land-based OTEC plant from which biofouling and corrosion experiments will
be conducted. These experiments will help develop long-term biofouling
control measures for a variety of potential OTEC heat-exchanger materials and
configurations.

B-3

The Seacoast Test Facility will be constructed and operated in two separate
stages. The first stage, STF-1, is designed for the study of biofouling and
corrosion control in experiments using only warm seawater drawn from the
surface. Stage 2 (STF-2) is planned to be constructed during the operational
period of STF-1. STF-2 is designed to expand the experimental program of
STF-1 by investigating biofouling and corrosion control using both warm- and
cold-seawater, which will be drawn from depths seaward of the STF-1 warm-water
intake.

B.4 OTEC Pilot Plant

The DOE OTEC Program is presently at the stage of development where a pilot
plant of intermediate electricity generating capacity is necessary to
demonstrate the potential for commercial OTEC applications. The OTEC Pilot
Plant will be used to develop design and construction methodology for
commercial OTEC plants, acquaint user industries with the operating
requirements and product potential of commercial OTEC plants, and determine
the potential for cost reduction. The goal of the OTEC Pilot Plant Program is
to demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of OTEC electric power
generation on a scale that is an order of magnitude greater than that
previously tested and within a reasonable scale of a commercial plant.

The OTEC Pilot Plant Program consists of six phases:

(I) Conceptual design
(II) Preliminary design
(III) Detailed design
(IV) Construction, deployment, and acceptance test
(V) Joint operational test and evaluation
(VI) Transfer of ownership and contractor operation.

The Pilot Plant Program is presently entering the Conceptual Design phase.
In an effort to stimulate the greatest possible interest in the Pilot Plant
Program, the DOE elected to use the Program Opportunity Notice (PON) technique
of solicitation for Phase I. The OTEC Pilot Plant PON was released by the DOE

B-4

in September 1980, with five to eight contracts for Pilot Plant conceptual
design expected to be awarded in mid-1981. Phases II through VI will be
exercised at the option of the DOE, and are expected to result in the
deployment and operation of two OTEC Pilot Plants.

The closed-cycle OTEC Pilot Plant will have a minimum net capacity of 40
MWe, but the choice of platform configuration, plant design, and deployment
site will be proposed by contract solicitors. Moored, bottom-resting tower,
land-based, and grazing plantship designs are being considered for the OTEC
Pilot Plant.

B-5

Appendix C

CANDIDATE OTEC AREA MAPS

This appendix presents a general overview of potential OTEC operational
areas. These areas were selected by DOE for further investigation because
they were deemed representative of regions in which commercial OTEC plants
would be sited. The charts shown here illustrate the more salient features
of potential siting regions, such as bottom topography, major landmasses,
electrical grids, and specific locations of OTEC sampling and testing areas.
An index to the charts in this section is provided in Figures 3-1a and 3-lb.

C-1

LIMITS OF TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS (U.S.A)
I~ '6000m WAKE ISLAND -20�00'N
' MARIANA

PHILIPPINE SEA

2BIKINIt 2 RONCELAP
/t 4000 m "~-( se�� iATOLL _ V ATOLL

-Uob '~j ~L � -10�00'
/0X1 p , 00 mENIWETOK ATOLL -10�00'

YAP ISLANDS _/MARSHALL
YAP 1 7ANEI44W .d\ TRUK SENYAVIN \ ISLANDL
/*AU , ISLANDS W ISLANDS 1.

PALAU ISLANDS4 , -

,44 ^ CAROLINE ISLANDS

'4Ooo~~

t ~~~~~~/ Kilometers
LIMITS OF TRUST TERRITORY OF THE PACIFIC ISLANDS (U.S.A) 0 200
~200~- 0o00 600 ,
130'00' 140�00' 150.00' 160'00' 170�00'E

Figure C-1. Pacific Trust Territory
Source: U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1969

Philippine Sea

133'
200~~~~~~~~~~~~~

A ra Harbor~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Cocos Lagooneddo

144'40'~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 143030'N

FiueC2 sln fGa
Sore .S. Dearten ofComere,97

pra Harbor~C-

Maui, Electrical Grid

( ~~~~~~~Kapaa220N

OTEC Baseline Sampling Site Honolulu

'-4000 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Kau 21'00'

