Selected indicators of the United States and the global environment

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST

Selected Iniftcators of the United States and the Global Environment

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S45 December 1991
1991

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Office of the Chief Scientist
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ABOUT THIS REPORT

The NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST is a regular report of
environmental data and information collected by NOAA.
This report provides a selected summary of NOAA data
for a
considered useful to the scientific community
variety of applications. The goal of the report is to
present the facts, and to leave the interpretation to
others. The data presents past trends only; no forecast
is implied.

The report has been developed and produced by the NOAA
Of f ice of the Chief Scientist. The Of f ice welcomes
comments, critiques, and suggestions f or improvement.
Inquiries and commentaries about the report should be
directed to Dr. Joseph M. Bishop, NOAA Of f ice of the
Chief Scientist, Herbert Clark Hoover Building, 14th and
1 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20230; (202)
377-0531.
L-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST

Selected In&cators of the United States and the Global Environment

ATMO

-q4m"Z'@T C@'-:co

December 1991

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Robert A. Mosbacher, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
John A. Knauss, Under Secretary

Office of the Chief Scientist
Sylvia A., Earle, Chief Scientist

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This report represents the work of numerous scientists throughout
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . Without
their cooperation the NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST would not be
possible. A sincere thanks is extended to the contributors.for the
excellent summaries of their work provided. Drafts of this report
were reviewed by a number of individuals throughout the agency and.
their constructive comments were of great help. The project team for
this report (Dr. Joseph M. Bishop (Project Leader), Mr. John L.
Wickham (Project Coordinator], and Dr. Isobel C. Sheifer (Editor])
gratefully appreciates the efforts of all those who contributed to.
this endeavor.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST

INTRODUCTION

The Earth's environment is continually being modified by human
activities and natural processes. These changes may have profound
effects on our health, global ecology, and the economic welfare of
nations.

With the creation of NOAA, the nation established a unique agency
dedicated to the enhancement of knowledge about our environment.
NOAA's core mission is to increase understanding of the total Earth
system, an understanding based on effective monitoring of the global
environment. NOAA currently monitors the Sun, atmosphere, ocean,
biosphere, and cryosphere on regional to global spatial scales and
synoptic to climatological time scales.

To assist in the understanding of environmental change, and to aid
in the assessment of its global implications, a NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL
DIGEST has been instituted. The NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST has two
primary objectives. The first is to document, on a regular basis,
changes in selected environmental variables. The second is to
provide information to those engaged in the development of
relationships between environmental change and its consequences to
society.

The wide diversity of data collected by NOAA is published in numerous
reports, bulletins, journals, and the scientific literature. This
report was initiated in an attempt to make this diverse collection
of data more accessible, publicize its presence, . and promote an
awareness of environmental variability and climatic change. The NOAA
ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST focuses on selected environmental parameters
considered indicators of system variability.

The material presented in this report has been provided by scientists
from each of the five NOAA Line Offices: the National Ocean Service,
the National Weather Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service,
the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service,
and the office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research. A listing of
NOAA offices providing additional information on a specific parameter
is given in Appendix B.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST v

SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS

The global environment is an inter-related system that includes the
atmosphere, oceans, ice, and biota. These components are coupled
through a complex, even chaotic, combination of biological,
chemical, and physical processes, occurring over the spectrum of
time and space scales. The natural coupling of these processes
requires that the Earth be studied in an interdisciplinary fashion
as a single system with global dimensions. With this in mind., it
was nevertheless convenient for the purposes of this report to
divide the global environment into the categories of atmosphere,
ocean, cryosphere (ice), and biosphere. The parameters presented
in this report were chosen because of their potential influence on
the global environment or because they are considered indicators
of system change, either on regional or global scales.

In the first edition of the NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST a wide-range
of environmental variables were presented. In this second edition
many of these time series are continued. New variables such as
wetlands, salinity, a vegetation index, and zooplankton have been
added. The protected resources section has been expanded to
include sea turtles, habitat conservation, and the preservation of
significant marine and estuarine ecosystems. Also, a section on
major environmental events involving NOAA during the last year has
been added. As with the first edition, the Office of the Chief
Scientist welcomes comments and suggestions for improving the
document.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST vii

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments

Introduction v

Selected Environmental Indicators vii

Lists of Figures and Tables xii

I. Atmosphere 1
Air Temperature 2
a. Surface @2
i. Global Averaged Distribution 2
ii. United States 5
b. Upper Air 5
Trace Gases 6
a. Carbon Dioxide 6
b. ozone 10
c. Methane 12
Hydrological Cycle 13
a. Precipitation 13
i. Global 14
ii. Regional 15
b. Drought 18
Atmospheric Deposition 20
Solar Activity 21
a. Sunspot Number 22
b. Microwave Flux 23
c. Total Solar Irradiance 23
Earth's Radiation Budget 24
a. Longwave Flux -25
b. Regional Cloudiness/Sunshine Duration 25
C. Radiation Budget--Arabian Gulf 27
Severe Weather 28
a. Tropical Cyclones 28
b. Tornadoes 29
C. Winter Storms 29
i. Mean Seasonal Snowfall 30
ii. Heavy Snow Occurrences 31
Quasi-Biennial Oscillation 33
Southern Oscillation 34

II. Ocean 35
Ocean Temperature 36
a.' Sea Surface 36

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST ix

II. Ocean continued
b. Subsurface 41
Salinity . 44
a. North Atlantic Ocean 44
b. Northeast Continental Shelf 47
Sea Level 50
a. 'Tide Gauges 50
b. Satellite Altimetry 52
Ocean Transport 53
Coastal Upwelling 54
Long Waves 57
Coastal Geodesy/Hydrography 58

III. Cryosphere 61
Sea Ice@ 62
Snow Cover 63

IV. Biosphere 67
Fisheries 68
a. Commercial Landings 68
b. Recreational Catch 69
c. U.S. EEZ Catch 71
d. World Landings 72
e. Selected U.S. Fisheries 72
i. Reef Fish 72
ii. Oceanic Pelagics 74
iii. Sharks 74
iv. Menhaden 75
V. Shrimp 76
vi. Groundfish/Flounders 77
vii. Atlantic Herring/Mackerel 77
viii. Skates/Dogfish 78
ix. Northern Anchovy 79
X. Pacific Halibut 80
xi. Bering Seav--Aleutian Groundfish 81
Zooplankton 82
a. Copepods 83
b. Ichthyoplankton 83
Shellfish 86
Contaminants 87
a. Sediments 88
i. Spatial Trends 88
ii. Temporal Trends 90
b. Bivalve Mollusks 90
C. Fish 91
i. Biological Effects 91
ii. Reproductive Impairment 92
iii. Liver Lesions 94
d. Invertebrates 99
e. Marine Mammals 101
i. Tissue Bank 101
ii. Quality Assurance 103

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST x

IV. Biosphere continued
Protected Resources 103
a. Sea Turtles 103
@i. Population Abundance 104
ii. Fibropapilloma 106
b. Selected Marine Mammals 108
i. Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin 108
ii. Pacific Dolphin 109
iii. Bowhead Whale 110
iv. Gray Whale 110
V. Steller Sea Lion 113
vi. Northern Fur Seal 113
vii. California Sea Lion 114
viii. Hawaiian Monk Seal 115
C. Habitat Conservation 116
d. Marine Sanctuaries/Estuarine Reserves 117
i. National Marine Sanctuaries 117
ii. National Estuarine Reserves 119
Estuaries 120
a. North Atlantic 121
b. Middle Atlantic 121
C. South Atlantic 121
d. Gulf of Mexico 125
e. Pacific Coast 125
Coastal Wetlands 128
a. New England 128
b. Mid-Atlantic 129
C. Gulf of Mexico 131
d. West Coast 132
Vegetation Index 133

Appendices
A. Contributors A-1
B. Sources of Additional Information B-1
C. Glossary of Terms C-1
D. Related Reports and Publications D-1
E. References E-1
F. NOAA Highlights F-1

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xi

LIST OF FIGURES

I-1 Mean global land temperature anomaly 3

1-2 N.& S. Hemisphere surface temperature index 4

1-3 U.S. annual mean temperature, 1895-1990 5

1-4 Global 850-300 mb temperature anomalies 6

1-5 Monthly mean C02 concentrations, Mauna Loa, HI 7

1-6 Global mean C02 growth rate, 1981-1990 8
1-7 C0, vs. sine of latitude, 1981-1990 9

1-8 Monthly mean total ozone, 1978-1990 11
1-9 Monthly mean total 03 anomaly,' Mauna Loa/Samoa 12

I-10 Global monthly mean methane, 1983-1990 13

I-11 Global annual precipitation index 15

1-12 European precipitation index 16

1-13 Additional precipitation indices 17

1-14 U.S. annual precipitation index is

1-15 U.S. drought and wet conditions index 19

1-16 Sulfate values for Maine and Texas locations 20

1-17 Monthly mean sunspot numbers, 1947-1991 22

1-18 Monthly mean solar microwave flux 23

1-19 Total solar irradiance 24

1-20 Global mean longwave flux 25

1-21 Variation in cloudiness and sunshine duration 26

1-22 Relationship between albedo and.longwave flux 27

1-23 Annual number of hurricanes and tropical storms 28

1-24 Total number of tornadoes, 1953-1990 29

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xii

LIST OF FIGURES--continued

1-25 Mean Seasonal snowfall, N.E. U.S., 1955/56-84/85 30

1-26 Monthly and total snowfall events by city 32

1-27 Variation of the zonal wind at 30 mb 33

1-28 Southern Oscillation Index 34

II-1 SST in the equatorial Pacific from satellites 37

11-2 Major ocean basins annual mean SST anomalies 38

11-3 Mean spring, fall SST for N.E. continental shelf 39.

11-4 Plot of monthly SST anomalies, N.W. Atlantic 40

11-5 OC difference vs. depth in Atlantic at 24.50N 41

11-6 OC difference vs. depth in Atlantic at 36.50N 42
11-7 @OC difference at 1750 m depth in N. Atlantic 43

11-8 Mean bottom OC for N. E. continental shelf

11-9 Salinity difference, N. Atlantic surface & 150 m. 45

II-10 Salinity difference vs. depth in N. Atlantic 46

II-11 Salinity difference at 1750 m in N. Atlantic 47

11-12 Surface salinity in Middle Atlantic Bight, 1990 48

11-13 Surface salinity in Gulf of Maine, 1990 49

11-14 Tide gauge sea level records (PGR corrected) 51

11-15 Geosat derived sea level for equatorial Pacific 53

11-16 Monthly mean transport for Florida Straits 54

11-17 Bakun Coastal Upwelling Index 55

11-18 NW Africa coastal wind stress/baro. pressure 56

11-19 Long wave crests in equatorial Atlantic, 1984-90 57

11-20 Subsidence at Pasadena, Texas 58

11-21 Sounding profile, Fire Island & West Pt. Shoals 59

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xiii

LIST OF FIGURES--continued

III-1 Arctic sea ice anomalies, 1973-90 62

111-2 Antarctic sea ice anomalies, 1973-90 63

111-3 Eurasian snow cover area, 1973-9'0 64

IV-1 U.S. commercial fisheries landings 68

IV-2 Total' volume/value of U.S. commercial fisheries 69

IV-3 Marine recreational fisheries catch and trips 70

IV-4 Landings: Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific 70

IV-5 U.S. EEZ national/foreign/joint venture catches 71

IV-6 World-commercial catch by leading countries 72

IV-7 Yield of Atlantic reef fish 73

IV-8 Yield of Caribbean reef fish 73

IV-9 Change'in abundance of bluefin tuna & swordfish 74

IV-10 Recreational/commercial yields of sharks 75

IV-11 Yield/biomass of Gulf and Atlantic menhaden 76

IV-12 Gulf of Mexic o shrimp yi elds since 1960 77

IV-13 Trends in abundance of groundfish & flounders 78

IV-14 Trends in abundance, Atlantic herring/mackdrel 78

IV-15 Trends in abundance, skates & spiny dogfish 79

IV-16 Northern anchovy landings/biomass so

IV-17 Pacific halibut landings/abundance 81

IV-18 Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish trends 82

IV-19 Calanus finmarchicus in N.E. continental shelf 84

IV-20 Fish larvae abundance for important CA species 85

IV-21 Shellfish bed closures by region, 1966-90 87

IV-22 Scales of Cd and tPCB sediment concentrations 89

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xiv

LIST OF FIGURES--continued

IV-23 Indicators of contaminant exposure, English sole 93

IV-24 Model of chemical pollution impact assessment 95

IV-25 Hepatic lesion prevalences in demersal fish 96

IV-26 White croaker liver lesions 97

IV-27 Sediment contaminant effects on 2 invertebrates 100

IV-28 Chlorinated hydrocarbons in marine mammals 102

IV-29 Number of Kemp's ridley sea turtles.nesting 105

IV-30 Green turtle strandings & percent fibropapilloma 107

IV-31 Distribution of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins 109

IV-32 Abundance of E. tropical Pacific dolphins

IV-33 Actual count of bowhead whales, 1978-88 112

IV-34 Estimated population of gray whales, 1965-90 112

IV-35 Estimated population trends of Steller sea lions 113

IV-36 Northern fur seal pup counts 114

IV-37 California sea lion pup counts 115

IV-38 Hawaiian monk seal live births 115

IV-39 The National Marine Sanctuary Program 118

IV-40 The National Estuarine Reserve Research System 120

IV-41 Selected characteristics, N. Atlantic estuaries 122

IV-42 Selected characteristics, Mid Atlantic estuaries 123

IV-43 Selected characteristics, S. Atlantic estuaries 124

IV-44 Selected characteristics, Gulf of Mexico estuaries 126

IV-45 Selected characteristics, Pacific estuaries 127

iv-46 New England coastal wetland acreage by state 129

IV-47 Mid Atlantic coastal wetland habitats by state 130

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xv

LIST OF FIGURES--continued

IV-48 Gulf of Mexico coastal wetland habitats by state 131

IV-49 West Coast coastal wetland habitats by state 133

IV-50 NDVI and brightness temperature for Thailand @134

LIST OF TABLES

IV-1 Shellfish bed closures, by region, 1966-1990 86

IV-2 High concentrations in sediment for NS&T sites 90

IV-3 Keys to Figures IV-22 and IV-23 98

IV-4 Annual number of sea turtles nesting in U.S. 104

IV-5 NMFS habitat conservation efforts, 1981-89 116

IV-6 National Marine Sanctuaries, 1975-91 118

IV-7 Natl. Estuarine Reserve Rese arch System, 1975-91 119

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xvi

1. ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is a complex and ever-evolving component of the
Earth system. It interacts, with various degrees of
predictability, with the oceans, cryospher'e, and biosphere. The
atmosphere influences many processes within the Earth system and
serves as our prime indicator of changes in global climate. The
atmospheric parameters presented in this report were chosen because
they are considered to be sensitive to, or indicators of, changes
in the total Earth system.

@0` 1

AIR TEMPERATURE

over recent years air temperature has been used as the primary
indicator of global climate change. Time-series records,
maintained f or over a century at some stations, indicate periods of
stable or even declining temperatures. A warming trend, one that
started in the late 1970s, has been a significant characteristic of
the recent record. Changes in global mean air temperature have
been associated with changes in atmospheric composition (especially
greenhouse gases, aerosols, and cloudiness), the ocean, sea ice,
.and snow cover. Increased understanding of the variability in this
record will be critical in separating anthropogenic effects from
natural variability.

Global mean air temperature has historically been estimated from
surface (land) temperature records, primarily from meteorological
stations in the Northern Hemisphere. The problems of sparse,
nonuniform distribution of observational sites, instrumentation
changes and relocations, and the influence of urban heating on
sites have added uncertainty to the estimation of the global mean
temperature..

Mean upper air temperatures have been traditionally determined from
radiosonde and rocketsonde observations. Satellite-derived global
temperature data (available since 1978) are providing an additional
data source which has been especially useful for meeting ocean and
upper air needs.

a. Surface

i. Global Averaged Distribution

Global surface temperatures for the decade of the 1980s averaged
above normal. Temperature anomalies show almost all areas of the
Northern Hemisphere experienced warmer values than the 1951-1980
base period average. Only Greenland and Baf fin Island experienced
negative anomalies. The largest positive anomalies were found over
the central and eastern Soviet Union, Alaska, and western Canada.
The Southern Hemisphere ' also experienced above-normal
temperatures, except for a small area in central America.
A
f our-decade- long time series of the globally averaged land anomaly
indicates positive values during the 1980s (Figure I-1) with the
exception of the slight negative value for 1985. Median
temperatur,e anomalies in the latter half of the 1980s were clearly
more positive than those measured earlier in the record. The
median value for 1990, 0.50C, was higher than any other median value
in the time series. Approximately half of the global land area for
1990 had average temperature anomalies of 0.50C or greater. The
year was also notable because only slightly more than 10 percent of
the world's land area experienced negative anomalies.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 2

i T--T--r--T--=
2.0

1 .0

0
1@

>4
0.0

-2.0

51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87. 89
YEAR

Figure 1-1. Mean global land temperature anomaly (*C) based on the average
annual temperature anomalies in 20 latitude by 20 longitude areas. The solid line
represents the 50 percent, or median, temperature anomaly for each year. Each
"box" delineates the temperature anomalies at the 70th and 30th percentiles while
the "lines" delineate the 90th and 10th percentile values. The anomalies are with
respect to the 1951-80 base period. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA
National Weather Service)

The Northern Hemisphere time series (Figure I-2a) is almost
identical to the global series since most of the land area, as well
as most of the surface data, are located in the Northern
Hemisphere. It is somewhat surprising, however, that the overall
character of the Southern Hemisphere temperature time series
(Figure I-2b) is very similar to the Northern Hemisphere series.
Both hemispheres show the 1980s to be warmer than earlier decades.
One difference is that the Southern Hemisphere median temperatures
for 1980 and 1988 are both larger than those for 1990. The
Southern Hemisphere also shows closer relationships to the Southern
Oscillation, with each of the warm episode years showing positive
median temperature anomalies (except 1965) and each of the cold
episode years showing below median anomalies (except for 1988).
The two coldest years in the Southern Hemisphere series, 1956 and
1975, are associated with cold Southern Oscillation episodes.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 3

2.0 (a) Northern Hemisphere

1.0

U
0

>4
A 0.0
00

-2.0

51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 .73 75 77 79 81 93 85 87 89

. . I I I I . I I I @ I I . I I I I I . I . I I . I I I I I - , I . I 1 1, 1 1
2.0 (b) Southern Hemisphere

1.0

0.0 TIT

1.0

72.0 .... . . . .

51 5 3 55 5 7 59 6 163 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 ss 87 89
YEAR

Figure 1-2 (a)-(b). (a) Northern Hemisphere and (b) Southern Hemisphere surface
temperature index based on the average annual temperature anomalies in 2*
latitude by 2' longitude areas over land. The solid line represents the 50
percent, or median, temperature anoznaly for each year. Each "box" delineates the
temperature anomalies at the 70th and 30th percentiles while the "lines"
delineate the 90th and 10th percentile values. The anomalies are with respect to
the 1951 to 1980 base period. (Courtesy Climate Analysis center, NOAA National
Weather Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 4

ii. United States

In the United States, the decade of the 1980s ranks as the second
warmest of the century, behind the 1930s and just ahead of the
1950s (Figure 1-3). Figure 1-3 shows the time series of the me 'an
annual temperature for the contiguous United States from 1895
through 1990 computed by area-weighting the annual temperatures for
344 climatic divisions. Although the decade as a whole averaged
well above normal, half of the years experienced mean temperatures
below the long-term mean. However, the warmth during 1981, 1986,
1987, and 1990, which all averaged greater than 1.0*C above normal,
resulted in a much,warmer than average decade. Although the last
half of the 1980s averaged considerably above the long-term mean
(the horizontal line), the filtered curve indicates that it rivals,
but was not hotter than, the 1930s. Annual temperature for 1990
ranked the year as the seventh warmest on record.

55.0 -12.7

-12.4
54.0
P4
0 -12.1 Ou
11.8 Pq
Pq 53.0
-11.5
:-11.2
52.0 10.9

P 51.0 -10.6

10.3
50.0 11111111111111111 pli Ili] 11111111111111111 iin iin ini injunn-nTMT-m -10.0
1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985

YEAR

Figure 1-3. United States annual average temperature and the filtered curve for
1895-1990. The horizontal line indicates long-term mean over the whole record.
(Courtesy Richard R. Heim, Jr., National Climatic Data Center, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

b. Upper Air

The time series of mean 850-350 mb temperature anomaly derived from
radiosonde data (Figure 1-4) agrees with the surface temperature
record. 'In this time series, 1990 appears to be the warmest year
in the 33-year record (1958 to 1990). The positive temperature
anomalies of 1982, and 1987-88 have been attributed to the El Ninos
in those years.
yw

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 5

0.4

0.2

0 -XI

0.2
E-4
_0.4 CHICHON
t
AGUNG

1960 1970 1980 1990
YEAR

Figure 1-4. Time series of global 850-300 mb temperature anomaly derived from
radiosonde data. Agung and Chichon are volcanos whose eruptions correlate with
tropospheric cooling. (Courtesy James K. Angell, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA
Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)

TRACE GASES

The atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen (78 percent) oxygen (21
percent) , argon (I percent), and water vapor (0-4 percent) . In
addition, several atmospheric trace gases (e.g., ozone, methane,
nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and carbon dioxide) play an
important role in the absorption of solar and/or terrestrial
radiation. Over geological time, trace gases, have acted as a
thermostat forming a natural greenhouse that allowed Earth's
climate to remain favorable for human habitability.

a. Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide (C02) is an essential component of the Earth's carbon
cycle that governs vital processes in the ocean, atmosphere, and on
land. The increased burning of fossil@fuels since the Industrial
Revolution has been linked to increased concentrations of
atmospheric C02 and has caused concern regarding its potential to
produce global-s.cale climate changes. Changes in atmospheric C02
are a result of complicated interactions between the atmosphere,
oceans, and the annual cycle of photosynthesis. As part of the

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 6

work of the. NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory
(CMDL) , continuous C02 measurements have been made since the early
1970s at the NOAA baseline observatories at Barrow, Alaska; Mauna
Loa, Hawaii; Pago Pago, American Samoa; and South Pole, Antarctica.
These observations indicate increasing global C02 concentrations.
This trend is illustrated in Figure 1-5, where the complete record
(1958-1990) of C02 measurements from Mauna Loa is presented. The
data through 1972 were compiled by the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography (Professor C.D. Keeling) and by NOAA/CMDL thereafter.
The observed increase has been linked to fossil fuel combustion,
changes in the amount of C02 held in standing biomass and soils, and
global scale phenomena such as El Nino, which cause interannual
variations in the C02 growth rate. The mean growth rate for the
last four years was about 1.7 parts per million per year.

355-

350-

345-

340-

04 -
335-

0
U
330-

325-

320-

315-

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

YEAR

Figure 1-5. Monthly mean C02 concentrations in parts per million (ppm), 1958-
1990, at Mauna Loa , Hawaii. (Courtesy Kirk Thoning, climate Monitoring and
Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST. 7

In addition to measurements at the baseline observatories,
NOAA/CMDL collects flasks of air, once per week, at 30 globally-
dispersed cooperative sites. The f lasks are returned to their
Boulder laboratory f or analysis of C02 concentration. From these
data, a global carbon dioxide growth rate is determined by
averaging the growth rates, weighted by latitude, from each of the
flask CMDL network stations.

Figure 1-6 shows the results of this analysis in terms of the rate
of atmospheric C02 increase as a function of time during the period
1981-1990 '. The largest growth rate variations (1982-83; 1987-88)
are associated with the El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events,
but the mechanism responsible for this connection is not clearly
understood. The mean C02 growth rate for 1981-1990 is about 1.4
parts per million per year.

3-
>1

P4
04

E-i

0
0---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

YEAR

Figure 1-6. Global average C02 growth rate in parts per million 1year (ppmlyr),
1981-1990, from N0AA1CMDL flask network. (Courtesy Thomas Conway, Climate
Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA office of oceanic and Atmospheric
Research)

In Figure 1-7, the annual C02 mixing ratios for sampling sites of
the NOAA/CMDL f 'lask sampling network are plotted versus sine of
latitude for the period 198171990- This figure highlights several

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 8

90S 30S 0 30N 9ON
358 11 1T- I I I I I I f I I I I I I it
199 0
357- 19eq
1988
356- 19B7
1966
355- 1985

1983
354- 1984
1982
353- 1981

352-

351-

350-
+
349-

3,48-
04 _J
34-(- 'Jil
0 346-
U -
345-

3 4 4 -

3 4 3 -
'jL- A, @ if
342-

341-

340-

339-

33e -

337 - 0 U >.a 4M 0 Em
r in id a. M-1 W. x xM'
'n to M
336
-.5 0 .5
SINE (LATITUDE)
Figure 1-7. C02 in parts per million (ppm)' vs. sine of 11atitude for 1981-1990.
Stations: SPO (South Pole), HBA (Halley Bay), SYO (Syowa), PSA (Palmer Sta.), CGO
(cape Grim), AMS (Amsterdam X.), SMO (Samoa), ASC (Ascension 1.), SEY
.(Seychelles), CHR (Christmas 1.), RPB (Barbados), GM1 (Guam), AVI (Virgin 1.),
KUM (Kumukahi), MLO (Mauna Loa), KEY (Key Biscayne), KID (Midway), AZR (Azores),
NWR (Niwot Ridge), CMO (Cape Meares), SHM (Shemya 1.), CBA (Cold Bay), STM
(Station M), BRW (Barrow), MBC (Mould Bay), ALT (Alert. NWT). (Courtesy Thomas
Conway, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA Office of oceanic and
Atmospheric Research)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 9

important features of the atmospheric C02 distribution and the
global carbon cycle. First, there is a mean north-south C02
gradient. Carbon dioxide concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere
are higher because fossil fuel C02 emissions occur predominately in
this hemisphere. Second, the atmospheric C02 concentration is
increasing. The average rate of increase from 1981-90 is 1.4
ppm/yr. Third, the rate of increase varies significantly from year
to year. This variability is too large to be explained by
variations in anthropogenic C02 emissions. The largest interannual
variations occur in association with ENSO events, but the mechanism
responsible for' these variations is not clearly understood.
Fourth, the shape of the mean latitude gradient changes from year
to year. These variations result,from changes in the global carbon
cycle, i.e., the exchanges of carbon between the atmosphere and the
ocean, and between the atmosphere and the terrestrial and marine
biospheres. Finally, the north-to-south pole C02 difference has
increased from -3 ppm during 19'81-87 to -4 ppm during 1988-90.
This shift may be due to an increasing sink or decreasing source in
the Southern Hemisphere, or a combination of these. The data
suggests that the Southern Hemisphere sink and the northern
tropical source have both increased.

b. Ozone

Ozone (03), produced photochemically in the stratosphere by the
disassociation of oxygen molecules, is a natural greenhouse gas 90
percent of which is found in the stratosphere. Ozone shields the
biosphere from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation by
selectively absorbing it in this portion of the solar radiation
spectrum. In addition, ozone-producing reactions heat the
stratosphere and may even have an influence on global climate.
Ozone is destroyed naturally by reaction with the hydroxyl radical
(OH) and oxides of chlorine, nitrogen, and bromine. Recent
observations of significant declines in ozone over Antarctica have
been attributed to the destruction of ozone by chlorine atoms of
halogenated hydrocarbons.

Monthly averaged global ultraviolet data from the Nimbus-7
satellite beginning in November 1978 and extending to September
1986 have been combined with data from the NOAA-9 and -11
satellites from March 1985 to May 1990. Each data set is adjusted
to ground-based data to evaluate the ozone trend over the total
time period. The combined time series from each satellite is shown
in Figure 1-8.

Long-term ozone trends have been monitored with Dobson ozone
spectrophotometers at NOAA/CMDL observatories at Mauna Loa (MLO),
Hawaii (19.50N, 155.60W) , since 1964, and at Samoa (SMO) , South
Pacific (14.3'S, 170.60W) , since 1975. Prior to i976, ozone in
Hawaii increased at a rate of 0.32 0.14 percent per year.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 10

320

315

310

306

300
Z
0
295
0
0
290

&1 285
0
E` 280
275 X SBUV 0 NOAA-9 X NOAA- 11
2 77 0 I'll 1 1111111 11111 1111i'll I I'l III] I 1 111111 1111.1
7B so 82 84 86 88 90
YEAR

Figure 1-8. Time series of monthly averaged total ozone (60'N-606S) in Dobson
units (DU) from November 1978 through Mar 1990. The overlap period extends from
March 1985 to September 1986. One DU=101cm of ozone at standard temperature and
atmospheric pressure. (Courtesy Walter G. Planet, Satellite Research Laboratory,
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

Figure 1-9 shows plots of ozone anomalies (i.e. deviations of
ozone monthly means from monthly normals) at MLO and SMO for 1.976,
through August 1990. Quasi-biennial oscillations in ozone are
clearly evident in the record. Least-squares linear regression
trend lines fitted to the data indicate that during 1976-1987 ozone
decreased at MLO at a rate of 0.27 +/- 0.15 percent/year, while at
SMO it decreased at a rate of 0.41 +/- 0.11 percent/year. Ozone
suddenly increased at SMO in June 1988 to levels previously
observed there in the mid-1970s, while at MLO ozone began to
increase later in 1988. These data indicate no statistically
significant trends in ozone at the two stations.

The dramatic rise in ozone at SMO in June 1988 coincided with a
sudden decrease in eastern equatorial Pacific sea surface
temperatures to low values previously observed there in 1976. On
average, sea surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific
were 0.70C warmer during 1976-June 1988 than they were during 1962-
1975. The initial downward trends in ozone at MLO and SMO followed
by ozone recovery, shown in Figure 1-9, exemplify. the complex
interaction between ozone depletion from halocarbons and ozone
changes from natural processes, such as sea surface temperature-!-
induced atmospheric circulation changes and changes in solar UV
irradiance-during the course of the 11-year.solar cycle.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 11

. . . . . . . . . . .
(a)

0-
C4
A
1%

0
CII
Or MAUNA LOA 0 TREND: -.014 *.128 % YR-1

rn . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
o (b)

0 %,Apt 9

SAMOA 03TREND: -.030 �J 3 % YR-'

76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
YEAR

Figure 1-9. Monthly mean total ozone anomaly in Dobson units (DU) vs. year
(1976-August 1990) for Mauna Loa and Samoa. one DU=104 cm of ozone at standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure. (Courtesy Walter D. Komhyr, Climate
Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory,. NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric
Research)

c. Methane

The radiative properties and abundance of atmospheric methane (CH4)
makes it the most important greenhouse gas next to C02 and water
vapor. Its photochemical oxidation in the atmosphere can lead to
ozone production and ultimately leads to formation of C02 and water,
adding indirectly to the greenhouse effect. Methane is produced by
thermogenic and microbial processes. Thermogenic methane is
released during the extraction and refining of oil, coal mining,
and the production and transmission of natural gas. microbial
methane is produced by bacteria in oxygen deficient environments,
and its sources include swamps, bogs, rice paddies, and the
digestive tracts of cattle and termites. Other methane sources
include biomass burning and degradation of organic material in
landfills. The atmospheric residence time for methane is
approximately 10 years.

The NOAA/CMDL monitors the global distribution of methane. Samples
are collected weekly at about 30 sites distributed from 820N to the
South Pole. FigureI-10 shows global monthly, mean methane mixing
ratios in parts per billion (ppb = parts in 10 ) determined from the
data set for the period 1983-1990. The mean increase in methane
averaged over this time period is approximately 11.5 ppb/year.
0 ?13 Y.
.03

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 12

0
1700 -
0000000
00
000 co0
1675-
0 0 0
00

000
00
1650-
0 000

0 0
U - 00
1625- 00 0
0

0
000

1600-

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
YEAR

Figure 1-10. Global monthly mean values of methane in parts per billion (ppb)
for 1983-1990. (Courtesy Edward Dlugokencky, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
Laboratory, NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

The hydrological cycle has a major influence on the global climate
system. It is responsible for much of the vertical energy exchange
f rom the Earth I s surf ace to the atmosphere and the transf er of heat
from the tropics to the poles. In addition, the presence of water
vapor in the atmosphere and condensed water in the form of clouds
has a strong influence on the Earth's radiation. budget. The
availability of water determines region,al climate, vegetation, and
the rate of geological weathering, and strongly influences the
biogeochemical cycle.

a. Precipitation

Precipitation is one aspect of the hydrological cycle that is
regularly monitored. It is vital to agriculture and a critical
factor in water resource planning. Precipitation is defined as all
forms of water which fall to the ground such as rain, sleet, snow,
hail, and drizzle. Since global-scale precipitation patterns are
influenced by large-scale climate changes, they are an important
indicator of climate variability. Large-scale precipitation
patterns are affected by feedback between surface characteristics
00

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 13

(albedo, vegetative cover, and soil moisture), atmospheric
circulation, and evaporation over the oceans.

i. Global

Compared to temperature, global precipitation has proven much more
difficult to observe and characterize. In parti this is because
precipitation has a more complicated spatial and temporal
structure. Large regions of the globe experience a pronounced
temporal cycle of precipitation, with the majority of the
precipitation falling over part of the year. and very little falling
during the remainder of the year. There is also a tendency to fail
to report precipitation during the dry season.

Analysis of annual precipitation for the decade 1981-1990
indicates that during this period it was wetter than normal over
much of North America and northern Europe, while southern Europe
and extreme eastern and southeastern Asia tended to be drier than
normal. Large areas received no analysis due to the lack of
complete data at a substantial number of stations. There were not
enough data to support annual analyses over northern South America,
most of Africa, and large portions of Asia.

in Figure I-11, annual global precipitation variability is
characterized through the use of a statistical index. ' In this
index, precipitation at each station over the past 40 years is
ranked and then transformed into a percentile more or less than
normal. The median values of the global annual precipitation index
for the 1980s suggest that this decade was more variable than
earlier decades in the record. The wettest year on record was
1983 when precipitation for half of the areas ranked in the 75th
percentile or greater. Furthermore, 10 percent of the areas
experienced their wettest year in the 40-year tecord. Conversely,
1988 was one of the driest years in the record having the lowest
median index in the series.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 14

100.0

80.01-

60.0

E-1
Z
40.0

20.0-

0.0
51 53- 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89
YEAR

Figure I-11. Time series of the global annual precipitation index. The solid
line gives the median value of the percentile rank for precipitation. The index
is based on station precipitation in 2* latitude by 2* longitude grids. The median
value of this index gives the percentile rank observed in half of the
observational grids. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA National Weather
Service)

ii. Regional

On a regional scale, the precipitation index for Europe (Figure I-
12) suggests that precipitation during the 1980s was characterized
by large interannual variability.

For Africa, abnormally dry conditions in the Sahel intensified
throughout the decade of the 1980s (Figure I-13a). An index based
on data for 20 stations distributed throughout the western Sahel
was used to monitor rainfall for the June through September period.
Rainfall during these months accounts for over 90 percent of the
regions yearly precipitation. Data indicate a decrease during the
early part of the decade, with the driest seasons occurring during
1983 and 1984. Towards the end of the decade, seasonal
precipitation totals increased. 1988 and 198.9 marked the first
time since the 1960s that the Sahel had received near normal
rainfall in two consecutive years. Precipitation for the decade,
however, ended on a'poor note as amounts were well below normal
during 1990.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 15

nn n n@
0
z
U. H1

Europe
-2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985

YEAR

Figure 1-12. Precipitation index (average percentiles of station precipitation
within the region) for Europe, 1922-19.90. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA
National Weather Service)

Precipitation indices for two other regions, northern Australia
(Figure I-13b) and southeastern Asia (Figure I-13d) also show dry
conditions for most of the decade. The northern Australia time
series for the summer (November through April) shows positive
precipitation index values for 1981, 19821, and 1989. It is
interesting to note that during the 1980s, both the Sahel region
and southeastern Asia consistently showed strong negative
precipitation index values while the Indian summer monsoon showed
much more year-to-year variability (Figure I-13c). In fact,
according to this index, India experienced one of its worst
droughts, associated with the 1986-87 ENSO, followed by one of its
wettest years, associated with the 1988 Southern Oscillation
episode.
n n

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 16

2(a) 2 (b)'

X
0 n ILA h
z H U L 0

Western Sahel fl Northern Australia
-2
1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985

1.0 (C) 1.0 (d)

0.5 0.5

n
00.0 Q.0
z lul
-0.5 -0.5

India Southeastern Asia
-1.01 1 1 -1.0 1_ I I . I I I 1 1.
1925 1935 1945 19@5 1965 1975 1 1925 1,935 1945 19.55 1965 105 1985'
YEAR

Figure 1713 Precipitation index, 192.0-19.89, for (a) western Sahel,
June mber.; (b) porthel-n 4uq@ralla, November-April; (c) India, June-
.,7SePte
September'; and '(d) southeastern Asia*,' April -September. (gourtesy Climate Analysis
Center; NOAA National Weather So@-vice)

Looking at the United States as a whole for 1990, areally-averaged
precipit*tion for the natio In F.as abo@le" normal, ranking 1990 as the
twelfth .wettest (85th driest) year This ends a three-year streak
pf below-normal years and marks a return to the wetness of the
Figure I
early-to-mid-1980s .-14).

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 17

35.5
-884

33.0 -
-824

M 30.5 -764

Z 28,.0
-704

25.5 -644
23.0 - 1584
1895 1905 1915 1925 19@15111111119141151111111191511511111965 1975 1985

YEAR

Figure 1-14. Areal ly-weigh t ed annual precipitation in inches and millimeters
(mm) for the contiguous United States, 1895-1990. (courtesy Richard R. Heim Jr.,
National Climatic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
Information Service)

b. Drought

The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) is used to measure long-
term drought and can be used to,measure long-term wet conditions as
well. Figure 1-15 shows the percent area in the contiguous United
States that'experienced severe and extreme wet and dry conditions.
The PDSI was calculated for each of the 344 climate divisions in
the contiguous United States. The percent area of the country in
severe-to-extreme long-term drought (PDSI <= -3.00) and severe-to-
extreme long-term wet conditions (PDSI >= +3.00) is shown for
January 1895--@April 1991.

