[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]





         NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST

         Selected Iniftcators of the United States and the Global Environment













                                         M." A
                                           ,A













        TD
        193.2
        S45                         December 1991
        1991




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                                   U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
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                                  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                  Office of the Chief Scientist
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                                   ABOUT THIS REPORT

                 The NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST is a regular report of
                 environmental data and information collected by NOAA.
                 This report provides a selected summary of NOAA data
                                                                     for a
                 considered useful to the scientific community
                 variety of applications. The goal of the report      is to
                 present the facts, and to leave the interpretation to
                 others. The data presents past trends only; no forecast
                 is implied.

                 The report  has been developed and produced by the NOAA
                 Of f ice of the Chief Scientist.     The Of f ice welcomes
                 comments,  critiques, and suggestions f or improvement.
                 Inquiries  and commentaries about the report should be
                 directed to Dr. Joseph M. Bishop, NOAA Of f ice of the
                 Chief Scientist, Herbert Clark Hoover Building, 14th and
               1 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, DC 20230; (202)
                 377-0531.
               L-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i







                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST

                Selected In&cators of the United States and the Global Environment







                                                                  ATMO



                                                                        Fi

                                                      0



                                                             -q4m"Z'@T C@'-:co







                                                        December 1991








                                                                  U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                                                                  Robert A. Mosbacher, Secretary

                                                                  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                                                  John A. Knauss, Under Secretary

                                                                  Office of the Chief Scientist
                                                                  Sylvia A., Earle, Chief Scientist










         ACKNOWLEDGMENTS



         This report represents the work of numerous scientists throughout
         the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) . Without
         their cooperation the NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST would not be
         possible. A sincere thanks is extended to the contributors.for the
         excellent summaries of their work provided. Drafts of this report
         were reviewed by a number of individuals throughout the agency and.
         their constructive comments were of great help. The project team for
         this report (Dr. Joseph M. Bishop (Project Leader), Mr. John L.
         Wickham (Project Coordinator], and Dr. Isobel C. Sheifer (Editor])
         gratefully appreciates the efforts of all those who contributed to.
         this endeavor.













































                                              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST










        INTRODUCTION



        The Earth's environment is continually being modified by human
        activities and natural processes. These changes may have profound
        effects on our health, global ecology, and the economic welfare of
        nations.

        With the creation of NOAA, the nation established a unique agency
        dedicated to the enhancement of knowledge about our environment.
        NOAA's core mission is to increase understanding of the total Earth
        system, an understanding based on effective monitoring of the global
        environment.   NOAA currently monitors the Sun, atmosphere, ocean,
        biosphere, and cryosphere on regional to global spatial scales and
        synoptic to climatological time scales.

        To assist in the understanding of environmental change, and to aid
        in the assessment of its global implications, a NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL
        DIGEST has been instituted. The NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST has two
        primary objectives. The first is to document, on a regular basis,
        changes in selected environmental variables.       The second is to
        provide information to those engaged in the development of
        relationships between environmental change and its consequences to
        society.

        The wide diversity of data collected by NOAA is published in numerous
        reports, bulletins, journals, and the scientific literature.       This
        report was initiated in an attempt to make this diverse collection
        of data more accessible, publicize its presence, . and promote an
        awareness of environmental variability and climatic change. The NOAA
        ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST focuses on selected environmental parameters
        considered indicators of system variability.

        The material presented in this report has been provided by scientists
        from each of the five NOAA Line Offices: the National Ocean Service,
        the National Weather Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service,
        the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service,
        and the office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research.      A listing of
        NOAA offices providing additional information on a specific parameter
        is given in Appendix B.











                                                 NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST v











           SELECTED ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS



           The global environment is an inter-related system that includes the
           atmosphere, oceans, ice, and biota. These components are coupled
           through a complex, even chaotic, combination of biological,
           chemical, and physical processes, occurring over the spectrum of
           time and space scales.     The natural coupling of these processes
           requires that the Earth be studied in an interdisciplinary fashion
           as a single system with global dimensions. With this in mind., it
           was nevertheless convenient for the purposes of this report to
           divide the global environment into the categories of atmosphere,
           ocean, cryosphere (ice), and biosphere. The parameters presented
           in this report were chosen because of their potential influence on
           the global environment or because they are considered indicators
           of system change, either on regional or global scales.

           In the first edition of the NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST a wide-range
           of environmental variables were presented. In this second edition
           many of these time series are    continued.   New variables such as
           wetlands, salinity, a vegetation index, and zooplankton have been
           added.    The protected resources section has been expanded to
           include sea turtles, habitat conservation, and the preservation of
           significant marine and estuarine ecosystems. Also, a section on
           major environmental events involving NOAA during the last year has
           been added.   As with the first edition, the Office of the Chief
           Scientist welcomes comments and suggestions for improving the
           document.



























                                                 NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST vii












          CONTENTS



          Acknowledgments

          Introduction                                                      v

          Selected Environmental Indicators                                vii

          Lists of Figures and Tables                                      xii

          I.   Atmosphere                                                   1
                    Air Temperature                                         2
                      a.  Surface                                           @2
                           i. Global Averaged Distribution                  2
                           ii. United States                                5
                      b.  Upper Air                                         5
                    Trace Gases                                             6
                      a.  Carbon Dioxide                                    6
                      b.  ozone                                            10
                      c.  Methane                                          12
                   Hydrological Cycle                                      13
                      a. Precipitation                                     13
                          i. Global                                        14
                          ii. Regional                                     15
                      b.  Drought                                          18
                    Atmospheric Deposition                                 20
                    Solar Activity                                         21
                      a.  Sunspot Number                                   22
                      b.  Microwave Flux                                   23
                      c.  Total Solar Irradiance                           23
                    Earth's Radiation Budget                               24
                      a. Longwave Flux                                     -25
                      b. Regional Cloudiness/Sunshine Duration             25
                      C.  Radiation Budget--Arabian Gulf                   27
                    Severe Weather                                         28
                      a.  Tropical Cyclones                                28
                      b.  Tornadoes                                        29
                      C.  Winter Storms                                    29
                          i.   Mean Seasonal Snowfall                      30
                          ii. Heavy Snow Occurrences                       31
                    Quasi-Biennial Oscillation                             33
                    Southern Oscillation                                   34


          II. Ocean                                                        35
                    Ocean Temperature                                      36
                      a.' Sea Surface                                      36




                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST   ix










            II. Ocean continued
                          b. Subsurface                                              41
                        Salinity .                                                   44
                          a. North Atlantic Ocean                                    44
                          b. Northeast Continental Shelf                             47
                        Sea Level                                                    50
                          a.  'Tide Gauges                                           50
                          b. Satellite Altimetry                                     52
                        Ocean Transport                                              53
                        Coastal Upwelling                                            54
                        Long Waves                                                   57
                        Coastal Geodesy/Hydrography                                  58

            III. Cryosphere                                                          61
                        Sea Ice@                                                     62
                        Snow Cover                                                   63

            IV. Biosphere                                                            67
                        Fisheries                                                    68
                          a.   Commercial Landings                                   68
                          b.   Recreational Catch                                    69
                          c.   U.S. EEZ Catch                                        71
                          d.   World Landings                                        72
                          e.   Selected U.S. Fisheries                               72
                               i.     Reef Fish                                      72
                               ii.    Oceanic Pelagics                               74
                               iii.   Sharks                                         74
                               iv.    Menhaden                                       75
                               V.     Shrimp                                         76
                               vi.    Groundfish/Flounders                           77
                               vii.   Atlantic Herring/Mackerel                      77
                               viii.  Skates/Dogfish                                 78
                               ix.    Northern Anchovy                               79
                               X.     Pacific Halibut                                80
                               xi.    Bering Seav--Aleutian Groundfish               81
                        Zooplankton                                                  82
                          a. Copepods                                                83
                          b. Ichthyoplankton                                         83
                        Shellfish                                                    86
                        Contaminants                                                 87
                          a.   Sediments                                             88
                               i. Spatial Trends                                     88
                               ii. Temporal Trends                                   90
                          b.   Bivalve Mollusks                                      90
                          C.   Fish                                                  91
                               i.    Biological Effects                              91
                               ii. Reproductive Impairment                           92
                               iii. Liver Lesions                                    94
                          d.   Invertebrates                                         99
                          e.   Marine Mammals                                        101
                               i. Tissue Bank                                        101
                               ii. Quality Assurance                                 103

            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST x








            IV. Biosphere continued
                     Protected Resources                                       103
                       a. Sea Turtles                                          103
                           @i. Population Abundance                            104
                            ii. Fibropapilloma                                 106
                       b.   Selected Marine Mammals                            108
                            i.    Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin                  108
                            ii. Pacific Dolphin                                109
                            iii.  Bowhead Whale                                110
                            iv.   Gray Whale                                   110
                            V.    Steller Sea Lion                             113
                            vi.   Northern Fur Seal                            113
                            vii.  California Sea Lion                          114
                            viii. Hawaiian Monk Seal                           115
                       C.   Habitat Conservation                               116
                       d.   Marine Sanctuaries/Estuarine Reserves              117
                            i. National Marine Sanctuaries                     117
                            ii. National Estuarine Reserves                    119
                     Estuaries                                                 120
                       a.   North Atlantic                                     121
                       b.   Middle Atlantic                                    121
                       C.   South Atlantic                                     121
                       d.   Gulf of Mexico                                     125
                       e.   Pacific Coast                                      125
                     Coastal Wetlands                                          128
                       a. New England                                          128
                       b.   Mid-Atlantic                                       129
                       C.   Gulf of Mexico                                     131
                       d.   West Coast                                         132
                     Vegetation Index                                          133

           Appendices
                 A.  Contributors                                              A-1
                 B.  Sources of Additional Information                         B-1
                 C.  Glossary of Terms                                         C-1
                 D.  Related Reports and Publications                          D-1
                 E.  References                                                E-1
                 F.  NOAA Highlights                                           F-1
















                                                  NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xi










                                        LIST OF FIGURES


             I-1     Mean global land temperature    anomaly                       3

             1-2     N.& S. Hemisphere surface temperature index                   4

             1-3     U.S. annual mean temperature, 1895-1990                       5

             1-4     Global 850-300 mb temperature anomalies                       6

             1-5     Monthly mean C02 concentrations, Mauna Loa, HI                7

             1-6     Global mean C02 growth rate, 1981-1990                        8
             1-7     C0, vs. sine of latitude, 1981-1990                           9

             1-8     Monthly mean total ozone, 1978-1990                           11
             1-9     Monthly mean total 03 anomaly,' Mauna Loa/Samoa               12

             I-10    Global monthly mean methane, 1983-1990                        13

             I-11    Global annual precipitation index                             15

             1-12    European precipitation index                                  16

             1-13    Additional precipitation indices                              17

             1-14    U.S. annual precipitation index                               is

             1-15    U.S. drought and wet conditions index                         19

             1-16    Sulfate values for Maine and Texas locations                  20

             1-17    Monthly mean sunspot numbers, 1947-1991                       22

             1-18    Monthly mean solar microwave flux                             23

             1-19    Total solar irradiance                                        24

             1-20    Global mean longwave flux                                     25

             1-21    Variation in cloudiness and sunshine duration                 26

             1-22    Relationship between albedo and.longwave flux                 27

             1-23    Annual number of hurricanes and tropical storms               28

             1-24    Total number of tornadoes, 1953-1990                          29


             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xii










          LIST OF FIGURES--continued


          1-25     Mean Seasonal snowfall, N.E. U.S., 1955/56-84/85            30

          1-26     Monthly and total snowfall events by city                   32

          1-27     Variation of the zonal wind at 30 mb                        33


          1-28     Southern Oscillation Index                                  34

          II-1     SST in the equatorial Pacific from satellites               37

          11-2     Major ocean basins annual mean SST anomalies                38

          11-3     Mean spring, fall SST for N.E. continental shelf            39.

          11-4     Plot of monthly SST anomalies, N.W. Atlantic                40

          11-5     OC difference vs. depth in Atlantic at 24.50N               41

          11-6     OC difference vs. depth in Atlantic at 36.50N               42
          11-7    @OC difference at 1750 m depth in N. Atlantic                43

          11-8     Mean bottom OC for N. E. continental shelf

          11-9     Salinity difference, N. Atlantic surface & 150 m.           45

          II-10    Salinity difference vs. depth in N. Atlantic                46

          II-11    Salinity difference at 1750 m in N. Atlantic                47

          11-12    Surface salinity in Middle Atlantic Bight, 1990             48

          11-13    Surface salinity in Gulf of Maine, 1990                     49

          11-14    Tide gauge sea level records (PGR corrected)                51

          11-15    Geosat derived sea level for equatorial Pacific             53

          11-16    Monthly mean transport for Florida Straits                  54

          11-17    Bakun Coastal Upwelling Index                               55

          11-18    NW Africa coastal wind stress/baro. pressure                56

          11-19    Long wave crests in equatorial Atlantic, 1984-90            57

          11-20    Subsidence at Pasadena, Texas                               58

          11-21    Sounding profile, Fire Island & West Pt. Shoals             59


                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xiii










            LIST OF FIGURES--continued

            III-1    Arctic sea ice anomalies, 1973-90                         62

            111-2    Antarctic sea ice anomalies, 1973-90                      63

            111-3    Eurasian snow cover area, 1973-9'0                        64

            IV-1     U.S. commercial fisheries landings                        68

            IV-2     Total' volume/value of U.S. commercial fisheries          69

            IV-3     Marine recreational fisheries catch and trips             70

            IV-4     Landings: Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, Pacific               70

            IV-5     U.S. EEZ national/foreign/joint venture catches           71

            IV-6     World-commercial catch by leading countries               72

            IV-7     Yield of Atlantic reef fish                               73

            IV-8     Yield of Caribbean reef fish                              73

            IV-9     Change'in abundance of bluefin   tuna & swordfish         74

            IV-10    Recreational/commercial yields   of sharks                75

            IV-11    Yield/biomass of Gulf and Atlantic menhaden               76

            IV-12    Gulf of Mexic o shrimp yi elds since 1960                 77

            IV-13    Trends in abundance of groundfish & flounders             78

            IV-14    Trends in abundance, Atlantic herring/mackdrel            78

            IV-15    Trends in abundance, skates & spiny dogfish               79

            IV-16    Northern anchovy landings/biomass                         so

            IV-17    Pacific halibut landings/abundance                        81

            IV-18    Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands groundfish trends             82

            IV-19    Calanus finmarchicus in N.E. continental shelf            84

            IV-20    Fish larvae abundance for important CA species            85

            IV-21    Shellfish bed closures by region, 1966-90                 87

            IV-22    Scales of Cd and tPCB sediment concentrations             89



            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xiv









           LIST OF FIGURES--continued

           IV-23   Indicators of contaminant exposure, English sole          93

           IV-24   Model of chemical pollution impact assessment             95

           IV-25   Hepatic lesion prevalences in demersal fish               96

           IV-26   White croaker liver lesions                               97


           IV-27   Sediment contaminant effects on 2 invertebrates          100

           IV-28   Chlorinated hydrocarbons in marine mammals               102

           IV-29   Number of Kemp's ridley sea turtles.nesting              105

           IV-30   Green turtle strandings & percent fibropapilloma         107

           IV-31   Distribution of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins             109

           IV-32   Abundance of E. tropical Pacific dolphins

           IV-33   Actual count of bowhead whales, 1978-88                  112

           IV-34   Estimated population of gray whales, 1965-90             112

           IV-35   Estimated population trends of Steller sea lions         113

           IV-36   Northern fur seal pup counts                             114

           IV-37   California sea lion pup counts                           115

           IV-38   Hawaiian monk seal live births                           115

           IV-39   The National Marine Sanctuary Program                    118

           IV-40   The National Estuarine Reserve Research System           120

           IV-41   Selected characteristics, N. Atlantic estuaries          122

           IV-42   Selected characteristics, Mid Atlantic estuaries         123

           IV-43   Selected characteristics, S. Atlantic estuaries          124

           IV-44   Selected characteristics, Gulf of Mexico estuaries       126

           IV-45   Selected characteristics, Pacific estuaries              127

           iv-46   New England coastal wetland acreage by state             129

           IV-47   Mid Atlantic coastal wetland habitats by state           130


                                                 NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL  DIGEST xv










            LIST OF FIGURES--continued

            IV-48    Gulf of Mexico coastal wetland habitats by state         131

            IV-49    West Coast coastal wetland habitats by state             133

            IV-50    NDVI and brightness temperature for Thailand             @134


                                       LIST OF TABLES

            IV-1     Shellfish bed closures, by region, 1966-1990               86

            IV-2     High concentrations in sediment for NS&T sites             90

            IV-3     Keys to Figures IV-22 and IV-23                            98

            IV-4     Annual number of sea turtles nesting in U.S.             104

            IV-5     NMFS habitat conservation efforts, 1981-89               116

            IV-6     National Marine Sanctuaries, 1975-91                     118

            IV-7     Natl. Estuarine Reserve Rese  arch System, 1975-91       119































            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST xvi













          1. ATMOSPHERE



          The atmosphere is a complex and ever-evolving component of the
          Earth   system.      It   interacts,   with   various   degrees     of
          predictability, with the oceans, cryospher'e, and biosphere.       The
          atmosphere influences many processes within the Earth system       and
          serves as our prime indicator of changes in global climate.        The
          atmospheric parameters presented in this report were chosen because
          they are considered to be sensitive to, or indicators of, changes
          in the total Earth system.
















                                           @0` 1










            AIR TEMPERATURE


            over recent years air temperature has been used as the primary
            indicator of global climate change.           Time-series records,
            maintained f or over a century at some stations, indicate periods of
            stable or even declining temperatures. A warming trend, one that
            started in the late 1970s, has been a significant characteristic of
            the recent record.    Changes in global mean air temperature have
            been associated with changes in atmospheric composition (especially
            greenhouse gases, aerosols, and cloudiness), the ocean, sea ice,
            .and snow cover. Increased understanding of the variability in this
            record will be critical in separating anthropogenic effects from
            natural variability.

            Global mean air temperature has historically been estimated from
            surface (land) temperature records, primarily from meteorological
            stations in the Northern Hemisphere.      The problems of sparse,
            nonuniform distribution of observational sites, instrumentation
            changes and relocations, and the influence of urban heating on
            sites have added uncertainty to the estimation of the global mean
            temperature..

            Mean upper air temperatures have been traditionally determined from
            radiosonde and rocketsonde observations. Satellite-derived global
            temperature data (available since 1978) are providing an additional
            data source which has been especially useful for meeting ocean and
            upper air needs.

            a. Surface


                 i. Global Averaged Distribution

            Global surface temperatures for the decade of the 1980s averaged
            above normal. Temperature anomalies show almost all areas of the
            Northern Hemisphere experienced warmer values than the 1951-1980
            base period average. Only Greenland and Baf fin Island experienced
            negative anomalies. The largest positive anomalies were found over
            the central and eastern Soviet Union, Alaska, and western Canada.
            The   Southern    Hemisphere ' also     experienced     above-normal
            temperatures, except for a small area in central America.
                                                                                A
            f our-decade- long time series of the globally averaged land anomaly
            indicates positive values during the 1980s (Figure I-1) with the
            exception of the slight negative value for 1985.              Median
            temperatur,e anomalies in the latter half of the 1980s were clearly
            more positive than those measured earlier in the record.          The
            median value for 1990, 0.50C, was higher than any other median value
            in the time series. Approximately half of the global land area for
            1990 had average temperature anomalies of 0.50C or greater.       The
            year was also notable because only slightly more than 10 percent of
            the world's land area experienced negative anomalies.


            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 2













                                                                           i T--T--r--T--=
                    2.0








                   1 .0




                0
                1@

                >4
                    0.0


                0














                   -2.0



                       51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87. 89
                                                   YEAR


           Figure 1-1.   Mean global land temperature anomaly (*C) based on the average
           annual temperature anomalies in 20 latitude by 20 longitude areas. The solid line
           represents the 50 percent, or median, temperature anomaly for each year. Each
           "box" delineates the temperature anomalies at the 70th and 30th percentiles while
           the "lines" delineate the 90th and 10th percentile values. The anomalies are with
           respect to the 1951-80 base period. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA
           National Weather Service)


           The Northern Hemisphere time series (Figure I-2a) is almost
           identical to the global series since most of the land area, as well
           as most of the surface data, are located in the Northern
           Hemisphere. It is somewhat surprising, however, that the overall
           character of the Southern Hemisphere temperature time series
           (Figure I-2b) is very similar to the Northern Hemisphere series.
           Both hemispheres show the 1980s to be warmer than earlier decades.
           One difference is that the Southern Hemisphere median temperatures
           for 1980 and 1988 are both larger than those for 1990.                         The
           Southern Hemisphere also shows closer relationships to the Southern
           Oscillation, with each of the warm episode years showing positive
           median temperature anomalies (except 1965) and each of the cold
           episode years showing below median anomalies (except for 1988).
           The two coldest years in the Southern Hemisphere series, 1956 and
           1975, are associated with cold Southern Oscillation episodes.





                                                         NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 3







                           2.0  (a) Northern Hemisphere


                           1.0


                        U
                        0


                        >4
                        A  0.0
                        00













                           -2.0



                               51 53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 .73 75 77 79 81 93 85 87 89


                               . . I I I I . I I I @ I I . I I I I I . I . I I . I I I I I - , I . I 1 1, 1 1
                           2.0  (b) Southern Hemisphere



                           1.0



                        0

                           0.0                                     TIT

                           1.0




                           72.0         .... . . . .

                              51 5 3 55 5 7 59 6 163 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 ss 87 89
                                                    YEAR


              Figure 1-2 (a)-(b). (a) Northern Hemisphere and (b) Southern Hemisphere surface
              temperature index  based on the average annual temperature anomalies in 2*
              latitude by 2' longitude areas over land. The solid line represents the 50
              percent, or median, temperature anoznaly for each year. Each "box" delineates the
              temperature anomalies at the 70th and 30th percentiles while the "lines"
              delineate the 90th and 10th percentile values. The anomalies are with respect to
              the 1951 to 1980 base period. (Courtesy Climate Analysis center, NOAA National
              Weather Service)


              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 4










                  ii. United States

             In the United States, the decade of the 1980s ranks as the second
             warmest of the century, behind the 1930s and just ahead of the
             1950s (Figure 1-3). Figure 1-3 shows the time series of the me            'an
             annual temperature for the contiguous United States from 1895
             through 1990 computed by area-weighting the annual temperatures for
             344 climatic divisions. Although the decade as a whole averaged
             well above normal, half of the years experienced mean temperatures
             below the long-term mean. However, the warmth during 1981, 1986,
             1987, and 1990, which all averaged greater than 1.0*C above normal,
             resulted in a much,warmer than average decade. Although the last
             half of the 1980s averaged considerably above the long-term mean
             (the horizontal line), the filtered curve indicates that it rivals,
             but was not hotter than, the 1930s. Annual temperature for 1990
             ranked the year as the seventh warmest on record.



                55.0                                                             -12.7

                                                                                 -12.4
                54.0
             P4
             0                                                                   -12.1 Ou
                                                                                   11.8 Pq
             Pq 53.0
                                                                                 -11.5
                                                                                 :-11.2
                52.0                                                               10.9

             P  51.0                                                             -10.6

                                                                                   10.3
                50.0                11111111111111111 pli Ili] 11111111111111111 iin iin ini injunn-nTMT-m -10.0
                    1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985

                                               YEAR

             Figure 1-3. United States annual average temperature and the filtered curve for
             1895-1990. The horizontal line indicates long-term mean over the whole record.
             (Courtesy Richard R. Heim, Jr., National Climatic Data Center, NOAA National
             Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)


             b. Upper Air

             The time series of mean 850-350 mb temperature anomaly derived from
             radiosonde data (Figure 1-4) agrees with the surface temperature
             record.  'In this time series, 1990 appears to be the warmest year
             in the 33-year record (1958 to 1990).          The positive temperature
             anomalies of 1982, and 1987-88 have been attributed to the El Ninos
             in those years.
                         yw




























                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 5











                 0.4


                  0.2


                   0                   -XI


                 0.2
             E-4
                _0.4                                CHICHON
                               t
                             AGUNG


                          1960         1970         1980        1990
                                           YEAR


           Figure 1-4. Time series of global 850-300 mb temperature anomaly derived from
           radiosonde data. Agung and Chichon are volcanos whose eruptions correlate with
           tropospheric cooling. (Courtesy James K. Angell, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA
           Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)


           TRACE GASES

           The atmosphere consists mainly of nitrogen (78 percent)  oxygen (21
           percent) , argon (I percent), and water vapor (0-4 percent) .     In
           addition, several atmospheric trace gases (e.g., ozone, methane,
           nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and carbon dioxide) play an
           important role in the absorption of solar and/or terrestrial
           radiation.   Over geological time, trace gases, have acted as a
           thermostat forming a natural greenhouse that allowed Earth's
           climate to remain favorable for human habitability.

           a. Carbon  Dioxide

           Carbon dioxide (C02) is an essential component of the Earth's carbon
           cycle that governs vital processes in the ocean, atmosphere, and on
           land. The increased burning of fossil@fuels since the Industrial
           Revolution has been linked to increased concentrations of
           atmospheric C02 and has caused concern regarding its potential to
           produce global-s.cale climate changes. Changes in atmospheric C02
           are a result of complicated interactions between the atmosphere,
           oceans, and the annual cycle of photosynthesis.     As part of the


           NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 6








            work of the. NOAA Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory
            (CMDL) , continuous C02 measurements have been made since the early
            1970s at the NOAA baseline observatories at Barrow, Alaska; Mauna
            Loa, Hawaii; Pago Pago, American Samoa; and South Pole, Antarctica.
            These observations indicate increasing global C02 concentrations.
            This trend is illustrated in Figure 1-5, where the complete record
            (1958-1990) of C02 measurements from Mauna Loa is presented.                  The
            data through 1972 were compiled by the Scripps Institution of
            Oceanography (Professor C.D. Keeling) and by NOAA/CMDL thereafter.
            The observed increase has been linked to fossil fuel combustion,
            changes in the amount of C02 held in standing biomass and soils, and
            global scale phenomena such as El Nino, which cause interannual
            variations in the C02 growth rate.           The mean growth rate for the
            last four years was about 1.7 parts per million per year.









                355-



                350-



                345-



                340-


            04      -
                335-

            0
            U
                330-



                325-



                320-



                315-




                    58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

                                                  YEAR

            Figure 1-5. Monthly mean C02 concentrations in parts per million (ppm), 1958-
            1990, at Mauna Loa  , Hawaii. (Courtesy Kirk Thoning, climate Monitoring and
            Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)


                                                          NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST. 7








               In addition to measurements at the baseline observatories,
               NOAA/CMDL collects flasks of air, once per week, at 30 globally-
               dispersed cooperative sites.          The f lasks are returned to their
               Boulder laboratory f or analysis of C02 concentration. From these
               data, a global carbon dioxide growth rate is determined by
               averaging the growth rates, weighted by latitude, from each of the
               flask CMDL network stations.

               Figure 1-6 shows the results of this analysis in terms of the rate
               of atmospheric C02 increase as a function of time during the period
               1981-1990 '. The largest growth rate variations (1982-83; 1987-88)
               are associated with the El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events,
               but the mechanism responsible for this connection is not clearly
               understood.    The mean C02 growth rate for 1981-1990 is about 1.4
               parts per million per year.


                  4





                  3-
               >1


               P4
               04

                  2-






               E-i

               0




               0
                  0---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------






                     81     82      83     84     85     86     87     88     89     90

                                                    YEAR


               Figure 1-6. Global average C02 growth rate in parts per million 1year (ppmlyr),
               1981-1990, from N0AA1CMDL   flask network. (Courtesy Thomas Conway, Climate
               Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA office of oceanic and Atmospheric
               Research)


               In Figure 1-7, the annual C02 mixing ratios for sampling sites of
               the NOAA/CMDL f   'lask sampling network are plotted versus sine of
               latitude for the period 198171990- This figure highlights several


               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 8











                      90S           30S             0           30N           9ON
                 358    11 1T- I  I   I    I   I    I    f    I   I   I   I I I it
                            199 0
                 357-       19eq
                            1988
                 356-       19B7
                            1966
                 355-       1985

                            1983
                 354-       1984
                            1982
                 353-       1981

                 352-

                 351-

                 350-
                                   +
                 349-

                 3,48-
             04                                          _J
                 34-(-                                     'Jil
             0   346-
             U                                             -
                 345-

                 3 4 4 -

                 3 4 3 -
                                                           'jL-     A,       @ if
                 342-

                 341-

                 340-

                 339-

                 33e -

                 337  -                      0  U               >.a  4M 0 Em
                                             r  in id    a.  M-1 W.   x   xM'
                                                                          'n to M
                 336
                                    -.5             0            .5
                                          SINE   (LATITUDE)
           Figure 1-7.  C02 in parts per  million (ppm)' vs. sine of  11atitude for 1981-1990.
           Stations: SPO (South Pole), HBA (Halley Bay), SYO (Syowa), PSA (Palmer Sta.), CGO
           (cape Grim), AMS (Amsterdam X.), SMO (Samoa), ASC (Ascension 1.), SEY
           .(Seychelles), CHR (Christmas 1.), RPB (Barbados), GM1 (Guam), AVI (Virgin 1.),
           KUM (Kumukahi), MLO (Mauna Loa), KEY (Key Biscayne), KID (Midway), AZR (Azores),
           NWR (Niwot Ridge), CMO (Cape Meares), SHM (Shemya 1.), CBA (Cold Bay), STM
           (Station M), BRW (Barrow), MBC (Mould Bay), ALT (Alert. NWT). (Courtesy Thomas
           Conway, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA Office of oceanic and
           Atmospheric Research)


                                                         NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 9








             important features of the atmospheric C02 distribution and the
             global carbon cycle.     First, there is a mean north-south C02
             gradient. Carbon dioxide concentrations in the Northern Hemisphere
             are higher because fossil fuel C02 emissions occur predominately in
             this hemisphere.    Second, the atmospheric C02 concentration is
             increasing.   The average rate of increase from 1981-90 is 1.4
             ppm/yr. Third, the rate of increase varies significantly from year
             to year.    This variability is too large to be explained by
             variations in anthropogenic C02 emissions. The largest interannual
             variations occur in association with ENSO events, but the mechanism
             responsible for' these variations is not clearly understood.
             Fourth, the shape of the mean latitude gradient changes from year
             to year. These variations result,from changes in the global carbon
             cycle, i.e., the exchanges of carbon between the atmosphere and the
             ocean, and between the atmosphere and the terrestrial and marine
             biospheres.  Finally, the north-to-south pole C02 difference has
             increased from -3 ppm during 19'81-87 to -4 ppm during 1988-90.
             This shift may be due to an increasing sink or decreasing source in
             the Southern Hemisphere, or a combination of these.        The data
             suggests that the Southern Hemisphere sink and the northern
             tropical source have both increased.

             b. Ozone

             Ozone (03), produced photochemically in the stratosphere by the
             disassociation of oxygen molecules, is a natural greenhouse gas 90
             percent of which is found in the stratosphere. Ozone shields the
             biosphere from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation by
             selectively absorbing it in this portion of the solar radiation
             spectrum.    In addition, ozone-producing reactions heat the
             stratosphere and may even have an influence on global climate.
             Ozone is destroyed naturally by reaction with the hydroxyl radical
             (OH) and oxides of chlorine, nitrogen, and bromine.           Recent
             observations of significant declines in ozone over Antarctica have
             been attributed to the destruction of ozone by chlorine atoms of
             halogenated hydrocarbons.

             Monthly averaged global ultraviolet data from the Nimbus-7
             satellite beginning in November 1978 and extending to September
             1986 have been combined with data from the NOAA-9 and -11
             satellites from March 1985 to May 1990. Each data set is adjusted
             to ground-based data to evaluate the ozone trend over the total
             time period. The combined time series from each satellite is shown
             in Figure 1-8.

             Long-term ozone trends have been monitored with Dobson ozone
             spectrophotometers at NOAA/CMDL observatories at Mauna Loa (MLO),
             Hawaii (19.50N, 155.60W) , since 1964, and at Samoa (SMO) , South
             Pacific (14.3'S, 170.60W) , since 1975.   Prior to i976, ozone in
             Hawaii increased at a rate of 0.32      0.14 percent per year.



             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 10









                  320

                  315

                  310

                  306

                  300
               Z
               0
                  295
                                                                  0
               0
                  290

               &1 285
               0
               E` 280
                  275       X SBUV          0 NOAA-9        X   NOAA- 11
                  2 77 0   I'll 1 1111111 11111 1111i'll I I'l III] I 1 111111 1111.1
                          7B      so      82      84      86      88      90
                                                YEAR

           Figure 1-8.   Time series of monthly averaged total ozone (60'N-606S) in Dobson
           units (DU) from November 1978 through Mar 1990. The overlap period extends from
           March 1985 to September 1986. One DU=101cm of ozone at standard temperature and
           atmospheric pressure. (Courtesy Walter G. Planet, Satellite Research Laboratory,
           NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)


           Figure 1-9 shows plots of ozone anomalies (i.e.                 deviations of
           ozone monthly means from monthly normals) at MLO and SMO for 1.976,
           through August 1990.         Quasi-biennial oscillations in ozone are
           clearly evident in the record.            Least-squares linear regression
           trend lines fitted to the data indicate that during 1976-1987 ozone
           decreased at MLO at a rate of 0.27 +/- 0.15 percent/year, while at
           SMO it decreased at a rate of 0.41 +/- 0.11 percent/year. Ozone
           suddenly increased at SMO in June 1988 to levels previously
           observed there in the mid-1970s, while at MLO ozone began to
           increase later in 1988.           These data indicate no statistically
           significant trends in ozone at the two stations.

           The dramatic rise in ozone at SMO in June 1988 coincided with a
           sudden decrease in eastern equatorial Pacific sea surface
           temperatures to low values previously observed there in 1976. On
           average, sea surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific
           were 0.70C warmer during 1976-June 1988 than they were during 1962-
           1975. The initial downward trends in ozone at MLO and SMO followed
           by ozone recovery, shown in Figure 1-9, exemplify. the complex
           interaction between ozone depletion from halocarbons and ozone
           changes from natural processes, such as sea surface temperature-!-
           induced atmospheric circulation changes and changes in solar UV
           irradiance-during the course of the 11-year.solar cycle.






                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 11












                            . . . . . . . . . . .
                             (a)

                            0-
                            C4
                                     A
                                     1%


                            0
                            CII
                            Or MAUNA LOA              0 TREND: -.014 *.128 % YR-1

                       rn   . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
                      o       (b)



                      0                              %,Apt 9



                               SAMOA                03TREND: -.030 ï¿½J 3 % YR-'

                             76     78     80     82     84     86     88     90
                                                    YEAR


              Figure 1-9.   Monthly mean total ozone anomaly in Dobson units (DU) vs. year
              (1976-August  1990) for Mauna Loa and Samoa.  one DU=104 cm of ozone at standard
              temperature   and  atmospheric pressure. (Courtesy Walter D. Komhyr, Climate
              Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory,. NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric
              Research)



              c. Methane

              The radiative properties and abundance of atmospheric methane (CH4)
              makes it the most important greenhouse gas next to C02 and water
              vapor. Its photochemical oxidation in the atmosphere can lead to
              ozone production and ultimately leads to formation of C02 and water,
              adding indirectly to the greenhouse effect. Methane is produced by
              thermogenic and microbial processes.               Thermogenic methane is
              released during the extraction and refining of oil, coal mining,
              and the production and transmission of natural gas.                   microbial
              methane is produced by bacteria in oxygen deficient environments,
              and its sources include swamps, bogs, rice paddies, and the
              digestive tracts of cattle and termites.              Other methane sources
              include biomass burning and degradation             of organic material in
              landfills.       The atmospheric residence time for methane is
              approximately 10 years.

              The NOAA/CMDL monitors the global distribution of methane. Samples
              are collected weekly at about 30 sites distributed from 820N to the
              South Pole. FigureI-10 shows global monthly, mean methane mixing
              ratios in parts per billion (ppb = parts in 10 ) determined from the
              data set for the period 1983-1990. The mean increase in methane
              averaged over this time period is approximately 11.5 ppb/year.
                                                               0 ?13 Y.
                                                             .03















































              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 12


















                                                             0
                1700 -
                                                       0000000
                                                          00
                                                 000 co0
                1675-
                                            0  0 0
                                                00

                                          000
                                   00
                1650-
                                 0   000

                             0  0
             U     -           00
                1625- 00   0
                      0


                       0
                    000

                1600-






                     1983 1984 1985 1986  1987 1988 1989  1990
                                      YEAR

        Figure 1-10. Global monthly mean values of methane in parts per billion (ppb)
        for 1983-1990. (Courtesy Edward Dlugokencky, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
        Laboratory, NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)


        HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

        The hydrological cycle has a major influence on the global climate
        system. It is responsible for much of the vertical energy exchange
        f rom the Earth I s surf ace to the atmosphere and the transf er of heat
        from the tropics to the poles. In addition, the presence of water
        vapor in the atmosphere and condensed water in the form of clouds
        has a strong influence on the Earth's radiation. budget.     The
        availability of water determines region,al climate, vegetation, and
        the rate of geological weathering, and strongly influences the
        biogeochemical cycle.

        a. Precipitation

        Precipitation is one aspect of the hydrological   cycle that is
        regularly monitored.  It is vital to agriculture and a critical
        factor in water resource planning. Precipitation is defined as all
        forms of water which fall to the ground such as rain, sleet, snow,
        hail, and drizzle. Since global-scale precipitation patterns are
        influenced by large-scale climate changes, they are an important
        indicator of climate variability.     Large-scale precipitation
        patterns are affected by feedback between surface characteristics
                          00



















































                                           NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 13









             (albedo, vegetative cover, and soil moisture), atmospheric
             circulation, and evaporation over the oceans.

                  i. Global


             Compared to temperature, global precipitation has proven much more
             difficult to observe and characterize. In parti this is because
             precipitation has a more complicated spatial and temporal
             structure.   Large regions of the globe experience a pronounced
             temporal cycle of precipitation, with the majority of the
             precipitation falling over part of the year. and very little falling
             during the remainder of the year. There is also a tendency to fail
             to report precipitation during the dry season.

             Analysis of annual precipitation for the decade 1981-1990
             indicates that during this period it was wetter than normal over
             much of North America and northern Europe, while southern Europe
             and extreme eastern and southeastern Asia tended to be drier than
             normal.   Large areas received no analysis due to the lack of
             complete data at a substantial number of stations. There were not
             enough data to support annual analyses over northern South America,
             most of Africa, and large portions of Asia.

             in Figure I-11, annual global precipitation variability is
             characterized through the use of a statistical index. ' In this
             index, precipitation at each station over the past 40 years is
             ranked and then transformed into a percentile more or less than
             normal. The median values of the global annual precipitation index
             for the 1980s suggest that this decade was more variable than
             earlier decades in the record. The wettest year on record was
             1983 when precipitation for half of the areas ranked in the 75th
             percentile or greater.      Furthermore, 10 percent of the areas
             experienced their wettest year in the 40-year tecord. Conversely,
             1988 was one of the driest years in the record having the lowest
             median index in the series.























             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 14












                   100.0





                   80.01-





                   60.0



               E-1
               Z
                   40.0





                   20.0-





                     0.0
                      51 53- 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89
                                                YEAR


          Figure I-11. Time series of the global annual precipitation index. The solid
          line gives the median value of the percentile rank for precipitation. The index
          is based on station precipitation in 2* latitude by 2* longitude grids. The median
          value of this index gives the percentile rank observed in half of the
          observational grids. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA National Weather
          Service)


                ii. Regional

          On a regional scale, the precipitation index for Europe (Figure I-
          12) suggests that precipitation during the 1980s was characterized
          by large interannual variability.

          For Africa, abnormally dry conditions in the Sahel intensified
          throughout the decade of the 1980s (Figure I-13a). An index based
          on data for 20 stations distributed throughout the western Sahel
          was used to monitor rainfall for the June through September period.
          Rainfall during these months accounts for over 90 percent of the
          regions yearly precipitation. Data indicate a decrease during the
          early part of the decade, with the driest seasons occurring during
          1983 and 1984.          Towards the end of the decade, seasonal
          precipitation totals increased.         1988 and 198.9 marked the first
          time since the 1960s that the Sahel had received near normal
          rainfall in two consecutive years. Precipitation for the decade,
          however, ended on a'poor note as amounts were well below normal
          during 1990.


                                                    NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 15









                    2


                                                    nn n n@
                    0
                z
                                                  U. H1


                        Europe
                   -2       1     1    1     1     1     1    1
                          1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985

                                           YEAR


            Figure 1-12. Precipitation index (average percentiles of station precipitation
            within the region) for Europe, 1922-19.90. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA
            National Weather Service)



            Precipitation indices for two other regions, northern Australia
            (Figure I-13b) and southeastern  Asia (Figure I-13d) also show dry
            conditions for most of the decade.    The northern Australia time
            series for the summer (November through April) shows positive
            precipitation index values for 1981, 19821, and 1989.        It is
            interesting to note that during the 1980s, both the Sahel region
            and southeastern Asia consistently showed strong negative
            precipitation index values while the Indian summer monsoon showed
            much more year-to-year variability (Figure I-13c).        In fact,
            according to this index, India experienced one of its worst
            droughts, associated with the 1986-87 ENSO, followed by one of its
            wettest years, associated with the 1988 Southern Oscillation
            episode.
                                           n   n























































            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 16






                2(a)                                  2  (b)'


            X
                0                               n                   ILA h
            z                        H U         L    0



                  Western Sahel                fl        Northern Australia
                                                     -2
                   1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985      1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985

             1.0 (C)                                 1.0 (d)

             0.5                                     0.5



                                                                 n
           00.0                                      Q.0
           z       lul
            -0.5                                    -0.5

                  India                                   Southeastern Asia
            -1.01   1    1                          -1.0 1_  I   I . I    I   I    1   1.
                   1925 1935 1945 19@5 1965 1975 1         1925 1,935 1945 19.55 1965 105 1985'
                                                 YEAR


           Figure 1713             Precipitation index, 192.0-19.89, for (a) western Sahel,
           June      mber.; (b)  porthel-n 4uq@ralla, November-April; (c) India, June-
              .,7SePte
           September'; and '(d) southeastern Asia*,' April -September. (gourtesy Climate Analysis
           Center; NOAA National Weather So@-vice)



           Looking at the United States        as a whole for 1990, areally-averaged
           precipit*tion for the natio      In F.as abo@le" normal, ranking 1990 as the
           twelfth  .wettest   (85th driest)     year   This ends a three-year streak
           pf below-normal      years and    marks a return to the wetness of the
                                    Figure   I
           early-to-mid-1980s                .-14).






                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 17


















                  35.5
                                                                                         -884


                  33.0                                                                   -
                                                                                         -824


                M 30.5                                                                   -764


                Z 28,.0
                                                                                         -704


                  25.5                                                                   -644
                  23.0 -                                                                 1584
                       1895 1905 1915 1925 19@15111111119141151111111191511511111965 1975 1985

                                                    YEAR


                Figure 1-14.  Areal ly-weigh t ed annual precipitation in inches and millimeters
                (mm) for the contiguous United States, 1895-1990. (courtesy Richard R. Heim Jr.,
                National Climatic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
                Information Service)


                b. Drought

                The Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) is used to measure long-
                term drought and can be used to,measure long-term wet conditions as
                well. Figure 1-15 shows the percent area in the contiguous United
                States that'experienced severe and extreme wet and dry conditions.
                The PDSI was calculated for each of the 344 climate divisions in
                the contiguous United States. The percent area of the country in
                severe-to-extreme long-term drought (PDSI <= -3.00) and severe-to-
                extreme long-term wet conditions (PDSI >= +3.00) is shown for
                January 1895--@April 1991.

                During the 19'80s, the United States          experienced two periods when
                more than 25 percent of the,@country         had severe and extreme PDSIs.
                Neither of these drought episodes affected as much of the country
                as the decades of the 1930s and the 1950s. However, the wet spell
                in the middle of the 1980s (Figure I-15b) was the largest of the
                20th century.        This finding is consistent with the Northern
                Hemisphere precipitation anomaly analysis for the 1980s which shows
                excess precipitation in the central United States over the decade.


                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 18










                     70 . ..............
                        - (a)

                     60-




                     50-




                     40-

                 P
                 z
                 W
                     30-




                     20-




                     10-




                     0                          ....
                          1900      1910     1920     1930      1940      1950     1960     1970     1980     1990



                     50-
                          (b)


                     40-





                     30-


                E-1
                z


                     20-





                     107






                           1900     1910      1920     1930     1940      1950     1960     1970      1980     1990
                                                                    YEAR


                Figure 1-15     (a) - (b)     Monthly time       series of    the   areal percent of the contiguous
                United States experiencing severe-              to_extreme long-term (a) drought and (b) wet
                conditions based on calculations of the Palmer Drought Severity Index for January
                1895 to April 1991.            (Courtesy Richard R. Heim, Jr.,                ,National Climatic Data
                Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and information Service)




                                                                              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 19









             ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION

             The National Atmospheric Deposition Program was initiated in 1978
             to determine the temporal and spatial trends of atmospheric
             deposition and the effects of deposition on agriculture, forests,
             rangelands, and freshwater streams and lakes. To accomplish this
             task, an observation network was established with strict siting
             criteria and collection protocols.          By 1982 the program enjoyed
             broad federal, state, and industry support, and was partially
             merged into the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
             National Trends Network. By. the late 1980s, the network consisted
             of approximately 200 stations, about 10 of which were located at
             NOAA National Weather Service stations evenly distributed across
             the United States and funded by NOAA's Ai.r.Resources Laboratory.
             Routine measurements for pH, conductivity, precipitation depth,
             sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, chloride, orthophosphate, sodium,
             potassium, calcium, and magnesium are made for each weekly
             precipitation sample.       Figure 1-16 gives examples of these data
             showing the temporal variation of sulfate concentration for two
             sites in Maine and Texas based on a two-year period from April 1984
             to July 1986.      Weekly samples having no precipitation have been
             deleted from the illustrations.