Oahu Electrical GridI
-20'001

a Fossil Fuel Generating Station
Ak Distribution Substation OTEC-l1

Kilometers
H-HA--1900
0 30 60

160'00' 159,00, 158,000, 157600' 156'00' 15500O'W

Figure C-.3. Hawaiian Islands
Source: DOE, 1978d; DOC, 1978b

1100, NTRAL ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~16'00'N

14'00'

12,00,

10,00,

4000 m
-8100,

~~~~~~~~EatPacificOca

- 200,

Kilometers j Galapagos - 0000
U I I~~~~~........
0~ ~ ~~~~~~........... . 0 ....
4 . Y.Y.Y.Y.~~~~~~~~~

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'0

I I '~~~I I I I ~'20
100o00~~ 98~00' 96o00~~ 94O00~ 92~00' 90o00~~ 88o00~ 8602000

3000r C-.Esmaii PathpRgo
Source: U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1973~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1

Kilometers 0100-5

LOUISIANA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/

NEW ORLEANS 0-E -30'N

~~~~~30 100 20

�~~~~~~CB ANONTED STAmplngSie

-- 20'C AT EVERY MONTH

EM_:20.6'C AT ANNUAL AVERAGE CB

900 850 801E
Figure C-5. Eastern Gulf of Mexico
Source: Molinari and Festa, 1978; U.S. Department of State, 1979

CAYMAN ISLANDS 2oO

18,OO'