During the 19'80s, the United States experienced two periods when
more than 25 percent of the,@country had severe and extreme PDSIs.
Neither of these drought episodes affected as much of the country
as the decades of the 1930s and the 1950s. However, the wet spell
in the middle of the 1980s (Figure I-15b) was the largest of the
20th century. This finding is consistent with the Northern
Hemisphere precipitation anomaly analysis for the 1980s which shows
excess precipitation in the central United States over the decade.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 18

70 . ..............
- (a)

60-

50-

40-

P
z
W
30-

20-

10-

0 ....
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

50-
(b)

40-

30-

E-1
z

20-

107

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
YEAR

Figure 1-15 (a) - (b) Monthly time series of the areal percent of the contiguous
United States experiencing severe- to_extreme long-term (a) drought and (b) wet
conditions based on calculations of the Palmer Drought Severity Index for January
1895 to April 1991. (Courtesy Richard R. Heim, Jr., ,National Climatic Data
Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and information Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 19

ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION

The National Atmospheric Deposition Program was initiated in 1978
to determine the temporal and spatial trends of atmospheric
deposition and the effects of deposition on agriculture, forests,
rangelands, and freshwater streams and lakes. To accomplish this
task, an observation network was established with strict siting
criteria and collection protocols. By 1982 the program enjoyed
broad federal, state, and industry support, and was partially
merged into the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
National Trends Network. By. the late 1980s, the network consisted
of approximately 200 stations, about 10 of which were located at
NOAA National Weather Service stations evenly distributed across
the United States and funded by NOAA's Ai.r.Resources Laboratory.
Routine measurements for pH, conductivity, precipitation depth,
sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, chloride, orthophosphate, sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium are made for each weekly
precipitation sample. Figure 1-16 gives examples of these data
showing the temporal variation of sulfate concentration for two
sites in Maine and Texas based on a two-year period from April 1984
to July 1986. Weekly samples having no precipitation have been
deleted from the illustrations.

170-
160 -(a) CARIBOU PRESQUE ISLZ

150-

140-

130-

120-
z 110-
0 Ica -
H I IV
E-i go -

80 -

70 -
z
60 -
V
50 -
0
'U 40 -
0 30 -
U) 20 - A I
10 -
0 - T
A S 0 ND F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M i i

MONTH

Figure 1-16 (a)-(b). Sulfate values for (a) Caribou and Presque Isle, Maine,
August 1984-July 1986, and (b) Victoria and Beeville, Texas, April 1984-March
1986 in microequivalents per liter (ueqll). Periods with no data removed.
(Courtesy Richard S. Artz and Glenn D. Rolph, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA
office.of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 20

170-
160-(b) VICTORIA BEMUZ

150-
140- n

130-

120-

Z 110-
0
100 -

90-

80 -
Z 701-

60-
z
0 50-
40 A A
0 30

M J j A S 0 N D J F M A mij 9 0 N D J P U

MONTH

Figure 1-16 continued.

SOLAR ACTIVITY

Solar radiation initiates the complex energy transfers that drive
the weather and climate system of the Earth. Variations in solar
output are inferred from measurements of sunspots, emitted
microwave energy, and total solar irradiance. Measurements of
total solar irradiance (the "solar constant") indicate that total
solar output is constant to within a few tenths of a percent.
However, solar emissions, from the outer portions of the Sun,
represented by sunspots and microwave emissions, are highly
variable. The frequency of these emissions is dominated by the 11-
year solar cycle. During years corresponding to maxima in the
cycle, solar activity such as sunspots, flares, and microwave
bursts are numerous, while near times of the minima, solar activity
practically disappears. Extremes in solar activity cause
detrimental effects to humans and equipment in space and to earth-
based communication and electrical power networks.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 21

a. Sunspot Number

Sunspots are dark (cool) areas on the Sun's surface that interrupt
the regular pattern of solar emissions. Sunspots are accompanied
by strong magnetic fields and have lifetimes ranging trom days to
a few months. Sunspot frequency rises and falls with the 11-year
solar cycle and provides an index of solar magnetic activity.

In 1848 the Swiss astronomer Johann Rudolph Wolf introduced a daily
measurement of sunspot number. His method, which is still used
today, counts both the total number of spots visible on the face of
the Sun and the number of groups into which they cluster because
neither quantity alone satisfactorily measures sunspot activity.
Results can vary greatly, however, since the measurement strongly
depends on observer interpretation And experience and on the
stability of the Earth's atmosphere above the observing site. To
compensate for these limitations, each daily international number
is computed as a weighted average of measurements made from a
network of cooperating observatories.

Monthly mean values are shown in Figure 1-17. These data also
contain a 27-day fluctuation that reflects the rotation period of
the Sun. The highest daily counts on record occurred December 24
and 25, 1957. On each of thesd days.the sunspot number totalled
355. In contrast, during years near the minimum of 'the spot cycle,
the count can fall to zero. Today, much more sophisticated
measurements of solar activity are made routinely, but none has the
link with the past that sunspot numbers have.

300

Cycle 18 Cycle 19 Cycle 20 Cycle 21 Cycle 22
250 -

200 -

Z
150

100

... ... ... . ...

50 . ........
........... ..

.. ........

. .. .. .....
0
1947 1950 lQW 1955 low IR2 1965 1988 19@11974 19771 1883 low 19M
YEAR

Figure 1-27. Monthly mean sunspot numbers, January 1947-July 1991. (Courtesy
John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA National Environmental
Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 22

b. Microwave Flux

The Sun emits radio energy with a varying intensity. The
brightness of the Sun can be measured by the strength of emission
at a wavelength of 10.7 cm (2800 megaHertz) . This radio flux,
which originates from layers in. the Sun's chromosphere and corona,
changes in response to the number of sunspots. Microwave flux (at
2800 megaHertz) observations summed over the Sun's disk have been
made continuously since February 1947. observed mean flux
variations are shown in Figure 1-18.

300 . . . . . . . .

250 Cycle 1 a Cycle 19 Cycle 20 Cycle 21 Cycle 22

ri
0 2DO

Scaled Solar Radio Flux

150

0
100

50
.... ........ ...

1947 low 1953 19WI law lam 19M 1911974 1977 1960 1983 1986 19W
YEAR

Figure 1-18. Monthly mean 2800 megaHertz (MHz) solar microwave flux, January
1947-July 1991. (Courtesy John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data Center,
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

C. Total Solar Irradiance

Total solar irradiance describes the radiant energy emitted by the
Sun over all wavelengths that falls each second on one square meter
at the, top of the Earth's atmosphere. This is a quantity
proportional to the "solar constant." Total solar irradiance is
proportional to the Sun's luminosity, that is, to all the energy
per second the Sun emits into space.

Figure 1-19 shows short- and long-term irradiance variations, as
measured by 5 different satellites. These values reveal day to day
changes in response to the number of sunspots on the disk, and they
show the Sun dims slightly during sunspot minimum and brightens

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 23

slightly during sunspot maximum. Brightness changes are small, but
a survey of about 100 other stars suggests the Sun's luminosity
could potentially vary by several percent. Points connected by a
continuous line at the top trace daily measurements from the
Nimbus-7 satellite; the next lower profile tracks results from the
Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) satellite; and the unconnected symbols
at lower right mark infrequent samples from the Earth Radiation
Budget Satellite (ERBS), NOAA-9, and NOAA-10 satellites.

1374

1372 LAA1

IV ri 1370

1368

1366 AX
A X
WXX
1364 XX X
X A

1362
1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991
TIME (daily values)

Figure 1-19. Total solar irradianCe (watts1square meter): values from (upper
.line) Nimbus-7, 16 Nov. 78-30 Apr. 91;. (lower line) Solar Maximum Mission (SMM),
16 Feb.80-8 Oct.87; (open triangle) Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), 25
Oct.84-20 Dec.89; (x) NOAA-9, 23 Jan.85-20 Dec.89; (+) NOAA-10, 22 Oct.86-1 Apr.
87. (Courtesy John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Z.nformation Service)

EARTH'S RADIATION BUDGET

The Earth, atmosphere, and oceans are constantly absorbing solar
radiation and emitting radiation to space. Variations in the
radiation budget are the driving mechanism for atmospheric and
oceanic circulation and the inter-related weather and climate.
Over long periods of time the global rates of radiative absorption
and emission are very nearly equal.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 24

a. Longwave Flux

Measurements of the global mean outgoing longwave radiation flux
are fundamental to the understanding of the EarthIs radiation
budget. The global monthly mean flux as measured by satellite
remote sensing is shown in Figure 1-20 for the period from June
1974 through March 1991. The values plotted from 1974 to 1978 were
those obtained from the scanning radiometer on NOAA satellites
2,3,4, and 5, while those beginning in 1979 were obtained from the
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on satellites
TIROS-N and NOAA-6,7,9, and 11. Clearly depicted is an annual
cycle. The variations from cycle to cycle are due to changes in
the instruments and satellite paths, in addition to actual changes
in longwave flux. The annual means show changes that are less than
3 watts per square meter.

240-
(M r:i

235

z
0
230-

0 225 . ...........
74 75, 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
YEAR

Figure 1-20. Global mean longwave flux in watts1square meter, June 1974-March
1991. Dark square indicates annual mean. (Courtesy Herbert Jacobowitz, satellite
Research Laboratory, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Xnformation
Service)

b. Regional Cloudiness/sunshine Duration

There is growing interest in measurements of changes in cloudiness
mainly because of the associated concern with greenhouse warming.
One question that is now being addressed is whether there is a
measurable increase in cloudiness -,as a result of global warming and
what influence would this increase have on global temperature
change.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 25

An accurate assessment of cloudiness variations on a global scale
can be obtained through the use of satellites. It is also useful
to examine variations in cloudiness on a regional scale (such as
the United States) based on observed station data in order to
establish the potential relationships with observed global
perturbations like El Nino.

In Figure 1-21 the variations in United States cloudiness (percent
of sky covered by clouds as estimated by observers at 100 NOAA
National Weather Service stations) and. the sunshine duration
(percent of possible sunshine as estimated by sunshine recorders at
these same 100 stations) are examined for the years 1950-1990.
During this period, the correlation between annual values of
cloudiness and minimum sunshine duration within the contiguous
United States was -0.86, significant at the 1 percent level. The
years of maximum cloudiness and sunshine duration were 1972 and
1982 (both during times of the start of a strong El Nino). The
year of maximum sunshine duration was a drought year (1988) .
Despite the low value of cloudiness in 1988, cloudiness increased
by 3.5 percent between the first half and the last half of the
record.

-P
5
@4 CLOUDINESS
W 0
y
VIJ
z 6
0
H
P A SUNSHINE
0
-4 V DURATION
-5

EN EN
z
z
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

YEAR

Figure 1-21. Variation in U.S. cloudiness and sunshine duration (1950-1990)
expressed as annual percent deviations from the mean cloudiness (58 percent) and
sunshine duration (63 percent) for this period. Relatively low values from 1952-
1956 reflect drought occurring during this period. Arrows indicate beginnings of
major El Nino (EN) events. (Courtesy James K. Angell, Air Resources Laboratory,
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 26

C. Radiation Budget-Arabian Gulf Region

The planetary albedo and outgoing longwave radiation f lux were
analyzed for the Arabian Gulf (Persian Gulf) region for the period
starting before and during the massive oil f ires to provide a
quantitative measure of their af f ect on the regional climate.
Figure 1-22 shows the variation for an area in Saudi Arabia, where
the smoke from the oil burning was very intense. The lowering of
the normal clear-sky albedo by up to 15 percent due to the presence
of smoke is evident. The absorption by the smoke of the solar
radiation that would normally have penetrated to the ground led to
a dramatic cooling at the surface. The albedo has returned to
normal levels about the time the last fire was extinguished.

400

-350

100- -300
95-
90-
85-- -250
0 \4
4.) 80- 4-200
9. 75-
70- 150
Breaks due to
65-
60 Missing Data 100
55-
0 50-- -50 0
W 45-
PQ
k4 40- 0
35-
30- JQ
0 or _V_'6
25-- I\
20- )u
15
10 Normal Clea
Albedo

5 9 13 17 21 251 1 11 1 1 IS[ I 1 1 91 1 1 1 lr@ 1 1 11[71 1 12111 1 1215 29

DAY OF MONTH

Figure 1-22. Relationship between percent albedo (lower graph) and outgoing
longwave radiation (OLR) in watts1m2 (upper graph) from an area in Saudi Arabia
(22.5*N, 550E) affected by the oil fires in Kuwait, February-March 1991. Data from
AVHRR on NOAA-11 satellite (2.50 latitude/longitude average resolution).
(Courtesy Herbert Jacobowitz, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and information Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 27

SEVERE WEATHER

Much of the weather that causes loss of life and disrupts economic
activity is related to mesoscale phenomena. Severe weather
includes tornadoes, squall lines and thunderstorms, hail storms,
flash floods, and heavy snows. Larger-scale severe weather
phenomena, such as tropical and extra-tropical storms, are also
included in severe weather. Major variations in meso- and large-
scale severe weather phenomena may be useful indicators of regional
.and even global climate change.

a. Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclone frequency can be used as a indicator of
variability in tropical ocean-atmosphere energy exchange. since
warm sea surf ace temperatures are required for tropical cyclone
formation (i.e. , >-270C) , there could be a link between numbers of
and severity of tropical cyclones and warming of the tropical
ocean.

The annual number of hurricanes and tropical storms in the north
Atlantic Ocean for 1886-1990 is shown in Figure 1-23. It should be
noted that observation methods and coverage have changed during the
period. The number during the 1980s was near the long-term mean.
However, two of the most devastating north Atlantic hurricanes on
record occurred in @ the late 1980s: Hurricane Gilbert (1988) and
Hurricane Hugo (1989).

25-

20-

15 -

10-
z -
z o@ oo
5-

04 ------- 1.
1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 19'35-'1'945 1955 1965 1975 1985
YEAR

Figure 1-23. Annual number of hurricanes and tropical storms, north Atlantic
ocean, 1886-1990. (Courtesy Richard R. Heim, Jr.. National Climatic Data Center,
NOAA National Environmental Satellitef Data, and Information Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 28
V

b. Tornadoes

Tornadoes are intense local circulation systems with high wind
speeds and great destructive force over the narrow path of their
movement. Tornadoes are especially frequent over the central
portion of the United States. Figure 1-24 shows the modern
historical record of reported occurrences of tornadoes.

1200-

1000-

800-
7

600-

400-7

200-

0
1953 1958 1963 1968 1973 1978 1983 1988
YEAR

Figure 1-24. Total number of tornadoes, 1953-1990. (Courtesy Richard R. Heim,
Jr., National climatic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Xnformation Service)

c. Winter Storms

Episodes of heavy snowfall, combined with the effects of high
winds, and cold. temperatures can be particularly debilitating,
especially in heavily populated and highly industrialized regions.
Such is the case in the northeast United States. Here, heavy
snowfall associated. with winter storms may maroon millions of
people at home, work, or in transit, severely disrupt commerce, and
endanger lives. During the years from 1955 through 1985, a. number
of winter storms resulted in serious impacts to the northeast. The
blizzards of February 1958 and January 1966, the triple snowstorms
of the 1960-1961 winter, the great New England wind and snowstorm
of February 1978, the "Presidents Day Storm" of February 1979, and
the paralyzing storm of February 1983 are the most notable events
of this period.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 29

i. Mean Seasonal Snowfall

The mean distribution of seasonal snowfall over the northeast
United States is largely dependent upon latitude (Figure 1-25),
ranging from 15 centimeters in the southeastern corner of Virginia
to greater than 250 centimeters across sections of central and
northern New England, New York, and West Virginia. The primary
source of snowfall in this region is extratropical cyclonic weather
systems. Areas adjacent to the Great Lakes and the highlands of
West Virginia,, western Pennsylvania, and Maryland, however, also
receive significant snowfall from the passage of cold continental
air over the relatively warm moisture-laden air over the Great
Lakes in concert with orographic effects.

2SO
200
250

.. .......

..........

5
250
250
200

10
250
00*
...........
150 2n
.............
100
... 75'.
75

M
EAN SEASONAL
5 250
...... (CM)
... .. ... ...
............... .........
............................ . . ....
............... .... ......*........
. ........... ......... .
........... .... ........
. ..........
........... .........
. ................
............
... ........ ...
so . . ............
. ............
............ .. .....

Figure 1-25. Mean seasonal snowfall, October through May in centimeters (cm),
for the northeastern United States, 1955156-1984185. (courtesy Paul .7. Kocin and
Louis W. Uccellini, National Meteorological Center, NOAA National Weather
Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 30

ii. Heavy Snow Occurrences

The number of storms that have produced snow exceeding 10
centimeters (cm) during the 30-year period from 1955-1956 through
1984-1985 ranges.from 29 in southeastern Virginia (an average of I
per winter season), to more than 200 in sections of central New
England (an average of 7 events per season).

Storms that deposit 25 cm or more are relatively rare. Only three
such storms occurred over the 30-year period in southeastern
Virginia, an average of one every 10 years, with 5 to 11 events
over the coastal regions from Virginia to southern New Jersey,
approximately one every 3 to 5 years. The heavily populated urban
corridor from northern Virginia through extreme southern New
England experienced 11 to 18 major snowfalls, approximately one
every other year. The inland areas of northeastern Pennsylvania,
eastern New York, and southern New England received 19 to 33 heavy
snows, approximately one every 1 to 2 years, while 34 to 41 events
were noted across the northern limits of the area, slightly greater
than one per year.

The distribution of moderate and heavy snow events from 1955-1956
through 1984-1985 in each of the five major cities that span the
populous coastal region of the northeast are summarized in Figure
1-26. Both monthly and 30-year totals are presented for Boston,
New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, DC. During
the 30-year sampling period, the total number of events that
yielded greater than a 10 cm accumulation ranges from 48 cm at
Washington, DC, to 65 cm in New York City, and 100 cm in Boston.
January and Februar.y account for the majority of these occurrences
in Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, while Boston
has a distinct maximum in January and a secondary peak in March.
The months of December, January, February, and March account for
nearly all of the events for each city.

The total number of events that produced at least 25 cm
accumulation' ranges from 8 at Washington, DC, to 25 at Boston
(Figure 1-26). February displays the greatest frequency of heavy
snow events in every city except Boston, where January has the
largest number of heavy snowfalls. The frequency of 10- and 25 cm
snow accumulations exhibit only small variations among Washington,
Baltimorel Philadelphia, and New York City. Washington recorded
marginally fewer events and New York slightly more than the other
cities. In contrast, Boston had a 50-100 percent greater incidence
of 10 cm snows and two to three times the number of 25 cm events
than the other cities. Such a substantial difference indicates
that Boston has a significantly greater potential for heavy
snowstorms than any of the other cities.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 31

MONTHLY AND TOTAL NUMBER
OF SNOWFALL@EVENTS (BY CITY)
1955-56 thru 1984-85
no CM N
MONTH ------- :?:25-CM ---------------
NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR
.......... ......... ........ ......... ........... ........
30-- -30
26-- -25
20-- -20
15-- -15

10-- -10
51 5
E-4 0 L G==CC=I0
z BOSTON
W 20-- "20
> 15-- 15
10-- -10
6-- ..5
01- ..0
20-- NEW YORK 20
15
0 15--
z 10-- 10
U) 5-- 5
N O..@ L 10
0 210-- PHILADELPHIA 20
15'- 15

10
..5
0 - CC= &
9 & L ' L ..0
z 20-- BALTIMORE -20
15-
10-- -10
5-- ..5
0-0= L ..0
WASHINGTON

BOSTON 100
25
NEW YORK 65
LAM' 13
PHILADELPHIA Via 11 59
BALTIMORE

WASHINGTON 48

Figure 1-26. Monthly and total number of snowfall events (by city) for the
winter seasons 1955-1956 through 1984-1985 in Boston, MA; New Yorkl NY;
Philadelphia, PA; Baltimore, MD; and Washington, DC. Hatched shading represents
the number of events exceeding 10 centimeters (cm) and dark shading represents
the number of events exceeding 25 cm. For cities with more than one snowfall
measurement, an average value is used to designate events. (Courtesy Paul J.
Kocin and Louis W. Uccellini, National Meteorological Center, NOAA National
Weather Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 32

QUASI-BIENNIAL OSCILLATION

A quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) of mean zonal winds in the
equatorial stratosphere is one classically observed periodic
oscillation in the climate system. The QBO, so called because it
repeats every 2 to 2.5 years, has been observed since 1950.

The QBO shown in Figure 1-27 is based on observations taken at
Balboa (Canal Zone) , Singapore, and Ascension Island. Recent
studies have indicated a statistical relationship between the QBO
and surface temperature anomalies and also for activity during the
tropical cyclone season. The QBO has been recognized for more than
30 years as having its largest amplitude over the tropics in the
atmosphere at 30 millibars, but a QBO signal has been detected in
other meteorological and oceanographic parameters.

20
0 0 B
\1 \j v \j V \j \j V \j NJ Z
20- 0
S
Z 0 A
V
20 0
P-1 A-A A f A A 1\
0 \j W A4
Z VVW V\IVVVVVVY
0_20-
N

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

YEAR

Figure 1-2 7. Variation of the zonal wind (west wind positive) in meters per
second (mlsec) at Balboa (B), Singapore (S), and Ascension Xsland (A) at 30
millibars, based on a 1-2-1 weighting of success 'ive monthly deviations from long-
term monthly Means. Abscissa tick Marks indicate .7uly of the given year.
(Courtesy James'K.*Angell, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA Of .fice of oceanic and
Atmospheric'Research)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 33

SOUTHERN OSCILLATION

The Southern Oscillation (SO) represents a fluctuation of inter-
tropical atmospheric circulation, particularly noticeable in
observations taken in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Time series
of sea-level pressure, air temperature, sea surface temperature,
precipitation, and of sea level from a wide variety of locations
have been found to be well correlated with the SO. In particular,
the SO has been found to be strongly linked to the El Nino
phenomenon, an episodic warming of the tropical Pacific Ocean.
This strong correlation is known as the El Nino/Southern
Oscillation (ENSO).

The most commonly used measure of the SO is the difference in
barometric pressure between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia. This
indicator, known as the Southern Oscillation Index, is shown in
Figure I-28. With the index, large negative values correspond to
warm events and large positive values to cold events. The decade
of the 1980s featured one of the strongest ENSO episodes (1982-83)
of the last century, one of the strongest cold episodes (1988-89)
during the last 50 years, and a major central Pacific warm episode
(1986-87). These three events were accompanied by global
circulation and precipitation anomalies, which in some cases
reached extreme proportions. For example, the ENSO of 1982-83
brought unprecedented wind, wave, and water damage to coastal
property along the west coast of the United States. These same
storms led to record snowpacks on the Rocky Mountains and also
record springtime flooding there.

STANDARD DEVIATION

4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
YEAR

Figure I-28. Five-month running mean of the difference between the standardized
barometric pressure anomalies at sea level at Tahiti and Darwin, Australia.
Values are standardized by the mean annual deviation. Individual monthly means
are marked by an "X". (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA National Weather
Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 34

11. OCEAN

The ocean has a significant influence on climate as the Earth's
storehouse of about 97 percent of its water and enormous amounts of
heat. ocean water is 800 times more dense, has 270 times the mass,
and has a heat capacity of 4 times that of the atmosphere. These
properties impart to the ocean a greater stability than the
atmosphere and greater heat storage capacity than both the
atmosphere and the surface of the land. Because of these
properties, the ocean acts as a buffer, smoothing short-term
climate variations and delaying those of longer term.
Additionally, the ocean is a major sink in the global carbon cycle
and hence a main repository of carbon dioxide, important in
controlling the long-term concentration of atmospheric carbon
dioxide.

-Ice

OCEAN TEMPERATURE

Ocean temperature is an important environmental indicator because
of the relationship between sea temperature and ocean-atmosphere
exchanges of heat, gases, and moisture. In addition, it is useful
in identifying and tracking oceanographic features such as fronts,
western boundary currents, and mesoscale eddies. Knowledge of
seawater temperature in general is necessary (along with salinity
and pressure) to determine the density of seawater, important in
ascertaining ocean circulation and the mixing capabilities of water
masses. An accurate description of sea surface temperature,
especially over the oceans, is required for input to weather
forecasting models and for computing global heat and moisture
fluxes. The long-term trend of global mean sea temperature is an
indicator of climate change.

a. Sea Surface

Sea surface temperature (SST) observations have been recorded since
the mid-nineteenth century, primarily from merchant ships. SST
measurements have traditionally been made using a bucket and
thermometer. This method has been replaced by "injection
temperatures" (the temperature of sea water as measured at the
ship's seawater intake) . Because a ship's intake is commonly
located below the surface and because the temperature may be
influenced by the heat of engines or boilers, injection
temperatures@ have not been considered as reliable as bucket
temperatures for SST determination.

SST has been monitored by NOAA polar orbiting satellites since 1982
using infrared measurements obtained from the Advanced Very High
Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). Prominent oceanic features appear
in these satellite records such as the seasonal and the interannual
fluctuations of SST in the eastern tropical Pacific. Warming
occurs during February to April which is consistent with the
decreased intensity of easterly trade winds, while cooling is
associated with increased wind speeds and upwelling. The
interannual warming, called the El Nino, is associated with a
collapse of the equatorial trade-wind system. Satellite records
have documented two El Nino events since 1982 " the first during
1982-83 and the second during 1986-87. The 9-year time series of
SST at the equator derived from satellite data illustrates the
magnitude of the SST oceanic response (Figure II-1)'during times of
strong upwelling (late 1988) and El Nino events. El Nino events
appear to build up over several years and are then followed by an
interval of rapid cooling during the following season.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 36

30-

29-

28-

27-

26-

4
44 25-

23-
221 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

YEAR

Figure XI-1. Sea surface temperature (January 1982-31 December 1990) in the
equatorial Pacific (140'W, 02*S) estimated from NOAA satellite infrared
measurements. (Courtesy Richard Legeckis, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

Annual mean SST derived from satellites and in situ buoy and ship
SST for the f ive major ocean basins are shown. in Figure 11-2. These
analyses are from 2.50 latitude/ longitude quadrangles of monthly
means. While upward tendencies are apparent in both the Pacific
and Atlantic Oceans, the Indian ocean time series departs markedly
from the other basins. Although the Indian Ocean tendency has been
downward, it is the most variable of all the oceans and tends to
reflect the variability of the equatorial time series. Despite
this variability, both Indian Ocean in situ and satellite SST agree
remarkably well. Annual trends at all locations show no
statistical difference between in situ and satellite data sets.

NOAAI's Northeast F isheries Science Center has taken SST
observations using a bucket thermometer in conjunction with its
annual bottom-trawl surveys. These SST observations have been
conducted each spring since 1968 and each fall since 1963 (Figure
11-3). The trawls have been made at approximately 300 stations
from Cape Hatteras to the Gulf of Maine, including the Middle
Atlantic Bight, and from the coast to the edge of the continental
shelf.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 37

(a) indian10cean!

0.6

0.4

0.2

82 84 86 88 90

(b) North Pacific (c) South Pacific
0. 11

0.3- 0.0

0.2

0.4

-0.5

0.5 0.8
(d) Forth Atlantic (e) South Atlantic

0.6
0,3

>4
0 0-3

0.1
-0.2

82 84 86 88 90 82 84 86 88 90

YEAR

Figure 11-2 (a)-(e). Annual mean SST anomalies from satellite multi-chatinel sea
surface temperature (MCSST) (solid line) and in situ buoys and ships (dashed
line) for the 5 major ocean basins: (a) Indian Ocean; (b) North Pacific; (c)
South Pacific; (d) North Atlantic; (e) South Atlantic. MCSST.data for 1982-1983
have not been corrected for aerosol effects from El Chichon volcano and are
temporally replaced with in situ SST data. (Courtesy Alan E. Strong, Satellite
Applications Laboratory, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
Information Service)
.1a @n

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST. 38

23- (a) SPRING
22-
21-
20- Legend
19- GULF OF MAINE
is-
17- GEORGES BANK
16-
0 MAB NORTH
15-
14 - MAB SOUTH
13- ............
12-
E-4 11-
10-
P4 9-
z 8-
W 7-
E-1 6-

4-
3-
2-

0 1
63 64 65 66 6-7 68 69 707 1727374 75 76 77 -78 '79 80 8182 83 84 85 86 8-7 8a 89 90

23-(b) FALL
22-
21-
20

18-
17-
u 16-
0
15- A@
14 -
13-
12-
11-
10-
9- Legend
8-
7- GULF OF MAINE
6--
5- GEORGES BANK
4- MAB NORTH
3-
2- MAB SOUTH
I - I .............
0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I I
6364 65 66 67 68 659 70 7172 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 BZ8384 85 86 87 8889 9C

YEAR

Figure 11-3 (a) - (b) . Average sea surface temperature f or (a)'spring and (b) f all
in the Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, northern Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB North),
and southern Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB South). (Courtesy Tamara J. Holzwarth-
Davis and David G. Mountain, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National
Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA.ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 39

To examine the hypothesis that major variation in shelf-water
temperatures are coherent over large areas, the historical record
of SST for the continental shelf from Chesapeake Bay to southern
Labrador was divided into 19 areas, each consisting of 1 degree
quadrangles contiguous with each other. All real-time ship SST
data for the period from March 1971 to December 1983 were used in
the analysis. Data for the 10-year base period (March 1971-
@December 1980) were used to establish the average monthly
temperatures and their standard deviations. Figure 11-4 shows the
anomalies tend to be coherent over large space scales and often for
several months at a time. 'In 1971 for example, temperatures in a
large area from southern Labrador to the northeastern Scotian Shelf
were higher than normal (by about one standard deviation) during
late spring and early summer. Temperatures were near-normal during
most of*1972 and 1973, but, the entire region from Hamilton Bank to
the Gulf of Maine had below-normal temperatures in late spring and
early summer of 1974., with July temperatures being nearly three
degrees below normal from northern Nova Scotia to northern
Newfoundland (areas 11-16). Evidence of large-scale events, with
a time scale of several years 'and with opposite phase to the north
and south of the Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank region (areas 6-7), is
evident in the temperature anomaly pattern for 1981 through 1983.

Hamilton
Bank '9
18- V
BelleA
17--
isie

15
16

14-
Cape 13
z
0Flace 1@
E-1 10

Cape
C) Sable
7- CQ

Cape
Cod 5-
4-

3-
2
Che'
sa- L
peake
1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

YEAR

Figure 11-4. Contoured plot of monthly SST anomalies (relative to 1971-80 base
period) for. 1971-83 for the northwest Atlantic (Chesapeake Bay to southern
Labrador). Only anomalies greater than 1*C (solid) and less than -10C. (mottled)
which extended through at least two neighboring areas for at least two
consecutive months are contoured. (Courtesy Douglas R. McLain, Center for Ocean
Analysis and Prediction, NOAA National Ocean Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 40

b. Subsurface

The temporal variability of the thermal structure of the deep north
Atlantic Ocean has been described using the oceanographic station
data files from NOAA's National Oceanographic Data Center. The
oceanographic files contain data from about 500,000 hydrographic
stations. Average values of temperature at standard depths from 0
to 5500 meters (m) for two 5-year periods (1955-59 and 1970-74)
were analyzed and the differences in thermal structure between the
two 5-year periods were calculated (i.e. , the 1970-74 analyses
minus the 1955-59 analyses).
Figure 11-5 shows the resulting temperature difference, fields along
24.5 N for the two 5-year periods. throughout most of the north
Atlantic basin at the 500 m to 2000 m depth range a warming of at
least 0.050C was observed. A maximum difference exceedomg 0.5 c
occurred at about 800 m depth at 520W. Cooling is observed in the
upper 500 m of water column in the two portions of the basin. one the b asin. One
is a small region centered on 30W and a second is a larger region a larger region
centered around 600W. Cooling of less than 0.050C occurred along
the ocean bottom.

longitude

figure ii-5. temperature difference (c) as a function of depth along 24.5n for
1970-74 minus 1955-59. dot shading indicates negative values. (courtesy sydney
levitus, national oceanographic data center, noaa national environmental
satellite, data, and information service)

noaa environmental digest 41

Further comparisons can be made by inspecting the temperature
difference fields along 36.50N. Figure 11-6 shows the difference'
field for this latitude between the two 5-year periods. The major
feature here is the cooling in the surface layers and warming at
intermediate depths.

7CW 4CW 3OW 2OW IN
0 1 0
..........
. .........
0.25 :_0.254
@@!i@:o 0,
1000 ... . ... ... 0.25 1--0.50 1000

15M -0.50 1500
$4
.............
2000- 0.10
4J
0.05 . .......
2500-
2500

.. ..........
3CCO
300D
..... ...................
W4 . .......... ........
E-1 3500- 3500
..............

4000-
4000

4500- ....... 41.
............

5=_ -5000

9500 -5500
LONGITUDE

Figure 11-6. Temperature difference (*C) as a function of depth along 36.50N for
1970-74 minus 1955-59. Dot shading indicates negative values. (Courtesy Sydney
Levitus, National Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental
Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

Figure 11-7 shows differences in temperature between the two 5-year
periods at 1750 m depth. Results of this analysis and others
indicate that the thermal structure of the deep north Atlantic
Ocean has, in fact, changed on decadal time scales, notably in the
1950s through the 1970s. The temperature-difference * field
indicates that most of the north Atlantic warmed at this depth on
the order of 0.05*-0.250C.

In addition to. hydrographic casts, subsurface ocean temperature
data. can be collected with a ba-@thythermograph, a device for
obtaining a record of temperature against depth from a ship
underway. From the early 1940s through the early 1970s, subsurface
temperature profiles were collected from ships using mechanical
bathytheromographs (MBT) . In using recent years, temperature
versus depth profiles have been made using expendable
bathythermograph probes (XBT). The NOAA Northeast. Fisheries
Science Center has collected bottom temperature measurements using
MBT and XBT probes in conjunction with the Center's biannual trawl
surveys.. The time series plots of the average bottom temperature
data are shown in Figure 11-8. In the spring, the bottom
temperatures in the different regions are all approximately equal,
although the southern Middle Atlantic Bight temperatures are about
10C warmer than those in the other regions. In the fall, the bottom

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 42

80'N

70*

60*

50* [email protected]
00 :.... . .
0.20"
0.25 .: : -:: ::::::::c ,
. . .. .... ...
40* .0.1
0.11 .15
0.05 0.00
30* 0.20
0.10,
.20

20*

10*-

EQ-
1001W go* 80* 70* 600 50o 40o 30* 20* 10* 0*
Figure XX-7. Temperature difference (OC) at 1750 m depth,for 1970-74 minus 1955-
59. Dot shading indicates negative values. (Courtesy Sydney Levitus, National
oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
Information Service)
temperatures in the Gulf of Maine are a few degrees colder than the
other areas, which exhibit ap@roximately similar temperatures. The
colder bottom temperatures in the Gulf of Maine are due in large
part to the Gulf being considerably deeper than the other three
regions and seasonal surface warming does not penetrate to the
bottom.

23- 23-
22- (a) SPRING Legend 22- (b) FALL
21- 21-
20- GULF OF MAINC 20-
9- 19-
18 -
GEORGES 8
17- ....LANK 17-
Is- 1 MAS NOMH
14- 1. .. ......
13-
@3'
12-
;0 101@
9-
a-
P4 7- 7-
6- 6-
5- 5-
4- 4-
3- 3-
2- 2-
063@4@566@?6'86'97'07'17'27'3747'57'67'?7'87'9@08'18'28'38'46'5868788@99o 63@4@5@66@68697'0417'2@3747576777'87'98'08'18'28'38'4858687888990
YEAR

Figure 11-8 (a)- (b) . Average bottom temperature (OC), in (a) spring and (b) fall
for Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, northern Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB North), and
,southern Middle 'Atlantic Bight (MAB South). (Courtesy Tamara J. Holzwarth-Davis
and David G. Mountain, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 43

SALINITY

Salinity is the measure of the dissolved salts in seawater.
Evaporation, precipitation, and ice formation and melting are
processes that influence salinity. The normal range of salinities
in the open ocean is small, usually from about 33 parts per
thousand (ppt) to 37 ppt, with the average ocean salinity being
about 35 ppt. Surface salinity values are lower at higher
latitudes and near the equator where precipitation exceeds
evaporation. Salinity is highest in the middle latitude
subtropical gyres where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
Subsurface ocean waters exhibit relatively small changes in
salinity compared to surface waters. These small changes in
salinity are important in identifying deepwater masses.

a. North Atlantic Ocean

The temporal variability of salinity in the north Atlantic Ocean
has been described using the oceanographic station data files of
NOAAI's National oceanographic Data 'Center. Average values of
salinity based on 1' squares were analyzed at standard depths from
0 to 5500 m for the 5-year periods 1955-59 and 1970-74 and
differences between the periods were calculated (i.e., 1970-74
analyses minus the 1955-59 analyses). Upper ocean (0-150 m) and
deep ocean (to 5500 m) salinity differences between the two 5-year
periods exhibit statistically significant changes. Figure 11-9
shows the salinity difference field for the sea surface and 150 m
depth. At the surface, one major feature is the negative anomaly
north of 420N indicating that the subarctic gyre was fresher during
1970-74 compared to 1955-59. Maximum freshening occurred east of
Newfoundland where a value of -0.5 ppt exists. A positive salinity
anomaly occurs along WN that extends southward along the east
coast of the United States as well as in the 250-45ON longitude
belt. A negative anomaly occurs in the tropics with the largest
midocean change being on the order of -0.05 ppt. The major
features for the 150 m depth are similar to those at the sea
surface. The salinity maximum increase centered along 390N at the
sea surface now extends further northward across the subtropical
gyre. The large changes of f the coasts of South America and Af rica
are considerably reduced. The subarctic gyre just east of
Newfoundland shows the greatest decrease (to -0.15 ppt at 150 m).
This is 0.35 ppt smaller difference than the surface counterpart
for this feature. For the 150 m depth, a major difference occurs
in the eastern half of the gyre as opposed to the western half for
levels higher in the water column.

Evidence of the temporal variability in the salinity structure of
the deep north Atlantic Ocean is presented in Figure II-10. The
figure shows the difference fields of salinity for the two 5-year
periods along 24.50N and 36.50N latitudes. Clear basinwide changes
have occurred between year groups at both latitudes. At 24.5-N,

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 44

80*N ........