                      170-
                      160 -(a)                    CARIBOU         PRESQUE ISLZ

                      150-

                      140-

                      130-

                      120-
                  z   110-
                  0   Ica -
                  H                                                   I IV
                  E-i go -

                      80 -

                      70 -
                  z
                      60 -
                                          V
                      50 -
                  0
                  'U  40 -
                  0   30 -
                  U)  20 -                                      A I
                      10 -
                       0 -                                                    T
                         A S 0 ND F M A M J   J   A S 0   N D J F M A M i i

                                               MONTH


             Figure 1-16 (a)-(b). Sulfate values for (a) Caribou and Presque Isle, Maine,
             August 1984-July 1986, and (b) Victoria and Beeville, Texas, April 1984-March
             1986 in microequivalents per liter (ueqll). Periods with no data removed.
             (Courtesy Richard S. Artz and Glenn D. Rolph, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA
             office.of oceanic and Atmospheric Research)



             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 20





















                 170-
                 160-(b)                     VICTORIA       BEMUZ

                 150-
                 140-             n

                 130-

                 120-

              Z  110-
              0
                 100 -

                  90-

                  80 -
              Z   701-

                  60-
              z
              0   50-
                  40 A                          A
              0   30

                  20

                  10

                   0

                    M J j A S 0  N D J   F  M A mij 9 0  N  D J P U


                                       MONTH





         Figure 1-16 continued.


         SOLAR ACTIVITY

         Solar radiation initiates the complex energy transfers that drive
         the weather and climate system of the Earth. Variations in solar
         output are inferred from measurements of sunspots, emitted
         microwave energy, and total solar irradiance.      Measurements of
         total solar irradiance (the "solar constant") indicate that total
         solar output is constant to within a few tenths of a percent.
         However, solar emissions, from the outer portions of the Sun,
         represented by sunspots and microwave emissions, are highly
         variable. The frequency of these emissions is dominated by the 11-
         year solar cycle.    During years corresponding to maxima in the
         cycle, solar activity such as sunspots, flares, and microwave
         bursts are numerous, while near times of the minima, solar activity
         practically disappears.       Extremes in solar activity cause
         detrimental effects to humans and equipment in space and to earth-
         based communication and electrical power networks.



                                              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 21










            a. Sunspot Number

            Sunspots are dark (cool) areas on the Sun's surface that interrupt
            the regular pattern of solar emissions. Sunspots are accompanied
            by strong magnetic fields and have lifetimes ranging trom days to
            a few months. Sunspot frequency rises and falls with the 11-year
            solar cycle and provides an index of solar magnetic activity.

            In 1848 the Swiss astronomer Johann Rudolph Wolf introduced a daily
            measurement of sunspot number.       His method, which is still used
            today, counts both the total number of spots visible on the face of
            the Sun and the number of groups into which they cluster because
            neither quantity alone satisfactorily measures sunspot activity.
            Results can vary greatly, however, since the measurement strongly
            depends on observer interpretation And experience and on the
            stability of the Earth's atmosphere above the observing site. To
            compensate for these limitations, each daily international number
            is computed as a weighted average of measurements made from a
            network of cooperating observatories.

            Monthly  mean values are shown in Figure 1-17.         These data also
            contain  a 27-day fluctuation that reflects the rotation period of
            the Sun. The highest daily counts on record occurred December 24
            and 25,   1957.  On each of thesd days.the sunspot number totalled
            355. In   contrast, during years near the minimum of    'the spot cycle,
            the count can fall to zero.          Today, much more sophisticated
            measurements of solar activity are made routinely, but none has the
            link with the past that sunspot numbers have.

                  300



                     Cycle 18     Cycle 19      Cycle 20      Cycle 21     Cycle 22
                  250 -




                  200 -



              Z
                  150

              0


                  100


                      ... ... ... . ...


                  50                 . ........
                                                                          ........... ..

                                    .. ........


                                        . .. .. .....
                   0
                     1947 1950 lQW 1955 low IR2 1965 1988 19@11974 19771 1883 low 19M
                                              YEAR


            Figure 1-27. Monthly mean sunspot numbers, January 1947-July 1991. (Courtesy
            John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA National Environmental
            Satellite, Data, and Information Service)


            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 22










          b. Microwave Flux

          The Sun emits radio energy with a varying intensity.            The
          brightness of the Sun can be measured by the strength of emission
          at a wavelength of 10.7 cm (2800 megaHertz) .    This radio flux,
          which originates from layers in. the Sun's chromosphere and corona,
          changes in response to the number of sunspots. Microwave flux (at
          2800 megaHertz) observations summed over the Sun's disk have been
          made continuously since February 1947.        observed mean flux
          variations are shown in Figure 1-18.




             300  . . . . . . . .



             250 Cycle 1 a    Cycle 19     Cycle 20     Cycle 21      Cycle 22


          ri
           0 2DO

                                         Scaled Solar Radio Flux


             150


                    A.

           0
             100





              50
                                                           .... ........ ...





                1947 low 1953 19WI law lam 19M 1911974 1977 1960 1983 1986 19W
                                         YEAR


          Figure 1-18. Monthly mean 2800 megaHertz (MHz) solar microwave  flux,  January
          1947-July 1991. (Courtesy John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data  Center,
          NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)



          C. Total Solar Irradiance

          Total solar irradiance describes the radiant energy emitted by the
          Sun over all wavelengths that falls each second on one square meter
          at the, top of the Earth's atmosphere.        This is a quantity
          proportional to the "solar constant." Total solar irradiance is
          proportional to the Sun's luminosity, that is, to all the energy
          per second the Sun emits into space.

          Figure 1-19 shows short- and long-term irradiance variations, as
          measured by 5 different satellites. These values reveal day to day
          changes in response to the number of sunspots on the disk, and they
          show the Sun dims slightly during sunspot minimum and brightens


                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 23









                       slightly during sunspot maximum. Brightness changes are small, but
                       a survey of about 100 other stars suggests the Sun's luminosity
                       could potentially vary by several percent. Points connected by a
                       continuous line at the top trace daily measurements from the
                       Nimbus-7 satellite; the next lower profile tracks results from the
                       Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) satellite; and the unconnected symbols
                       at lower right mark infrequent samples from the Earth Radiation
                       Budget Satellite (ERBS), NOAA-9, and NOAA-10 satellites.


                            1374




                            1372                                                                                LAA1



                        IV ri 1370




                            1368


                                                                                                                              A

                            1366                                                         AX
                                                                                                         A X
                                                                                                                         WXX
                            1364                                                                                XX           X
                                                                                                                 X         A



                            1362
                                    1978   1979    1980   1981    1982    1983   1984    1985   1986    1987    1988   1989    1990   1991
                                                                     TIME (daily values)

                       Figure 1-19.            Total solar irradianCe (watts1square meter): values from (upper
                       .line) Nimbus-7, 16 Nov. 78-30 Apr. 91;. (lower line) Solar Maximum Mission (SMM),
                       16 Feb.80-8 Oct.87; (open triangle) Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), 25
                       Oct.84-20 Dec.89; (x) NOAA-9, 23 Jan.85-20 Dec.89; (+) NOAA-10, 22 Oct.86-1 Apr.
                       87. (Courtesy John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA National
                       Environmental Satellite, Data, and Z.nformation Service)



                       EARTH'S RADIATION BUDGET


                       The Earth, atmosphere, and oceans are constantly absorbing solar
                       radiation and emitting radiation to space.                                                     Variations in the
                       radiation budget are the driving mechanism for atmospheric and
                       oceanic circulation and the inter-related weather and climate.
                       Over long periods of time the global rates of radiative absorption
                       and emission are very nearly equal.


                       NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 24









          a. Longwave Flux

          Measurements of the global mean outgoing longwave radiation flux
          are fundamental to the understanding of the EarthIs radiation
          budget.   The global monthly mean flux as measured by satellite
          remote sensing is shown in Figure 1-20 for the period from June
          1974 through March 1991. The values plotted from 1974 to 1978 were
          those obtained from the scanning radiometer on NOAA satellites
          2,3,4, and 5, while those beginning in 1979 were obtained from the
          Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on satellites
          TIROS-N and NOAA-6,7,9, and 11.      Clearly depicted is an annual
          cycle. The variations from cycle to cycle are due to changes in
          the instruments and satellite paths, in addition to actual changes
          in longwave flux. The annual means show changes that are less than
          3 watts per square meter.


                240-
              (M r:i




                235




             z
             0
                230-

             Z

             0


             0  225 . ...........
                   74 75, 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
                                         YEAR


          Figure 1-20. Global mean longwave flux in watts1square meter, June 1974-March
          1991. Dark square indicates annual mean. (Courtesy Herbert Jacobowitz, satellite
          Research Laboratory, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Xnformation
          Service)


          b. Regional Cloudiness/sunshine Duration

          There is growing interest in measurements of changes in cloudiness
          mainly because of the associated concern with greenhouse warming.
          One question that is now being addressed is whether there is a
          measurable increase in cloudiness -,as a result of global warming and
          what influence would this increase have on global temperature
          change.


                                                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 25









              An accurate assessment of cloudiness variations on a global scale
              can be obtained through the use of satellites. It is also useful
              to examine variations in cloudiness on a regional scale (such as
              the United States) based on observed station data in order to
              establish the potential relationships with observed global
              perturbations like El Nino.

              In Figure 1-21 the variations in United States cloudiness (percent
              of sky covered by clouds as estimated by observers at 100 NOAA
              National Weather Service stations) and. the sunshine duration
              (percent of possible sunshine as estimated by sunshine recorders at
              these same 100 stations) are examined for the years 1950-1990.
              During this period, the correlation between annual values of
              cloudiness and minimum sunshine duration within the contiguous
              United States was -0.86, significant at the 1 percent level. The
              years of maximum cloudiness and sunshine duration were 1972 and
              1982 (both during times of the start of a strong El Nino).                   The
              year of maximum sunshine duration was a drought year (1988) .
              Despite the low value of cloudiness in 1988, cloudiness increased
              by 3.5 percent between the first half and the last half of the
              record.








                -P
                    5
                @4                                                       CLOUDINESS
                W   0
                                                         y
                             VIJ
                z   6
                0
                H
                P                             A                             SUNSHINE
                    0
                            -4     V                                        DURATION
                   -5

                                                   EN          EN
                z
                z
                        1950        1960        1970       1980       1990

                                                 YEAR


              Figure 1-21.  Variation in U.S. cloudiness and sunshine duration (1950-1990)
              expressed as annual percent deviations from the mean cloudiness (58 percent) and
              sunshine duration (63 percent) for this period. Relatively low values from 1952-
              1956 reflect drought occurring during this period. Arrows indicate beginnings of
              major El Nino (EN) events. (Courtesy James K. Angell, Air Resources Laboratory,
              NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research)



              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 26








                  C. Radiation Budget-Arabian Gulf Region

                  The planetary albedo and outgoing longwave radiation f lux were
                  analyzed for the Arabian Gulf (Persian Gulf) region for the period
                  starting before and during the massive oil f ires to provide a
                  quantitative measure of their af f ect on the regional climate.
                  Figure 1-22 shows the variation for an area in Saudi Arabia, where
                  the smoke from the oil burning was very intense. The lowering of
                  the normal clear-sky albedo by up to 15 percent due to the presence
                  of smoke is evident.                    The absorption by the smoke of the solar
                  radiation that would normally have penetrated to the ground led to
                  a dramatic cooling at the surface.                                 The albedo has returned to
                  normal levels about the time the last fire was extinguished.





                                                                                                                              400


                                                                                                                             -350


                       100-                                                                                                  -300
                       95-
                       90-
                       85--                                                                                                  -250
                                                                                                                 0    \4
                  4.)  80-                                                                                                4-200
                  9.   75-
                       70-                                                                                                    150
                                                                                              Breaks due to
                       65-
                       60                                                                     Missing Data                    100
                       55-
                  0    50--                                                                                                  -50    0
                  W    45-
                  PQ
                  k4   40-                                                                                                    0
                       35-
                       30-                                                                             JQ
                          0        or _V_'6
                       25--                                                                           I\
                       20-                                                              )u
                       15
                       10                   Normal Clea
                                              Albedo

                                 5      9     13     17    21     251 1 11 1 1 IS[ I 1 1 91 1 1 1 lr@ 1 1 11[71 1 12111 1 1215 29

                                                                DAY OF      MONTH

                  Figure 1-22.         Relationship between percent albedo (lower graph) and outgoing
                  longwave radiation (OLR) in watts1m2 (upper graph) from an area in Saudi Arabia
                  (22.5*N, 550E) affected by the oil fires in Kuwait, February-March 1991. Data from
                  AVHRR on NOAA-11 satellite (2.50 latitude/longitude average resolution).
                  (Courtesy Herbert Jacobowitz, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
                  Environmental Satellite, Data, and information Service)




                                                                                  NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 27










            SEVERE WEATHER

            Much of the weather that causes loss of life and disrupts economic
            activity is related to mesoscale phenomena.           Severe weather
            includes tornadoes, squall lines and thunderstorms, hail storms,
            flash floods, and heavy snows.         Larger-scale severe weather
            phenomena, such as tropical and extra-tropical storms, are also
            included in severe weather. Major variations in meso- and large-
            scale severe weather phenomena may be useful indicators of regional
            .and even global climate change.

            a. Tropical Cyclones

            Tropical cyclone frequency can be used as a indicator of
            variability in tropical ocean-atmosphere energy exchange.         since
            warm sea surf ace temperatures are required for tropical cyclone
            formation (i.e. , >-270C) , there could be a link between numbers of
            and severity of tropical cyclones and warming of the tropical
            ocean.


            The annual number of hurricanes and tropical storms in the north
            Atlantic Ocean for 1886-1990 is shown in Figure 1-23. It should be
            noted that observation methods and coverage have changed during the
            period. The number during the 1980s was near the long-term mean.
            However, two of the most devastating north Atlantic hurricanes on
            record occurred in @ the late 1980s: Hurricane Gilbert (1988) and
            Hurricane Hugo (1989).

              25-



              20-



              15 -

            z


              10-
            z     -
            z                 o@                                      oo
                5-

               04                                 -------             1.
                1885  1895 1905  1915 1925 19'35-'1'945 1955 1965 1975 1985
                                            YEAR

            Figure 1-23. Annual number of hurricanes and tropical storms, north Atlantic
            ocean, 1886-1990. (Courtesy Richard R. Heim, Jr.. National Climatic Data Center,
            NOAA National Environmental Satellitef Data, and Information Service)


            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 28
                                      V











            b. Tornadoes

            Tornadoes are intense local circulation systems with high wind
            speeds and great destructive force over the narrow path of their
            movement.      Tornadoes are especially frequent over the central
            portion of the United States.               Figure 1-24 shows the modern
            historical record of reported occurrences of tornadoes.




               1200-

                                                          7

               1000-



               800-
                                                                                  7


               600-



               400-7



               200-



                  0
                    1953     1958     1963     1968      1973     1978     1983     1988
                                                   YEAR


            Figure 1-24. Total   number  of tornadoes, 1953-1990. (Courtesy Richard R.     Heim,
            Jr., National climatic Data  Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite,    Data,
            and Xnformation Service)

            c. Winter Storms

            Episodes of     heavy snowfall, combined with the effects of high
            winds, and cold. temperatures can be particularly debilitating,
            especially in heavily populated and highly industrialized regions.
            Such is the case in the northeast United States.                     Here, heavy
            snowfall associated. with winter storms may maroon millions of
            people at home, work, or in transit, severely disrupt commerce, and
            endanger lives. During the years from 1955 through 1985, a. number
            of winter storms resulted in serious impacts to the northeast. The
            blizzards of February 1958 and January 1966, the triple snowstorms
            of the 1960-1961 winter, the great New England wind and snowstorm
            of February 1978, the "Presidents Day Storm" of February 1979, and
            the paralyzing storm of February 1983 are the most notable events
            of this period.


                                                          NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 29










                                i. Mean Seasonal Snowfall


                      The mean distribution of seasonal snowfall over the northeast
                      United States is largely dependent upon latitude (Figure 1-25),
                      ranging from 15 centimeters in the southeastern corner of Virginia
                      to greater than 250 centimeters across sections of central and
                      northern New England, New York, and West Virginia.                                                          The primary
                      source of snowfall in this region is extratropical cyclonic weather
                      systems. Areas adjacent to the Great Lakes and the highlands of
                      West Virginia,, western Pennsylvania, and Maryland, however, also
                      receive significant snowfall from the passage of cold continental
                      air over the relatively warm moisture-laden air over the Great
                      Lakes in concert with orographic effects.





                                                                                                                              2SO
                                                                                                                                          200
                                                                                                      250


                                 .. .......

                                     ..........



                                                                   5
                                                                                                      250
                                                             250
                                                                                                           200

                                                                                                                     10
                                                                                   250
                                               00*
                                                                                                                                  ...........
                                            150                          2n
                                                                                                                                         .............
                                             100
                                                                                                              ... 75'.
                                              75





                                                                                                  M
                                                                                                      EAN SEASONAL
                               5              250
                                                                                                        ......  (CM)
                                                                                                                                 ... .. ... ...
                                                                                                                ............... .........
                                                                                                       ............................ . . ....
                                                                                                    ............... ....  ......*........
                                                                                                             . ........... ......... .
                                                                                  ...........                                           .... ........
                                                                                                                                     . ..........
                                                                                                     ...........                     .........
                                                                                            . ................
                                                                                                           ............
                                                                                          ...       ........ ...
                                             so                                  . . ............
                                                                                                      . ............
                                                                                                                ............ .. .....





                      Figure 1-25. Mean seasonal snowfall, October through May in centimeters (cm),
                      for the northeastern United States, 1955156-1984185. (courtesy Paul .7. Kocin and
                      Louis W. Uccellini, National Meteorological Center, NOAA National Weather
                      Service)


                      NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 30








               ii. Heavy Snow Occurrences

          The number of storms that have produced snow exceeding 10
          centimeters (cm) during the 30-year period from 1955-1956 through
          1984-1985 ranges.from 29 in southeastern Virginia (an average of I
          per winter season), to more than 200 in sections of central New
          England (an average of 7 events per season).

          Storms that deposit 25 cm or more are relatively rare. Only three
          such storms occurred over the 30-year period in southeastern
          Virginia, an average of one every 10 years, with 5 to 11 events
          over the coastal regions from Virginia to southern New Jersey,
          approximately one every 3 to 5 years. The heavily populated urban
          corridor from northern Virginia through extreme southern New
          England experienced 11 to 18 major snowfalls, approximately one
          every other year. The inland areas of northeastern Pennsylvania,
          eastern New York, and southern New England received 19 to 33 heavy
          snows, approximately one every 1 to 2 years, while 34 to 41 events
          were noted across the northern limits of the area, slightly greater
          than one per year.

          The distribution of moderate and heavy snow events from 1955-1956
          through 1984-1985 in each of the five major cities that span the
          populous coastal region of the northeast are summarized in Figure
          1-26. Both monthly and 30-year totals are presented for Boston,
          New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, DC. During
          the 30-year sampling period, the total number of events that
          yielded greater than a 10 cm accumulation ranges from 48 cm at
          Washington, DC, to 65 cm in New York City, and 100 cm in Boston.
          January and Februar.y account for the majority of these occurrences
          in Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York, while Boston
          has a distinct maximum in January and a secondary peak in March.
          The months of December, January, February, and March account for
          nearly all of the events for each city.

          The total number of     events that produced at least 25 cm
          accumulation' ranges from 8 at Washington, DC, to 25 at Boston
          (Figure 1-26). February displays the greatest frequency of heavy
          snow events in every city except Boston, where January has the
          largest number of heavy snowfalls. The frequency of 10- and 25 cm
          snow accumulations exhibit only small variations among Washington,
          Baltimorel Philadelphia, and New York City. Washington recorded
          marginally fewer events and New York slightly more than the other
          cities. In contrast, Boston had a 50-100 percent greater incidence
          of 10 cm snows and two to three times the number of 25 cm events
          than the other cities.    Such a substantial difference indicates
          that Boston has a significantly greater potential for heavy
          snowstorms than any of the other cities.






                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 31













                                                                                           MONTHLY AND TOTAL NUMBER
                                                                                           OF SNOWFALL@EVENTS (BY CITY)
                                                                                                        1955-56 thru 1984-85
                                                                                                                         no CM N
                                                                                       MONTH         -------             :?:25-CM          ---------------
                                                                                             NOV DEC                     JAN          FEB MAR                       APR
                                                                                             ..........   .........      ........     .........    ...........      ........
                                                                                       30--                                                                                      -30
                                                                                       26--                                                                                      -25
                                                                                       20--                                                                                      -20
                                                                                       15--                                                                                      -15

                                                                                       10--                                                                                      -10
                                                                                       51                                                                                        5
                                                                         E-4           0                L                                                        G==CC=I0
                                                                         z                                                 BOSTON
                                                                         W             20--                                                                                      "20
                                                                         >             15--                                                                                      15
                                                                                       10--                                                                                      -10
                                                                                       6--                                                                                       ..5
                                                                                       01-                                                                                       ..0
                                                                                       20--                              NEW YORK                                                20
                                                                                                                                                                                 15
                                                                         0             15--
                                                                         z             10--                                                                                      10
                                                                         U)            5--                                                                                       5
                                                                         N             O..@                              L                                                       10
                                                                         0             210--                       PHILADELPHIA                                                  20
                                                                                       15'-                                                                                      15

                                                                                                                                                                                 10
                                                                                                                                                                                 ..5
                                                                                       0 - CC=                                      &
                                                                         9                              & L '                                     L                              ..0
                                                                         z             20--                              BALTIMORE                                               -20
                                                                                       15-
                                                                                       10--                                                                                      -10
                                                                                       5--                                                                                       ..5
                                                                                       0-0=             L                                                                        ..0
                                                                                                                   WASHINGTON

                                                                                                      BOSTON                                                         100
                                                                                                                                   25
                                                                                                NEW YORK                                            65
                                                                                                                         LAM' 13
                                                                                       PHILADELPHIA                      Via 11                   59
                                                                                               BALTIMORE

                                                                                           WASHINGTON                                       48




                                 Figure 1-26.                        Monthly and total number of snowfall events (by city) for the
                                 winter seasons 1955-1956 through 1984-1985 in Boston, MA; New Yorkl NY;
                                 Philadelphia, PA; Baltimore, MD; and Washington, DC. Hatched shading represents
                                 the number of events exceeding 10 centimeters (cm) and dark shading represents
                                 the number of events exceeding 25 cm. For cities with more than one snowfall
                                 measurement, an average value is used to designate events. (Courtesy Paul J.
                                 Kocin and Louis W. Uccellini, National Meteorological Center, NOAA National
                                 Weather Service)


                                 NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 32










            QUASI-BIENNIAL OSCILLATION


            A quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) of mean zonal winds in the
            equatorial stratosphere is one classically observed periodic
            oscillation in the climate system. The QBO, so called because it
            repeats every 2 to 2.5 years, has been observed since 1950.

            The QBO shown in Figure 1-27 is based on observations taken at
            Balboa (Canal Zone) , Singapore, and Ascension Island.                        Recent
            studies have indicated a statistical relationship between the QBO
            and surface temperature anomalies and also for activity during the
            tropical cyclone season. The QBO has been recognized for more than
            30 years as having its largest amplitude over the tropics in the
            atmosphere at 30 millibars, but a QBO signal has been detected in
            other meteorological and oceanographic parameters.














               20
            0 0                                                                               B
                  \1 \j v \j V \j \j V \j NJ                                                     Z
              20-                                                                                0
                                                                                              S
            Z   0                            A
                                          V
               20                                                                                0
                                        P-1      A-A A        f      A        A        1\
                0                                                               \j W           A4
            Z                  VVW V\IVVVVVVY
            0_20-
            N



               1950   1955      1960     1965     1970    1975      1980     1985     1990


                                                    YEAR



            Figure 1-2 7.   Variation of the zonal wind (west wind positive) in meters per
            second (mlsec) at Balboa (B), Singapore (S), and Ascension Xsland (A) at 30
            millibars, based on a 1-2-1 weighting of success  'ive monthly deviations from long-
            term monthly Means.      Abscissa tick Marks indicate .7uly of the given year.
            (Courtesy James'K.*Angell, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA Of     .fice of oceanic and
            Atmospheric'Research)



                                                           NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 33




SOUTHERN OSCILLATION

The Southern Oscillation (SO) represents a fluctuation of inter-
tropical atmospheric circulation, particularly noticeable in
observations taken in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.  Time series
of sea-level pressure, air temperature, sea surface temperature,
precipitation, and of sea level from a wide variety of locations
have been found to be well correlated with the SO.  In particular,
the SO has been found to be strongly linked to the El Nino
phenomenon, an episodic warming of the tropical Pacific Ocean.
This strong correlation is known as the El Nino/Southern
Oscillation (ENSO).

The most commonly used measure of the SO is the difference in
barometric pressure between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia.  This
indicator, known as the Southern Oscillation Index, is shown in
Figure I-28.  With the index, large negative values correspond to
warm events and large positive values to cold events.  The decade
of the 1980s featured one of the strongest ENSO episodes (1982-83)
of the last century, one of the strongest cold episodes (1988-89)
during the last 50 years, and a major central Pacific warm episode
(1986-87).  These three events were accompanied by global
circulation and precipitation anomalies, which in some cases
reached extreme proportions.  For example, the ENSO of 1982-83
brought unprecedented wind, wave, and water damage to coastal
property along the west coast of the United States.  These same
storms led to record snowpacks on the Rocky Mountains and also
record springtime flooding there.


STANDARD DEVIATION

                                                                                                    4
                                                                                                    3
                                                                                                    2
                                                                                                    1
                                                                                                    0
                                                                                                   -1
                                                                                                   -2
                                                                                                   -3
                                                                                                   -4
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
                               YEAR


Figure I-28.  Five-month running mean of the difference between the standardized
barometric pressure anomalies at sea level at Tahiti and Darwin, Australia.
Values are standardized by the mean annual deviation.  Individual monthly means
are marked by an "X".  (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, NOAA National Weather
Service)

NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST     34












          11. OCEAN



          The ocean has a significant influence on climate as the Earth's
          storehouse of about 97 percent of its water and enormous amounts of
          heat. ocean water is 800 times more dense, has 270 times the mass,
          and has a heat capacity of 4 times that of the atmosphere. These
          properties impart to the ocean a greater stability than the
          atmosphere and greater heat storage capacity than both the
          atmosphere and the surface of the land.            Because of these
          properties, the ocean acts as a buffer, smoothing short-term
          climate   variations    and   delaying    those   of   longer    term.
          Additionally, the ocean is a major sink in the global carbon cycle
          and hence a main repository of carbon dioxide, important in
          controlling the long-term concentration of atmospheric carbon
          dioxide.





















































                                             -Ice










            OCEAN TEMPERATURE


            Ocean temperature is an important environmental indicator because
            of the relationship between sea temperature and ocean-atmosphere
            exchanges of heat, gases, and moisture. In addition, it is useful
            in identifying and tracking oceanographic features such as fronts,
            western boundary currents, and mesoscale eddies.       Knowledge of
            seawater temperature in general is necessary (along with salinity
            and pressure) to determine the density of seawater, important in
            ascertaining ocean circulation and the mixing capabilities of water
            masses.   An accurate description of sea surface temperature,
            especially over the oceans, is required for input to weather
            forecasting models and for computing global heat and moisture
            fluxes. The long-term trend of global mean sea temperature is an
            indicator of climate change.

            a. Sea Surface

            Sea surface temperature (SST) observations have been recorded since
            the mid-nineteenth century, primarily from merchant ships.       SST
            measurements have traditionally been made using a bucket and
            thermometer.    This method has been replaced by "injection
            temperatures" (the temperature of sea water as measured at the
            ship's seawater intake) .    Because a ship's intake is commonly
            located below the surface and because the       temperature may be
            influenced by the heat of engines or           boilers, injection
            temperatures@ have not been considered as      reliable as bucket
            temperatures for SST determination.

            SST has been monitored by NOAA polar orbiting satellites since 1982
            using infrared measurements obtained from the Advanced Very High
            Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR). Prominent oceanic features appear
            in these satellite records such as the seasonal and the interannual
            fluctuations of SST in the eastern tropical Pacific.         Warming
            occurs during February to April which is consistent with the
            decreased intensity of easterly trade winds, while cooling is
            associated with increased wind speeds and upwelling.             The
            interannual warming, called the El Nino, is associated with a
            collapse of the equatorial trade-wind system. Satellite records
            have documented two El Nino events since 1982   " the first during
            1982-83 and the second during 1986-87. The 9-year time series of
            SST at the equator derived from satellite data illustrates the
            magnitude of the SST oceanic response (Figure II-1)'during times of
            strong upwelling (late 1988) and El Nino events. El Nino events
            appear to build up over several years and are then followed by an
            interval of rapid cooling during the following season.








            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 36












                   31


                   30-


                   29-


                   28-


                   27-


                   26-

                 4
                 44 25-

                   24


                   23-
                   221  82   83    84    85      86    87    88    89   90

                                               YEAR


          Figure XI-1.   Sea surface temperature (January 1982-31 December 1990) in the
          equatorial Pacific (140'W, 02*S) estimated from NOAA satellite infrared
          measurements. (Courtesy Richard Legeckis, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA
          National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)

          Annual mean SST derived from satellites and in situ buoy and ship
          SST for the f ive major ocean basins are shown. in Figure 11-2. These
          analyses are from 2.50 latitude/ longitude quadrangles of monthly
          means. While upward tendencies are apparent in both the Pacific
          and Atlantic Oceans, the Indian ocean time series departs markedly
          from the other basins. Although the Indian Ocean tendency has been
          downward, it is the most variable of all the oceans and tends to
          reflect the variability of the equatorial time series.                Despite
          this variability, both Indian Ocean in situ and satellite SST agree
          remarkably well.         Annual trends at all locations show no
          statistical difference between in situ and satellite data sets.


          NOAAI's Northeast F      isheries    Science Center has taken SST
          observations using a bucket thermometer in conjunction with its
          annual bottom-trawl surveys.          These SST observations have been
          conducted each spring since 1968 and each fall since 1963 (Figure
          11-3).    The trawls have been made at approximately 300 stations
          from Cape Hatteras to the Gulf of Maine, including the Middle
          Atlantic Bight, and from the coast to the edge of the continental
          shelf.



                                                     NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 37









                                               (a)  indian10cean!



                                          0.6




                                          0.4




                                          0.2




                                            82    84     86    88    90


                           (b) North  Pacific                      (c) South Pacific
                                                             0. 11


                      0.3-                                   0.0


                      0.2





                                                             0.4








                      -0.5



                      0.5                                    0.8
                           (d) Forth  Atlantic                     (e) South Atlantic

                                                             0.6
                      0,3




                  >4
                        0                                    0-3



                                                             0.1
                      -0.2






                        82     84    86    88     90            82    84     86    88    90


                                                      YEAR


               Figure 11-2 (a)-(e). Annual mean SST anomalies from satellite multi-chatinel sea
               surface temperature (MCSST) (solid line) and in situ buoys and ships (dashed
               line) for the 5 major ocean basins: (a) Indian Ocean; (b) North Pacific; (c)
               South Pacific; (d) North Atlantic; (e) South Atlantic. MCSST.data for 1982-1983
               have not been corrected for aerosol effects from El Chichon volcano and are
               temporally replaced with in situ SST data. (Courtesy Alan E. Strong, Satellite
               Applications Laboratory, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
               Information Service)
                                        .1a @n






               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST. 38







                               23- (a) SPRING
                               22-
                               21-
                               20-                                                       Legend
                               19-                                                        GULF OF MAINE
                               is-
                               17-                                                        GEORGES BANK
                               16-
                       0                                                                  MAB NORTH
                               15-
                               14 -                                                       MAB SOUTH
                               13-                                                        ............
                               12-
                        E-4    11-
                               10-
                        P4     9-
                        z      8-
                        W      7-
                        E-1    6-

                               4-
                               3-
                               2-


                               0 1
                               63 64 65 66 6-7 68 69 707 1727374 75 76 77 -78 '79 80 8182 83 84 85 86 8-7 8a 89 90


                               23-(b) FALL
                               22-
                               21-
                               20


                               18-
                               17-
                        u      16-
                        0
                               15-                  A@
                               14 -
                               13-
                               12-
                               11-
                               10-
                               9-                                                         Legend
                               8-
                               7-                                                         GULF OF MAINE
                               6--
                               5-                                                         GEORGES BANK
                               4-                                                         MAB NORTH
                               3-
                               2-                                                         MAB SOUTH
                               I -                                                      I .............
                               0          . . . .                  . . . . . . . . . .       I I I I
                               6364 65 66 67 68 659 70 7172 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 BZ8384 85 86 87 8889 9C

                                                                YEAR


             Figure 11-3 (a) - (b) . Average sea surface temperature f or (a)'spring and (b) f all
             in the Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, northern Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB North),
             and southern Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB South). (Courtesy Tamara J. Holzwarth-
             Davis and David G. Mountain, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National
             Marine Fisheries Service)


                                                                      NOAA.ENVIRONMENTAL            DIGEST 39









                To examine the hypothesis        that major variation in shelf-water
                temperatures are coherent over large areas, the historical record
                of SST for the continental shelf from Chesapeake Bay to southern
                Labrador was divided into 19 areas, each consisting of 1 degree
                quadrangles contiguous with each other.           All real-time ship SST
                data for the period from March 1971 to December 1983 were used in
                the analysis.      Data for the 10-year base period (March 1971-
                @December 1980) were used to establish the average monthly
                temperatures and   their standard deviations. Figure 11-4 shows the
                anomalies tend to be coherent over large space scales and often for
                several months at a time. 'In 1971 for example, temperatures in a
                large area from southern Labrador to the northeastern Scotian Shelf
                were higher than normal (by about one standard deviation) during
                late spring and early summer. Temperatures were near-normal during
                most of*1972 and 1973, but, the entire region from Hamilton Bank to
                the Gulf of Maine had below-normal temperatures in late spring and
                early summer of 1974., with July temperatures being nearly three
                degrees below normal from northern Nova Scotia to northern
                Newfoundland (areas 11-16). Evidence of large-scale events, with
                a time scale of several years      'and with opposite phase to the north
                and south of the Gulf of Maine-Georges Bank region (areas 6-7), is
                evident in the temperature anomaly pattern for 1981 through 1983.






                Hamilton
                Bank '9
                    18-        V
                BelleA
                    17--
                isie


                    15
                    16


                    14-
                Cape 13
                z
                0Flace 1@
                E-1 10

                Cape
                C) Sable
                    7-                   CQ

                Cape
                Cod 5-
                    4-

                    3-
                    2
                Che'
                  sa-                                           L
                peake
                      1971  1972  1973 1974  1975  1976 1977  1978  1979 1980  1981  1982 1983

                                                     YEAR


                Figure 11-4. Contoured plot of monthly SST anomalies (relative to 1971-80 base
                period) for. 1971-83 for the northwest Atlantic (Chesapeake Bay to southern
                Labrador). Only anomalies greater than 1*C (solid) and less than -10C. (mottled)
                which extended through at least two neighboring areas for at least two
                consecutive months are contoured. (Courtesy Douglas R. McLain, Center for Ocean
                Analysis and Prediction, NOAA National Ocean Service)



                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 40











                            b. Subsurface

                              The temporal variability of the thermal structure of the deep                                                                                                                                                  north
                              Atlantic Ocean has been described using the oceanographic station
                              data files from NOAA's National Oceanographic Data Center.                                                                                                                                                            The
                              oceanographic files contain data from about 500,000 hydrographic
                              stations. Average values of temperature at standard depths from 0
                              to 5500 meters (m) for two 5-year periods (1955-59 and 1970-74)
                              were analyzed and the differences in thermal structure between the
                              two 5-year periods were calculated (i.e. , the 1970-74 analyses
                              minus the 1955-59 analyses).
                              Figure 11-5 shows the resulting temperature difference, fields along
                              24.5 N for the two 5-year periods. throughout most of the north                                                                                          
                              Atlantic basin at the 500 m to 2000 m depth range a warming of at
                              least 0.050C was observed. A maximum difference exceedomg 0.5 c                                                     
                              occurred at about 800 m depth at 520W. Cooling is observed in the                                                 
                              upper 500 m of water column in the two portions of the basin. one                                                                                                                          the b            asin. One
                              is a small region centered on 30W and a second is a larger region                                                                                                                          a larger region
                              centered around 600W.  Cooling of less than 0.050C occurred along
                              the ocean bottom.


 




								longitude

figure ii-5. temperature difference (c) as a function of depth along 24.5n for
1970-74 minus 1955-59. dot shading indicates negative values. (courtesy sydney
levitus, national oceanographic data center, noaa national environmental
satellite, data, and information service)

										noaa environmental digest 41










              Further comparisons can be made by inspecting the temperature
              difference fields along 36.50N.     Figure 11-6 shows the difference'
              field for this latitude between the two 5-year periods. The major
              feature here is the cooling in the surface layers and warming at
              intermediate depths.

                        7CW                        4CW      3OW      2OW      IN
                    0                                                         1     0
                                                                  ..........
                                                  . .........
                                 0.25 :_0.254
                                               @@!i@:o 0,
                  1000                            ... . ... ...   0.25 1--0.50   1000

                  15M                         -0.50                              1500
                $4
                                                                  .............
                  2000-                       0.10
                4J
                                            0.05            . .......
                  2500-
                                                                                 2500

                                 .. ..........
                  3CCO
                                                                                 300D
                                                 .....           ...................
                W4                        . .......... ........
                E-1 3500-                                                        3500
                            ..............

                  4000-
                                                                                 4000

                  4500-                         .......                          41.
                                           ............

                  5=_                                                            -5000

                  9500                                                           -5500
                                            LONGITUDE

              Figure 11-6. Temperature difference (*C) as a function of depth along 36.50N for
              1970-74 minus 1955-59. Dot shading indicates negative values. (Courtesy Sydney
              Levitus, National Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental
              Satellite, Data, and Information Service)


              Figure 11-7 shows differences in temperature between the two 5-year
              periods at 1750 m depth.       Results of this analysis and others
              indicate that the thermal structure of the deep north Atlantic
              Ocean has, in fact, changed on decadal time scales, notably in the
              1950s through the 1970s.          The temperature-difference    *  field
              indicates that most of the north Atlantic warmed at this depth on
              the order of 0.05*-0.250C.

              In addition to. hydrographic    casts,  subsurface ocean temperature
              data. can be collected with a ba-@thythermograph, a device for
              obtaining a record of temperature against depth from a ship
              underway. From the early 1940s through the early 1970s, subsurface
              temperature profiles were collected from ships using mechanical
              bathytheromographs (MBT) .     In using recent years, temperature
              versus   depth    profiles   have    been   made    using    expendable
              bathythermograph probes (XBT).        The NOAA Northeast. Fisheries
              Science Center has collected bottom temperature measurements using
              MBT and XBT probes in conjunction with the Center's biannual trawl
              surveys.. The time series plots of the average bottom temperature
              data are shown in Figure 11-8.           In the spring, the bottom
              temperatures in the different regions are all approximately equal,
              although the southern Middle Atlantic Bight temperatures are about
              10C warmer than those in the other regions. In the fall, the bottom


              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 42










                                                            80'N




                                                              70*




                                                              60*



                                                              50*                                                       [email protected]
                                                                                                                                    00        :.... . .
                                                                                                                                              0.20"
                                                                                                                        0.25      .: : -:: ::::::::c ,
                                                                                                                                   . . .. .... ...
                                                              40*                                                                     .0.1
                                                                                              0.11            .15
                                                                                               0.05                     0.00
                                                              30*                                                       0.20
                                                                                                     0.10,
                                                                                                                                     .20

                                                              20*


                                                                                                                                  5

                                                              10*-



                                                              EQ-
                                                                 1001W go*         80*     70*      600       50o       40o   30*        20*     10*      0*
                      Figure XX-7. Temperature difference                                         (OC)     at 1750 m           depth,for 1970-74 minus 1955-
                      59. Dot shading indicates negative                                          values. (Courtesy Sydney Levitus, National
                      oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
                      Information Service)
                      temperatures in the Gulf of Maine are a few degrees colder than the
                      other areas, which exhibit ap@roximately similar temperatures. The
                      colder bottom temperatures in the Gulf of Maine are due in large
                      part to the Gulf being considerably deeper than the other three
                      regions and seasonal surface warming                                                              does not penetrate to the
                      bottom.




                                   23-                                                                                  23-
                                   22- (a) SPRING                                      Legend                           22- (b)  FALL
                                   21-                                                                                  21-
                                   20-                                                 GULF OF MAINC                    20-
                                   9-                                                                                   19-
                                   18 -
                                                                                       GEORGES 8
                                   17-                                                       ....LANK                   17-
                                   Is-                                               1 MAS NOMH
                                   14-                                                                                                   1. .. ......
                                   13-
                                                                                                                        @3'
                                   12-
                                   ;0                                                                                   101@
                                                                                                                        9-
                                                                                                                        a-
                         P4        7-                                                                                   7-
                                   6-                                                                                   6-
                                   5-                                                                                   5-
                                   4-                                                                                   4-
                                   3-                                                                                   3-
                                   2-                                                                                   2-
                                   063@4@566@?6'86'97'07'17'27'3747'57'67'?7'87'9@08'18'28'38'46'5868788@99o            63@4@5@66@68697'0417'2@3747576777'87'98'08'18'28'38'4858687888990
                                                                                                          YEAR


                      Figure 11-8 (a)- (b) . Average bottom temperature (OC), in (a) spring and (b) fall
                      for Gulf of Maine, Georges Bank, northern Middle Atlantic Bight (MAB North), and
                     ,southern Middle                  'Atlantic Bight (MAB South). (Courtesy Tamara J. Holzwarth-Davis
                      and David G. Mountain, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
                      Fisheries Service)


                                                                                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 43










             SALINITY


             Salinity is the measure of the dissolved salts in seawater.
             Evaporation, precipitation, and ice formation and melting are
             processes that influence salinity. The normal range of salinities
             in the open ocean is small, usually from about 33 parts per
             thousand (ppt) to 37 ppt,     with the average ocean salinity being
             about 35 ppt.       Surface salinity values are lower at higher
             latitudes and near the        equator where precipitation exceeds
             evaporation.      Salinity   is highest in the middle latitude
             subtropical gyres where evaporation exceeds precipitation.
             Subsurface ocean waters       exhibit relatively small changes in
             salinity compared to surface waters.          These small changes in
             salinity are important in identifying deepwater masses.

             a. North Atlantic Ocean

             The temporal variability of salinity in the north Atlantic Ocean
             has been described using the oceanographic station data files of
             NOAAI's National oceanographic Data 'Center.        Average values of
             salinity based on 1' squares were analyzed at standard depths from
             0 to 5500 m for the 5-year periods 1955-59 and 1970-74 and
             differences between the periods were calculated (i.e., 1970-74
             analyses minus the 1955-59 analyses). Upper ocean (0-150 m) and
             deep ocean (to 5500 m) salinity differences between the two 5-year
             periods exhibit statistically significant changes.         Figure 11-9
             shows the salinity difference field for the sea surface and 150 m
             depth. At the surface, one major feature is the negative anomaly
             north of 420N indicating that the subarctic gyre was fresher during
             1970-74 compared to 1955-59. Maximum freshening occurred east of
             Newfoundland where a value of -0.5 ppt exists. A positive salinity
             anomaly occurs along WN that extends southward along the east
             coast of the United States as well as in the 250-45ON longitude
             belt. A negative anomaly occurs in the tropics with the largest
             midocean change being on the order of -0.05 ppt.             The major
             features for the 150 m depth are similar to those at the sea
             surface. The salinity maximum increase centered along 390N at the
             sea surface now extends further northward across the subtropical
             gyre. The large changes of f the coasts of South America and Af rica
             are considerably reduced.        The subarctic gyre just east of
             Newfoundland shows the greatest decrease (to -0.15 ppt at 150 m).
             This is 0.35 ppt smaller difference than the surface counterpart
             for this feature. For the 150 m depth, a major difference occurs
             in the eastern half of the gyre as opposed to the western half for
             levels higher in the water column.

             Evidence of the temporal variability in the salinity structure of
             the deep north Atlantic Ocean is presented in Figure II-10. The
             figure shows the difference fields of salinity for the two 5-year
             periods along 24.50N and 36.50N latitudes. Clear basinwide changes
             have occurred between year groups at both latitudes.         At 24.5-N,


             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 44













                                                               80*N                                                                                                 ........



                                                                                                                                                                .. ..... ......
                                                                  70'



                                                                                                                                                          ...............
                                                                  60*

                                                                                                                                             ...........:... ...
                                                                                                                                             ............
                                                                                                                                   . . ...... -03   ....
                                                                  50*                                       ... 7
                                                                                                                                          . .......    ...

                                                                                                                                             ...................................


                                                                  40*                                                                                        ...........
                                                                                                                                   .3
                                                                                                                                                          ............
                                                                                                                          ... b.O.                         '@@:
                                                                                                                                                             ... .. ..... ..