.2~~~~~~~~~~~~~CLMI.. 0000

'7000 0O 70O760W

0-7~~~~~~4Q

I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~19'00'N

MayagueRIC(UERTO RVCO

01~~~4 HyrElectricGeratln DOan
A Distribution Subilation~~~Gri

F~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ilometC.PersoRc

A Di~~~~~soriurce: DO, 97d;U..aeooicaouve,17

- ~~~SAINT CROHN

0~~~~ ~~~~~~~ 10 2

65000F00 n 185030'

Figure C-8. U.S. Virgi slndsj

Source: DOEC17d Bas. eoloincamlingvy 17

C-9~~ itint

"'-- ~6000 m"e10 t Africa

Rochedos Seo Pedro e Seo Paulo
-0,0001

Sampling Region*

'Frado de Noronha

Sout~~~~~~~~~.1
I / * ~~~~~~~~~~~~Ascension

/ - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~10,0001

*/ ~~~~~~~~~~South Atlantic
Plantship Region

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I C00'

B S ~~~~~~~~~0 200 400 -200
40'000 30000' 20'0001 10006w

Fi gure C-9. South Atlantic Plantship Region
Source: U.S. Naval Hydrographic Office, 1951
*Region sampled by Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (Wilde, 1979)

C- 10

Appendix D

IMPACT AND RELATED CALCULATIONS

This section describes the mathematical models used to investigate the
potential impacts of various aspects of OTEC operation. Values of physical,
chemical, and biological parameters used in the calculations were derived
from the environmental descriptions in Chapter 3. The flow rates used for
the warm- and cold-water intakes of commercial OTEC plants are presented in
Chapter 1.

D.1 PERCENT OF PROJECTED ELECTRICITY DEMAND TO BE SUPPLIED BY OTEC BY THE
YEAR .2000

Gulf of Mexico and Puerto Rico. The percent of the projected electricity
need for the year 2000 to be supplied by OTEC to the Gulf of Mexico and
Puerto Rico was calculated by dividing the projected total OTEC power output
by the projected energy demand for the year 2000. Table D-1 summarizes these
calculations.

Hawaii, Virgin Islands, Guam, and Mariana Islands. The projected
electricity consumption for the year 2000 was calculated by multiplying the
current average annual per capita electricity usage for the Virgin Islands,
the Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands by the projected
population for the year 2000. The percent of the projected electricity need
for the year 2000 to be supplied by OTEC was calculated by dividing the
projected total OTEC power output by the projected electricity demand for the
year 2000. The results are summarized in Table D-2.

D-1

TABLE D-1

PERCENT OF PROJECTED ELECTRICITY NEED FOR YEAR 2000-
GULF OF MEXICO AND PUERTO RICO

Projected Percent of
Electricity Electricity Total
Area Consumption for the Supplied by Projected
Year 2000 OTEC by Year by Year
2000 2000
(1012 BTU) (108 MWh) (108 MWh)

Gulf of Mexico 21,700 63 0.2 <1
(including Alabama,
Florida, Louisiana,
Mississippi, and
Texas)

Puerto Rico 588 2 0.09 5

D.2 CARBON DIOXIDE RELEASE FROM ALUMINUM PRODUCTION

The production of aluminum (Al) from alumina (Al203) results in the
release of carbon dioxide (C02). The Alcoa process and the drained-cathode
Hall process release different amounts of carbon dioxide. The calculations
in this section involve only the carbon dioxide released by the actual
reduction of alumina, and do not consider the additional carbon dioxide
released through the generation of electricity to drive the process. A
400-MWe plantship will release 5.5 x 105 to 9.0 x 105 metric tons of
carbon dioxide per year in the generation of electricity (Sands, 1980).

Alcoa Process. A 100-MWe plantship using the Alcoa process can produce about
4
7.8 x 10 metric tons of aluminum per year (Jones et al., 1980). Assuming
a direct increase in aluminum output with increasing plantship generating
capacity, a 400-MWe plantship will produce about 3.1 x 10 metric tons of
aluminum per year.

D-2

TABLE D-2. PERCENT OF THE PROJECTED ENERGY NEED TO BE
SUPPLIED BY OTEC BY THE YEAR 2000 TO THE VIRGIN ISLANDS, HAWAIIAN ISLANDS,
GUAM, AND THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS

Average Annual Projected Electricity Percent Of Pro-
Power Per Capita Projected Electricity Supplied by jected Electri-
Consumed Approximate Electricity Population Demand for OTEC for city Need Supplied
(Year) Population Usage (Year) for Year Year 2000 Year 2000 Supplied by OTEC
(MWh) (Year) (MWh/person) 2000 (MWh) (MWh) for Year 2000

Virgin Islands
St. Croix 177,000 (1979)a 48,000 (1979)b 4 (1979) 82,000b 300,000 300,000 100
St. Thomas, St. John 222,000 (1979)a 47,000 (1979)b 5 (1979) 67,0060 300,000 300,000 300,000 100

Hawaiian Islands c
Oahu 4,900,000 (1977) 723,400 (1977) 7 (1977) 917,400 6,000,000 5,000,000 80
Hawaii 380,000 (1977) 78,100 (1977) 5 (1977) 123,300 600,000 300,000 50
Kauai 170,000 (1977) 33,800 (1977) 5 (1977) 60,400 300,000 300,000 100
Maui, Lanai, Molokai 380,000 (1977) 59,400 (1977) 6 (1977) 124,700 800,000 700,000 90

Guam 1,000,000 (1980)d 125,000 (1980)e 8 (1980) 200,000e 1,600,000 1,600,000 100

Northern Mariana Islands No information 16,200 (1978)f 6g 34,000f 204,000 175,200 90

Sources

(a) Martin, 1980.
(b) U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979b.
(c) State of Hawaii, 1978.
(d) Smith, 1981.
(e) U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1979a.
(f) U.S. Dept of Commerce, No Date.
(g) No information available for Guam. Value is mean of other island areas.

The Alcoa process releases carbon dioxide through the reduction of alumina
to aluminum chloride (AIC 13):

(A) 2 A1203 + 3C + 6C12 --4 A1C13+ 3 C02

Aluminum chloride is further reduced to aluminum

(B) 2A1C13- - 2A1 + 3 C12.

3.1 x 105 metric tons of aluminum is equal to 1.1 of 1010 moles of
aluminum:

11 1 mole Al 10
(3.1 xlo g Al) 1m A= 1.1 x 10 moles Al.
27 g Al

One mole of alumina is required to produce two moles of aluminum (Equations A
and B); 1.1 x 1010 moles of aluminum consequently requires 5.5 x 109
moles of alumina. The reduction of two moles of alumina produces three moles
of carbon dioxide (Equation A); 5.5 x 109 moles of alumina will
consequently produce 8.2 x 109 moles, or 3.6 x 105 metric tons, of carbon
dioxide.

(8.2 x 109 moles C02) 44 g CO2 = 3.6 x 1011g C2
1 mole C0
2
= 3.6 x 105 metric tons CO2.

The annual production of 3.1 x 105 metric tons of aluminum using the
Alcoa process will release 3.6 x 105 metric tons of carbon dioxide.

Drained-Cathode Hall Process. A 100-MWe plantship could produce about 6.4 x
10 metric tons of aluminum per year through the drained-cathode Hall
process (Jones et al., 1980); correspondingly, a 400-MWe plantship could