.. ..... ......
70'

...............
60*

...........:... ...
............
. . ...... -03 ....
50* ... 7
. ....... ...

...................................

40* ...........
.3
............
... b.O. '@@:
... .. ..... ..

0.
....... ...... . 0.2
0.2

20*

100-

(a)
EQ-
100*W 90' 80* 70* 60- 50- 40* 30* 20' 10* Oo

80*N
--- --------

L
70*

. ......... ....
.. ....... ... ....... .... .
60* -0.15:-6: ::,: " *:::. ......
0'. ... .. ..
-0.10:.

50, . .......
.............. .... .............
:::::::: .. ..............
..... . . .....
0.45 . . ......

.... ...........
40 .........
...... 0..0
,02

.... ........ I ....... 0.10:-.'
...... ............... .
....... ....
30
......... ..... .
..........
- C.,
01 0.25
6-5 0,
.0.0
20*

10*

(b)
EQ i T
100'W 90* 80* 70* 60- 50- 40* 30' 20* 10* 0.

Figure 11-9 (a) - (b) . Salinity difference in parts per thousand (ppt) for 1970-74
minus 1955-59 at the (a) surface and (b) 150 m depth. Dot shading indicates
negative values. (Courtesy Sydney Levitus, National oceanographic Data Center,
NOAA National Enviro.nmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 45

7OW GN 5N 4014 3OW 2OW
0 ____ - I - ... I__, I 1 0
... ......... .....
010 5 500
500 0.0 ...
....... ....
....... - 0.025:=-
...... ........ .....
..............................
0.0=

1500
0.025

150D
................
.025 -2000
200WO
........................

...... -2500
250WO

..... ......
300WO -30M

................
.......................... .....
35OWD -3500

4@000
............... ............ _4000
.......... .... ..........
450WO
-4500
............. ..........................
............ ...........
............
5000 ... -5000
... .....
9500 .... ............................ -5500

7OW 6N 40W 30W 2OW 1CW
1 1 5@w
0 0
_0 104-;q;
...... .... ..
. ............. ...
. ...... .......... ......... ...... 500
........ ................ .............. .
..... .... ..... ............ ...............
.... ..........
...........
............ ....
...........
0.05 0.05-_ 10DO
000 .. ....... . ...
............................. ..............
............ ... .......
... ............. ...
............... ..............
500- ..................... 15M
..... ............ . ............
.. ...... ................................
...........
...... ..............
.... . ........ .
0.025
...........
2000- ::.-.-:.o .............................
2000
.......... .... ..
........... ...
................
... ........ .................
2500- 2500
iiii'w'

3000- 0.0 ...... ..............................
.... 30M

3500-
3500
..............
.................. ................
40DO - ........................ 4000
...........................
....... . ........ . .
............
4500- 4500

-5000

950D -5500
LONGITUDE

Figure 11-10. Salinity difference in parts per thousand (ppt) as a function of
depth along (top) 24.50N and (bottom) 36.50N for 1970-74 minus 1955-59. Dot
shading indicates negative values. (Courtesy Sydney Levitus, National
Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
Information Service)

freshening is seen at intermediate depths in the western part of
the Atlantic. A slight freshening is seen at deeper levels in the
Atlantic west of the mid-Atlantic ridge. The eastern Atlantic
exhibits a slight increase in salinity at deeper levels. At 36.50N
freshening is observed west of 30OW at depths exceeding 3000 m.
West of the mid-Atlantic ridge a slight increase in salinity is
observed in the 1500 to 2500 m layer., A region of freshening is
..observed in deeper layers. East of the mid-Atlantic ridge salinity
has freshened at nearly all depths beneath the 1500 m level.

Figure II-11 shows interyear differences of salinity at 1750 m
depth. Relatively large differences have occurred over most of the

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 46

80'N

70*

0. .......

50' 0.025
0.00::
-0,025 ...........
4
::L::::
T. I " -::.
..............
,,-0.00 0.025
3

20*

.............. .. . ...

10*

..........

E Q
1OOoW 90* 8 o 70o 604 5@- @0' 3b- @0- 110' 0"
Figure 11-11. Salinity difference in parts per thousand (ppt) at 1750 m depth
for 1970-74 minus 1955-59. Dot shading indicates negative values. (Courtesy
Sydney Levitus, National Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental
Satellite, Data, and information Service)

the north Atlantic Ocean. The difference fields show that a
salinity increase occurred throughout most of the area. The
exception is at mid-latitudes in the eastern Atlantic where a
freshening of the order of 0.025 ppt was observed. This analysis
indicates that the salinity structure of the deep north Atlantic
Ocean changes on decadal time scales.

b. Northeastern Continental Shelf

Surface salinities are monitored across the northeastern United
States continental shelf in conjunction with the NOAA National
Marine Fisheries Service's Ships of Opportunity Program. Surface
salinity measurements have been collected monthly from ship
transits across the Gulf of Maine since 1977 and the Middle
Atlantic Bight since 1976. Surface salinity for the Gulf of Maine
and Middle Atlantic Bight transects are presented as contoured
time-space plots (Figures 11-12 and 11-13) . -Portrayed are the
salinities during 1990 and the departure of these salinities from
the 1978 through 1987 average values.

observed salinities in the Middle Atlantic Bight ranged from a low
of 25.4 ppt nearshore in early February to a high of 36.4 ppt in
water at the offshore end of the transect in late February (Figure
11-12). Below average salinities were observed in April to July,
beyond the shelf break when fresher shelf water moved well offshore
from normal. Over most of the transect, for the remainder of the
year salinities were generall@ near average. In the Gulf of Maine,
time-space distribution'of surface salinity in 1990 (Figure 11-13)
generally exhibits a pattern of positive anomalies to an extent not
seen during the term of record.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 47
0

42-

40-

38-

36-
76 74 72 70 60 66
AMROSE SHEU 1DWD I
UGHT BREAK 1 106
(b Dec
Nov
33 30
Oct
Sep
Aug
3 .11@@
E-I Jul
Jun
May'
36
<:> Apr
36
@4 Mar
7
Feb
33 0, Jan
C Dec
0 Nov
Oct
Sep
0
Aug
0
JLII
0 P 0
<>-,o Jun
0
< M.Y
1 Apr
0
M
0 Feb
0
jan
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
KILOMETMS

Figure 11-12 Surface salinity for the Midq@q Atlantic Bight transect
during 1990: (q) Middle Atlantic Bight plonitoring transects, 1976-199p; (b)
measured values (ppp) in time and s ace (dots indicate saj ling locations); (c)
P , . , . I mp
anomalies in time and space based on 1978 through 1990 means. (Pourtesy @7ack W.
Jossi and Rob rt
e Z. Be way, Northeast Fisheries Science Centex:,'NOAA National
Marine Fisheries Service)'

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 48
01

(a)

d
44-
Ift .. ch@ ftlki- ftft-l am C.-.U A@L-
an _ft.L.-

43-

42-@

70 69 68 67 66 65 64
MASS. WILK CENTRAL CROWELL SCOTIAN
BAY BASIN LEDGES BASIN SHELF
(b) Dec
Nov
32-.Oct
!Sep
.3'7 33 3:
Aug
z Jul
Jun
May
32 Apr
Mar
L>
Feb
Jan
(C
0 Li Dec
Nov
Oct
OT@< jISep
0 -LLY Aug
E-1 Jul
z
ICI--- 0 --)i 0 -0
Jun
May
Apr
Mar
Feb
C Jan
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
KILqMETERS

Figure 11-13 (a)-(c). Surface salinity for the Gulf of Maine transect during
1990: (a) Gulf of Maine monitoring transects, 1977-1990; (b) measured values
(ppt) in time and space (dots indicate sampling locations); (c) anomalies in time
and space based on 1978 through 1990 means. (Courtesy Jack W. Jossi and Robert
L. Benway, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service)
33@

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 49

SEA LEVEL

Changes in sea level have practical as well as scientific interest.
Awareness of the importance of monitoring and understanding long-
term sea level variations has expanded greatly in recent years
because of its relationship to global climate change. Scientists
have reached a consensus that if global warming occurs in the
coming decades, a change of sea level, with serious consequences
for coastal areas of the world, is a real possibility.

sea level has long been measured by conventional tide gauges at
many sites. 'Globally, the records indicate a rise of-about 10 to
30 centimeters over the last century. Exceptional cases where sea
level is actually f alling occur in areas known to be undergoing
isostatic rebound as "a result of the global deglaciation. But even
after allowing for postglacial rebound and tectonic effects, there
is observational evidence for sea level rise. The f undamental
observational problem is that*. sea level is subject to large
variations on an interdecadal scale. In addition, the stations
with long records are poorly distributed geographically (i.e.,
aggregated in Europe, Japan, and the U.S. and biased toward the
Northern Hemisphere).

Recent technologies are proving important to the significant
advance of global sea level monitoring. The Global Positioning
System, absolute gravity, and Very Long Baseline Interf erometry are
being used to measure land movements that corrupt tide gauge
records. Satelli 'te altimeters give global coverage of sea level
variation and have proven particularly well suited for study of
tropical phenomena such as El Nino and transport of western
boundary currents. Properly monitoring and interpreting long-term
sea level involves a wide range of geophysical and geodetic
measurements in an integrated global observation system to
understand the reasons for sea level change, make predictions of
future behavior, and evaluate economic and social effects.

a. Tide Gauges

concern over the consequences of global warming ha 's led to
increased interest in determinations of the rate of sea level rise
from historical tide gauge records. Published values for global
sea level rise for the last 50-100 years vary from about 1 to 3
millimeters per year (mm/yr) , with uncertainties ranging from 0. 015
to 0.90 mm/yr. While there is not much doubt that global sea level
is rising, the scatter of results makes impossible a meaningful
interpretation of data from specific locations.

The disparity of sea level values is not attributable to instrument
error; long-term trends computed at adjacent sites often agree to
within a few tenths of a millimeter per year. Instead, the
differing estimates of global sea level rise appear to be in large

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 50

part due to using data from gauges located at tectonic plate
boundaries, where changes of land elevation give fictitious sea
level trends. Also, virtually all gauges undergo subsidence or
uplift due to postglacial rebound (PGR) from the last deglaciation
at a rate comparable to or greater than the secular rise in sea
level. In addition, short (decades) tide gauge records are of
little use for determining the global trend in sea level be 'cause
seasonal and annual signals are so large and variable that the
smaller, longer-period signals are obscured.-

The value for mean sea level rise obtained from a global set of 21
stations in 9 oceanic regions avoiding these biases and with an
average record length of 76 years during the period 1880-1980 is
1. 8 mm/yr + or - 0. 1 mm/yr. Figure 11-14 gives plots of the
filtered data for one station in each oceanic region for 1880-1980
with (heavy dots) and without correction for PGR.

...........
1600- Portland, ME--,,

1400-

Baltimore

0
N 1200- Balboa 'N.

Francisco
M 1000
44
44

800-
Honol2au

600 Brest
E-4

Marseille
400-

200- Cascais

Aberdeen
0

1880 1920 1960
YEAR

Figure 11-14. Median filtered sea level records with (dark) and without (light)
postglacial rebound (PGR) correction for one member of each sea level region.
(Courtesy Bruce C. Douglas, Chief, Geosciences Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean
Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 51

b. Satellite Altimetry

since the beginning of the U.S. Navy Geosat altimeter mission*in
1985 NOAA/National ocean Service has prepared altimeter data sets
for distribution to the international scientific community and has
actively participated in oceanographic research based on these
data. Although the satellite failed in late 1989, this 4.5-year
satellite mission was the most successful of its kind. About
500,000 observations of sea level, wind speed, and wave height were
collected daily over the global oceans, resulting in an order of
magnitude more altimeter data than had been obtained during all
previous missions. These data have b6en.used by NOAA to study and
monitor sea level variations in the tropical oceans as they relate
to global weather and climate (Figure 11-15). During the past year
a number of new Geosat data sets have been prepared by NOAA f or
distribution to the oceanographic community:

1. GDRs. The NOAA Geosat geophysical data records (GDRs) have
recently been upgraded by incorporating a significantly more
accurate satellite orbit, corrections for water vapor, tides, dry
troposphere, and geoid. These new GDRs, which are being
distributed on 7 CD-ROMs, have enabled sea level to be determined
with far greater accuracy than before. Comparison with island tide
gauge.data in the tropical Pacific indicates accuracies of about 3
cm root mean squares for monthly mean sea level.

2. XDRs. The first 18 months of the Geosat altimeter sea level
data (April 1985 to September 1986) are secret, but permission was
given to NOAA by the U.S. Navy to generate an unclassified version
of the data that can be used f or sea level variability. studies.
These unclassified data are expressed in a form known as crossover
differences (XDRs). A global set of approximately 44 million XDRs
was computed at the secure facility operated by NOAA at the Johns
Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, and these are being made
available to the research community on a set of 7 CD-ROMs. The
XDRs enable computation of continuous sea level time series
spanning the period 1985-89 and have . provided the f irst
comprehensive description of interannual variations associated with
the El Nino event in the Pacific Ocean.

3. Southern Hemisphere GDRs. In 1990 NOAA obtained permission
from the Navy to declassify those Geosat geodetic mission GDRs
covering the ocean region adjacent to Antarctica (600S to 720S) .
.The average cross-track spacing of these data is typically 2 to 3
km at 600S, providing very high spatial resolution f or geophysical
studies. These GDRs are contained on two 9-track tapes. NOAA is
also actively supporting the newest satellite altimeter, the
European Space Agency (ESA) Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-1),
launched in July 1991. NOAA personnel are assisting ESA in areas
of calibration and verification and will use the fast delivery
altimeter data to perform monthly monitoring of tropical sea level.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 52

40N

20N

Eq 7

20S
40S7_1__
120E 140E .160E 180 16OW 140W 120W 10OW 9OW

-28 -24 -20 -16 -12 -3 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
CENTIMETERS

Figure 11-15. Sea level anomaly in the tropical Pacific averaged over the 1-year
period November 1986-87. Anomalies are relative to the mean over the first year
of the Geosat mission, April 1985-86. Contours are at 4 cm intervals, negative
shaded. This map depicts, the 1986-87 El Nino when water from the western
equatorial Pacific was displaced primarily to the east and north. (Courtesy
Robert E. Cheney, Chief, Satellite and Ocean Dynamics Branch, Geosciences
Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean Service)

OCEAN TRANSPORT

The role of ocean circulation in transporting heat and modifying
the effects of global climate change is not well understood.
Recent research has identified the Atlantic ocean latitude band 20ON
to 301N as having. the largest poleward heat flux in the North
Atlantic basin. Figure 11-16 shows the variability within the
Florida Current in ocean transport. This monitoring was done using
measurements of the cross-stream voltage between Florida and Grand
Bahama Island, generated by the flow of the Florida Current through
the Earth's magnetic field as measured by.a submarine cable along
the seafloor. The fluctuations in the 30-day running mean of the
transport (Figure 11-16, upper curve) show that there are large
seasonal changes in transport and that these fluctuations are
larger in some years than others. It is not known at this time
whether these fluctuations are an indicator of climate variability
or long-term change. The yearly mean values (Figure 11-16, bottom
curve) do not show significant change in the mean transport of 32
Sverdrups.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST, 53

monthly means
40

> 30
C/2

yearly means 1 std
40

>
30

mean 32.2 0.8 Sv
20 trend -0.13 0.12 Sv/yr

........... ........

1982 1983 1984 1-985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
YEAR

Figure 11-16. Monthly mean transport for Florida Straits (270N) derived from
voltage measurements made between Settlement Point, Grand Bahama Island, and near
Jupiter Inlet, Florida. Monthly means (top curve) and yearly means (bottom curve)
are given. Sv=Sverdrups (106n?lsec). (Courtesy Jimmy C. Larsen, Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory, NOAA office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research)

COASTAL UPWIELLING

Upwelling regions are among the most biologically productive areas
of the ocean. The most important upwelling areas are in the.
eastern boundary currents off California, Peru, northwest Africa
and southwest Africa. Not only are upwelling regions of high
economic importance (yielding up to 50 percent of the world's fish
catches), but they strongly influence adjacent coastland weather
and climate. Increasing alongshore wind stress, which drives
coastal upwelling, has been linked to long-term climate variation
and change. Changes in the rate of coastal upwelling have been
used as an indicator of climate variability. Direct observations
of upwelling are -,not available. . However,. a coastal upwelling
index, based on an estimate of the alongshore wind stress (the
driving mechanism for upwelling), h 'as been used to calculate
variations of upwelling intensity along the west coast of the U.S.
(Figure 11-17).

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 54

1940-1989

YEAR

Figure 11-17. Bakun Coastal Upwelling index. offshore Ekman Transport 39N,
125W. (Courtesy Andrew Bakun, Chief, Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service)

The f irst edition of the NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST described a
process by which global warming could result in the amplification
of heating during summer intensifing the thermal low-pressure cell
over the coastal landmass in upwelling regions. The increased
onshore-of f shore pressure gradient induces strengthened alongshore
wind. Evidence was presented of substantial multi-decadal
increases in alongshore wind stress off California,.Peru, Morocco,
and the Iberian Peninsula. Further evidence of increasing
alongshore wind stress is presented f or the northwest coast of
Africa in Figure ii18. Additional evidence f or this hypothesis is
found in the trends in atmospheric pressure in the northwest Africa
interior. The thermal low in the interior of northwest Africa
appears to have been intensifying in an especially dramatic manner.
This is being done in phase with the strongly increasing wind
trends along the west African coast. Meteorological data in the
African interior is rather sparse and this might be suspected as
being involved in the trend. However, actual measured barometric
pressure from a group of stations in north Africa (Tombouctou,
Mopti, & Bamako) appear in each case to independently substantiate
the trend.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 55

Cap Sim

2-5-
A
2.0- a%
P,
1 .5 "Oil T na-ie@vh
--- ------------
br,
1.0

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 60 85 W

Cap Juby

2.5
A. iq %q
d I. CL A A
10 - -0 - * ,

1.5

1.0

45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

Cabo Bojador
3.0
>1
rd 2-5
go q
-:@- a;
2-0 -j.A4-*----:@-:@-tA-;4--:7--V-
1.5
,-.Fr o@ : I.:
Pq : : a
1.0. Deli,
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 ao a5 90
En

0
z
Cap Blanc
3.0- :A'.

2-0- A
1.5 .0 -Ago'-. ?C W bad am
V16 06
1'0 - bad, 00i
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 95 90

Cap Vert

1.2 CL
1.0 - ------ -
.8

.4
45 50 55 60 55 70 75 ao a5 90
YEAR

Figure 11-18. Monthly estimates of alongshore wind stress (dyneslcm2) off
northwest Africa. Linear trend fitted by least squares method (long dashes).
(Courtesy Andrew Bakun, chief, Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 56

LONG WAVES

Global scale ocean dynamics are dominated by the rotation of the
Earth. The Coriolis force has an important inf luence on long
waves, fronts, and eddies on many spatial and temporal scales. A
special class of motions occur in the vicinity of the equator where
.the Coriolis force approaches zero.

Equatorial long waves are westward propagating, low frequency, long
period, with large north-south scales. Long waves have been seen
as 1000 kilometer cusped perturbations in the sea surface
temperature front that develops along the equator in the Atlantic
ocean during summer and fall. Such perturbations have been noted
in satellite photographs.

The perturbations move westward at speeds varying from 20 to 50
cm/second. The position of these perturbations affect biological
productivity, weather, and cross-equatorial heat transport. The
movement of long wave crests has been tracked in SST from satellite
measurements since 1984. Wave activity. reached a minimum in the El
Nino year 1987. Waves have been particularly frequent and long-
lived in 1989 and 1990 (Figure 11-19).

40W 3OW 20W low PM
May 84
J= 94
Jul 84
Aug 84
S@p 94
M.y 85
I= 95
JW 85
Aug 85
Sep 85
May 86
im 86
Jul 86
"g 86
r Sep 86
E-4 May 97
Z J- 97
0 Jul 87
A.9 87
Sep 87
huy 88
J= 88
Jul so
Aug 88
Sep 88
NUY 89
JM 89
Jul 89
A Aug 89
Sep 89
may 90
J= 90
JW 90
AUg 90

LONGITUDE

Figure 11-19. Positions of long wave crests in the equatorial Atlantic Ocean
during May-September, 1984-90. Crests propagate westward at an average speed of
about 30 cm1sec. (courtesy LT John M. Steger, Satellite Applications Laboratory,
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 57

COASTAL GEODESY/HYDROGRAPHY

Geodesy is the science of measuring the shape of the Earth's
surface. The Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) has the capability
to accurately determine land subsidence and shoreline movement from
its historic data base. Accurate shoreline maps have been produced
since the early 1830s. The maps cover the nation's shoreline which
has been remapped on an average interval of 30 years. In addition
to shoreline maps, the C&GS maintains an archive of aerial f ilm
dating from the early 1930s.

Subsidence is the sinking of the ground due to natural or
anthropogenic causes. Two areas of the United States, New Orleans-
Southern Louisiana and Houston-Galveston, Texas, are experiencing
land subsidence due mainly to the withdrawal of groundwater and
oil. Detection of this movement has been made possible through the
repeated surveying of the National Geodetic Reference System of the
C&GS. Releveling efforts over-the past 20 years generally show a
continuing subsidence of the land areas, although rates of
subsidence vary over the entire area.

Between 1963 and 1978, all of the region within 20 miles of Houston
had subsided at least 3 decimeters. - Figure 11-20 shows how
Houston's eastern boundary (Pasadena) has subsided since 1976. The
dramatic decrease in subsidence east of Houston since 1978 is a
result of regulated reductions of water pumping allowed by canal
systems providing alternative surface water. No alternative source
of water is available for the area.. west of Houston, which has
experienced rapid residential and commercial growth. The regional
changes in water levels have a direct relationship to subsidence in
the Houston area.

40 SUBSIDENCE AT PASADENA EXTENSOMETER.

77 82 87

YEAR

-50

-120
MODELM FJ"T
0--008SEWED HEIGW

Figure 11-20. subsidence in millimeters (mm) at Pasadena, Texas, 1976-88.
(Courtesy R. Sandford Holdahl and David B. Zilkoski. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
NOAA National Ocean Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 58

Hydrography is the science which deals with the measurement and
description of the physical features of bodies of water and their
littoral land areas. special emphasis is usually placed on the
elements that affect safe navigation, and the publication of such
information for use in navigation. A shoal is an offshore hazard
to navigation on which there is a depth of 66 feet (20 m) or less,
composed of unconsolidated material. The C&GS monitor areas of
shoal development. This information is vital to all mariners for
the purposes of safe navigation. C&GS constantly updates its
nautical charts with its own hydrographic surveys and input from
other government agencies, private industry, and the public.

Fire Island and West Point Shoals, found at the northern end of
Cook Inlet, Alaska, are well known dangers to vessels that transit
in and out of the Port of Anchorage. For at least fifty years,
C&GS surveys have shown that Fire Island Shoal has been steadily
moving eastward toward Fire Island encroaching upon the traditional
safe navigation route that container ships, oil tankers, and U.S.
Navy and Coast Guard vessels have been using since the early 1960s.
Fire Island Shoal, as well as others in the vicinity, has been
periodically surveyed by the C&GS to determine the precise
location, extent, and least depth for the purposes of safe
navigation through this portion of Cook Inlet. Hydrographic survey
data collected between 1941 and 1987 revealed that Fire Island'
Shoal has shifted over 1,000 m and has risen from 10 feet (3 m)
least depth to 2 feet (0.6 m) above Mean Lower Low Water. West
Point Shoal, adjacent to Fire Island Shoal, is relatively new and
has been developing since first observed on a 1982 C&GS survey.
During a 5-year period the center has shifted 200 m to the west,
expanded by approximately 260 m wide and 1,368 m long, and went
from a least depth of 9.1 m to 7.6 m (Figure 11-21).

FEET E

figure ii-21. sounding profile of fire island and west point shoals from 1941
to 1987. (courtesy dennis j. hill, coast and geodetic survey, noaa national ocean
service)

noaa environmental digest 59

Ill. CRYOSPHERE

sea ice and snow cover are important factors related to the Earth's
heat budget and in determining the amount of solar energy reflected
back into space (planetary albedo) Latitudinal variations in the
Earth's albedo help determine atmospheric circulation and
consequently the heat transferred from equator to pole. The
processes that accommodate this flux of heat influence both short-
term weather and long-term climate. Global scale changes in the
volume of ice are an indicator of global temperature change as are
the long-term seasonal amounts and extent of snow cover and sea
ice.

JOW

SEA ICE

Sea ice influences global climate through its effect on planetary
albedo. Additionally, it influences energy transfers of heat
between the atmosphere and oceans and affects the temperature and
salinity structures of the ocean. The melting and freezing that
occur at the margins of sea ice produce effects on ocean stability
and circulation that promote mixing, upwelling, and nutriient
enhancement. These "ice edge effects" act to enhance biological
productivity. Measurements of sea ice extent, type, movement,
surface temperature, and albedo are important indicators of climate
change.

Time series of the monthly areal extent of Arctic sea ice are shown
in Figure III-1. The time series shows no clear relationships to
the global or Northern Hemisphere surface temperature. For
example, the warmest year in the modern record, 1990, was also the
year with the minimum in summer Arctic sea ice, but other low
Arctic sea ice summers were associated with near zero or slightly
negative temperature anomalies.

2.0

i . D

........... .........
0
H

W I NTER

SUMMER ......

-2.0

1973 1974 1975 1976 IS77 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985-1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
YEAR

Figure XXX-1. Time series (1 973-90) of the Arctic sea ice anomalies for the
northern winter (solid line) which is an average of January and February data and
summer (dashed line) which is an average of Augustand September data. Areas
based on satellite remote-sensing data. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, KOAA
National Weather service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 62

The time series of both the Antarctic summer and winter sea ice
areas (Figure 111-2) show little evidence of long-term trends or
relationships to the Southern Hemisphere temperature anomalies.
Sea ice anomalies appear to be systematically larger early in the
record compared to the recent decade. The larger negative winter
anomalies in the late 1970s are associated with the evolution of a
persistent polynya, or large ice-free area within the Weddell Sea.
Polynyas are thought to be associated with low-frequency
fluctuations in the deep-ocean circulation.

2.0

1 .0

0.0

-1 .0

WINTER

SUMMER ......
1 1-4-2.0
1973 1974 1975 197G 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1906 1987 1988 1989 1990
YEAR

Figure XXX-2. Time series (1973-90) of the Antarctic sea ice area anomalies for
the southern winter (dashed line) which is an average of August and September
data and summer (solid line) which is an average of January and February data.
Areas are based on satellite remote-sensing data. (Courtesy Climate Analysis
Center, NOAA National Weather Center)

SNOW COVER

The extent of snow cover is an important factor in the planetary
radiation budget. In addition, measurements of the extent, depth,
density, and liquid content of snow are important for determining
global precipitation and runoff volumes. Satellite-derived snow
cover estimates have been available since the 1960s. These values
were not considered suitable for use in scientific analysis until
the development of consistent, global-scale analyses in 1973.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 63

The record indicates that the late 1970s were marked by a sequence
of years with considerably, above-normal snow cover. The 1980s have
witnessed less snow cover and a general return to the pre-1970s
conditions. The warmer-than-average temperature in the Northern
Hemisphere during the 1980s may be linked in part to the variations
in snow coverage. Time series of Eurasian snow cover and
temperature anomalies provide some evidence for the hypothesis that
the two are related (Figure 111-3). This time series plot suggests
that during the spring and, to a lesser extent summer, snow cover
area and temperature anomalies are inversely related . Since
positive global temperature anomalies are strongly influenced by
the Northern Hemisphere spring temperatures in Eurasia, the extreme
temperature anomaly of spring 1990 may have been, in part, related
to the reduced snow cover area during spring and summer. No-.strong
relationships between snow cover area and surface temperature
anomaly were evident in the time series for the fall and winter
seasons.

1 .0 21 .0

(a)

0. 5- Is. 0

>4
17.0

0
z

-0.5- 15.0

-1 .01 13.0
1973 1975 IS77 157S 1981 IS83 1585 1987 ISSS 1551
YEAR

Figure XXX-3 (a)-(b). Time series (1973-90) of Eurasian snow cover area derived
from satellite data (dashed line) and Eurasian temperature anomalies (solid line)
derived from an analysis of surface weather stations for (a) spring and (b)
summer. The lefthand scale gives the temperature anomaly in degrees Celsius while
the righthand scale gives the snow cover in 106km2. (Courtesy Climate Analysis
center, NOAA National Weather Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 64

1 .0 4.'0
(b)
!% 4t%

0.5- 3.0

ItI
0

>4
0.0- 2.0

-0.5-

a .0
1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 Ises Issl
YEAR

Figure 111-3 continued.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 65

IV. BIOSPHERE

Life, since its first appearance billions of years ago, has
continually adapted to changes in the Earth's climate. Natural
selection has eliminated many species and allowed genetically
adaptable life forms to evolve. Not only has lif e adapted to
variations in climate, but the presence of life itself has
influenced climate. Natural processes, biological interactions,
and, 'increasingly, human activities have caused changes in the'
global ecosystem, changes in species abundance, and modification
of habitats.

F@ "@Ylaulil
R

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 67

FISHERIES

Fish has become an increasingly important part of the American
economy. our nation's fishery resources support large commercial
and recreational fishing industries, providing food, income,
employment, and recreation. Commercial landings of fish and
shellfish alone have a value of billions of dollars. Most of our
fishery resources are products of coastal waters and adjacent
estuaries, areas that are increasingly subject to pollution,
habitat loss, and overfishing. Two-thirds of the commercial
fisheries harvest is estuarine dependent. Regional stocks of the
most popular species are declining and species composition, size,
and abundance are being changed.

a. Commercial Landings

Commercial landings by U.S. fisherman in 1990 amounted to 9.7
billion pounds (4.4 million metric tons) valued at $3.6 billion,
an increase of 1.2 billion pounds (564,900 metric tons) in
quantity, and $334.0 million (up 10 percent) in value compared with
1989 (Figure IV-1) . Landings of major finfish species such as
Atlantic and Pacific cod, Alaska pollock, and flounders increased.
Finfish accounted for 86 percent of total landings, but only 55
percent of the total value of finfish and shellfish.

12.0
Volume (b) Value
.0 10.0-1
ri

6. 0

4. 0

2.01
0
P4

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

YEAR

Figure IV-1. U.S. commercial landings (edible and -industrial). (Courtesy
Fisheries atatistics Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 68

In terms of volume, the top f ive species caught by commercial
fishermen in 1990 were pollock, menhaden, salmon, cod, and flounder
(Figure IV-2a). Salmon, shrimp, crab, pollock were the top five
species in terms of value (Figure IV-2b) . Compared with 1989,
landings of clams, crabs, flounders, Alaska pollock, and Atlantic
and Pacific cod increased, while shrimp, salmon, and tuna landings
decreased.

Total Volume 9.7 billion lb Total Value $3.6 billion

Salmon
17.1%
Alaska Pol Shrimp
32.5%
13.8%

.............
Other (b)
........ ..
(a)
27.9%

Other
Crabs
.... ... 43%
13.5% .........
Flounder

Cods Alaska Pollock
6.6% 7.6%
Menhcden Salmon Lobsters
20.2% 7.6% 5%

Figure' IV-2 (a)-(b). (a) Total volume and (b) total value of the major
commercial species caught by U.S. fishermen. (Courtesy Fishery statistics
Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

b. Recreational Catch

The U.S. recreational catch in 1990 on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts
was an estimated 230.9 million fish. These fish weighed
approximately 317.7 million pounds and were taken on an estimated
39.8 million fishing trips (Figure IV-3). Of this amount, 141.5
million pounds (45 percent) were landed,. the balance was released.

The five species groups most commonly caught by recreational
anglers in 1990 on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts by weight were
bluefishl tunas /mackerels, drums/croakers, porgies, and dolphin
(Figure IV-4a) . The total catch in number on the Pacific coast for
1989, the last year data are available, was estimated to be 41.3
million fish (27.8 million pounds) , exclusive of salmon, which
historically has been about two percent of the total Pacific
recreational catch (Figure IV-4b).
NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGE�T 69

500 -/ (a)

4
0 - 371 398 382 411
0 356
H
324
288 JjjW
P40 300 -
0 H 240 231

200-
M

100 -

.81 82 83 84 85 86 87 @9 90
80-/ (b) 71 66
61 62 62
60- 55
00
48

r-4 40
Pk rA 40-
00

PL4 20-
H

z E-I
0
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
YEAR

Figure XV-3 (a)-(b). Marine recreational fisheries (a) catch and (b) fishing
trips Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 19.81-1990. 1990 data provisional. (Courtesy
Fisheries Statistics Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

1990 Atlantic & Gulf Coast 1989 Pacific Coast
Landings = 141.5 million lb Landings 27.8 million lb

Tuncis/Mackerels Other fishes
17.7% ... Flatfishes
(b)
G
reenlings

.. .............
Dolphin
6.1% Sea Basses
Other Fishes Porges 10.9%
41.4% 6.4% Rockfshes
Drums/Croakers 32.1% Tunas/Mackerels
8.2% 11.6%

Figure XV-4 (a)-(b). (a) 1990 Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coast landings and
(b) 1989 Pacific coast landings. (Courtesy Fisheries Statistics Division, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 70
48

c. Catch in the U.S. EEZ

All fishery resources within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone
(EEZ), except highly migratory species of tuna, are subject to
management by one or more of the eight Regional Fishery Management
Councils created by the Magnuson Fishery -Conservation and
Management Act (MFCMA) of 1976. The Councils develop Fishery
Management Plans (FMPs) for species requiring management. The FMPs
are designed to provide for the optimum utilization of the
resources! while giving preference to U.S. fishermen over foreign
fisherman. The MFCMA led to the development of "joint ventures"
in 1979, wherein U -S. commercial fishermen catch and sell to
foreign vessels certain species for which U.S. demand is low
relative to the abundance of the species.

The combined catch by U.S. and foreign vessels in the EEZ was 6.0
billion pounds (2.7 million metric tons) in 1990 (Figure IV-5), a
decrease of 68.4 million pounds (1 %) compared with 1989. The U.S.
share was 99 percent of the total. The foreign catch of fish
(excluding tunas) and shellfish in the U.S. EEZ was 2b.3 million
pounds in 1990, a 75 percent decrease compared with 1989. The N.
Atlantic U.S. EEZ supplied 100 percent of the total foreign catch.

Joint venture catches in the U.S. EEZ (Figure IV-5) grew from 23.3
million pounds (10.6 thousand metric tons) in 1979 to 3.2 billion
pounds (1,452.2 thousand metric tons) in 1988, but in 1990 the
catch decreased to 800,6.00 pounds (363.1 thousand metric tons) .
The U.S. harvesting and processing capabilities have expanded
greatly in the last few years, decreasing the need for these joint
venture arrangements.

7.0- Foreign Catches U.S. Vessel Landings Joint Venture
tn 6.0-
r.
0
-1 5.0-
r-I -
4.0-

3.0-

2.0-

0
P4 1.0 -

0.0-
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

YEAR

Figure IV-5. U.S., foreign, and joint venture catches in the U.S. EEZ, 1985-
1990. (Courtesy Fishery Statistics Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 71

d. World,Landings

In 1989, world commercial fishery landings were a record 99.5
million metric tons, an increase of 772,000 metric tons (less than
1 percent) compared with 1988 (Figure IV-6). The USSR was the
leading nation with 11 percent of the total catch; China, second
with 11 percent, Japan, third,with 11 percent; followed by Peru
with 7 percent; Chile, fifth with 6 percent; and the United States
with 6 percent.

H 14
H
'r' 12-
10
Z 8-
0
F, 6- ............

od
1981 1984 1986 1989
YEAR
M USA M Chile Peru japan ChinA USSR
6th 6th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st
Figure IV-6., World commercial catch by leading countries, 1979-1989. (Courtesy
Fishery, StatibtiCS.DiviSion,'NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

e., Selected U.S. Fisheries.

i. Reef Fish

Waters of the western Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean
Sea contain more than 100 species of reef fish that are considered
commer,cially. or recreationally important. Fishing pressure has
increased greatly, and most traditional reef fisheries are probably
fully exploited or 6verfished. Eight out of the ten major species
in' the Atlantic fishery show significant declines in average size
since.1972. An example is the decline in the weight index of gag
(a species of grouper) shown in Figure IV-7. In the Caribbean,
traditional mainstays of the fishery such as Nassau grouper have
practically, disappeared, and the major target species in recent
years, e.g., red hind (a grouper), show declines in total landings

since the late 1970s. Figure IV-8 shows the dramatic decline in
yield of Caribbean reef fish.

0.8 W
12- in
z

0 0.6 :1.4
0 9
0

Q 6- 0. 4 rA

>4
3 - 0.24

Commercial Yield Recreational Yield 7-)K- Gag Index

0
79 81 83 85 87 89
YEAR

Figure IV-7. Yield of Atlantic reef fish, 1978-1990; weight index of gag. Yield
in thousands of metric tons (mt=metric tons). (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries
Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)'

2.5

0
0
0
1.5

>4
0.5-
Yield

0
79 81 83 85 87 ..89
YEAR

Figure IV-8. Yield of Caribbean, reef fish in thousands of metric tons (mt=
metric tons), 1978-1989. (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries- Science Center, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 73

ii. Oceanic Pelagics

The Atlantic Ocean pelagic fishery (open water) resources,
-including tunas, swordfish, marlins, and sailfish, are highly
migratory species harvested over large geographic regions. The
primary species harvested in the U.S. has shifted since 1960 from
bluef in tuna to swordf ish to yellowf in tuna. In 1961-1973, bluef in
tuna represented 45-80 percent of the U.S. western Atlantic yield,
but the percentage is now less than 10 percent. This decline in
bluefin tuna catch and a similar decline in swordfish catch
coincide with declines in abundance (Figure IV-9). In 1961-1983,
the percentage of yellowfin tuna in the U.S. catch was generally
less than 10 percent, but the United States has become a major
harvester of yellowfin tuna, which now comprises 45 percent of the
catch.