                                                                  0.
                                                                                                  ....... ...... .                        0.2
                                                                                                                                                             0.2

                                                                  20*




                                                                  100-


                                                                          (a)
                                                                  EQ-
                                                                     100*W 90'             80*        70*         60-              50-    40*       30*         20'       10*         Oo



                                                               80*N
                                                                                                                                                                    --- --------


                                                                                                                        L
                                                                  70*



                                                                                                                                   . ......... ....
                                                                                                                                   .. .......   ... ....... .... .
                                                                  60*                                                 -0.15:-6:           ::,: "             *:::.  ......
                                                                                                                                   0'.                              ... .. ..
                                                                                                                                                                -0.10:.


                                                                  50,                                                              . .......
                                                                                                                                   ..............        .... .............
                                                                                                                                   :::::::: .. ..............
                                                                                                                                   ..... .     . .....
                                                                                                                    0.45   . . ......

                                                                                                                                      ....          ...........
                                                                  40                                                                                .........
                                                                                                                                                       ...... 0..0
                                                                                                   ,02

                                                                                                         .... ........ I .......    0.10:-.'
                                                                                                        ...... ............... .
                                                                                                                         .......          ....
                                                                  30
                                                                                                       ......... ..... .
                                                                                                           ..........
                                                                                                 - C.,
                                                                                                                            01     0.25
                                                                                                                  6-5 0,
                                                                                                           .0.0
                                                                  20*




                                                                  10*

                                                                           (b)
                                                                  EQ   i                                                           T
                                                                     100'W 90*             80*        70*         60-              50-    40*       30'         20*       10*         0.

                          Figure 11-9 (a) - (b) . Salinity                                           difference in parts per                                    thousand (ppt) for 1970-74
                          minus 1955-59 at the (a) surface and (b)                                                                    150 m depth. Dot shading indicates
                          negative values. (Courtesy Sydney Levitus, National oceanographic Data Center,
                          NOAA National Enviro.nmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)


                                                                                                                                      NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 45












                                                                    7OW                       GN                                5N                4014                         3OW                     2OW
                                                    0   ____ -        I                       -   ...                           I__,                                           I                         1                          0
                                                                ... ......... .....
                                                                                                                                        010                                                           5                        500
                                                500                                                                             0.0                                            ...
                                                                                              ....... ....
                                                         .......                                                     -                                             0.025:=-
                                                              ...... ........ .....
                                                         ..............................
                                                                                                                                                                                                       0.0=

                                                                                                                                                                                                                               1500
                                                                                                                   0.025

                                                150D
                                                                              ................
                                                                                                                                                                .025                                                        -2000
                                                200WO
                                                           ........................

                                                                                                                                      ......                                                                                -2500
                                                250WO


                                                                                                                                ..... ......
                                                300WO                                                                                                                                                                       -30M

                                                           ................
                                                                      .......................... .....
                                                35OWD                                                                                                                                                                       -3500


                                                4@000
                                                                              ...............              ............                                                                                                     _4000
                                                             ..........                                                         ....                                                 ..........
                                                450WO
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            -4500
                                                                              ............. ..........................
                                                                    ............                       ...........
                                                             ............
                                                5000         ...                                                                                                                                                            -5000
                                                                                              ...          .....
                                                9500                  .... ............................                                                                                                                     -5500


                                                              7OW                        6N                                               40W                      30W                       2OW                    1CW
                                                                1                        1                      5@w
                                                    0                                                                                                                                                                               0
                                                                                                                                _0 104-;q;
                                                                                                            ......  .... ..
                                                                                                                                   . .............    ...
                                                                                 . ......              ..........  .........    ......                                                                                         500
                                                                                                                                         ........        ................ .............. .
                                                                                                                                ..... .... .....             ............      ...............
                                                                                                                                ....                          ..........
                                                                                                                                                                   ...........
                                                                         ............                     ....
                                                                                 ...........
                                                                                                                                              0.05                                             0.05-_                          10DO
                                                000                                           .. ....... .        ...
                                                                                                     ............................. ..............
                                                                                                                                ............                   ... .......
                                                                                                                                                               ... ............. ...
                                                                                                                                ...............                                                 ..............
                                                500-                                                                                                                                         .....................             15M
                                                                                                                                                                                             ..... ............ . ............
                                                                                                                                                                                     .. ......  ................................
                                                                                                                                                                                                 ...........
                                                                                                                                                                                         ......             ..............
                                                                                                                                                                          ....                              . ........ .
                                                                                              0.025
                                                                                                                                                                                             ...........
                                                2000-                                                                                                        ::.-.-:.o                          .............................
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               2000
                                                                                                                                                                       .......... .... ..
                                                                                                                                                                   ........... ...
                                                                                                                                                                                             ................
                                                                                                                                                                   ... ........ .................
                                                2500-                                                                                                                                                                          2500
                                                                                                                                                                                                             iiii'w'

                                                3000-                                         0.0                                                                  ......         ..............................
                                                                                                                                                                                                             ....              30M


                                                3500-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               3500
                                                             ..............
                                                                              ..................              ................
                                                40DO -                        ........................                                                                                                                         4000
                                                                                                       ...........................
                                                                                                      ....... . ........ . .
                                                                                                                                                                                             ............
                                                4500-                                                                                                                                                                          4500


                                                                                                                                                                                                                            -5000

                                                950D                                                                                                                                                                        -5500
                                                                                                                                LONGITUDE


                                   Figure 11-10. Salinity difference in parts per thousand (ppt)                                                                                               as a function of
                                   depth along (top) 24.50N and (bottom) 36.50N for 1970-74 minus 1955-59.                                                                                                                     Dot
                                   shading indicates negative values. (Courtesy Sydney Levitus, National
                                   Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and
                                   Information Service)

                                   freshening is seen at intermediate depths in the western part of
                                   the Atlantic. A slight freshening is seen at deeper levels in the
                                   Atlantic west of the mid-Atlantic ridge.                                                                                             The eastern Atlantic
                                   exhibits a slight increase in salinity at deeper levels. At 36.50N
                                   freshening is observed west of 30OW at depths exceeding 3000 m.
                                   West of the mid-Atlantic ridge a slight increase in salinity is
                                   observed in the 1500 to 2500 m layer., A region of freshening is
                                 ..observed in deeper layers. East of the mid-Atlantic ridge salinity
                                   has freshened at nearly all depths beneath the 1500 m level.

                                   Figure II-11 shows interyear differences of salinity at 1750 m
                                   depth. Relatively large differences have occurred over most of the

                                   NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 46








                                               80'N



                                                  70*



                                                  0.                                             .......



                                                  50'                                   0.025
                                                                                           0.00::
                                                                                             -0,025 ...........
                                                  4
                                                                                           ::L::::
                                                                                         T. I " -::.
                                                                                              ..............
                                                                      ,,-0.00      0.025
                                                  3



                                                  20*


                                                               .............. .. . ...

                                                  10*


                                                                                                  ..........

                                                  E Q
                                                  1OOoW 90*  8 o   70o   604   5@-  @0'    3b-  @0-   110'  0"
                Figure 11-11. Salinity difference in parts per                             thousand (ppt) at 1750 m depth
                for 1970-74 minus 1955-59. Dot shading indicates negative values. (Courtesy
                Sydney Levitus, National Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National Environmental
                Satellite, Data, and information Service)

                the north Atlantic Ocean.                              The difference fields show that a
                salinity increase occurred throughout most of the area.                                                             The
                exception is at mid-latitudes in the eastern Atlantic where a
                freshening of the order of 0.025 ppt was observed. This analysis
                indicates that the salinity structure of the deep north Atlantic
                Ocean changes on decadal time scales.

                b. Northeastern Continental Shelf

                Surface salinities are monitored across the northeastern United
                States continental shelf in conjunction with the NOAA National
                Marine Fisheries Service's Ships of Opportunity Program. Surface
                salinity measurements have been collected monthly from ship
                transits across the Gulf of Maine since 1977 and the Middle
                Atlantic Bight since 1976. Surface salinity for the Gulf of Maine
                and Middle Atlantic Bight transects are presented as contoured
                time-space plots (Figures 11-12 and 11-13) . -Portrayed are the
                salinities during 1990 and the departure of these salinities from
                the 1978 through 1987 average values.

                observed salinities in the Middle Atlantic Bight ranged from a low
                of 25.4 ppt nearshore in early February to a high of 36.4 ppt in
                water at the offshore end of the transect in late February (Figure
                11-12). Below average salinities were observed in April to July,
                beyond the shelf break when fresher shelf water moved well offshore
                from normal. Over most of the transect, for the remainder of the
                year salinities were generall@ near average. In the Gulf of Maine,
                time-space distribution'of surface salinity in 1990 (Figure 11-13)
                generally exhibits a pattern of positive anomalies to an extent not
                seen during the term of record.


                                                                                   NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 47
                                                  0



                                                  0
















                                   42-





                                   40-





                                   38-





                                   36-
                                         76     74      72      70     60      66
                        AMROSE               SHEU        1DWD I
                          UGHT               BREAK       1 106
                      (b                                                                       Dec
                                                                                               Nov
                                   33                    30
                                                                                               Oct
                                                                                               Sep
                                                                                               Aug
                                                             3     .11@@
                  E-I                                                                          Jul
                                                                                               Jun
                                                                                               May'
                                                                                          36
                                                                                         <:>   Apr
                                                                                        36
                                                             @4                                Mar
                                                                                            7
                                                                                               Feb
                               33                                      0,                      Jan
                       C                                                                       Dec
                                                   0                                           Nov
                                                                                               Oct
                                                                                               Sep
                                                                     0
                                                                                               Aug
                                                                     0
                                                                                               JLII
                  0                       P                                     0
                                                                                    <>-,o      Jun
                         0
                                                                                             < M.Y
                                                                                             1 Apr
                                                0
                                                                                               M
                                                                                            0  Feb
                                               0
                                                                                               jan
                      0     50      100     150     200      250    300     350     400      450
                                                       KILOMETMS

                Figure 11-12             Surface salinity for the   Midq@q Atlantic Bight    transect
                during 1990: (q) Middle Atlantic Bight plonitoring transects, 1976-199p; (b)
                measured values (ppp) in time and s ace (dots indicate saj ling locations); (c)
                                                     P , . , .    I          mp
                anomalies in time and  space based on 1978 through 1990   means. (Pourtesy @7ack W.
                Jossi and Rob rt
                              e Z. Be way, Northeast Fisheries       Science Centex:,'NOAA National
                Marine Fisheries Service)'


                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 48
                                                                                            01










                                   (a)


                                                d
                               44-
                                  Ift .. ch@ ftlki- ftft-l am C.-.U A@L-
                                    an  _ft.L.-



                               43-





                               42-@



                                       70    69    68    67    66    65    64
                     MASS.     WILK        CENTRAL       CROWELL         SCOTIAN
                     BAY       BASIN        LEDGES         BASIN          SHELF
                  (b)                                                                   Dec
                                                                                        Nov
                                                                                    32-.Oct
                                                                                       !Sep
                               .3'7                           33 3:
                                                                                        Aug
              z                                                                         Jul
                                                                                        Jun
                                                                                        May
                  32                                                                    Apr
                                                                                        Mar
                                                                              L>
                                                                                        Feb
                                                                                        Jan
                  (C
                  0                                                                   Li Dec
                                                                                        Nov
                                                                                        Oct
                       OT@<                                                            jISep
                  0 -LLY                                                                Aug
              E-1                                                                       Jul
              z
                                                                      ICI--- 0 --)i 0 -0
                                                                                        Jun
                                                                                        May
                                                                                        Apr
                                                                                        Mar
                                                                                        Feb
                                                                           C            Jan
                 0     50      100     150    200     250    300     350     400     450
                                             KILqMETERS

           Figure 11-13 (a)-(c).   Surface salinity for the  Gulf of Maine transect during
           1990: (a) Gulf of Maine monitoring transects, 1977-1990; (b) measured values
           (ppt) in time and space (dots indicate sampling locations); (c) anomalies in time
           and space based on 1978 through 1990 means. (Courtesy Jack W. Jossi and Robert
           L. Benway, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
           Service)
                                                                 33@














































                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 49










            SEA LEVEL

            Changes in sea level have practical as well as scientific interest.
            Awareness of the importance of monitoring and understanding long-
            term sea level variations has expanded greatly in recent years
            because of its relationship to global climate change. Scientists
            have reached a consensus that if global warming occurs in the
            coming decades, a change of sea level, with serious consequences
            for coastal areas of the world, is a real possibility.

            sea level  has long been measured    by conventional tide gauges at
            many sites.   'Globally, the records indicate a rise of-about 10 to
            30 centimeters over the last century. Exceptional cases where sea
            level is actually f alling occur in areas known to be undergoing
            isostatic rebound as "a result of the global deglaciation. But even
            after allowing for postglacial rebound and tectonic effects, there
            is observational evidence for sea level rise.        The f undamental
            observational problem is that*. sea level is subject to large
            variations on an interdecadal scale.      In addition, the stations
            with long records are poorly distributed geographically (i.e.,
            aggregated in Europe, Japan, and the U.S. and biased toward the
            Northern Hemisphere).

            Recent technologies are proving important to the significant
            advance of global sea level monitoring.      The Global Positioning
            System, absolute gravity, and Very Long Baseline Interf erometry are
            being used to measure land movements that corrupt tide gauge
            records. Satelli   'te altimeters give global coverage of sea level
            variation and have   proven particularly well suited for study of
            tropical phenomena such as El Nino and transport of western
            boundary currents.   Properly monitoring and interpreting long-term
            sea level involves a wide range of geophysical and geodetic
            measurements in an integrated global observation system to
            understand the reasons for sea level change, make predictions of
            future behavior, and evaluate economic and social effects.

            a. Tide Gauges

            concern over the consequences of global warming ha         's led to
            increased interest in determinations of the rate of sea level rise
            from historical tide gauge records. Published values for global
            sea level rise for the last 50-100 years vary from about 1 to 3
            millimeters per year (mm/yr) , with uncertainties ranging from 0. 015
            to 0.90 mm/yr.  While there is not much doubt that global sea level
            is rising, the   scatter of results makes impossible a meaningful
            interpretation  of data from specific locations.

            The disparity of sea level values is not attributable to instrument
            error; long-term trends computed at adjacent sites often agree to
            within a few tenths of a millimeter per year.           Instead, the
            differing estimates of global sea level rise appear to be in large


            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 50








            part due to using data from gauges located at tectonic plate
            boundaries, where changes of land elevation give fictitious sea
            level trends.        Also, virtually all gauges undergo subsidence or
            uplift due to postglacial rebound (PGR) from the last deglaciation
            at a rate comparable to or greater than the secular rise in sea
            level.      In addition, short (decades) tide gauge records are of
            little use for determining the global trend in sea level be                    'cause
            seasonal and annual signals are so large and variable that the
            smaller, longer-period signals are obscured.-

            The value for mean sea level rise obtained from a global set of 21
            stations in 9 oceanic regions avoiding these biases and with an
            average record length of 76 years during the period 1880-1980 is
            1. 8 mm/yr + or - 0. 1 mm/yr.             Figure 11-14 gives plots of the
            filtered data for one station in each oceanic region for 1880-1980
            with (heavy dots) and without correction for PGR.





                                                            ...........
                                1600-    Portland, ME--,,


                                1400-

                                       Baltimore

                             0
                             N  1200-     Balboa           'N.


                                                                 Francisco
                             M  1000
                             44
                             44


                                 800-
                                       Honol2au




                                 600                                 Brest
                             E-4


                                                                  Marseille
                                 400-



                                 200-                                Cascais


                                                                   Aberdeen
                                   0


                                  1880           1920          1960
                                                    YEAR


            Figure 11-14. Median filtered sea     level records with (dark) and without    (light)
            postglacial rebound (PGR) correction for one member of each sea level          region.
            (Courtesy Bruce C. Douglas, Chief, Geosciences Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean
            Service)


                                                            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 51









            b. Satellite Altimetry

            since the beginning of the U.S. Navy Geosat altimeter mission*in
            1985 NOAA/National ocean Service has prepared altimeter data sets
            for distribution to the international scientific community and has
            actively participated in oceanographic research based on these
            data. Although the satellite failed in late 1989, this 4.5-year
            satellite mission was the most successful of its kind.         About
            500,000 observations of sea level, wind speed, and wave height were
            collected daily over the global oceans, resulting in an order of
            magnitude more altimeter data than had been obtained during all
            previous missions. These data have b6en.used by NOAA to study and
            monitor sea level variations in the tropical oceans as they relate
            to global weather and climate (Figure 11-15). During the past year
            a number of new Geosat data sets have been prepared by NOAA f or
            distribution to the oceanographic community:

            1. GDRs.   The NOAA Geosat geophysical data records (GDRs) have
            recently been upgraded by incorporating a significantly more
            accurate satellite orbit, corrections for water vapor, tides, dry
            troposphere, and geoid.       These new GDRs, which are being
            distributed on 7 CD-ROMs, have enabled sea level to be determined
            with far greater accuracy than before. Comparison with island tide
            gauge.data in the tropical Pacific indicates accuracies of about 3
            cm root mean squares for monthly mean sea level.

            2. XDRs. The first 18 months of the Geosat altimeter sea level
            data (April 1985 to September 1986) are secret, but permission was
            given to NOAA by the U.S. Navy to generate an unclassified version
            of the data that can be used f or sea level variability. studies.
            These unclassified data are expressed in a form known as crossover
            differences (XDRs). A global set of approximately 44 million XDRs
            was computed at the secure facility operated by NOAA at the Johns
            Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, and these are being made
            available to the research community on a set of 7 CD-ROMs.       The
            XDRs enable computation of continuous sea level time series
            spanning the period 1985-89 and have . provided the f irst
            comprehensive description of interannual variations associated with
            the El Nino event in the Pacific Ocean.

            3.  Southern Hemisphere GDRs. In 1990 NOAA obtained permission
            from the Navy to declassify those Geosat geodetic mission GDRs
            covering the ocean region adjacent to Antarctica (600S to 720S) .
           .The average cross-track spacing of these data is typically 2 to 3
            km at 600S, providing very high spatial resolution f or geophysical
            studies. These GDRs are contained on two 9-track tapes. NOAA is
            also actively supporting the newest satellite altimeter, the
            European Space Agency (ESA) Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-1),
            launched in July 1991. NOAA personnel are assisting ESA in areas
            of calibration and verification and will use the fast delivery
            altimeter data to perform monthly monitoring of tropical sea level.


            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 52









              40N




              20N



                Eq                                                                 7



              20S
              40S7_1__
                120E 140E       .160E     180    16OW 140W       120W     10OW    9OW


                     -28 -24 -20 -16 -12 -3 -4 0       4   8 12    16 20   24 28
                                            CENTIMETERS


            Figure 11-15. Sea level anomaly in the tropical Pacific averaged over the 1-year
            period November 1986-87. Anomalies are relative to the mean over the first year
            of the Geosat mission, April 1985-86. Contours are at 4 cm intervals, negative
            shaded.   This map depicts, the 1986-87 El Nino when water from the western
            equatorial Pacific was displaced primarily to the east and north. (Courtesy
            Robert E. Cheney, Chief, Satellite and Ocean Dynamics Branch, Geosciences
            Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean Service)



            OCEAN TRANSPORT

            The role of ocean circulation in transporting heat and modifying
            the effects of global climate change is not well understood.
            Recent research has identified the Atlantic ocean latitude band 20ON
            to 301N as having. the largest poleward heat flux in the North
            Atlantic basin.       Figure 11-16 shows the variability within the
            Florida Current in ocean transport. This monitoring was done using
            measurements of the cross-stream voltage between Florida and Grand
            Bahama Island, generated by the flow of the Florida Current through
            the Earth's magnetic field as measured by.a submarine cable along
            the seafloor. The fluctuations in the 30-day running mean of the
            transport (Figure 11-16, upper curve) show that there are large
            seasonal changes in transport and that these fluctuations are
            larger in some years than others.            It is not known at this time
            whether these fluctuations are an indicator of climate variability
            or long-term change. The yearly mean values (Figure 11-16, bottom
            curve) do not show significant change in the mean transport of 32
            Sverdrups.


                                                         NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST, 53










                                       monthly means
               40



             > 30
             C/2




               20

                                       yearly means  1 std
               40




             >
               30



                                       mean 32.2  0.8 Sv
               20                      trend -0.13 0.12 Sv/yr



                                                           ........... ........


                          1982 1983  1984  1-985 1986 1987  1988  1989 1990
                                           YEAR


            Figure 11-16. Monthly mean transport for Florida Straits (270N) derived from
            voltage measurements made between Settlement Point, Grand Bahama Island, and near
            Jupiter Inlet, Florida. Monthly means (top curve) and yearly means (bottom curve)
            are given. Sv=Sverdrups (106n?lsec). (Courtesy Jimmy C. Larsen, Pacific Marine
            Environmental Laboratory, NOAA office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research)


            COASTAL UPWIELLING

            Upwelling regions are among the most biologically productive areas
            of the ocean.    The most important upwelling areas are in the.
            eastern boundary currents off California, Peru, northwest Africa
            and southwest Africa.    Not only are upwelling regions of high
            economic importance (yielding up to 50 percent of the world's fish
            catches), but they strongly influence adjacent coastland weather
            and climate.    Increasing alongshore wind stress, which drives
            coastal upwelling, has been linked to long-term climate variation
            and change.  Changes in the rate of coastal upwelling have been
            used as an indicator of climate variability. Direct observations
            of upwelling are -,not available. . However,. a coastal upwelling
            index, based on an estimate of the alongshore wind stress (the
            driving mechanism for upwelling), h   'as been used to calculate
            variations of upwelling intensity along the west coast of the U.S.
            (Figure 11-17).



            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 54

























               1940-1989
           
           


                                                  YEAR


            Figure 11-17. Bakun Coastal Upwelling index. offshore Ekman Transport 39N,
            125W. (Courtesy Andrew Bakun, Chief, Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group, NOAA
            National Marine Fisheries Service)



            The f irst edition of the NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST described a
            process by which global warming could result in the amplification
            of heating during summer intensifing the thermal low-pressure cell
            over the coastal landmass in upwelling regions.                 The increased
            onshore-of f shore pressure gradient induces strengthened alongshore
            wind.      Evidence was presented of substantial multi-decadal
            increases in alongshore wind stress off California,.Peru, Morocco,
            and the Iberian Peninsula.              Further evidence of increasing
            alongshore wind stress is presented f or the northwest coast of
            Africa in Figure ii18. Additional evidence f or this hypothesis is
            found in the trends in atmospheric pressure in the northwest Africa
            interior.     The thermal low in the interior of northwest Africa
            appears to have been intensifying in an especially dramatic manner.
            This is being done in phase with the strongly increasing wind
            trends along the west African coast. Meteorological data in the
            African interior is rather sparse and this might be suspected as
            being involved in the trend. However, actual measured barometric
            pressure from a group of stations in north Africa (Tombouctou,
            Mopti, & Bamako) appear in each case to independently substantiate
            the trend.













                                                         NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 55









                                                                            Cap Sim

                                                                     2-5-
                                                                                                                          A
                                                                     2.0-                                                a%
                                                                                                                                    P,
                                                                     1 .5                   "Oil                    T       na-ie@vh
                                                                                                                --- ------------
                                                                                                            br,
                                                                     1.0

                                                                          45   50    55    60      65     70    75      60    85     W



                                                                            Cap Juby

                                                                     2.5
                                                                                                             A. iq       %q
                                                                                                                d I. CL        A A
                                                                     10   -                                                 -0 - * ,

                                                                     1.5

                                                                     1.0

                                                                          45 50      55 60         65     70 75        80 85 90



                                                                            Cabo Bojador
                                                                     3.0
                                                           >1
                                                           rd        2-5
                                                                                                                    go q
                                                                                                                -:@- a;
                                                                     2-0       -j.A4-*----:@-:@-tA-;4--:7--V-
                                                                     1.5
                                                                          ,-.Fr o@ :            I.:
                                                           Pq                           :   :   a
                                                                     1.0.               Deli,
                                                                          45   50    55     60     65     70    75 ao         a5 90
                                                           En

                                                           0
                                                           z
                                                                            Cap Blanc
                                                                     3.0-                                 :A'.

                                                                     2-0-          A
                                                                     1.5 .0 -Ago'-. ?C                W                    bad am
                                                                                               V16  06
                                                                     1'0 - bad,        00i
                                                                          45 50     55 60 65            70    75    80 95 90




                                                                            Cap Vert


                                                                     1.2                      CL
                                                                     1.0  - ------ -
                                                                       .8


                                                                       .4
                                                                          45   50    55 60          55    70    75     ao a5 90
                                                                                                   YEAR

                          Figure 11-18.                    Monthly          estimates            of alongshore wind stress                               (dyneslcm2) off
                          northwest Africa. Linear trend fitted by least squares method (long dashes).
                          (Courtesy Andrew Bakun, chief, Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group, NOAA
                          National Marine Fisheries Service)


                          NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 56









                                    LONG WAVES


                                    Global scale ocean dynamics are dominated by the rotation of the
                                    Earth.                         The Coriolis force has an important inf luence on long
                                    waves, fronts, and eddies on many spatial and temporal scales. A
                                    special class of motions occur in the vicinity of the equator where
                                .the Coriolis force approaches zero.

                                    Equatorial long waves are westward propagating, low frequency, long
                                    period, with large north-south scales. Long waves have been seen
                                    as 1000 kilometer cusped perturbations in the sea surface
                                    temperature front that develops along the equator in the Atlantic
                                    ocean during summer and fall. Such perturbations have been noted
                                    in satellite photographs.

                                    The perturbations move westward at speeds varying from 20 to 50
                                    cm/second. The position of these perturbations affect biological
                                    productivity, weather, and cross-equatorial heat transport. The
                                    movement of long wave crests has been tracked in SST from satellite
                                    measurements since 1984. Wave activity. reached a minimum in the El
                                    Nino year 1987. Waves have been particularly frequent and long-
                                    lived in 1989 and 1990 (Figure 11-19).


                                                                                                                               40W         3OW          20W         low           PM
                                                                                                                                                                                      May 84
                                                                                                                                                                                      J= 94
                                                                                                                                                                                      Jul 84
                                                                                                                                                                                      Aug 84
                                                                                                                                                                                      S@p 94
                                                                                                                                                                                      M.y 85
                                                                                                                                                                                      I= 95
                                                                                                                                                                                      JW 85
                                                                                                                                                                                      Aug 85
                                                                                                                                                                                      Sep 85
                                                                                                                                                                                      May 86
                                                                                                                                                                                      im 86
                                                                                                                                                                                      Jul 86
                                                                                                                                                                                      "g    86
                                                                                                                                      r                                               Sep 86
                                                                                                                        E-4                                                           May 97
                                                                                                                        Z                                                             J- 97
                                                                                                                         0                                                            Jul 87
                                                                                                                                                                                      A.9 87
                                                                                                                                                                                      Sep 87
                                                                                                                                                                                      huy 88
                                                                                                                                                                                      J= 88
                                                                                                                                                                                      Jul so
                                                                                                                                                                                      Aug 88
                                                                                                                                                                                      Sep 88
                                                                                                                                                                                      NUY 89
                                                                                                                                                                                      JM 89
                                                                                                                                                                                      Jul 89
                                                                                                                                                                          A           Aug 89
                                                                                                                                                                                      Sep 89
                                                                                                                                                                                      may 90
                                                                                                                                                                                      J= 90
                                                                                                                                                                                      JW 90
                                                                                                                                                                                      AUg 90


                                                                                                                                           LONGITUDE

                                    Figure 11-19. Positions of long wave crests in                                                                                                    the equatorial Atlantic Ocean
                                    during May-September, 1984-90. Crests propagate westward at an average speed of
                                    about 30 cm1sec. (courtesy LT John M. Steger, Satellite Applications Laboratory,
                                    NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service)


                                                                                                                                                                     NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 57









            COASTAL GEODESY/HYDROGRAPHY

            Geodesy is the science of measuring the shape of the Earth's
            surface. The Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) has the capability
            to accurately determine land subsidence and shoreline movement from
            its historic data base. Accurate shoreline maps have been produced
            since the early 1830s.  The maps cover the nation's shoreline which
            has been remapped on an average interval of 30 years. In addition
            to shoreline maps, the C&GS maintains an archive of aerial f ilm
            dating from the early 1930s.

            Subsidence is the sinking     of the ground due to natural or
            anthropogenic causes. Two areas of the United States, New Orleans-
            Southern Louisiana and Houston-Galveston, Texas, are experiencing
            land subsidence due mainly to the withdrawal of groundwater and
            oil. Detection of this movement has been made possible through the
            repeated surveying of the National Geodetic Reference System of the
            C&GS. Releveling efforts over-the past 20 years generally show a
            continuing subsidence of the land areas, although rates of
            subsidence vary over the entire area.

            Between 1963 and 1978, all of the region within 20 miles of Houston
            had subsided at least 3 decimeters. - Figure 11-20 shows how
            Houston's eastern boundary (Pasadena) has subsided since 1976. The
            dramatic decrease in subsidence east of Houston since 1978 is a
            result of regulated reductions of water pumping allowed by canal
            systems providing alternative surface water. No alternative source
            of water is available for the area.. west of Houston, which has
            experienced rapid residential and commercial growth. The regional
            changes in water levels have a direct relationship to subsidence in
            the Houston area.



                             40 SUBSIDENCE AT PASADENA EXTENSOMETER.



                                 77            82             87


                                             YEAR



                         z




                            -50





                            -120
                                  MODELM FJ"T
                               0--008SEWED HEIGW


            Figure 11-20. subsidence in millimeters (mm) at Pasadena, Texas, 1976-88.
            (Courtesy R. Sandford Holdahl and David B. Zilkoski. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
            NOAA National Ocean Service)


            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 58









                        Hydrography is the science which deals with the measurement and
                        description of the physical features of bodies of water and their
                        littoral land areas.                                      special emphasis is usually placed on the
                        elements that affect safe navigation, and the publication of such
                        information for use in navigation. A shoal is an offshore hazard
                        to navigation on which there is a depth of 66 feet (20 m) or less,
                        composed of unconsolidated material. The C&GS monitor areas of
                        shoal development. This information is vital to all mariners for
                        the purposes of safe navigation.                                                              C&GS constantly updates its
                        nautical charts with its own hydrographic surveys and input from
                        other government agencies, private industry, and the public.

                        Fire Island and West Point Shoals, found at the northern end of
                        Cook Inlet, Alaska, are well known dangers to vessels that transit
                        in and out of the Port of Anchorage.                                                                For at least fifty years,
                        C&GS surveys have shown that Fire Island Shoal has been steadily
                        moving eastward toward Fire Island encroaching upon the traditional
                        safe navigation route that container ships, oil tankers, and U.S.
                        Navy and Coast Guard vessels have been using since the early 1960s.
                        Fire Island Shoal, as                                     well as others in the vicinity, has been
                        periodically surveyed by the C&GS to determine the precise
                        location, extent, and                                         least depth for the purposes of safe
                        navigation through this                                    portion of Cook Inlet. Hydrographic survey
                        data collected between 1941 and 1987 revealed that Fire Island'
                        Shoal has shifted over                                      1,000 m and has risen from 10 feet (3 m)
                        least depth to 2 feet (0.6 m) above Mean Lower Low Water. West
                        Point Shoal, adjacent to Fire Island Shoal, is relatively new and
                        has been developing since first observed on a 1982 C&GS survey.
                        During a 5-year period the center has shifted 200 m to the west,
                        expanded by approximately 260 m wide and 1,368 m long, and went
                        from a least depth of 9.1 m to 7.6 m (Figure 11-21).

                               FEET                                                                                                                                      E



                       figure ii-21. sounding profile of fire island and west point shoals from 1941
				to 1987. (courtesy dennis j. hill, coast and geodetic survey, noaa national ocean 
                        service)


											noaa environmental digest 59




                                    

                                                                                                                                                      
                                                                                                                                  
                                                                                                                                            
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        












          Ill. CRYOSPHERE



          sea ice and snow cover are important factors related to the Earth's
          heat budget and in determining the amount of solar energy reflected
          back into space (planetary albedo)   Latitudinal variations in the
          Earth's albedo help determine       atmospheric circulation and
          consequently the heat transferred from equator to pole.          The
          processes that accommodate this flux of heat influence both short-
          term weather and long-term climate. Global scale changes in the
          volume of ice are an indicator of global temperature change as are
          the long-term seasonal amounts and extent of snow cover and sea
          ice.








































                                 JOW











             SEA ICE



             Sea ice influences global climate through its effect on planetary
             albedo.     Additionally, it influences energy transfers of heat
             between the atmosphere and oceans and affects the temperature and
             salinity structures of the ocean. The melting and freezing that
             occur at the margins of sea ice produce effects on ocean stability
             and circulation that promote mixing, upwelling, and nutriient
             enhancement.     These "ice edge effects" act to enhance biological
             productivity.      Measurements of sea ice extent, type, movement,
             surface temperature, and albedo are important indicators of climate
             change.

             Time series of the monthly areal extent of Arctic sea ice are shown
             in Figure III-1. The time series shows no clear relationships to
             the global or Northern Hemisphere surface temperature.                      For
             example, the warmest year in the modern record, 1990, was also the
             year with the minimum in summer Arctic sea ice, but other low
             Arctic sea ice summers were associated with near zero or slightly
             negative temperature anomalies.

                                                                                           2.0








                                                                                          i . D



                                                         ........... .........
             0
             H














                                                                          W I NTER

                                                                          SUMMER ......

                                                                                          -2.0

                   1973 1974 1975 1976 IS77 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985-1986 1987 1988 1989 1990
                                                 YEAR


             Figure XXX-1. Time series (1  973-90) of the  Arctic sea ice anomalies for the
             northern winter (solid line) which is an average of January and February data and
             summer (dashed line) which is an average of Augustand September data. Areas
             based on satellite remote-sensing data. (Courtesy Climate Analysis Center, KOAA
             National Weather service)


             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 62









            The time series of both the Antarctic summer and winter sea ice
            areas (Figure 111-2) show little evidence of long-term trends or
            relationships to the Southern Hemisphere temperature anomalies.
            Sea ice anomalies appear to be systematically larger early in the
            record compared to the recent decade. The larger negative winter
            anomalies in the late 1970s are associated with the evolution of a
            persistent polynya, or large ice-free area within the Weddell Sea.
            Polynyas are thought to be associated with low-frequency
            fluctuations in the deep-ocean circulation.


                                                                                          2.0









                                                                                         1 .0






            0


                                                                                          0.0




            F<



                                                                                        -1 .0




                                                                         WINTER

                                                                         SUMMER ......
                                                                               1 1-4-2.0
                  1973 1974 1975 197G 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1906 1987 1988 1989 1990
                                                 YEAR


            Figure XXX-2.  Time series (1973-90) of the Antarctic sea ice area anomalies for
            the southern winter (dashed line) which is an average of August and September
            data and summer (solid line) which is an average of January and February data.
            Areas are based on satellite remote-sensing data. (Courtesy Climate Analysis
            Center, NOAA National Weather Center)



            SNOW COVER

            The extent of snow cover is an important factor in the planetary
            radiation budget. In addition, measurements of the extent, depth,
            density, and liquid content of snow are important for determining
            global precipitation and runoff volumes.             Satellite-derived snow
            cover estimates have been available since the 1960s. These values
            were not considered suitable for use in scientific analysis until
            the development of consistent, global-scale analyses in 1973.


                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 63








              The record indicates that the late 1970s were marked by a sequence
              of years with considerably, above-normal snow cover. The 1980s have
              witnessed less snow cover and a general return to the pre-1970s
              conditions.      The warmer-than-average temperature in the Northern
              Hemisphere during the 1980s may be linked in part to the variations
              in snow coverage.           Time series of Eurasian snow cover and
              temperature anomalies provide some evidence for the hypothesis that
              the two are related (Figure 111-3). This time series plot suggests
              that during the spring and, to a lesser extent summer, snow cover
              area and temperature anomalies are inversely related .                      Since
              positive global temperature anomalies are strongly influenced by
              the Northern Hemisphere spring temperatures in Eurasia, the extreme
              temperature anomaly of spring 1990 may have been, in part, related
              to the reduced snow cover area during spring and summer. No-.strong
              relationships between snow cover area and surface temperature
              anomaly were evident in the         time series for the fall and winter
              seasons.



                    1 .0                                                               21 .0


                         (a)






                    0. 5-                                                              Is. 0



                                                                                            N



                                                                                            0

                 >4
                                                                                       17.0


                 0
                 z





                   -0.5-                                                               15.0






                   -1 .01                                                              13.0
                     1973   1975   IS77   157S   1981   IS83   1585   1987   ISSS    1551
                                                    YEAR


              Figure XXX-3 (a)-(b). Time series (1973-90) of Eurasian snow cover area derived
              from satellite data (dashed line) and Eurasian temperature anomalies (solid line)
              derived from an analysis of surface weather stations for (a) spring and (b)
              summer. The lefthand scale gives the temperature anomaly in degrees Celsius while
              the righthand scale gives the snow cover in 106km2. (Courtesy Climate Analysis
              center, NOAA National Weather Service)


              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 64














                             1 .0                                                                                                               4.'0
                                    (b)
                                                              !% 4t%

                             0.5-                                                                                                               3.0



                                                                                  ItI
                     0


                      >4
                             0.0-                                                                                                                2.0



                      z





                            -0.5-









                                                                                                                                                a .0
                                1973       1975        1977       1979        1981        1983        1985       1987        Ises       Issl
                                                                                   YEAR



                    Figure 111-3 continued.





























                                                                                                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 65













         IV. BIOSPHERE


         Life, since its first appearance billions of years ago, has
         continually adapted to changes in the Earth's climate.     Natural
         selection has eliminated many species and allowed genetically
         adaptable life forms to evolve.    Not only has lif e adapted to
         variations in climate, but the presence of life itself has
         influenced climate.  Natural processes, biological interactions,
         and, 'increasingly, human activities have caused changes in the'
         global ecosystem, changes in species abundance, and modification
         of habitats.





                     F@ "@Ylaulil
                 R





























                                                                     Z7







                                             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 67










               FISHERIES

               Fish has become an increasingly important part of the American
               economy. our nation's fishery resources support large commercial
               and recreational fishing industries, providing food, income,
               employment, and recreation.            Commercial landings of fish and
               shellfish alone have a value of billions of dollars. Most of our
               fishery resources are products of coastal waters and adjacent
               estuaries, areas that are increasingly subject to pollution,
               habitat loss, and overfishing.             Two-thirds of the commercial
               fisheries harvest is estuarine dependent. Regional stocks of the
               most popular species are declining and species composition, size,
               and abundance are being changed.

               a. Commercial Landings

               Commercial landings by U.S. fisherman in 1990               amounted to 9.7
               billion pounds (4.4 million metric tons) valued             at $3.6 billion,
               an increase of 1.2 billion pounds (564,900                 metric tons) in
               quantity, and $334.0 million (up 10 percent) in value compared with
               1989 (Figure IV-1) .       Landings of major finfish species such as
               Atlantic and Pacific cod, Alaska pollock, and flounders increased.
               Finfish accounted for 86 percent of total landings, but only 55
               percent of the total value of finfish and shellfish.







                    12.0
                                   Volume (b)                Value
                .0 10.0-1
                 ri


                    &0


                    6. 0


                    4. 0


                    2.01
                0
                P4


                             1986         1987           1988         1989           1990


                                                   YEAR


               Figure IV-1.   U.S. commercial landings (edible and -industrial).       (Courtesy
               Fisheries atatistics Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 68








            In terms of volume, the top f ive species caught by commercial
            fishermen in 1990 were pollock, menhaden, salmon, cod, and flounder
            (Figure IV-2a). Salmon, shrimp, crab, pollock were the top five
            species in terms of value (Figure IV-2b) .                   Compared with 1989,
            landings of clams, crabs, flounders, Alaska pollock, and Atlantic
            and Pacific cod increased, while shrimp, salmon, and tuna landings
            decreased.



                   Total Volume       9.7 billion lb               Total Value        $3.6 billion

                                                                                        Salmon
                                                                                         17.1%
             Alaska Pol                                           Shrimp
                 32.5%
                                                                   13.8%

                                                                       .............
                                      Other                     (b)
                                                                       ........ ..
              (a)
                                      27.9%



                                                                                       Other
                                                               Crabs
                               .... ...                                                 43%
                                                               13.5%     .........
                                                  Flounder

                                               Cods     Alaska Pollock
                                                6.6%         7.6%
                   Menhcden               Salmon                   Lobsters
                     20.2%                 7.6%                      5%


            Figure' IV-2 (a)-(b).      (a)  Total volume and (b) total value of the major
            commercial species caught by U.S. fishermen. (Courtesy Fishery statistics
            Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)



            b. Recreational Catch

            The U.S. recreational catch in 1990 on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts
            was an estimated 230.9 million fish.                        These fish weighed
            approximately 317.7 million pounds and were taken on an estimated
            39.8 million fishing trips (Figure IV-3). Of this amount, 141.5
            million pounds (45 percent) were landed,. the balance was released.


            The five species groups most commonly caught by recreational
            anglers in 1990 on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts by weight were
            bluefishl tunas /mackerels, drums/croakers, porgies, and dolphin
            (Figure IV-4a) . The total catch in number on the Pacific coast for
            1989, the last year data are available, was estimated to be 41.3
            million fish (27.8 million pounds) , exclusive of salmon, which
            historically has been about two percent of the total Pacific
            recreational catch (Figure IV-4b).
                                                            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEï¿½T 69







                               500 -/ (a)

                               4
                               0 -    371  398     382  411
                               0               356
                        H
                                                                324
                                                            288 JjjW
                        P40    300 -
                        0 H                                         240  231

                               200-
                          M

                               100 -



                                 .81  82  83  84   85  86  87       @9  90
                               80-/ (b)            71           66
                                      61       62      62
                               60-                          55
                        00
                                                                    48

                          r-4                                           40
                        Pk rA  40-
                        00



                          PL4  20-
                          H

                        z E-I
                               0
                                 81   82  83  84  85   86  87   88 89   90
                                                   YEAR


              Figure XV-3 (a)-(b).  Marine recreational fisheries (a) catch and (b) fishing
              trips Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, 19.81-1990. 1990 data provisional. (Courtesy
              Fisheries Statistics Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


                       1990 Atlantic & Gulf Coast                 1989 Pacific Coast
                      Landings = 141.5 million lb             Landings   27.8 million lb

                     Tuncis/Mackerels                       Other fishes
                         17.7% ... Flatfishes
                                                           (b)
                                                                                    G
                                                                                     reenlings




                                                                .. .............
                                               Dolphin
                                                6.1%                                Sea Basses
                Other Fishes                  Porges                                  10.9%
                  41.4%                        6.4%       Rockfshes
                                          Drums/Croakers   32.1%                Tunas/Mackerels
                                              8.2%                                 11.6%

              Figure XV-4 (a)-(b). (a) 1990 Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coast landings and
              (b) 1989 Pacific coast landings. (Courtesy Fisheries Statistics Division, NOAA
              National Marine Fisheries Service)


              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 70
                                                                    48

                                                                        40










            c. Catch in the U.S. EEZ

            All fishery resources within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone
            (EEZ), except highly migratory species of tuna, are subject to
            management by one or more of the eight Regional Fishery Management
            Councils created by the Magnuson Fishery -Conservation and
            Management Act (MFCMA) of 1976.            The Councils develop Fishery
            Management Plans (FMPs) for species requiring management. The FMPs
            are designed to provide for the optimum utilization of the
            resources! while giving preference to U.S. fishermen over foreign
            fisherman. The MFCMA led to the development of "joint ventures"
            in 1979, wherein U      -S. commercial fishermen catch and sell to
            foreign vessels certain species for which U.S. demand is low
            relative to the abundance of the species.

            The combined catch by U.S. and foreign vessels in the EEZ was 6.0
            billion pounds (2.7 million metric tons) in 1990 (Figure IV-5), a
            decrease of 68.4 million pounds (1 %) compared with 1989. The U.S.
            share was 99 percent of the total.             The foreign catch of fish
            (excluding tunas) and shellfish in the U.S. EEZ was 2b.3 million
            pounds in 1990, a 75 percent decrease compared with 1989. The N.
            Atlantic U.S. EEZ supplied 100 percent of the total foreign catch.

            Joint venture catches in the U.S. EEZ (Figure IV-5) grew from 23.3
            million pounds (10.6 thousand metric tons) in 1979 to 3.2 billion
            pounds (1,452.2 thousand metric tons) in 1988, but in 1990 the
            catch decreased to 800,6.00 pounds (363.1 thousand metric tons) .
            The U.S. harvesting and processing capabilities have expanded
            greatly in the last few years, decreasing the need for these joint
            venture arrangements.


               7.0-      Foreign Catches  U.S. Vessel Landings Joint Venture
            tn 6.0-
            r.
            0
            -1 5.0-
            r-I                                                    -
               4.0-

               3.0-

               2.0-

            0
            P4 1.0 -

               0.0-
                       1985       1986       1987       1988       1989        1990

                                                  YEAR


            Figure IV-5. U.S., foreign, and joint venture catches in the U.S. EEZ, 1985-
            1990. (Courtesy Fishery Statistics Division, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
            Service)


                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 71









            d. World,Landings

            In 1989, world commercial fishery landings were a record 99.5
            million metric tons, an increase of 772,000 metric tons (less than
            1 percent) compared with 1988 (Figure IV-6).      The USSR was the
            leading nation with 11 percent of the total catch; China, second
            with  11 percent, Japan, third,with 11 percent; followed by Peru
            with  7 percent; Chile, fifth with 6 percent; and the United States
            with  6 percent.