D-4

produce 2.6 x 105 metric tons of aluminum per year. A simplified descrip-
tion of the reduction of alumina (Equation C) shows that this process pro-
duces carbon dioxide in the same proportion to aluminum as the Alcoa process:

5 9
2.6 x 10 metric tons of aluminum is equal to 9.6 x 10 moles
of aluminum; this requires 4.8 x 10 moles of alumina, producing
7.2 x 109 moles of carbon dioxide, or 3.2 x 105 metric tons of
carbon dioxide.

An annual production of 2.6 x 105 tons of aluminum through the drained
cathode Hall process could result in the release of 3.2 x 105 metric tons
of carbon dioxide.

D.3 PROJECTED CARBON DIOXIDE RELEASE THROUGH OTEC OPERATION BY THE YEAR 2000

The following calculations present an order of magnitude estimate of the
amount of carbon dioxide that could be released from OTEC deployment accord-
ing to the scenario for the year 2000 (Table 1-3). Carbon dioxide release
was calculated for open- and closed-cycle generating plants, and ammonia- and
aluminum-producing plantships.

Closed-cycle Baseload GeneratinR Plants. The total baseload generating
capacity is predicted to be 3580 MWe by the year 2000. At an estimated
release rate of 5 metric tons of carbon dioxide per MWe per day (Sands,
1980), 6.5 x 106 metric tons of carbon dioxide will be released per year.

Open-cycle Baseload Generating Plants. Open-cycle plants are projected to
supply 830 MWe by the year 2000. At a carbon dioxide release rate of about
57 metric tons per MWe per day (Section D.4), the projected open-cycle
deployment will release 1.7 x 107 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year by
the year 2000.

D-5

Aluminum- and Ammonia-oroducing Plantships. Aluminum- and ammonia- producing
plantships could produce 2200 MWe of electricity through a closed-cycle
system by the year 2000. This will release about 4 x 106 metric tons of
carbon dioxide per year. In addition, projected aluminum production will
release about 3.4 x 105 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year (Section
D.2). The estimated plantship deployment by the year 2000 could release a
total of 4.3 x 106 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year.

Total Carbon Dioxide Output by the Year 2000.

Closed-cycle baseload electricity 6.5 x 10 metric tons CO2
generation
Open-cycle baseload electricity 17 x 106 metric tons CO2
generation
Plantship operation and aluminum 4.3 x 106 metric tons CO
2
production

Total 27.8 x 106 metric tons CO2

D.4 OPEN-CYCLE CARBON DIOXIDE DISCHARGE

Open-cycle plant operation requires the removal of non-condensible gases
from the working fluid system.(Watt et al., 1978). This will release large
quantities of carbon dioxide.

Flow rates for a 40 MWe open-cycle OTEC plant are estimated to be
3 -1 3 -1
209 m sec and 159 m sec for the warm and cold water systems,
respectively (Watt et al., 1977). At an average seawater density of
1.025 g 1 1 (Gross, 1977), the mass flow rates are 2.14 x 105 kg sec-1
for warm water, and 1.63 x 105 kg sec-1 for cold water.

Carbon dioxide concentrations at the surface and at 1100 m were taken from
Takahashi et al., (1970). These values were measured in the eastern North
Pacific Ocean and will be used to represent typical ocean values.

D-6

Total carbon dioxide available (Takahashi et al., 1970):

Warm water (surface)

1.947 x 10-3 moles CO2 kg 1 seawater
= 8.567 x 105 kg CO2 kg1 seawater

Cold water (1100 m)

2.328 x 10-3 moles CO2 kg 1 seawater
= 1.024 x 104 kg CO2 kg1 seawater

Assuming that 75% of the equilibrium condition gas is liberated by the
plant (Watt et al., 1978), the amount of CO2 released is equal to:

(0.75)(Total CO2 available)(Mass flow rate) = Total CO2 released

(0.75)(8.567 x 10-5 kg CO2 kg Iseawater)(2.14 x 10 kg seawater sec )

+(0.75)(1.024 x 10 -4 kg CO2 kg Iseawater)(1.63 x 105 kg seawater sec 1)

-1
= 26.3 kg CO2 sec

A 40 MWe open-cycle plant could release 26.3 kg of carbon dioxide per
second, or 2270 metric tons of carbon dioxide per day.

D.5 LARVAL ENTRAINMENT

Natural variations in the geographic distribution of organisms makes the
siting and spacing of OTEC plants a determining influence in the nature and
magnitude of larval entrainment. The potential impacts of different siting
and spacing alternatives are illustrated in the following model. These
calculations consider the impact of larval entrainment on three species of
commercially-exploited fish, representing different life histories, found
around the island of Oahu, Hawaii. The primary purpose of this model is to

D-7

illustrate the different natures and magnitudes of entrainment impacts
resulting from various OTEC siting and spacing configurations. The results
present an order of magnitude estimate of the impacts to commercial fisheries
of OTEC deployment around an island community.

Larval entrainment for each species is estimated for three 400-MWe OTEC
plants (1) clustered off Kahe Point, (2) clustered off Waimea Bay, and (3)
spaced evenly around Oahu. Because impacts may vary with different types of
fish, three species representing different life histories were selected: a
carangid, Seriola spp. (kahala, amberjack), a pelagic/neritic species with
pelagic eggs; a pomacentrid, Abudefduf abdominalis (maomao, damselfish), an
inshore reef species with demersal eggs; and a scombrid, Thunnus albacores
(ahi, yellow-fin tuna), an offshore species with pelagic eggs.

The model follows the following four steps:

(a) The distribution and density of larvae of three commercially-
important fish were estimated.

Larval distribution around Oahu was obtained from the
literature; larval density was averaged from sampling
stations located nearest the plant locations used
(Figure D-1).

(b) Larval entrainment for each species was estimated for the three
different deployment scenarios.

Larval entrainment was estimated by multiplying larval
density by the plant's warm-water flow rate.

(Larval density) (Flow rate) = Entrainment estimate.

D-8

Kaehe .0 OH .0OH
0.0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

0.0 ~ ~ ~ Wakk 0 .03./07 ;

H.aua . 0. D0.
.0-1 ~ 3 41 -41 H 138 1

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Legen
SamlnStto
Location~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
2.9 Number of Larvae~~~~.
1,000 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~0 m33
- 18m Isobath~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

40 U. 20 400

Feigure D-. Sbummerd Densmities ofuu Larvae TreCmecialyImoran