Swordfish Adults

20- -1

Bluefin Biomass
-0.8
15 -
-P
z
0 -0.6
0
0
10-
'0A

-0.2

-4-US West Atl Yield Bluef In Index 9 Swordfish Index
0 -1 11111f1111111111i I I I I I I i I I I 1 10
60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
YEAR

Figure IV-9. Change in abundance of bluefin tuna and swordfish compared to yield
of all ocean pelagic species, 1961-1989. Bluefin index is based on biomass;
swordfish index is based on number of adults. Yield in thousands of metric tons
(mt=metric tons). (courtesy Southeast Fisheries science Center, NOAA National
marine Fisheries service)

iii. Sharks

A substantial recreational fishery and directed commercial shark
fishery for coastal sharks occur in the U.S. Atlantic. Pelagic
sharks are targeted by shark tournaments and are a major bycatch
of the longline fishery for swordfish and tuna. Since 1970, shark

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 74

meat has become a popular seafood. Very recently, however, high
levels of mercury were discovered in 'shark f lesh, and this may
render the market unstable. Sharks are vulnerable to overfishing
because of low reproductive potential and slow growth rates. Both
recreational and commercial fishermen have recently voiced concern
regarding a perceived downward trend in shark availability. Figure
IV-10 shows trends in recreational and commercial yields. A
fishery management plan is expected to become effective in 1992.

10- 5
Recreational Yield

9 Small Coastal Sharks ta
8- Z
0
-P .@I

6 3
0

4- 2
Commercial Yield

Large Coastal Sharks
2- 1

0- 10
79 81 83 85 87 89 91
Year

Figure IV-10. Recreational and commercial yields of Atlantic sharks; abundance
estimates of large and small coastal sharks. Yield in thousands of metric tons
(mt=metric tons). (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National
Marine Fisheries Service)

iv. Menhaden

Menhaden are filter feeders found in coastal and estuarine waters.
Two species, the Atlantic and Gulf menhaden, form surface schools
that support a large industrial fishery producing fish meal, oil,
and solubles. By weight landed, menhaden is the largest fishery
in the United States. Figure IV-11 shows the trends in yield and
biomass since 1950. The Atlantic menhaden stock is overutilized.
Landings have improved since a collapse of the stock in the 1960s,
but not to the levels of the late 1950s. The Gulf menhaden stock
is fully utilized. Historically, Gulf landings rose from the
beginning of the fishery to a peak in 1984, but they have declined
steeply since 1987.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 75

1000 -2500
Gulf of Mexico Yield

9 Gulf VIDA Biomass -P
800 -2000 0
-P 0
0 0.
0
.0 r4
0 600- 1500-
0

n 400- 1000
0
H
>4 200- -500

Atlantic Yield Atlantic VPA Biomass
0 -1 I'l I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 10
60 62 64 66 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
YEAR

Figure IV-11. Yield and biomass of Gulf and Atlantic menhaden in thousands of
metric tons (mt=metric tons), 1950-1990. VPA = virtual population analysis.
(Courtesy Southeast Fisheries science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service)

v. Shrimp

Gulf of Mexico shrimp fishery trends for the past 30 years indicate
that both brown and white shrimp catch levels have significantly
increased, while pink shrimp catch, which was very stable until
about 1985, has declined the past few seasons and is now at. an all-
time low, (Figure IV-12) . Recruitment levels . for each of the
species have generally showed the same trends as catch. There has
,been a significant increase in the number of recruits produced per
parent for brown shrimp, but no significant increase is seen for
white and pink shrimp. Shrimp fisheries-are affected by changes
in estuarine conditions. The increase for brown shrimp appears to
be related to alterations in marsh habitat. Coastal subsidence and
sea level rise in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico are causing
intertidal marshes to be inundated longer and become more favorable
for production of food for shrimp. Subsidence also has increased
accessibility by creating more marsh edge, expanded the estuarine-
area by saltwater intrusion, and provided more protection from
predation. As a result, the nursery function of these marshes has
been greatly magnified, resulting in@an expansion in recruitment
to the brown shrimp fishery. since continued subsidence will lead
to marsh deterioration and ultimate loss of supporting wetlands,
current high fishery yields may not be indefinitely sustainable.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 76

I- Brown Shrimp Index 2

E3 Pink Shrimp Index
120 Gulf Shrimp Yield
White Shrimp Index 1.5z
4.)
0
o 80-
0 0
0 1 E-4
rn

E-4
40- z
-0.5

0 0
60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
YEAR

Figure IV-12. Gulf of Mexico shrimp yields since 1960. Yield in thousands of
metric tons (mt=metric tons) . (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service)

vi. Groundfish and Flounders

This group of fish includes important gadoid species of the
northeast United States (Atlantic cod, haddock, redf ish, silver and
red hake, and pollock) and several flatfish (yellowtail flounder,
summer and winter flounder, American plaice, witch flounder, and
windowpane) . The combined index for this group declined by almost
70.percent between 1963 and 1974, reflecting substantial increases
in exploitation associated with the advent of distant-water fleets
(Figure IV-13). By 1974, indices of abundance for many of these
species had dropped to the lowest levels observed in the history
of the survey time' series. Partial resource recovery occurred
during the mid- to late 1970s attributed to reduced fishing effort
associated with increasingly restrictive management. The aggregate
index peaked in 1978 and subsequently declined in 1987-1988 to the
lowest values in the time series. The index has since increased
somewhat reflecting improved -recruitment for some species.

vii. Atlantic Herring and Mackerel

Abundance of northeast U.S. Atlantic herring and Atlantic mackerel
has been monitored using spring survey data. This index declined
to minimal levels in the mid-1970s, reflecting pronounced declined
in abundance for both herring and mackerel (including the collapse
of the Georges Bank herring stock). This has been followed by an
increasing trend in recent years; index values for 1987-90 are
among the highest observed in the series, reflecting high levels
of abundance,for both species (Figure IV-14).

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 77

80-

E-4

60-

U
H
0 40-
Pqz

W 0 20
E-4 E-4
Eri
H
0
62 6@ 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90

YEAR

Figure IV-13. Trends in the index of aggregate abundance (catch in weight per
survey trawl haul) for northeast United States groundfish and flounders, 1962-
1990. (Courtesy Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service)

F-I
M 3-
W z

2-
W 0
E-4 E-1
P
H
44

68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
YEAR

Figure IV-14. Trends in the index of aggregate abundance (catch in weight per
survey trawl haul) for Atlantic herring and Atlantic mackerel, 1968-1990.
(Courtesy Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service

viii. skates and Spiny Dogfish

Spiny dogfish and skates are two important fishery resource
components of the northeast United States which are effectively

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 78

monitored using spring survey data (Figure IV-15). Spiny dogfish
and seven skate species are included in the index. The continued
increase in this index since the late 1960s reflects major changes
in relative abundance within the f inf ish species complex, with
increasing abundance of species of low commercial value. Survey
catches of both dogf ish and skates since 1986 have been the highest
observed in the time series. These increases in dogfish and skate
abundance, in conjunction with declining abundance of groundf ish
and flounders (Figure IV-13), have resulted in the proportion of
dogf ish and skates in Georges Bank survey catches increasing 25
percent by weight in 1963 to nearly 75 percent in recent years.

160 4

E-I
120-
W Cn
Pq

80-
z

W 0
E-4 E-I 40-

0- J
68 70 @2 74 76 71S @O @2 84 86 8.8 90
YEAR

Figure IV-15. Trends in the index of aggregate abundance (catch in weight per
survey trawl haul) for skates an d spiny dogfish, 1968-1990. (Courtesy Northeast
Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

ix. Northern Anchovy

Northern anchovies are small (< 7 inches) , short-lived (to 4 years)
plankton eaters that typically school near the surface in waters
of 120-22*C. The species ranges from British Columbia to Baja
California. An important Pacific coast fishery, it is used for
food, bait, and industrial fish products. The species is also
important forage for marine fishes, mammals, and birds. A "central
subpopulation, 11 which supports United States fisheries ranges along
the California coast. Northern anchovy biomass (Figure IV-16) in
the central subpopulation averaged 400,000 metric tons (mt) during
1964-70, increased rapidly to 1,800,000 mt in 1974, and then
declined to 490,000 mt in,1978. Although total anchovy harvests
since 1983 have been less than the theoretical maximum sustainable

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 79

yield and the historical levels before 1983, abundance continues
to decline slowly. As a final safeguard against depletion the
species is under a fishery management plan.

2,000
U.S. landings

Mexican landings
0 Biomass
C@ 1,500-
H

ta
W

0 1,000

W 500-
0
z

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
YEAR

Figure IV-16. Northern anchovy landings by United States and Mexican fleets
during 1945-90, and biomass (age 1 or older) from 1964 to 1990. Values in
thousands of metric tons (mt=metric tons). (Courtesy Assistant Administrator
for Fisheries, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

X. Pacific.Halibut

Pacific halibut has been fished commercially since the, late 1800s;
it is now fished only with longline gear, though other gear types
accidentally catch some halibut. There is also an active
recreational fishery as well. Halibut is found from the Bering Sea
to Oregon, though the center of abundance is in the Gulf of Alaska.
In 1990, nearly 37,000 metric tons (mt) of Pacific halibut were
landed commercially (31,900 mt in the United States and 5,100 mt
in Canada) (Figure IV-17) valued at $115 million. Halibut stocks
are assessed annually, and the fishable population apparently
peaked at 166,000 mt in 1986-87 after a rebuilding period (Figure
IV-17). The population has since declined at about 5 percent per
year. Some decline is still expected, but halibut numbers remain
fairly high by historical standards.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 80

50 250
u.s. commercial landings

u.s. recreational landings
40- Canadian landings 200
Abundance 0
0 0
0 0
0 30- 160

20- 100
z

10 so

0 0
1980 1986 1990
YEAR

Figure IV-17. Landings and abundance trends for Pacific halibut in the north
Pacific for United States commercial and recreational fisheries and the Canadian
fishery, 1980-90. Values in thousands of metric tons (mt=metric tons) . (Courtesy
Assistant Administrator for Fisheries, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

xi. Bering Sea-Aleutian Islands Groundfish

The average eastern Bering Sea-Aleutian Islands groundfish catch
during 1988-90 was about 1.8 million metric tons (mt) (Figure IV-
18) valued at about $352 million in 1990. The dominate groups
harvested were walleye pollock, 75 percent; flatfishes, 15 percent;
Pacific cod, 7 percent; Atka mackerel, 1.4 percent; rockfishes,
0.4 percent; and sablefish, 0.3 percent. Walleye pollock produced
the largest single-species catch in the United States (about 1.4
million mt) valued at $255 million in 1990. Bering Sea-Aleutiah
Islands groundf ish populations have been maintained at high levels
under the MFCMA (Figure IV-18).

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 81

50 250
U.S. commercial landings
U.S. recreational landings
40- Canadian landings 200
Abundance
0
0 0
0
0 30- 1 r.0

20- 100

10 50

0 0
1980 1986 1990
YEAR

Figure IV-18. Landings and abundance trends for groundfish resources in the
Bering Sea-Aleutian Islands region for the foreign, joint-venture, and U.S.
fisheries, 1976-90. Values in thousands of metric tons (m.t=metric tons).
(Courtesy Assistant Administrator for Fisheries, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service)

ZOOPLANKTON

Zooplankton are small marine animals that feed on phytoplankton or
on other zooplankton. They range in size from about 20 microns
(micro z ooplankton) to 5000 microns (megaplankton).. Some are
abundant (e.g., copepods) and form important links in pelagic food
webs between phytoplankton and larger animals. Most zooplankton
are composed of protozoans, small crustaceans (e.g., copepods) , and
the. larval stages of marine invertebrates. The largest
zooplankton, the megaplankton, consist of chaetognaths
(arrowworms), euphausiaceans (krill), small coelenterates
(jellyfish), ctenophores (comb jellies), and ichthyoplankton (fish
larvae).

.It has been suggested that zooplankton can*be used to assess trends
in climate. Temperature has an effect on the size of zooplankton,
@with animals growing larger at colder temperature. Changes in mean
temperature can result in differences in the stage of development
of a population, and in the size of the animals in the population
on any given sampling date. Zooplankton biomass and water column
temperature and structure have been used successfully for detecting
changes in the states of large marine ecosystems and fisheries
yields. Two large marine ecosystems, the northeast U.S.
continental shelf ecosystem and the California Current ecosystem,
have been studied for several decades by NOAA scientists to assess
the biogeography, annual cycles, and long-term variation in the
distribution, abundance, and composition of plankton.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 82

a. Copepods

Copepods are small crustaceans, most ranging f rom less than. one
millimeter (mm) to several mm in length. Marine copepods exist in
enormous numbers, and since most copepod species feed on
phytoplankton, they are the principal link between phytoplankton
and higher trophic levels in many marine food chains. A major part
of the diet of many marine animals is composed of copepods.

From 1961 through 1974 the Oceanographic Laboratory in Edinburgh,
Scotland conducted monthly monitoring of the zooplankton (including
copepods) and larger phytoplankton in the Gulf of Maine using the
Hardy Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR). In 1972, the NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service/Northeast Fisheries Center began
a program of cooperation with the Oceanographic Laboratory for the
extension of the long-term CPR survey into the additional areas of
the' western north Atlantic. These measurements are made to monitor
changes in the state of the Northeast Shelf Ecosystem in relation
to possible effects on the long-term sustainability of fishery
yields of the ecosystem. The year 1990 marks the thirtieth since
sampling began on the Gulf of Maine, and the twentieth on the
Middle Atlantic Bight transects.

The standardized abundances of the copepod Calanus finmarchicus in
the Gulf of Maine and the Middle Atlantic Bight are shown in Figure
IV-19. C. finmarchicus showed a positive trend in all Gulf of
Maine subareas exclusive of Massachusetts Bay beginning in
approximately 1979. Values for the Middle Atlantic Bight show a
later-occurring positive trend. For 1990, total copepods averaged
more than 150 percent and 200 percent above the base value for the
whole transects for the Gulf of Maine and Middle Atlantic Bight
respectively. Total copepod abundance in the Gulf of Maine for
1990 was the highest in the last 11 years.

b. Ichthyoplankton

Since 1950, trends in the abundance of the 1 arvae of 6 fish stocks,
10 m depth temperature, and zooplankton have been monitored in the
California Current by the California Cooperative oceanic Fisheries
Investigations (CalCOFI) surveys (Figure IV-20). This joint
Trogram between NOAA and the University of California (Scripps
Institution of Oceanography) has monitored the fish stocks, their
forage (zooplankton) , and the physical characteristics of the ocean
environment off california for over 40 years. The larval data are
used by fishery managers of the National Marine Fisheries Service
to estimate biomass of stocks and the entire CalCOFI data set is
widely used by scientists to study the effects of changes in ocean
climate on natural resources.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 83

3- (a) GULF OF MAINE
I
2-

-2

-3
60 65 .70 75 80 85 90

3- (b) MIDDLE ATLANTIC BIGHT

E-4
W

-2-
-31 ..... . ........
60 65 70 75 80 85 90

YEAR

Figure JV_19 (a)-(b) . Calanus finmarchicus (Crustacea; Copepoda) Lin (a) the Gulf
of Maine (1961-1989) and (b) Middle Atlantic Bight (1976-1989). Plotted values
are annual logarithmic mean abundances, standardized to a zero mean and a unit
standard deviation. (Courtesy Kenneth Sherman and.7ack Jossi, Northeast Fisheries
Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 84

1500
(a)

..... ....

E-4 1000

500

NORTHERN ANCHOVY
(Engraulis mordax)
0 L- L L L L L L L
50 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90
(b)
40 - PACIFIC SARDINE
(Sardinops sagax)

30 -

20,-

10 -

0
300 51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90
(C)
250 - PACIFIC HAKE
(Merluccius productus)
200 -

((a
94 150
W .
P4
100

0 L- L L ------
51 54 57 60 63 66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90
YEAR

Figure IV-20 (a)-(c). CalCOF1 time series of fish larvae abundance for important
California commercial fish species, (a) northern anchovy, (b) Pacific sardine,
(c) Pacific hake. (Courtesy John R. Hunter, Southwest Fisheries Science Center,
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 85
a

The scientific accomplishments of the CalCOFI program have had a
major influence on fishery and environmental science. Four broad
themes can be identified: time series analysis of the environment
and f ish stocks, hypothesis testing for recruitment mechanisms,
development of novel stock assessment models, and fishery
management plans. The anchovy management plan is a major practical
accomplishment of the CalCOFI program. It is one of the few plans
in the world using a long time series of fishery-independent
biomass and environmental information. Methods, developed by
CalCOFI, are now being widely applied worldwide.

SHELLFISH

Bivalve mollusks such as oysters, clams, and mussels are
predominantly found near shore and in estuaries where freshwater
mixes with ocean waters. Since colonial times shellfish have
provided an important source of food and an economic wealth for
many coastal communities. Since shellfish filter -large volumes of
water, they sometimes accumulate pathogens and contaminants in
their tissues. As many shellfish are traditionally eaten raw,
contaminated products could be a significant public health problem.
Because of their coastal locations, shellfish beds are under state
jurisdiction. States place shellfish waters in 5 classifications
based on sanitary surveys. Classification of shellfish growing
waters is based on the presence of actual or potential pollution
sources and levels of coliform bacteria in surface waters.

The National Shellfish Register of Classified Estuarine Waters is
produced by NOAA. Previous inventories of the National Shellfish
Register have been conducted in 1966, 1971, 1974, 1980, and 1985.
The 1990 inventory includes a field survey of classified shellfish
waters in 24 states. The survey quantifies the changes since 1985,
identifies the reasons for the changes, and lists the sources of
pollution affecting harvest-limited waters. Table IV-1 presents.
regional acres and percentage in shellfish bed closures. Trends
in prohibited acreage are shown in Figure IV-21.

Table IV-1. Shellfish bed closures for the United States by
region, 1966-1990. Thousands of prohibited acres and percentage of
national total prohibited. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental
Assessments Division, NOAA National Ocean Service)

Northeast Southeast Gulf of Mexico Pacific
Year Area 'Percent Area Percent Area Percent Area Percent
1966 443 25 790 45 524 30 3 0.2
1971 710 21 1,702 51 592 18 317 10
1974 711 19 1,897 50 829 17 317 8
1980 782 27 878 31 889 31 318 11
1985 709 23 612 19 1,649 39 318 5
1990 1'0?0 24 630 15 2,405 56 183 4

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 86

X1.

z
W
........ . . ........ .. ..... . ..... ........... . ..... .. ............. .......

W
a.
............ ............ -- ------------
20-

.... ..... .....
..... ..... .....
.. . .......... ..... . ... .......... ........
10-
..... .....

0
1966 1971 1974 1980 1985 1990
SHELLFISH BEDS CLOSED
(PERCENT OF OF TOTAL ACREAGE)
IIIIIIII Northeast M Southeast =]Gulf of Mexico Pacific

Figure IV-21. Shellfish bed closures for the United States by region, 1966-
1990. Percentage of national total acreage prohibited. (Courtesy Strategic
Environmental Assessments Division, NOAA National Ocean Service)

CONTAMINANTS
Chemical analyses of bottom sediments and selected*organisms have
been used to gauge the extent to which the marine environment has
been affected by human activities. Since 1984, the NOAA Office of
Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment has monitored, through
its National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program for Marine
Environmental Quality, the concentrations of 70 + organic compounds
and trace metals in bottom-feeding fish, shellfish, and sediments
at U.S. coastal and estuarine locations nationwide. The objectives
of the NS&T Program are to monitor the long-term trends of chemical
contamination and to assess the ef f ects of human activities on
coastal and estuarine areas throughout U.S. coastal waters.

The NS&T Program has seven major programmatic components: the
Mussel Watch Project, the Benthic Surveillance Project (these two
components provide the . majority of chemical contaminant
monitoring), Bioeffects Surveys, Historical Trends, Coastal
Contamination Assessments, and Specimen Banking. Scientists from
the Mussel Watch and Benthic Surveillance Projects collect samples
of sediment, fish.livers, and,bivalve molluscan tissues from more
than. 300 sites nationwide. Mussel Watch Project samples are
collected and laboratory analyses are performed, under contract,
by Battelle Memorial Institute's laboratories in Duxbury, MA, and
Sequim, WA, for sites on the east coast, west coast, and Hawaii;

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 87

and by the Geochemical and Environmental Research Group of Texas
A&M University for the Gulf of Mexico sites. Benthic Surveillance
Project samples are collected and laboratory analyses are
perf ormed, - under cooperative agreement, with NOAA I s National Marine
Fisheries service laboratories at,Seattle, WA, and Beaufort, NC.
NS&T samples are analyzed to determine . levels of synthetic
chlorinated compounds (DDT, its breakdown products, and 9 other
pesticides), polychlorinated biphenyls (20 PCBs), polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (24 PAHs) , 4 major elements, and 12 toxic
trace metals (e.g., mercury and lead). The NS&T Program requires
that each of its monitoring laboratories (1) use uniform sampling
protocols to monitor coastal and estuarine environmental quality
on a long-term national basis, (2) adhere to programmatic standards
for accuracy and precision in analytical results, (3) analyze a set
of calibration solutions and unknown chemical samples each year,
and (4) participate in laboratory intercomparison exercises. For
the NS&T's Specimen Banking, annually samples of sediment, fish
livers, and shellfish tissue are collected from about ten percent
of all NS&T monitoring sites, archived, and stored in liquid
nitrogen freezers at about -1500C by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology for future, retrospective analyses. NS&T
Bioeffects Surveys, 2- to 4-year,studies, are conducted on U.S.
estuaries shown by NS&T monitoring results to have high levels of
toxic chemicals. Recently, the NS&T Program began a sediment
coring project to determine Historical Trends in such areas of
concern as Long Island Sound, the Hudson-Raritan Estuary, Southern
California Bight, and in Puget Sound. Similar studies are proposed
for 1992 in Delaware Bay, Savannah Estuary, Chesapeake Bay, and San
Francisco Bay. Information gathered through the NS&T Program can
be applied to regional assessments to aid natural resource
management. Coastal Contamination Assessments, prepared by NS&T
staff, are reviews of the status of contamination and associated
bioeffects integrated with data available from other sources on
estuarine characterization, pollution sources, transport dynamics,
etc.

a. Sediments

i. Spatial Trends of Contaminants in Sediments

The nationwide results from NOAA analyses of bottom sediments has
been used to define the spatial distribution of contamination. It
is important to know that contaminants are associated with particle
surfaces, with sand-size particles having less contamination per
unit weight of sediment than fine-sized silt or clay. To account
for this, the NS&T sediment data has been adjusted to account for
the sandy portion of sediment samples and to exclude very sandy
samples (greater than 80 percent sand) in synthesis reports or
assessments.

In Figure IV-22, concentrations for cadmium (Cd) and total PCBs
(tPCB) are used as examples to show the distribution of trace metal

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 88

and organic chemical concentrations in sediment. Generally, there
are few high concentrations that stand out from the rest and these
are usually from sites near densely-populated, urbanized centers
of the country. In addition to the arithmetic distribution of
these data, it is useful to examine the distributions of logarithms
of the data in which the result approaches a log-normal, or bell-
curve, distribution.

With log-normal distributions, a useful definition of "high"
concentrations is "that where values are more than the mean plus
one standard deviation." In practice, because we are dealing with
normal distributions, about 17 percent of all the concentrations
for each chemical will fall into the high category. For cadmium
and tPCB, for example, the high concentrations correspond to 1.3
micrograms/gram (dry weight) and 200 nanograms/gram, respectively,
as shown in Figure IV-22. High concentrations for other chemicals
sampled in the NS&T Program are shown in Table IV-2.

(a)

figure iv-22 (a) - (b). distributions of (a) cadmium (cd) and (b) tpcb
concentrations in segiment on arithmetic and logarithmic scales from ns&t benthic
survelillance sites, 1984-86. (courtesy thomas p. o'connor, office of ocean
resources conservation and assessment, noaa national ocean service)

noaa environmental digest 89

Table IV-2. Concentrations in sediment that are defined as "high"
for NS&T sites. -Concentrations are in units of micrograms/gram
(dry) for trace metals and nanogra Ims/gram (dry) for groups of
organic compounds. (Courtesy Thomas P. O'Connor, Office of Ocean
Resources Conservation and Assessment, NOAA National Ocean Service)

Trace Metals/Organic Compounds -- High Concentrations

Cd :Cr Cu Pb Hg Ag Zn tDDT tCdane tPCB tPAH

1.3 230 87 97 0.51 1.2 280 40 5.5 200 3900

on a national scale, particularly for sites with three or more high
concentrations of contaminants, it was' found that high contaminant
contaminations were associated with urbanized areas of the
northeast states and those near San, Diego, Los Angeles, and Seattle
on the west coast. The association.of higher levels of sediment
contamination with populated areas is not a surprising result.
High chemical concentrations are most often found near discharges
and centers of industrial activity. Sampling on a much f iner
spatial scale than the NS&T Program would probably reveal higher
absolute contaminant concentrations. This fact illustrates the
need for more detailed monitoring programs in selected areas for
local decision-making.

ii. Temporal Trends of Contaminants in Sediments

Near-surf ace (surf icial) measurements of the top 1-3 cm of sediment
can be used to describe the spatial distribution of contamination
but the periodic analyses of surficial sediments requires a
knowledge of rates of particle deposition and rates of sediment
mixing. With only five years of measurements, the NS&T Program is
relying instead on determining chemical trends back to pre-
industrial times through its sediment coring project. Started in
1990, valid trends should be available soon from the results of
coring studies in selected study areas.

b. Bivalve Mollusks

Since 1986, the NS&T Mussel Watch Project has been monitoring the
concentrations of 70" chemicals in bivalve molluscan tissues at
more than 240 sites. Nationwide, data are collected for several
mussels, Mytilus species and Mytilus californianus, two oysters,
Crassostrea virginica and Ostrea sandvicencis, and the smooth-edge
jewelbox, Chama sinuosa. The central reason for analyzing mollusks
is to establish temporal trends in contamination. Mussels and
oysters can change their contaminant levels over short periods of
.time in response to changes in their surroundings. This and the
fact they are basically immobile makes them ideal for monitoring
changes in chemical concentrations in the coastal environment.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 90

Decadal trends in trace-metal contamination have been sought by
comparing NS&T data of 1986 through 1988 with data from analyses
of mussels and oysters collected in 1976 through 1978 by a previous
"mussel watch" program sponsored by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. Statistically, since the earlier program
collected a single sample each year, it was necessary to aggregate
three years of data for each decade. With the aggregated data it
was possible to estimate differences in trace metal concentrations
in mollusks at the 50 sites that were common to both programs.
Comparison of the data between the sites demonstrates a decadal
decrease in lead at 39 out of 50 sites. That decreases is
statistically sufficient to infer a national decrease in lead
concentrations since the late 1970s, a result consistent with the
phase-out of leaded gasoline.

For copper, cadmium, silver, and zinc the directions of change were
not significant in either a positive or negative direction.
However, for cadmium, there were 12 sites where the 1970s data were
statistically different from the NS&T data, and 11 of those cases
the 1970s concentrations were higher. Conversely, for 18 of the
22 sites where copper concentrations were statistically different
they were lower in the 1970s. This increase in copper may reflect
the fact that of all the metals measured in both programs, copper
is the only one whose annual use in the United States has shown an
increase since the mid-1970s. Large decreases in concentrations
of synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbons in mollusks and other
organisms occurred in the 1970s and continue now, but at a less
dramatic rate.

C. Fish

i.. Biological Effects of Contaminants

Since 1984, NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
laboratories, in cooperative agreement with NOAA's National Ocean
service, have been monitoring, through the NS&T Benthic
Surveillance Project, the biological effects of contaminants in
fish , and concurrently measuring 70+ chemical contaminants in fish
livers, fish stomach contents, and associated surficial sediments.
An extensive data base has evolved over* the past eight years on
Benthic Surveillance observations on nationwide incidences of such
histopathological diseases as liver:lesions (cancerous neoplasms)
and fin rot, aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase responses, and genetic
damage (DNA-adducts) in fish exposed to contaminants. Since 1986,
the NS&T Program also has conducted intensive, 2- to 4-year studies
on the effects of chemical contaminants in selected areas of
concern. Bioeffects surveys have been conducted or are underway
in Boston Harbor, Long Island Sound, Hudson-Raritan Estuary, Tampa
Bay, Southern California Bight, and San Francisco Bay. The
Environmental Conservation Division of the NOAA Northwest Fisheries
Science Center in Seattle, the NMFS Beaufort Laboratory, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution, and others are conducting bioeffects

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 91

studies on such topics as reproductive impairment, disease
incidences, genetic damage, elevated biochemical response systems,
and toxic responses to sediment and water samples. Results are
linking bioeffects observations to high concentrations of selected
chemical contaminants.

ii. Reproductive Impairment

Additional to NS&T monitoring and bioeffects surveys, closely
related biological effects research, partly funded by NOAA's
Coastal Ocean Program, is being conducted by the Environmental
Conservation Division of the NOAA Northwest Fisheries Science
Center in Seattle, WA. Over the years, this same laboratory has
conducted numerous studies on the effects of chemical contaminant
exposure on reproductive processes in bottom-dwelling fish.
English sole was chosen as the target 'species for this research
because previous studies had indicated that English sole is
particularly sensitive to contaminants, and it, is a species
indigenous throughout much of the study site, Puget Sound. Early
studies had shown that in gravid fish exposed to aromatic
hydrocarbons, such as benzo (a) pyrene, - these compounds and their
biotransformation products were deposited in their gonads.
Additionally, analyses of ovarian macromolecules showed binding of
benzo(a)pyrene metabolites, indicating the presence of reactive and
potentially toxic metabolites in the gonads.

Subsequent studies have shown reduced reproductive success in
English sole living in contaminated urban areas, such as Eagle'
Harbor and the Duwamish Waterway in Puget Sound. Among the effects
observed in females were: inhibition of oocyte development,
inhibition of spawning, depressed plasma estradiol levels, and
reduced egg weight. In female fish brought from contaminated areas
and induced to spawn in the laboratory with hormone injections,
spawning was roughly one-third as successful as it was in fish
collected from an uncontaminated reference site. Also, when the
fish did spawn, the 'viability of their offspring was reduced
compared to that for fish from less contaminated sites. However,
when fertilization success and larval viability were assessed in
running ripe fish sampled near urban spawning grounds, it was found
that the levels of contaminants were low in all animals sampled,
and that no statistically significant relationship could be found
between contaminant levels in tissues and larval viability or
fertilization succes s. The relatively,low levels of contaminants
in running ripe fish from spawning grounds., in combination with
evidence of inhibited ovarian development and spawning in fish from
polluted sites., suggests that fish from sites with relatively high
levels of contaminants may not be entering the spawning population.

In addition, in these studies the reproductive abnormalities were
statistically linked to alterations in chemical and biochemical
parameters (bioindicators) indicative of contaminant exposure.
Using multivariate statistical techniques, several bioindicators

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 92

were found to be associated with impaired ovarian maturation. The
bioindicators studied were: hepatic aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase
activity (an enzyme involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics),
tissue (liver and ovary) concentrations of PCBs, fluorescent
aromatic compounds in bile (e.g., metabolic products of aromatic
hydrocarbons). This statistical treatment also included other
factors such as fish size or age which could be separated from
effects of the contaminants (Figure IV-23). A correlation was
observed between aromatic hydrocarbon contamination and impaired
ovarian development, whereas decreased fertilization success, low
egg weight, and impaired larval viability were correlated with
exposure to PCBs.
(a) 800, 100 (b) 800 100
Port Susan Sinclair Inlet

600
600,
Indicator' % maturing Indicator % maturing
of Of 400 -50
Exposure 400,, So Exposure

200
200

LEGEND

Sediment PCBs (ppm)
Sediment AHs (ppm x 1W)
PAH metabolites in bile (ppb)'
AHH activity (pmol/nd/min)
E3 % maturing
(C) 600 amish Waterway 100 (d) 800 Eagle 100
77M.
500
Harbor
600
Indicator 400 % maturing % maturing
indicator
of
.50
Exposure 300 of 400 50
Exposure
200
200
100

Figure XV-23 (q)-(d). Indicators of contaminant exposure and proportion of
female'English sole undergoing ovarian maturation at four sites in Puget Sound:
(a) Port. Susan; (b) Sinclair Inlet; (c) Duwamish Waterway; (d) Eagle Harbor '
Proportions of maturing females from Port Susan and Sinclair Inlet were
significantly higher than those in females from the more contaminated sites.
(Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries science Center, MOAA National Marine
Fisheries service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 93

Further support of a link between contaminant exposure and
reproductive impairment in populations of English sole was provided
by additional laboratory studies. For example, injection of gravid
female fish with contaminants extracted from Duwamish Waterway
sediment showed a decline in circulating plasma estradiol levels
similar to that observed in the field-sampled fish from
contaminated sites. Current research includes studies to identify
metabolic or physiological steps in the reproductive cycle of
English sole which are disrupted by exposure of fish to toxicants,
such as the effects of xenobiotic compounds on the activities of
steroid metabolizing enzymes and on ovarian estradiol production.

iii. Liver Lesions

Field studies, partly supported by the NS&T Benthic Surveillance
Project, conducted by Northwest Fisheries Science Center scientists
in numerous sites in Puget Sound have indicated correlations
between exposure to certain chemical contaminants and the presence
of liver neoplasms in English sole. This research also
characterized a variety of other liver lesions that: (a) commonly
co-occur with neoplasms, (b) are involved in the initial steps in
the histogenesis of liver neoplasms ' (c) occur prior to the
development of neoplasms, and (d) are generally found in wild fish
at higher prevalences than neoplasms. These early lesions have
been induced in the laboratory by exposing English sole to certain
contaminants, such as benzo(a)pyrene and organic-solvent extracts
from urban sediments, and are correlated with liver dysfunction as
measured by certain serum chemistry parameters.

The thrust of this group's more recent work has been directed at
assessing, the utility of earl ier-occurring lesions as reliable
indicators of contaminant exposure in the marine environment. The
main advantage of using liver lesions as bioindicators is that,
when combined with supportive data on exposure and uptake of
xenobiotic chemicals, they provide a fairly direct index for
assessing sublethal effects of contaminants in wild fish. In
particular, early liver lesions are especially valuable in
biomonitoring programs where target fish species are often
juveniles or subadults because liver lesions are rarely detected
in young, wild fish. These lesions should also provide useful
indices of effects at sites exhibiting low-to-moderate levels of
contamination, since liver neoplasms are primarily found in fish
from highly contaminated sites.

Because these lesions occur prior to the appearance of neoplasms,
they may provide an earlier as well as a more sensitive,
histopathologic response to contaminant exposure in wild f ish, thus
increasing our ability to predict rather than document the
deleterious biological effects of pollution (Figure IV-24).

To test the utility of early lesions as, bio indicators, juvenile and
subadult English sole and starry flounder captured from several

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 94

sites in Puget Sound with varying degrees of contamination have
been examined (Figure IV-25). As expected, neoplasms were detected
at very low prevalences in these young fish from all sites, whereas
higher prevalences of earlier-occurring lesions, such as
preneoplastic lesions and regenerative lesions, were found in
English sole and rock sole, and much higher prevalences of several
types of earl ier-occurring degenerative lesions @(i.e., nuclear
pleomorphism/megalocytic hepatosis and/or hydropic. vacuolation of
parenchymal cells) were detected in individuals of all three
species, primarily from contaminated sites.