              0

              H 14
              H
              'r' 12-
                10
              Z   8-
              0
              F,  6-                           ............

                  4-



                  od
                             1981         1984     1986          1989
                                          YEAR
                   M USA    M Chile     Peru     japan     ChinA     USSR
                    6th      6th      4th      3rd       2nd       1st
            Figure IV-6., World commercial catch by leading countries, 1979-1989. (Courtesy
            Fishery, StatibtiCS.DiviSion,'NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


            e., Selected  U.S. Fisheries.

                  i. Reef Fish

            Waters of the western Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean
            Sea contain more than 100 species of reef fish that are considered
            commer,cially. or recreationally important.   Fishing pressure has
            increased greatly, and most traditional reef fisheries are probably
            fully exploited or 6verfished. Eight out of the ten major species
            in' the Atlantic fishery show significant declines in average size
            since.1972. An example is the decline in the weight index of gag
            (a species of grouper) shown in Figure IV-7.      In the Caribbean,
            traditional mainstays of the fishery such as Nassau grouper have
            practically, disappeared, and the major target species in recent
            years, e.g., red hind (a grouper), show declines in total landings

                                        72









           since  the late 1970s. Figure IV-8 shows the              dramatic decline in
           yield  of Caribbean reef fish.



               15


                                                                                         0.8 W
               12-                                                                            in
                                                                                              z


           0                                                                             0.6 :1.4
           0   9
           0

           Q   6-                                                                        0. 4 rA


           >4
               3 -                                                                       0.24

                           Commercial Yield      Recreational Yield 7-)K- Gag Index

                                                                                         0
                      79          81         83          85          87         89
                                                  YEAR


           Figure IV-7. Yield of Atlantic reef fish, 1978-1990; weight index of gag. Yield
           in thousands of metric tons (mt=metric tons). (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries
           Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)'

                 3



               2.5



                 2

            0
            0
            0
               1.5





            >4
               0.5-
                            Yield


                 0
                       79          81         83          85          87        ..89
                                                  YEAR


           Figure IV-8.   Yield of Caribbean, reef fish in    thousands of  metric  tons (mt=
           metric tons), 1978-1989. (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries- Science Center, NOAA
           National Marine Fisheries Service)

                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 73









                     ii. Oceanic Pelagics

               The Atlantic Ocean pelagic fishery (open water) resources,
               -including tunas, swordfish, marlins, and sailfish, are highly
               migratory species harvested over large geographic regions.                     The
               primary species harvested in the U.S. has shifted since 1960 from
               bluef in tuna to swordf ish to yellowf in tuna. In 1961-1973, bluef in
               tuna represented 45-80 percent of the U.S. western Atlantic yield,
               but the percentage is now less than 10 percent. This decline in
               bluefin tuna catch and a similar decline in swordfish catch
               coincide with declines in abundance (Figure IV-9). In 1961-1983,
               the percentage of yellowfin tuna in the U.S. catch was generally
               less than 10 percent, but the United States has become a major
               harvester of yellowfin tuna, which now comprises 45 percent of the
               catch.


                                                     Swordfish Adults

                      20-                                                               -1


                               Bluefin Biomass
                                                                                        -0.8
                      15 -
                  -P
                                                                                             z
                  0                                                                     -0.6
                  0
                  0
                      10-
                                                                                          '0A

                  H

                                                                                        -0.2


                             -4-US West Atl Yield     Bluef In Index 9 Swordfish Index
                       0 -1  11111f1111111111i                   I I I I I I i I I I 1   10
                         60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88                   90
                                                      YEAR


               Figure IV-9.  Change in abundance of bluefin tuna  and swordfish compared to yield
               of all ocean  pelagic species, 1961-1989.     Bluefin index is based on biomass;
               swordfish index is based on number of adults. Yield in thousands of metric tons
               (mt=metric tons). (courtesy Southeast Fisheries science Center, NOAA National
               marine Fisheries service)


                     iii. Sharks

               A substantial recreational fishery and directed commercial shark
               fishery for coastal sharks occur in the U.S. Atlantic.                     Pelagic
               sharks are targeted by shark tournaments and are a major bycatch
               of the longline fishery for swordfish and tuna. Since 1970, shark



               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 74








            meat has become a popular seafood. Very recently, however, high
            levels of mercury were discovered in 'shark f lesh, and this may
            render the market unstable. Sharks are vulnerable to overfishing
            because of low reproductive potential and slow growth rates. Both
            recreational and commercial fishermen have recently voiced concern
            regarding a perceived downward trend in shark availability. Figure
            IV-10 shows trends in recreational and commercial yields.                         A
            fishery management plan is expected to become effective in 1992.



              10-                                                                          5
                      Recreational Yield

                   9  Small Coastal Sharks                                                    ta
               8-                                                                             Z
                                                                                              0
            -P                                                                               .@I


               6                                                                           3
            0


               4-                                                                          2
                       Commercial Yield

                       Large Coastal Sharks
               2-                                                                          1


               0-                                                                         10
                     79         81         83         85          87         89          91
                                                   Year


            Figure IV-10. Recreational and commercial yields of Atlantic sharks; abundance
            estimates of large and small coastal sharks. Yield in thousands of metric tons
            (mt=metric tons). (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National
            Marine Fisheries Service)



                  iv. Menhaden

            Menhaden are filter feeders found in coastal and estuarine waters.
            Two species, the Atlantic and Gulf menhaden, form surface schools
            that support a large industrial fishery producing fish meal, oil,
            and solubles. By weight landed, menhaden is the largest fishery
            in the United States. Figure IV-11 shows the trends in yield and
            biomass since 1950. The Atlantic menhaden stock is overutilized.
            Landings have improved since a collapse of the stock in the 1960s,
            but not to the levels of the late 1950s. The Gulf menhaden stock
            is fully utilized.         Historically, Gulf landings rose from the
            beginning of the fishery to a peak in 1984, but they have declined
            steeply since 1987.




                                                          NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 75










                 1000                                                                    -2500
                                                 Gulf of Mexico Yield

                                             9   Gulf VIDA Biomass                                -P
                  800                                                                    -2000    0
                -P                                                                                0
                0                                                                                 0.
                                                                                                  0
                .0                                                                                r4
                0 600-                                                                      1500-
                0


                n 400-                                                                     1000
                                                                                                  0
                                                                                                  H
                >4 200-                                                                  -500

                               Atlantic Yield                       Atlantic VPA Biomass
                     0 -1      I'l I I I I I I                      I I I I I I I I I I I I I 10
                        60 62 64 66 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88      90
                                                       YEAR


                Figure IV-11. Yield and biomass of Gulf and Atlantic menhaden in       thousands of
                metric tons (mt=metric tons), 1950-1990. VPA = virtual population analysis.
                (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
                Service)


                      v. Shrimp

                Gulf of Mexico shrimp fishery trends for the past 30 years indicate
                that both brown and white shrimp catch levels have significantly
                increased, while pink shrimp catch, which was very stable until
                about 1985, has declined the past few seasons and is now at. an all-
                time low, (Figure IV-12) .           Recruitment levels . for each of the
                species have generally showed the same trends as catch. There has
               ,been a significant increase in the number of recruits produced per
                parent for brown shrimp, but no significant increase is seen for
                white and pink shrimp. Shrimp fisheries-are affected by changes
                in estuarine conditions. The increase for brown shrimp appears to
                be related to alterations in marsh habitat. Coastal subsidence and
                sea level rise in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico are causing
                intertidal marshes to be inundated longer and become more favorable
                for production of food for shrimp. Subsidence also has increased
                accessibility by creating more marsh edge, expanded the estuarine-
                area by saltwater intrusion, and provided more protection from
                predation. As a result, the nursery function of these marshes has
                been greatly magnified, resulting in@an expansion in recruitment
                to the brown shrimp fishery. since continued subsidence will lead
                to marsh deterioration and ultimate loss of supporting wetlands,
                current high fishery yields may not be indefinitely sustainable.




                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 76










                     I- Brown Shrimp Index                           2

                     E3 Pink Shrimp Index
               120     Gulf Shrimp Yield
                       White Shrimp Index                            1.5z
             4.)
             0
             o  80-
             0                                                          0
             0                                                       1  E-4
                                                                        rn

                                                                        E-4
                40-                                                     z
                                                                   -0.5


             >4

                 0                                                   0
                   60 62 64  66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90
                                        YEAR


         Figure IV-12. Gulf of Mexico shrimp yields since 1960. Yield in thousands of
         metric tons (mt=metric tons) . (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA
         National Marine Fisheries Service)



              vi. Groundfish and Flounders

         This group of fish includes important gadoid species of the
         northeast United States (Atlantic cod, haddock, redf ish, silver and
         red hake, and pollock) and several flatfish (yellowtail flounder,
         summer and winter flounder, American plaice, witch flounder, and
         windowpane) . The combined index for this group declined by almost
         70.percent between 1963 and 1974, reflecting substantial increases
         in exploitation associated with the advent of distant-water fleets
         (Figure IV-13). By 1974, indices of abundance for many of these
         species had dropped to the lowest levels observed in the history
         of the survey time' series.    Partial resource recovery occurred
         during the mid- to late 1970s attributed to reduced fishing effort
         associated with increasingly restrictive management. The aggregate
         index peaked in 1978 and subsequently declined in 1987-1988 to the
         lowest values in the time series. The index has since increased
         somewhat reflecting improved -recruitment for some species.

              vii. Atlantic Herring and Mackerel

         Abundance of northeast U.S. Atlantic herring and Atlantic mackerel
         has been monitored using spring survey data. This index declined
         to minimal levels in the mid-1970s, reflecting pronounced declined
         in abundance for both herring and mackerel (including the collapse
         of the Georges Bank herring stock). This has been followed by an
         increasing trend in recent years; index values for 1987-90 are
         among the highest observed in the series, reflecting high levels
         of abundance,for both species (Figure IV-14).



                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 77












                    80-

               E-4

                    60-


                 U
                 H
                 0  40-
               Pqz



               W 0  20
               E-4 E-4
               Eri
               H
                     0
                      62   6@   66   68   70  72   74   76  78   80   82   84  86   88  90

                                                   YEAR


               Figure IV-13. Trends  in the index of aggregate abundance (catch in  weight per
               survey trawl haul) for northeast United States groundfish and flounders, 1962-
               1990. (Courtesy Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
               Fisheries Service)









                       4-


                    F-I
                    M  3-
                 W z

                       2-
                 W 0
                 E-4 E-1
                 P
                 H
                 44


                         68   70   72   74   76   78   80    82   84   86   88   90
                                                   YEAR


               Figure IV-14. Trends in  the index of aggregate abundance  (catch in weight per
               survey trawl haul) for   Atlantic  herring and  Atlantic mackerel, 1968-1990.
               (Courtesy Northeast Fisheries Science Center,   NOAA National Marine Fisheries
               Service



                     viii. skates and Spiny Dogfish

               Spiny dogfish and skates are two              important fishery resource
               components of the northeast United States which are effectively

               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 78








           monitored using spring survey data (Figure IV-15). Spiny dogfish
           and seven skate species are included in the index. The continued
           increase in this index since the late 1960s reflects major changes
           in relative abundance within the f inf ish species complex, with
           increasing abundance of species of low commercial value. Survey
           catches of both dogf ish and skates since 1986 have been the highest
           observed in the time series. These increases in dogfish and skate
           abundance, in conjunction with declining abundance of groundf ish
           and flounders (Figure IV-13), have resulted in the proportion of
           dogf ish and skates in Georges Bank survey catches increasing 25
           percent by weight in 1963 to nearly 75 percent in recent years.



              160 4


           E-I
                120-
           W Cn
              Pq

                80-
              z



           W 0
           E-4 E-I  40-



                 0-                                                               J
                  68    70    @2   74    76   71S   @O   @2    84   86   8.8   90
                                               YEAR


           Figure IV-15. Trends  in the index of aggregate abundance (catch in weight per
           survey trawl haul) for skates an d spiny dogfish, 1968-1990. (Courtesy Northeast
           Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)



                ix. Northern Anchovy

           Northern anchovies are small      (< 7 inches) , short-lived (to 4 years)
           plankton eaters that typically school near the surface in waters
           of 120-22*C.     The species ranges from British Columbia to Baja
           California.     An important Pacific coast fishery, it is used for
           food, bait, and industrial fish products.             The species is also
           important forage for marine fishes, mammals, and birds. A "central
           subpopulation, 11 which supports United States fisheries ranges along
           the California coast. Northern anchovy biomass (Figure IV-16) in
           the central subpopulation averaged 400,000 metric tons (mt) during
           1964-70, increased rapidly to 1,800,000 mt in 1974, and then
           declined to 490,000     mt in,1978. Although total anchovy harvests
           since 1983 have been less than the theoretical maximum sustainable


                                                      NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 79









              yield and the historical levels before 1983, abundance continues
              to decline slowly.        As a final safeguard against depletion the
              species is under a     fishery management plan.


                        2,000
                                         U.S. landings

                                         Mexican landings
                    0                    Biomass
                    C@  1,500-
                    H


                    ta
                    W

                    0   1,000





                    W    500-
                    0
                    z






                           1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
                                                  YEAR

              Figure IV-16.   Northern anchovy landings by United States and Mexican fleets
              during 1945-90, and biomass (age 1 or older) from 1964 to 1990. Values in
              thousands of metric tons (mt=metric tons). (Courtesy Assistant Administrator
              for Fisheries, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


                    X. Pacific.Halibut

              Pacific halibut has been fished commercially since the, late 1800s;
              it is now fished only with longline gear, though other gear types
              accidentally catch some halibut.              There is also an active
              recreational fishery as well. Halibut is found from the Bering Sea
              to Oregon, though the center of abundance is in the Gulf of Alaska.
              In 1990, nearly 37,000 metric tons (mt) of Pacific halibut were
              landed commercially (31,900 mt in the United States and 5,100 mt
              in Canada) (Figure IV-17) valued at $115 million. Halibut stocks
              are assessed annually, and the fishable population apparently
              peaked at 166,000 mt in 1986-87 after a rebuilding period (Figure
              IV-17). The population has since declined at about 5 percent per
              year. Some decline is still expected, but halibut numbers remain
              fairly high by historical standards.








              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 80











                         50                                                250
                                 u.s. commercial landings

                                 u.s. recreational landings
                         40-     Canadian landings                         200
                                 Abundance                                     0
                      0                                                        0
                      0                                                        0
                      0  30-                                               160



                         20-                                               100
                      z



                         10                                                so




                          0                                                0
                          1980                   1986                    1990
                                                YEAR


           Figure IV-17. Landings and abundance trends for Pacific halibut in the north
           Pacific for United States commercial and recreational fisheries and the Canadian
           fishery, 1980-90. Values in thousands of metric tons (mt=metric tons) . (Courtesy
           Assistant Administrator for Fisheries, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


                 xi. Bering Sea-Aleutian Islands Groundfish

           The average eastern Bering Sea-Aleutian Islands groundfish catch
           during 1988-90 was about 1.8 million metric tons (mt) (Figure IV-
           18) valued at about $352 million in 1990.               The dominate groups
           harvested were walleye pollock, 75 percent; flatfishes, 15 percent;
           Pacific cod, 7 percent; Atka mackerel, 1.4 percent; rockfishes,
           0.4 percent; and sablefish, 0.3 percent. Walleye pollock produced
           the largest single-species catch in the United States (about 1.4
           million mt) valued at $255 million in 1990. Bering Sea-Aleutiah
           Islands groundf ish populations have been maintained at high levels
           under the MFCMA (Figure IV-18).
















                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 81













                               50                                         250
                                      U.S. commercial landings
                                      U.S. recreational landings
                               40-    Canadian landings                   200
                                      Abundance
                                                                             0
                            0                                                0
                            0
                            0  30-                                        1 r.0




                               20-                                        100

                            H


                               10                                         50




                                0                                         0
                                1980               1986                 1990
                                                   YEAR


              Figure IV-18.   Landings and abundance trends for groundfish resources in the
              Bering Sea-Aleutian Islands region for the foreign, joint-venture, and U.S.
              fisheries, 1976-90. Values in thousands of metric tons (m.t=metric        tons).
              (Courtesy Assistant Administrator for Fisheries, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
              Service)



              ZOOPLANKTON

              Zooplankton are small marine animals that feed on phytoplankton or
              on other zooplankton.        They range in size from about 20 microns
              (micro z ooplankton) to 5000 microns (megaplankton)..                Some are
              abundant (e.g., copepods) and form important links in pelagic food
              webs between phytoplankton and larger animals. Most zooplankton
              are composed of protozoans, small crustaceans (e.g., copepods) , and
              the. larval      stages of marine invertebrates.                The largest
              zooplankton,       the    megaplankton,       consist     of      chaetognaths
              (arrowworms),       euphausiaceans       (krill),      small     coelenterates
              (jellyfish), ctenophores (comb jellies), and ichthyoplankton (fish
              larvae).

              .It has been suggested that zooplankton can*be used to assess trends
              in climate. Temperature has an effect on the size of zooplankton,
              @with animals growing larger at colder temperature. Changes in mean
              temperature can result in differences in the stage of development
              of a population, and in the size of the animals in the population
              on any given sampling date. Zooplankton biomass and water column
              temperature and structure have been used successfully for detecting
              changes in the states of large marine ecosystems and fisheries
              yields.       Two large marine ecosystems, the northeast U.S.
              continental shelf ecosystem and the California Current ecosystem,
              have been studied for several decades by NOAA scientists to assess
              the biogeography, annual cycles, and long-term variation in the
              distribution, abundance, and composition of plankton.

              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 82








         a. Copepods

         Copepods are small crustaceans, most ranging f rom less than. one
         millimeter (mm) to several mm in length. Marine copepods exist in
         enormous numbers, and since most copepod species feed on
         phytoplankton, they are the principal link between phytoplankton
         and higher trophic levels in many marine food chains. A major part
         of the diet of many marine animals is composed of copepods.

         From 1961 through 1974 the Oceanographic Laboratory in Edinburgh,
         Scotland conducted monthly monitoring of the zooplankton (including
         copepods) and larger phytoplankton in the Gulf of Maine using the
         Hardy Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR).         In 1972, the NOAA
         National Marine Fisheries Service/Northeast Fisheries Center began
         a program of cooperation with the Oceanographic Laboratory for the
         extension of the long-term CPR survey into the additional areas of
         the' western north Atlantic. These measurements are made to monitor
         changes in the state of the Northeast Shelf Ecosystem in relation
         to possible effects on the long-term sustainability of fishery
         yields of the ecosystem. The year 1990 marks the thirtieth since
         sampling began on the Gulf of Maine, and the twentieth on the
         Middle Atlantic Bight transects.

         The standardized abundances of the copepod Calanus finmarchicus in
         the Gulf of Maine and the Middle Atlantic Bight are shown in Figure
         IV-19.   C. finmarchicus showed a positive trend in all Gulf of
         Maine subareas exclusive of Massachusetts Bay beginning in
         approximately 1979. Values for the Middle Atlantic Bight show a
         later-occurring positive trend. For 1990, total copepods averaged
         more than 150 percent and 200 percent above the base value for the
         whole transects for the Gulf of Maine and Middle Atlantic Bight
         respectively.   Total copepod abundance in the Gulf of Maine for
         1990 was the highest in the last 11 years.

         b. Ichthyoplankton

         Since 1950, trends in the abundance of the 1  arvae of 6 fish stocks,
         10 m depth temperature, and zooplankton have been monitored in the
         California Current by the California Cooperative oceanic Fisheries
         Investigations (CalCOFI) surveys (Figure IV-20).          This joint
        Trogram between NOAA and the University of California (Scripps
         Institution of Oceanography) has monitored the fish stocks, their
         forage (zooplankton) , and the physical characteristics of the ocean
         environment off california for over 40 years. The larval data are
         used by fishery managers of the National Marine Fisheries Service
         to estimate biomass of stocks and the entire CalCOFI data set is
         widely used by scientists to study the effects of changes in ocean
         climate on natural resources.






                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 83










                           3-   (a)              GULF OF MAINE
                              I
                           2-




                           0-




                          -2


                          -3
                             60       65 .70           75       80       85       90




                           3-   (b)        MIDDLE ATLANTIC BIGHT

                           2-




                           0-


                    E-4
                    W

                          -2-
                          -31  ..... .             ........
                             60      65       70       75       80       85      90


                                                      YEAR


               Figure  JV_19 (a)-(b) . Calanus finmarchicus (Crustacea; Copepoda) Lin (a) the Gulf
               of Maine (1961-1989) and (b) Middle Atlantic Bight (1976-1989). Plotted values
               are annual logarithmic mean abundances, standardized to a zero mean and a unit
               standard deviation. (Courtesy Kenneth Sherman and.7ack Jossi, Northeast Fisheries
               Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 84












                    1500
                         (a)




                                              ..... ....

                 E-4  1000





                      500


                                              NORTHERN ANCHOVY
                                                 (Engraulis mordax)
                      0                       L-  L  L    L       L   L   L   L
                      50 51 54  57  60  63   66  69 72  75   78  81  84  87   90
                         (b)
                      40 -   PACIFIC SARDINE
                              (Sardinops sagax)

                      30 -



                      20,-



                      10 -



                      0
                      300 51 54 57  60  63   66  69 72  75   78  81   84  87  90
                         (C)
                      250 -                        PACIFIC HAKE
                                                 (Merluccius productus)
                      200 -


                              ((a
                 94   150
                 W    .
                 P4
                      100


                      50


                      0          L-  L   L                                ------
                        51  54  57  60  63   66  69 72  75   78  81   84  87  90
                                                 YEAR


            Figure IV-20 (a)-(c). CalCOF1 time series of fish larvae abundance for important
            California commercial fish species, (a) northern anchovy, (b) Pacific sardine,
            (c) Pacific hake. (Courtesy John R. Hunter, Southwest Fisheries Science Center,
            NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)



                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 85
                                                                a








            The scientific accomplishments of the CalCOFI program have had a
            major influence on fishery and environmental science. Four broad
            themes can be identified: time series analysis of the environment
            and f ish stocks, hypothesis testing for recruitment mechanisms,
            development of novel stock assessment models, and fishery
            management plans. The anchovy management plan is a major practical
            accomplishment of the CalCOFI program. It is one of the few plans
            in the world using a long time series of fishery-independent
            biomass and environmental information.        Methods, developed by
            CalCOFI, are now being widely applied worldwide.


            SHELLFISH

            Bivalve mollusks such       as oysters, clams, and mussels are
            predominantly found near    shore and in estuaries where freshwater
            mixes with ocean waters.       Since colonial times shellfish have
            provided an important source of food and an economic wealth for
            many coastal communities. Since shellfish filter -large volumes of
            water, they sometimes accumulate pathogens and contaminants in
            their tissues.    As many shellfish are traditionally eaten raw,
            contaminated products could be a significant public health problem.
            Because of their coastal locations, shellfish beds are under state
            jurisdiction. States place shellfish waters in 5 classifications
            based on sanitary surveys.      Classification of shellfish growing
            waters is based on the presence of actual or potential pollution
            sources and levels of coliform bacteria in surface waters.

            The National Shellfish Register of Classified Estuarine Waters is
            produced by NOAA. Previous inventories of the National Shellfish
            Register have been conducted in 1966, 1971, 1974, 1980, and 1985.
            The 1990 inventory includes a field survey of classified shellfish
            waters in 24 states. The survey quantifies the changes since 1985,
            identifies the reasons for the changes, and lists the sources of
            pollution affecting harvest-limited waters.       Table IV-1 presents.
            regional acres and percentage in shellfish bed closures. Trends
            in prohibited acreage are shown in Figure IV-21.


            Table IV-1.    Shellfish bed closures for the United States by
            region, 1966-1990. Thousands of prohibited acres and percentage of
            national total prohibited. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental
            Assessments Division, NOAA National Ocean Service)

                     Northeast        Southeast     Gulf of Mexico      Pacific
            Year    Area 'Percent Area    Percent   Area   Percent Area     Percent
            1966     443    25       790    45        524     30         3   0.2
            1971     710    21      1,702   51        592     18      317    10
            1974     711    19      1,897   50        829     17      317    8
            1980     782    27       878    31        889     31      318    11
            1985     709    23       612    19      1,649     39      318    5
            1990   1'0?0    24       630    15      2,405     56      183    4


            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST    86













                       60


                       so


                                                                                       X1.


                    z
                    W
                                  ........ . . ........ .. ..... . ..... ........... . ..... .. ............. .......


                    W
                    a.
                                  ............ ............ -- ------------
                       20-


                                            ....                 .....       .....
                                            .....                .....       .....
                                   .. . .......... ..... . ... .......... ........
                       10-
                               .....        .....


                        0
                             1966         1971     1974        1980       1985      1990
                                           SHELLFISH BEDS CLOSED
                                       (PERCENT OF OF TOTAL ACREAGE)
                              IIIIIIII Northeast M Southeast =]Gulf of Mexico    Pacific



             Figure IV-21.     Shellfish bed closures for the United States by region, 1966-
             1990. Percentage of national total acreage           prohibited. (Courtesy Strategic
             Environmental Assessments Division, NOAA National Ocean Service)


             CONTAMINANTS
             Chemical analyses of bottom sediments and selected*organisms have
             been used to gauge the extent to which the marine environment has
             been affected by human activities. Since 1984, the NOAA Office of
             Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment has monitored, through
             its National Status and Trends (NS&T) Program for Marine
             Environmental Quality, the concentrations of 70                  + organic compounds
             and trace metals in bottom-feeding fish, shellfish, and sediments
             at U.S. coastal and estuarine locations nationwide. The objectives
             of the NS&T Program are to monitor the long-term trends of chemical
             contamination and to assess the ef f ects of human activities on
             coastal and estuarine areas throughout U.S. coastal waters.

             The NS&T Program has seven major programmatic components: the
             Mussel Watch Project, the Benthic Surveillance Project (these two
             components        provide      the . majority         of     chemical       contaminant
             monitoring), Bioeffects Surveys, Historical Trends, Coastal
             Contamination Assessments, and Specimen Banking. Scientists from
             the Mussel Watch and Benthic Surveillance Projects collect samples
             of sediment, fish.livers, and,bivalve molluscan tissues from more
             than. 300 sites nationwide.                Mussel Watch Project samples are
             collected and laboratory analyses are performed, under contract,
             by Battelle Memorial Institute's laboratories in Duxbury, MA, and
             Sequim, WA, for sites on the east coast, west coast, and Hawaii;

                                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 87









            and by the Geochemical and Environmental Research Group of Texas
            A&M University for the Gulf of Mexico sites. Benthic Surveillance
            Project samples are collected and laboratory analyses are
            perf ormed, - under cooperative agreement, with NOAA I s National Marine
            Fisheries service laboratories at,Seattle, WA, and Beaufort, NC.
            NS&T samples are analyzed to determine . levels of synthetic
            chlorinated compounds (DDT, its breakdown products, and 9 other
            pesticides), polychlorinated biphenyls (20 PCBs), polycyclic
            aromatic hydrocarbons (24 PAHs) , 4 major elements, and 12 toxic
            trace metals (e.g., mercury and lead). The NS&T Program requires
            that each of its monitoring laboratories (1) use uniform sampling
            protocols to monitor coastal and estuarine environmental quality
            on a long-term national basis, (2) adhere to programmatic standards
            for accuracy and precision in analytical results, (3) analyze a set
            of calibration solutions and unknown chemical samples each year,
            and (4) participate in laboratory intercomparison exercises. For
            the NS&T's Specimen Banking, annually samples of sediment, fish
            livers, and shellfish tissue are collected from about ten percent
            of all NS&T monitoring sites, archived, and stored in liquid
            nitrogen freezers at about -1500C by the National Institute of
            Standards and Technology for future, retrospective analyses. NS&T
            Bioeffects Surveys, 2- to 4-year,studies, are conducted on U.S.
            estuaries shown by NS&T monitoring results to have high levels of
            toxic chemicals.     Recently, the NS&T Program began a sediment
            coring project to determine Historical Trends in such areas of
            concern as Long Island Sound, the Hudson-Raritan Estuary, Southern
            California Bight, and in Puget Sound. Similar studies are proposed
            for 1992 in Delaware Bay, Savannah Estuary, Chesapeake Bay, and San
            Francisco Bay. Information gathered through the NS&T Program can
            be applied to regional assessments to aid natural resource
            management.    Coastal Contamination Assessments, prepared by NS&T
            staff, are reviews of the status of contamination and associated
            bioeffects integrated with data available from other sources on
            estuarine characterization, pollution sources, transport dynamics,
            etc.


            a. Sediments

                 i. Spatial Trends of Contaminants in Sediments

            The nationwide results from NOAA analyses of bottom sediments has
            been used to define the spatial distribution of contamination. It
            is important to know that contaminants are associated with particle
            surfaces, with sand-size particles having less contamination per
            unit weight of sediment than fine-sized silt or clay. To account
            for this, the NS&T sediment data has been adjusted to account for
            the sandy portion of sediment samples and to exclude very sandy
            samples (greater than 80 percent sand) in synthesis reports or
            assessments.


            In Figure IV-22, concentrations for cadmium (Cd) and total PCBs
            (tPCB) are used as examples to show the distribution of trace metal

            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 88










                       and organic chemical concentrations in sediment. Generally, there
                       are few high concentrations that stand out from the rest and these
                       are usually from sites near densely-populated, urbanized centers
                       of the country.                              In addition to the arithmetic distribution of
                       these data, it is useful to examine the distributions of logarithms
                       of the data in which the result approaches a log-normal, or bell-
                       curve, distribution.

                       With log-normal distributions, a useful definition of "high"
                       concentrations is "that where values are more than the mean plus
                       one standard deviation." In practice, because we are dealing with
                       normal distributions, about 17 percent of all the concentrations
                       for each chemical will fall into the high category. For cadmium
                       and tPCB, for example, the high concentrations correspond to 1.3
                       micrograms/gram (dry weight) and 200 nanograms/gram, respectively,
                       as shown in Figure IV-22. High concentrations for other chemicals
                       sampled in the NS&T Program are shown in Table IV-2.


                                                                  (a)



                    figure iv-22 (a) - (b). distributions of (a) cadmium (cd) and (b) tpcb
concentrations in segiment on arithmetic and logarithmic scales from ns&t benthic
survelillance sites, 1984-86. (courtesy thomas p. o'connor, office of ocean
resources conservation and assessment, noaa national ocean service)

											noaa environmental digest 89

                                                                                                                             
                                                                    
                                                                  








            Table IV-2. Concentrations in sediment that are defined as "high"
            for NS&T sites. -Concentrations are in units of micrograms/gram
            (dry) for trace metals and nanogra    Ims/gram (dry) for groups of
            organic compounds. (Courtesy Thomas P. O'Connor, Office of Ocean
            Resources Conservation and Assessment,  NOAA National Ocean Service)

            Trace Metals/Organic Compounds -- High Concentrations

            Cd   :Cr   Cu   Pb   Hg     Ag   Zn    tDDT   tCdane    tPCB   tPAH

            1.3 230 87      97 0.51    1.2 280     40       5.5     200     3900



            on a national scale, particularly for sites with three or more high
            concentrations of contaminants, it was' found that high contaminant
            contaminations were associated with urbanized areas of the
            northeast states and those near San, Diego, Los Angeles, and Seattle
            on the west coast. The association.of higher levels of sediment
            contamination with populated areas is not a surprising result.
            High chemical concentrations are most often found near discharges
            and centers of industrial activity.       Sampling on a much f iner
            spatial scale than the NS&T Program would probably reveal higher
            absolute contaminant concentrations.     This fact illustrates the
            need for more detailed monitoring programs in selected areas for
            local decision-making.

                 ii. Temporal Trends of Contaminants in Sediments

            Near-surf ace (surf icial) measurements of the top 1-3 cm of sediment
            can be used to describe the spatial distribution of contamination
            but the periodic analyses of surficial sediments requires a
            knowledge of rates of particle deposition and rates of sediment
            mixing. With only five years of measurements, the NS&T Program is
            relying instead on determining chemical trends back to pre-
            industrial times through its sediment coring project. Started in
            1990, valid trends should be available soon from the results of
            coring studies in selected study areas.

            b. Bivalve Mollusks

            Since 1986, the NS&T Mussel Watch Project has been monitoring the
            concentrations of 70" chemicals in bivalve molluscan tissues at
            more than 240 sites. Nationwide, data are collected for several
            mussels, Mytilus species and Mytilus californianus, two oysters,
            Crassostrea virginica and Ostrea sandvicencis, and the smooth-edge
            jewelbox, Chama sinuosa. The central reason for analyzing mollusks
            is to establish temporal trends in contamination.        Mussels and
            oysters can change their contaminant levels over short periods of
           .time in response to changes in their surroundings. This and the
            fact they are basically immobile makes them ideal for monitoring
            changes in chemical concentrations in the coastal environment.

            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 90









          Decadal trends in trace-metal contamination have been sought by
          comparing NS&T data of 1986 through 1988 with data from analyses
          of mussels and oysters collected in 1976 through 1978 by a previous
          "mussel watch" program sponsored by the U.S. Environmental
          Protection Agency.     Statistically, since the earlier program
          collected a single sample each year, it was necessary to aggregate
          three years of data for each decade. With the aggregated data it
          was possible to estimate differences in trace metal concentrations
          in mollusks at the 50 sites that were common to both programs.
          Comparison of the data between the sites demonstrates a decadal
          decrease in lead at 39 out of 50 sites.         That decreases is
          statistically sufficient to infer a national decrease in lead
          concentrations since the late 1970s, a result consistent with the
          phase-out of leaded gasoline.

          For copper, cadmium, silver, and zinc the directions of change were
          not significant in either a positive or negative direction.
          However, for cadmium, there were 12 sites where the 1970s data were
          statistically different from the NS&T data, and 11 of those cases
          the 1970s concentrations were higher. Conversely, for 18 of the
          22 sites where copper concentrations were statistically different
          they were lower in the 1970s. This increase in copper may reflect
          the fact that of all the metals measured in both programs, copper
          is the only one whose annual use in the United States has shown an
          increase since the mid-1970s. Large decreases in concentrations
          of synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbons in mollusks and other
          organisms occurred in the 1970s and continue now, but at a less
          dramatic rate.


          C. Fish

               i.. Biological Effects of Contaminants

          Since 1984, NOAA's National     Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
          laboratories, in cooperative agreement with NOAA's National Ocean
          service, have been monitoring, through the NS&T Benthic
          Surveillance Project, the biological effects of contaminants in
          fish , and concurrently measuring 70+ chemical contaminants in fish
          livers, fish stomach contents, and associated surficial sediments.
          An extensive data base has evolved over* the past eight years on
          Benthic Surveillance observations on nationwide incidences of such
          histopathological diseases as liver:lesions (cancerous neoplasms)
          and fin rot, aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase responses, and genetic
          damage (DNA-adducts) in fish exposed to contaminants. Since 1986,
          the NS&T Program also has conducted intensive, 2- to 4-year studies
          on the effects of chemical contaminants in selected areas of
          concern. Bioeffects surveys have been conducted or are underway
          in Boston Harbor, Long Island Sound, Hudson-Raritan Estuary, Tampa
          Bay, Southern California Bight, and San Francisco Bay.           The
          Environmental Conservation Division of the NOAA Northwest Fisheries
          Science Center in Seattle, the NMFS Beaufort Laboratory, Woods Hole
          Oceanographic Institution, and others are conducting bioeffects

                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 91









           studies on such topics as reproductive impairment, disease
           incidences, genetic damage, elevated biochemical response systems,
           and toxic responses to sediment and water samples.      Results are
           linking bioeffects observations to high concentrations of selected
           chemical contaminants.

                ii. Reproductive Impairment

           Additional to NS&T monitoring and bioeffects surveys, closely
           related biological effects research, partly funded by NOAA's
           Coastal Ocean Program, is being conducted by the Environmental
           Conservation Division of the NOAA Northwest Fisheries Science
           Center in Seattle, WA. Over the years, this same laboratory has
           conducted numerous studies on the effects of chemical contaminant
           exposure on reproductive processes in bottom-dwelling fish.
           English sole was chosen as the target   'species for this research
           because previous studies had indicated that English sole is
           particularly sensitive to contaminants, and it, is a species
           indigenous throughout much of the study site, Puget Sound. Early
           studies had shown that in gravid fish exposed to aromatic
           hydrocarbons, such as benzo (a) pyrene, - these compounds and their
           biotransformation products were deposited in their gonads.
           Additionally, analyses of ovarian macromolecules showed binding of
           benzo(a)pyrene metabolites, indicating the presence of reactive and
           potentially toxic metabolites in the gonads.

           Subsequent studies have shown reduced reproductive success in
           English sole living in contaminated urban areas, such as Eagle'
           Harbor and the Duwamish Waterway in Puget Sound. Among the effects
           observed in females were: inhibition of oocyte development,
           inhibition of spawning, depressed plasma estradiol levels, and
           reduced egg weight. In female fish brought from contaminated areas
           and induced to spawn in the laboratory with hormone injections,
           spawning was roughly one-third as successful as it was in fish
           collected from an uncontaminated reference site.     Also, when the
           fish did spawn, the 'viability of their offspring was reduced
           compared to that for fish from less contaminated sites. However,
           when fertilization success and larval viability were assessed in
           running ripe fish sampled near urban spawning grounds, it was found
           that the levels of contaminants were low in all animals sampled,
           and that no statistically significant relationship could be found
           between contaminant levels in tissues and larval viability or
           fertilization succes s. The relatively,low levels of contaminants
           in running ripe fish from spawning grounds., in combination with
           evidence of inhibited ovarian development and spawning in fish from
           polluted sites., suggests that fish from sites with relatively high
           levels of contaminants may not be entering the spawning population.

           In addition, in these studies the reproductive abnormalities were
           statistically linked to alterations in chemical and biochemical
           parameters (bioindicators) indicative of contaminant exposure.
           Using multivariate statistical techniques, several bioindicators

           NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 92









                  were found to be associated with impaired ovarian maturation. The
                  bioindicators studied were: hepatic aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase
                  activity (an enzyme involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics),
                  tissue (liver and ovary) concentrations of PCBs, fluorescent
                  aromatic compounds in bile (e.g., metabolic products of aromatic
                  hydrocarbons).                   This statistical treatment also included other
                  factors such as fish size or age which could be separated from
                  effects of the contaminants (Figure IV-23).                                                 A correlation was
                  observed between aromatic hydrocarbon contamination and impaired
                  ovarian development, whereas decreased fertilization success, low
                  egg weight, and impaired larval viability were correlated with
                  exposure to PCBs.
                        (a) 800,                                      100            (b) 800                                      100
                                       Port Susan                                                    Sinclair Inlet

                                                                                           600
                              600,
                    Indicator'                                       % maturing Indicator                                          % maturing
                    of                                                               Of    400                                  -50
                    Exposure  400,,                                    So          Exposure

                                                                                           200
                              200


                                                                            LEGEND

                                                                        Sediment PCBs (ppm)
                                                                        Sediment AHs (ppm x 1W)
                                                                        PAH metabolites in bile (ppb)'
                                                                        AHH activity (pmol/nd/min)
                                                                    E3 % maturing
                      (C)    600           amish Waterway         100                  (d) 800                         Eagle         100
                                                    77M.
                             500
                                                                                                                       Harbor
                                                                                             600
                 Indicator   400                                 % maturing                                                          % maturing
                                                                                     indicator
                    of
                                                                 .50
                Exposure     300                                                        of   400                                     50
                                                                                     Exposure
                             200
                                                                                             200
                             100



                  Figure XV-23 (q)-(d).                  Indicators of contaminant exposure and proportion of
                  female'English sole undergoing ovarian maturation at four sites in Puget Sound:
                  (a) Port. Susan; (b) Sinclair Inlet; (c) Duwamish Waterway; (d) Eagle Harbor                                                  '
                  Proportions of maturing females from Port Susan and Sinclair Inlet were
                  significantly higher than those in females from the more contaminated sites.
                  (Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries science Center, MOAA National Marine
                  Fisheries service)


                                                                                        NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 93









            Further support of a link between contaminant exposure and
            reproductive impairment in populations of English sole was provided
            by additional laboratory studies. For example, injection of gravid
            female fish with contaminants extracted from Duwamish Waterway
            sediment showed a decline in circulating plasma estradiol levels
            similar to that observed in the field-sampled fish from
            contaminated sites. Current research includes studies to identify
            metabolic or physiological steps in the reproductive cycle of
            English sole which are disrupted by exposure of fish to toxicants,
            such as the effects of xenobiotic compounds on the activities of
            steroid metabolizing enzymes and on ovarian estradiol production.

                  iii. Liver Lesions

            Field studies, partly supported by the NS&T Benthic Surveillance
            Project, conducted by Northwest Fisheries Science Center scientists
            in numerous sites in Puget Sound have indicated correlations
            between exposure to certain chemical contaminants and the presence
            of liver neoplasms in English sole.             This research also
            characterized a variety of other liver lesions that: (a) commonly
            co-occur with neoplasms, (b) are involved in the initial steps in
            the histogenesis of liver neoplasms     '  (c) occur prior to the
            development of neoplasms, and (d) are generally found in wild fish
            at higher prevalences than neoplasms.      These early lesions have
            been induced in the laboratory by exposing English sole to certain
            contaminants, such as benzo(a)pyrene and organic-solvent extracts
            from urban sediments, and are correlated with liver dysfunction as
            measured by certain serum chemistry parameters.

            The thrust of this group's more recent work has been directed at
            assessing, the utility of earl ier-occurring lesions as reliable
            indicators of contaminant exposure in the marine environment. The
            main advantage of using liver lesions as bioindicators is that,
            when combined with supportive data on exposure and uptake of
            xenobiotic chemicals, they provide a fairly direct index for
            assessing sublethal effects of contaminants in wild fish.           In
            particular, early liver lesions are especially valuable in
            biomonitoring programs where target fish species are often
            juveniles or subadults because liver lesions are rarely detected
            in young, wild fish.     These lesions should also provide useful
            indices of effects at sites exhibiting low-to-moderate levels of
            contamination, since liver neoplasms are primarily found in fish
            from highly contaminated sites.

            Because these lesions occur prior to the appearance of neoplasms,
            they may provide an earlier as well as a more sensitive,
            histopathologic response to contaminant exposure in wild f ish, thus
            increasing our ability to predict rather than document the
            deleterious biological effects of pollution (Figure IV-24).

            To test the utility of early lesions as, bio indicators, juvenile and
            subadult English sole and starry flounder captured from several

            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 94









            sites in Puget Sound with varying degrees of contamination have
            been examined (Figure IV-25). As expected, neoplasms were detected
            at very low prevalences in these young fish from all sites, whereas
            higher prevalences of earlier-occurring                  lesions,      such   as
            preneoplastic lesions and regenerative lesions, were found in
            English sole and rock sole, and much higher prevalences of several
            types of earl ier-occurring degenerative lesions @(i.e., nuclear
            pleomorphism/megalocytic hepatosis and/or hydropic. vacuolation of
            parenchymal cells) were detected in individuals of all three
            species, primarily from contaminated sites.


                         Neoplasms-moderate;           Sites with high
                         early lesions high            contamination


                         Neoplasms-low;                     Sites with moderate
                                                 M'M
                                                            cont
                         early lesions moderate                amination



                              n                                  Sites wit
                         Neoplas is-absent;                             h low
                         early le
                              sions low to
                                                                 contamination
                         moderate       ..                4" Q,

                                                                     Sites w
                         All lesions-                                      ith
                                                              @E
                                                                     very low
                         absent
                                                                     c
                                                                      ontamination


            Figure XV-24. A   model using prevalences of various   contaminant-induced liver
            lesions in benthic fish from field survey data.        (courtesy Usha Varanasi,
            Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


            All of these liver lesion types have been experimentally induced
            in fish in the laboratory by exposure to various toxicants, or have
            been shown to be statistically associated with contaminant exp             Iosure
            and the process of liver neoplasia in wild adult fish. Prevalences
            of these earl ier-occurring lesions were significantly higher in
            subadult fish at the more contaminated sites as compared with the
            less contaminated sites in the above study. Moreover, prevalences
            of most lesion types in.all.three species could be significantly
            correlated with mean bile fluorescent aromatic compound levels, an
            indicator of recent exposure to aromatic hydrocarbons.                        In
            addition, prevalences of these earlier-occurring liver lesions                as
            well as neoplasms have been recently shown to be significantly
            elevated in other species captured at other contaminated sites
            sampled within NOAA's National Benthic Surveillance Project (Figure
            IV-26) and are statistically correlated with results in previous
            studies on adult fish. These findings support the value of using
            certain liver lesions in addition to neoplasms as indicators of
            biological damage in juvenile or adult fish exposed to
            contaminants.