~~~pce fFs rudOhHwi Number of Larvae pr100i3
2.9 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~Sore Miller eta.,17

Entrainment values were assumed to be additive for multi-
ple plant deployment. For a three-plant cluster off Kahe
Point, the entraiment of SerioZa spp. was calculated as:

3(0.0021 m -3) (173 X 106 m3 day 1) (365 days year 1)
= 4.0 x 108 year-1

The impact of larval entrainment on adult populations was
assessed using a model developed by Horst (1975). This
model estimates the equivalent loss of adults from larvae
killed by entrainment and takes into account the natural
survivorship of larvae to adults. Although natural survi-
vorship changes with age and size of larvae (Goodyear,
1978), Horst's model can be used when data limitations
preclude the use of more sophisticated models; it presents
an order-of-magnitude estimate of the effect fish larvae
entrainment will have on fish populations of an area. The
model is:

N = S N
a 1e

Where N = number of adults that would have resulted
a
from the entrain larvae

S1 = survivorship from larvae to adulthood

N = number of larvae killed by entrainment
e

Assuming 100% mortality of entrained larvae, N equals
e
the number of larvae entrained. The percent survival
(S1) of the three species chosen was not available;
values reported in the literature were compared and
-5
1.0 x 10 was selected to provide an order of magnitude
estimate (Lawler, Matusky, and Skelley Engineers, 1980;
Marcy, 1973; Houde, 1977).