Neoplasms-moderate; Sites with high
early lesions high contamination

Neoplasms-low; Sites with moderate
M'M
cont
early lesions moderate amination

n Sites wit
Neoplas is-absent; h low
early le
sions low to
contamination
moderate .. 4" Q,

Sites w
All lesions- ith
@E
very low
absent
c
ontamination

Figure XV-24. A model using prevalences of various contaminant-induced liver
lesions in benthic fish from field survey data. (courtesy Usha Varanasi,
Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

All of these liver lesion types have been experimentally induced
in fish in the laboratory by exposure to various toxicants, or have
been shown to be statistically associated with contaminant exp Iosure
and the process of liver neoplasia in wild adult fish. Prevalences
of these earl ier-occurring lesions were significantly higher in
subadult fish at the more contaminated sites as compared with the
less contaminated sites in the above study. Moreover, prevalences
of most lesion types in.all.three species could be significantly
correlated with mean bile fluorescent aromatic compound levels, an
indicator of recent exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons. In
addition, prevalences of these earlier-occurring liver lesions as
well as neoplasms have been recently shown to be significantly
elevated in other species captured at other contaminated sites
sampled within NOAA's National Benthic Surveillance Project (Figure
IV-26) and are statistically correlated with results in previous
studies on adult fish. These findings support the value of using
certain liver lesions in addition to neoplasms as indicators of
biological damage in juvenile or adult fish exposed to
contaminants.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 95

60.
(a) English Sole Polnell PI p.0.06
Polnell Pt., p<0.005
so- ... P.Inell pl., P.O.0005

Neoplasms
Pre-o FCA
40- 0 ReprdProlif
0 NP/IVIH
30- [3 Hydropic Vac

20-

10
0 J
DLW EH(in) EH(out) EVH(in) EVH(oul) COW PILOT POW

-P
(b) Starry Flounder poineii Pit., P-os
Polnell Pt, P.O.005
44 Polnell Pt., P.OA006
44 so.
0 Neoplasms
4-) 40- Preneo FCA
9 Regen/Prolif
0 NP/MH
30- 0 Hydropic Vac
a)
P4

z 10
W
Lt M
D-W EH(In) EH(out) EVH(in) EVH(oui) o0MM PILOT POLN

P4
M Flock Sole polnell Pit, [email protected]
Polnell Pt., p.0.005
50. pol"ek Pt., P.O.0005
Neoplasms
Preneo FCA
40- FlegemProll
NPAAH
0 Hydrople Vac
30-

0.
CLW EH(In) EH(out) EVH(in) EVH(out) cOWA PILOT POLN

Site

Figure XV-25 (a)-(c). Hepatic lesion prevalences in subadult (a) English sole,
(b) starry flounder, and (c) rock sole from sites in Puget Sound. Keys in Table
IV-3. (Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National
Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 96

40 (a)
Neoplasms

4J. FCA

30-
Prolif
@4
SDN

(3 HydVac
TA 20- H
Necrosis
z
H (keys in Table IV-3)
H

10- H
H H H H
H H H H22 H
-Z*Iqm-
0 MtA
SPbBy CsCk SoSh Oakl HnPt OkEs RdCy (BdByJ
33 61 120 29 159 59 88 177

40- (b) H
0 Neoplasms
4J FCA
030- Prolif
U
0 SDN
H [3 HydVac
41 20- 1
U Necrosis
H I
(Keys in Table IV-3)

H
10 - .H
H H
fif H H HH H.. /I
H% ---Vey 2za k
VVHls nSDBy [DnPQ CrCh SPOHb LnBh SlBh -SPCn
83 101 172 45 109 88 30 26

SITE

Figure XV-26 (a)-(b). White croaker liver lesions, (a) northern sites and (b)
southern sites, National Benthic Surveillance Project, 1984-1988. (Courtesy Usha
Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Ocean Service)
'Keys
In
Ne

T
c

a
U -LH.LJ
@M 1, JH
L JH

H
@H JH LH@H

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 97

Table IV-3. Keys to Figures IV-25 and IV-26- (Courtesy' Usha
Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service)

F igure IV-25

Sites*,
DLJW Duwamish River
EH(in) inside Eagle Harbor
EH(out) outside Eagle Harbor
EVH(in) inside Everett Harbor
EVH(out) outside Everett Harbor
COMM Commencement Bay
PILOT Pilot Point
POLN Polnell Point (reference site)

Lesion Category Abbreviations@
Preneo FCA putatively preneoplastic foci of cellular alteration
Regen/Prolif hepatocellular regeneration/billary cell proliferation
NP/MH hepatocellular nuclear pleomorphism/ megalocytic
hepatosis
Hydropic Vac, hydropic vacuoraftion of hepatocytes, biliary epithelia]
cells

Figure IV-26
Sites@ Northern
SPbBy San Pablo Bay (San Francisco Bay)
CsCk Castro Creek (San Francisco Bay)
SoSh Southampton Shoal (San Francisco Bay)
Oakl Oakland (San Francisco Say)
HnPt Hunters Point (San Francisco Bay)
OkEs Oakland Estuary (San Francisco Bay)
RdCy Redwood City (San FranciscoBay)
BdBy Bodega Bay (reference site for northern stations)

Sites- Southern
CrCh Cerritos Channel (San Pedro Bay),
SPOI-lb San Pedro Outer Harbor (San Pedro Say)
SPCn San Pedro Canyon
LnBh Long Beach
SIBh Sea[ Beach
WHIs West Harbor Island (San Diego Bay)
nSDBy North San Diego Bay (San Diego Bay)
DnPt Dana Point (reference.site for southern stations)

Lesion Category &brev6atjons:
FCA putatively preneoplastic foci of cellular alteration
Prolif nonneoplastic proliferative lesions (e.g., hepatocellular
regeneration, biliary hyperplasia)
SON specific degeneration/necrosis (e.g. nuclear pleomorphism,
megalocytic hepatosis)
HydVac hydropic vacuolation of hepatocytes, biliary epithelial
cells
Necrosis nonspecific degeneration/necrosis (e.g. hepatocellular
coagulative necrosis)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 98

d. Invertebrates

Although there has been a concerted effort to understand and
monitor the effects of-contaminants on different species of fish,
less is known about the effects of contaminants invertebrate
species. Yet invertebrates represent approximately 97 percent of
all species in the animal kingdom and may also be at risk f or
exposure to environmental contaminants. Invertebrate species are
.also vulnerable because many do not appear to have the systems for
detoxifying and removing xenobiotics that vertebrates have.

Currently NOAA's National, Status and Trends Program (NS&T) includes
some biological measurements for invertebrate species in its
nationwide yearly environmental monitoring efforts, however, the
primary focus is on mollusks. Because invertebrates span a large
number of phyla, they exhibit a wide variety of physiological
strategies for dealing with xenobiotics. For example, the ability
to metabolize aromatic hydrocarbons is virtually absent in the more
primitive phyla, such as the6 cnidarians (e.g., jellyfish) and
porifera (i.e., sponges), and is only questionably present in the
molluscan phylum. Whereas in the more evolutionary advanced
invertebrate phyla, such -as the echinoderms (e.g., starfish, sea
urchins), arthropods (e.g., crustaceans), and annelids (e.g.,
polychaete worms) this -ability generally exists. Thus it is
reasonable that any large-scale assessment of coastal degradation
should incorporate a range of invertebrate species, including those
that accumulate contaminants and those that metabolize them. This
is beginning to happen "in the case of NOAA's Coastal Ocean
Bioeffects Surveys. Intensive monitoring of several highly
contaminated sites, such as Raritan Bay in New Jersey, now includes
several sediment bioassays (as a measure of invertebrate health)
in the suite of measurements performed.

Scientists from the Northwest Fisheries Science Center's
Environmental Conservation Division in Seattle are now assessing
the possible adverse health effects of sediment-associated
contaminants on a numb*er of sediment-dwelling invertebrate species.
Sediment samples which are routinely collected and chemically
analyzed as part of NOAA's National 'Benthic Surveillance Project
are now being further studied, for their possible biological impact
by using a suite of newly developed sublethal sediment bioassays
rather than the traditional mortality-based assay.

Particular interest has focused on sublethal assays because they
may prove especially useful in testing the majority of coastal
environments exhibiting low-to-moderate levels of contamination,
and for assessing long-term or chronic effects of contaminant
exposure. Such information can be used to indicate early on the
to protect these habitats. Laboratory studies using natural or
artificially amended sediments are also used linking various
concentrations of sediment-associated contaminants to their
possible effects on invertebrate organisms.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 99

Two such newly sublethal bioassays, one using a sediment-burrowing
polychaete worm and the other using juvenile sand dollars, were
successfully used to evaluate toxicity of sediments collected from
Puget Sound as well as from 18 sites sampled along the west coast
as part of the NS&T Program. Acute mortality rarely occurred with
these sediments, but growth was found to be significantly depressed
in invertebrates exposed to many of the urban sediment samples.
Growth of the worms and sand dollars was affected when exposed to
sediments from the following contaminated sites: North and South
San Diego Bay; east San Pedro,Bay and Cerritos Channel near Los
Angeles; Hunter's Point and Oakland Estuary in San Francisco Bay;
and Elliott and Commencement Bays in Puget Sound (Figures IV-27).

110-
r2=0.655
100-

90-

80-

70-

60-

50-
(a) POLYCHAETE
40-

0 10 100 1000

100-
r2=0.599

90-

80-

70-

60-

(b) SAND DOLLAR
50-
10 100 1000 10000

SEDIMENT PAHs (ng/g)

Figure IV-27 (a)-(b). Effect of sediment contaminant levels on (a) polychaete
and (b) sand dollar growth at 18 different sites in NOAA's National Benthic
Surveillance Project, 1989. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in nanograms per, gram (ng/g).
(Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 100

Invertebrate growth, as measured by a change i@ wet weight, was
reduced by nearly 50 percent following exposure to some of these
contaminated sediments as compared to the reference sediment. The
sediment chemistry data showed a high correlation between
concentrations of selected contaminants (e.g., aromatic
hydrocarbons, PCBs) and reduced growth of polychaetes and sand
dollars. Furthermore, animals exposed to urban sediment samples
had significantly lower deoxyribonucleic (DNA) and protein content
than animals exposed 'to the reference sediments. Invertebrate
growth following exposure to sediments from nonurban sites was not
significantly different from growth of these organisms on the
reference sediment.

Thus, these studies highlight that if mortality alone had been used
as a measurement of invertebrate health, most of the sediments
would have yielded negative test results. However, when a more
subtle indicator of invertebrate health was used, such as growth,
just the opposite was found: now most of the test sites revealed
definite signs of impaired invertebrate health in those species
tested.

These results suggest that measurements of impaired growth in some
invertebrates will provide a far more sensitive measurement of
sediment toxicity than acute mortality alone, particularly in those
sites exhibiting low to moderate levels of contamination. New
researchon the polychaete bioassay is now underway to examine that
possible impact of contaminants on this organism's reproductive
success as another sublethal indicator of sediment toxicity.

e. Marine Mammals

Marine mammals are important for studying aquatic contamination.
They are at the top of the marine food chain and by studying them
it may be possible to learn how chemical contaminants are
transported up the food chain. Recent strandings of gray and pilot
whales and other marine mammal species have created understandable
public concern. The reasons behind such beachings are generally
unknown, but have sometimes been attributed to toxic contaminants.
The lack of concrete information on tissue levels of contaminants
often leads to speculation.

i. Marine Mammal Tissue Bank

An important component of studying chemical contaminants in marine
mammals is the newly created NMFS Marine Mammal Tissue Bank (MMTB)
program under NMFS's Office of Protected Resources.@ The primary
objective of this program is to create a databank of tissue samples
to which scientists can return in the future as new and improved
information and techniques become available should 'future research
link a new chemical with marine mammal deaths. In such a case,
scientists would be able to go back to the earlier, preserved
samples to check if that same chemical was present at the time but

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 101

either was not 1@boked f or or was not capable of being detected
using the current methods. Developing a good baseline of tissue
samples requires a major effort to get the most out of the few
samples that become available via strandings, incidental or
accidental deaths, subsistence hunting, and kill permits. These
samples will be frozen and saved indefinitely.

Scientists within the Environmental Conservation Division of the
Northwest Fisheries Science Center, in coopbration with the MMTB,
have recently begun analyzing tissues from stranded marine mammals
to document levels of chemical contaminants such as PCBs, DDTs, and
metals using state-of-the--@art methodologies. Because of the very
high lipid content in most marine mammal tissues, standard tissue
clean-up methods had to be significantly modified to reduce
interference from the lipid in the sample extracts to permit
chemical analyses. Moreover, biochemical studies are being
conducted on marine mammal tissue samples to assess exposure of the
animals to certain chemical contaminants, particularly to aromatic
hydrocarbons. Among the marine mammals investigated to date are:
bottlenose dolphins, fur seals, gray whales, harbor porpoises,
harbor seals, pilot whales, and Steller sea lions (Figure IV-28).

PCBs
20- DDTs

4J
W A other CHS
Z. tP
0

E-4

E-4W Alaska Northeast Coast
Z @t lo-

Z 0
0 04
Q 04
5-

01 1 1
Sea Lion Harbor Fur Seal Pilot Pilot
Seal Whale- Whale-
mother fetus

Figure IV-28. Concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbons in blubber of marine
mammals. Concentrations of PCBs, DDTs, and other chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHs)
in parts per million (ppm), wet weight. (Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest
Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 102

ii. Marine Mammal Quality Assurance

Data of the highest quality is essential in this program. Thus
NOAA has adopted a quality assurance program with two main
components. One component of the program I will be further
standardization of methods i 'n conjunction with the organic
analytical resea 'rch division of the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST). For example, instrument parameters and
column clean-up methods can be modified to insure optimum results
while working with the lipid-rich marine mammal tissues, especially
blubber. A second phase will include the analyses of a whale
blubber homogenate standard reference material prepared by NIST and
a cod liver oil standard reference material.

PROTECTED RESOURCES

Our fish, wildlife, and natural habitats are valuable economic,
aesthetic, and recreational assets and, as such, are protected from
exploitation. Numerous legislative actions conserve and protect
these resources. Many of these 'laws have designated the Secretary
of Commerce (through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) as the federal authority responsible for their
implementation. Significant among the laws that give NOAA primary
responsibility to protect marine species and critical habitats are
the Endangered Species Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Magnuson
Fishery Conservation Act, and the Marine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuaries Act. In addition, NOAA provides recommendations to
other agencies concerning federal activities that effect marine,
estuarine, and anadromous species and critical habitats through
such legislation as the Clean Water Act and the National
Environmental Policy Act.

a. Sea Turtles

Marine turtles are highly migratory species found in all oceans of
the world. The six species found in the Atlantic Ocean include the
loggerhead,'green, Kemp's ridle'y, leatherback, hawksbill, and olive
ridley turtles. Of these six, all but the olive ridley are found
in United States Atlantic waters. Within the Pacif 'ic, all six
species are found. In Hawaiian waters, the green and hawksbill are
the most abundant species. Off the United states west-coast, the
loggerhead, leatherback, and olive ridley turtles are the most
commonly reported species.

Under a memorandum of understanding with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS), NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
has been given the authority to protect and conserve marine
turtles. The USFWS maintains authority while turtles are on land.
Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, all marine turtles are
listed as endangered or threatened. The Kemp's ridley, hawksbill,
and leatherback turtles are listed as endangered throughout their

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 103

ranges. The loggerhead and olive ridley turtles are listed as
threatened throughout their U. S. ranges. In the United States, the
green turtle is listed as threatened, except for the :Florida
nesting population which is listed as endangered (Table IV-4).

Table IV-4. Annual number of sea turtles nesting on U.S. beaches
(Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science.Center, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service)
Historical Current Current status
Level Level Level in U.S.
Atlantic
Loggerhead 18,000-21,0'00 Stable Ta
Green -- 600-800 Increasing T,Eb
Kemp's ridley 40,000 Decliningc E
Leatherback -- E
Hawksbill Declining E

Pacific
Loggerhead -- d -- d T
Green 10,000 2,200 Increasinge T
Olive ridley -- -- T
Leatherback E
Hawksbill 75f E

a. T=Threatened; E=Endangered.
b. Endangered in Florida; threatened elsewhere in the U.S.
Atlantic.
C. Declining at average rate of 3 percent per year since 1978.
d. Historical 1'evel for Hawaii only; current level is 2000 in
Hawaii and 100-300 in American Samoa; current levels in Guam
unknown.
e. Trend in Hawaii only, monitored at French Frigate Shoals;
however, great concern exists over increasing frequency of
fibropapilloma disease in all Hawaiian green turtles.
f. Current abundance in Hawaii; current abundance in Guam and
American Samoa is unknown.

i. Population-Abundance

Historical information on the abundance of sea turtles in U.S.
waters.is limited. Given these limitations, it is difficult to
assess the status of turtle stocks over the long term. The most
available index to evaluate population status and trends is the
estimated number of nests or nesting females over aggregate nesting
sites. Loggerhead, green, and Kemp's ridley turtles nest on the
Atlantic and Gulf coast. The 1982-84 number of loggerheads nesting
females from North Carolina to Florida was 18,000-21,000. The
majority of nesting occurs along the Florida east coast where the
number of nests has been stable over the past 5 years.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL,DIGEST 104.

The Kemp's ridley turtle is only known to nest in significant
numbers at a single location on the Mexican Atlantic coast where
the number of nests has been stable over the past 5 years. In
1947,.40.,000.females were observed nesting on a single day in the
nesting season. Now, about 700 females nest along this same beach
throughout the whole season. This number has been -stable or
slightly increasing over the past 4 years. The documented decline
in Kemp's ridley is probably indicative of declines experienced by
other sea turtle species (Figure IV-29).

40,000

800-

600-

E-4

400-

200-

0
47 IVI 78 80 82 84 86 88

Year

Figure IV-29. Annual number of Kemp's ridley sea turtles nesting on U.S.
beaches. (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science Center,. NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 105

Historically, the-4reen sea turtle supported significant fisheries
along 'the Florida and Texas coasts, although 'nesting of this
species on U.S. beaches has always been limited. In the late
1800s, it was reported that 2,000 females nested at Key West,
Florida. Currently the number of-green turtles nesting along the
Florida coast is probably no more than 600-800. However, it
appears that the abundance of juvenile and sub-adult turtles in
inshore waters of Florida has recently returned to historical
levels. There are no historical estimates for the numbers of
hawksbill or leatherback turtles nesting on U.S. Caribbean beaches.
The hawksbill has been heavily exploited within its*range and is
likely to continue to decline. The status of the leatherback
turtle is not known in U.S. waters. In the Pacific, extensive
studies of the Hawaiian green turtle population are being conducted
on nesting beaches and inshore habitats. Since 1973, surveys of
nesting females have been conducted annually at French Frigate
Shoals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands by NMFS and the USFWS.
These surveys indicate that the adult, 'green turtle population may
currently number about 2,000 and that it is gradually increasing.
No accurate historical record of green turtle population sizes
exists. Despite an apparent increase in the nesting population,
there is growing concern that fibropapilloma disease, which has
infected green turtles of all ages in many inshore feeding and
resting areas, may significantly impede population recovery.

The Hawaiian hawksbill turtle population*is very small with only
12-15 nests recorded each year. Little is known of the biology of.
this species in Hawaii or of trends in the population size. In the
north Pacific there are concerns about mortality to marine turtles
in the pelagic environment due to high-seas driftnets. Turtle
bycatch rates are being monitored on driftnet vessels by U.S.,
Canadian, Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese scientific observers.
The extent to which the driftnet fisheries affect U.S. turtle
populations is unknown.

While sea turtles are protected in U.S. waters, turtle habitat
worldwide continues to be negatively impacted. Coastal development
reduces the quality and quantity of available nesting habitat.
Turtles are also impacted through entanglement in fishing gear, and
they represent-significant bycatch in various fisheries. Perhaps
as many as 10,00 0 sea turtles are taken annually in shrimp trawl
fisheries. The increasing presence of debris such as tar balls and
plastics that are directly ingested negatively impacts turtles.
The extent of these negative impacts are not limited to the United
States, and there have been increased efforts to promote
international cooperation in marine turtle recovery.

ii. Marine Turtle Fibropapilloma

Green turtles develop lobulated tumors (fibropapilloma) on their
skin, scales! scutes, eyes and surrounding tissues, oral cavities,
and viscera. The cause of this disease is unknown but during the

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 106

last 10 years the scope and magnitude of fibropapilloma in green
turtles has grown to epidemic proportions almost simultaneously at
several marine habitats in Florida, the Hawaiian Islands, and a few
other locations (Figure IV-30). The disease represents a
significant threat to the survival of this protected marine turtle.

160 53%
IIIIIII With Tumors EM Examined Strandinge
140-
in (a)
120- 47% 52%
31%
E-4
100
E-4
Pr4 80- 46%
0
P4 WITH 40%
6,0- '@o
TUMORS
40- 26%
31%

0
83 .84 85 86 87 88 89 90

60
WITH PAPILLOMAS TOTAL STRANDINGS 70%
in 50- (b) 48%
W

40 53%

ck4 30- 56%
0

20- -0, WITH
TUMORS
1'0- 44% 22% 10% 30
z 29%
40% Fj 1A
0.M M
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 19.89 1990
YEAR (1990 DATA INCOMPLETE)

Figure IV-30 (a)-(b). Green turtle strandings and percentage with fibropapilloma
in (a) Hawaii, 1983-1990, and (b) the Florida Keys, 1980-1990. Florida strandings
reported through the.Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network. (Courtesy George
H. Balazs, Honolulu Laboratory, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, and Wendy
Teas, Miami Laboratory, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries service)
53%
48%

319%
56

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 107

The cause of f ibropapilloma remains unknown. The impact of the
disease on the afflicted populations can have, indeed may already
have had, serious consequences. The nature of this disease and its
cause must be determined in order to develop a long-term disease
management program. To deal with this situation, NOAA's NMFS
sponsored a workshop on marine turtle fibropapilloma in Honolulu,
Hawaii, in December 1990. The objective of the workshop was to
bring top scientists together to discuss what is known about marine
turtle fibropapilloma and*to devise a comprehensive and cooperative
research plan on the cause of this disease. Results of the
workshop were published in a technical memorandum by the NOAA's
NMFS Honolulu Laboratory in March 1991 entitled "Research Plan For
Marine Turtle Fibropapillomall (NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-156).

b. Selected Marine Mammals

Thirty-six species of marine mammals range the U.S. Atlantic and
Gulf of Mexico waters (34 whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and 2
seal species). Their status is poorly known, but some, like the
right whale, mid-Atlantic coastal bottlenose dolphin, and harbor
porpoise, are under stresses that may affect their survival.

Forty-two species of marine mammals 'Occur in U.S. Pacific waters
(31 whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and 11 species of seals and
sea lions) . Fourteen are commonly seen along the coast (gray
whale, bottlenose dolphin, harbor seal, and others), whereas the
28 others frequent offshore or remote island waters (beaked whales,
ribbon seal', Hawaiian monk seal, and others) , or are severly
reduced in numbbers and thus seldom seen (blue whale, right whale,
Guadalupe fur seal, for example).

i. Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin

Bottlenose dolphins range throughout the Gulf of Mexico and the
U. S. Atlantic waters. Figure IV-31 illustrates their distribution
and seasonal patterns along the Atlantic coast. There appear to
be nearshore and offshore stocks along the U.S. Atlantic coast.

During the summer and fall of 1987 and winter of 1988 an apparent
epidemic resulted in the death and stranding of an unusually large
number of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins from New Jersey to central
Florida. Population surveys and biological samples suggest that
the mortality was principally from a mid-Atlantic coastal,
migratory stock of dolphins. Available data suggest a decline of
at least: half of the stock may have occurred.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 108

(a) (b)

SUMMER

WINTER

Figure IV-31 (a)- (b) (a) Distributional range of bottlenose dolphins along the
U.S. Atlantic coast and (b) areas of major concentrations of coastal migratory
stock of bottlenose dolphins during summer and winter. (Courtesy Southeast
Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

At pres .ent, there is no comprehensive estimate of the size of the
stock of bottlenose dolphins in U.S. waters. The number of
dolphins comprising the numerous stocks throughout the U.S. Gulf
and Atlantic waters prior to 1983 may have been at least 23,000
individuals. Historically, about 15,000 animals are thought to
have lived in mid-Atlantic nearshore waters. The estimated average
mid-Atlantic summer abundance,of bottlenose dolphins is believed
to have ranged from about 4,000-to 13,000 animals, including both
nearshore and offshore groups, in 1979-1981.

ii. Eastern Tropical Pacific Dolphins

In 1990, the NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center completed the
fifth of an annual series of large-scale Monitoring of Porpoise
Stocks (MOPS) surveys in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP).
Management of the tuna-dolphin problem is currently based on
detecting possible reductions in ETP dolphin population over time

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 109

due to the tuna purse-seine f ishery. For this purpose relative
estimates of abundance with minimum variance is considered
sufficient. However, if quotas. based on incidental dolphin
mortality are to be.inst 'ituted on an international basis, there
will be a need for absolute estimates of population size. New
analysis' procedures will ultimately lead to absolute estimates and,
until that work is complete, the annual estimates for each stock
of dolphins will be reported as a relative index.

Figure IV-32 shows estimates of relative abundance for nine stocks
of four ETP dolphin species that are impacted by the tuna purse-
seine fishery. The estimates of relative abundance shown in Figure
IV-32 are highly variable, and it is difficult to discern a
pattern. No overall trend was detected during the 5-year study
period, which might have been expected if mortality due to the tuna
purse-seine fishery, in the ETP were having an impact on the
populations. However, the data do not warrant a conclusion that
no impact is occurring. The statistical power of detecting even
a large decline during a 5-year period given the observed
variability of the estimates is low.

iii. Bowhead Whale

The endangered bowhead whale has ranged as far as the polar ice
fields of the Northern Hemisphere. Total prewhaling abundance
exceeded 120,000, but,by 1900 it was probably in the low thousands.
In the U.S. western Arctic, 18,650 bowheads were killed by Yankee
whalers between 1848 and 1914 from a population estimated at less
than 20,000. The take by Alaska Eskimos has averaged 20-40 whales
per year since 1914. The present population, 7,500, is about 40-
60 percent of its 1848 carrying capacity. The stock has been
increasing since commercial whaling ended and has increased 3.1
percent per year since 1978 (Figure IV-33).

iv. Gray Whale

Still listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) as endangered
are the two stocks of north Pacific gray whales. The eastern north
Pacific or "California" stock'was heavily exploited by Yankee
whalers in the last half of the 19th century. The present stock
size, 21,113, is equal to or larger than the size. of the 1846
population of 15,000-20,000. Population growth rate is 3.2 percent
per year despite a Soviet subsistence catch of 167 whales per year
(Figure IV-34).

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 110

(a Ea r+ ou 0. Q1. INDEX OF ABUNDANCE' INDEX OF ABUINDANC
() rt :c (D0 0 f-
k. lb 0 1-. 1-4 tQ
(D :3 r3 @a 'a r.
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(D lb rt INDEX OF ABUNDANCE.
rn (D INDEX OF ABUNDANC
z h 9b ta
0
m :3 to0
to jzt, () 0
X. CID
r4 @u (n to
m lb (D rb
z N r- :3
0
3@ ca
lb lb lb
ry
o

o rt
t2i :3 t m
z til 04
11 F1 I-. to N rn M
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rt k
EQ b- N. :3
F-4 0, '. to W (D
h EQ z
to %- 0 CA
% to
r+
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M :3 04 C M 0
to (D to 0. P-h cz

61000

6,000-

4.000-

3,000-

2,000
1975 1980 1985 1990

YEAR

Figure IV-33. Actual count of bowhead whales, 1978-88. (Courtesy'NOAA National
Marine Fisheries Service)

0 20-

15-

0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

YEAR

Figure IV-34. Estimated population of gray whales, 1965-90. (Courtesy NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 112

V. Steller Sea Lion

The northern -or Steller sea lion, classified as threatened under
the ESA, ran Iges coastal waters of the north Pacific Ocean from
California to Japan. The species has declined sharply throughout
its range in the last 20 years, and is now well below its optimum
level. The number of adults and juveniles in U.S. waters crashed
from 154,000 in 1960 to 42,000 in 1990. Most of this 73 percent
decline occurred in Alaska waters (Figure IV-35). The decline in
Alaska is believed to be a combination of incidental kills in
fisheries, illegal shooting, changes in the numbers and/or quality
of prey, and possibly other unidentified factors. The population
off Washington and Oregon is low but stable at about 3,000, but in
California they have slowly declined since the 1950s to about
2,000.

180
Total
0 140- Alaska
0
0

120-

100-
z
0

so-

Go-

40-

20-
rn

01
1960 1966 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

YEAR

Figure 1TV-35. Estimated U.S. population of Steller sea lions and population
trends in Alaska, 1960-90. (Courtesy NOAA National marine Fisheries service)

vi. Northern Fur Seal

The northern fur seal of the north Pacific Oceanl considered
depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) , ranges
across subarctic Pacific Rim waters from California to Japan. It
numbered 1.2 million in 1983 with 871,000 in U.S. waters. The

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 113

major U.S. breeding population is on Alaska's Pribilof Islands of
St. Paul and St. George. Production on the Pribilof Islands
dropped more than 60 percent between 1955 and-1980, but has since
been stable. On St. George Island production has continued to
decline about 6 percent per year since 197b (Figure IV-36). Small
U.S. breeding populations are also found on Alaska's Bogoslof
Island (1,500), and California's San Miguel Island (4,000). The
Pribilof Islands' fur seal carrying capacity has changed little
since the 1950s.

400
St. Paul Island
St. Georoe Island

0
0 300-
0

200-

100-

0
1970 1975 1980 19@5 1990
YEAR

Figure IV-36. Northern fur seal pup counts on St. Paul and St. George Islands,
Alaska, 1970-90. (Courtesy NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

vii. California sea Lion

The California sea lion has three subspecies living on the U.S.
west coast and British Columbia, in the Galapagos Islands, and in
Japan. Between Mexico and British Columbia the population, about
157,000 animals, has grown about 6 percent per year since the 1970s
(Figure IV-37). Annual production of 16,000-17,000 pups on the
California Channel Islands in 1986 corresponds to a population size
of about 87,000 animals. The California population in 1982 (prior
to the 1982-83 El Nino warm water intrusion) was thought to be near
or slightly below the lower end of its optimum population.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 114

20-
0

z 10-
0

Oi
1975 1980 1985
YEAR

Figure IV-37. California sea lion pup counts on the Channel Islands, 1971-86.,
(Courtesy NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

viii. Hawaiian Monk Seal

Considered endangered under the ESA, the monk seal is limited to
the small islands and atolls of the 1,100-mile Hawaiian
Archipelago. The total population is about 1,500 animals, a 60
percent decline since 1958. The monk seals at French Frigate
Shoals have recently shown a slight increase. Average counts of
the five major breeding sites increased from 468 to 639 during
1983-87 but dropped to 546 in 1990. Production increased during
1983-88 but dropped 23 percent in 1990 from the .1983-88 average
(Figure IV-38).

260

200-

W ISO

W 100-
0
W4

0
1980 1985 1990

YEAR

Figure IV-38. Hawaiian monk seal live births, 1983-90. (Courtesy NOAA National
marine Fisheries Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 115

C. Habitat Conservation

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) regulates wetland activities
in waters of the United States under the authority of the Rivers
and Harbors Act and the Clean Water Act. In this capacity,
thousands of requests to alter wetlands are processed annually in
the southeastern region of the United States alone. NMFS provides
recommendations to the COE that are designed to minimize project
effects on marine, estuarine, and anadromous fishery resources.

Because the amount, type, and geographical distribution of the
habitat were generally unknown, the NMFS, Southeast Region,
developed a computerized system in 1980 to compile such
information. The effectiveness of the NMFS' habitat program also
can be monitored and modifications can be made to the program as
needed.

Since 1981 the NMFS Southeast Region has reviewed 39,050 projects
involving wetlands and has collected detailed information on 9,148
of these (Table IV-5). These projects, for which there is detailed
information, call for the alteration of 683,731 acres of wetlands.
Mitigation of 176,536 acres involving creation of wetlands or
enhancement of existing wetlands was also sought. If implemented,
NMFS recommendations would have allowed 312,366 acres of alteration
and potentially conserved 371,366 wetland acres. Most accepted
alterations were for marsh management, maintenance dredging, and
beach nourishment. Based on the nature of the work, the proposed
mitigation, if successful, would exceed anticipated losses with
regard to acreage considerations.

Table IV-5. NMFS Southeast Region habitat conservation efforts from
1981 to 1989. (Courtesy Andreas Mager, Jr., Southeast Region, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries service)
Acres Proposed Acres Accepted Acres Potentially Acres
Year No. by Applicants by NMFS Conserved Mitigated

81 811 7,949 2,868 5,081 2,471
82 1,059 81,184 21,831 59,353 7,910
83 825 20,778 8,658 12,120 26,775
84 888 8,606 3,981 4,625 54,050
85 1,802 65,670 11,161 54,509 19,200
86 969 90,559 70,838 19;721 49,713
87 1,054 21,755 8,135 13,620 7,139
88 977 359,876 173,284 186,592 1,827
89 763 27,354 11,610 15,745 7,451

9,148 683,731 312,366 371,366 176,536

(No. is number of projects sampled)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 116

d. Marine Sanctuaries and Estuarine Research Reserves

NOAA is actively involved in the preservation of the nation's
valuable marine and estuarine resources. Through two programs, the
National marine Sanctuary Program and the National Estuarine
Research Reserve System, NOAA protects sensitive and ecologically
important marine areas for their scientific, educational,
historical, recreational, and aesthetic resources.

i.' National Marine Sanctuary Program

In 1972, in response to a growing awareness of the intrinsic
environmental and cultural value of the United States' coastal
waters, Congress passed the Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act. The Act authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to
designate discrete areas as national marine sanctuaries and to
promote comprehensive management of their special resources.
National Marine Sanctuaries may be designated in coastal and ocean
waters, in submerged lands, and in the Gre 'at Lakes and their
connecting waters. Under Title III of the Act, NOAA manages the
National Marine Sanctuary Program. NOAA's mission is to develop
a system of sanctuaries to promote research, education, and
conservation. The National Marine, Sanctuaries are administered by
the Sanctuaries and Reserves Division of the National Ocean
Service.

Nine National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) have been designated since
the program began (Figure IV-39), the newest being Florida Keys
NMS. The NMSs are located in a number of distinct marine
environments: nearshore, open water, benthic, and in temperate and
tropical areas, and range from in size from less than one to over
1252 square nautical miles. Total area is almost 4.5 million
acres. Five sanctuaries are located in or contain open.water: Gulf
of the Farallones, Channel Islands, Cordell Bank, Gray's Reef, and
the MONITOR. The Channel Islands and the Gulf of the Farallones
include islands, and the latter extends to the mainland. Three
other sanctuaries are nearshore ecosystems in the tropical zone,
with outstanding coral reefs and sea grass beds. On the Atlantic
coast, Gray's Reef is a limestone, live bottom reef. The MONITOR
NMS protects the wreckage of the famous Civil War ironclad. Table
IV-6 shows the growth of the National Marine Sanctuary Program
since 1975.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 117

The National Marine Sanctuary
Program

orthern Puget Sound
01= A

A Thunder
Bay A Stellwagen
Bank
Cordell Bank 0

Gulf of the 0
Farallones .
Monterey Bay A A Norfolk Canyon
Channel Islands 0 0 MONITOR

00
Gray's Reef

Kahoolawe,
Hawaii A Flower Garden
Banks
Florida Keys
% - Key Largo
Fagatele Bay, - Looe Key
American Samoa

Figure IV-39. The National Marine Sanctuary Program. (Courtesy
Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National Ocean service)

Table IV-6. National Marine Sanctuaries, 1975-1991. (Courtesy
Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National Ocean service)

Year Number Area (acres)

1975 2 64,640
1976 2 64,640
1977 2 64,640
1978 2 64,640
1979 2 64,640
1980 3 865,920
1981 6 1,486,720
1982 6 1,486,720
1983 6 1,486,720
1984 6 1,486,720
1985 6 1,486,720
1986 7 1,487,360
1987 7 1,487,360
1988 7 1,487,360
1989 8 11741,440
1990 9 4,412,480
1991 9 4,412,480

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL@DIQEST 118

ii. National Estuarine Reserve Research System

As early as the 1960s Congress recognized the need to protect
coastal resources from pollution and the pressures of development.
In particular danger were the nation's estuaries, those valuable,
yet fragile, areas where rivers meet the sea. To address threats
to these critical areas, the National Estuarine Reserve Research
System was established as part of the Coastal Zone Management Act
of 1972. NOAA was given the responsibility for designating
estuarine reserves and administering the System.

The goal of this program is to establish and manage, through
federal-state cooperation, a national system of , reserves
representing different coastal and estuarine environments that
exist in the United States and its territories. The reserves are
natural laboratories in which studies are conducted on processes
occurring within the estuaries. Nineteen reserves, protecting
approximately 400,000 acres of estuarine lands and waters, are in
the system (Figure IV-40). Education and research opportunities
are available to qualified applicants. Table IV-7 sows the growth
of the National Estuarine Reserve Research System since 1975.

Table IV-7. National Estuarine Reserve Research System, 1975-1991.
(Courtesy Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National Ocean
Service)

Year Number Area (acres)

1975 1 4,700
1976 3' 14,205
1977 3 14,205
1978 4 22,605-
1979 5 216,383
1980 9 223,426
1981 11 229,652
1982 14 240,571
1983 14 240,571
1984 15 242,121
1985 15 242,121
1986 16 245,149
1987 16 245,149
1988 17 247,346
1989 18 2531477
1990 18 259,945
19 399,302

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 119

The National Estuarine Reserve
Research System
Padilla Bay
St. Lawrcnc
Ri cT Basin
Mclis
South Slough Great Bay
Waquoil Bay
NafraganNCU Bay
Old
Delaware
San Fra ... lChesiopeake Bay. MD
Rp.
Chesapeake Bay, VA
Elkhorn Slough
North Carolina

.1 R. North Inlet
XX
Tijuana icr AL& Basin
N;'.
11 111.: sapcio Island

x a
lairnan. A" A I
Val.Icy, H I Z7 Day
A Proposed
Rooke Bay
9 Designated Johos Day, PR

Figure IV-40. The National Estuarine Reserve Research System. (Courtesy
Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National ocean Service)

ESTUARIES

Estuaries, among the planet's most productive natural systems, are
important features of coastal regions. Biologically they form a
transition zone between freshwater and marine ecosystems.
Estuaries are def ined as semi-enclosed bodies of water having a
free connection with the open sea and within which seawater is
diluted by freshwater drainage. The important role estuaries play
in sustaining the health and abundance of fish, shellfish, and
birds has long been recognized. Estuaries are a vital coastal
habitat, particularly during early life stages of many animals.
The freshwater and nutrients they provide produce a habitat
critical to the health of our living resources. 'Estuaries are
among the most densely populated and heavily used regions in the
nation; an estimated 45 percent of our population now lives around
these areas. Society places a high value on estuaries as places
for living, working, and recreating.

The National Estuarine Inventory (NEI) is a series of projects
within NOAA's National Ocean Service designed to define and
characterize the nation's estuarine resource base and develop a

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 120

national estuarine capability. NOAA began the NEI in 1983 and has
produced four major NEI atlases, six national data bases, and
numerous technical reports. The NEI contains information on the
physical and hydrological features, population and land use,
wetlands, and selected economic characteristics of 102 estuaries.
The information presented in this section is only a sample of that
available in NOAA's NEI data base.

a. North Atlantic

The North Atlantic estuarine region extends f rom. the U. S. -Canadian
border to Cape Cod. The regional estuaries account for more than
23,000 square miles of drainage. These estuaries were formed by
glaciers that removed soil cover, leaving rocky shorelines and
steep-sided river channels. Selected characteristics of North
Atlantic estuaries are shown in Figure IV-41.

b. Middle Atlantic

The Middle Atlantic estuarine region extends from Buzzards Bay
through Chesapeake Bay. Estuaries in this region account for more
than 48,000 square miles of drainage. Middle Atlantic estuaries
are geomorphologicAlly different from those in the North Atlantic
region. Rising sea level, resulting from melting glaciers, drowned
the mouths of ancient rivers extending across the continental
shelf. The result was the coastal plain estuaries of the Middle
Atlantic Region. Selected characteristics of Middle Atlantic
estuaries are shown in Figure IV-42.