                                                         NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 95















                                                                                       60.
                                                                                               (a)        English             Sole                             Polnell PI    p.0.06
                                                                                                                                                               Polnell Pt.,  p<0.005
                                                                                       so-                                                         ...         P.Inell pl.,  P.O.0005

                                                                                                                                                               Neoplasms
                                                                                                                                                               Pre-o FCA
                                                                                       40-                                                                0    ReprdProlif
                                                                                                                                                          0    NP/IVIH
                                                                                       30-                                                                [3   Hydropic Vac


                                                                                       20-



                                                                                       10
                                                                                       0                                                                J
                                                                                            DLW        EH(in)      EH(out)     EVH(in)     EVH(oul)     COW          PILOT       POW


                                                                      -P
                                                                                                 (b) Starry                Flounder                            poineii Pit., P-os
                                                                                                                                                               Polnell Pt, P.O.005
                                                                      44                                                                                  Polnell Pt., P.OA006
                                                                      44               so.
                                                                      0                                                                                           Neoplasms
                                                                      4-)              40-                                                                        Preneo FCA
                                                                      9                                                                                           Regen/Prolif
                                                                                                                                                               0 NP/MH
                                                                                       30-                                                                     0 Hydropic Vac
                                                                      a)
                                                                      P4

                                                                                       20


                                                                      z                10
                                                                      W
                                                                                       Lt                                                                                             M
                                                                                            D-W        EH(In)      EH(out)     EVH(in)     EVH(oui)     o0MM         PILOT       POLN

                                                                      P4
                                                                                                  M       Flock Sole                                           polnell Pit,  [email protected]
                                                                                                                                                               Polnell Pt.,  p.0.005
                                                                                       50.                                                                     pol"ek Pt.,   P.O.0005
                                                                                                                                                                  Neoplasms
                                                                                                                                                                  Preneo FCA
                                                                                       40-                                                                        FlegemProll
                                                                                                                                                                  NPAAH
                                                                                                                                                               0  Hydrople Vac
                                                                                       30-



                                                                                       20







                                                                                       0.
                                                                                            CLW        EH(In)      EH(out)     EVH(in)     EVH(out)     cOWA         PILOT       POLN

                                                                                                                                  Site


                                   Figure XV-25 (a)-(c). Hepatic lesion prevalences                                                                                  in subadult (a) English sole,
                                   (b) starry flounder, and (c) rock sole from sites                                                                                 in Puget Sound. Keys in Table
                                   IV-3. (Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries                                                                                 Science Center, NOAA National
                                   Marine Fisheries Service)


                                   NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 96













                   40        (a)
                                                                                                              Neoplasms

                   4J.                                                                                        FCA

                   30-
                                                                                                              Prolif
                   @4
                                                                                                              SDN

                                                                                                          (3  HydVac
                   TA 20-                     H
                                                                                                              Necrosis
                   z
                                                                                                  H     (keys in Table IV-3)
                                                                                              H


                   10-           H
                                                           H                          H    H   H
                                                 H            H                H H22                    H
                                                                             -Z*Iqm-
                     0                                                        MtA
                           SPbBy        CsCk         SoSh         Oakl          HnPt       OkEs         RdCy        (BdByJ
                             33          61          120          29           159         59           88          177



                   40-      (b)                                       H
                                                                                                               0   Neoplasms
                   4J                                                                                              FCA
                   030-                                                                                            Prolif
                   U
                                                                                                               0   SDN
                                                                                    H                          [3  HydVac
                   41 20-                                                                                               1
                   U                                                                                               Necrosis
                                                                    H                                                   I
                                                                                                            (Keys in Table IV-3)

                                                                          H
                   10  -                                                                .H
                                                                                  H                                           H
                   fif              H                                         H            HH               H..                /I
                               H%      ---Vey                                                               2za                k
                            VVHls       nSDBy        [DnPQ          CrCh       SPOHb         LnBh           SlBh        -SPCn
                             83          101          172           45          109           88            30           26



                                                                       SITE

                   Figure XV-26 (a)-(b). White croaker liver lesions, (a) northern sites and (b)
                   southern sites, National Benthic Surveillance Project, 1984-1988. (Courtesy Usha
                   Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Ocean Service)
                                                                                                            'Keys
                                                                                                                 In
                                                                                                                   Ne


                                                                                                                    T
                                                                                                                        c


                                                                                                                        a
                                     U                                                         -LH.LJ
                                @M   1,                                                  JH
                       L                    JH


                                                                                  H
                                                                  @H        JH       LH@H


                                                                                 NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 97










                         Table IV-3.                     Keys to Figures IV-25 and IV-26- (Courtesy' Usha
                         Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
                         Fisheries Service)


                                                              F        igure  IV-25

                                                              Sites*,
                                                              DLJW            Duwamish River
                                                              EH(in)          inside Eagle Harbor
                                                              EH(out)         outside Eagle Harbor
                                                              EVH(in)         inside Everett Harbor
                                                              EVH(out)        outside Everett Harbor
                                                              COMM            Commencement Bay
                                                              PILOT           Pilot Point
                                                              POLN            Polnell Point (reference site)

                                                              Lesion   Category   Abbreviations@
                                                              Preneo   FCA        putatively preneoplastic foci of cellular alteration
                                                              Regen/Prolif        hepatocellular regeneration/billary cell proliferation
                                                              NP/MH               hepatocellular nuclear pleomorphism/ megalocytic
                                                                                  hepatosis
                                                              Hydropic Vac,       hydropic vacuoraftion   of hepatocytes, biliary epithelia]
                                                                                  cells



                                                             Figure IV-26
                                                             Sites@    Northern
                                                             SPbBy            San Pablo Bay (San Francisco Bay)
                                                             CsCk             Castro Creek (San Francisco Bay)
                                                             SoSh             Southampton Shoal (San Francisco Bay)
                                                             Oakl             Oakland (San Francisco Say)
                                                             HnPt             Hunters Point (San Francisco Bay)
                                                             OkEs             Oakland Estuary (San Francisco Bay)
                                                             RdCy             Redwood City (San FranciscoBay)
                                                             BdBy             Bodega Bay (reference site for northern stations)

                                                             Sites- Southern
                                                             CrCh             Cerritos Channel (San Pedro    Bay),
                                                             SPOI-lb          San Pedro Outer Harbor (San    Pedro Say)
                                                             SPCn             San Pedro Canyon
                                                             LnBh             Long Beach
                                                             SIBh             Sea[ Beach
                                                             WHIs             West Harbor Island (San Diego Bay)
                                                             nSDBy            North San Diego Bay (San Diego Bay)
                                                             DnPt             Dana Point (reference.site for southern stations)

                                                             Lesion    Category &brev6atjons:
                                                             FCA              putatively preneoplastic foci of cellular alteration
                                                             Prolif           nonneoplastic proliferative lesions (e.g., hepatocellular
                                                                              regeneration, biliary hyperplasia)
                                                             SON              specific degeneration/necrosis (e.g. nuclear pleomorphism,
                                                                              megalocytic hepatosis)
                                                             HydVac           hydropic vacuolation of hepatocytes, biliary epithelial
                                                                              cells
                                                             Necrosis         nonspecific degeneration/necrosis (e.g. hepatocellular
                                                                              coagulative necrosis)










                         NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 98











          d. Invertebrates

          Although there has been a concerted effort to understand and
          monitor the effects of-contaminants on different species of fish,
          less is known about the effects of contaminants invertebrate
          species. Yet invertebrates represent approximately 97 percent of
          all species in the animal kingdom and may also be at risk f or
          exposure to environmental contaminants. Invertebrate species are
         .also vulnerable because many do not appear to have the systems for
          detoxifying and removing xenobiotics that vertebrates have.

          Currently NOAA's National, Status and Trends Program (NS&T) includes
          some biological measurements for invertebrate species in its
          nationwide yearly environmental monitoring efforts, however, the
          primary focus is on mollusks. Because invertebrates span a large
          number of phyla, they exhibit a wide variety of physiological
          strategies for dealing with xenobiotics. For example, the ability
          to metabolize aromatic hydrocarbons is virtually absent in the more
          primitive phyla, such as the6 cnidarians (e.g., jellyfish) and
          porifera (i.e., sponges), and is only questionably present in the
          molluscan phylum.     Whereas in the more evolutionary advanced
          invertebrate phyla, such -as the echinoderms (e.g., starfish, sea
          urchins), arthropods (e.g., crustaceans), and annelids (e.g.,
          polychaete worms) this -ability generally exists.       Thus it is
          reasonable that any large-scale assessment of coastal degradation
          should incorporate a range of invertebrate species, including those
          that accumulate contaminants and those that metabolize them. This
          is beginning to happen "in the case of NOAA's Coastal Ocean
          Bioeffects Surveys.      Intensive monitoring of several highly
          contaminated sites, such as Raritan Bay in New Jersey, now includes
          several sediment bioassays (as a measure of invertebrate health)
          in the suite of measurements performed.

          Scientists   from the Northwest       Fisheries Science Center's
          Environmental Conservation Division in Seattle are now assessing
          the possible adverse health effects of sediment-associated
          contaminants on a numb*er of sediment-dwelling invertebrate species.
          Sediment samples which are routinely collected and chemically
          analyzed as part of NOAA's National   'Benthic Surveillance Project
          are now being further studied, for their possible biological impact
          by using a suite of newly developed sublethal sediment bioassays
          rather than the traditional mortality-based assay.

          Particular interest has focused on sublethal assays because they
          may prove especially useful in testing the majority of coastal
          environments exhibiting low-to-moderate levels of contamination,
          and for assessing long-term or chronic effects of contaminant
          exposure. Such information can be used to indicate early on the
          to protect these habitats.    Laboratory studies using natural or
          artificially amended sediments are also used linking various
          concentrations of sediment-associated contaminants to their
          possible effects on invertebrate organisms.

                                                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 99










              Two such newly sublethal bioassays, one using a sediment-burrowing
              polychaete worm and the other using juvenile sand dollars, were
              successfully used to evaluate toxicity of sediments collected from
              Puget Sound as well as from 18 sites sampled along the west coast
              as part of the NS&T Program. Acute mortality rarely occurred with
              these sediments, but growth was found to be significantly depressed
              in invertebrates exposed to many of the urban sediment samples.
              Growth of the worms and sand dollars was affected when exposed to
              sediments from the following contaminated sites: North and South
              San Diego Bay; east San Pedro,Bay and Cerritos Channel near Los
              Angeles; Hunter's Point and Oakland Estuary in San Francisco Bay;
              and Elliott and Commencement Bays in Puget Sound (Figures IV-27).




                               110-
                                                          r2=0.655
                               100-
                           
                                90-

                                80-

                                70-
                             
					  60-	

					  50-	
						(a) POLYCHAETE	
					  40-	
                                  
                                   0			10			100			1000
                                



                               100-  
							                                  r2=0.599

                            	  90-	
						
                            
                                80-


					  70-	


                            	  60-	

                            		(b) SAND DOLLAR
					  50-
							10			100			1000			10000

                               
                               

                                            SEDIMENT PAHs (ng/g)

              Figure IV-27 (a)-(b). Effect of sediment contaminant levels on (a) polychaete
              and (b) sand dollar growth at 18 different sites in NOAA's National Benthic
              Surveillance Project, 1989. Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
              and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in nanograms per, gram (ng/g).
              (Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
              Fisheries Service)


              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 100
                                
 






          Invertebrate growth, as measured by a change i@ wet weight, was
          reduced by nearly 50 percent following exposure to some of these
          contaminated sediments as compared to the reference sediment. The
          sediment chemistry data showed a high correlation between
          concentrations     of    selected    contaminants     (e.g.,     aromatic
          hydrocarbons, PCBs) and reduced growth of polychaetes and sand
          dollars. Furthermore, animals exposed to urban sediment samples
          had significantly lower deoxyribonucleic (DNA) and protein content
          than animals exposed 'to the reference sediments.            Invertebrate
          growth following exposure to sediments from nonurban sites was not
          significantly different from growth of these organisms on the
          reference sediment.

          Thus, these studies highlight that if mortality alone had been used
          as a measurement of invertebrate health, most of the sediments
          would have yielded negative test results.         However, when a more
          subtle indicator of invertebrate health was used, such as growth,
          just the opposite was found: now most of the test sites revealed
          definite signs of impaired invertebrate health in those species
          tested.

          These results suggest that measurements of impaired growth in some
          invertebrates will provide a far more sensitive measurement of
          sediment toxicity than acute mortality alone, particularly in those
          sites exhibiting low to moderate levels of contamination.              New
          researchon the polychaete bioassay is now underway to examine that
          possible impact of contaminants on this organism's reproductive
          success as another sublethal indicator of sediment toxicity.

          e. Marine Mammals

          Marine mammals are    important for studying aquatic contamination.
          They are at the top   of the marine food chain and by studying them
          it may be possible to learn how chemical contaminants are
          transported up the food chain. Recent strandings of gray and pilot
          whales and other marine mammal species have created understandable
          public concern. The reasons behind such beachings are generally
          unknown, but have sometimes been attributed to toxic contaminants.
          The lack of concrete information on tissue levels of contaminants
          often leads to speculation.

               i. Marine Mammal Tissue Bank

          An important component of studying chemical contaminants in marine
          mammals is the newly created NMFS Marine Mammal Tissue Bank (MMTB)
          program under NMFS's Office of Protected Resources.@ The primary
          objective of this program is to create a databank of tissue samples
          to which scientists can return in the future as new and improved
          information and techniques become available should 'future research
          link a new chemical with marine mammal deaths.          In such a case,
          scientists would be able to go back to the earlier, preserved
          samples to check if that same chemical was present at the time but

                                                 NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 101








               either was not 1@boked f or or was not capable of being detected
               using the current methods. Developing a good baseline of tissue
               samples requires a major effort to get the most out of the few
               samples that become available via strandings, incidental or
               accidental deaths, subsistence hunting, and kill permits. These
               samples will be frozen and saved indefinitely.

               Scientists within the Environmental Conservation Division of the
               Northwest Fisheries Science Center, in coopbration with the MMTB,
               have recently begun analyzing tissues from stranded marine mammals
               to document levels of chemical contaminants such as PCBs, DDTs, and
               metals using state-of-the--@art methodologies. Because of the very
               high lipid content in most marine mammal tissues, standard tissue
               clean-up methods had to be significantly modified to reduce
               interference from the lipid in the sample extracts to permit
               chemical analyses.         Moreover, biochemical studies are being
               conducted on marine mammal tissue samples to assess exposure of the
               animals to certain chemical contaminants, particularly to aromatic
               hydrocarbons. Among the marine mammals investigated to date are:
               bottlenose dolphins, fur seals, gray whales, harbor porpoises,
               harbor seals, pilot whales, and Steller sea lions (Figure IV-28).






                                                                                     PCBs
                       20-                                                           DDTs

                   4J
                 W A                                                                 other CHS
                 Z. tP
                 0

                 E-4

                 E-4W                Alaska                     Northeast Coast
                 Z @t  lo-

                 Z 0
                 0 04
                 Q 04
                        5-




                        01       1       1
                          Sea Lion Harbor Fur Seal          Pilot            Pilot
                                    Seal                   Whale-           Whale-
                                                           mother            fetus



               Figure IV-28. Concentrations of chlorinated  hydrocarbons in blubber of marine
               mammals. Concentrations of PCBs, DDTs, and other chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHs)
               in parts per million (ppm), wet weight. (Courtesy Usha Varanasi, Northwest
               Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)

               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 102









               ii. Marine Mammal Quality Assurance

         Data of the highest quality is essential in this program.        Thus
         NOAA has adopted a quality assurance program with two main
         components.     One component of the program     I will be further
         standardization of methods i     'n conjunction with the organic
         analytical resea 'rch division of the National Institute of Standards
         and Technology (NIST).     For example, instrument parameters and
         column clean-up methods can be modified to insure optimum results
         while working with the lipid-rich marine mammal tissues, especially
         blubber.   A second phase will include the analyses of a whale
         blubber homogenate standard reference material prepared by NIST and
         a cod liver oil standard reference material.



         PROTECTED RESOURCES

         Our fish, wildlife, and    natural habitats are valuable economic,
         aesthetic, and recreational assets and, as such, are protected from
         exploitation. Numerous legislative actions conserve and protect
         these resources. Many of these   'laws have designated the Secretary
         of Commerce (through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
         Administration) as the federal authority responsible for their
         implementation. Significant among the laws that give NOAA primary
         responsibility to protect marine species and critical habitats are
         the Endangered Species Act, Marine Mammal Protection Act, Magnuson
         Fishery Conservation Act, and the Marine Protection, Research, and
         Sanctuaries Act.    In addition, NOAA provides recommendations to
         other agencies concerning federal activities that effect marine,
         estuarine, and anadromous species and critical habitats through
         such legislation as the Clean Water Act and the National
         Environmental Policy Act.

         a. Sea Turtles

         Marine turtles are highly migratory species found in all oceans of
         the world. The six species found in the Atlantic Ocean include the
         loggerhead,'green, Kemp's ridle'y, leatherback, hawksbill, and olive
         ridley turtles. Of these six, all but the olive ridley are found
         in United States Atlantic waters.      Within the Pacif  'ic, all six
         species are found. In Hawaiian waters, the green and hawksbill are
         the most abundant species. Off the United states west-coast, the
         loggerhead, leatherback, and olive ridley turtles are the most
         commonly reported species.

         Under a memorandum of understanding with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
         Service (USFWS), NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
         has been given the authority to protect and conserve marine
         turtles.   The USFWS maintains authority while turtles are on land.
         Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, all marine turtles are
         listed as endangered or threatened. The Kemp's ridley, hawksbill,
         and leatherback turtles are listed as endangered throughout their

                                              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 103









             ranges.  The loggerhead and olive ridley turtles are listed as
             threatened throughout their U. S. ranges. In the United States, the
             green turtle is listed as threatened, except for the :Florida
             nesting population which is listed as endangered (Table IV-4).


             Table IV-4. Annual number of sea turtles nesting on U.S. beaches
             (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science.Center, NOAA National Marine
             Fisheries Service)
                              Historical     Current    Current     status
                                 Level        Level       Level      in U.S.
             Atlantic
             Loggerhead                   18,000-21,0'00 Stable       Ta
             Green               --          600-800   Increasing    T,Eb
             Kemp's ridley     40,000                   Decliningc    E
             Leatherback         --                                   E
             Hawksbill                                  Declining     E

             Pacific
             Loggerhead          --  d         -- d                   T
             Green             10,000        2,200     Increasinge   T
             Olive ridley        --            --                     T
             Leatherback                                              E
             Hawksbill                         75f                    E

             a.  T=Threatened; E=Endangered.
             b.  Endangered in Florida; threatened elsewhere in the   U.S.
                 Atlantic.
             C.  Declining at average rate of 3 percent per year since 1978.
             d.  Historical 1'evel for Hawaii only; current level is 2000 in
                 Hawaii and 100-300 in American Samoa; current levels in Guam
                 unknown.
             e.  Trend in Hawaii only, monitored at French Frigate Shoals;
                 however, great concern exists over increasing frequency of
                 fibropapilloma disease in all Hawaiian green turtles.
             f.  Current abundance in Hawaii; current abundance in Guam and
                 American Samoa is unknown.


                  i. Population-Abundance

             Historical information on the abundance of sea turtles in U.S.
             waters.is limited.   Given these limitations, it is difficult to
             assess the status of turtle stocks over the long term. The most
             available index to evaluate population status and trends is the
             estimated number of nests or nesting females over aggregate nesting
             sites. Loggerhead, green, and Kemp's ridley turtles nest on the
             Atlantic and Gulf coast. The 1982-84 number of loggerheads nesting
             females from North Carolina to Florida was 18,000-21,000.         The
             majority of nesting occurs along the Florida east coast where the
             number of nests has been stable over the past 5 years.



             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL,DIGEST 104.








          The Kemp's ridley turtle is only known to nest in significant
          numbers at a single location on the Mexican Atlantic coast where
          the number of nests has been stable over the past 5 years.                 In
          1947,.40.,000.females were observed nesting on a single day in the
          nesting season. Now, about 700 females nest along this same beach
          throughout the whole season.          This number has been       -stable or
          slightly increasing over the past 4 years. The documented decline
          in Kemp's ridley is probably indicative of declines experienced by
          other sea turtle species (Figure IV-29).









          40,000






            800-






            600-

          E-4


          0


            400-


          z



            200-






               0
                    47 IVI   78        80       82       84        86       88

                                               Year


          Figure IV-29.   Annual number of Kemp's  ridley sea turtles nesting on U.S.
          beaches. (Courtesy Southeast Fisheries Science Center,. NOAA National Marine
          Fisheries Service)

                                                   NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 105







             Historically, the-4reen sea turtle supported significant fisheries
             along 'the Florida and Texas coasts, although      'nesting of this
             species on U.S. beaches has always been limited.         In the late
             1800s, it was reported that 2,000 females nested at Key West,
             Florida. Currently the number of-green turtles nesting along the
             Florida  coast is probably no more than 600-800.         However, it
             appears that the abundance of juvenile and sub-adult turtles in
             inshore  waters of Florida has recently returned to historical
             levels.   There are   no historical estimates for the numbers of
             hawksbill or leatherback turtles nesting on U.S. Caribbean beaches.
             The hawksbill has been heavily exploited within its*range and is
             likely to continue to decline.      The status of the leatherback
             turtle is not known in U.S. waters.       In the Pacific, extensive
             studies of the Hawaiian green turtle population are being conducted
             on nesting beaches and inshore habitats. Since 1973, surveys of
             nesting females have been conducted annually at French Frigate
             Shoals in the northwestern Hawaiian Islands by NMFS and the USFWS.
             These surveys indicate that the adult,  'green turtle population may
             currently number about 2,000 and that it is gradually increasing.
             No accurate historical record of green turtle population sizes
             exists. Despite an apparent increase in the nesting population,
             there is growing concern that fibropapilloma disease, which has
             infected green turtles of all ages in many inshore feeding and
             resting areas, may significantly impede population recovery.

             The Hawaiian hawksbill turtle population*is very small with only
             12-15 nests recorded each year. Little is known of the biology of.
             this species in Hawaii or of trends in the population size. In the
             north Pacific there are concerns about mortality to marine turtles
             in the pelagic environment due to high-seas driftnets.          Turtle
             bycatch rates are being monitored on driftnet vessels by U.S.,
             Canadian, Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese scientific observers.
             The extent to which the driftnet fisheries affect U.S. turtle
             populations is unknown.

             While sea turtles are protected in U.S. waters, turtle habitat
             worldwide continues to be negatively impacted. Coastal development
             reduces the quality and quantity of available nesting habitat.
             Turtles are also impacted through entanglement in fishing gear, and
             they represent-significant bycatch in various fisheries. Perhaps
             as many as 10,00 0 sea turtles are taken annually in shrimp trawl
             fisheries. The increasing presence of debris such as tar balls and
             plastics that are directly ingested negatively impacts turtles.
             The extent of these negative impacts are not limited to the United
             States, and there have been increased efforts to promote
             international cooperation in marine turtle recovery.

                  ii. Marine Turtle Fibropapilloma

             Green turtles develop lobulated tumors (fibropapilloma) on their
             skin, scales! scutes, eyes and surrounding tissues, oral cavities,
             and viscera. The cause of this disease is unknown but during the

             NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 106








           last 10 years the scope and magnitude of fibropapilloma in green
           turtles has grown to epidemic proportions almost simultaneously at
           several marine habitats in Florida, the Hawaiian Islands, and a few
           other locations (Figure IV-30).                    The disease represents a
           significant threat to the survival of this protected marine turtle.



                     160                                               53%
                          IIIIIII With Tumors EM Examined Strandinge
                     140-
                  in       (a)
                     120-                            47%          52%
                                              31%
                  E-4
                     100
                  E-4
                  Pr4 80-                                   46%
                  0
                  P4         WITH      40%
                      6,0- '@o
                          TUMORS
                      40-        26%
                          31%

                      20



                      0
                           83    .84    85     86     87     88     89     90



                     60
                                   WITH PAPILLOMAS         TOTAL STRANDINGS       70%
                 in  50- (b)                                                 48%
                 W


                     40                                          53%


                 ck4 30-                                               56%
                 0

                     20- -0, WITH
                            TUMORS
                     1'0-     44%   22%         10%  30
                 z                        29%
                        40% Fj      1A
                      0.M                            M
                        1980  1981  1982  1983 1984  1985  1986 1987 1988 19.89 1990
                                                    YEAR                         (1990 DATA INCOMPLETE)


           Figure IV-30 (a)-(b).   Green  turtle strandings and percentage with fibropapilloma
           in (a) Hawaii, 1983-1990, and (b) the Florida Keys, 1980-1990. Florida strandings
           reported through the.Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network. (Courtesy George
           H. Balazs, Honolulu Laboratory, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, and Wendy
           Teas, Miami Laboratory, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
           Fisheries service)
                                                                 53%
                                                                             48%








                                                           319%
                                                                       56























                                                          NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 107








              The cause of f ibropapilloma remains unknown.      The impact of the
              disease on the afflicted populations can have, indeed may already
              have had, serious consequences. The nature of this disease and its
              cause must be determined in order to develop a long-term disease
              management program.     To deal with this situation, NOAA's NMFS
              sponsored a workshop on marine turtle fibropapilloma in Honolulu,
              Hawaii, in December 1990.     The objective of the workshop was to
              bring top scientists together to discuss what is known about marine
              turtle fibropapilloma and*to devise a comprehensive and cooperative
              research plan on the cause of this disease.           Results of the
              workshop were published in a technical memorandum by the NOAA's
              NMFS Honolulu Laboratory in March 1991 entitled "Research Plan For
              Marine Turtle Fibropapillomall (NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-156).

              b. Selected Marine Mammals

              Thirty-six species of marine mammals range the U.S. Atlantic and
              Gulf of Mexico waters (34 whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and 2
              seal species). Their status is poorly known, but some, like the
              right whale, mid-Atlantic coastal bottlenose dolphin, and harbor
              porpoise, are under stresses that may affect their survival.

              Forty-two species of marine mammals 'Occur in U.S. Pacific waters
              (31 whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and 11 species of seals and
              sea lions) .   Fourteen are commonly seen along the coast (gray
              whale, bottlenose dolphin, harbor seal, and others), whereas the
              28 others frequent offshore or remote island waters (beaked whales,
              ribbon seal', Hawaiian monk seal, and others) , or are severly
              reduced in numbbers and thus seldom seen (blue whale, right whale,
              Guadalupe fur seal, for example).

                   i. Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin

              Bottlenose dolphins range throughout the Gulf of Mexico and the
              U. S. Atlantic waters. Figure IV-31 illustrates their distribution
              and seasonal patterns along the Atlantic coast. There appear to
              be nearshore and offshore stocks along the U.S. Atlantic coast.

              During the summer and fall of 1987 and winter of 1988 an apparent
              epidemic resulted in the death and stranding of an unusually large
              number of Atlantic bottlenose dolphins from New Jersey to central
              Florida. Population surveys and biological samples suggest that
              the mortality was principally from a mid-Atlantic coastal,
              migratory stock of dolphins. Available data suggest a decline of
              at least: half of the stock may have occurred.









              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 108












                     (a)                                    (b)







                                                                           SUMMER











                                                                  WINTER











           Figure IV-31 (a)- (b)  (a) Distributional range of bottlenose dolphins along the
           U.S. Atlantic coast and (b) areas of major concentrations of coastal migratory
           stock of bottlenose dolphins during summer and winter. (Courtesy Southeast
           Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)


           At pres  .ent, there is no comprehensive estimate of the size of the
           stock of bottlenose dolphins in U.S. waters.                   The number of
           dolphins comprising the numerous stocks throughout the U.S. Gulf
           and Atlantic waters prior to 1983 may have been at least 23,000
           individuals.      Historically, about 15,000 animals are thought to
           have lived in mid-Atlantic nearshore waters. The estimated average
           mid-Atlantic summer abundance,of bottlenose dolphins is believed
           to have ranged from about 4,000-to 13,000 animals, including both
           nearshore and offshore groups, in 1979-1981.

                 ii. Eastern Tropical Pacific Dolphins

           In 1990, the NOAA Southwest Fisheries Science Center completed the
           fifth of an annual series of large-scale Monitoring of Porpoise
           Stocks (MOPS) surveys in the eastern tropical Pacific (ETP).
           Management of the tuna-dolphin problem is currently based on
           detecting possible reductions in ETP dolphin population over time

                                                      NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 109








            due to the tuna purse-seine f ishery.    For this purpose    relative
            estimates of abundance with minimum variance is considered
            sufficient.    However, if quotas. based on incidental dolphin
            mortality are  to be.inst 'ituted on an international basis, there
            will be a need for absolute estimates of population size.         New
            analysis' procedures will ultimately lead to absolute estimates and,
            until that work is complete, the annual estimates for each stock
            of dolphins will be reported as a relative index.

            Figure IV-32 shows estimates of relative abundance for nine stocks
            of four ETP dolphin species that are impacted by the tuna purse-
            seine fishery. The estimates of relative abundance shown in Figure
            IV-32 are highly variable, and it is difficult to discern a
            pattern.  No overall trend was detected during the 5-year study
            period, which might have been expected if mortality due to the tuna
            purse-seine fishery, in the ETP were having an impact on the
            populations. However, the data do not warrant a conclusion that
            no impact is occurring. The statistical power of detecting even
            a large decline during a      5-year period given the observed
            variability of the estimates  is low.

                 iii. Bowhead Whale

            The endangered bowhead whale has ranged as far as the polar ice
            fields of the Northern Hemisphere.      Total prewhaling abundance
            exceeded 120,000, but,by 1900 it was probably in the low thousands.
            In the U.S. western Arctic, 18,650 bowheads were killed by Yankee
            whalers between 1848 and 1914 from a population estimated at less
            than 20,000. The take by Alaska Eskimos has averaged 20-40 whales
            per year since 1914. The present population, 7,500, is about 40-
            60 percent of its 1848 carrying capacity.       The stock has been
            increasing since commercial whaling ended and has increased 3.1
            percent per year since 1978 (Figure IV-33).

                 iv. Gray Whale

            Still listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) as endangered
            are the two stocks of north Pacific gray whales. The eastern north
            Pacific or "California" stock'was heavily exploited by Yankee
            whalers in the last half of the 19th century. The present stock
            size, 21,113, is equal to or larger than the size. of the 1846
            population of 15,000-20,000. Population growth rate is 3.2 percent
            per year despite a Soviet subsistence catch of 167 whales per year
            (Figure IV-34).










            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 110









                                          (a  Ea   r+     ou 0.  Q1.                                INDEX OF        ABUNDANCE'                                                                       INDEX OF ABUINDANC
                                          ()  rt   :c     (D0    0 f-
                                          k.  lb   0        1-.  1-4 tQ
                                          (D  :3          r3 @a  'a  r.
                                              I:x  to     :r tv  :r  N
                                                                 tl
                                                            tfl  ta
                                          th       to
                                          :3                rA   :3  w
                                                            rt.                                                                                  C6   ca
                                                            (D       NJ
                                                            .3   :y
                                                                                                                                                 :3   z
                                                          rt (D  M                                                                                    Z
                                                   to     :c 1-.
                                                   ri-    0                                                                                           m
                                                            9b   (D
                                                                 Sb                                                                                   m
                                                   'a       Sb   to                                                                                                                   -<
                                                                 ct                  rn is.                                                                                           rn a
                                                   (D       r+                            1                                                      %8                                       1.
                                                   Q.       rf   (D                  >                                                           40                                   >
                                          lb  M             M                                                                                    44"                                  M
                                          ft
                                              tq   s:).,  LQ
                                                            Q    r+
                                                            lb                                                                                        z
                                                            rt   N   (D
                                          Sb                     0
                                                                 a   Sh
                                                          to         ft
                                                   :3
                                          lb       EQ
                                                          :3
                                              (D          :3
                                          :3              (D
                                                   rn     N
                                                   rt,               to
                                          (D                r+
                                                            :@.  Q   rt
                                              (D            fl
                                              r@   M             t%
                                          to                M
                                                                 @4.
                                                            M    0
                                              (D   lb                rt                             INDEX OF ABUNDANCE.
                                                            rn       (D                                                                                                                              INDEX OF ABUNDANC
                                 z        h   9b                     ta
                                 0
                                          m   :3          to0
                                          to  jzt,          ()       0
                                                            X.   CID
                                          r4  @u          (n to
                                          m   lb          (D         rb
                                 z        N   r-          :3
                                                   0
                                              3@                                                                                                      ca
                                              lb                 lb  lb
                                                   ry
                                 o

                                                          o      rt
                                 t2i                      :3     t                                                                                    m
                                 z                 til      04
                                                   11     F1 I-. to  N               rn                                                                                               M
                                 >            (+   0      0      Ct                  >                                                                0                               >

                                                          rt         k
                                              EQ   b-     N. :3
                                 F-4               0,     '. to  W   (D
                                                   h      EQ                                                                                          z
                                                   to     %-     0                                                                                    CA
                                                          %          to
                                                                     r+
                                                   lb
                                              En
                                                   N      :3
                                                   (D     0.         A,
                                              N.                     to
                                              .1-. 0        :3   rt
                                              M :3 04 C M 0
                                              to   (D       to   0.  P-h                                                                                                                     cz











                        61000





                        6,000-





                        4.000-





                        3,000-

                     0



                        2,000
                           1975            1980            1985             1990

                                                  YEAR


              Figure IV-33. Actual count of bowhead whales, 1978-88. (Courtesy'NOAA National
              Marine Fisheries Service)







                         25




                      0  20-




                         15-


                      @4

                         10




                           5-




                           0
                           1965     1970      1975      1980       1985      1990


                                                  YEAR


              Figure IV-34.   Estimated population of gray whales, 1965-90. (Courtesy NOAA
              National Marine Fisheries Service)


              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 112










                   V. Steller Sea Lion

             The northern -or Steller sea lion, classified as threatened under
             the ESA, ran     Iges coastal waters of the north Pacific Ocean from
             California to Japan. The species has declined sharply throughout
             its range in the last 20 years, and is now well below its optimum
             level. The number of adults and juveniles in U.S. waters crashed
             from 154,000 in 1960 to 42,000 in 1990. Most of this 73 percent
             decline occurred in Alaska waters (Figure IV-35). The decline in
             Alaska is believed to be a combination of incidental kills in
             fisheries, illegal shooting, changes in the numbers and/or quality
             of prey, and possibly other unidentified factors. The population
             off Washington and Oregon is low but stable at about 3,000, but in
             California they have slowly declined since the 1950s to about
             2,000.





                        180
                                                                       Total
                     0  140-                                           Alaska
                     0
                     0

                        120-



                        100-
                     z
                     0

                         so-


                         Go-


                         40-


                         20-
                     rn

                          01
                           1960    1966     1970     1975     1980     1985     1990


                                                    YEAR

             Figure 1TV-35.   Estimated U.S. population of Steller sea lions and population
             trends in Alaska, 1960-90. (Courtesy NOAA National marine Fisheries service)



                   vi. Northern Fur Seal

             The northern fur seal of the north Pacific Oceanl considered
             depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) , ranges
             across subarctic Pacific Rim waters from California to Japan. It
             numbered 1.2 million in 1983 with 871,000 in U.S. waters.                         The


                                                          NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 113








            major U.S. breeding population is on Alaska's Pribilof Islands of
            St. Paul and St. George.      Production on the Pribilof Islands
            dropped more than 60 percent between 1955 and-1980, but has since
            been stable.   On St. George Island production has continued to
            decline about 6 percent per year since 197b (Figure IV-36). Small
            U.S. breeding populations are also found on Alaska's Bogoslof
            Island (1,500), and California's San Miguel Island (4,000).      The
            Pribilof Islands' fur seal carrying capacity has changed little
            since the 1950s.



                    400
                                                    St. Paul Island
                                                    St. Georoe Island

                0
                0   300-
                0

                r4



                    200-

                04



                    100-





                      0
                      1970      1975       1980       19@5      1990
                                          YEAR

            Figure IV-36. Northern fur seal pup counts on St. Paul and St. George Islands,
            Alaska, 1970-90. (Courtesy NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)



                 vii. California sea Lion

            The California sea lion has three subspecies living on the U.S.
            west coast and British Columbia, in the Galapagos Islands, and in
            Japan. Between Mexico and British Columbia the population, about
            157,000 animals, has grown about 6 percent per year since the 1970s
            (Figure IV-37).   Annual production of 16,000-17,000 pups on the
            California Channel Islands in 1986 corresponds to a population size
            of about 87,000 animals. The California population in 1982 (prior
            to the 1982-83 El Nino warm water intrusion) was thought to be near
            or slightly below the lower end of its optimum population.








            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 114












                         25




                         20-
                      0




                      W


                      z  10-
                      0





                      U)

                         Oi
                         1975            1980             1985
                                        YEAR

         Figure IV-37. California sea lion pup counts on the Channel Islands, 1971-86.,
         (Courtesy NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service)



              viii. Hawaiian Monk Seal

         Considered endangered under the ESA, the monk seal is limited to
         the small     islands and atolls of the 1,100-mile Hawaiian
         Archipelago.    The total population is about 1,500 animals, a 60
         percent decline since 1958.     The monk seals at French Frigate
         Shoals have recently shown a slight increase. Average counts of
         the five major breeding sites increased from 468 to 639 during
         1983-87 but dropped to 546 in 1990. Production increased during
         1983-88 but dropped 23 percent in 1990 from the .1983-88 average
         (Figure IV-38).


                       260




                       200-


                     4Q

                     W ISO




                     W 100-
                     0
                     W4

                         50




                         0
                         1980            1985            1990

                                        YEAR

         Figure IV-38. Hawaiian monk seal live births, 1983-90. (Courtesy NOAA National
         marine Fisheries Service)


                                              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 115










            C. Habitat Conservation

            The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) regulates wetland activities
            in waters of the United States under the authority of the Rivers
            and Harbors Act and the Clean Water Act.          In this capacity,
            thousands of requests to alter wetlands are processed annually in
            the southeastern region of the United States alone. NMFS provides
            recommendations to the COE that are designed to minimize project
            effects on marine, estuarine, and anadromous fishery resources.

            Because the amount, type, and geographical distribution of the
            habitat were generally unknown, the NMFS, Southeast Region,
            developed a computerized system in 1980 to compile such
            information. The effectiveness of the NMFS' habitat program also
            can be monitored and modifications can be made to the program as
            needed.

            Since 1981 the NMFS Southeast Region has reviewed 39,050 projects
            involving wetlands and has collected detailed information on 9,148
            of these (Table IV-5). These projects, for which there is detailed
            information, call for the alteration of 683,731 acres of wetlands.
            Mitigation of 176,536 acres involving creation of wetlands or
            enhancement of existing wetlands was also sought. If implemented,
            NMFS recommendations would have allowed 312,366 acres of alteration
            and potentially conserved 371,366 wetland acres.       Most accepted
            alterations were for marsh management, maintenance dredging, and
            beach nourishment. Based on the nature of the work, the proposed
            mitigation, if successful, would exceed anticipated losses with
            regard to acreage considerations.



            Table IV-5. NMFS Southeast Region  habitat conservation efforts from
            1981 to 1989. (Courtesy Andreas Mager, Jr., Southeast Region, NOAA
            National Marine Fisheries service)
                     Acres Proposed Acres Accepted Acres Potentially Acres
            Year No.  by Applicants       by NMFS         Conserved     Mitigated

            81    811      7,949           2,868             5,081         2,471
            82  1,059    81,184           21,831           59,353          7,910
            83    825    20,778            8,658           12,120         26,775
            84    888      8,606           3,981             4,625        54,050
            85  1,802    65,670           11,161           54,509         19,200
            86    969    90,559           70,838           19;721         49,713
            87  1,054    21,755            8,135           13,620          7,139
            88    977    359,876         173,284           186,592         1,827
            89    763    27,354           11,610           15,745          7,451

                9,148    683,731         312,366           371,366        176,536

            (No. is number of projects   sampled)



            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST    116









          d. Marine Sanctuaries and Estuarine Research Reserves

          NOAA is actively involved in the preservation of the nation's
          valuable marine and estuarine resources. Through two programs, the
          National marine Sanctuary Program and the National Estuarine
          Research Reserve System, NOAA protects sensitive and ecologically
          important marine areas for their scientific, educational,
          historical, recreational, and aesthetic resources.

                i.' National Marine Sanctuary Program

          In 1972, in response to a growing awareness of the intrinsic
          environmental and cultural value of the United States' coastal
          waters, Congress passed the Marine Protection, Research and
          Sanctuaries Act. The Act authorizes the Secretary of Commerce to
          designate discrete areas as national marine sanctuaries and to
          promote comprehensive management of their special resources.
          National Marine Sanctuaries may be designated in coastal and ocean
          waters, in submerged lands, and in the Gre        'at Lakes and their
          connecting waters. Under Title III of the Act, NOAA manages the
          National Marine Sanctuary Program. NOAA's mission is to develop
          a system of sanctuaries to promote research, education, and
          conservation. The National Marine, Sanctuaries are administered by
          the Sanctuaries and Reserves Division of the National Ocean
          Service.

          Nine National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) have been designated since
          the program began (Figure IV-39), the newest being Florida Keys
          NMS.    The NMSs are located in a number of distinct marine
          environments: nearshore, open water, benthic, and in temperate and
          tropical areas, and range from in size from less than one to over
          1252 square nautical miles.       Total area is almost 4.5 million
          acres. Five sanctuaries are located in or contain open.water: Gulf
          of the Farallones, Channel Islands, Cordell Bank, Gray's Reef, and
          the MONITOR. The Channel Islands and the Gulf of the Farallones
          include islands, and the latter extends to the mainland.           Three
          other sanctuaries are nearshore ecosystems in the tropical zone,
          with outstanding coral reefs and sea grass beds. On the Atlantic
          coast, Gray's Reef is a limestone, live bottom reef. The MONITOR
          NMS protects the wreckage of the famous Civil War ironclad. Table
          IV-6 shows the growth of the National Marine Sanctuary Program
          since 1975.















                                                 NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 117








                                                                The National Marine Sanctuary
                                                                                        Program

                                                                 orthern Puget Sound
                                                01= A

                                                                                                                      A Thunder
                                                                                                                         Bay               A Stellwagen
                                                                                                                                               Bank
                                      Cordell Bank 0

                                         Gulf of the 0
                                         Farallones .
                                        Monterey Bay A                                                                                 A Norfolk Canyon
                                        Channel Islands 0                                                                              0 MONITOR

                                           00
                                                                                                                                   Gray's Reef

                                       Kahoolawe,
                                           Hawaii                                                    A Flower Garden
                                                                                                         Banks
                                                                                                                                   Florida Keys
                                               %                                                                                   - Key Largo
                                         Fagatele Bay,                                                                             - Looe Key
                                         American Samoa


                        Figure         IV-39.            The National Marine Sanctuary Program. (Courtesy
                        Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National Ocean service)



                        Table IV-6.                   National Marine Sanctuaries, 1975-1991. (Courtesy
                        Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National Ocean service)

                        Year                                                   Number                                                    Area (acres)

                        1975                                                        2                                                          64,640
                        1976                                                        2                                                          64,640
                        1977                                                        2                                                          64,640
                        1978                                                        2                                                          64,640
                        1979                                                        2                                                          64,640
                        1980                                                        3                                                       865,920
                        1981                                                        6                                                  1,486,720
                        1982                                                        6                                                  1,486,720
                        1983                                                        6                                                  1,486,720
                        1984                                                        6                                                  1,486,720
                        1985                                                        6                                                  1,486,720
                        1986                                                        7                                                  1,487,360
                        1987                                                        7                                                  1,487,360
                        1988                                                        7                                                  1,487,360
                        1989                                                        8                                                  11741,440
                        1990                                                        9                                                  4,412,480
                        1991                                                        9                                                  4,412,480


                        NOAA      ENVIRONMENTAL@DIQEST                           118








                 ii. National Estuarine Reserve Research System

           As early as the 1960s Congress recognized the need to protect
           coastal resources from pollution and the pressures of development.
           In particular danger    were the nation's estuaries, those valuable,
           yet fragile, areas where rivers meet the sea. To address threats
           to these critical areas, the National Estuarine Reserve Research
           System was established as part of the Coastal Zone Management Act
           of 1972.     NOAA was given the responsibility for designating
           estuarine reserves and administering the System.

           The goal of this program is to establish and manage, through
           federal-state    cooperation,     a   national    system of , reserves
           representing different coastal and estuarine environments that
           exist in the United States and its territories. The reserves are
           natural laboratories in which studies are conducted on processes
           occurring within the estuaries.         Nineteen reserves, protecting
           approximately 400,000 acres of estuarine lands and waters, are in
           the system (Figure IV-40).      Education and research opportunities
           are available to qualified applicants. Table IV-7 sows the growth
           of the National Estuarine Reserve Research System since 1975.



           Table IV-7. National Estuarine Reserve Research System, 1975-1991.
           (Courtesy Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National Ocean
           Service)

           Year                          Number                        Area (acres)

           1975                              1                                4,700
           1976                              3'                             14,205
           1977                              3                               14,205
           1978                              4                              22,605-
           1979                              5                            216,383
           1980                              9                            223,426
           1981                             11                            229,652
           1982                             14                            240,571
           1983                             14                            240,571
           1984                             15                            242,121
           1985                             15                            242,121
           1986                             16                            245,149
           1987                             16                            245,149
           1988                             17                            247,346
           1989                             18                            2531477
           1990                             18                            259,945
                                            19                            399,302








                                                   NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 119









                                                       The National Estuarine Reserve
                                                                            Research System
                                                       Padilla Bay
                                                                                                                                    St. Lawrcnc
                                                                                                                                    Ri cT Basin
                                                                                                                                                       Mclis
                                        South Slough                                                                                                Great Bay
                                                                                                                                                     Waquoil Bay
                                                                                                                                                    NafraganNCU Bay
                                                                                                            Old
                                                                                                                                                Delaware
                                  San Fra    ...                                                                                                lChesiopeake Bay. MD
                                                        Rp.
                                                                                                                                                Chesapeake Bay, VA
                                      Elkhorn Slough
                                                                                                                                                North Carolina

                                                                                                                               .1 R.            North Inlet
                                                                                                                               XX
                                               Tijuana    icr                                                                             AL& Basin
                                                                                                                                   N;'.
                                                                                                                                    11 111.: sapcio Island

                                                                                                                                        x a
                                       lairnan. A"                                                                              A          I
                                       Val.Icy, H I Z7                                                                  Day
                                                            A Proposed
                                                                                                                           Rooke    Bay
                                                             9 Designated                                                                         Johos Day, PR




                          Figure IV-40.                   The National Estuarine Reserve Research System. (Courtesy
                          Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, NOAA National ocean Service)



                          ESTUARIES

                          Estuaries, among the planet's most productive natural systems, are
                          important features of coastal regions. Biologically they form a
                          transition zone between freshwater and marine ecosystems.
                          Estuaries are def ined as semi-enclosed bodies of water having a
                          free connection with the open sea and within which seawater is
                          diluted by freshwater drainage. The important role estuaries play
                          in sustaining the health and abundance of fish, shellfish, and
                          birds has long been recognized.                                               Estuaries are a vital coastal
                          habitat, particularly during early life stages of many animals.
                          The freshwater and nutrients they provide produce a habitat
                          critical to the health of our living resources.                                                                       'Estuaries are
                          among the most densely populated and heavily used regions in the
                          nation; an estimated 45 percent of our population now lives around
                          these areas. Society places a high value on estuaries as places
                          for living, working, and recreating.