D-10

For a three-plant cluster off Kahe Point (Seriola spp.):

N x S1 = N
e 1 a

(4.0 x 108)(1.0 x 10-5) = 4,000 adults

(d) Adult losses were compared with commercial catch statistics
from the Hawaiian Islands.

The equivalent adult losses were adjusted by the average
weight of a commercial catch-sized adult to yield equival-
ent adult weight. The equivalent weight was then compared
with commercial catch statistics of Hawaii (Table D-3).

The results (1) suggest that a cluster of three OTEC plants near Kahe
Point will generally have a greater larval entrainment impact than three
plants spaced evenly around the island, (2) indicate that OTEC deployment in
the nearshore zone will impact nearshore fisheries, such as damsel fish, to a
much greater degree than offshore fisheries, such as tuna, and (3) present an
order-of-magnitude estimate of the impact of OTEC operation on Hawaiian
fisheries (Table D-3).

The accuracy of the results is limited by the following considerations:

* Larval densities are for summer only, yearly averages are not
available. Summer densities are generally higher than winter
densities (Miller et al., 1979), consequently the entrainment
estimates are probably higher than actual values.

* Larval densities were from surface samples only; the model did
not consider the vertical distribution of larvae and the depth
of warm-water intake.

* An additive increase in entrainment from multiple plant deploy-
ments may be a simplistic assumption.

D-11

TABLE D-3. ESTIMATED EQUIVALENT COMMERCIAL VALUE OF FISH LOST BY ENTRAINMENT OF LARVAE
AT OAHU, HAWAII FOR DIFFERENT LOCATIONS AND DEPLOYMENT PATTERNS

Yearly Average+
Larvae Equivalent Adult Cost+ Equivalent 1978 Catch Statistics Proportion of Commercial
Species Size of Entrainment Number* of Weight Equivalent Per Commercial for Hawaii Catch Lost
Operation Estimate Adults Lost (kg) Weight (kg) kg ($) Value ($) Weight (kg) Value ($) Weight Value

Three 400-MWe 4.0 x 108 4,000 7.9 31,700 2.11 66,900 45,000 95,000 0.7 0.7
plants off
Kahe Point

Seriola Three 400-MWe 0 0 7.9 0 2.11 0 45,000 95,000 0.0 0.0
Gpp. plants off
(amberjack) Waimea Bay

Three 400 MWe 1.5 x 108 1,500 7.9 11,800 2.11 24,900 45,000 95,000 0.3 0.3
plants spaced
around Oahu

Three 400-MWe 5.5 X 109 54,700 0.2 10,900 2.27 24,700 1,630 3,700 6.7 6.7
cluster off
Kahe Point

Abudefduf Three 400-MWe 2.7 x 108 2,700 0.2 540 2.27 1,200 1,630 3,700 0.3 0.3
abdomninatis cluster off
(damsel Waimea
fish)

Three 400-MWe 2.1 X 109 21,200 0.2 4,200 2.27 9,500 1,630 3,700 2.6 2.6
plants spaced
around Oahu

Three 400-MWe 9.5 x 107 950 45.4 43,100 2.09 90,100 960,000 2,000,000 0.1 0.1
plants off
Kahe Point

Thuwmus Three 400-MWe 0 0 45.4 0 2.09 0 960,000 2,000,000 0.0 0.0
aZbacares plants off
(yellowfin Waimea
tuna)

Three 400-MWe 3.5 X 108 3,500 45.4 157,400 2.09 329,000 960,000 2,000,000 0.2 0.2
plants spaced
around Oahu

* Percent survival from eggs to adult estimated at 1.0 x 10-5 (Lawler Matusky and Skelly Engineers, 1980; Marcy, 1973).
+ Sumida, 1980. (For Thunnus albacarea a range of weights was reported and 45 kg taken as average).

Despite these limitations, the results can be used to show that the impact of
larval entrainment on different species of marine organisms is strongly
dependent on plant siting and spacing.

D. 6 IMPINGEMENT

The nekton impingement estimate was obtained by extrapolating from data
taken at conventional land-based generating plants. The following sites were
compared: (1) the Kahe Generating Station, located in a tropical open coast
area in Oahu, Hawaii, (2) a generating station located on Galveston Bay in
the Gulf of Mexico.