C. South Atlantic

The South Atlantic estuarine region extends from North Carolina to
Southern Florida. The estuaries in this region account for almost
56,000 square miles of drainage along the South Atlantic coast.
South Atlantic estuarine regions are characterized by two general
shoreline formations. The first is a low-lying, marshy shoreline
with a pattern of tributaries flowing to the sea and is most
prevalent -along the South Carolina and Georgia coasts. The second
is represented by lagoons bounded by extensive barrier island
systems and is found in North Carolina and central Florida. An
exception to this is the St. John's River, a large river with
limited access to the sea, but tidally influenced a considerable
distance upstream. Characteristics of South Atlantic estuaries are
shown in Figure IV-43.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 121

a. Estuarine Drainage Area b. Estuarine Water Surface Area

ME ME

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

ca ca
7 7

UJI
8 a
NH NH

10 10
MA MA
11 1

2 12

13 13
0123456;00 200 300 400 Sao 600
Area (thousand square miles) Area (square miles)

c. Total Wetlands d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use

1 1 ME

2 ME2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7
6
8 Lua
NH NH
9

10 10
MA MA

12 12

13 13

0so 100 150 200 2500130 40 so 60
Area (square miles) Percentage of EDA
Notes: Sub-estuahes are not shown separately Urban Agricultural
1Passamaquoddy Bay 8Casco Bay
2Englishman Bay 9Saco Bay
3Narraguagus Bay 10 Great Bay
4Blue Hill Bay North Atlantic Estuaries 11 Merrimack River
5Penobscot Bay 12 ,Massachusetts Bay
6Muscongus Bay 12a Boston Bay
7Sheepscot Bay 13 Cape Cod Bay

Figure IV-41 (a)-(d). Selected characteristics, North Atlantic estuaries. RDA=
estuarine dz-ainage area. (Court esy.Stra t egic Environmental Assessments Division,
NOAA National Ocean Service)

NQAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 122
EE @:ME

a. Estu rine Drainage Area b. -Estuarine Water Surface Area
MA MA

2 F0 R1

3 NY 3 NY

NY.cT NY.CT
4 4

5 MY NY

cc
NJ NJ
7
ILLI LLI

9 PA-DE-NJ PA-DE-NJ

10 DE 10 (32) DE

MD-VA MD-VA

12 12
0 5 10 5 20 25 owo 1 00 1=' @000_ AN iQ00 i= 4000
Area (thousand square miles) Area (square miles)

c. Total Wetlands d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use
1'Z@ A MA 1 MA

2 Rl 2 R1

3 NY 3 NY

4 NY-cT 4 NY.CT

5 NY 5

AA.
it

tv
RN'A
F 77@ NJ ? NJ
4A
LU
N/D a

k
4,

10 NID DE 10 DE

NlD-VA 11 MD-VA
(1557)
12 @,PK@ 4 2

000 1700
0 100 200 300 400 $00 0 20 .0 so
Area (square miles) Percentage of EDA
Notes: Sub-estuaries are not shown separately. NID - no data. E Urban 13 Agricultural

Middle Atlantic Estuaries
1Buzzards Bay 7 Barnegat Say 12b Potomac River
2Narragansett Bay 8 New Jersey Inland Bays 12c Rappahannock River
3Gardiners Say 9 Delaware Bay 12d York River
4Long Island Sound 10 Delaware Inland Bays 12e James River
4a Connecticut 'I'liver 11 Chincoteague Bay 1 2f Chester River
5Great South Bay 12 Chesapeake Bay 12g Choptank River
6Hudson River/Raritan Bay 12a Patuxent River 12h Tangier/Pocomoke Sounds
Figure XV-42 (a) - (d) . Selected characteristics, Middle Atlantic estuaries. EDA=
estuarine drainage area. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
NOAA National Ocean Service)

NQAA ENVIRONME14TAL DIGEST 123

a. Estuarine Drainage Area b. Estuarine Water Sudace Area

2 NO 2 (29491
3 - NO

4 4

5 5
SO SO;

7 7

10 GA 10 CA
Lu
W 11 11
12 12
is is -
14 14

Is
FL is FL

0 2 4 6 a 10 12 a' so 1100 ISO 900 250 Sao Sm

Area (thousand square miles) Area (square miles)

c. Total Wetlands d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use

2 NO 2 NO
3 7

sc SO

cc 9 9

10 10
GA GA
It LU 11

12 12

13 13

U 14
FL I: FL
17

Is is
'000 '40 6 80
0 Do I i5w 2000 0 20
Area (square miles) Percentage of EDA
Notes: Sub-estuaries are not shown separately. N/D - no data. Urban E3 Agricultural
South Atlantic Estuaries
1Albemarle/Pamlico Sounds 6 North/South Santee Rivers 13 Altamaha River
1 aPamlico/Pungo Rivers 7 Charleston Harbor 14 St. Andrew/St. Simons Sounds
lb Neuse River 8 St. Helena Sound 15 St. Marys River/Cumberland
2Bogue Sound 9 Broad River Sound
3New River 10 Savannah River 16 St. Johns River
4Cape Fear River 11 Ossabaw Sound 17 Indian River
5Winyah Say 12 St. Catherines/Sapelo Sounds 18 Biscayne Bay
Figure XV-43 (a)-(d). Selected characteristicst South Atlantic estuaries. EDA=
estuarine drainage area. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
NOAA National Ocean Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 124

d. Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico estuarine region extends from the southern tip
of Florida west to the Texas-Mexico border. The estuaries in this
region account for more than 96,000 square miles of drainage along
the Gulf of Mexico coast. Like the South Atlantic and much of the
Middle Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico is part of a vast coastal plain
of sedimentary deposits. Major features include the Mississippi
and Atchafalaya deltas, where large amounts of land-derived
sediments have been deposited in. shallow coastal waters. This
delta environment forms a complex web of estuarine channels and
extensive coastal wetlands, important, habitat for many recreational
and commercial fisheries. In other areas, sediment transported and
deposited by oceanic currents formed offshore bars enclosing
shallow, and sometimes extensive bodies of water. Such estuaries
are common along the Texas shoreline. Gulf of Mexico estuarine
characteristics are shown in Figure IV-44.

e. Pacific Coast

The Pacific estuarine region extends from Tijuana Estuary to Puget
Sound. Estuaries in this region account for almost 38,000 square
miles of drainage along the Pacific coast. The Pacific coast is
characterized by uniformly uplifted, resistent rock, , except for
coastal f lats and islands along parts of the Washington coast.
Coastal mountain formations have restricted the area of low-lying
coastal plains and rivers that f low toward the sea resulting in
narrow, deep, and steep-sided estuaries. The large estuaries of
San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound formed when sections of the
continent sank below sea level due to active mountain building.
In Puget Sound, additional deepening and elongation occurred due
to glacial activity. Because of the unique regional geomorphology
(deep submarine canyons in Southern California bays and shallow
coastal estuaries in Oregon), the average depth and volume of the
bays and estuaries vary considerably. Santa Monica Bay, Monterey
Bay, and Puget Sound are among the deepest in the nation whereas
Oregon estuaries are among the most shallow. Characteristics of
Pacific coast estuaries are shown in Figure IV-45.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 125

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a. Estuarine Drainage Area b. Estuarine Water Surface Area
CA .13) CA
2 2
1
4

9
10 10
11 11
12 12
13
14 14
Is OR is OR
10 is
17 17
is is
Is 19
20

22 22
23 23
24
WA 2: WA
2
7 (931)

e-
a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 0 50 100 IN 200 230 300 No 400 450 1OW
Area (thousand square miles) Area (square miles)

c. Total Wetlands d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use
I NID
CA CA
2
NID
4 N/D 4 _J
5

7 NID 7
a

10 NID 10
II NID II
12 12
1. 13
L% 11 '(2) 14
NID OR OR
11: :3
I? L& 17

10 NIO 19
20 N/D 2.
21 wo 21
22 WD ZU2
23 NIO 23
24 NYD 24
25 26
20 WA 20 WA
27 27
20
100 2"00 30'0 400 1000 0 1*0 20 ;0 ;0 ;a ;0 ;0 go
Area (square miles) Percentage of EDA
Notes: Sub-estuaries are not shown separately. N/D-nodata. N U rban [3 Agricultural

Pacific Estuaries
1Tijuana Estuary 8 Monterey Bay 14 Klamath River 23 Tillamook Bay
2San Diego Bay Ba Elkhorn Slough 15, Rogue River 24 Nehalem River
3Mission Bay 9 San Francisco Bay 16 CoosBay 25 Columbia River
4Newport Bay 9a Central San Francisco, 17 Umpqua River 26 Willapa Bay
5San Pedro Bay San Pablo/Suisun Bays 18 Siuslaw River 27 Grays Harbor
5a Alamitos Bay 10 Drakes Estero 19 Alsea River 28 Puget Sound
5b Anaheim Bay 11 Tornales Bay 20 Yaquina Bay 28a Hood Canal
6Santa Monica Bay 12 Eel River 21 Siletz Bay 28b Skagit Bay
7Morro Bay 13 Humboldt Bay 22 Netarts Bay
Figure XV-45 (a) - (d) Selected characteristics, Pacific estuaries. EDA=
estuarine drainage area. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
NOAA National ocean Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 127

COASTAL WETLANDS

The nation's coastal wetlands are important natural resources.
Wetlands form the interface between terrestrial and aquatic
systems. They provide critical habitat for fish, shellfish, and
wildlife. They also filter and process agricultural and industrial
wastes, and buffer coastal areas against storm and wave damage.
our wetlands generate large revenues from a wide variety of
recreational activities, such as fishing and hunting.

Wetland loss is occurring due to a number of reasons including
urbanization, agriculture, oil exploration, sea level rise, and
shoreline erosion. Nationally, more than 11 million acres of
wetlands have been lost over the past 25 years due to human
activity and natural processes. Although most of the losses have
occurred in inland areas, coastal wetlands have also declined at
an alarming rate over this period. For example, in the Chesapeake
Bay region, losses of coastal wetlands are estimated at 6 percent
annually.

Development of the National Coastal Wetlands Inventory was
initiated by NOAA in. 1986 and is conducted by the Strategic
Environmental Assessments Division, Office of Ocean Resources,
Conservation, and Assessment, National Ocean Service. The purpose
of the inventory is to develop a comprehensive national coastal
wetlands data base to increase our knowledge of the distribution
and areal extent of wetlands and to improve our understanding and
management of this vital resource. The data developed from this
project is part of NOAA's National Estuarine Inventory (NEI).

The wetlands data are derived entirely from National Wetlands
Inventory (NWI) maps produced by the U..S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. The numerous wetland habitat types identified in these
maps were aggregated into 4 major habitat types (palt marsh, fresh
marsh, tidal flats, and forested and scrub-shrub).

a. New England

The coast of New England extends from the U.S. Canadian border Cape
Cod and along the coasts of Rhode Island and Connecticut. The
amount of coastal wetlands in the New England region is small.
This is due to the rugged relief, rocky shorelines, and steep-sided
river channels of the region, and incomplete data for the inland
portions of most estuarine drainage areas. For the wetlands
analysis, the NOAA NEI identified 16 estuaries along the New
England coast. A total of 412 NWI maps were sampled in New
England, encompassing nearly 1.5 million 'acres of wetlands.
Maine, having the largest land area sampled, also contained the
most wetlands! approximately 49 percent of the total wetlands
sampled in the region, followed by Massachusetts (31 percent),
Connecticut (10 percent), New Hampshire (6 percent), and Rhode
island (4 percent) (Figure IV-46). Forested wetlands were the most

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 128

common wetland type in the region, accounting for approximately 79
percent of the total wetlands, followed by tidal flats (10
percent), salt marsh (6 percent), and fresh marsh (5 percent).

Soo. a
(758, 900)
E Salt marsh
[3 Fresh marsh
700- 0 Forested and scrub-shrub
E3 7idal flats

600-

500
(468,900)
X

400

............

300,

200-

(152,500)
X

100 (86,000)
(66.000)

0- b
M e (55) NH (43) MA (81) RI (100) CT (96)

STATE

Figure IV-46. New England region coastal wetland acreage by state. Value in
() a is total wetland acerage. Value in () b is percent of state sampled. (Courtesy
Strategic Environmental Assessments Division, NOAA National Ocean Service)

b.. Mid-Atlantic

The Mid-Atlantic study area extends from Long Island, New York,
southwest to New Jersey and Delaware, then south to Virginia and
the Delmarva Peninsula. Eight estuaries are identified in this
region. A total of 735 NWI maps, covering 23.4 million acres, were
sampled by NOAA for the Mid-Atlantic region. Approximately 11
percent, or 2.4 million acres, were identified as wetlands.
Forested wetlands were the most common habitat type in the Mid-
Atlantict accounting for nearly 58 percent of the region's total

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 129
.........

wetlands, followed by saltmarsh (28 percent), tidal flats (10
percent), and fresh marsh (4 percent).

New,Jersey., Virginia, and Maryland dominated the.wetlands of the
region, accounting for 8,5 percent of the regionaltota,l (Figure IV-
.47). Virginia contained the. largest grid-sampled area with 39
percent ofthe total Mid-Atlantic-area sampled. Maryland and New
Jersey f ol lowed with 2 1 and 2 0 percent of the total. . New York was
next with only 9 percent of the total, followed by Delaware (6
percent), Pennsylvania (5 percent), and, the District of Columbia
(< 1 percent)., Virginia had the region'slargest amount of both
tidal -flats and fresh marsh, accounting for 43 and 35 percent
respectively of the regional total of each habitat. New Jersey
conta 'i'ned the most forested wetlands in the region (37 percent of
@the rpgional.total) , and Maryland contained,the most salt marsh (30
percent of -the regional total). , Due 'to its size, Delaware
contained f ewer wetlands than New Jersey, Virginia, or Maryland.
However, 17 percent , of the total area sampled in Delaware was
wetlands, second, only ..to New Jersey with 18 percent. Forested
Wetlands dominated th 'ose areas grid-sampled- in Pennsylvania,
accounting for 76 percent of the state wetland total., Thirty-six
percent,of.,those wetlands sampled in New York were tidal flats.

100.@

....................................................... . .........................................................................
(82) Salt Marsh
0 so . . .................. .............. 0 Fresh Marsh ......... ('74)-...
0
0 Forested & Scrub-Shrub
.................. .............
............... 0 Tidal Flats
0

(54)

.................. ................... .................. ... ........w......

$4
....................................... ...................
40-

....................................... ....................
(22)
20 olf

(2) (.03)
0W'R in
NY NJ PA 2@DE@ MD DC VA
b
(6), (94), (4) 0 00) (74) (100). (88)
@STATE

Figure TV-47. Mid-Atlantic coastal wetland acreage of four wetland types by
state. Value in ()a is total wetland acreage. Value in .()b is percent of state
Sampled.,(Courtesy Strategic-Environmental Assessments Division, NOAA National
Ocean Service)

NOAAENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 130
4)_
..........
, @'(.03)

c. Gulf of Mexico,

The Gulf of Mexico region extends from the southern tip of Florida
west to the Texas/Mexico border. The U.S. portion of the Gulf of
Mexico encompasses 5 states (Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi,,
Alabama, Florida) and 23 estuarine drainage areas.' A total of
1,543 NWI maps covering 56.2 million acres were sampled by NOAA for
the Gulf of Mexico.

Of the 6 states in the region, Florida contained the most wetlands
(50 Percent of the total), followed by Louisiana (24 percent),
Texas (12 percent), Alabama (8 percent), Mississippi (5@percent),
and Georgia (<1 percent) (Figure IV-48). Texas and Florida
contained the largest grid sampled areas with 37 and 35 percent of
the total Gulf area sampled respectively. Louisiana accounted for
only 14 percent of the total due to poor map availability, followed
by Alabama (8 percent), Mississippi (6 percent), and Georgia (<1
percent). The central-to-eastern portions of the Gulf
(Mississippi, Alabama, Florida) were dominated by forested
wetlands, accounting for over 83 percent of the forested total for
the entire Gulf. The coastal areas of the western Gulf (Texas,
Louisiana) were dominated by salt marsh having 86 percent of the
regional total, with the highest concentrations in Louisiana (69
percent). Texas also contained the largest amount of tidal flats
in the Gulf accounting for over 54 percent of the total, while
Florida contained 38 percent. Fresh marsh is found throughout the
Gulf of Mexico with its greatest abundance in Florida (53 percent)
followed by Louisiana and Texas (26 and 20 percent, respectively).

. ....................................................................................................
.0 Sa marsh
0 Fresh Marsh
C@ GOD Forested & Scrub-Shrub
0 Tidal Flats

X
IA 460 . ....................... ............................................................

14
. ................ ....................................................

....................................................
200 . ................

.................. ............ .....

0
Texas Louisiana Mississippi Alabitrna Georgia, Florida

STATE

Figure IV-48. Gulf of Mexico region coastal wetland acreage for four wetland
types by state. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division, XOAA
National Ocean Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 131
EVA=

d. West Coast

The west coast of the contiguous U S. extends f rom the Canadian
border near Puget Sound, Washington: south through Oregon to Cape
Mendicino,@California, and southeast to San Diego and the Mexican
border. For this analysis, the NOAA NEI identifies 14 estuaries
along the west coast. A total of 1,525 NWI maps, covering 55.7
million acres, were sampled by NOAA in the west coast region.
Approximately 2.5 percent, or 1.4 million acres, were identified
as wetlands. Forested wetlands were the most common wetland
habitat type found in the region (55 percent of the total
wetlands), followed by fresh marsh (21 percent), tidal flats (15
percent), and salt marsh (9 percent).

California contained more wetlands than any other state in the
region (56 percent), followed by Washington (28 percent) and Oregon
(16 percent) (Figure IV-49). California also contained the largest
grid-sampled area with 4� percent of the total west coast area
sampled. Oregon followed with 27 percent and Washington with 24
percent. Only 3 percent :of the area sampled in both California
and Washington was wetlands, and only slightly over 1 percent of
the total area sampled in Oregon was wetlands.. Coastal wetland
abundance on the west coast is considerably less than along other
U. S. coasts. - For example, in the Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana has
over 45 percent of its total grid-sampled area (over 3.3 million
acres) identified as wetlands.

California contained the region's largest am ounts of salt marsh,
forested wetlands, and tidal flats with 75, 63, and 47 percent of
the region's total, respectively. Washington contained the
region Is largest amounts of fresh- marsh (3 9 percent) Oregon
contained varying amounts of each wetland type, with forested
wetlands dominating and accounting for 45 percent of the state
total. California.and Washington were also dominated by forested
wetlands accounting for 62 and 47 percent, respectively, of each
state's wetland total.

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 132

800.00 (762)

... ...... .....
600-oo ...........

0 Fresh Marsh
.00- C] Forested & Scrub-Shru
ri Tidal Flats
X (3,,)a
00
400-

... .................................................. - ---------------------

(221)

200 -1

.... .......... .......... .....

0-
Washington Oregon California
(58)b (66) (38)

STATE

Figure IV-49. West Coast coastal wetland acreage of four wetland types by state.
Value in Oa is total wetland acreage. Value in () b is percent of state sampled.
(Courtesy Strategic Environmezital Assessment Division, NOAA National Ocean
Service)

VEGETATION INDEX

During the last decade, NOAA's National Environmental Satellite,
Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) has been collecting
measurements of the global vegetation cover using the Advanced Very
High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) onboard NOAA's polar orbiting
satellites. The principle used in defining vegetation indices is
based on the discontinuity of the reflectance for green vegetation.
Since green vegetation is highly absorbent to incoming radiation
in the visible part of the spectrum and reflects in the near-
infrared (IR), the calculation of an index of "greenness" for the
vegetative surface is possible. The contrast between the near-

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 133

infrared and visible AVHRR channel radiances has therefore been
used effectively as an indicator of the density and state of the
vegetative cover.

The commonly used parameter in this analysis of vegetation is the
Normalized Difference.Vegetation Index (NDVI). The NDVI is the
difference between the near-IR and visible reflectances normalized
by their sum. As an example of this technique, the seasonal
variability of the NDVI and brightness temperature for an area in
northeast Thailand is shown in Figure IV-50. The data used are
from AVHRR global data with sampling of one 4 kilometer (km) pixel
per 30 km map cells. These data were. screened for cloud
contamination and averaged over a 250 km by 250 km area for each
month. The variability of NDVI and temperature is out of phase
.since the greenness reaches its maximum at the end of the rainy
season, whereas the temperature peaks in the middle, of the dry
season. Research is underway at NESDIS to determine if such time
series data can be used for routine climate monitoring.

EGETATION INDEX

> 40
0
Z

0.
30

Ito
20 '%%'4'1@BRIGHTNE%"SS TEMPERATURE (deg 0

A J A 0 @D F A J A 0 D, F A j A 0 D, F A J A 0
1985 1986 1987 1988
YEAR/MONTH

Figure IV-50. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and brightness
temperature for tropical wet-and-dry (monsoon) climate, northeast Thailand (15 0 N,
1030E) . (Courtesy Garik Gutman, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA Environmental
Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 134

APPENDICES

A. CONTRIBUTORS

B. SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

C. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

D. RELATED REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

E. REFERENCES

F. NOAA HIGHLIGHTS

APPENDIX A: CONTRIBUTORS

The following scientists were primary contributors to the NOAA
ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST.

James K. Angell,'Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA Office of
Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, SSMC-2, Room 9332, 1325
East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910; (301) 427-7684;
for quasi-biennial oscillation, upper air temperatures,
cloudiness, sunshine duration

Richard S. Artz, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA Office of Oceanic
and Atmospheric Research, SSMC-2, Room 9392, 1325 East-West
Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910; (301) 427-7295; for
precipitation chemistry

Andrew Bakun, Chief, Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group,
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 831,
Monterey, CA 93942; (408) 646-3311; for upwelling

George H. Balazs, Honolulu Laboratory, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service, 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396;
(808) 943-1240; for marine turtle fibropapilloma

Robert L. Benway, Narragansett Laboratory, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service, 28 Tarzwell Dr., Narragansett, RI 02882;
(401) 789-9326; for ocean temperature and salinity

Bradford E. Brown, Acting Director, Southeast Fisheries Science
Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, 75 Virginia
Beach Dr., Miami, FL 33149; (305) 361-4284; for fisheries,
marine mammals, sea turtles

Robert E. Cheney, Chief, Satellite and Ocean Dynamics Branch,
Geosci6nces Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean Service, 11400
Rockville Pike, Room 426A, Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-
8556; for satellite altimetry

Thomas Conway, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory,
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 325
Broadway St., Boulder', CO 80303; (303) 497-6380; for carbon
dioxide

Robert W. Derkazarian, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA National
Ocean Service, WSC-1, Room 408, 6001 Executive Blvd.,
Rockville, MD 20852; (301) 443-8752; for nautical charting

A-1

Edward Dlugokencky, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
Laboratory, NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research,
325 Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-6380; for
methane

Bruce C. Douglas, Chief, Geosciences Laboratory, NOAA National
Ocean Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 424, Rockville, MD
20853; (301) 443-8858; for tide gauge sea level, satellite
altimetry

Mark J. Friese, Coast and Geodetic Survey,- NOAA National Ocean
Service, WSC-1, Room 408, 6001 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD,
20853; (301) 443-8752; for effects of shoaling on navigation

Timothy Gerrodette, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA
92038; (619) 546-7000; for marine mammals

Garik Gutman, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
Room 712, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
8042; for remote sensing of land biosphere, vegetation index

Richard R. Heim, Jr., National Climatic Data Center, NOAA
National Environmental Satellite,' Data, and Information
Service, Federal Building, Asheville, NC 28801; (704) 259-
0476; for land temperature and precipitation, severe weather

Dennis J. Hill, Coast And Geodetic Survey, NOAA National Ocean
Service, WSC-1,, Room 408, 6001 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD
20853; (301) 443-8752; for nautical charting

Sandford R. Holdahl, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA National
Ocean Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 513, Rockville, MD
20853; (301) 443-8528; for coastal geodesy, subsidence

Tamara J. Holzwarth, Northeast Fisheries,Science Center, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service ' 166 Water St., Woods Hole,
MA 02543; (508) 548-5123; for ocean temperature

John R. Hunter, Chief, Coastal,Fisheries Division, Southwest
Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries -
Service, P.O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA 92038; (619) 546-7127;
for fisheries oceanography, ichthyoplankton, zooplankton

Herbert Jacobowitz, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
Environmental'Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
Room 711, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
8042; for longwave flux and radiation budget for Arabian Gulf
region

A-2

Jack W. Jossi, Narragansett Laboratory, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service, 28 Tarzwell Dr., Narraga 'nsett, RI 02882;
(401) 789-9326; for ocean temperature and salinity

Paul J. Kocin, National Meteorological Center, NOAA National
Weather Service, WWBG, Room 410, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs,
MD 20233; (301) 763-8076; for winter storms

Walter D. Komhyr, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostic's'Laboratory,
NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 325 Broadway
St., Boulder, CO 8030.3; (303) 497-6380; for column ozone

Jimmy C. Larsen, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 7600 Sand
Point Way, N.E., Bldg. #3, Bin C 15700, Seattle, WA 98115-
0070; (206) 526-6239; for ocean transport

Richard Legeckis, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
Room 102, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
8231; for remotely-sensed sea surface temperature

Sydney Levitus, National Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service,
Room 525, 1825 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20235;
(202) 606-4411; for ocean temperature and salinity

Andreas Mager, Jr., Southeast Regional Office, NOAA National
.Marine Fisheries Service, 9450 Koger Blvd., St. Petersburg, FL
33702; (407) 893-3503; for habitat conservation

John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, 325
Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-6323; for solar
activity

Douglas R. McLain, Center for Ocean Analysis and Prediction, NOAA
National Ocean Service, 2560 Garden Rd., Monterey, CA 93940;
(408) 647-4211; for ocean temperature

Laurence L. Miller, Geosciences Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean
Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 426G, Rockville, MD
20853: (301) 443-8556; for satellite altimetry

David G. Mountain, Northeast Fisheries S cience Center, NOAA
National Marine Fisheries Service., 166 Water St., Woods Hole,
MA 02543; (617) 548-5123; for,ocean temperature

Thomas P. O'Connor, Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects
Assessment Division, NOAA National Ocean Service, WSC-1, Room
312, 6001 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-

A-3

James T. Peterson, Deputy Director, Climate Modeling and
Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric
Research, 325 Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-
6074; for trace gases

Walter G. Planet, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Infirmation Service, WWBG,
Room 810, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
8136; for global ozone

David R. Rodenhuis, Director, Climate Analysis Center, NOAA
National Weather Service, WWBG, Room 606, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp
Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-8167; for climate assessment

Glenn D. Rolph, Air Resources Laboratory, Office of Oceanic and
Atmospheric Research, SSMC-2, Room 9358, 1325 East-West
Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910; (301) 427-7684; for
precipitation chemistry

Kenneth Sherman, Chief, Ecosystems Dynamics Branch, Northeast
Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service, 28 Tarzwell Dr., Narragansett, RI 02882-1199: (401)
789-3210; for zooplankton, marine ecosystem dynamics

Eric Slaughter, Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
NOAA National Ocean Service, WSC-1, 6001 Executive Blvd..,
Room 305, Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-8553; for shellfish

John M. Steger, Satellite Applications Laboratory, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
Room 601, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
8282; for Atlantic Ocean long waves

Alan E. Strong, Satellite Applications Laboratory, NOAA National
Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, c/o
Cooperative Project in Oceanic Remote Sensing. U.S. Naval
Academy, Annapolis, MD 21402; (410) 267-3561; for remotely-
sensed sea surface temperature

Wendy G. Teas, Miami Laboratory, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
Service, 75 Virginia Beach Dr., Miami Beach, FL 33149; (305)
361-4276; for sea turtle strandings and marine turtle
fibropapilloma

Kirk Thoning, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laborato ry,
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 325
Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-6650; for
carbon dioxide

A-4

Donna D. Turgeon, Coastal Monitoring and Bioffects Assessment
Division, NOAA National ocean Service, WSC-1, Room 312, 6001
Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-8655; for
contaminants in sediments and bivalve molluscs

Louis W. Uccellini, Chief, Meteorological Operations Division,
National Meteorological Center, NOAA National Weather
Service, WWBG, Room 410, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp'Springs, MD
20233; (301) 763-8097; for winter storms

Usha S Varanasi, Director, Environmental Conservation Division,
Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA
98112-2097; (206) 553-7737; for contaminants and biological
effects in marine organisms

Paul R. Wade, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAANational
Marine Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA 92038;
(619) 546-7000; for marine mammals

Austin J. Yeager. Director, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA
National Ocean Service, WSC-1, Room 1006, 6001 Executive
Blvd., Rockville, MD 20852; (301) 443-8204; for coastal
geodesy, nautical charting, aeronautical charting

David B. Zilkoski, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA National Ocean
Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 313, Rockville, MD 20853;
(301) 443-8567; coastal geodesy, subsidence

A-5

APPENDIX B: SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION IN NOAA
(in order of appearance in NOAA Environmental Digest)

Parameter NOAA Source Code*

Air Temperature & Moisture ARL, AWS, CAC, CMDL, NCDC,
RCC, SAL, SDSD, SRL, SSD

Trace Gases AL, ARL, CAC, CMDL, SAL,
SDSD, SRL, SSD

Hydrological Cycle AWS, CAC, HRL, NCDC, RCC,
SAL, SDSD, SSD

Atmospheric Deposition ARL

Solar Activity NGDC, SEL

Earth's Radiation Budget ARL, CMDL, SRL

Severe Weather NCDC, NSSL, NHC, NMC, RCC,
SAL

Southern Oscillation AOML, CAC, CMDL, GFDL

Ocean Temperature AOML, CAC, COAP, NEFC, NODC,
OPC, PMEL, SDSD, SRL, SWFC

Salinity COAP, NODC

Sea Level GSL, NODC, OLLD

Quasi-Biennial Oscillation AOML, ARL, CAC

Southern Oscillation CAC, CMDL, GFDL

Ocean Transport AOML, PMEL

Coastal Upwelling PFEG, SDSD, SAL

Long Waves - SAL

Coastal Geodesy/Hydrography CGS

Sea Ice CAC, JIC, NSIDC, OPC, SAL,
SDSD, SSD
Snow Cover CAC, NSIDC, SAL, SDSD, SSD

B-1

SDSD, SSD

Snow Cover CAC, NSIDC, SAL, SDSD, SSD
Fisheries AFC, FSD, NEFC, NWFC, SEFC,
SWFC

Zooplankton AFC, NEFC,- NWFC, SEFC, SWFC

Shellfish SEAD

Contaminants CMBAD, ECD

Protected Resources AFC, NEFC, NMML, OPR, SEFC,
SWFC, SRD

Estuaries SEAD

Coastal Wetlands SEAD

Vegetation Index CAC, SRL

See following pages for definitions.

B-2

AFC Alaska Fisheries Science Center
NOAA National Marine Fisheries service
7600 Sand Point Way, N.E.
BIN 1C15700 - Bldg. 4
Seattle, WA 9.8115-0070
(206) 526-4000, FTS 392-4000

The Science and Research Director, Alaska Region, and the staff of
the Alaska Fisheries Science Center are responsible for conducting
multidisciplinary research to provide fisheries management
information to support national and regional programs of NMFS, and
to respond to the needs of Regional Fishery Management Councils and
other constituencies. The staff develops the scientific base
required for status of stocks and status of fisheries reports,
environmental assessment and environmental impact statements for
management plans and/or international negotiations; and it pursues
research to answer specific needs in the subject areas of habitat
conservation, aquaculture, fishery development, fishery
oceanography, food science, fishery economics, and fishery
utilization.

AL Aeronomy Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
325 Broadway St.
Boulder, CO 80303
(303) 497-3218, FTS 320-3218

The Aeronomy Laboratory conducts research on chemical and physical
processes in the Earth's atmosphere to advance the capability of
monitoring, predicting, and controlling the atmosphere. The
research concentrates on the stratospheric and tropospheric regions
of the atmosphere, but also involves the ionosphere, and
occasionally the magnetosphere, as well as the atmosphere of other
planets. The research methods employed involve both in situ and
remote measurement of critical atmospheric parameters, including
chemical composition and dynamic properties such as wind velocities
and wave motions. Theoretical programs in atmospheric dynamics and
transport support the observation programs. An experimental
laboratory chemical kinetics program supports the theoretical
photochemical modeling program and also supplies input for the
development of new atmospheric monitoring and measurement
technology.

AOML Atlantic oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
4301 Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key
Miamil FL 33149
(305) 361-4300, FTS 350-1300

B-3

The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory conducts
research in oceanography and tropical, -meteorology. It conducts
oceanographic investigations centering on fluxes of energy,
momentum, and materials through the air-sea interface, the
transport and composition (thermal and chemical) of ocean and
coastal water masses, and the structure and dynamical processes on
the seafloor. It also conducts meteorological research to improve
the description, understa 'nding, and prediction of hurricanes. The
research supports NOAA's missions in climate, weather, and ocean
services, marine environmental assessment, and marine resources.

ARL Air Resources Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
Silver Spring Metro Center-2, Room 9358
1325 East-West Highway
silver spring, MD 20910
(301) 427-7684, FTS 427-7684

The Air Resources Laboratory carries out programs of research that
affect air pollution andair quality. These processes are related
to transport and dispersion through the air, to reactions with
other chemical species, and to exchange between the air and the
surface (including both wet. and dry deposition). Research on
atmospheric trajectories is conducted to relate pollution events
to specific causes and to help formulate transport mechanisms in
Eulerian and Lagrangian models. The Laboratory manages and
coordinates field research and applications to specific research
problems. It undertakes research and provides consultation service
.and advice'to elements of NOAA and other government agencies.

AWS Agricultural Weather Section
NOAA/USDA Joint Agricultural Weather Facility
USDA South Bldg., Room 5844
14th Street and Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20250
(202) 447-7919

The Agricultural Weather Section serves as the NOAA component,of
the Joint Agricultural Weather Facility at the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Section provides an advisory and
information service on weather and climate for use by Department
of Agriculture officials in assessing impacts of weather and
climate on agricultural production throughout the world. It also
produces the meteorological and climatic summaries for the jointly
published "Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin."

B-4

CAC Climate Analysis Center
National Meteorological Center
NOAA National Weather Service
World Weather Building, Room 606
5200 Auth Rd.
Camp Springs, MD 20233
(301) 763-8167, FTS 763-8167

The Climate Analysis Center prepares monthly and seasonal (90-day)
meteorological outlooks; collects and analyzes data to depict
current anomalies of climate; researches and develops predictive
techniques to improve and extend the present outlooks, both in
range and domain; performs diagnostic studies of large-scale
climate anomalies; and conducts a program of stratospheric
research.

CGS Coast and Geodetic Survey
NOAA National Ocean service
Washington Science Center-1, Room 1006
60,01 Executive Blvd.
Rockville, MD 20852
(301) 443-8204, FTS 443-8204

The Coast and Geodetic Survey plans and directs programs to produce
charts and related inf ormation f or safe navigation of the @nation I s
waterways, territorial seas, and the national airspace. it
establishes and maintains the horizontal, vertical, and gravimetric
components of the National Geodetic Reference System. The office
is responsible for assuring coordinated planning and execution of
surveying, charting, and related geophysical d 'ata collections to
meet national goals. In fulfillment of these objectives, the
office conducts geodetic, gravimetric, hydrographic, coastal
mapping, and related geophysical surveys; and analyses, compiles,
reproduces, and distributes nautical and aeronautical charts and
geodetic and other related geophysical data. It conducts research
and development to improve surveying and cartographic methods,
instruments, equipment, data analysis, and national reference
system datums.

CMBAD Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects Assessment Division
office of Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment
NOAA National Ocean Service
Washington Science Center-1, Room 323
6001 Executive Blvd.
Rockville, MD 20852
(301) 443-8933, FTS 443-8933

The Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects Assessment Division conducts
a national program of measurements of toxic compounds in shellfish,
bottomfish, and sediments at selected estuarine and coastal

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locations to determine the status and trends of the levels of these
indicators of environmental quality; coordinates a NOAA-wide
program of quality assurance for environmental quality measurements
to determine and evaluate confidence levels and enhance inter-
regional comparability among data sets; and conducts a-program of
applied research to assess the consequences to populations of
valuable living marine resources and human health of contaminants
in marine and estuarine environments.

CMDL Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
325 Broadway St.
Boulder, CO 80303
(303) 497-6074, FTS 320-6074

The Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory plans and
conducts observational and monitoring programs and research
necessary to measure and predict climate fluctuations and trends
on all time scales. The Laboratory analyzes atmospheric and
oceanic data to determine relationships, budgets, sources, sinks,
and trends; and applies this information to develop real-time
climate indices, predictive techniques, and evaluations of
predictions.

COAP Center for Ocean Analysis and Prediction
Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
Marine Analysis and Interpretation Division
NOAA National Ocean service
2560 Garden Rd.
Monterey, CA 93940
(408) 467-4241

The Center for Ocean Analysis and Prediction, colocated with the
U.S. Navy's Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center, is responsible for
the development, exchange, integration, and dissemination to
government, industry, and academia of biological, chemical, and
physical oceanographic products and services. It supports
government, industry, and academic institutions responsible for
effective management of the nation's living marine resources. The
Center's particular focus is to develop and disseminate a unique
series of environmental and living marine resource analyses,
forecasts, and assessments that describe and predict the condition
and variability of biological, chemical, and physical oceanic
phenomena as well as the processes affecting them. It also
provides and facilitates easy access to existing information
produced by other parts of NOAA or federal/state/academic
institutions concerning living marine resources, habitat, coastal
zone management, offshore dumping and pollution, and ocean climate
processes.

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ECD Environmental Conservation Division
Northwest Fisheries Science Center
NOAA National marine Fisheries Service
2725 Montlake Blvd. E.
Seattle, WA 98112
(206) 553-7737, FTS 399-7737

The Environmental Conservation Division conducts research to
determine the impact of environmental changes and effects of
contaminants on life processes of marine and anadromous organisms
and their habitats in the northwestern United States. Research
results are used to analyze potential effects from environmental
changes on living marine resources. A major goal is to provide
data on the physiological, biochemical, and biological effects of
contaminants so that recommendations for protection of aquatic
resources can be made.

FSD Fisheries Statistics Division
office of Research and Environmental Information
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
Silver Spring Metro Center-1, Room 8313
1335 East-West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910
(301) 427-2328, FTS 427-2328

The Fisheries Statistics Division serves as the principal source
of national fishery statistics. The Division provides
authoritative advice and guidance on matters related to the
collection of statistics (biological, economic, market, and
sociological) on domestic recreational fisheries, and domestic and
foreign commercial fisheries. It develops national standards,
policies, and operational guidelines for the coordinated collection
and publication. of basic fishery statistics. The Division
coordinates regional commercial statistics surveys and market
information programs, and formulates, implements and operates
national commercial and recreational statistics surveys. it
coordinates' with other federal agencies on the collection of
statistics and market information from statistical data bases; and
publishes the official fishery statistics for the U.S. government.