                          The National Estuarine Inventory (NEI) is a series of projects
                          within NOAA's National Ocean Service designed to define and
                          characterize the nation's estuarine resource base and develop a

                          NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 120








          national estuarine capability. NOAA began the NEI in 1983 and has
          produced four major NEI atlases, six national data bases, and
          numerous technical reports. The NEI contains information on the
          physical and hydrological features, population and land use,
          wetlands, and selected economic characteristics of 102 estuaries.
          The information presented in this section is only a sample of that
          available in NOAA's NEI data base.

          a. North Atlantic

          The North Atlantic estuarine region extends f rom. the U. S. -Canadian
          border to Cape Cod. The regional estuaries account for more than
          23,000 square miles of drainage. These estuaries were formed by
          glaciers that removed soil cover, leaving rocky shorelines and
          steep-sided river channels.      Selected characteristics of North
          Atlantic estuaries are shown in Figure IV-41.

          b. Middle Atlantic

          The Middle Atlantic estuarine region extends from Buzzards Bay
          through Chesapeake Bay. Estuaries in this region account for more
          than 48,000 square miles of drainage. Middle Atlantic estuaries
          are geomorphologicAlly different from those in the North Atlantic
          region. Rising sea level, resulting from melting glaciers, drowned
          the mouths of ancient rivers extending across the continental
          shelf. The result was the coastal plain estuaries of the Middle
          Atlantic Region.     Selected characteristics of Middle Atlantic
          estuaries are shown in Figure IV-42.

          C. South Atlantic

          The South Atlantic estuarine region extends from North Carolina to
          Southern Florida. The estuaries in this region account for almost
          56,000 square miles of drainage along the South Atlantic coast.
          South Atlantic estuarine regions are characterized by two general
          shoreline formations. The first is a low-lying, marshy shoreline
          with a pattern of tributaries flowing to the sea and is most
          prevalent -along the South Carolina and Georgia coasts. The second
          is represented by lagoons bounded by extensive barrier island
          systems and is found in North Carolina and central Florida.         An
          exception to this is the St. John's River, a large river with
          limited access to the sea, but tidally influenced a considerable
          distance upstream. Characteristics of South Atlantic estuaries are
          shown in Figure IV-43.










                                               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 121











    a. Estuarine Drainage Area b. Estuarine Water Surface Area

        ME   ME


    2    2


    3    3


    4    4


    5    5


    6    6

   ca    ca
    7    7

         UJI
    8    a
        NH   NH



    10   10
        MA   MA
    11   1


    2    12


    13   13
    0123456;00  200 300 400 Sao 600
     Area (thousand square miles) Area (square miles)


    c. Total Wetlands d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use

    1    1   ME

    2   ME2

    3    3


    4    4


    5    5


    6    6


    7    7
   6
    8   Lua
        NH   NH
    9


    10    10
        MA   MA



    12    12


    13    13


    0so 100 150  200 2500130 40 so 60
     Area (square miles) Percentage of EDA
    Notes: Sub-estuahes are not shown separately Urban Agricultural
    1Passamaquoddy Bay 8Casco Bay
    2Englishman Bay 9Saco Bay
    3Narraguagus Bay 10 Great Bay
    4Blue Hill Bay North Atlantic Estuaries 11 Merrimack River
    5Penobscot Bay 12 ,Massachusetts Bay
    6Muscongus Bay 12a Boston Bay
    7Sheepscot Bay 13 Cape Cod Bay

  Figure IV-41 (a)-(d). Selected characteristics, North Atlantic estuaries. RDA=
  estuarine dz-ainage area. (Court esy.Stra t egic Environmental Assessments Division,
  NOAA National Ocean Service)


  NQAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 122
    EE   @:ME










                                                                          a. Estu rine Drainage Area                                                                    b. -Estuarine Water Surface Area
                                                                                                                                        MA                                                                                          MA


                                                                          2                                                             F0                                                                                          R1

                                                                          3                                                             NY                          3                                                               NY

                                                                                                                                NY.cT                                                                                          NY.CT
                                                                          4                                                                                         4

                                                                          5                                                             MY                                                                                          NY


                                                                                                                                                            cc
                                                                                                                                        NJ                                                                                          NJ
                                                                          7
                                                          ILLI                                                                                              LLI



                                                                          9                                                 PA-DE-NJ                                                                                        PA-DE-NJ

                                                                          10                                                            DE                          10    (32)                                                      DE

                                                                                                                               MD-VA                                                                                           MD-VA


                                                                          12                                                                                        12
                                                                          0          5           10            5           20           25                                      owo   1 00 1=' @000_ AN iQ00 i= 4000
                                                                             Area (thousand square miles)                                                                             Area (square miles)


                                                                          c. Total Wetlands                                                                             d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use
                                                                          1'Z@ A                                                        MA                          1                                                               MA

                                                                          2                                                             Rl                          2                                                               R1

                                                                          3                                                             NY                          3                                                               NY


                                                                          4                                                      NY-cT                              4                                                          NY.CT


                                                                          5                                                             NY                          5

                                                                                  AA.
                                                                                                                                                                    it

                                                                                                                                                            tv
                                                                                                      RN'A
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                                                                                                                                                            4A
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                                                                           k
                                                                                          4,

                                                                          10 NID                                                        DE                          10                                                              DE

                                                                                                                                NlD-VA                              11                                                         MD-VA
                                                                                                                                        (1557)
                                                                          12 @,PK@ 4                                                                                2

                                                                                                                               000      1700
                                                                          0     100      200     300       400      $00                                                0              20                               .0             so
                                                                                       Area (square miles)                                                                             Percentage of EDA
                                                                          Notes: Sub-estuaries are not shown separately.                NID - no data.                  E Urban                     13 Agricultural

                                                                                                                           Middle Atlantic Estuaries
                                                                          1Buzzards Bay                                                 7  Barnegat Say                                       12b   Potomac River
                                                                          2Narragansett Bay                                             8  New Jersey Inland Bays                             12c   Rappahannock River
                                                                          3Gardiners Say                                                9  Delaware Bay                                       12d   York River
                                                                          4Long Island Sound                                            10 Delaware Inland Bays                               12e   James River
                                                                          4a Connecticut 'I'liver                                       11 Chincoteague Bay                                   1 2f  Chester River
                                                                          5Great South Bay                                              12 Chesapeake Bay                                     12g   Choptank River
                                                                          6Hudson River/Raritan Bay                                     12a Patuxent River                                    12h   Tangier/Pocomoke Sounds
                                 Figure XV-42 (a) - (d) . Selected                                                        characteristics, Middle                                             Atlantic estuaries. EDA=
                                 estuarine drainage area. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
                                 NOAA National Ocean Service)

                                                                                                                                                         NQAA ENVIRONME14TAL DIGEST 123










                                                                a. Estuarine Drainage Area                                                 b. Estuarine Water Sudace Area


                                                                2                                                NO                  2                                                         (29491
                                                                                                                                     3  -                                                      NO

                                                                4                                                                    4

                                                                5                                                                    5
                                                                                                                 SO                                                                            SO;

                                                                7                                                                    7




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                                                                12                                                                   12
                                                                is                                                                   is -
                                                                14                                                                   14

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                                                                                                                                     17



                                                                0      2       4         6       a        10       12                     a'     so       1100   ISO     900      250      Sao    Sm

                                                                    Area (thousand square miles)                                                        Area (square miles)


                                                                c. Total Wetlands                                                      d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use


                                                                2                                                NO                  2                                                         NO
                                                                3                                                                                 7

                                                                4


                                                                                                                 sc                                                                            SO


                                                                                                                                     7


                                                   cc           9                                                                    9

                                                                10                                                                   10
                                                                                                                 GA                                                                            GA
                                                                It                                                          LU       11

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                                                                13                                                                   13

                                                                U                                                                    14
                                                                                                                 FL                  I:                                                        FL
                                                                                                                                     17

                                                                Is                                                                   is
                                                                                         '000                                                                        '40            6             80
                                                                0           Do           I            i5w          2000                 0               20
                                                                           Area (square miles)                                                          Percentage of EDA
                                                                Notes: Sub-estuaries are not shown separately. N/D - no data.               Urban              E3 Agricultural
                                                                                                          South Atlantic Estuaries
                                                                1Albemarle/Pamlico Sounds                 6  North/South Santee Rivers                  13     Altamaha River
                                                                1 aPamlico/Pungo Rivers                   7  Charleston Harbor                          14     St. Andrew/St. Simons Sounds
                                                                lb Neuse River                            8  St. Helena Sound                           15     St. Marys River/Cumberland
                                                                2Bogue Sound                              9  Broad River                                       Sound
                                                                3New River                            10     Savannah River                             16     St. Johns River
                                                                4Cape Fear River                      11     Ossabaw Sound                              17     Indian River
                                                                5Winyah Say                           12     St. Catherines/Sapelo Sounds               18     Biscayne Bay
                                Figure XV-43                    (a)-(d). Selected                           characteristicst                        South Atlantic estuaries. EDA=
                                estuarine drainage area. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
                                NOAA National Ocean Service)


                                NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 124










          d. Gulf of Mexico

          The Gulf of Mexico estuarine region extends from the southern tip
          of Florida west to the Texas-Mexico border. The estuaries in this
          region account for more than 96,000 square miles of drainage along
          the Gulf of Mexico coast. Like the South Atlantic and much of the
          Middle Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico is part of a vast coastal plain
          of sedimentary deposits. Major features include the Mississippi
          and Atchafalaya deltas, where large amounts of land-derived
          sediments have been deposited in. shallow coastal waters.        This
          delta environment forms a complex web of estuarine channels and
          extensive coastal wetlands, important, habitat for many recreational
          and commercial fisheries. In other areas, sediment transported and
          deposited by oceanic currents formed offshore bars enclosing
          shallow, and sometimes extensive bodies of water. Such estuaries
          are common along the Texas shoreline.     Gulf of Mexico estuarine
          characteristics are shown in Figure IV-44.

          e. Pacific Coast

          The Pacific estuarine region extends from Tijuana Estuary to Puget
          Sound. Estuaries in this region account for almost 38,000 square
          miles of drainage along the Pacific coast. The Pacific coast is
          characterized by uniformly uplifted, resistent rock, , except for
          coastal f lats and islands along parts of the Washington coast.
          Coastal mountain formations have restricted the area of low-lying
          coastal plains and rivers that f low toward the sea resulting in
          narrow, deep, and steep-sided estuaries.    The large estuaries of
          San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound formed when sections of the
          continent sank below sea level due to active mountain building.
          In Puget Sound, additional deepening and elongation occurred due
          to glacial activity. Because of the unique regional geomorphology
          (deep submarine canyons in Southern California bays and shallow
          coastal estuaries in Oregon), the average depth and volume of the
          bays and estuaries vary considerably. Santa Monica Bay, Monterey
          Bay, and Puget Sound are among the deepest in the nation whereas
          Oregon estuaries are among the most shallow. Characteristics of
          Pacific coast estuaries are shown in Figure IV-45.

















                                              NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 125









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                                                                                   a. Estuarine Drainage Area                                                           b. Estuarine Water Surface Area
                                                                                                                                               CA                                 .13)                                                    CA
                                                                         2                                                                                          2
                                                                         1
                                                                         4



                                                                                                                                                                    ?


                                                                         9
                                                                         10                                                                                         10
                                                                         11                                                                                         11
                                                                         12                                                                                         12
                                                                                                                                                                    13
                                                                         14                                                                                         14
                                                                         Is                                                                    OR                   is                                                                    OR
                                                                         10                                                                                         is
                                                                         17                                                                                         17
                                                                         is                                                                                         is
                                                                         Is                                                                                         19
                                                                         20


                                                                         22                                                                                         22
                                                                         23                                                                                         23
                                                                         24
                                                                                                                                               WA                   2:                                                                    WA
                                                                                                                                                                    2
                                                                                                                                                                    7                                                                     (931)

                                                                                                                                               e-
                                                                                   a 1      2         3     4         5     6       7          a                        0         50 100 IN 200 230 300 No 400 450 1OW
                                                                                   Area (thousand square miles)                                                                          Area (square miles)

                                                                                   c. Total Wetlands                                                                    d. Urban and Agricultural Land Use
                                                                         I         NID
                                                                                                                                               CA                                                                                         CA
                                                                         2
                                                                                   NID
                                                                         4         N/D                                                                              4                                                                 _J
                                                                         5


                                                                         7         NID                                                                              7
                                                                                                                                                                    a


                                                                         10        NID                                                                              10
                                                                         II        NID                                                                              II
                                                                         12                                                                                         12
                                                                         1.                                                                                         13
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                                                                         23        NIO                                                                              23
                                                                         24        NYD                                                                              24
                                                                         25                                                                                         26
                                                                         20                                                                    WA                   20                                                                    WA
                                                                         27                                                                                         27
                                                                                                                                                                    20
                                                                                           100           2"00            30'0          400 1000                         0         1*0   20         ;0     ;0        ;a       ;0        ;0      go
                                                                                            Area (square miles)                                                                          Percentage of EDA
                                                                                   Notes: Sub-estuaries are not shown separately. N/D-nodata.                           N         U rban               [3 Agricultural

                                                                                                                                               Pacific Estuaries
                                                                                   1Tijuana Estuary                   8  Monterey Bay                                             14 Klamath River                  23    Tillamook Bay
                                                                                   2San Diego Bay                     Ba Elkhorn Slough                                           15, Rogue River                   24     Nehalem River
                                                                                   3Mission Bay                       9  San Francisco Bay                                        16 CoosBay                        25     Columbia River
                                                                                   4Newport Bay                       9a Central San Francisco,                                   17 Umpqua River                   26    Willapa Bay
                                                                                   5San Pedro Bay                        San Pablo/Suisun Bays                                    18 Siuslaw  River                 27     Grays Harbor
                                                                                   5a Alamitos Bay                    10 Drakes Estero                                            19 Alsea River                    28     Puget Sound
                                                                                   5b Anaheim Bay                     11 Tornales Bay                                             20 Yaquina Bay                    28a    Hood Canal
                                                                                   6Santa Monica Bay                  12 Eel River                                                21 Siletz Bay                     28b    Skagit Bay
                                                                                   7Morro Bay                         13 Humboldt Bay                                             22 Netarts Bay
                                    Figure XV-45                                   (a) - (d)                     Selected characteristics,                                                         Pacific estuaries.                                               EDA=
                                    estuarine drainage area. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
                                   NOAA National ocean Service)

                                                                                                                                                                    NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 127










           COASTAL WETLANDS

           The nation's coastal wetlands    are important natural resources.
           Wetlands form the interface      between terrestrial and aquatic
           systems.  They provide critical habitat for fish, shellfish, and
           wildlife. They also filter and process agricultural and industrial
           wastes, and buffer coastal areas against storm and wave damage.
           our wetlands generate large revenues from a wide variety of
           recreational activities, such as fishing and hunting.

           Wetland loss is occurring due to a number of reasons including
           urbanization, agriculture, oil exploration, sea level rise, and
           shoreline erosion.    Nationally, more than 11 million acres of
           wetlands have been lost over the past 25 years due to human
           activity and natural processes. Although most of the losses have
           occurred in inland areas, coastal wetlands have also declined at
           an alarming rate over this period. For example, in the Chesapeake
           Bay region, losses of coastal wetlands are estimated at 6 percent
           annually.

           Development of the National Coastal Wetlands Inventory was
           initiated by NOAA in. 1986 and is conducted by the Strategic
           Environmental Assessments Division, Office of Ocean Resources,
           Conservation, and Assessment, National Ocean Service. The purpose
           of the inventory is to develop a comprehensive national coastal
           wetlands data base  to increase our knowledge of the distribution
           and areal extent of wetlands and to improve our understanding and
           management of this vital resource. The data developed from this
           project is part of NOAA's National Estuarine Inventory (NEI).

           The wetlands data are derived entirely from National Wetlands
           Inventory (NWI) maps produced by the U..S. Fish and Wildlife
           Service. The numerous wetland habitat types identified in these
           maps were aggregated into 4 major habitat types (palt marsh, fresh
           marsh, tidal flats, and forested and scrub-shrub).

           a. New England

           The coast of New England extends from the U.S. Canadian border Cape
           Cod and along the coasts of Rhode Island and Connecticut.         The
           amount of coastal wetlands in the New England region is small.
           This is due to the rugged relief, rocky shorelines, and steep-sided
           river channels of the region, and incomplete data for the inland
           portions of most estuarine drainage areas.        For the wetlands
           analysis, the NOAA NEI identified 16 estuaries along the New
           England coast.    A total of 412 NWI maps were sampled in New
           England, encompassing nearly 1.5 million 'acres of wetlands.
           Maine, having the largest land area sampled, also contained the
           most wetlands! approximately 49 percent of the total wetlands
           sampled in the region, followed by Massachusetts (31 percent),
           Connecticut (10 percent), New Hampshire (6 percent), and Rhode
           island (4 percent) (Figure IV-46). Forested wetlands were the most

           NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 128








                 common       wetland type in the region, accounting for approximately 79
                 percent of the total wetlands, followed by tidal flats (10
                 percent), salt marsh (6 percent), and fresh marsh (5 percent).






                                            Soo.           a
                                                   (758, 900)
                                                                               E Salt marsh
                                                                               [3 Fresh marsh
                                            700-                               0 Forested and scrub-shrub
                                                                               E3 7idal flats



                                            600-




                                            500
                                                                            (468,900)
                                      X

                                            400

                                                                             ............



                                            300,




                                            200-

                                                                                                   (152,500)
                                                                                  X


                                            100                (86,000)
                                                                                       (66.000)



                                               0-         b
                                                  M e (55)     NH (43)     MA (81)      RI (100)    CT (96)


                                                                           STATE


                 Figure IV-46.           New England region coastal wetland acreage by state. Value in
                 () a is total wetland acerage. Value in ()                    b is percent of state sampled. (Courtesy
                 Strategic Environmental Assessments Division, NOAA National Ocean Service)


                 b.. Mid-Atlantic

                 The Mid-Atlantic study area extends from Long Island, New York,
                 southwest to New Jersey and Delaware, then south to Virginia and
                 the Delmarva Peninsula.                          Eight estuaries are identified in this
                 region. A total of 735 NWI maps, covering 23.4 million acres, were
                 sampled by NOAA for the Mid-Atlantic region.                                                Approximately 11
                 percent, or 2.4 million acres, were identified as wetlands.
                 Forested wetlands were the most common habitat type in the Mid-
                 Atlantict accounting for nearly 58 percent of the region's total

                                                                                   NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 129
                                                    .........









                         wetlands, followed by saltmarsh (28 percent), tidal flats                                                                                (10
                         percent), and fresh marsh (4 percent).

                         New,Jersey., Virginia, and                               Maryland dominated the.wetlands of                                             the
                         region, accounting for 8,5 percent of the regionaltota,l (Figure                                                                        IV-
                         .47).         Virginia contained the. largest grid-sampled area with 39
                         percent ofthe total Mid-Atlantic-area sampled. Maryland and New
                         Jersey f ol lowed with 2 1 and 2 0 percent of the total. . New York was
                         next with only 9 percent of the total, followed by Delaware (6
                         percent), Pennsylvania (5 percent), and, the District of Columbia
                         (< 1 percent)., Virginia had the region'slargest amount of both
                         tidal -flats and fresh marsh, accounting for 43 and 35 percent
                         respectively of the regional total of each habitat.                                                                    New Jersey
                         conta      'i'ned the most forested wetlands in the region (37 percent of
                         @the rpgional.total) , and Maryland contained,the most salt marsh (30
                         percent of -the regional total). , Due                                                     'to its size, Delaware
                         contained f ewer wetlands than New Jersey, Virginia, or Maryland.
                         However, 17 percent , of the total area sampled in Delaware was
                         wetlands, second, only ..to New Jersey with 18 percent.                                                                      Forested
                         Wetlands dominated th                              'ose areas grid-sampled- in Pennsylvania,
                         accounting for 76 percent of the state wetland total., Thirty-six
                         percent,of.,those wetlands sampled in New York were tidal flats.




                                             100.@


                                                       ....................................................... . .........................................................................
                                                                   (82)                Salt Marsh
                                       0      so . . ..................     .............. 0 Fresh Marsh                   .........  ('74)-...
                                       0
                                                                                     0 Forested & Scrub-Shrub
                                                     ..................                                              .............
                                                                            ............... 0 Tidal Flats
                                       0

                                                                                                        (54)

                                                     ..................     ...................  .................. ...  ........w......


                                       $4
                                                                            ....................................... ...................
                                              40-


                                                                            ....................................... ....................
                                                                                            (22)
                                              20       olf

                                                                                (2)                                 (.03)
                                                0W'R                                               in
                                                       NY          NJ          PA         2@DE@         MD           DC          VA
                                                          b
                                                       (6),       (94),        (4)        0 00)        (74)        (100).       (88)
                                                                                       @STATE


                         Figure TV-47.               Mid-Atlantic coastal wetland                          acreage of           four     wetland types by
                         state. Value in ()a is total wetland acreage. Value in                                               .()b is    percent of state
                         Sampled.,(Courtesy Strategic-Environmental Assessments Division, NOAA National
                         Ocean Service)


                         NOAAENVIRONMENTAL                        DIGEST 130
                                                                                                          4)_
                                                                                                                ..........
                                                                                                                , @'(.03)










                       c. Gulf of Mexico,

                       The Gulf of Mexico                           region extends from the southern                                              tip of Florida
                       west to the Texas/Mexico border. The U.S. portion                                                                         of the Gulf of
                       Mexico encompasses 5 states                                                  (Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi,,
                       Alabama, Florida) and 23 estuarine drainage areas.'                                                                               A total of
                       1,543 NWI maps covering 56.2 million acres were sampled by NOAA for
                       the Gulf of Mexico.

                       Of the 6 states in the region, Florida contained the most wetlands
                       (50 Percent of the total), followed by Louisiana (24 percent),
                       Texas (12 percent), Alabama (8 percent), Mississippi (5@percent),
                       and Georgia (<1 percent) (Figure IV-48).                                                                        Texas and Florida
                       contained the largest grid sampled areas with 37 and 35 percent of
                       the total Gulf area sampled respectively. Louisiana accounted for
                       only 14 percent of the total due to poor map availability, followed
                       by Alabama (8 percent), Mississippi (6 percent), and Georgia (<1
                       percent).                          The         central-to-eastern                               portions                  of         the           Gulf
                       (Mississippi, Alabama, Florida) were dominated by forested
                       wetlands, accounting for over 83 percent of the forested total for
                       the entire Gulf.                             The coastal areas of the western Gulf (Texas,
                       Louisiana) were dominated by salt marsh having 86 percent of the
                       regional total, with the highest concentrations in Louisiana (69
                       percent). Texas also contained the largest amount of tidal flats
                       in the Gulf accounting for over 54 percent of the total, while
                       Florida contained 38 percent. Fresh marsh is found throughout the
                       Gulf of Mexico with its greatest abundance in Florida (53 percent)
                       followed by Louisiana and Texas (26 and 20 percent, respectively).



                                                             No


                                                                 . ....................................................................................................
                                                       .0               Sa marsh
                                                        0               Fresh Marsh
                                                        C@   GOD        Forested & Scrub-Shrub
                                                        0               Tidal Flats


                                                        X
                                                        IA   460 . .......................  ............................................................

                                                        14
                                                                 . ................        ....................................................



                                                                                           ....................................................
                                                             200 . ................


                                                                                          ..................         ............ .....



                                                                0
                                                                    Texas     Louisiana    Mississippi Alabitrna Georgia, Florida

                                                                                                 STATE


                       Figure IV-48. Gulf of Mexico region coastal wetland acreage for four wetland
                       types by state. (Courtesy Strategic Environmental Assessments Division, XOAA
                       National Ocean Service)


                                                                                                           NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 131
                                                                                                                                   EVA=











            d. West Coast

            The west coast of the contiguous U S. extends f rom the Canadian
            border near Puget Sound, Washington: south through Oregon to Cape
            Mendicino,@California, and southeast to San Diego and the Mexican
            border. For this analysis, the NOAA NEI identifies 14 estuaries
            along the west coast.   A total of 1,525 NWI maps, covering 55.7
            million acres, were sampled by NOAA in the west coast region.
            Approximately 2.5 percent, or 1.4 million acres, were identified
            as wetlands.    Forested wetlands were the most common wetland
            habitat type found in the region (55 percent of the total
            wetlands), followed by fresh marsh (21 percent), tidal flats (15
            percent), and salt marsh (9 percent).

            California contained more wetlands than any other state in the
            region (56 percent), followed by Washington (28 percent) and Oregon
            (16 percent) (Figure IV-49). California also contained the largest
            grid-sampled area with 4ï¿½ percent of the total west coast area
            sampled. Oregon followed with 27 percent and Washington with 24
            percent.  Only 3 percent :of the area sampled in both California
            and Washington was wetlands, and only slightly over 1 percent of
            the total area sampled in Oregon was wetlands..     Coastal wetland
            abundance on the west coast is considerably less than along other
            U. S. coasts. - For example, in the Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana has
            over 45 percent of its total grid-sampled area (over 3.3 million
            acres) identified as wetlands.

            California contained the region's largest am  ounts of salt marsh,
            forested wetlands, and tidal flats with 75, 63, and 47 percent of
            the region's total, respectively.       Washington contained the
            region Is largest amounts of fresh- marsh (3 9 percent)       Oregon
            contained varying amounts of each wetland type, with forested
            wetlands dominating and accounting for 45 percent of the state
            total. California.and Washington were also dominated by forested
            wetlands accounting for 62 and 47 percent, respectively, of each
            state's wetland total.























            NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 132











                     800.00                                           (762)






                                            ... ...... .....
                     600-oo ...........

                   0                          Fresh Marsh
                         .00-              C] Forested & Scrub-Shru
                   ri                         Tidal Flats
                   X             (3,,)a
                         00
                     400-



                          ...             .................................................. - ---------------------

                                                    (221)

                     200 -1



                          ....            ..........        ..........         .....






                       0-
                             Washington          Oregon            California
                                (58)b               (66)              (38)


                                                  STATE


            Figure IV-49. West Coast coastal wetland acreage of four wetland types by state.
            Value in Oa is total wetland acreage. Value in () b is percent of state sampled.
            (Courtesy Strategic Environmezital Assessment Division, NOAA National Ocean
            Service)



            VEGETATION INDEX

            During the last decade, NOAA's National Environmental Satellite,
            Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) has been collecting
            measurements of the global vegetation cover using the Advanced Very
            High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) onboard NOAA's polar orbiting
            satellites. The principle used in defining vegetation indices is
            based on the discontinuity of the reflectance for green vegetation.
            Since green vegetation is highly absorbent to incoming radiation
            in the visible part of the spectrum and reflects in the near-
            infrared (IR), the calculation of an index of "greenness" for the
            vegetative surface is possible.           The contrast between the near-

                                                       NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 133










               infrared and visible AVHRR channel radiances has therefore been
               used effectively as an indicator of the density and state of the
               vegetative cover.

               The commonly used parameter in this analysis of vegetation is the
               Normalized Difference.Vegetation Index (NDVI).                The NDVI is the
               difference between the near-IR and visible reflectances normalized
               by their sum.        As an example of this technique, the seasonal
               variability of the NDVI and brightness temperature for an area in
               northeast Thailand is shown in Figure IV-50.                The data used are
               from AVHRR global data with sampling of one 4 kilometer (km) pixel
               per 30 km map cells.             These data were. screened for cloud
               contamination and averaged over a 250 km by 250 km area for each
               month.    The variability of NDVI and temperature is out of phase
               .since the greenness reaches its maximum at the end of the rainy
               season, whereas the temperature peaks in the middle, of the dry
               season. Research is underway at NESDIS to determine if such time
               series data can be used for routine climate monitoring.



                  50

                                        EGETATION INDEX


               >  40
               0
               Z




               0.
                  30


                                                                 Ito
                  20       '%%'4'1@BRIGHTNE%"SS TEMPERATURE (deg 0

                     A J A 0 @D F A J A 0 D, F A j A 0 D, F A J A                           0
                           1985             1986                1987              1988
                                                  YEAR/MONTH

               Figure IV-50.   Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and brightness
               temperature for tropical wet-and-dry (monsoon) climate, northeast Thailand (15 0 N,
               1030E) . (Courtesy Garik Gutman, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA Environmental
               Satellite, Data, and Information Service)



               NOAA ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST 134










         APPENDICES




                 A. CONTRIBUTORS

                 B. SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

                 C. GLOSSARY OF TERMS

                 D. RELATED REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

                 E. REFERENCES

                 F. NOAA HIGHLIGHTS











         APPENDIX A: CONTRIBUTORS


         The following scientists were primary contributors to the NOAA
         ENVIRONMENTAL DIGEST.

         James K. Angell,'Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA Office of
            Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, SSMC-2, Room 9332, 1325
            East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910; (301) 427-7684;
            for quasi-biennial oscillation, upper air temperatures,
            cloudiness, sunshine duration

         Richard S. Artz, Air Resources Laboratory, NOAA Office of Oceanic
            and Atmospheric Research, SSMC-2, Room 9392, 1325 East-West
            Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910; (301) 427-7295; for
            precipitation chemistry

         Andrew Bakun, Chief, Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group,
            NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 831,
            Monterey, CA 93942; (408) 646-3311; for upwelling

         George H. Balazs, Honolulu Laboratory, NOAA National Marine
            Fisheries Service, 2570 Dole Street, Honolulu, HI 96822-2396;
            (808) 943-1240; for marine turtle fibropapilloma

         Robert L. Benway, Narragansett Laboratory, NOAA National Marine
            Fisheries Service, 28 Tarzwell Dr., Narragansett, RI 02882;
            (401) 789-9326; for ocean temperature and salinity

         Bradford E. Brown, Acting Director, Southeast Fisheries Science
            Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service, 75 Virginia
            Beach Dr., Miami, FL 33149; (305) 361-4284; for fisheries,
            marine mammals, sea turtles

         Robert E. Cheney, Chief, Satellite and Ocean Dynamics Branch,
            Geosci6nces Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean Service, 11400
            Rockville Pike, Room 426A, Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-
            8556; for satellite altimetry

         Thomas Conway, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory,
            NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 325
            Broadway St., Boulder', CO 80303; (303) 497-6380; for carbon
            dioxide

         Robert W. Derkazarian, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA National
            Ocean Service, WSC-1, Room 408, 6001 Executive Blvd.,
            Rockville, MD 20852; (301) 443-8752; for nautical charting




                                       A-1










             Edward Dlugokencky, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
                Laboratory, NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research,
                325 Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-6380; for
                methane

             Bruce C. Douglas, Chief, Geosciences Laboratory, NOAA National
                Ocean Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 424, Rockville, MD
                20853; (301) 443-8858; for tide gauge sea level, satellite
                altimetry

             Mark J. Friese, Coast and Geodetic Survey,- NOAA National Ocean
                Service, WSC-1, Room 408, 6001 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD,
                20853; (301) 443-8752; for effects of shoaling on navigation

             Timothy Gerrodette, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA
                National Marine Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA
                92038; (619) 546-7000; for marine mammals

             Garik Gutman, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
                Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
                Room 712, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
                8042; for remote sensing of land biosphere, vegetation index

             Richard R. Heim, Jr., National Climatic Data Center, NOAA
                National Environmental Satellite,' Data, and Information
                Service, Federal Building, Asheville, NC 28801; (704) 259-
                0476; for land temperature and precipitation, severe weather

             Dennis J. Hill, Coast And Geodetic Survey, NOAA National Ocean
                Service, WSC-1,, Room 408, 6001 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD
                20853; (301) 443-8752; for nautical charting

             Sandford R. Holdahl, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA National
                Ocean Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 513, Rockville, MD
                20853; (301) 443-8528; for coastal geodesy, subsidence

             Tamara J. Holzwarth, Northeast Fisheries,Science Center, NOAA
                National Marine Fisheries Service ' 166 Water St., Woods Hole,
                MA 02543; (508) 548-5123; for ocean temperature

             John R. Hunter, Chief, Coastal,Fisheries Division, Southwest
                Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries -
                Service, P.O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA 92038; (619) 546-7127;
                for fisheries oceanography, ichthyoplankton, zooplankton

             Herbert Jacobowitz, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
                Environmental'Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
                Room 711, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
                8042; for longwave flux and radiation budget for Arabian Gulf
                region


                                           A-2









         Jack W. Jossi, Narragansett Laboratory, NOAA National Marine
            Fisheries Service, 28 Tarzwell Dr., Narraga 'nsett, RI 02882;
            (401) 789-9326; for ocean temperature and salinity

         Paul J. Kocin, National Meteorological Center, NOAA National
            Weather Service, WWBG, Room 410, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs,
            MD 20233; (301) 763-8076; for winter storms

         Walter D. Komhyr, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostic's'Laboratory,
            NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 325 Broadway
            St., Boulder, CO 8030.3; (303) 497-6380; for column ozone

         Jimmy C. Larsen, Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory,
            NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 7600 Sand
            Point Way, N.E., Bldg. #3, Bin C 15700, Seattle, WA 98115-
            0070; (206) 526-6239; for ocean transport

         Richard Legeckis, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
            Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
            Room 102, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
            8231; for remotely-sensed sea surface temperature

         Sydney Levitus, National Oceanographic Data Center, NOAA National
            Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service,
            Room 525, 1825 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20235;
            (202) 606-4411; for ocean temperature and salinity

         Andreas Mager, Jr., Southeast Regional Office, NOAA National
           .Marine Fisheries Service, 9450 Koger Blvd., St. Petersburg, FL
            33702; (407) 893-3503; for habitat conservation

         John A. McKinnon, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA National
            Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, 325
            Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-6323; for solar
            activity

         Douglas R. McLain, Center for Ocean Analysis and Prediction, NOAA
            National Ocean Service, 2560 Garden Rd., Monterey, CA 93940;
            (408) 647-4211; for ocean temperature

         Laurence L. Miller, Geosciences Laboratory, NOAA National Ocean
            Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 426G, Rockville, MD
            20853: (301) 443-8556; for satellite altimetry

         David G. Mountain, Northeast Fisheries S cience Center, NOAA
            National Marine Fisheries Service., 166 Water St., Woods Hole,
            MA 02543; (617) 548-5123; for,ocean temperature

         Thomas P. O'Connor, Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects
            Assessment Division, NOAA National Ocean Service, WSC-1, Room
            312, 6001 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-

                                       A-3









            James T. Peterson, Deputy Director, Climate Modeling and
               Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric
               Research, 325 Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-
               6074; for trace gases

            Walter G. Planet, Satellite Research Laboratory, NOAA National
               Environmental Satellite, Data, and Infirmation Service, WWBG,
               Room 810, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
               8136; for global ozone

            David R. Rodenhuis, Director, Climate Analysis Center, NOAA
               National Weather Service, WWBG, Room 606, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp
               Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-8167; for climate assessment

            Glenn D. Rolph, Air Resources Laboratory, Office of Oceanic and
               Atmospheric Research, SSMC-2, Room 9358, 1325 East-West
               Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910; (301) 427-7684; for
               precipitation chemistry

            Kenneth Sherman, Chief, Ecosystems Dynamics Branch, Northeast
               Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
               Service, 28 Tarzwell Dr., Narragansett, RI 02882-1199: (401)
               789-3210; for zooplankton, marine ecosystem dynamics

            Eric Slaughter, Strategic Environmental Assessments Division,
               NOAA National Ocean Service, WSC-1, 6001 Executive Blvd..,
               Room 305, Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-8553; for shellfish

            John M. Steger, Satellite Applications Laboratory, NOAA National
               Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, WWBG,
               Room 601, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp Springs, MD 20233; (301) 763-
               8282; for Atlantic Ocean long waves

            Alan E. Strong, Satellite Applications Laboratory, NOAA National
               Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, c/o
               Cooperative Project in Oceanic Remote Sensing. U.S. Naval
               Academy, Annapolis, MD 21402; (410) 267-3561; for remotely-
               sensed sea surface temperature

            Wendy G. Teas, Miami Laboratory, NOAA National Marine Fisheries
               Service, 75 Virginia Beach Dr., Miami Beach, FL 33149; (305)
               361-4276; for sea turtle strandings and marine turtle
               fibropapilloma

            Kirk Thoning, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laborato ry,
               NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, 325
               Broadway St., Boulder, CO 80303; (303) 497-6650; for
               carbon dioxide






                                          A-4









        Donna D. Turgeon, Coastal Monitoring and Bioffects Assessment
            Division, NOAA National ocean Service, WSC-1, Room 312, 6001
            Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD 20853; (301) 443-8655; for
            contaminants in sediments and bivalve molluscs

        Louis W. Uccellini, Chief, Meteorological Operations Division,
            National Meteorological Center, NOAA National Weather
            Service, WWBG, Room 410, 5200 Auth Rd., Camp'Springs, MD
            20233; (301) 763-8097; for winter storms

        Usha S  Varanasi, Director, Environmental Conservation Division,
            Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAA National Marine
            Fisheries Service, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA
            98112-2097; (206) 553-7737; for contaminants and biological
            effects in marine organisms

        Paul R. Wade, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NOAANational
            Marine Fisheries Service, P.O. Box 271, La Jolla, CA 92038;
            (619) 546-7000; for marine mammals

        Austin J. Yeager. Director, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA
            National Ocean Service, WSC-1, Room 1006, 6001 Executive
            Blvd., Rockville, MD 20852; (301) 443-8204; for coastal
            geodesy, nautical charting, aeronautical charting

        David B. Zilkoski, Coast and Geodetic Survey, NOAA National Ocean
            Service, 11400 Rockville Pike, Room 313, Rockville, MD 20853;
            (301) 443-8567; coastal geodesy, subsidence
























                                      A-5









         APPENDIX B: SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL INFORMATION IN NOAA
                      (in order of appearance in NOAA Environmental Digest)


         Parameter                                  NOAA Source Code*




         Air Temperature & Moisture            ARL, AWS, CAC, CMDL, NCDC,
                                               RCC, SAL, SDSD, SRL, SSD

         Trace Gases                           AL, ARL, CAC, CMDL, SAL,
                                               SDSD, SRL, SSD

         Hydrological Cycle                    AWS, CAC, HRL, NCDC, RCC,
                                               SAL, SDSD, SSD

         Atmospheric Deposition                ARL

         Solar Activity                        NGDC, SEL

         Earth's Radiation Budget              ARL, CMDL, SRL

         Severe Weather                        NCDC, NSSL, NHC, NMC, RCC,
                                               SAL

         Southern Oscillation                  AOML, CAC, CMDL, GFDL

         Ocean Temperature                     AOML, CAC, COAP, NEFC, NODC,
                                               OPC, PMEL, SDSD, SRL, SWFC

         Salinity                              COAP, NODC

         Sea Level                             GSL, NODC, OLLD

         Quasi-Biennial Oscillation            AOML, ARL, CAC

         Southern Oscillation                  CAC, CMDL, GFDL

         Ocean Transport                       AOML, PMEL

         Coastal Upwelling                     PFEG, SDSD, SAL

         Long Waves -                          SAL

         Coastal Geodesy/Hydrography           CGS

         Sea Ice                               CAC, JIC, NSIDC, OPC, SAL,
                                               SDSD, SSD
         Snow Cover                            CAC, NSIDC, SAL, SDSD, SSD


                                         B-1










                                                    SDSD, SSD

              Snow Cover                            CAC, NSIDC, SAL, SDSD, SSD
              Fisheries                             AFC, FSD, NEFC, NWFC, SEFC,
                                                    SWFC

              Zooplankton                           AFC, NEFC,- NWFC, SEFC, SWFC

              Shellfish                             SEAD

              Contaminants                          CMBAD, ECD

              Protected Resources                   AFC, NEFC, NMML, OPR, SEFC,
                                                    SWFC, SRD

              Estuaries                             SEAD

              Coastal Wetlands                      SEAD

              Vegetation Index                      CAC, SRL


                See following  pages for definitions.




























                                              B-2










         AFC   Alaska Fisheries Science Center
               NOAA National Marine Fisheries service
               7600 Sand Point Way, N.E.
               BIN 1C15700 - Bldg. 4
               Seattle, WA 9.8115-0070
               (206) 526-4000, FTS 392-4000

         The Science and Research Director, Alaska Region, and the staff of
         the Alaska Fisheries Science Center are responsible for conducting
         multidisciplinary research to provide fisheries management
         information to support national and regional programs of NMFS, and
         to respond to the needs of Regional Fishery Management Councils and
         other constituencies.    The staff develops the scientific base
         required for status of stocks and status of fisheries reports,
         environmental assessment and environmental impact statements for
         management plans and/or international negotiations; and it pursues
         research to answer specific needs in the subject areas of habitat
         conservation,    aquaculture,    fishery    development,    fishery
         oceanography, food science, fishery economics, and          fishery
         utilization.



         AL    Aeronomy Laboratory
               Environmental Research Laboratories
               NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
               325 Broadway St.
               Boulder, CO 80303
               (303) 497-3218, FTS 320-3218

         The Aeronomy Laboratory conducts research on chemical and physical
         processes in the Earth's atmosphere to advance the capability of
         monitoring, predicting, and controlling the atmosphere.          The
         research concentrates on the stratospheric and tropospheric regions
         of the atmosphere, but also involves the ionosphere, and
         occasionally the magnetosphere, as well as the atmosphere of other
         planets. The research methods employed involve both in situ and
         remote measurement of critical atmospheric parameters, including
         chemical composition and dynamic properties such as wind velocities
         and wave motions. Theoretical programs in atmospheric dynamics and
         transport support the observation programs.        An experimental
         laboratory chemical kinetics program supports the theoretical
         photochemical modeling program and also supplies input for the
         development of new atmospheric monitoring and measurement
         technology.


         AOML  Atlantic oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory
               Environmental Research Laboratories
               NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
               4301 Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key
               Miamil FL 33149
               (305) 361-4300, FTS 350-1300

                                          B-3









            The Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory conducts
            research in oceanography and tropical,  -meteorology.  It conducts
            oceanographic investigations centering on fluxes of energy,
            momentum, and materials through the air-sea interface, the
            transport and composition (thermal and chemical) of ocean and
            coastal water masses, and the structure and dynamical processes on
            the seafloor. It also conducts meteorological research to improve
            the description, understa 'nding, and prediction of hurricanes. The
            research supports NOAA's missions in climate, weather, and ocean
            services, marine environmental assessment, and marine resources.


            ARL    Air Resources Laboratory
                   Environmental Research Laboratories
                   NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
                   Silver Spring Metro Center-2, Room 9358
                   1325 East-West Highway
                   silver spring, MD 20910
                   (301) 427-7684, FTS 427-7684

            The Air Resources Laboratory carries  out programs of research that
            affect air pollution andair quality. These processes are related
            to transport and dispersion through the air, to reactions with
            other chemical species, and to exchange between the air and the
            surface (including both wet. and dry deposition).      Research on
            atmospheric trajectories is conducted to relate pollution events
            to specific causes and to help formulate transport mechanisms in
            Eulerian and Lagrangian models.       The Laboratory manages and
            coordinates field research and applications to specific research
            problems. It undertakes research and provides consultation service
           .and advice'to elements of NOAA and other government agencies.


            AWS    Agricultural Weather Section
                   NOAA/USDA Joint Agricultural Weather Facility
                   USDA South Bldg., Room 5844
                   14th Street and Independence Avenue, SW
                   Washington, DC 20250
                   (202) 447-7919

            The Agricultural Weather Section serves as the NOAA component,of
            the Joint Agricultural Weather Facility at the U.S. Department of
            Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Section provides an advisory and
            information service on weather and climate for use by Department
            of Agriculture officials in assessing impacts of weather and
            climate on agricultural production throughout the world. It also
            produces the meteorological and climatic summaries for the jointly
            published "Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin."





                                            B-4








         CAC     Climate Analysis Center
                 National Meteorological Center
                 NOAA National Weather Service
                 World Weather Building, Room 606
                 5200 Auth Rd.
                 Camp Springs, MD 20233
                 (301) 763-8167, FTS 763-8167

         The Climate Analysis Center prepares monthly and seasonal (90-day)
         meteorological outlooks; collects and analyzes data to depict
         current anomalies of climate; researches and develops predictive
         techniques to improve and extend the present outlooks, both in
         range and domain; performs diagnostic studies of large-scale
         climate anomalies; and conducts a program of stratospheric
         research.