The lower impingement values from the Kahe Generating Station are more
likely to be representative of impingement from a land-based OTEC plant
located on a tropical island, whereas the other station is used to estimate
impingement rates in an area of higher productivity. Only impingement at the
warm-water intake was considered, impingement at the cold water intake was
not estimated because there is no data available on impingement of deep-water
organisms.

Kahe Generating Station. Unit 5 of the Kahe Generating Station, Oahu, with-
3 -1
draws about 9.5 m sec of nearshore water at velocities similar to
those of an OTEC plant, resulting in the impingement of an average of 250 g
(wet weight) of fish daily (McCain, 1977). A 400-MWe OTEC plant will with-
draw about 210 times more water through the warm-water intake than Unit 5.
Assuming that impingement is directly proportional to the volume of water
withdrawn, a 400-MWe OTEC plant will impinge about 50 kg of organisms per day.

Gulf Mexico. The P.H. Robinson Generating Station in Galveston Bay, Gulf of
3 -1
Mexico, withdraws about 50 m sec of nearshore water, resulting in the
daily impingement of 110 kg (wet weight) of nektonic organisms (Landry, 1971

D-13

after Coles, 1979). A 400-MWe OTEC plant will withdraw about 40 times more
water through the warm-water intake. Assuming a direct increase in impinge-
ment with volume of water withdrawn, this could result in the impingement of
about 4400 kg of organisms per day.

D.7 NUTRIENT REDISTRIBUTION

The discharge of nutrient-rich waters into the photic zone will increase
the productivity of an area and may alter the existing food chain. To demon-
strate the differences between food chains in oceanic, coastal, and upwelling
areas, the phytoplankton biomass (mg C day 1) which could be produced as a
result of nutrients released by a 400-MWe OTEC plant was calculated. Assum-
ing a 400-MWe plant will discharge cold water with a nitrogen concentration
of 30 pg-atom liter 1 (30 mg-atom N m 3; Table 3-2) at a flow rate of
2,000 m3 see -1 (Table 1-1) then 5.18 x 109 mg-atom N day-1 will be
redistributed:

30 mg-atom N m3 x 2000 m sec1 x 60 sec min- x 60 min hr-1
-1 9 -
x 24-hr day1 5.18 x 10 mg-atom N day1

The phytoplankton uptake ratio for nitrogen to carbon is 16:106 (Redfield
et al., 1963). Following this ratio, the amount of nitrogen released in a
day would result in the production of 4.1 x 105 kg carbon of phytoplankton
biomass.

5.18 x 109mg -atom N day-1 x 106 mR-atom C 12 mR C
x 16 mg-atom N 1 mg-atom C

4.1 x 1011 mg C day1 = 4.1 x 105 kg C day1

The efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels and the number of
trophic levels characteristic of the food chain which were used to calculate
the effects of introducing 4.1 x 105 kg C day-1 into the environment are
shown in Table D-4.

D-14

TABLE D-4. IMPACTS OF BIOMASS INCREASE TO OCEANIC,

COASTAL, AND UPWELLING FOOD CHAINS.

Source: Ryther, after Schaeffer (1969)

Oceanic (10% Efficiency)

Nannoplankton- - Microzooplankton - Macrozooplankton N Megazooplankton
(small flagellates) (herbivorous (carnivorous (chaetognaths,
zooplankton) zooplankton) euphausiids)

410,000 kg C day 1 41,000 kg C day- 1 4,100 kg C day- 1 410 kg C day-1

Planktivores , Carnivores
(lanternfish, (squid, tuna)
saury)
41 kg C day-1 4.1 kg C day-1

Coastal (15% Efficiency)

Phytoplankton ) Macrozooplankton - Planktivores - Car nivores
(diatoms, (herbivorous (clupeids) (tuna)
dinoflagellates) zooplankton)

410,000 kg C day 1 61,500 kg C day 1 9,230 kg C day-1 1,380 kg C day-

Upwelling (20% Efficiency)

Planktivores
(clupeids)
Macrophytoplankton
(large, chain-forming tuna)
diatoms and dinoflagellates)