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
P.O. Box 308
Princeton, NJ 08542
(609) 452-6500, FTS 298-6500

The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory conducts long-lead-time
research to understand those physical processes which govern the
behavior of the atmosphere and the oceans as complex fluid systems

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and which are fundamental to application areas in support of NOAA's
missions. The laboratory uses, as a major tool, large-scale high-
speed computers to.simulate the highly intricate atmospheric and
oceanic processes.

GSL Geosciences Laboratory
office of ocean and Earth Sciences
NOAA National Ocean Service
Rockwall Building, Room 424
11400 Rockville Pike
Rockville, MD 20852
(301) 443-8858, FTS 443-8858

The Geosciences Laboratory is responsible for conducting research
and development activities to improve the,methods of collecting and
disseminating geodetic data. The Laboratory provides leadership
at the federal level to develop specifications, standards, and
instrumentation for geodetic surveys. It specializes in satellite
geodesy and oceanography, and the geodetic aspects of climate and
global change.

HRL Hydrologic Research Laboratory
Office of Hydrology
NOAA National Weather service
Silver Spring Metro Center-2, Room 8348
1325 East-West Highway
Silver Spring, MD 20910
(301) 427-7619, FTS 427-7619

The Hydrologic Research Laboratory supports the National Weather
Service hydrologic service program by conducting studies,
investigations, and analyses leading to application of new
knowledge and new technologies to hydrologic forecasting and
related water resources problems. The Laboratory sponsors and
conducts applied research for a better understanding of the
physical processes and phenomena involved in all phases of the
hydrologic cycle. It provides research and development for
hydrology-related components of major NWS projects and training and
support for the hydrologic services program. It represents NOAA
on interagency and international hydrologic research activities.

JIC Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center
Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
NOAA National Ocean Service
Federal Building 4, Room 2301
Suitland and Silver Hill Roads
Suitland, MD 20233
(301) 763-5972, FTS 763-5972

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The Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center is composed of both Navy and NOAA
personnel. The Center provides specialized and tailored products
as required by Department of Defense and other government agencies
and provides ice data, analyses, predictions, and other advisory
information as guidance to NOAA field forecast offices with
sea/lake ice responsibilities. It also provides routine ice
products to civil-sector interests.

NCDC National Climatic Data Center
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
Federal Building
Asheville, NC 28801
(704) 259-0476, FTS 672-0476 (Requests for data:
weather/climate data -0682; satellite data 301/763-8111)

The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is responsible for data
management activities in support of scientific and technical
programs involving remotely sensed and in situ retrospective
meteorological data and climatological information. NCDC performs
all functions related to data management (acquisition, archiving,
inventorying, and quality assessments, modelling, and prediction) ,
and data and information publication and dissemination. it
performs necessary liaison with other NOAA components and with
national and international contributors and users of data and
information. NCDC operates World Data Center-A for Meteorology
under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences, with the
responsibility to collect complete sets of global data and
coordinate international exchange of data. It performs quality
assurance and re-analysis of historical data and data f ields to
establish baseline data bases for global/national climate
monitoring. NCDC provides facilities, data processing support, and
expertise to meet U.S. commitments to international organizations
and to the World Meteorological organization programs.

NEFC Northeast Fisheries science Center
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
166 Water St.
Woods Hole, MA 02543
(617) 548-5123, FTS 840-1284

The Science and Research Director, Northeast Region, and the staff
of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center are responsible for
conducting integrated multidisciplinary research programs to
develop scientific information for the conservation and management
of living marine resources in the northeast and middle-Atlantic
waters of the United States. The staff contributes expertise to
the development of fishery management plans by assessing the
stocks, their ecosystem relationships, and the total harvestable
biomass, and by assessing relevant natural and human-induced

B-9

ecological environmental' effects. The staff conducts fishery
utilization technology and development studies to enhance benefits
from fishery resources and assure the consumer safe and high
quality fishery products. The research to support the programs is
conducted at six facilities located at Gloucester, MA; Milford, CT;
Narragansett, RI; oxford, MD; Sandy Hook, NJ; and Woods Hole, MA;
and at the National Systematics Laboratory located in Washington,
DC.

NGDC National Geophysical Data Center@
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
325 Broadway St.
Boulder, CO 80303
(303) 497-6215, FTS 320-6215

The National Geophysical Data Center conducts a data and data-
information service in all scientific and technical areas involving
solid earth geophysics, marine,geology, and geophysics, glaciology
(snow and ice) , the space environment, solar activity, and the
other areas of solar-terrestrial physics. The scientific
specialties treated include seismology, geomagnetism, topography,
bathymetry, paleoclimatology, gravimetry, earth tides, crustal
movement, geothermics, glaciology, ionospheric phenomena, solar
activity and related areas. The services are provided for
scientific, technical, and lay users in governmental agencies,
universities, and the private sector in the U.S. and their
counterparts in f oreign countries. The Center prepares systematic
and special data products and performs data-related research
studies to enhance the utility of the service to users. it
performs all functions related to data acquisition, archiving,
retrieval, indexing, quality assessments, evaluation, synthesis,
publication and dissemination. The Center operates World Data
Center-A for the respective scientific areas listed above under the
auspices of the National Academy of Sciences. It performs
necessary liaison about data with other NOAA components and with
national and foreign contributors and data centers and other users
of data and metadata. It takes part in jointly planning national
and international scientific programs to assure that data
collection and management needs are adequately considered.

NHC National Hurricane Center
NOAA National Weather Service
IRE Building, Room 631
1320 S. Dixie Highway
Coral Gables, FL 33146
(305) 666-4612, FTS 350-5547

The National Hurricane Center maintains a continuous watch for
tropical cyclones over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf

B-10

of Mexico from June 1 through November 30. The Center prepares and
distributes hurricane watches and warnings f or the general public,
and prepares and distributes marine and military advisories f or
other users. It coordinates with Hurricane Warning offices,
Weather Service Forecast Offices, and Weather Service Offices when
a tropical cyclone threatens the iU.S. The Center prepares and
distributes probability of hurricane/ tropical storm conditions f or
45 locations along the east and Gulf coasts. It coordinates and
occasionally assists Caribbean nations when a hurricane threatens.
The Center conducts research and development aimed at general
improvements in tropical cyclone forecasting and modelling and
concentrates on transfer of theoretical advances to operational
forecasting. Related effects of hurricanes, such as high seas and
storm surges, are studied.

NMC National Meteorological Center
NOAA National Weather Service
World Weather Building, Room 101
5200 Auth Rd.
Camp Springs, MD 20233
(301) 763-8016, FTS 763-8Oi6

The National Meteorological Center determines input data
requirements, optimum data processing and handling techniques, and
suitable presentation methods for distributing products to a wide
variety of users of meteorological and oceanographic information
throughout the Northern Hemisphere. The Center produces and
distributes these products to field forecast offices of the
National Weather Service, Air Force, Federal Aviation
Administration, and other governmental and non-governmental
offices. It produces and distributes to foreign meteorological
centers products necessary for the discharge of its
responsibilities as part of the World Weather Center (Washington,
DC) . NMC produces extended and medium-range forecasts and develops
methods and techniques for their improvement; analyzes, diagnoses,
and projects short-term climate fluctuations on a regional and
global basis; maintains a continuous weather watch for thunderstorm
activity and prepares and disseminates severe local storm watches
for protection of life and property; produces and distributes
national weather summaries for the general public and advisories
of hazardous weather for aviation interests; provides satellite
interpretation services and develops and produces oceanographic
products; and performs research and development to improve its
meteorological, oceanographic, and climate products. The Center
maintains a continuous watch for tropical cyclones over the
Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico; produces and
distributes hurricane watches and warnings for the general public,
and marine and military hurricane advisories for other users.

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NMML. National Marine Mammal Laboratory
Alaska Fisheries Science Center
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
7600 Sand Point Way, N.E.
BIN'C15700 - Bldg. 4
Seattle-, WA 98115-0070
(206) 526-4045, FTS 392-4045

The National Marine Mammal Laboratory carries out research on the
principal species of marine mammals of U. S. concern to ensure
maintenance of the.various populations at satisfactory levels. The
information obtained is used by national and international agencies
as a basis for management decisions concerning marine mammals.

NODC National Oceanographic Data Center
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
Universal Building, S., Room 406
1.825 Connecticut Ave., N.W.
Washington, DC 20235
(202) 673-5549, FTS 673-5549

The National Oceanographic Data Center develops and maintains a
national marine environmental data base, including acquisition,
processing, storage, and retrieval of marine data and information
generated by domestic and foreign activities. The Center provides
products and information derived from these data to the federal,
state, academic, and internal marine science community. It manages
and operates the World Data Center-A for oceanography. it
maintains liaison with federal, state, academic, and industrial
oceanographic activities. It represents NOAA on various domestic
panels, committees and councils, and represents the U. S. in various
international organizations as delegated. The Center represents
NOAA to the general public, government agencies, private
institutions, foreign -governments, and the private sector on
matters involving oceanographic data and provides data management
services for various marine programs. The Center also manages the
Ocean Pollution Data and Information Network.

NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Center
National'Geophysical Data Center
'NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
325 Broadway St.
Boulder, CO 80303
(303) 492-5171, FTS 320-5311

The National Snow and Ice Data Center functions as a national
information and referral center for the snow and ice research
community. The subject matter includes avalanches, freshwater ice,

B-12

glaciers, ground ice and permafrost, ice sheets, paleoglaciology,
sea ice, and snow cover. The Center is colocated with the World
Data Center-A f or Glaciology (Snow and Ice) and is operated by
contractual agreement between NOAA and the University of Colorado,
Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences. The
center is organizationally located within the National Geophysical
Data Center.

NSSL National Severe Storms Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric,Research
1313 Halley Circle
Norman, OK 73069
(405) 366-0429, FTS.736-3427

The National Severe Storms Laboratory examines multiscale processes
with emphasis on severe storm developments and interactions to gain
improved weather services through increased understanding of
environmental processes. objectives are improved severe weather
detection and accuracy of storm forecasts, more timely delivery of
critical weather warnings; and better strategies for diminishing
loss of life, mitigating property damage, and conserving soil and
water resources. Focus is placed on tornadoes and other severe
wind storms, hail, lighting, and flash floods. The Laboratory
performs related research for other components of NOAA and for
other government agencies.

NWFC Northwest Fisheries Science Center
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
2725 Montlake Blvd. E.
Seattle, WA 98112-2097
(206) 553-1872, FTS 399-1872

The Science and Research Director-, Northwest Region, and the staff
of the Northwest Fisheries Science Center are responsible for
. p
conducting multidisciplinary research to provide fisheries
management information to support national and regional programs
of NMFS, and to respond to the needs of Regional Fishery Management
Councils and other constituencies. The staff develops the
scientific base required for status of stocks and status of
fisheries reports, environmental asse 'ssment and environmental
impact statements for 'management plans and/or international
negotiations; and it pursues research to answer specific needs in
the subject areas of habitat conservation,. aquaculture, f ishery
engineering, marine mammals, endangered species, fishery
development, fishery oceanography, food science, f ishp'ry economics,
and fishery utilization.

B-13

OLLD Ocean and Lake Levels Division
Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
NOAA National Ocean Service
Washington Science Center-1, Room 110
6001 Executive Blvd.
Rockville, MD 20852
(301) 443-8026, FTS 443-8026

The Ocean and Lake Levels Division provides tide and water level
(Great Lakes) information. The Division investigates and studies
tide and water level phenomena and related surface water
temperatures and density through recorded observations; provides
direction for the collection of tide and water level data and
determination of tidal datums through the preparation of manuals,
guides, contract documents, and project instructions; and
processes, analyzes, compiles, and disseminates tide, water level,
and surface water and density information from domestic sources.
It manages the National Water Level Observation Network, the Next-
Generation Water Level Measurement System Program, and the Global
Absolute Sea-Level Monitoring Program. The Division plans tidal
surveys; furnishes tide and water level information for planning
and processing hydrographic surveys; and makes various studies and
prepares reports related to gaging systems, methodology, analysis
techniques,' tidal datums, the Great Lakes datum, the outflow of
rivers,and related subjects.

OPC Ocean Products Center
Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
NOAA National Ocean service
World Weather Building, Room 100
5200 Auth Rd.
Camp Springs, MD 20233
(301) 763-8030, FTS 763-8030

The Ocean Products Division conducts a program to provide
operational marine forecast and analysis guidance material in
support of NOAA, other federal agencies, and private industry. To
this end, it participates in the formulation of requirements for
data processing and. communications equipment to process and
distribute marine meteorological and oceanographic data and
products, and designs and manages computer-based systems in support
of these requirements. It participates in the establishment of
requirements for marine data sets, develops operational state-of-
the-art numerical-prediction-model output products, and improves
methods of data analysis. Output products include analyses of
marine weather and boundary layer phenomena, waves and wave
dynamics, ocean thermal structure and dynamics, ice dynamics, and
estuarine circulation and coastal processes.

B-14

OPR Office of Protected Resources
NOAA National Marine Fisheries service
Silver Spring Metro Center-I
1335 East-West Highway, Room 8268
Silver Spring, MD 20910
(301) 427-2332, FTS 427-2332

The Office of Protected Resources provides advice and guidance on
the conservation and protection of those marine mammals and
endangered species under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of
Commerce, and on the conservation, restoration, and enhancement of
living marine resources and their habitats; develops national
guidelines and policies for relevant research programs; and
provides oversight, advice and guidance on scientific aspects of
managing protected species, marine protected areas and habitat.

PFEG Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group
Southwest Fisheries Science Center
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
P.O. Box 831
Monterey, CA 93942
(408) 646-3311, FTS 646-3311

The Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group conducts marine
environmental studies, provides portrayals and interpretations of
oceanographic and meteorological data, and -investigates
interrelations for use in fisheries and environmental forecasting.
Based on these studies and activities, the Group provides
assistance in the development of marine environmental monitoring
programs; utilizes and provides archived oceanic and atmospheric
data for climatological and monitoring studies; and develops long-
term ocean forecasting techniques, models, and indices. It assists
NMFS laboratories in the design and conduct of oceanographic
studiest and the acquisition of environmental data and
interpretation of bio-environmental relationships.

PMEL Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
Bin C 15700, Bldg. 3
7600 Sand Point Way, N.E.
Seattle, WA 98115-0070
(206) 526-6239, FTS 392-6800

The Pacific Marine Environmental Research Laboratory conducts
research in oceanography, marine meteorology, and related
disciplines to improve understanding of environmental processes in
coastal and open-ocean systems. It focuses on NOAA's missions in
climate, ocean services, marine environmental assessment, and
marine resources.

B-15

RCCs'-Regional Climate Centers:

Northeast.Regional Southeastern Regional
Climate Center Climate Center
1113 Bradfield Hall 1201 N. Main Street
-Cornell University Capital Center, Suite 1100
Ithaca, NY 14853 Columbia, SC 29201
(607) 255-5950 (803) 737-0800/0811

Southern Regional Midwestern Regional
Climate Center Climate Center
Department of Geography Ill. State Water Survey
and Anthropology 2204 Griffith Dr.
Louisiana State University Champaign, IL 61820
Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (217) 244-1488
(504) 388-6870/6184

High Plains Regional Western Regional
Climate Center Climate Center
237 L.W. Chase Hall Desert Research Institute
University of Nebraska-Lincoln P.O. Box 60220
Lincoln, NE 68583-0728 Reno, NV 89506-0220
(402) 472-6338 (702) 677-3100

A national network of six Regional Climate Centers (RCCs) was
established by the National Climate Program Act of 1978. The
Centers are a federal-state cooperative program with oversight
provided by the Climate Analysis Center/NOAA National Weather
Service. The RCCs are a source of climate expertise; perform data
management services and specialized product delivery; conduct
applied climate studies, monitoring and regional research; and
acquire and maintain specialized regional data sets.

SAL Satellite Applications Laboratory
Office of Research and Applications
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
World Weather Building, Room 601
5200 Auth Rd.
Camp Springs, MD 20233
(301) 763-8282, FTS 763-8282

The Satellite Applications Laboratory provides an interface to the
research community to ensure that research results are carried
smoothly into operational use. The Laboratory develops and
specifies new products, services, and techniques; develops test and
pilot operations; trains operational users of the products; and
turns over systems or components for operational use. It conducts
tra*ining and consultation in the application of environmental
satellite data and research into the feasibility of obtaining
atmospheric variables. and files with high spatial and temporal

B-16

resolution from satellite measurements for various meteorological
applications. The Laboratory develops satellite data and products
that are useful for agricultural resource inventory and monitoring,
develops and evaluates new techniques in remote-sensing technology,
and serves as a focal point for measurements of stratospheric trace
constituents for climate and environmental purposes.

SDSD Satellite Data Services Division
National Climatic Data Center
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
Princeton Executive Center, Room 100
5627 Allentown Rd4
Washington, DC 20233
(301) 763-8402, FTS 763-8402

Th'e Satellite Data Services Division receives, classifies, stores,
and retrieves imagery and digital data from environmental
satellites. The Division is responsible for planning, systems
analysis 'design, and coordination involved in acquiring new or
improving current systems required to perform the satellite data
management and user services functions. It performs feasibility
studies and develops specifications for satellite data handling,
hardware/ sof t:ware systems, and automatic data-processing services.
The Division furnishes guidance to researchers and planners in
selecting data sources suitable to their needs. It provides
professional services in analyzing, interpreting, and filling user
requests for retrospective satellite data. In response to
inquiries, the Division.furnishes data or information as to types
of data available in various media and formats.

SEAD Strategic Environmental Assessments Division
Office Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment
NOAA National Ocean service
Washington Science Center-1, Room 220
6001 Executive Blvd.
Rockville, MD 20852
(301) 443-8843, FTS 443-8843

The Strategic Environmental Assessment Division conducts
comprehensive, interdisciplinary assessments of multiple ocean-
resource uses for the nation and its major coastal and oceanic
regions for applications by NOAA, other agencies, Congress, and
public interest groups in identifying ocean uses capabilities and
potential conflicts and determining national research needs and
priorities. The Division publishes a series of data atlases of
important physical, chemical, biological, and economic
characteristics of the nation's coastal zone and Exclusive Economic
Zone. It develops and maintains comprehensive, national
inventories of coastal and ocean resources and their existing and

B-17

prop .osed uses for asse .ssing national policies and management
,strategies. It also develops strategic assessment methods and
maintains an operational capability with which to evaluate the
environmental and economic effects of national policies and
management strategies for coastal and ocean resource use. The
Division synthesizes and disseminates information -on the use and
status of coastal waters of the nation.

SEFC Southeast Fisheries Science center
NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
75 Virginia Beach Dr.
Miami, FL 33149
(305) 361-4284, FTS 350-128.4

The Southeast Fisheries Science center conducts multidisciplinary
research programs to provide management information to support
national and regional programs of NMFS; and to respond to the needs
of regional Fishery Management councils, interstate and
international fishery commissions, fishery development foundations,
government agencies, and the general public. The Center provides
supervisory and administrative support to large marine ecosystems
programs performing fishery research, collecting and reporting on
statistical data, and operating Center data management support
systems. It develops the scientific information base required for
f ishery resource conservation, f ishery development and utilization,
habitat conservation, and protection of marine. mammals and
endangered species; develops the impact analyses and environmental
assessments for management plans and/or international negotiations;
and pursues research to answer specific needs in the subject areas
of population dynamics, f ishery biology, f ishery economics, f ishery
engineering, food science, and fishery biology.

.SEL Spade Environment Laboratory
Environmental Research Laboratories
NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research
325 Broadway St.
Boulder, CO 80303
(303) 497-3311, FTS 320-3311

The Space Environment Laboratory provides monitoring and
forecasting of the space environment to meet national requirements.
The Laboratory improves techniques for forecasting solar
disturbances and their effects on th 'e Earth's environment through
research and technical support activities.

B-18

SRD Sanctuaries and Reserves Division
Office of Ocean and Coastal Resources Management
NOAA National Ocean service
Universal Building S., Room 71.4
1825 Connecticut Ave., NW
Washington, DC, 20235
(201) 673-5122, FTS 673-5122

The Sanctuaries and Reserves Division has headquarters and field
staff responsible for administration of the National Marine
Sanctuary Program, Title III of the Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act, and the National Estuarine Reserve Research
System, section 315 of the Coastal Zone Management Act. These
programs identify, designate, and operate coastal marine protected
areas for purposes of resource protection, monitoring, researcht
interpretation, and education. The Division prepares necessary
designation documents for these sites including management plans,
regulations, environmental impact statements, congressional
prospectuses, and designation findings. It oversees state
operation of reserves and directly operates marine sanctuaries,
including the issuance and monitoring of permits to conduct
specified activities and enf orcement of sanctuary regulations. The
Division develops and implements national interpretative,
educational, research, monitoring, and cultural resource plans and
site-specific management plans and projects.

SRL Satellite Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Applications
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
World Weather Building, Room 712
5200 Auth Rd.
Camp Springs, MD 20233
(301) 763-8078, FTS 763-8078

The Satellite Research Laboratory applies satellite observations
to solving problems in the.atmospheric, oceanic, and land sciences
and in climate research and monitoring. The Laboratory develops
methods for remote sensing of the Earth and its atmosphere. The
Laboratory performs research using satellite observations; supports
such research activities at university and private research
organizations; and participates with the university community in
joint research projects. It plans and coordinates research and
development activities and applications of research results with
othe'r parts of NOAA and other U.S. government agencies,
universities, and international groups. The Laboratory conducts
field experiments to demonstrate the utility of new measurement
techniques, new results, and new technology. Areas of
experimentation include atmospheric, oceanographic, hydrologic, and
Earth resources investigations.

B-19

SSD Satellite Services Division
,office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
and Information Service
World Weather Building, Room 607
5200 Auth Rd.
Camp Springs, MD 20233
(301) 763-8051, FTS 763-8051

The Satellite Services Divis ion serves as the primary interface
with the community of users of environmental satellite data and
products. The Division is responsible for providing data,
analyses, and interpretations of polar-orbiting and geostationary
satellite data to the user community. It also serves as the
primary interface with the users of satellite direct-broadcast and
data-collection services, andmanages the operation and maintenance
of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite Data
Collection System.

SWFC Southwest Fisheries science Center
NOAA National Marine Fisheries service
P.O. Box 271
La Jolla, CA 92038
(619) 546-7000, FTS 893-7000

The Science, and Research Director, Southwest Region, and the staff
of the Southwest Fisheries Science Center are responsible for
conducting an integrated, multidisciplinary research program in
biology, mathematics, oceanography, economics, and computer
sciences for the purpose of developing scientific information to
support the management and allocation of coastal and high-seas
fishery resources. These activities are designed to support the
scientific, statistical, and economic needs of the regional Fishery
Management Councils, international commissions for the allocation
of world-wide tuna resources, efforts directed toward the reduction
of porpoise mortality, a better understanding of the biological and
environmental factors affecting commercial and recreational
fisheries, and the development of underutilized fishery resources.

B-20

APPENDIX C: GLOSSARY OF TERMS

aerosol -- Suspension of very small particles of a liquid or a
solid in air or another gas. Examples include smoke, dust, and
fog.

albedo -- The fraction of incident light reflected from a
surface.

biosphere -- The portion of the Earth inhabited by living
organisms, including the land masses, oceans, and atmosphere.

bycatch -- Catch of nontarget fish and invertebrates during
commercial fishing operations, especially trawling. For example,
commercial shrimp fishing results in an extensive bycatch of
bottomfish species, most of which are killed and discarded.

chlorofluorocarbons -- Group of organic compounds analogous to
hydrocarbons, in which all or most of the hydrogen atoms of a
hydrocarbon have been replaced by fluorine or chlorine; see
halogens.

condensation nuclei -- Aerosol which serve as the nuclei upon
which water vapor condenses. Cloud condensation nuclei occur in
the atmosphere.

DDT -- A persistent insecticide which is a mixture of isomers of
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a chlorinated hydrocarbon.

DNA -- Deoxyribonucleic acid; the primary genetic material of a
cell; contains 2 polynucleotide chains forming a double, helix.

Dobson unit -- Unit of measurement of ozone concentration in
atmosphere. Represents the amount of ozone in a vertical column
of the atmosphere at standard -3 temperature and atmospheric
pressure. 1 Dobson unit = 10 cm of ozone at standard
temperature and atmospheric pressure. Named after G.M.B. Dobson,
English inventor of ozone spectrophotometer and first to
establish a routine ozone-observing program in 1924.

dogfish -- one of several species of small sharks of the genera
Saualus and Mustelus.

EEZ See Exclusive Economic Zone.

electromagnetic sensing -- Remote sensing of ocean transport
using naturally occurring electric currents caused by flow
through the Earth's magnetic field. Measurements of induced

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electric fields and resulting currents are made from submarine
cables, towed electrode systems, and free-fall profilers.

El Nino -- Anomalous warming of the eastern tropical Pacific
Ocean that occurs at 2-10 year intervals and is frequently
associated with far-reaching climatic and economic impacts around
the world.

ENSO -- El Nino (q.v.)/Southern oscillation (q.v.) (ENSO) -- term
used to describe the oceanic-atmospheric interactions of El Nino
events.

ERL -- The Environmental Research Laboratories (ERL) are
organized within NOAA's OAR (q.v.). ERL consists of 10 research
laboratories and 7 joint/cooperative research institutes
throughout the U.S.

Exclusive Economic Zone -- Coastal ocean under limited U.S. legal
jurisdiction. By law, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is
defined as contiguous to the territorial sea of the U.S. and
extending seaward 200 nautical miles measured from the baseline
from which the territorial sea was measured. Under the Magnuson
Fishery Conservation and Management Act, the U.S. has exclusive
management authority over all living marine resources in the EEZ.

Florida Current -- A north Atlantic Ocean western boundary
current (q.v.) setting northward along the southeast coast of the
United States. A segment of the Gulf Stream system, the Florida
Current extends from the Straits of Florida to the region off
Cape Hatteras, NC. Part of the general surface circulation of
the oceans.

gadoids -- Family of fishes (Gadidae) which includes several
important genera widely used as food, such as cod, haddock,
pollock, and hake.

gag -- The grouper of southern U.S. coasts, West Indies, and
Caribbean waters. Groupers are large marine fish of the family
Serranidae common in warm waters, especially around reefs. It is
a popular sport fish and excellent food fish. The common name
for the grouper, Mvcteroperca microlepis.

GEOSAT -- GEOdetic SATellite. U.S. Navy altimeter satellite
launched in 1985 used to collect global altimeter data.

GOES -- New NOAA system of Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellites (GOES).

greenhouse effect -- Theory associated with increase in
"greenhouse gases" (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
tropospheric ozone, chlorofluorocarbons) and their ability to
absorb thermal infrared radiation which increases atmospheric

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temperatures.
halogens -- The five elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
.iodine, and astatine. organic compounds formed from these
include chlorofluorocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and
various plastics.

infrared radiation -- Long-wave (heat) radiation (abbreviation:
IR) emitted by hot bodies with wavelengths ranging from the limit
of the red end of the visible spectrum to about 1 mm.

IR -- see infrared radiation.

joint venture --- An operation authorized'under the Magnuson
Fishery Conservation and Management Act in which a permitted
foreign vessel receives fish in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone
from a U.S. vessel. The fish received from the U.S. vessel are
part of the U.S. harvest.

La Nina -- Periods between El Nino events in the eastern tropical
Pacific characterized by normal ocean/atmospheric conditions
(i.e. a "cool" event).

longline fishery -- Method of fishing using long lines of baited
hooks. Hooks used are small and spaced at short intervals.
Usually 1/4 to 2 miles long. Commonly used for catching a
variety of fish, including sharks, snappers, groupers, and tuna.

Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act -- The Magnuson
Act provides a national program for the conservation and
management of fisheries to allow for optimum yield on a
continuing basis. It established the U.S. Exclusive Economic
Zone and a means to control foreign and certain domestic
fisheries through fishery management plans.

mb -- see millibar.

methane -- The simplest hydrocarbon, found in natural gas and as
4 degradation product of carbonaceous materials, and thus occurs
in association with petroleum, coal, bogs, and marshes. The
second most-abundant greenhouse gas, after carbon dioxide.

MFCMA -- see Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act
microgram one-millionth (10-6 ) of a gram.

micrometer see micron.

micron -- A unit of measurement (symbol:u) in the metric system
equivalent to one-millionth meter (10-6 meter). Also called a
micrometer.

microwaves Portion of electromagnetic spectrum lying between

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the far infrared and radio frequencies, i.e., wavelengths from I
to 1000 millimeters.

millibar -- Commonly used unit of pressure (symbol: mb) in
meteorology (I mb = 103 dynes/cm2 ). 1013 mb is regarded as the
standard atmospheric pressure at sea level.

mitigation -- Actions taken to reduce the effects of a
potentially harmful activity.

mixing ratio -- Ratio of the mass of a given gas '(e.g., water
vapor) to that of the remaining gas (e.g., dry air) in the
mixture.

nanogram -- One-billionth of a gram. The prefix'nanb (symbol: n)
means one-billionth part (10-9

NESDIS -- National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (NESDIS). Office responsible for NOAA's environmental
satellite and data management programs.

nitrous oxide -- A greenhouse gas N20) of primarily biogenic
origin. N20 absorbs .in the thermal infrared spectrum and
contributes to warming of the atmosphere.

Nimbus-7 -- Satellite used to fly the Coastal Zone Color Scanner
(CZCS) and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrophotometer .(q.v.).

NMFS -- National Marine Fisheries Service. office responsible
for the integrated NOAA marine fisheries programs.

NOS -- National Ocean Service. Office responsible for the
integrated NOAA ocean services and coastal zone management
programs.

NWS -- National Weather Service. office responsible for the
integrated NOAA weather service programs.

orographic -- Applied to rain or clouds caused by the
condensation of moist air resulting from the forced uplift of
mountains on air streams that cross them.

OAR -- Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research. Office
responsible for the integrated NOAA oceanic and atmospheric
research and development programs.

ozone -- Photochemically produced form of oxygen (symbol: 03)'
Ozone shields the Earth from solar ultraviolet radiation and acts
as a strong oxidizing agent for chemical reactions involving
other biogenic gases.

PAHs -- Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic (closed rings

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typified by benzene-CA) hydrocarbons derived mainly from
petroleum., Includes naphthalene, fluorene, pyrene, and
benzo(a)pyrene.

Palmer Drought Severity Index -- Index of dryness (drought)
developed by Wayne C. Palmer of the NWS to quantify negative
meteorological moisture anomalies.

PCBs -- Polychlorinated biphenyls are chlorinated hydrocarbon
compounds first used in 1929 for industrial purposes and occur as
persistent pollutants, particularly in aquatic ecosystems. Their
use in the U.S. began to be phased out in 1971 and has been
banned in new devices since 1976.

pixel -- A picture element. Commonly the smallest component of a
multispectral image.

polynyas -- A water area enclosed in ice.

precipitation index -- Statistically derived index that depicts
average precipitation (moisture) over long time periods and large
geographic areas..

QBO -- see quasi-bienni al oscillation.

quasi-biennial oscillation -- Equatorial east-west oscillation of
stratospheric winds. The quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) has a
period of about 26 months and has largest amplitude near 30 mb
pressure. The QBO shows a strong relationship with Atlantic'
tropical storm activity.

radiosonde -- Meteorological instrument that records and
transmits atmospheric temperatures and humidity with altitude.
CIt is carried aloft by balloon.

rawinsonde -- Meteorological instrument that records and
transmits atmospheric temperatures and wind direction/speed with
altitude. It is usually carried aloft by balloon.

rocketsonde -- Radiosonde (q.v.) or rawinsonde (q.v.) carried
aloft by rocket.

Sahel -- Geographical area in north central Africa (Mauritania to
Chad) between the Sahara desert of North Africa and the forested
regions of equatorial Africa. This region is arid with sparse
vegetation and is susceptible to desert-ification.

sea level -- Level of the ocean surface in relation to adjacent
land (secular sea level) or from a satellite at a known altitude
(absolute sea level).

SEAMAP -- Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program.

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State/federal/university program for collection, management, and
dissemination of fishery-independent data and information in the
southeastern United States.

shellfish -- Any aquatic invertebrate possessing a shell,
especially any edible mollusk or crustacean, as oysters, clams,
lobsters, and shrimps.

skates -- Fish of the genus Rgja (family Rajidae) related to
sharks and rays. Skates are frequently caught as bycatch and
discarded.

solar irradiance -- The total solar radiation received on a
surface per unit area.

Southern Oscillation -- An intermitte nt 2-10 year quasi-
periodicity observed in atmospheric pressure, surface wind, sea
surface temperature, cloudiness, and rainfall over a wide area of
the Pacific Ocean and adjacent coastal areas south of the
equator.

stratosphere -- The upper portion of Earth's atmosphere, above
the troposphere (from 8-20 km) and below the mesosphere (to
around 45 km), characterized by relatively uniform temperatures
and horizontal winds (jet stream).

sunspot -- Dark areas seen on the Sun's surface that are regions
of cool gas. Their presence is associated with local variations
in the Sun's magnetic field. Sunspots appear to have cycles
having a period of 11 years.

Sverdrup -- Unit of measurement (symbol: SV) used to quantify the
ocean volumetransported. 1 sverdrup = one million cubic meters
per second.

TOGA -- Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Program. Part of
the 10-year (1985-1995) international World Climate Research
Program established by the World Meteorological Organization.
NOAA is an active participant in TOGA.

TOMS -- Total Ozone Mapping Spectrophotometer. Instrument flown
aboard Nimbus-7 satellite used to remotely measure stratospheric
ozone.

tornado -- Intense, funnel-shaped wind phenomena usually
associated with fast-moving cold fronts.

tropical cyclone -- Intense, circular,. cyclonic storms formed in
ocean regions.

troposphere -- The lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere
extending from the surface to the tropopause (10-20 km depending

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on latitude and time of year). Temperat ure decreases steadily
with increased altitude, turbulence is greatest, and most weather
phenomena occur in this region.

upwelling -- An upward'flow of subsurface water due to
divergences, offshore winds, and wind-driven transport away from
shore.

virtual population analysis -- An analysis of the catches from a
given year class (cohort) of fish over its life in the fishery.
visible wavelengths -- The continuous spectrum of visible
radiation lying in the wavelength range between 380 and 780
nanometers. Seven colors are usually distinguished in the
continuous variation of visible wavelengths: violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.

western boundary currents -- Currents of the major ocean gyres
flowing along the eastern coasts of all continents. These
currents are fast, narrow, and, in some regions, meander
unpredictably. Examples of these currents are the Kuroshio
Current in the Pacific Ocean and the Florida Current (q.v.) and
Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean.

wind stress -- Frictional drag at the boundary between the air-
sea interface. one of the physical forces influencing ocean
circulation.

xenobiotic -- A compound foreign to or not found natura'lly in the
environment. Examples include DDT (q.v.) and PCBs (q.v.).

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APPENDIX D: RELATED REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

A number of publications, both governmental and private, present
regular analyses of the Earth's environment and natural resources.
In addition, there are numerous special reports and scientific
journals that periodically deal with global environmental issues.
Examples of significant publications related to this report are:

Climate Assessment: Selected Indicators of Global Climate --
Published jointly by NOAA's Climate Analysis Center and National
Climatic Data Center, this yearly report provides an annual summary
(including historical perspectives) of selected atmospheric and
oceanic parameters including sea ice and snow cover. Global
coverage is emphasized although regional and United States
conditions are also highlighted.

Climate Diagnostics Bulletin -- Published by NOAA's Climate
Analysis Center, this report is a summary of worldwide monthly
meteorological data such as sea surface temperature, sea surface
pressure, winds, and ocean currents. Anomalies are noted and
discussed.

Environmental Indicators: A Preliminary Set -- A preliminary set
of environmental indicators published by the organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, Paris 1991). It serves
as a companion to the OECD Report on the State of the Environment
and comprises 18 environmental indicators, followed by 7 key
indicators reflecting economic and population changes of
environmental significance.

Environmental Trends A publication of the, Council on
Environmental Quality which focuses on selected U.S. indicators
chosen by an Interagency Advisory committee on Environmental
Trends. Statistical series are compiled from data available
through government agencies, private studies, or the literature of
each discipline. Chapters concern minerals, energy, water,
climate, air quality, land resources, wildlife, wetland5, protected
areas, population, transportation, and environmental hazards.

Environmental Ouality -- The annual report of the Council on
Environmental Quality. The report is submitted to Congress and
highlights selected environmental issues. These selected topics
are discussed in considerable depth. The focus is on the United
States. Appendices identify activities of the Council, highlight
specific environmental legislation, and provide numerical ' data
intabular form together with the President's Message to Congress.

D-1

Fisheries of the United States -- Published yearly by NOAA's
National Marine Fisheries Service (VMFS), Fisheries Statistics
Division. The publication is a preliminary report giving annual
statistics on commercial and recreational fisheries of the United
States and foreign catch in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. Final
data are published in "Fishery Statistics of the United States" and
other NMFS statistical publications. Data are provided on U.S.
employment, prices, and production of processed products. Worldwide
data are also included.

Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change Summary Report This
is an annual report published by the Geophysical Monitoring for
Climatic Change Division of NOAA's Climate Monitoring and
Diagnostics Laboratory. The report contains scientific information
on a number of geophysical parameters monitored at N 0 A A I s
baseline observatories. These parameters include: atmospheric
aerosols, solar radiation, atmospheric turbidity, carbon dioxide,
ozone, water vapor, and other atmospheric parameters o f
climatological significance.

GESAMP: The State of the Marine Environment This report,
prepared by.the Joint Group of,Experts on the Scientific Aspects
of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) (United Nations Environment Program
Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 115. UNEP, 1990), summarizes
the state of marine pollution in the world's oceans and is the
second state-of -the-marine-environment report by the Group. Topics
include human activities affecting the sea, marine contaminants,
biological effects, climate change effects, and prevention and
control of marine pollution.

The Global Climate System Monitoring Bulletin -- The report,
published bi-annually by the World Meteorological organization, i
a review of global climate conditions based on current scientific
understanding and worldwide observations of the climate system. It
is intended to provide a basis for monitoring global change. The
report is compiled 'from readily available scientific literature and
has an extensive bibliography.

Monthly Climatic Time Series Data for the Pacific ocean and Western
Americas -- Published by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS Open-File
Report 91-92) in cooperation with Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, NOAA, and the State of California. Graphs of
standardized monthly anomaly time-series data for several climatic
variables are presented for locations in the eastern Pacific Ocean
and the western Americas. The variables include: air temperature,
barometric pressure, precipitation, streamf low, sunshine, sea level
height, sea surface temperature,, sea surface salinity, several
atmospheric indices and biological variables, ocean and
miscellaneous ocean subsurface temperature and salinity. The time
series of annual values and basic statistics of the monthly mean
data are also shown for each variable.

D-2

OECD Environmental Data Compendium 1991 -- The third update of the
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD,
Paris 1991) comprehensive data resource on the environment.
Provides data on air and water pollution, the marine environment,
land use, forests, wildlife, solid waste, noise, and radioactivity
in OECD countries. Also provides data on the underlying
anthropogenic pressures on the environment, including energy use,
transportation, industrial activity, and agriculture.

Report to Congress on Ocean Pollution, Monitoring, and Research -
This is an annual report published by the Off ice of Ocean
Resources Conservation and Assessment of NOAA's National Ocean
Service. The publication details NOAA pollution-related programs
including the National Coastal Pollution Discharge Inventory,
National Estuarine Inventory, National Status and Trends Program,
National Ocean Pollution Program, and special reports on water-
quality issues of national significance.

Solar-Geophysical Data -- Published by NOAA's National Geophysical
Data Centerl the monthly two-part report, is a comprehensive
listing of solar flares, solar radio flux, sunspots, solar wind
and data on particle measurements, geomagnetic field variations,
and cosmic rays.

A State of the Environment -Report: A Report on Canada's Progress
Towards a National Set of Environmental Indicators -- This report,
from Environment Canada (SOE Report No. 91-1, January 1991),
documents the current systematic efforts to develop a national set
of environmental indicators that, taken together, will give a
profile of the state of Canada's environment and indicate trends
towards sustainable development.

The State of the. Environment, Third Edition -- The latest
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD,
Paris 1991) assessment of environmental conditions in its member
countries. It reviews the environment today to assess the progress
achieved over the past two decades. It also identifies the
remaining problems concerning global atmospheric issues, air,
inland waters, the marine environment, land, forest, wildlife,
solid waste, and noise. Extensive statistical information is
included.

State of the World: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress
Toward a Sustainable Society -- This is an annual report by Lester
.Brown et al. of the World Watch Institute. The report discusses
global environmental problems that especially affect p eo pl es I
lives, including, deforestation, toxic pollution, overpopulation,
species extinction, and energy uses. The publication also covers
political issues, such as the military buildup in various
countries. The report is translated and published in all major
languages.

D-3

Trends 90: A Compendium of Data on Global Chancre Published by
the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, the document is a source of frequently-used global-
change data. The first issue (August 1990) includes estimates for
global and national CO 2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels
and from the production of cement; historical and modern
concentrations; and several long-term temperature records. Included
ate tabular and graphical presentations of the data, discussions
of trends in the data, and references to publications that provide
further information.

World Resources: A Guide to the Global Environment -- This annual
report by the World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, was first
published in 1986. The publication reviews global environmental
issues such as population and health, food and agriculture, forests
and rangelands, atmosphere and climate, oceans and coasts, wildlife
and habitats, and global systems. In addition, the report provides
quantitative information on issues related to economic indicators,
population, public health, land and water use, etc.'

D-4

APPENDIX E: REFERENCES

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National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1989. National
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National Shellfish Register of Classified Estuarine Waters.
Rockville, MD: Strategic Assessments Branch, OMA/NOS/NOAA. 100 pp.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Report of
activities.of the Southwest Fisheries Science Center, March-April
1991. La Jolla, CA: Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFS/NOAA.
27 pp.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Solar
Indices Bulletin. Boulder, CO: Solar-Terrestrial Physics
.Division, National Geophysical Data Center, NESDIS/NOAA. Monthly.
2 pp-

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Status of
the fishery resources off the Northeastern United States for 1991.
Woods Hole, MA: Conservation and Utilization Division, Northeast
Fisheries science Center, NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-F/NEC-86. 132 pp.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Status of
the Pacific oceanic living marine resources of interest to the USA
for 1991. La Jolla, CA: Southwest Fisheries Science Center,
NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-165. 78 pp.

National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1988. A summary
of selected data on chemical contaminants in sediments collected
during 1984, 1985, 1986, and 1987. Progress Report: National
Status and Trends Program for marine environmental qualiiy.
Rockville, MD: Ocean Assessments Division, OMA/NOS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-
NOS-OMA-44. 15 pp. Appendices.

National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1989. A s ummary
of data on tissue contamination from the first three years (1986-
1988) of the Mussel Watch Project. Progress Report: National
Status and Trends Program for marine environmental quality. Ocean
Assessments Division, OMA/NOS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NOS-OMA-49. 22 pp.
Appendices.

O'Bannon, B., ed. 1991. Fisheries of the United States, 1990.
Silver Spring, MD:. Fisheries Statistics Division, NMFS/NOAA.
Current Fishery Statistics No. 9000. 11 pp.

O'Connor, T.P. 1990. Coastal environmental quality in the United
States, 1990. A special NOAA 20th anniversary report. Rockville,
MD: Coastal and Estuarine Assessments, Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA.
34 pp.

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Reyer, J.R., C.L.Holland, D.W. Field, J.E. Cassells, and C.E.
Alexander. 1988. The distribution and areal extent of coastal
wetlands in estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico. National Coastal
Wetlands Inventory. Rockville, MD: Strategic Assessment Branch,
OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 18 pp.

Reyer, A.J., B.D. Shearer, P.V. Genovese, J.E. Cassells, C.L.
Holland, D.W. Field, and C.E. Alexander. 1990. The distribution
and areal extent of coastal wetlands in estuaries of the West Coast
region. National Coastal Wetlands Inventory. Rockville, MD:
Strategic Assessment Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 23 pp.

Reyer, A.J., B.D. Shearer, P.V. Genovese, C.L. Holland, J.E.
Cassells,,D,W. Field, and C.E. Alexander. 1990. The distribution
and areal extent of coastal wetlands in estuaries of the Mid-
Atlantic region. National Coastal Wetlands Inventory. Rockville,
MD: Strategic Assessment Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 21 pp.

Reynolds, R.W. 1988. A real-time global sea surface temperature
analysis. J. Climate 1: 75-86.

Rolph, G.D. and R.S. Artz. 1991. A paired comparison of two
precipitation chemistry sites in east-central Mississippi.
Atmospheric Environment 25A(8): 1449-1461.

Scott, G.P@, D.M. Burn, and L.J. Hansen. 1988. The dolphin dieoff:
long-term effects and recovery.of the population. In: Oceans 188
Proceedings, Vol. 3. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE. Pp. 819-823.

Sherman, K., J. Jossi, and J. Goulet. 1990. Comparative stability
of zooplankton communities of the northeast U.S. shelf ecosystem
and the North Sea ecosystemin relation to climatic variability.@
Biological oceanography Committee, ICES C.M. 1900/L:23 (in press) .

Steele, L.P., P.J. Fraser, R.A. Rasmussen, M.A.K. Khalil, T.J.
Conway, A.J. Crawford, R.H. Gammon, K.A. Masarie, and K.W. Thoning.
1987. 'The global distribution-of methane in the troposphere. J.
Atmos. Chem. 5: 125-1,71.

Thoning, K.W. and P.P. Tans. 1989. Atmospheric carbon dioxide at
Mauna Loa Observatory 2. Analysis of the NOAA GMCC Data, 1974-
1985. J. Geophys. Res. 94(D6): 8549-8565.

Trites, R.W., D.R. Mclain, and M.C. Ingham. 1985. Sea-surface
temperatures along the continental shelf from Cape Hatteras to
Hamilton Bank. NAFO Sci. Coun. Studies 8: 21-23.

Varanasi, U., S.-L. Chan, B.B. McCain, J.T. Landahl, M.H.Schiewe,
R.C. Clark, D.W. Brown, M.S. Myers, M.M. Krahn, W.D.Gronlund, and
W.D,. MacLeod, Jr. 1989. National Benthic Surveillance Project:

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Pacific Coast. Part II: Technical presentation of the results for
cycles I to 111 (1984-86). Seattle, WA: Environmental Conservation
Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-
NMFS-F/NWC-170. 159 pp. Appendix.

Varana,si, U., S.-L. Chan, B.B. McCain, M.H. Schiewe, R.C. Clark,
D.W. Brown, M.S. Myers, J.T. Landahl,M.M. Krahn, W.D. Gronlund,
and W.D. MacLeod, Jr. 1988. National Benthic surveillance Project:
Pacific Coast. Part I: Summary and results for cycles I to III
(1984-86). Seattle, WA: Environmental Conservation Division,
Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFSINOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-F/NWC-
156.. 4.3 pp.-Figures.

Zilkoski, D.B. and S@M. Reese, Jr. 1986. Subsidence in the
vicinity of New Orleans as indicated by analysis of geodetic
leveling data.@, Rockville, MD: Charting and Geodetic Services,
NOS/NOAA. NOAA-TR-NOS-120-NGS-38. Ill pp.

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APPENDIX F: NOAA HIGHLIGHTS

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration plays an active
role in research, monitoring, and management of national and global
environmental events and resources. This section highlights some
of the major environmental events since the last NOAA Environmental
Digest that have involved the participation of NOAA scientists and
resource managers.

Modest Increase D6tected in Greenhouse Gases. NOAA1.s Climate
Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory in Boulder, ' CO reported
carbon dioxide seems to be increasing,faster than in past years,
The concentration increased at an average rate of 1.71 ppm/year
(0.5%/yr) over the last four years. The rate'is higher than the
annual 1.5 ppm rise reported for much of the 19809 and the 0.7 ppm.
increase in the 1960s. Methane concentrations have been rising by
about 12 ppb/year (0.8%/yr), and nitrous oxide increased at a rate
of 0. 7 ppb/year (0. 25%/yr) . dFC-11 and CFC-12 were reported to be
rising at 10 and 16 ppt/year (4%/yr) , respectively. The NOAA
Laboratory conducts ongoing, long-term monitoring of trace gases
from baseline observatories at Barrow, Alaska; Hilo, Hawaii; Pago
Pago, American Samoa; and South Pole Station, Antarctica (August
1990).

Northern Hemisphere Snow Cover Lowest Since 1967 During June/July.
NOAA's Climate Analysis Center reported that snow cover over the
Northern Hemisphere in June and July was the lowest since 1967,
when NOAA satellites began recording it. NOAA imagery showed North
America at approximately 60 percent of normal June-July cover and
less than 40 percent across Europe and Asia, something scientists
would expect to occur by chance only once or twice every few
hundred years. snow cover is a critical ingredient in global
warming and has maj.or regional effects on water resources,
agriculture and local weather. The extremely low snow cover is
clearly linked to the record and near-record high-latitude warmth
that occurred in the spring and summer. The scientists cautioned
that these temperatures may be a reflection of the random nature
of snow-cover variations and may have no relationship to climate
change associated with global warming (August 1950).

Sea Turtle Strandings Reach Record Numbers. Statistics from the
NOAA National Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network show record
numbers of sea turtles stranded as of July 1990 in the southeast
United States. In 1989, Florida recorded 1,100 turtles washed
ashore; Texas had 255 strandings; Georgia had 169; and North
Carolina got 156 strandings. All states in the network, except
North Carolina, had increased strandings over 1988. The network
is composed mostly of volunteers and is managed by NOAA's National
Marine Fisheries Service (August 1990).

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Endangered Sea Turtles Released in The Gulf. -of Mexico. Young
endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtles numbering 1,850 were released
into the Gulf of M6xico-as part of an ongoing "headstart" program
to increase the population of the turtle. The Kemp's ridleys had
been collected as hatchlings at the only known nesting beach in
Mexico in July 1990. They were transported to NOAA's National
Marine Fisheries Service taboratory at Galveston, TX, where they
were kept prior to release. The turt 'les released brought to more
than 16,000 the number released off Port Aransas', TX, over the last
12 years (August 1990).

Three-Dimensional Maps of the U.S. EEZ Released. The first three-
dimensional (3-d) detailed maps of the west coast United States
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) were released by NOAAIs Nautical
charting Division. NOAA, in cooperation with the U.S. Geological
Survey, have been using an advanced, long-range, side-scan sonar
imaging system towed behind NOAA @ships to map the nation Is coastal
bottom. NOAA has surveyed only 2 percent, or 80,500 square miles,
of the EEZ. The 3-d maps produced thus far include several 2,000-
square-mile areas off the coast of California, one off Oregon, and
f our in the Gulf of Mexico. Maps of six areas near Hawaii are also
nearly completed (August 1990)..

Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Draf t EIS Released. The
nation's newest proposed marine sanctuary, Monterey Bay (CA)
National Marine Sanctuary, moved closer to reality as NOAA's
Sanctuaries and Reserves Division released a draft Environmental
Impact Statement (EIS) for public review. The proposed sanctuary
could encompass 2,200 square nautical miles, making it the nation's
largest. A final EIS will be completed in 1991 (August 1990).

Tampa Bay Oceanography Proiect z Gets Underway. A unique
oceanographic study of Tampa Bay (FL) was initiated by NOAA's Ocean
Observations Division. A 15-month study will lay the groundwork
for a three-dimensional computer model of Tampa Bay's tides, winds,
and currents. A real-time reporting system is being developed and
tested at the same time, The system, called PORTS (physical
oceanographic real-time system) , reports real-time oceanographic
data to the U. S.. Coast Guard Base in St. Petersburg. Harbor
pilots, ship captains, and recreational boaters are expected. to
benefit from the system. Water quality studies, search and rescue
operations, and hazardous spill response efforts also could
benefit. The system may eventually be installed in additional
harbors around the country (August 1990).

NOAA Establishes Undersea Research Center. in Alaska. NOAA's
National Undersea Research Program set up a new Undersea Research
Center at the University of Alaska to support marine research in
the U.S. west coast and Alaskan waters. The NOAA/University of

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Alaska Center, the fifth in a network of university-based regional
National Undersea Research Centers around the country, will provide
manned submersibles, remote ly-operated underwater vehicles, and
facilities to support research (September 1990).

Spring Global Surface Air Temperature Warmest on Record. NOAA's
Air Resources Laboratory reported that the average global surface
temperature for spring 1990 was the warmest on record (averaging
more than 1.50F above the 30-year average of 540F and a half degree
warmer than the previous record year). The greatest temperature
rise was in the Arctic where the average was about 7.20 above
average and 4.50F higher than previously observed. Scientist
cautioned that this analysis should not be construed that global
warming is occurring (October 1990).

Coral Bleachincl Analyzed by NOAA Researchers. The recurring
phenomena of coral bleaching reappeared in 1990. Most scientists
suspect that bleaching of corals is caused by higher sea
temperatures, although there is disagreement on this matter. if
higher temperatures are the cause, marine scientists are unsure
whether the phenomena is a natural one caused by periodic changes
in currents, or whether the oceans are actually warming. NOAA
researchers at the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological
Laboratory, Caribbean Marine Research Center, and NOAA's Climate
and Global Change Program are actively involved in researching the
phenomena (October 1990).

Massive Antarctic Iceberg Tracked by Satellite. A giant iceberg
was tracked for 3 years by satellite along the Pacific coast of
Antarctica. Formed from the Ross Ice Shelf, the Long Island-size
iceberg drifted eastward for 1250 miles before breaking up. The
big berg was tracked weekly by a combined effort involving the
Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center, Lamont-@Doherty Geological Observatory,
and New Zealand. Tracking the berg provided information on
currents in the Ross Sea (October 1990).

Dr. Sylvia A. Earle Named NOAA's Chief Scientist. Dr. Sylvia Alice
Earle, noted marine botanist and biologist, and c6-founder and
president of Deep Ocean Engineering Inc., of San Leandro, CA, was
named Chief Scientist of NOAA. Dr. Earle is a world-renowned diver
and expert on deep-sea operations, and has made major contributions
to the evolving technology of underwater equipment (October 1990).

Pollutants in Northwest Sea Mammals Reported. Preliminary tests
on marine mammals from the Pacific northwest and Alaska have shown
surprisingly high levels of pollutants in some sea lions. NOAA's
Northwest Fisheries Science Center has undertaken the study of
tissues from stranded marine mammals to document the levels of
contaminants such as PCBs,'DDTs, and metals. What effects, if any,
these contaminants have on the marine mammals is currently unknown.
The tissue analysis will be archived in the newly established
National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank (October 1990).

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Estuaries of the United States Report Released. A special NOAA
20th anniversary report was released entitled "Estuaries of the
United States: Vital Statistics of a National Resource Base." The
report describes briefly the nation's estuarine resource base. It
updates information presented in a number of previous NOAA reports
and atlases developed through its National Estuarine Inventory,
characterizing the nation's estuaries. The report was developed
by NOAA's Strategic Environmental Assessments Division (October
1990).

Evidence of Recent Sea Floor Spreading Documented. Strong evidence
of newly-formed ocean crust has been located off the Oregon coast
at the southern end of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Evidence includes
a string of new volcanic mounds of lava and the occurrence of two
large plumes of warm, mineral laden water. The evidence points to
actual sea floor spreading resulting from plate tectonics. Marine
gelogists and oceanographers at NOAA Is Pacific Marine Environmental
Laboratory made the discovery. Plans are being made to monitor the
area in hopes of observing the events as they happen (November
1990).

Seasonal Ozone Depletion in Antarctic Atmosphere Increasing. The
seasonal ozone "hole" over the South Pole appears to be increasing
based on observations by NOAA's Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
Laboratory. Seasonal ozone depletion from August through December
equaled the previous low set in 1978. The seasonal extent of the
ozone hole has moved well into December unlike previous seasonal
losses. 'Depletion of atmospheric ozone has been linked to
chlorofluorocarbons (November 1990).

Coastal Contamination Report Released.r A special report,"Coastal
Environmental Quality in the United States, 1990: Chemical
Contamination in Sediment and Tissues," was released by NOAA's
Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment to mark NOAA's 20th
anniversary. The report, based on six years of results from the
National Status and Trends Program and other monitoring efforts,
describes the*spatial extent and severity of chemical contamination
and changes in concentration of contaminants over the last decade.
While conclusions are always subject to new information, it appears
that, on a national scale, high and biologically significant
concentrations of contaminants measured by the NOAA monitoring
program are limited primarily to urbanized estuaries. In addition,
levels of contaminants have, in general, begun to decrease in
coastal U.S. waters (November 1990)

Heard Island Experiment Studies Possible Ocean Warming. NOAA is
participating in the underwater acoustic transmission experiment
from Heard Island in the Southern Indian Ocean. organized by Dr.
Walter Munk of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the study
emitted pulses of sound for nine days and was monitored by numerous
stations around the world. Seven nations, many agencies,

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institutions, and universities participated in the experiment. The
experiment will study'the greenhouse- induced changes in acoustic
travel times which are directly related to changes in global sea
temperature. NOAA provided funding, issued permits under the
Marine Mammal Protection Act, and participated in marine mammal
observations during the experiment (January 1991).

NOAA Supports Operation Desert Storm. In addition to assisting
with Persian Gulf oil spills and fires, NOAA supported other
aspects of Operation Desert Storm. NOAA's charting facilities were
used by the Defense Mapping Agency to produce detailed maps of the
Persian Gulf area for troops; NOAA's National Environmental
Satellite, Data, and Information Service made satellite pictures
of the area available to the major media outlets; and NOAA's
National Weather-service provided historic weather statistics for
the theater of war, including average monthly temperature,
rainfall, and humidity (January 1991).

NOAA Scientists Assist in Interagency Persian Gulf Oil Spill -and
Oil Fire Assessment and Cleanup. Personnel from NOAA's Hazardous
Materials Response 'Branch (HAZMAT) and Air Resources Laboratory
(ARL) are part of the United States Interagency Gulf Response Team
that is assessing the environmental damage to the Persian Gulf
area. NOAA HAZMAT specializes in oil spill monitoring and modeling
while ARL specializes in air quality monitoring (January 1991).

Sea Level Data From the Pacific and Indian Oceans Available.
NOAA's National oceanographic Data Center announced the
availability of sea level data from the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
These data are f rom a network of island-based and coastal tide
gauges, many of which have been recording since the mid-1970s. The
network includes stations from the Indo-Pacific sea level network
as well as stations operated by many national and foreign agencies
(February 1991).

NOAA, USGS to Study Great LakestErosion. A 10-year NOAA and U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) study will be conducted to assess erosion,
sedimentation, and flooding in the Great Lakes basin. The pilot
study will focus on the Lake Michigan shoreline, northward from the
Michigan-Indiana border to Brenton Harbor, MI. This region is
undergoing severe erosion, is subject to flooding, and lacks modern
surveys of the nearshore area. NOAA will collect low-altitude
aerial photography of the area to determine shoreline location and
other technical details. USGS will collect seismic data, side-scam
sonar data, core and bottom samples from nearshore waters, and
surface and subsurface samples on land (February 1991).

Navy1NOAA Joint Ice Center Records New Maximum-Minimum Ice Extent.
Ice edges reached new minimums and maximums in the Northern
Hemisphere in the week ending February 16, 1991 reported the
Navy/NOAA Joint Ice center of Suitland, MD. In the North Atlantic

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ocean, a new maximum ice extent was set reaching 60 miles farther
south than the record set in April of last year. North of Japan,
in the Sea of Okhotsk, a minimum ice extent was set, 3,000 square
miles less than the, record set in February 1976 (February 1991) .

Inconclusive Signs of Greenhouse Warminq in the Central U.S.
Climatologists at NOAA's National Climatic Data Center reported
there is no conclusive signs of greenhouse warming in the central
United States, and it may take decades to determine the accuracy
of models Predicting that an enhanced@greenhouse effect will make
the central U.S. more drought-prone by the year 2030. The results
of the analysis was published in the journal, Science (February
1991).

El Nino/Southern oscillation (ENSO) Advisory Issued. NOAA's
Climate Analysis Center issued an ENSO Advisory on February 11,
1991. The Advisory noted that a weak central Pacific warm episode
had been in progress during the last year. However, persistent
enhanced convection had failed to develop in the central equatorial
Pacific and the atmospheric circulation features typical of warm
episodes had not been observed. The depth of the thermocline and
the upper-ocean heat content continue to be greater than normal in
the equatorial Pacific (February 1991).

Exxon Corporation, Federal Trustees Reach Out-Of-Court Settlement
for Prince William Sound Oil Spill. Federal trustees, led by the
NOAA Administrator and the General Counsel, and the State of Alaska
reached a $1 billion out-of-court settlement with Exxon Corporation
for damage caused by the March 24, 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in
Alaska's Prince William Sound. The criminal and civil settlement
was the largest for environmental damages in U.S. legal history.
.The plea bargain agreement for the criminal charges was rejected
by a federal judge in April 1991 and caused the settlement to be
voided (February 1991).

Invasion of Great Lakes by Zebra Mussels Studied by NOAA. NOAA's
Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory initiated a four-year
study of the zebra mussel, an exotic species currently undergoing
a population explosion in the Great Lakes region. The NOAA study
will examine how the mollusk affects the aquatic food chain. The
University of Michigan will participate in the study through NOAA's
Sea Grant College Program (February 19,91).

Automatic Weather Observing System Planned. Advanced, computerized
weather observing systems will be installed this summer at airports
in Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, announced NOAA's
National Weather Service. The new system, called the Automatic
Surface Observing System (ASOS), will provide 24-hour weather
observations at airports that close at night and at new stations.
Other agencies involved in utilizing the new system along with NOAA
are the Navy and Federal Aviation Administration. Installation of

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ASOS nationwide. is part of a long-term modernization of the
National Weather Service (February 1991).

Buoy Network Spanning Tropical Pacific Planned for Summer. A two-
year program to monitor ocean-atmosphere climate variables in the
equatorial Pacific has been planned by NOAA's Pacific Marine
Environmental Laboratory and National Ocean service in conjunction
with Japan and France. The buoy array will span 8,000 miles in
length and 1,000 miles in width along the equator. 'Adding to the
existing array of 18 moored instrument buoys, 65 additional moored
stations will be installed. The buoys support instruments which
measure surface wind, air temperature, relative humidity, sea
surface temperature, subsurface water temperatures' down to 500
meters, subsurface pressures, and near-surface salinity. The
project will provide increased forecasting accuracy for ENSO-events
(March 1991).

Strategic Plan for Marine Turtle Tumor Research Released. A
strategic research plan to investigate a mysterious disease that
infects green sea turtles in epidemic proportions has been
developed by NOAA scientists. The disease, fibropapilloma,
produces tumors which can grow up to 12 inches in diameter,
affecting turtle's eyes, mouth, throat and nasal passage, hindering
breathing, feeding, and restricting movement. Although first
documented in the 1920s, it was exceedingly rare until recent
epidemics in Florida and Hawaii. Scientists from NOAA's National
Marine Fisheries Service, universities and other federal and state
agencies met in Honolulu and developed the research plan (March
1991)

Volunteer Weather Service Celebrates Centennial. Volunteers in
NOAA's National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program
celebrated their. 100th anniversary. The observer program was
established in 1891 by the U.S. Weather Bureau, forerunner of the
National Weather service. It uses a network of more than 11,000
observers and 558 stations around the U.S. to measure temperature,
precipitation, evaporationj and hydrologic information. The
observers generate the main source of data for studying climate and
are essential for long-term weather records in the United States.
(March 1991)

NOAA Steps Up Seafood Inspections. NOAA's National Marine
Fisheries service and the Food and Drug Administration announced
a cooperative pilot program of special seafood inspections of
seafood processing plants and other places that handle fish to
check for contamination and other problems. The new inspection
program is designed to enhance seafood safety to keep up with the
increasing consumption of-seafood by Americans (March 1991).

Regulations Proposed to Protect Sharks from Overf ishing. Increased
commercial fishing for sharks has endangered some species. NOAA's
National Marine Fisheries Service is completing a management plan

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that will set federal fishing quotas for 39 species of sharks.
Demand for shark meat and shark-f in soup has increased dramatically
over the last 10 years, in, part due to overf ishing of swordfish and
other billfish (March 1991).

Snake River Salmon Tentatively Declared as Endangered Species.
NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service tentatively listed Snake
River salmon as protected under the Endangered Species Act (ESA).
The comment period will last one year before a final decision is
made on whether to formally list the species under the ESA (April
1991).

NOAA Bans Dolphin-Feedihq Cruises. NOAA's National Marine
Fisheries Service banned the f eeding of , marine mammals in an ef f ort
to stop the increasingly popular feeding cruises in which
passengers toss food to marine mammals, such as bottlenose
dolphins. The ban was implemented because f eeding wild animals
encourages dependency on humans and weakens natural behavior (April
1991).

Alaskan Oil Spill Clean-Up Increases Environmental Damacfe. The use
of hot water under high pressure to remove oil from Alaska's
beaches after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill may have done more
environmental harm than good and should be avoided in the future,
according to a NOAA study. Oiled, but untreated, beaches had
richer and more varied marine life than treated beaches and were
similar in most instances to sites where no oil had come ashore
(April 1991).

Methanp= Gas in Atmosphere Found to Have Loncfer Lifetime.
Scientists at NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory released findings that
suggest methane's contribution to the greenhouse.effect is larger
than previously thought. New calculations show that methane stays
in the atmosphere approximately 25 percent longer than originally
believed, about 12.5 years instead of about 10 years. The results
were published in the journal, Nature. Methane is an important
greenhouse gas as its relative contribution to the greenhouse
effect is second only to carbon dioxide (April 1991).

U.S. Judge Relects Exxon Oil Spill Fine as Inadeguate. A U.S.
District Court judge in Alaska last week rejected the $100 million
criminal fine negotiated between the federal government and Exxon
Corporation over the Exxon Valdez oil spill throwing the entire $1
billion settlement into doubt. Five federal agencies, including
NOAA, are charged under federal law with protecting the country's
natural resources and had announced the settlement in February.
The $100 million criminal fine was part of a total $1 billion
settlement. It included $900 million to the trustees, as well as
the State of Alaska, for several purposes: a science program;
restoration planning and pilot projects; reimbursement for most of
the trustees, including NOAA, for past expenses; and restoration

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efforts aimed at returning Prince William Sound to its pre-spill
condition (April 1991).

NOAA Establishes New Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The
nation's newest and largest marine sanctuary,. the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary, was established in the Florida Keys by
NOAA's Sanctuaries and Reserves Division. The sanctuary covers
2,600 square nautical miles of tropical coral reefs, algal reefs,
sea grass beds, and archeological sites (April 1991).

Soot Detected over Hawaii by NOAA Observatory May Be from Kuwait.
Air samples taken at NOAA's mountaintop Mauna Loa Observatory in
Hawaii contained small amounts of soot particles which could have
been from the oil fires in Kuwait. Highly absorptive particles
presumed to be carbon were found in normally clean tropospheric air
samples routinely taken, at the observatory,. The observatory is
operated by NOAA's Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory
in Boulder, CO (May 1991).

CFC and Halon - Substitutes Evaluated by NOAA Research Team.
Chemicals intended to replace ozone-destroying chlorofluorocprbons
(CFCs) and halons have drawn mixed reviews from researchers at
NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory. Replacement chemical hydrochloro-
fluorocarbon (HCFC-141b) has an ozone-depletion potential about 50
percent larger than previously believed due to a miscalculation of
its atmospheric lifetime. Recent calculations place its lifetime
at about two-thirds greater than the previous estimate of eight
years, a lifetime similar to presently-used CFCs. Another
chemical, FM-100, a halon replacement, only lingers in the
atmosphere 7 to. 8 years compared to the 80 years for halogens
making it a better substitute (May 1991).,

Global Precipitation Declines in 1980s. Yearly precipitation over
land areas declined in the 1980s following a three-decade period
of increase, a comprehensive set of NOAA rain and snowfall records
revealed. Preliminary analysis of information collected from 5,328
stations around the world indicates a period of predominantly dry
conditions existed from the late 1800s to about 1950, followed by
about 30 years of wetter conditions. The peak precipitation during
this 30-year period was experienced around 1955 and again
predominatly in the mid-1970s. A return to drier conditions
occurred by the mid-1980s. The analysis was performed by NOAA's
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (May 1991).

Weather/Climate Satellite Launched into Polar Orbit Is a Success.
NASA and NOAA launched NOAA-12, a new polar-orbiting operational
environmental satellite which will gather weather and climate data
from 450 miles above the Earth. Successfully launched from
Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA, the satellite is the latest -of
NOAA's weather satellites. NOAA-12 will collect and transmit data
automatically to ground stations in 122 countries. NOAA-121s data
will help scientists to continue studying a variety of critical

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environmental issues including ozone depletion, acid rain, ocean
pollution, and climate change. NASA managed the spacecraft
production and launch for NOAA (May 1991).

Shellfish Contaminated by Red Tide. NOAA's National Marine
Fisheries Service and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued
a warning to local fishermen not to eat shellfish from the Georges
Bank. The bivalves, which can accumulate high levels of the toxin
that causes paralytic shellfish poisoning, may in some cases be
fatal (May 1991).

Solar Flares Cause Severe Geomagnetic Storm. Solar flares caused
the most intense geomagnetic storm since 1989 to strike the Earth,
threatening electrical power distribution, satellite operations
and communication systems. NOAA's Space Environment Services
Center in Boulder, CO, reported the storm, which began June 4,
increased in intensity overnight, and was rated "severe" by the
next day. Fewer than five percent of geomagnetic storms reach that
strength. The solar event'resulted in the aurora borealis being
visible as far south as the latitude of New York City.
Interference with high-frequency radio transmission was spotty,
with some areas of the U.S. and Canada experiencing fading of
transmissions while other areas saw intensification (June 1991).

Tornadoes Reach Record Numbers. The number of tornadoes reported
as of June 1991 have set a record for this time of year, according
to NOAA's National Severe Storms Forecast Center in Kansas city,
MO. More then 1033 tornadoes had been reported as of June 10
compared with 841 for the same period last year. The report of
1,132 tornadoes in 1990 in the lower 48 states beat a record last
set in 1973 (June 1991).

NOAA Reports Effects of Drift-Net Fishlnq. NOAA's National Marine
Fisheries service reported that Japanese drift-net fisheries killed
millions of fish last year in the north Pacific, including more
than 9,000 salmon, over 30,,000 thousand sea birds, over 250,000
tuna, almost 82,000 sharks, and nearly 2,000 marine mammals, and
35 sea turtles. More than 3 million other non-target fish were
also killed. The report covered bycatch kills documented by
scientific observers aboard only 10 percent of Japan's fishing
vessels. The drift-net fishery was described as "indiscriminately
lethal" (June 1991).

NOAA Monitors Effect of Volcano Eruption on Global Climate. The
eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, perhaps the largest
volcanic eruption this century, may have significant effects on
global climate according to NOAA researchers. The stratospheric
plume, in addition to perhaps depressing global temperatures, could
alter stratospheric ozone chemistry reported scientists at NOAA's
Aeronomy Laboratory. NOAA weather satellites were used to track
the stratospheric aerosol plume around the Earth (June 1991).

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Atmospheric Carbon.Monoxide Estimates May be Inaccurate. NOAA's
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostic Laboratory reported that a
widely-used carbon monoxide reference gas was found to vary in
comparison tests by almost 25 percent. Because of this,
atmospheric scientists using computer projections to model global
climate changes may be underestimating the amount of carbon
monoxide in the atmosphere by as much as 25 percent. The results
were reported in the Journal of Geophysical Research. Carbon
monoxide, unlike carbon dioxide, is not a significant greenhouse
gas, but is associated with important chemical interactions
involved in the greenhouse effect (June 1991).

Atlantic Swordfish Protection Proposed. NOAA's National Marine
Fisheries Service announced emergency regulations to protect and
restore the declining Atlantic swordfish population. The plan will
allow fisherman to catch three million pounds of swordfish during
each of two six-month periods. The quotas are based on 1990
recommendations by the International Commission for the
Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (June 1991).

NOAA Coordinates Interagency Project on Past Climates. NOAA's
National Geophysical Data Center is coordinating an interagency
project to study 500 years of climatic data to document effects of
two key historical climatic cooling events: very low sunspot
activity from 1680 to 1715 and the eruption of Tambora volcano in
1815. Among the records to be checked are tree rings, lake and
marine sediments, corals and glacial ice cores. Computer models
will be run to determine the cause of the 400-year period (1450 to
1890) of global cooling called the "little ice age" (June 1991)

El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Advisory Issued. The latest
ENSO Advisory from NOAA's Climate Analysis Center showed that
during the last several months, the trend in sea surface
temperature (SST) in the equatorial Pacific from 1600E eastward to
1600W, has been indicating the development of a warm episode.
However, enhanced persistent atmospheric convection has not yet
become established in the central equatorial Pacific. As the
Northern Hemisphere warm season comes to a close, * tropical
convection will begin shifting toward the equator (August 1991).

New National Marine Sanctuaries Progress Toward Reality. The
nation's two newest National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) moved closer
to designation with the release of environmental impact statements
(EIS) . A draft EIS was released for public comment for the Olympic
Coast NMS and a management plan and final EIS was released for
comment for the Flower Gardens NMS. The Olympic Coast NMS covers
3,400 square miles off the scenic coast of Washington. The Flower
Gardens NMS, located about 115 miles southeast of Galveston, Texas,
protects the northernmost coral reefs in the Gulf of Mexico (August
1991).

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NOAA Leases European weather Satellite to Assure Forecasting
Capability. NOAA, the European Space Agency, and the European
Meteorological Satellite Consortium agreed to the use of the
European Merosat-3 meteorological satellite to back up U.S. weather
forecasting capabilities. The agreement will allow NOAA's National
Weather Service to provide continuous monitoring of weather from
space in case the aging U.S. GOES-7 weather satellite reaches the
end of its scheduled lifetime early in 1992. The first replacement
for the U.S. GOES satellites will not be available until late 1993
or early 1994 (September 1991).

New Exxon Va ldez Settlement Approved. A federal judge approved a
new plea bargain agrement for the 1989 oil spill in Prince William
Sound, Alaska. The penalties, higher than those rejected in an
April 1991 ruling, are the highest ever assessed in the U.S. for
environmental damages. A portion of the penalties will be
allocated to NOAA for funding damage assessment and habitat
restoration projects (October 1991).

NOAA Lawsuit Provides For Environmental Improvements. A lawsuit
filed by NOAA provides for the cleanup of Elliott Bay and parts of
the Duwamish River in Puget Sound, Seattle, Washington. The
cleanup calls for capping or removing metals and oil products that
have built up over decades in nearshore waters to levels poisonous
to fish and shellfish and for restoring fish habitat. The
settlement involves federal, Washington State, native-American
tribes, and local governments. The settlement is the largest ever
for a marine contamination case, excluding oil spills. NOAA has
responsibility to recover. natural resource damages under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act
(October 1991). 1

Future North America Vegetation Changes Predicted by NOAA. The
next two centuries may produce unprecedented vegetation changes in
the Northern Hemisphere if projected future climate warming occurs.
Some plant ranges could shift as much as 500-1000 km during the
next 200 to 500 years and could have dramatic impacts on forest and
other ecosystems. The climate-pollen analysis model was published
in the journal, Science, by scientists. from NOAA's National
Geophysical Data Center (November 1991).

Snake River Sockeye Salmon Designated an Endangered Species. The
National Marine Fisheries Service of NOAA formally designated the
Snake River sockeye salmon as an endangered species. The
designation initiates a federal program to restore the species
population (November 1991).

Gray Whale Population Recovers. The California gray whale
population has recovered to numbers at least as many as, or more
than, existed prior to the peak of commercial whaling in the mid-
nineteenth century. The findings were announced by Dr. John
Knauss, Administrator of NOAA. California gray whale numbers have

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been growing at about 3 percent annually and are now estimated at
about 21'000 individuals. NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service
monitors the abundance of California gray whales under the
Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act (November
1991).

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