Megazooplankton
(euphausiids)

410,000 kg C day-1 82,000 kg C day 1 16,400 kg C day-1

D-15

D.8 LOW FREQUENCY SOUND EMISSION

The impact of anthropogenic sound on marine organisms can be demonstrated
by referring to calculations by Payne and Webb (1971) on the interference of
oceanic traffic noise with low frequency sounds produced by fin whales
(Balaenoptera physalus). Noise from oceanic traffic has a frequency range
from 10 Hz to 1000 Hz, with a peak intensity at about 50 Hz (Wenz, 1964); fin
whales produce loud signals at around 20 Hz (Schevill et al., 1964). Payne
and Webb (1971) assume that these sounds represent a method of communication
among fin whales. Using a 0 dB signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) as the threshold
detection level, Payne and Webb (1971) calculated that noise from present day
shipping activity can reduce the effective range of a 20 Hz signal by a
minimum of 70% from the range during pre propeller-ship conditions
(Table D-5).

D.9 SALINITY INCREASE IN OPEN-CYCLE SEAWATER WORKING FLUID.

The operation of an open-cycle OTEC plant involves flash evaporation of
the seawater working fluid. About one percent of the seawater passing
through the plant is evaporated (Watt et al., 1977). Assuming the seawater
entering the plant has a salinity of 35 ppt, this will increase the salinity
of the remaining fluid by 0.35 ppt.

D.10 AMMONIA RELEASE

Approximately 6.4 x 106 kg of ammonia (NH3) will be stored on a
400-MWe OTEC plant. During a large spill, 60% of the ammonia
(3.8 x 106 kg) will dissolve in the mixed layer, and the remaining
40 percent will be released to the atmosphere. An ammonia concentration of
1 mg liter-1 (10-3 kg m- 3), was found to cause a 50 percent mortality
in oceanic shrimp and fish (Venkataramiah, 1979). The dissolved ammonia will
produce a lethal concentration of 1 mg liter-1 in 3.8 x 109 m3 of water.

D-16

TABLE D-5. CALCULATED MAXIMUM RANGES AT WHICH FIN WHALE 20 HZ SOUNDS REACH
0 dB S/N* UNDER DIFFERENT BACKGROUND NOISE CONDITIONS.
Source: Modified from Payne and Webb, 1971

Minimum range in deep ocean Maximum range in deep ocean
(Spherical spreading) (SOFAR** signaling conditions)

Background Noise Area of circle with radius Area of circle with radius
Level Range (km) equal of range (km2)+ Range (km) equal to range (km2)+

4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~6
Present day 85 2.3 x 104 970 3.0 x 10
(average conditions)

Pre propeller-ship++ 260 2.1 x 105 6,500 1.3 x 108

ocean (average
conditions)

-J ~~~~~~++649
Pre propeller-ship++ 835 2.2 x 106 2.1 x 104 1.4 x 10
ocean (quiet

conditions)

*0 dB S/N refers to the decibel level (dB) of signal to noise ratio. 0 dB S/N indicates one
order of magnitude difference in intensities between signal and noise.

**SOFAR refers to deep sound channel.

8 2 8 2
+For comparison, the Pacific Ocean basin is about 2.2 x 10 km and the Atlantic 1.2 x 10 km2.

++Pre propeller-ship ocean refers to derived, ambient, ocean noise conditions prior to the advent of
propeller ships.

total NH3 in seawater
letoal coinseawaterat = volume of water with lethal concentration
lethal concentration

3.8 x 106 kg NH3

10~-~kg mi 3. 8 x 10 m3
10-3 'kg m-3 -

Assuming that the mixed layer is 60 m deep, this represents a lethal ammonia
concentration over an area of 63 km2.

A 400-MWe ammonia producing plantship will hold 6.4 x 106 kg of ammonia
for working fluid. The ammonia product will be stored for a maximum of

30 days before being removed by ship. About 3.64 x 107 kg of ammonia can
be produced in a 30 day period. Consequently, the total amount of ammonia
that could be released in a catastrophic spill is 4.28 x 107 kg. Using the

same calculations as above, this could result in a lethal concentration of
ammonia through 428 km2 of the mixed layer.

'U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-342-736:8193 D-1 8