         CGS     Coast and Geodetic Survey
                 NOAA National Ocean service
                 Washington Science Center-1, Room 1006
                 60,01 Executive Blvd.
                 Rockville, MD 20852
                 (301) 443-8204, FTS 443-8204

         The Coast and Geodetic Survey plans and directs programs to produce
         charts and related inf ormation f or safe navigation of the @nation I s
         waterways, territorial seas, and the national airspace.               it
         establishes and maintains the horizontal, vertical, and gravimetric
         components of the National Geodetic Reference System. The office
         is responsible for assuring coordinated planning and execution of
         surveying, charting, and related geophysical d     'ata collections to
         meet national goals.      In fulfillment of these objectives, the
         office conducts geodetic, gravimetric, hydrographic, coastal
         mapping, and related geophysical surveys; and analyses, compiles,
         reproduces, and distributes nautical and aeronautical charts and
         geodetic and other related geophysical data. It conducts research
         and development to improve surveying and cartographic methods,
         instruments, equipment, data analysis, and national reference
         system datums.


         CMBAD   Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects Assessment Division
                 office of Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment
                 NOAA National Ocean Service
                 Washington Science Center-1, Room 323
                 6001 Executive Blvd.
                 Rockville, MD 20852
                 (301) 443-8933, FTS 443-8933

         The Coastal Monitoring and Bioeffects Assessment Division conducts
         a national program of measurements of toxic compounds in shellfish,
         bottomfish, and sediments at selected estuarine and coastal

                                           B-5










            locations to determine the status and trends of the levels of these
            indicators of environmental quality; coordinates a NOAA-wide
            program of quality assurance for environmental quality measurements
            to determine and evaluate confidence levels and enhance inter-
            regional comparability among data sets; and conducts a-program of
            applied research to assess the consequences to populations of
            valuable living marine resources and human health of contaminants
            in marine and estuarine environments.


            CMDL  Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics laboratory
                  Environmental Research Laboratories
                  NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
                  325 Broadway St.
                  Boulder, CO 80303
                  (303) 497-6074, FTS 320-6074

            The Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory plans and
            conducts observational and monitoring programs and research
            necessary to measure and predict climate fluctuations and trends
            on all time scales.     The Laboratory analyzes atmospheric and
            oceanic data to determine relationships, budgets, sources, sinks,
            and trends; and applies this information to develop real-time
            climate indices, predictive techniques, and evaluations of
            predictions.


            COAP  Center for Ocean Analysis and Prediction
                  Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
                  Marine Analysis and Interpretation Division
                  NOAA National Ocean service
                  2560 Garden Rd.
                  Monterey, CA 93940
                  (408) 467-4241

            The Center for Ocean Analysis and Prediction, colocated with the
            U.S. Navy's Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center, is responsible for
            the development, exchange, integration, and dissemination to
            government, industry, and academia of biological, chemical, and
            physical oceanographic products and services.         It supports
            government, industry, and academic institutions responsible for
            effective management of the nation's living marine resources. The
            Center's particular focus is to develop and disseminate a unique
            series of environmental and living marine resource analyses,
            forecasts, and assessments that describe and predict the condition
            and variability of biological, chemical, and physical oceanic
            phenomena as well as the processes affecting them.         It also
            provides and facilitates easy access to existing information
            produced by other parts of NOAA or federal/state/academic
            institutions concerning living marine resources, habitat, coastal
            zone management, offshore dumping and pollution, and ocean climate
            processes.


                                            B-6










          ECD    Environmental Conservation Division
                 Northwest Fisheries Science Center
                 NOAA National marine Fisheries Service
                 2725 Montlake Blvd. E.
                 Seattle, WA 98112
                 (206) 553-7737, FTS 399-7737

          The Environmental Conservation Division conducts research to
          determine the impact of environmental changes and effects of
          contaminants on life processes of marine and anadromous organisms
          and their habitats in the northwestern United States.        Research
          results are used to analyze potential effects from environmental
          changes on living marine resources.     A major goal is to provide
          data on the physiological, biochemical, and biological effects of
          contaminants so that recommendations for protection of aquatic
          resources can be made.



          FSD    Fisheries Statistics Division
                 office of Research and Environmental Information
                 NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
                 Silver Spring Metro Center-1, Room 8313
                 1335 East-West Highway
                 Silver Spring, MD 20910
                 (301) 427-2328, FTS 427-2328

          The Fisheries Statistics Division serves as the principal source
          of   national   fishery   statistics.      The   Division    provides
          authoritative advice and guidance on matters related to the
          collection of statistics (biological, economic, market, and
          sociological) on domestic recreational fisheries, and domestic and
          foreign commercial fisheries.     It develops national standards,
          policies, and operational guidelines for the coordinated collection
          and publication. of basic fishery statistics.          The Division
          coordinates regional commercial statistics surveys and market
          information programs, and formulates, implements and operates
          national commercial and recreational statistics surveys.           it
          coordinates' with other federal agencies on the collection of
          statistics and market information from statistical data bases; and
          publishes the official fishery statistics for the U.S. government.


          GFDL   Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory
                 Environmental Research Laboratories
                 NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
                 P.O. Box 308
                 Princeton, NJ 08542
                 (609) 452-6500, FTS 298-6500

          The Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory conducts long-lead-time
          research to understand those physical processes which govern the
          behavior of the atmosphere and the oceans as complex fluid systems

                                            B-7









            and which are fundamental to application areas in support of NOAA's
            missions. The laboratory uses, as a major tool, large-scale high-
            speed computers to.simulate the highly intricate atmospheric and
            oceanic processes.


            GSL   Geosciences Laboratory
                  office of ocean and Earth Sciences
                  NOAA National Ocean Service
                  Rockwall Building, Room 424
                  11400 Rockville Pike
                  Rockville, MD 20852
                  (301) 443-8858, FTS 443-8858

            The Geosciences Laboratory is responsible for conducting research
            and development activities to improve the,methods of collecting and
            disseminating geodetic data. The Laboratory provides leadership
            at the federal level to develop specifications, standards, and
            instrumentation for geodetic surveys. It specializes in satellite
            geodesy and oceanography, and the geodetic aspects of climate and
            global change.


            HRL   Hydrologic Research Laboratory
                  Office of Hydrology
                  NOAA National Weather service
                  Silver Spring Metro Center-2, Room 8348
                  1325 East-West Highway
                  Silver Spring, MD 20910
                  (301) 427-7619, FTS 427-7619

            The Hydrologic Research Laboratory supports the National Weather
            Service hydrologic service program by conducting studies,
            investigations, and analyses leading to application of          new
            knowledge and new technologies to hydrologic forecasting        and
            related water resources problems.     The Laboratory sponsors   and
            conducts applied research for a better understanding of         the
            physical processes and phenomena involved in all phases of      the
            hydrologic cycle.     It provides research and development      for
            hydrology-related components of major NWS projects and training and
            support for the hydrologic services program. It represents NOAA
            on interagency and international hydrologic research activities.


            JIC   Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center
                  Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
                  NOAA National Ocean Service
                  Federal Building 4, Room 2301
                  Suitland and Silver Hill Roads
                  Suitland, MD 20233
                  (301) 763-5972, FTS 763-5972


                                             B-8








          The Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center is composed of both Navy and NOAA
          personnel. The Center provides specialized and tailored products
          as required by Department of Defense and other government agencies
          and provides ice data, analyses, predictions, and other advisory
          information as guidance to NOAA field forecast offices with
          sea/lake ice responsibilities.     It also provides routine ice
          products to civil-sector interests.


          NCDC  National Climatic Data Center
                NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                  and Information Service
                Federal Building
                Asheville, NC 28801
                (704) 259-0476, FTS 672-0476 (Requests  for data:
                weather/climate data -0682; satellite data 301/763-8111)

          The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is responsible for data
          management activities in support of scientific and technical
          programs involving remotely sensed and in situ retrospective
          meteorological data and climatological information. NCDC performs
          all functions related to data management (acquisition, archiving,
          inventorying, and quality assessments, modelling, and prediction) ,
          and data and information publication and dissemination.           it
          performs necessary liaison with other NOAA components and with
          national and international contributors and users of data and
          information.   NCDC operates World Data Center-A for Meteorology
          under the auspices of the National Academy of Sciences, with the
          responsibility to collect complete sets of global data and
          coordinate international exchange of data.     It performs quality
          assurance and re-analysis of historical data and data f ields to
          establish baseline data bases for global/national climate
          monitoring. NCDC provides facilities, data processing support, and
          expertise to meet U.S. commitments to international organizations
          and to the World Meteorological organization programs.


          NEFC  Northeast Fisheries science Center
                NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
                166 Water St.
                Woods Hole, MA 02543
                (617) 548-5123, FTS 840-1284

          The Science and Research Director, Northeast Region, and the staff
          of the Northeast Fisheries Science Center are responsible for
          conducting integrated multidisciplinary research programs to
          develop scientific information for the conservation and management
          of living marine resources in the northeast and middle-Atlantic
          waters of the United States. The staff contributes expertise to
          the development of fishery management plans by assessing the
          stocks, their ecosystem relationships, and the total harvestable
          biomass, and by assessing relevant natural and human-induced

                                          B-9









           ecological environmental' effects.    The staff conducts fishery
           utilization technology and development studies to enhance benefits
           from fishery resources and assure the consumer safe and high
           quality fishery products. The research to support the programs is
           conducted at six facilities located at Gloucester, MA; Milford, CT;
           Narragansett, RI; oxford, MD; Sandy Hook, NJ; and Woods Hole, MA;
           and at the National Systematics Laboratory located in Washington,
           DC.


           NGDC  National Geophysical Data Center@
                 NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                   and Information Service
                 325 Broadway St.
                 Boulder, CO 80303
                 (303) 497-6215, FTS 320-6215

           The National Geophysical Data Center conducts a data and data-
           information service in all scientific and technical areas involving
           solid earth geophysics, marine,geology, and geophysics, glaciology
           (snow and ice) , the space environment, solar activity, and the
           other areas of solar-terrestrial physics.          The scientific
           specialties treated include seismology, geomagnetism, topography,
           bathymetry, paleoclimatology, gravimetry, earth tides, crustal
           movement, geothermics, glaciology, ionospheric phenomena, solar
           activity and related areas.       The services are provided for
           scientific, technical, and lay users in governmental agencies,
           universities, and the private sector in the U.S. and their
           counterparts in f oreign countries. The Center prepares systematic
           and special data products and performs data-related research
           studies to enhance the utility of the service to users.           it
           performs all functions related to data acquisition, archiving,
           retrieval, indexing, quality assessments, evaluation, synthesis,
           publication and dissemination.    The Center operates World Data
           Center-A for the respective scientific areas listed above under the
           auspices of the National Academy of Sciences.          It performs
           necessary liaison about data with other NOAA components and with
           national and foreign contributors and data centers and other users
           of data and metadata. It takes part in jointly planning national
           and international scientific programs to assure that data
           collection and management needs are adequately considered.


           NHC   National Hurricane Center
                 NOAA National Weather Service
                 IRE Building, Room 631
                 1320 S. Dixie Highway
                 Coral Gables, FL 33146
                 (305) 666-4612, FTS 350-5547

           The National Hurricane Center maintains a continuous watch for
           tropical cyclones over the Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf

                                          B-10









          of Mexico from June 1 through November 30. The Center prepares and
          distributes hurricane watches and warnings f or the general public,
          and prepares and distributes marine and military advisories f or
          other users.      It coordinates with Hurricane Warning offices,
          Weather Service Forecast Offices, and Weather Service Offices when
          a tropical cyclone threatens the     iU.S.   The Center prepares and
          distributes probability of hurricane/ tropical storm conditions f or
          45 locations along the east and Gulf coasts. It coordinates and
          occasionally assists Caribbean nations when a hurricane threatens.
          The Center conducts research and development aimed at general
          improvements in tropical cyclone forecasting and modelling and
          concentrates on transfer of theoretical advances to operational
          forecasting. Related effects of hurricanes, such as high seas and
          storm surges, are studied.


          NMC    National Meteorological Center
                 NOAA National Weather Service
                 World Weather Building, Room 101
                 5200 Auth Rd.
                 Camp Springs, MD 20233
                 (301) 763-8016, FTS 763-8Oi6

          The   National Meteorological Center         determines input data
          requirements, optimum data processing and handling techniques, and
          suitable presentation methods for distributing products to a wide
          variety of users of meteorological and oceanographic information
          throughout the Northern Hemisphere.         The Center produces and
          distributes these products to field forecast offices of the
          National    Weather    Service,    Air    Force,    Federal     Aviation
          Administration, and other governmental and non-governmental
          offices.   It produces and distributes to foreign meteorological
          centers    products    necessary    for    the   discharge     of    its
          responsibilities as part of the World Weather Center (Washington,
          DC) . NMC produces extended and medium-range forecasts and develops
          methods and techniques for their improvement; analyzes, diagnoses,
          and projects short-term climate fluctuations on a regional and
          global basis; maintains a continuous weather watch for thunderstorm
          activity and prepares and disseminates severe local storm watches
          for protection of life and property; produces and distributes
          national weather summaries for the general public and advisories
          of hazardous weather for aviation interests; provides satellite
          interpretation services and develops and produces oceanographic
          products; and performs research and development to improve its
          meteorological, oceanographic, and climate products.        The Center
          maintains a continuous watch for tropical cyclones over the
          Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico; produces and
          distributes hurricane watches and warnings for the general public,
          and marine and military hurricane advisories for other users.





                                           B-11









            NMML.   National Marine Mammal Laboratory
                    Alaska Fisheries Science Center
                    NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
                    7600 Sand Point Way, N.E.
                    BIN'C15700 - Bldg. 4
                    Seattle-, WA 98115-0070
                    (206) 526-4045, FTS 392-4045

            The National Marine Mammal Laboratory carries out research on the
            principal species of marine mammals of U. S. concern to ensure
            maintenance of the.various populations at satisfactory levels. The
            information obtained is used by national and international agencies
            as a basis for management decisions concerning marine mammals.


            NODC    National Oceanographic Data Center
                    NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                      and Information Service
                    Universal Building, S., Room 406
                    1.825 Connecticut Ave., N.W.
                    Washington, DC 20235
                    (202) 673-5549, FTS 673-5549

            The  National Oceanographic Data Center develops and maintains        a
            national marine environmental data base, including acquisition,
            processing, storage, and retrieval of marine data and information
            generated by domestic and foreign activities. The Center provides
            products and information derived from these data to the federal,
            state,  academic, and internal marine science community. It manages
            and operates the World Data Center-A for oceanography.               it
            maintains liaison with federal, state, academic, and industrial
            oceanographic activities. It represents NOAA on various domestic
            panels, committees and councils, and represents the U. S. in various
            international organizations as delegated.      The Center represents
            NOAA to the general public, government agencies, private
            institutions, foreign -governments, and the private sector on
            matters involving oceanographic data and provides data management
            services for various marine programs. The Center also manages the
            Ocean Pollution Data and Information Network.



            NSIDC   National Snow and Ice Data Center
                    National'Geophysical Data Center
                    'NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                      and Information Service
                    325 Broadway St.
                    Boulder, CO 80303
                    (303) 492-5171, FTS 320-5311

            The National Snow and Ice Data Center functions as a national
            information and referral center for the snow and ice research
            community. The subject matter includes avalanches, freshwater ice,

                                             B-12








         glaciers, ground ice and permafrost, ice sheets, paleoglaciology,
         sea ice, and snow cover. The Center is colocated with the World
         Data Center-A f or Glaciology (Snow and Ice) and is operated by
         contractual agreement between NOAA and the University of Colorado,
         Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences. The
         center is organizationally located within the National Geophysical
         Data Center.



         NSSL  National Severe Storms Laboratory
               Environmental Research Laboratories
               NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric,Research
               1313 Halley Circle
               Norman, OK 73069
               (405) 366-0429, FTS.736-3427

         The National Severe Storms Laboratory examines multiscale processes
         with emphasis on severe storm developments and interactions to gain
         improved weather services through increased understanding of
         environmental processes. objectives are improved severe weather
         detection and accuracy of storm forecasts, more timely delivery of
         critical weather warnings; and better strategies for diminishing
         loss of life, mitigating property damage, and conserving soil and
         water resources.    Focus is placed on tornadoes and other severe
         wind storms, hail, lighting, and flash floods.        The Laboratory
         performs related research for other components of NOAA and for
         other government agencies.


         NWFC  Northwest Fisheries Science Center
               NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
               2725 Montlake Blvd. E.
               Seattle, WA 98112-2097
               (206) 553-1872, FTS 399-1872

         The Science and Research Director-, Northwest  Region,  and the  staff
         of the Northwest Fisheries Science Center are responsible for
                                                               . p
         conducting multidisciplinary research to provide fisheries
         management information to support national and regional programs
         of NMFS, and to respond to the needs of Regional Fishery Management
         Councils and other constituencies.         The staff develops the
         scientific base required for status of stocks and status of
         fisheries reports, environmental asse     'ssment and environmental
         impact statements for 'management plans and/or international
         negotiations; and it pursues research to answer specific needs in
         the subject areas of habitat conservation,. aquaculture, f ishery
         engineering,    marine   mammals,    endangered   species,     fishery
         development, fishery oceanography, food science, f ishp'ry economics,
         and fishery utilization.





                                         B-13










            OLLD  Ocean and Lake Levels Division
                  Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
                  NOAA National Ocean Service
                  Washington Science Center-1, Room 110
                  6001 Executive Blvd.
                  Rockville, MD 20852
                  (301) 443-8026, FTS 443-8026

            The Ocean and Lake Levels  Division provides tide and water level
            (Great Lakes) information. The Division investigates and studies
            tide and water level phenomena and related surface water
            temperatures and density through recorded observations; provides
            direction for the collection of tide and water level data and
            determination of tidal datums through the preparation of manuals,
            guides, contract documents, and project instructions; and
            processes, analyzes, compiles, and disseminates tide, water level,
            and surface water and density information from domestic sources.
            It manages the National Water Level Observation Network, the Next-
            Generation Water Level Measurement System Program, and the Global
            Absolute Sea-Level Monitoring Program. The Division plans tidal
            surveys; furnishes tide and water level information for planning
            and processing hydrographic surveys; and makes various studies and
            prepares reports related to gaging systems, methodology, analysis
            techniques,' tidal datums, the Great Lakes datum, the outflow of
            rivers,and related subjects.


            OPC   Ocean Products Center
                  Office of Ocean and Earth Sciences
                  NOAA National Ocean service
                  World Weather Building, Room 100
                  5200 Auth Rd.
                  Camp Springs, MD 20233
                  (301) 763-8030, FTS 763-8030

            The Ocean Products Division conducts a program to provide
            operational marine forecast and analysis guidance material in
            support of NOAA, other federal agencies, and private industry. To
            this end, it participates in the formulation of requirements for
            data processing and. communications equipment to process and
            distribute marine meteorological and oceanographic data and
            products, and designs and manages computer-based systems in support
            of these requirements.   It participates in the establishment of
            requirements for marine data sets, develops operational state-of-
            the-art numerical-prediction-model output products, and improves
            methods of data analysis.    Output products include analyses of
            marine weather and boundary layer phenomena, waves and wave
            dynamics, ocean thermal structure and dynamics, ice dynamics, and
            estuarine circulation and coastal processes.





                                           B-14










          OPR    Office of Protected Resources
                 NOAA National Marine Fisheries service
                 Silver Spring Metro Center-I
                 1335 East-West Highway, Room 8268
                 Silver Spring, MD 20910
                 (301) 427-2332, FTS 427-2332

          The Office of Protected Resources provides advice and guidance on
          the conservation and protection of those marine mammals and
          endangered species under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of
          Commerce, and on the conservation, restoration, and enhancement of
          living marine resources and their habitats; develops national
          guidelines and policies for relevant research programs; and
          provides oversight, advice and guidance on scientific aspects of
          managing protected species, marine protected areas and habitat.


          PFEG   Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group
                 Southwest Fisheries Science Center
                 NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
                 P.O. Box 831
                 Monterey, CA 93942
                 (408) 646-3311, FTS 646-3311

          The Pacific Fisheries Environmental Group conducts marine
          environmental studies, provides portrayals and interpretations of
          oceanographic    and    meteorological    data,    and -investigates
          interrelations for use in fisheries and environmental forecasting.
          Based on these studies and activities, the Group provides
          assistance in the development of marine environmental monitoring
          programs; utilizes and provides archived oceanic and atmospheric
          data for climatological and monitoring studies; and develops long-
          term ocean forecasting techniques, models, and indices. It assists
          NMFS laboratories in the design and conduct of oceanographic
          studiest   and    the   acquisition   of   environmental    data     and
          interpretation of bio-environmental relationships.


          PMEL   Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
                 Environmental Research Laboratories
                 NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
                 Bin C 15700, Bldg. 3
                 7600 Sand Point Way, N.E.
                 Seattle, WA 98115-0070
                 (206) 526-6239, FTS 392-6800

          The Pacific Marine Environmental Research Laboratory conducts
          research in oceanography, marine meteorology, and related
          disciplines to improve understanding of environmental processes in
          coastal and open-ocean systems. It focuses on NOAA's missions in
          climate, ocean services, marine environmental assessment, and
          marine resources.


                                           B-15









           RCCs'-Regional Climate Centers:

                 Northeast.Regional                Southeastern Regional
                   Climate Center                    Climate Center
                 1113 Bradfield Hall               1201 N. Main Street
                 -Cornell University               Capital Center, Suite 1100
                 Ithaca, NY 14853                  Columbia, SC 29201
                 (607) 255-5950                     (803) 737-0800/0811

                 Southern Regional                 Midwestern Regional
                   Climate Center                    Climate Center
                 Department of Geography           Ill. State Water Survey
                   and Anthropology                2204 Griffith Dr.
                 Louisiana State University        Champaign, IL 61820
                 Baton Rouge, LA 70803             (217) 244-1488
                 (504) 388-6870/6184

                 High Plains Regional              Western Regional
                   Climate Center                     Climate Center
                 237 L.W. Chase Hall               Desert Research Institute
                 University of Nebraska-Lincoln    P.O. Box 60220
                 Lincoln, NE 68583-0728            Reno, NV 89506-0220
                 (402) 472-6338                    (702) 677-3100

           A national network of six Regional Climate Centers (RCCs) was
           established by the National Climate Program Act of 1978.         The
           Centers are a federal-state cooperative program with oversight
           provided by the Climate Analysis Center/NOAA National Weather
           Service. The RCCs are a source of climate expertise; perform data
           management services and specialized product delivery; conduct
           applied climate studies, monitoring and regional research; and
           acquire and maintain specialized regional data sets.


           SAL   Satellite Applications Laboratory
                 Office of Research and Applications
                 NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                   and Information Service
                 World Weather Building, Room 601
                 5200 Auth Rd.
                 Camp Springs, MD 20233
                 (301) 763-8282, FTS 763-8282

           The Satellite Applications Laboratory provides an interface to the
           research community to ensure that research results are carried
           smoothly into operational use.       The Laboratory develops and
           specifies new products, services, and techniques; develops test and
           pilot operations; trains operational users of the products; and
           turns over systems or components for operational use. It conducts
           tra*ining and consultation in the application of environmental
           satellite data and research into the feasibility of obtaining
           atmospheric variables. and files with high spatial and temporal

                                          B-16









          resolution from satellite measurements for various meteorological
          applications. The Laboratory develops satellite data and products
          that are useful for agricultural resource inventory and monitoring,
          develops and evaluates new techniques in remote-sensing technology,
          and serves as a focal point for measurements of stratospheric trace
          constituents for climate and environmental purposes.


          SDSD   Satellite Data Services Division
                 National Climatic Data Center
                 NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                   and Information Service
                 Princeton Executive Center, Room 100
                 5627 Allentown Rd4
                 Washington, DC 20233
                 (301) 763-8402, FTS 763-8402

          Th'e Satellite Data Services Division receives, classifies, stores,
          and retrieves imagery and digital data from environmental
          satellites.    The Division is responsible for planning, systems
          analysis 'design, and coordination involved in acquiring new or
          improving current systems required to perform the satellite data
          management and user services functions.       It performs feasibility
          studies and develops specifications for satellite data handling,
          hardware/ sof t:ware systems, and automatic data-processing services.
          The Division furnishes guidance to researchers and planners in
          selecting data sources suitable to their needs.            It provides
          professional services in analyzing, interpreting, and      filling user
          requests for retrospective satellite data.            In  response to
          inquiries, the Division.furnishes data or information as to types
          of data available in various media and formats.



          SEAD   Strategic Environmental Assessments Division
                 Office Ocean Resources Conservation and Assessment
                 NOAA National Ocean service
                 Washington Science Center-1, Room 220
                 6001 Executive Blvd.
                 Rockville, MD 20852
                 (301) 443-8843, FTS 443-8843

          The    Strategic   Environmental     Assessment    Division     conducts
          comprehensive, interdisciplinary assessments of multiple ocean-
          resource uses for the nation and its major coastal and oceanic
          regions for applications by NOAA, other agencies, Congress, and
          public interest groups in identifying ocean uses capabilities and
          potential conflicts and determining national research needs and
          priorities.    The Division publishes a series of data atlases of
          important    physical,     chemical,    biological,     and     economic
          characteristics of the nation's coastal zone and Exclusive Economic
          Zone.     It develops and maintains comprehensive, national
          inventories of coastal and ocean resources and their existing and

                                           B-17








             prop .osed uses for asse    .ssing national policies and management
            ,strategies.     It also develops strategic assessment methods and
             maintains an operational capability with which to evaluate the
             environmental and economic effects of national policies and
             management strategies for coastal and ocean resource use.                The
             Division synthesizes and disseminates information -on the use and
             status of coastal waters of the nation.



             SEFC    Southeast Fisheries Science center
                     NOAA National Marine Fisheries Service
                     75 Virginia Beach Dr.
                     Miami, FL 33149
                     (305) 361-4284, FTS 350-128.4

             The Southeast Fisheries Science center conducts multidisciplinary
             research programs to provide management information to support
             national and regional programs of NMFS; and to respond to the needs
             of    regional    Fishery    Management     councils,    interstate      and
             international fishery commissions, fishery development foundations,
             government agencies, and the general public. The Center provides
             supervisory and administrative support to large marine ecosystems
             programs performing fishery research, collecting and reporting on
             statistical data, and operating Center data management support
             systems. It develops the scientific information base required for
             f ishery resource conservation, f ishery development and utilization,
             habitat conservation, and protection of marine. mammals and
             endangered species; develops the impact analyses and environmental
             assessments for management plans and/or international negotiations;
             and pursues research to answer specific needs in the subject areas
             of population dynamics, f ishery biology, f ishery economics, f ishery
             engineering, food science, and fishery biology.


             .SEL    Spade Environment Laboratory
                     Environmental Research Laboratories
                     NOAA Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research
                     325 Broadway St.
                     Boulder, CO 80303
                     (303) 497-3311, FTS 320-3311

             The    Space    Environment    Laboratory provides monitoring and
             forecasting of the space environment to meet national requirements.
             The Laboratory       improves techniques        for forecasting        solar
             disturbances and their effects on th      'e Earth's environment through
             research and technical support activities.







                                                 B-18









         SRD   Sanctuaries and Reserves Division
               Office of Ocean and Coastal Resources Management
               NOAA National Ocean service
               Universal Building S., Room 71.4
               1825 Connecticut Ave., NW
               Washington, DC, 20235
               (201) 673-5122, FTS 673-5122

         The Sanctuaries and Reserves Division has headquarters and field
         staff responsible for administration of the National Marine
         Sanctuary Program, Title III of the Marine Protection, Research,
         and Sanctuaries Act, and the National Estuarine Reserve Research
         System, section 315 of the Coastal Zone Management Act.        These
         programs identify, designate, and operate coastal marine protected
         areas for purposes of resource protection, monitoring, researcht
         interpretation, and education.    The Division prepares necessary
         designation documents for these sites including management plans,
         regulations,   environmental impact statements,        congressional
         prospectuses, and designation findings.        It oversees state
         operation of reserves and directly operates marine sanctuaries,
         including the issuance and monitoring of permits to conduct
         specified activities and enf orcement of sanctuary regulations. The
         Division   develops   and   implements  national     interpretative,
         educational, research, monitoring, and cultural resource plans and
         site-specific management plans and projects.


         SRL   Satellite Research Laboratory
               Office of Research and Applications
               NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                 and Information Service
               World Weather Building, Room 712
               5200 Auth Rd.
               Camp Springs, MD 20233
               (301) 763-8078, FTS 763-8078

         The Satellite Research Laboratory applies satellite observations
         to solving problems in the.atmospheric, oceanic, and land sciences
         and in climate research and monitoring. The Laboratory develops
         methods for remote sensing of the Earth and its atmosphere. The
         Laboratory performs research using satellite observations; supports
         such research activities at university and private research
         organizations; and participates with the university community in
         joint research projects.    It plans and coordinates research and
         development activities and applications of research results with
         othe'r parts of NOAA and other U.S.          government agencies,
         universities, and international groups.    The Laboratory conducts
         field experiments to demonstrate the utility of new measurement
         techniques, new results, and new technology.             Areas of
         experimentation include atmospheric, oceanographic, hydrologic, and
         Earth resources investigations.


                                         B-19










            SSD   Satellite Services Division
                 ,office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribution
                  NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data,
                    and Information Service
                  World Weather Building, Room 607
                  5200 Auth Rd.
                  Camp Springs,  MD 20233
                  (301) 763-8051, FTS 763-8051

            The Satellite Services Divis  ion serves  as the primary interface
            with the community of users of environmental satellite data and
            products.    The Division is responsible for providing data,
            analyses, and interpretations of polar-orbiting and geostationary
            satellite data to the user community.       It also serves as the
            primary interface with the users of satellite direct-broadcast and
            data-collection services, andmanages the operation and maintenance
            of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite Data
            Collection System.


            SWFC  Southwest Fisheries science Center
                  NOAA National Marine Fisheries service
                  P.O. Box 271
                  La Jolla, CA 92038
                  (619) 546-7000, FTS 893-7000

            The Science, and Research Director, Southwest Region, and the staff
            of the Southwest Fisheries Science Center are responsible for
            conducting an integrated, multidisciplinary research program in
            biology, mathematics, oceanography, economics, and computer
            sciences for the purpose of developing scientific information to
            support the management and allocation of coastal and high-seas
            fishery resources. These activities are designed to support the
            scientific, statistical, and economic needs of the regional Fishery
            Management Councils, international commissions for the allocation
            of world-wide tuna resources, efforts directed toward the reduction
            of porpoise mortality, a better understanding of the biological and
            environmental factors affecting commercial and recreational
            fisheries, and the development of underutilized fishery resources.
















                                            B-20











         APPENDIX C: GLOSSARY OF TERMS


         aerosol -- Suspension of very small particles of a liquid or a
         solid in air or another gas. Examples include smoke, dust, and
         fog.

         albedo -- The fraction of incident light reflected from a
         surface.

         biosphere -- The portion of the Earth inhabited by living
         organisms, including the land masses, oceans, and atmosphere.

         bycatch -- Catch of nontarget fish and invertebrates during
         commercial fishing operations, especially trawling. For example,
         commercial shrimp fishing results in an extensive bycatch of
         bottomfish species, most of which are killed and discarded.

         chlorofluorocarbons -- Group of organic compounds analogous to
         hydrocarbons, in which all or most of the hydrogen atoms of a
         hydrocarbon have been replaced by fluorine or chlorine; see
         halogens.

         condensation nuclei -- Aerosol which serve as the nuclei upon
         which water vapor condenses. Cloud condensation nuclei occur in
         the atmosphere.

         DDT -- A persistent insecticide which is a mixture of isomers of
         dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, a chlorinated hydrocarbon.

         DNA -- Deoxyribonucleic acid; the primary genetic material of a
         cell; contains 2 polynucleotide chains forming a double, helix.

         Dobson unit -- Unit of measurement of ozone concentration in
         atmosphere. Represents the amount of ozone in a vertical column
         of the atmosphere at standard -3 temperature and atmospheric
         pressure. 1 Dobson unit = 10 cm of ozone at standard
         temperature and atmospheric pressure. Named after G.M.B. Dobson,
         English inventor of ozone spectrophotometer and first to
         establish a routine ozone-observing program in 1924.

         dogfish -- one of several species of small sharks of the genera
         Saualus and Mustelus.


         EEZ    See Exclusive Economic Zone.

         electromagnetic sensing -- Remote sensing of ocean transport
         using naturally occurring electric currents caused by flow
         through the Earth's magnetic field. Measurements of induced


                                        C-1









            electric fields and resulting currents are made from submarine
            cables, towed electrode systems, and free-fall profilers.

            El Nino -- Anomalous warming of the eastern tropical Pacific
            Ocean that occurs at 2-10 year intervals and is frequently
            associated with far-reaching climatic and economic impacts around
            the world.

            ENSO -- El Nino (q.v.)/Southern oscillation (q.v.) (ENSO) -- term
            used to describe the oceanic-atmospheric interactions of El Nino
            events.

            ERL --  The Environmental Research Laboratories (ERL) are
            organized within NOAA's OAR (q.v.). ERL consists of 10 research
            laboratories and 7 joint/cooperative research institutes
            throughout the U.S.

            Exclusive Economic Zone -- Coastal ocean under limited U.S. legal
            jurisdiction. By law, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is
            defined as contiguous to the territorial sea of the U.S. and
            extending seaward 200 nautical miles measured from the baseline
            from which the territorial sea was measured. Under the Magnuson
            Fishery Conservation and Management Act, the U.S. has exclusive
            management authority over all living marine resources in the EEZ.

            Florida Current -- A north Atlantic Ocean western boundary
            current (q.v.) setting northward along the southeast coast of the
            United States. A segment of the Gulf Stream system, the Florida
            Current extends from the Straits of Florida to the region off
            Cape Hatteras, NC. Part of the general surface circulation of
            the oceans.

            gadoids -- Family of fishes (Gadidae) which includes several
            important genera widely used as food, such as cod, haddock,
            pollock, and hake.

            gag -- The grouper of southern U.S. coasts, West Indies, and
            Caribbean waters. Groupers are large marine fish of the family
            Serranidae common in warm waters, especially around reefs. It is
            a popular sport fish and excellent food fish. The common name
            for the grouper, Mvcteroperca microlepis.

            GEOSAT -- GEOdetic SATellite. U.S. Navy altimeter satellite
            launched in 1985 used to collect global altimeter data.

            GOES -- New NOAA system of Geostationary Operational
            Environmental Satellites (GOES).

            greenhouse effect -- Theory associated with increase in
            "greenhouse gases" (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
            tropospheric ozone, chlorofluorocarbons) and their ability to
            absorb thermal infrared radiation which increases atmospheric

                                           C-2









          temperatures.
          halogens -- The five elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
         .iodine, and astatine. organic compounds formed from these
          include chlorofluorocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and
          various plastics.

          infrared radiation -- Long-wave (heat) radiation (abbreviation:
          IR) emitted by hot bodies with wavelengths ranging from the limit
          of the red end of the visible spectrum to about 1 mm.

          IR -- see infrared radiation.

          joint venture --- An operation authorized'under the Magnuson
          Fishery Conservation and Management Act in which a permitted
          foreign vessel receives fish in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone
          from a U.S. vessel. The fish received from the U.S. vessel are
          part of the U.S. harvest.

          La Nina -- Periods between El Nino events in the eastern tropical
          Pacific characterized by normal ocean/atmospheric conditions
          (i.e. a "cool" event).

          longline fishery -- Method of fishing using long lines of baited
          hooks. Hooks used are small and spaced at short intervals.
          Usually 1/4 to 2 miles long. Commonly used for catching a
          variety of fish, including sharks, snappers, groupers, and tuna.

          Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act -- The Magnuson
          Act provides a national program for the conservation and
          management of fisheries to allow for optimum yield on a
          continuing basis. It established the U.S. Exclusive Economic
          Zone and a means to control foreign and certain domestic
          fisheries through fishery management plans.

          mb -- see millibar.

          methane -- The simplest hydrocarbon, found in natural gas and as
          4 degradation product of carbonaceous materials, and thus occurs
          in association with petroleum, coal, bogs, and marshes. The
          second most-abundant greenhouse gas, after carbon dioxide.

          MFCMA -- see Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act
          microgram   one-millionth (10-6 ) of a gram.

          micrometer    see micron.

          micron -- A unit of measurement (symbol:u) in the metric system
          equivalent to one-millionth meter (10-6 meter). Also called a
          micrometer.

          microwaves   Portion of electromagnetic spectrum lying between

                                         C-3









           the far infrared and radio frequencies, i.e., wavelengths from I
           to 1000 millimeters.

           millibar -- Commonly used unit of pressure (symbol: mb) in
           meteorology (I mb = 103 dynes/cm2 ). 1013 mb is regarded as the
           standard atmospheric pressure at sea level.

           mitigation -- Actions taken to reduce the effects of a
           potentially harmful activity.

           mixing ratio -- Ratio of the mass of a given gas '(e.g., water
           vapor) to that of the remaining gas (e.g., dry air) in the
           mixture.

           nanogram -- One-billionth of a gram. The prefix'nanb (symbol: n)
           means one-billionth part (10-9

           NESDIS -- National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
           Service (NESDIS). Office responsible for NOAA's environmental
           satellite and data management programs.

           nitrous oxide -- A greenhouse gas    N20) of primarily biogenic
           origin. N20 absorbs .in the thermal infrared spectrum and
           contributes to warming of the atmosphere.

           Nimbus-7 -- Satellite used to fly the Coastal Zone Color Scanner
           (CZCS) and Total Ozone Mapping Spectrophotometer .(q.v.).

           NMFS -- National Marine Fisheries Service. office responsible
           for the integrated NOAA marine fisheries programs.

           NOS -- National Ocean Service. Office responsible for the
           integrated NOAA ocean services and coastal zone management
           programs.

           NWS -- National Weather Service. office responsible for the
           integrated NOAA weather service programs.

           orographic -- Applied to rain or clouds caused by the
           condensation of moist air resulting from the forced uplift of
           mountains on air streams that cross them.

           OAR -- Office of oceanic and Atmospheric Research. Office
           responsible for the integrated NOAA oceanic and atmospheric
           research and development programs.

           ozone -- Photochemically produced form of oxygen (symbol: 03)'
           Ozone shields the Earth from solar ultraviolet radiation and acts
           as a strong oxidizing agent for chemical reactions involving
           other biogenic gases.

           PAHs -- Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are cyclic (closed rings

                                            C-4








         typified by benzene-CA) hydrocarbons derived mainly from
         petroleum., Includes naphthalene, fluorene, pyrene, and
         benzo(a)pyrene.

         Palmer Drought Severity Index -- Index of dryness (drought)
         developed by Wayne C. Palmer of the NWS to quantify negative
         meteorological moisture anomalies.

         PCBs -- Polychlorinated biphenyls are chlorinated hydrocarbon
         compounds first used in 1929 for industrial purposes and occur as
         persistent pollutants, particularly in aquatic ecosystems. Their
         use in the U.S. began to be phased out in 1971 and has been
         banned in new devices since 1976.

         pixel -- A picture element. Commonly the smallest component of a
         multispectral image.

         polynyas -- A water area enclosed in ice.

         precipitation index -- Statistically derived index that depicts
         average precipitation (moisture) over long time periods and large
         geographic areas..

         QBO -- see quasi-bienni al oscillation.

         quasi-biennial oscillation -- Equatorial east-west oscillation of
         stratospheric winds. The quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) has  a
         period of about 26 months and has largest amplitude near 30 mb
         pressure. The QBO shows a strong relationship with Atlantic'
         tropical storm activity.

         radiosonde -- Meteorological instrument that records and
         transmits atmospheric temperatures and humidity with altitude.
         CIt is carried aloft by balloon.

         rawinsonde -- Meteorological instrument that records and
         transmits atmospheric temperatures and wind direction/speed with
         altitude. It is usually carried aloft by balloon.

         rocketsonde -- Radiosonde (q.v.) or rawinsonde (q.v.) carried
         aloft by rocket.

         Sahel -- Geographical area in north central Africa (Mauritania to
         Chad) between the Sahara desert of North Africa and the forested
         regions of equatorial Africa. This region is arid with sparse
         vegetation and is susceptible to desert-ification.

         sea level -- Level of the ocean surface in relation to adjacent
         land (secular sea level) or from a satellite at a known altitude
         (absolute sea level).

         SEAMAP -- Southeast Area Monitoring and Assessment Program.

                                        C-5









            State/federal/university program for collection, management, and
            dissemination of fishery-independent data and information in the
            southeastern United States.

            shellfish -- Any aquatic invertebrate possessing a shell,
            especially any edible mollusk or crustacean, as oysters, clams,
            lobsters, and shrimps.

            skates -- Fish of the genus Rgja (family Rajidae) related to
            sharks and rays. Skates are frequently caught as bycatch and
            discarded.


            solar irradiance -- The total solar radiation received on a
            surface per unit area.

            Southern Oscillation -- An intermitte nt 2-10 year quasi-
            periodicity observed in atmospheric pressure, surface wind, sea
            surface temperature, cloudiness, and rainfall over a wide area of
            the Pacific Ocean and adjacent coastal areas south of the
            equator.

            stratosphere -- The upper portion of Earth's atmosphere, above
            the troposphere (from 8-20 km) and below the mesosphere (to
            around 45 km), characterized by relatively uniform temperatures
            and horizontal winds (jet stream).

            sunspot -- Dark areas seen on the Sun's surface that are regions
            of cool gas. Their presence is associated with local variations
            in the Sun's magnetic field. Sunspots appear to have cycles
            having a period of 11 years.

            Sverdrup -- Unit of measurement (symbol: SV) used to quantify the
            ocean volumetransported. 1 sverdrup = one million cubic meters
            per second.

            TOGA -- Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere Program. Part of
            the 10-year (1985-1995) international World Climate Research
            Program established by the World Meteorological Organization.
            NOAA is an active participant in TOGA.

            TOMS -- Total Ozone Mapping Spectrophotometer. Instrument flown
            aboard Nimbus-7 satellite used to remotely measure stratospheric
            ozone.


            tornado -- Intense, funnel-shaped wind phenomena usually
            associated with fast-moving cold fronts.

            tropical cyclone -- Intense, circular,. cyclonic storms formed in
            ocean regions.

            troposphere -- The lowest layer of the  Earth's atmosphere
            extending from the surface to the tropopause (10-20 km depending

                                            C-6








         on latitude and time of year). Temperat ure decreases steadily
         with increased altitude, turbulence is greatest, and most weather
         phenomena occur in this region.

         upwelling -- An upward'flow of subsurface water due to
         divergences, offshore winds, and wind-driven transport away from
         shore.

         virtual population analysis -- An analysis of the catches from a
         given year class (cohort) of fish over its life in the fishery.
         visible wavelengths -- The continuous spectrum of visible
         radiation lying in the wavelength range between 380 and 780
         nanometers. Seven colors are usually distinguished in the
         continuous variation of visible wavelengths: violet, indigo,
         blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.

         western boundary currents -- Currents of the major ocean gyres
         flowing along the eastern coasts of all continents. These
         currents are fast, narrow, and, in some regions, meander
         unpredictably. Examples of these currents are the Kuroshio
         Current in the Pacific Ocean and the Florida Current (q.v.) and
         Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean.

         wind stress -- Frictional drag at the boundary between the air-
         sea interface. one of the physical forces influencing ocean
         circulation.

         xenobiotic -- A compound foreign to or not found natura'lly in the
         environment. Examples include DDT (q.v.) and PCBs (q.v.).























                                        C-7











          APPENDIX D: RELATED REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

          A number of publications, both governmental and private, present
          regular analyses of the Earth's environment and natural resources.
          In addition, there are numerous special reports and scientific
          journals that periodically deal with global environmental issues.
          Examples of significant publications related to this report are:

          Climate Assessment: Selected Indicators of Global Climate --
          Published jointly by NOAA's Climate Analysis Center and National
          Climatic Data Center, this yearly report provides an annual summary
          (including historical perspectives) of selected atmospheric and
          oceanic parameters including sea ice and snow         cover.    Global
          coverage is emphasized although regional and United States
          conditions are also highlighted.

          Climate Diagnostics Bulletin -- Published by NOAA's Climate
          Analysis Center, this report is a summary of worldwide monthly
          meteorological data such as sea surface temperature, sea surface
          pressure, winds, and ocean currents.       Anomalies are noted and
          discussed.

          Environmental Indicators: A Preliminary    Set -- A preliminary set
          of environmental indicators published      by the organization for
          Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, Paris 1991). It serves
          as a companion to the OECD Report on the State of the      Environment
          and comprises 18 environmental indicators, followed by 7 key
          indicators reflecting economic and population            changes of
          environmental significance.

          Environmental Trends         A publication of the, Council on
          Environmental Quality which focuses on selected U.S. indicators
          chosen by an Interagency Advisory committee on Environmental
          Trends.    Statistical series are compiled from data available
          through government agencies, private studies, or the literature of
          each discipline.      Chapters concern minerals, energy, water,
          climate, air quality, land resources, wildlife, wetland5, protected
          areas, population, transportation, and environmental hazards.

          Environmental Ouality -- The annual report of the Council on
          Environmental Quality.    The report is submitted to Congress and
          highlights selected environmental issues.     These selected topics
          are discussed in considerable depth. The focus is on the United
          States. Appendices identify activities of the Council, highlight
          specific environmental legislation, and provide numerical        ' data
          intabular form together with the President's Message to Congress.





                                           D-1









            Fisheries of the United States -- Published yearly by NOAA's
            National Marine Fisheries Service (VMFS), Fisheries Statistics
            Division. The publication is a preliminary report giving annual
            statistics on commercial and recreational fisheries of the United
            States and foreign catch in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. Final
            data are published in "Fishery Statistics of the United States" and
            other NMFS statistical publications.     Data are provided on U.S.
            employment, prices, and production of processed products. Worldwide
            data are also included.

            Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change Summary Report        This
            is an annual report published by the Geophysical Monitoring for
            Climatic Change Division of NOAA's Climate Monitoring and
            Diagnostics Laboratory. The report contains scientific information
            on a number of geophysical parameters monitored at     N 0 A A I s
            baseline observatories. These parameters include: atmospheric
            aerosols, solar radiation, atmospheric turbidity, carbon dioxide,
            ozone, water vapor, and other atmospheric parameters             o f
            climatological significance.

            GESAMP: The State of the Marine Environment            This report,
            prepared by.the Joint Group   of,Experts on the Scientific Aspects
            of Marine Pollution (GESAMP) (United Nations Environment Program
            Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 115. UNEP, 1990), summarizes
            the state of marine pollution in the world's oceans and is the
            second state-of -the-marine-environment report by the Group. Topics
            include human activities affecting the sea, marine contaminants,
            biological effects, climate change effects, and prevention and
            control of marine pollution.

            The Global Climate System Monitoring Bulletin -- The report,
            published bi-annually by the World Meteorological organization, i
            a review of global climate conditions based on current scientific
            understanding and worldwide observations of the climate system. It
            is intended to provide a basis for monitoring global change. The
            report is compiled 'from readily available scientific literature and
            has an extensive bibliography.

            Monthly Climatic Time Series Data for the Pacific ocean and Western
            Americas -- Published by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS Open-File
            Report 91-92) in cooperation with Scripps Institution of
            Oceanography, NOAA, and the State of California.          Graphs of
            standardized monthly anomaly time-series data for several climatic
            variables are presented for locations in the eastern Pacific Ocean
            and the western Americas. The variables include: air temperature,
            barometric pressure, precipitation, streamf low, sunshine, sea level
            height, sea surface temperature,, sea surface salinity, several
            atmospheric   indices   and   biological   variables,    ocean    and
            miscellaneous ocean subsurface temperature and salinity. The time
            series of annual values and basic statistics of the monthly mean
            data are also shown for each variable.



                                            D-2








         OECD Environmental Data Compendium 1991 -- The third update of the
         Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD,
         Paris 1991) comprehensive data resource on the environment.
         Provides data on air and water pollution, the marine environment,
         land use, forests, wildlife, solid waste, noise, and radioactivity
         in OECD countries.       Also provides data on the underlying
         anthropogenic pressures on the environment, including energy use,
         transportation, industrial activity, and agriculture.

         Report to Congress on Ocean Pollution, Monitoring, and Research -
           This is an annual report published by the Off ice of Ocean
         Resources Conservation and Assessment of NOAA's National Ocean
         Service. The publication details NOAA pollution-related programs
         including the National Coastal Pollution Discharge Inventory,
         National Estuarine Inventory, National Status and Trends Program,
         National Ocean Pollution Program, and special reports on water-
         quality issues of national significance.

         Solar-Geophysical Data -- Published by NOAA's National Geophysical
         Data Centerl the monthly two-part report, is a comprehensive
         listing of solar flares, solar radio flux, sunspots, solar wind
         and data on particle measurements, geomagnetic field variations,
         and cosmic rays.

         A State of the Environment -Report: A Report on Canada's Progress
         Towards a National Set of Environmental Indicators -- This report,
         from Environment Canada (SOE Report No. 91-1, January 1991),
         documents the current systematic efforts to develop a national set
         of environmental indicators that, taken together, will give a
         profile of the state of Canada's environment and indicate trends
         towards sustainable development.

         The State of the. Environment, Third Edition -- The latest
         Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD,
         Paris 1991) assessment of environmental conditions in its member
         countries. It reviews the environment today to assess the progress
         achieved over the past two decades.        It also identifies the
         remaining problems concerning global atmospheric issues, air,
         inland waters, the marine environment, land, forest, wildlife,
         solid waste, and noise.      Extensive statistical information is
         included.

         State of the World: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress
         Toward a Sustainable Society -- This is an annual report by Lester
        .Brown et al. of the World Watch Institute. The report discusses
         global environmental problems that especially affect p eo pl es I
         lives, including, deforestation, toxic pollution, overpopulation,
         species extinction, and energy uses. The publication also covers
         political issues, such as the military       buildup   in    various
         countries.   The report is translated and published in all major
         languages.


                                         D-3








           Trends 90: A Compendium of Data on Global Chancre    Published     by
           the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National
           Laboratory, the document is a source of frequently-used global-
           change data. The first issue (August 1990) includes estimates for
           global and national CO 2 emissions from the burning of fossil fuels
           and from the production of cement; historical and modern
           concentrations; and several long-term temperature records. Included
           ate tabular and graphical presentations of the data, discussions
           of trends in the data, and references to publications that provide
           further information.

           World Resources: A Guide to the Global Environment -- This annual
           report by the World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, was first
           published in 1986.    The publication reviews global environmental
           issues such as population and health, food and agriculture, forests
           and rangelands, atmosphere and climate, oceans and coasts, wildlife
           and habitats, and global systems. In addition, the report provides
           quantitative information on issues related to economic indicators,
           population, public health, land and water use, etc.'

































                                           D-4










          APPENDIX E: REFERENCES

          Angell, J. K. 1990.    variation in United States cloudiness and
          sunshine duration between 1950 and the drought, year of 1988. J.
          Climate 3(2): 296-308.

          Artz, R.S. and G.D. Rolph. 1989.      Evaluation of precipitation
          chemistry siting criteria using paired stations from northern Maine
          and southeastern Texas. Atmospheric Environment 23(5): 1033-1050.

          Balazs, G.H., and S.G. Pooley,. eds. 1991. Research plan for marine
          turtle fibropapilloma.      Honolulu, HI: Honolulu Laboratory,
          Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-
          156. 113 pp.

          Bakun, A. 1990-.   Global climate change and intensification of
          coastal ocean upwelling. Science 247: 198-201.

          Benway, R.L. and J.W. Jossi. 1989.     Expendable bathythermograph
          observations and continuous plankton records from the NMFS/Ship of
          Opportunity Program for 1988. Woods Hole, MA: Northeast Fisheries
          Science Center. NMFS/NOAA.   Northeast Fisheries Center Reference
          Document 889-05. 10 pp.

          Cayan, D.R., D.R. McLain, W.D. Nichols, and J.S. DiLeo-Stevens.
          1991. Monthly climate time series data for the Pacific ocean and
          western Americas. Menlo Park, CA: U.S. Geological Survey, Open-
          File Report 91-92. 380 pp.

          Culliton, T.J., M.A. Warren, T.R. Goodspeed, D.G. Remer, C.M.
          Blackwell, and J.J. McDonough, 111. 1990. 50 years,of population
          change along the nation's coasts, 1960-2010.        Rockville, MD:
          Strategic Assessment Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 41 pp.

          De Luisi, J.J., D.U. Longenecker, C  L. Mateer, and D.J. Wuebbles.
          1989. An analysis of northern middle-latitude Umkehr measurements
          corrected for stratospheric aerosols for 1979-1986.    J. Geophys.
          Res. 94(D7): 9837-9846.

          Douglas, B.C. 1991. Global sea level rise. J. Geophys. Res. 96
          (C4): 6981-6992.

          Field, D.M., A.J. Reyer, P.V.Genovese, and B.D. Shearer. 1991.
          Coastal wetlands of the United States. An accounting of a valuable
          national resource. A special 20th anniversary report. Rockville,
          MD: Strategic'Assessment Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 59 pp.

          Gillettel D.A., W.D. Komhyr, L.S. Waterman, L.P. Steele, and R.H.
          Gammon. 1987.   The NOAA/GMCC continuous CO 2 record at the South
          Pole, 1975-1982. J. Geophys. Res. 92(D4): 4231-4240.


                                          E-1










            Gutman, G.G. 1990. Review of the workshop on the use of satellite-
            derived vegetation indices in weather and climate prediction model.
            Bul. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 71(10): 1458-1463.

            Halpert, M., P. Arkin, C. Ropelewski, and R. Tomlinson. 1990. The
            development and utilization of an AVHRR-based vegetation index for
            climate monitoring.     In: Proceedings of the 14th Annual Climate
            Diagnostics Workshop. Camp springs, MD: Climate Analysis Center,
            NMCINWSINOAA. Pp. 211-215.

            Halpert, M.S., and C.F. Ropelewski, eds. 1991. Climate assessment:
            A decadal.review,.1981-1990.      Camp Springs, MD: Climate Analysis
            Center, NMC/NWS/NOAA. 109 pp.

            Heim, R.R., Jr. 1990.     Historical Climate Perspectives Bulletin:
            December 1990 report and annual 199.0 report.           Asheville, NC:
            National Climatic Data Center, NESDIS/NOAA. Historical Climatology
            Series 4-7. 43 pp.

            Holdahl, S.R., J.C. Holzschuh, and D.B. Zilkoski. 1989. Subsidence
            at Houston,' Texas 1973-87. Rockville, MD: Charting and Geodetic
            Services, NOS/NOAA. NOAA-TR-NOS-131-NGS-44. 21 pp.

            Holzwarth,   T., and D. Mountain. 1990.           Surface and bottom
            temperature distributions from the Northeast Fisheries Center
            spring and   fall bottom trawl survey program, 1963-1987.          Woods
            Hole, MA.:   Environmental Processes Division, NEFSC/NMFS/NOAA.
            Northeast Fisheries Center Reference Document 90-03. 62 pp.

            Jossi, J.W., and R.L. Benway. 1991.              Surface and bottom
            temperatures, and surface salinities: Massachusetts to Cape Sable,
            N.S., and New York to the Gulf Stream, 1990.         Narragansett, RI:
            Northeast Fisheries Science Center, NMFS/NOAA.     Northeast Fisheries
            Center Reference Document (in press).

            Jossi, J.W., D.E. Smith, and J.R. Goulet.           1991.     Continuous
            plankton records: Massachusetts to Capp Sable, N.S., and New York
            to the Gulf Stream, 1990. Narragansett, RI: Ecosystems Dynamics
            Branch, Northeast Fisheries.Science Center, NMFS/NOAA. Northeast
            Fisheries Center Reference Document (in press).

            Kidwell, K.B. ed. 1990.      Global vegetation index user's guide.
            Washington, DC: Satellite Data Services Division, National Climatic
            Data Center, NESDIS/NOAA. 30 pp. Appendices.

            Kocin, P.J. and L.-W. Uccellini. 1990.          Snowstorms Along the
            Northeastern Coast of the United States: 1955 to 1985. Boston, MA:
            American Meteorological Society. 280 pp.

            Larsenf J.C. 1990. Transport measurements from in service undersea
            telephone cables.     In: Workshop on Scientific Uses of Undersea

                                              E-2








          Cables, A.D. Chave, R. Butler, and T.E. Pyle, eds. Washington, DC:
          Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Inc. Pp. 117-130.

          Larsen, J.C. and T.B. Sanford. 1985.           Florida Current volume
          transports from voltage measurements. Science 227: 302-304.

          Lauenstein, G.G., A. Robertson, and T.P. O'Connor. 1990
          Comparison of trace metal data in mussels and oysters from a Mussel
          Watch programme of the     '1970s with those from a 1980s programme.
          Mar. Pollution. Bull. 21(9): 440-447.

          Levitus, S. 1989.     Interpentadal variability of salinity in the
          upper 150 m of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1970-1974 versus 1955-
          1959. J. Geophys. Res. 94(C7): 9679-9685.

          Levitus, S. 1989.      Interpentadal variability of temperature and
          salinity in the deep North Atlantic, 1970-1974 versus 1955-1959.
          J. Geophys. Res. 94(C11): 16,125-16,131.

          Mager* A., Jr. 1990.     National Marine Fisheries service habitat
          conservation efforts related to federal regulatory programs in the
          Southeastern United States. St. Petersburgj FL: Southeast Regional
          Office, NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SEFC-260. 12 pp.

          Miller, L., and R. Cheney. 1990. Large-scale meridional transport
          in the tropical Pacific Ocean during the 1986-1987 El Nino from
          Geosat. J. Geophys. Res. 95(C10): 17,905-17,919.

          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991.            Climate
          Diagnostics Bulletin, September 1991.       Camp Springs, MD: Climate
          Analysis Center, NMC/NWS/NOAA. No.-91-9. 75 pp@

          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1990. Estuaries
          of the United States.      Vital statistics of a national resource
          base.   A special NOAA 20th anniversary report.          Rockville, MD:
          Strategic Assessment Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 79 pp.

          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1989.           National
          Estuarine Inventory Data Atlas. Volume 3: Coastal Wetlands - New
          England Region.      Rockville, MD: Strategic Assessment Branch,
          OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 19 pp.

          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.        1991.    National
          Estuarine Research Reserve System Status Report,        September 1991.
          Washington, DC: Sanctuaries and Reserves Division,      Office of Ocean
          Resources Conservation and Assessment, NOS/NOAA.        9 pp..

          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.        1991.    National
          Marine Sanctuary Program Status Report, July 1991.      Washington, DC:
          Sanctuaries and Reserves Division, Office of           Ocean Resources
          Conservation and Assessment, NOS/NOAA. 7 pp.


                                             E-3









           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Our living
           oceans: The first annual report on the status of U.S. living marine
           resources, November 1991.     Silver Spring, MD: National Marine
           Fisheries service, NOAA/DOC. NOAA Tech Memo. NMFS-FISPO-1. 123 pp.


           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. The 1990
           National Shellfish Register of Classified Estuarine Waters.
           Rockville, MD: Strategic Assessments Branch, OMA/NOS/NOAA. 100 pp.

           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Report of
           activities.of the Southwest Fisheries Science Center, March-April
           1991. La Jolla, CA: Southwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFS/NOAA.
           27 pp.

           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991.         Solar
           Indices Bulletin.      Boulder, CO:      Solar-Terrestrial Physics
           .Division, National Geophysical Data Center, NESDIS/NOAA. Monthly.
           2 pp-

           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Status of
           the fishery resources off the Northeastern United States for 1991.
           Woods Hole, MA: Conservation and Utilization Division, Northeast
           Fisheries science Center, NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-F/NEC-86. 132 pp.

           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1991. Status of
           the Pacific oceanic living marine resources of interest to the USA
           for 1991.    La Jolla, CA: Southwest Fisheries Science Center,
           NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFSC-165. 78 pp.

           National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1988. A summary
           of selected data on chemical contaminants in sediments     collected
           during 1984, 1985,   1986, and 1987.     Progress Report: National
           Status and Trends    Program for marine environmental qualiiy.
           Rockville, MD: Ocean Assessments Division, OMA/NOS/NOAA.    NOAA-TM-
           NOS-OMA-44. 15 pp. Appendices.

           National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1989.    A s ummary
           of data on tissue contamination from the first three years (1986-
           1988) of the Mussel Watch Project.       Progress Report: National
           Status and Trends Program for marine environmental quality. Ocean
           Assessments Division, OMA/NOS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-NOS-OMA-49. 22 pp.
           Appendices.

           O'Bannon, B., ed. 1991.     Fisheries of the United States, 1990.
           Silver Spring, MD:. Fisheries Statistics Division, NMFS/NOAA.
           Current Fishery Statistics No. 9000. 11 pp.

           O'Connor, T.P. 1990. Coastal environmental quality in the United
           States, 1990. A special NOAA 20th anniversary report. Rockville,
           MD: Coastal and Estuarine Assessments, Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA.
           34 pp.

                                           E-4










          Reyer, J.R., C.L.Holland, D.W. Field, J.E. Cassells, and C.E.
          Alexander. 1988.    The distribution and areal extent of coastal
          wetlands in estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico.        National Coastal
          Wetlands Inventory. Rockville, MD: Strategic Assessment Branch,
          OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 18 pp.


          Reyer, A.J., B.D. Shearer, P.V. Genovese, J.E. Cassells, C.L.
          Holland, D.W. Field, and C.E. Alexander. 1990. The distribution
          and areal extent of coastal wetlands in estuaries of the West Coast
          region.    National Coastal Wetlands Inventory.       Rockville, MD:
          Strategic  Assessment Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 23 pp.

          Reyer, A.J., B.D. Shearer, P.V. Genovese, C.L. Holland, J.E.
          Cassells,,D,W. Field, and C.E. Alexander. 1990. The distribution
          and areal extent of coastal wetlands in estuaries of the Mid-
          Atlantic region. National Coastal Wetlands Inventory. Rockville,
          MD: Strategic Assessment Branch, OAD/OMA/NOS/NOAA. 21 pp.

          Reynolds, R.W. 1988. A real-time global sea surface temperature
          analysis. J. Climate 1: 75-86.

          Rolph, G.D. and R.S. Artz. 1991.        A paired comparison of two
          precipitation chemistry sites in east-central Mississippi.
          Atmospheric Environment 25A(8): 1449-1461.

          Scott, G.P@, D.M. Burn,  and L.J. Hansen. 1988. The dolphin dieoff:
          long-term effects and recovery.of the population. In: Oceans 188
          Proceedings, Vol. 3. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE. Pp. 819-823.

          Sherman, K., J. Jossi, and J. Goulet. 1990. Comparative stability
          of zooplankton communities of the northeast U.S. shelf ecosystem
          and the North Sea ecosystemin relation to climatic variability.@
          Biological oceanography Committee, ICES C.M. 1900/L:23 (in press) .

          Steele, L.P., P.J. Fraser, R.A. Rasmussen, M.A.K. Khalil, T.J.
          Conway, A.J. Crawford, R.H. Gammon, K.A. Masarie, and K.W. Thoning.
          1987. 'The global distribution-of methane in the troposphere. J.
          Atmos. Chem. 5: 125-1,71.

          Thoning, K.W. and P.P. Tans. 1989. Atmospheric carbon dioxide at
          Mauna Loa Observatory 2.     Analysis of the NOAA GMCC Data, 1974-
          1985. J. Geophys. Res. 94(D6): 8549-8565.

          Trites, R.W., D.R. Mclain, and M.C. Ingham. 1985.          Sea-surface
          temperatures along the continental shelf from Cape Hatteras to
          Hamilton Bank. NAFO Sci. Coun. Studies 8: 21-23.

          Varanasi, U., S.-L. Chan, B.B. McCain, J.T. Landahl, M.H.Schiewe,
          R.C. Clark, D.W. Brown, M.S. Myers, M.M. Krahn, W.D.Gronlund, and
          W.D,. MacLeod, Jr. 1989.    National Benthic Surveillance Project:

                                           E-5









           Pacific Coast. Part II: Technical presentation of the results for
           cycles I to 111 (1984-86). Seattle, WA: Environmental Conservation
           Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFS/NOAA. NOAA-TM-
           NMFS-F/NWC-170. 159 pp. Appendix.

           Varana,si, U., S.-L. Chan, B.B. McCain, M.H. Schiewe, R.C. Clark,
           D.W. Brown, M.S. Myers, J.T. Landahl,M.M. Krahn, W.D. Gronlund,
           and W.D. MacLeod, Jr. 1988. National Benthic surveillance Project:
           Pacific Coast. Part I: Summary and results for cycles I to III
           (1984-86).    Seattle, WA: Environmental Conservation Division,
           Northwest Fisheries Science Center, NMFSINOAA. NOAA-TM-NMFS-F/NWC-
           156.. 4.3 pp.-Figures.

           Zilkoski, D.B. and S@M. Reese,      Jr. 1986.     Subsidence in the
           vicinity of New Orleans as indicated by        analysis of geodetic
           leveling data.@, Rockville, MD: Charting and Geodetic Services,
           NOS/NOAA. NOAA-TR-NOS-120-NGS-38. Ill pp.





































                                            E-6









         APPENDIX F: NOAA HIGHLIGHTS

         The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration plays an active
         role in research, monitoring, and management of national and global
         environmental events and resources. This section highlights some
         of the major environmental events since the last NOAA Environmental
         Digest that have involved the participation of NOAA scientists and
         resource managers.

         Modest Increase D6tected in    Greenhouse Gases.    NOAA1.s Climate
         Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory in Boulder, ' CO reported
         carbon dioxide seems to be increasing,faster than in past years,
         The concentration increased at an average rate of 1.71 ppm/year
         (0.5%/yr) over the last four years. The rate'is higher than the
         annual 1.5 ppm rise reported for much of the 19809 and the 0.7 ppm.
         increase in the 1960s. Methane concentrations have been rising by
         about 12 ppb/year (0.8%/yr), and nitrous oxide increased at a rate
         of 0. 7 ppb/year (0. 25%/yr) . dFC-11 and CFC-12 were reported to be
         rising at 10 and 16 ppt/year (4%/yr) , respectively.       The NOAA
         Laboratory conducts ongoing, long-term monitoring of trace gases
         from baseline observatories at Barrow, Alaska; Hilo, Hawaii; Pago
         Pago, American Samoa;  and South Pole Station, Antarctica (August
         1990).

         Northern Hemisphere Snow Cover Lowest Since 1967 During June/July.
         NOAA's Climate Analysis Center reported that snow cover over the
         Northern Hemisphere in June and July was the lowest since 1967,
         when NOAA satellites began recording it. NOAA imagery showed North
         America at approximately 60 percent of normal June-July cover and
         less than 40 percent across Europe and Asia, something scientists
         would expect to occur by chance only once or twice every few
         hundred years.    snow cover is a critical ingredient in global
         warming and has maj.or regional effects on water resources,
         agriculture and local weather.    The extremely low snow cover is
         clearly linked to the record and near-record high-latitude warmth
         that occurred in the spring and summer. The scientists cautioned
         that these temperatures may be a reflection of the random nature
         of snow-cover variations and may have no relationship to climate
         change associated with global warming (August 1950).

         Sea Turtle Strandings Reach Record Numbers. Statistics from the
         NOAA National Sea Turtle Stranding and Salvage Network show record
         numbers of sea turtles stranded as of July 1990 in the southeast
         United States.    In 1989, Florida recorded 1,100 turtles washed
         ashore; Texas had 255 strandings; Georgia had 169; and North
         Carolina got 156 strandings.    All states in the network, except
         North Carolina, had increased strandings over 1988.     The network
         is composed mostly of volunteers and is managed by NOAA's National
         Marine Fisheries Service (August 1990).


                                         F-1












            Endangered Sea Turtles Released in The Gulf. -of Mexico.        Young
            endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtles numbering 1,850 were released
            into the Gulf of M6xico-as part of an ongoing "headstart" program
            to increase the population of the turtle. The Kemp's ridleys had
            been collected as hatchlings at the only known nesting beach in
            Mexico in July 1990.     They were transported to NOAA's National
            Marine Fisheries Service taboratory at Galveston, TX, where they
            were kept prior to release. The turt   'les released brought to more
            than 16,000 the number released off Port Aransas', TX, over the last
            12 years (August 1990).

            Three-Dimensional Maps of the U.S. EEZ Released. The first three-
            dimensional (3-d) detailed maps of the west coast United States
            Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) were released by NOAAIs Nautical
            charting Division. NOAA, in cooperation with the U.S. Geological
            Survey, have been using an advanced, long-range, side-scan sonar
            imaging system towed behind NOAA @ships to map the nation Is coastal
            bottom. NOAA has surveyed only 2 percent, or 80,500 square miles,
            of the EEZ. The 3-d maps produced thus far include several 2,000-
            square-mile areas off the coast of California, one off Oregon, and
            f our in the Gulf of Mexico. Maps of six areas  near Hawaii are also
            nearly completed (August 1990)..

            Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary Draf t EIS Released.        The
            nation's newest proposed marine sanctuary, Monterey Bay (CA)
            National Marine Sanctuary, moved closer       to reality as NOAA's
            Sanctuaries and Reserves Division released a draft Environmental
            Impact Statement (EIS) for public review. The proposed sanctuary
            could encompass 2,200 square nautical miles, making it the nation's
            largest. A final EIS will be completed in     1991 (August 1990).

            Tampa Bay Oceanography Proiect z Gets        Underway.     A unique
            oceanographic study of Tampa Bay (FL) was initiated by NOAA's Ocean
            Observations Division. A 15-month study will lay the groundwork
            for a three-dimensional computer model of Tampa Bay's tides, winds,
            and currents. A real-time reporting system is being developed and
            tested at the same time,       The system, called PORTS (physical
            oceanographic real-time system) , reports real-time oceanographic
            data to the U. S.. Coast Guard Base in St. Petersburg.         Harbor
            pilots, ship captains, and recreational boaters are expected. to
            benefit from the system. Water quality studies, search and rescue
            operations, and hazardous spill response efforts also could
            benefit.   The system may eventually be installed in additional
            harbors around the country (August 1990).

            NOAA Establishes Undersea Research Center. in Alaska.          NOAA's
            National Undersea Research Program set up a new Undersea Research
            Center at the University of Alaska to support marine research in
            the U.S. west coast and Alaskan waters.      The NOAA/University of

                                             F-2









         Alaska Center, the fifth in a network of university-based regional
         National Undersea Research Centers around the country, will provide
         manned submersibles, remote ly-operated underwater vehicles, and
         facilities to support research (September 1990).

         Spring Global Surface Air Temperature Warmest on Record. NOAA's
         Air Resources Laboratory reported that the average global surface
         temperature for spring 1990 was the warmest on record (averaging
         more than 1.50F above the 30-year average of 540F and a half degree
         warmer than the previous record year). The greatest temperature
         rise was in the Arctic where the average      was about 7.20 above
         average and 4.50F higher than previously observed.         Scientist
         cautioned that this analysis should not be   construed that global
         warming is occurring (October 1990).

         Coral Bleachincl Analyzed by NOAA Researchers.       The recurring
         phenomena of coral bleaching reappeared in 1990. Most scientists
         suspect that bleaching of corals is caused by higher sea
         temperatures, although there is disagreement on this matter. if
         higher temperatures are the cause, marine scientists are unsure
         whether the phenomena is a natural one caused by periodic changes
         in currents, or whether the oceans are actually warming.        NOAA
         researchers at the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological
         Laboratory, Caribbean Marine Research Center, and NOAA's Climate
         and Global Change Program are actively involved in researching the
         phenomena (October 1990).

         Massive Antarctic Iceberg  Tracked by Satellite. A giant iceberg
         was tracked for 3 years by satellite along the Pacific coast of
         Antarctica. Formed from the Ross Ice Shelf, the Long Island-size
         iceberg drifted eastward  for 1250 miles before breaking up. The
         big berg was tracked weekly by a combined effort involving the
         Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Center, Lamont-@Doherty Geological Observatory,
         and New Zealand.     Tracking the berg provided information on
         currents in the Ross Sea (October 1990).

         Dr. Sylvia A. Earle Named NOAA's Chief Scientist. Dr. Sylvia Alice
         Earle, noted marine botanist and biologist, and c6-founder and
         president of Deep Ocean Engineering Inc., of San Leandro, CA, was
         named Chief Scientist of NOAA. Dr. Earle is a world-renowned diver
         and expert on deep-sea operations, and has made major contributions
         to the evolving technology of underwater equipment (October 1990).

         Pollutants in Northwest Sea Mammals Reported. Preliminary tests
         on marine mammals from the Pacific northwest and Alaska have shown
         surprisingly high levels of pollutants in some sea lions. NOAA's
         Northwest Fisheries Science Center has undertaken the study of
         tissues from stranded marine mammals to document the levels of
         contaminants such as PCBs,'DDTs, and metals. What effects, if any,
         these contaminants have on the marine mammals is currently unknown.
         The tissue analysis will be archived in the      newly established
         National Marine Mammal Tissue Bank (October 1990).

                                         F-3









            Estuaries of the United States Report Released.       A special NOAA
            20th anniversary report was released entitled "Estuaries of the
            United States: Vital Statistics of a National Resource Base." The
            report describes briefly the nation's estuarine resource base. It
            updates information presented in a number of previous NOAA reports
            and atlases developed through its National Estuarine Inventory,
            characterizing the nation's estuaries. The report was developed
            by NOAA's Strategic Environmental Assessments Division (October
            1990).

            Evidence of Recent Sea Floor Spreading Documented. Strong evidence
            of newly-formed ocean crust has been located off the Oregon coast
            at the southern end of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Evidence includes
            a string of new volcanic mounds of lava and the occurrence of two
            large plumes of warm, mineral laden water. The evidence points to
            actual sea floor spreading resulting from plate tectonics. Marine
            gelogists and oceanographers at NOAA Is Pacific Marine Environmental
            Laboratory made the discovery. Plans are being made to monitor the
            area in hopes of observing the events as they happen (November
            1990).

            Seasonal Ozone Depletion in Antarctic Atmosphere Increasing. The
            seasonal ozone "hole" over the South Pole appears to be increasing
            based on observations by NOAA's Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics
            Laboratory. Seasonal ozone depletion from August through December
            equaled the previous low set in 1978. The seasonal extent of the
            ozone hole has moved well into December unlike previous seasonal
            losses.    'Depletion of atmospheric ozone has been linked to
            chlorofluorocarbons (November 1990).

            Coastal Contamination Report Released.r A special report,"Coastal
            Environmental Quality in the United States, 1990: Chemical
            Contamination in Sediment and Tissues," was released by NOAA's
            Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment to mark NOAA's 20th
            anniversary. The report, based on six years of results from the
            National Status and Trends Program and other monitoring efforts,
            describes the*spatial extent and severity of chemical contamination
            and changes in concentration of contaminants over the last decade.
            While conclusions are always subject to new information, it appears
            that, on a national scale, high and biologically significant
            concentrations of contaminants measured by the NOAA monitoring
            program are limited primarily to urbanized estuaries.    In addition,
            levels of contaminants have, in general, begun to decrease in
            coastal U.S. waters (November 1990)

            Heard Island Experiment Studies Possible Ocean Warming. NOAA is
            participating in the underwater acoustic transmission experiment
            from Heard Island in the Southern Indian Ocean. organized by Dr.
            Walter Munk of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the study
            emitted pulses of sound for nine days and was monitored by numerous
            stations around the world.         Seven nations, many agencies,

                                             F-4








         institutions, and universities participated in the experiment. The
         experiment will study'the greenhouse- induced changes in acoustic
         travel times which are directly related to changes in global sea
         temperature.    NOAA provided funding, issued permits under the
         Marine Mammal Protection Act, and participated in marine mammal
         observations during the experiment (January 1991).


         NOAA Supports Operation Desert Storm.     In addition to assisting
         with Persian Gulf oil spills and fires, NOAA supported other
         aspects of Operation Desert Storm. NOAA's charting facilities were
         used by the Defense Mapping Agency to produce detailed maps of the
         Persian Gulf area for troops; NOAA's National Environmental
         Satellite, Data, and Information Service made satellite pictures
         of the area available to the major media outlets; and NOAA's
         National Weather-service provided historic weather statistics for
         the theater of war, including average monthly temperature,
         rainfall, and humidity (January 1991).

         NOAA Scientists Assist in Interagency Persian Gulf Oil Spill -and
         Oil Fire Assessment and Cleanup. Personnel from NOAA's Hazardous
         Materials Response 'Branch (HAZMAT) and Air Resources Laboratory
         (ARL) are part of the United States Interagency Gulf Response Team
         that is assessing the environmental damage to the Persian Gulf
         area. NOAA HAZMAT specializes in oil spill monitoring and modeling
         while ARL specializes in air quality monitoring (January 1991).

         Sea Level Data From the Pacific      and Indian Oceans Available.
         NOAA's   National   oceanographic    Data   Center   announced    the
         availability of sea level data from the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
         These data are f rom a network of    island-based and coastal tide
         gauges, many of which have been recording since the mid-1970s. The
         network includes stations from the Indo-Pacific sea level network
         as well as stations operated by many national and foreign agencies
         (February 1991).

         NOAA, USGS to Study Great LakestErosion. A 10-year NOAA and U.S.
         Geological Survey (USGS) study will be conducted to assess erosion,
         sedimentation, and flooding in the Great Lakes basin. The pilot
         study will focus on the Lake Michigan shoreline, northward from the
         Michigan-Indiana border to Brenton Harbor, MI.       This region is
         undergoing severe erosion, is subject to flooding, and lacks modern
         surveys of the nearshore area.      NOAA will collect low-altitude
         aerial photography of the area to determine shoreline location and
         other technical details. USGS will collect seismic data, side-scam
         sonar data, core and bottom samples from nearshore waters, and
         surface and subsurface samples on land (February 1991).

         Navy1NOAA Joint Ice Center Records New Maximum-Minimum Ice Extent.
         Ice edges reached new minimums and maximums in the Northern
         Hemisphere in the week ending February 16, 1991 reported the
         Navy/NOAA Joint Ice center of Suitland, MD. In the North Atlantic

                                          F-5









            ocean, a new maximum ice extent was set reaching 60 miles farther
            south than the record set in April of last year. North of Japan,
            in the Sea of Okhotsk, a minimum ice extent was set, 3,000 square
            miles less than the, record set in February 1976 (February 1991) .


            Inconclusive Signs of Greenhouse Warminq in the Central U.S.
            Climatologists at NOAA's National Climatic Data Center reported
            there is no conclusive signs of greenhouse warming in the central
            United States, and it may take decades to determine the accuracy
            of models Predicting that an enhanced@greenhouse effect will make
            the central U.S. more drought-prone by the year 2030. The results
            of the analysis was published in the journal, Science (February
            1991).

            El Nino/Southern oscillation (ENSO) Advisory Issued.          NOAA's
            Climate Analysis Center issued an ENSO Advisory on February 11,
            1991. The Advisory noted that a weak central Pacific warm episode
            had been in progress during the last year.     However, persistent
            enhanced convection had failed to develop in the central equatorial
            Pacific and the atmospheric circulation features typical of warm
            episodes had not been observed. The depth of the thermocline and
            the upper-ocean heat content continue to be greater than normal in
            the equatorial Pacific (February 1991).

            Exxon Corporation, Federal Trustees Reach Out-Of-Court Settlement
            for Prince William Sound Oil Spill. Federal trustees, led by the
            NOAA Administrator and the General Counsel, and the State of Alaska
            reached a $1 billion out-of-court settlement with Exxon Corporation
            for damage caused by the March 24, 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill in
            Alaska's Prince William Sound. The criminal and civil settlement
            was the largest for environmental damages in U.S. legal history.
           .The plea bargain agreement for the criminal charges was rejected
            by a federal judge in April 1991 and caused the settlement to be
            voided (February 1991).

            Invasion of Great Lakes by Zebra Mussels Studied by NOAA. NOAA's
            Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory initiated a four-year
            study of the zebra mussel, an exotic species currently undergoing
            a population explosion in the Great Lakes region. The NOAA study
            will examine how the mollusk affects the aquatic food chain. The
            University of Michigan will participate in the study through NOAA's
            Sea Grant College Program (February 19,91).

            Automatic Weather Observing System Planned. Advanced, computerized
            weather observing systems will be installed this summer at airports
            in Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, announced NOAA's
            National Weather Service.   The new system, called the Automatic
            Surface Observing System (ASOS), will provide 24-hour weather
            observations at airports that close at night and at new stations.
            Other agencies involved in utilizing the new system along with NOAA
            are the Navy and Federal Aviation Administration. Installation of

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          ASOS nationwide. is part of a long-term modernization of the
          National Weather Service (February 1991).

          Buoy Network Spanning Tropical Pacific Planned for Summer. A two-
          year program to monitor ocean-atmosphere climate variables in the
          equatorial Pacific has been planned by NOAA's Pacific Marine
          Environmental Laboratory and National Ocean service in conjunction
          with Japan and France.   The buoy array will span 8,000 miles in
          length and 1,000 miles in width along the equator.   'Adding to the
          existing array of 18 moored instrument buoys, 65 additional moored
          stations will be installed. The buoys support instruments which
          measure surface wind, air temperature, relative humidity, sea
          surface temperature, subsurface water temperatures' down to 500
          meters, subsurface pressures, and near-surface salinity. The
          project will provide increased forecasting accuracy for ENSO-events
          (March 1991).

          Strategic Plan for Marine Turtle Tumor Research Released.         A
          strategic research plan to investigate a mysterious disease that
          infects green sea turtles in epidemic proportions has been
          developed by NOAA scientists.       The disease, fibropapilloma,
          produces tumors which can grow up to 12 inches in diameter,
          affecting turtle's eyes, mouth, throat and nasal passage, hindering
          breathing, feeding, and restricting movement.      Although first
          documented in the 1920s, it was exceedingly rare until recent
          epidemics in Florida and Hawaii. Scientists from NOAA's National
          Marine Fisheries Service, universities and other federal and state
          agencies met in Honolulu and developed the research plan (March
          1991)

          Volunteer Weather Service Celebrates Centennial.     Volunteers in
          NOAA's National Weather Service Cooperative Observer Program
          celebrated their. 100th anniversary.    The observer program was
          established in 1891 by the U.S. Weather Bureau, forerunner of the
          National Weather service. It uses a network of more than 11,000
          observers and 558 stations around the U.S. to measure temperature,
          precipitation, evaporationj and hydrologic information.          The
          observers generate the main source of data for studying climate and
          are essential for long-term weather records in the United States.
          (March 1991)

          NOAA Steps Up Seafood Inspections.        NOAA's National Marine
          Fisheries service and the Food and Drug Administration announced
          a cooperative pilot program of special seafood inspections of
          seafood processing plants and other places that handle fish to
          check for contamination and other problems.     The new inspection
          program is designed to enhance seafood safety to keep up with the
          increasing consumption of-seafood by Americans (March 1991).

          Regulations Proposed to Protect Sharks from Overf ishing. Increased
          commercial fishing for sharks has endangered some species. NOAA's
          National Marine Fisheries Service is completing a management plan

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            that will set federal fishing quotas for 39 species of sharks.
            Demand for shark meat and shark-f in soup has increased dramatically
            over the last 10 years, in, part due to overf ishing of swordfish and
            other billfish (March 1991).

            Snake River Salmon Tentatively Declared as Endangered Species.
            NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service tentatively listed Snake
            River salmon as protected under the Endangered Species Act (ESA).
            The comment period will last one year before a final decision is
            made on whether to formally list the species under the ESA (April
            1991).


            NOAA Bans Dolphin-Feedihq Cruises.           NOAA's National Marine
            Fisheries Service banned the f eeding of , marine mammals in an ef f ort
            to stop the increasingly popular feeding cruises in which
            passengers toss food to marine mammals, such as bottlenose
            dolphins.   The ban was implemented because f eeding wild animals
            encourages dependency on humans and weakens natural behavior (April
            1991).

            Alaskan Oil Spill Clean-Up Increases Environmental Damacfe. The use
            of hot water under high pressure to remove oil from Alaska's
            beaches after the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill may have done more
            environmental harm than good and should be avoided in the future,
            according to a NOAA study.       Oiled, but untreated, beaches had
            richer and more varied marine life than treated beaches and were
            similar in most instances to     sites where no oil had come ashore
            (April 1991).

            Methanp= Gas in Atmosphere        Found to Have Loncfer Lifetime.
            Scientists at NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory released findings that
            suggest methane's contribution    to the greenhouse.effect is larger
            than previously thought. New calculations show that methane stays
            in the atmosphere approximately 25 percent longer than originally
            believed, about 12.5 years instead of about 10 years. The results
            were published in the journal, Nature.       Methane is an important
            greenhouse gas as its relative contribution to the greenhouse
            effect is second only to carbon dioxide (April 1991).

            U.S. Judge Relects Exxon Oil Spill Fine as Inadeguate.           A U.S.
            District Court judge in Alaska last week rejected the $100 million
            criminal fine negotiated between the federal government and Exxon
            Corporation over the Exxon Valdez oil spill throwing the entire $1
            billion settlement into doubt.      Five federal agencies, including
            NOAA, are charged under federal law with protecting the country's
            natural resources and had announced the settlement in February.
            The $100 million criminal fine was part of a total $1 billion
            settlement. It included $900 million to the trustees, as well as
            the State of Alaska, for several purposes: a science program;
            restoration planning and pilot projects; reimbursement for most of
            the trustees, including NOAA, for past expenses; and restoration

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          efforts aimed at returning Prince William Sound to its pre-spill
          condition (April 1991).

          NOAA Establishes New Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The
          nation's newest and largest marine sanctuary,. the Florida Keys
          National Marine Sanctuary, was established in the Florida Keys by
          NOAA's Sanctuaries and Reserves Division.    The sanctuary covers
          2,600 square nautical miles of tropical coral reefs, algal reefs,
          sea grass beds, and archeological sites (April 1991).

          Soot Detected over Hawaii by NOAA Observatory May Be from Kuwait.
          Air samples taken at NOAA's mountaintop Mauna Loa Observatory in
          Hawaii contained small amounts of soot particles which could have
          been from the oil fires in Kuwait.    Highly absorptive particles
          presumed to be carbon were found in normally clean tropospheric air
          samples routinely taken, at the observatory,.  The observatory is
          operated by NOAA's Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory
          in Boulder, CO (May 1991).

          CFC and Halon - Substitutes Evaluated by NOAA Research Team.
          Chemicals intended to replace ozone-destroying chlorofluorocprbons
          (CFCs) and halons have drawn mixed reviews from researchers at
          NOAA's Aeronomy Laboratory.    Replacement chemical hydrochloro-
          fluorocarbon (HCFC-141b) has an ozone-depletion potential about 50
          percent larger than previously believed due to a miscalculation of
          its atmospheric lifetime. Recent calculations place its lifetime
          at about two-thirds greater than the previous estimate of eight
          years, a lifetime similar to presently-used CFCs.           Another
          chemical, FM-100, a halon replacement, only lingers in the
          atmosphere 7 to. 8 years compared to the 80 years for halogens
          making it a better substitute (May 1991).,

          Global Precipitation Declines in 1980s. Yearly precipitation over
          land areas declined in the 1980s following a three-decade period
          of increase, a comprehensive set of NOAA rain and snowfall records
          revealed. Preliminary analysis of information collected from 5,328
          stations around the world indicates a period of predominantly dry
          conditions existed from the late 1800s to about 1950, followed by
          about 30 years of wetter conditions. The peak precipitation during
          this 30-year period was experienced around 1955 and again
          predominatly in the mid-1970s.     A return to drier conditions
          occurred by the mid-1980s. The analysis was performed by NOAA's
          Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (May 1991).

          Weather/Climate Satellite Launched into Polar Orbit Is a Success.
          NASA and NOAA launched NOAA-12, a new polar-orbiting operational
          environmental satellite which will gather weather and climate data
          from 450 miles above the Earth.       Successfully launched from
          Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA, the satellite is the latest -of
          NOAA's weather satellites. NOAA-12 will collect and transmit data
          automatically to ground stations in 122 countries. NOAA-121s data
          will help scientists to continue studying a variety of critical

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            environmental issues including ozone depletion, acid rain, ocean
            pollution, and climate change.       NASA managed the spacecraft
            production and launch for NOAA (May 1991).

            Shellfish Contaminated by Red Tide.        NOAA's National Marine
            Fisheries Service and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued
            a warning to local fishermen not to eat shellfish from the Georges
            Bank. The bivalves, which can accumulate high levels of the toxin
            that causes paralytic shellfish poisoning, may in some cases be
            fatal (May 1991).

            Solar Flares Cause Severe Geomagnetic Storm. Solar flares caused
            the most intense geomagnetic storm since 1989 to strike the Earth,
            threatening electrical power distribution, satellite operations
            and communication systems.     NOAA's Space Environment Services
            Center in Boulder, CO, reported the storm, which began June 4,
            increased in intensity overnight, and was rated "severe" by the
            next day. Fewer than five percent of geomagnetic storms reach that
            strength.  The solar event'resulted in the aurora borealis being
            visible as far south as the latitude of New York City.
            Interference with high-frequency radio transmission was spotty,
            with some areas of the U.S. and Canada experiencing fading of
            transmissions while other areas saw intensification (June 1991).

            Tornadoes Reach Record Numbers. The number of tornadoes reported
            as of June 1991 have set a record for this time of year, according
            to NOAA's National Severe Storms Forecast Center in Kansas city,
            MO.  More then 1033 tornadoes had been reported as of June 10
            compared with 841 for the same period last year.      The report of
            1,132 tornadoes in 1990 in the lower 48 states beat a record last
            set in 1973 (June 1991).

            NOAA Reports Effects of Drift-Net Fishlnq. NOAA's National Marine
            Fisheries service reported that Japanese drift-net fisheries killed
            millions of fish last year in the north Pacific, including more
            than 9,000 salmon, over 30,,000 thousand sea birds, over 250,000
            tuna, almost 82,000 sharks, and nearly 2,000 marine mammals, and
            35 sea turtles.   More than 3 million other non-target fish were
            also killed.    The report covered bycatch kills documented by
            scientific observers aboard only 10 percent of Japan's fishing
            vessels. The drift-net fishery was described as "indiscriminately
            lethal" (June 1991).

            NOAA Monitors Effect of Volcano Eruption on Global Climate. The
            eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, perhaps the largest
            volcanic eruption this century, may have significant effects on
            global climate according to NOAA researchers. The stratospheric
            plume, in addition to perhaps depressing global temperatures, could
            alter stratospheric ozone chemistry reported scientists at NOAA's
            Aeronomy Laboratory.   NOAA weather satellites were used to track
            the stratospheric aerosol plume around the Earth (June 1991).


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          Atmospheric Carbon.Monoxide Estimates May be Inaccurate. NOAA's
          Climate Monitoring and Diagnostic Laboratory reported that a
          widely-used carbon monoxide reference gas was found to vary in
          comparison tests by almost 25 percent.             Because of this,
          atmospheric scientists using computer projections to model global
          climate changes may be underestimating the amount of carbon
          monoxide in the atmosphere by as much as 25 percent. The results
          were reported in the Journal of Geophysical Research.            Carbon
          monoxide, unlike carbon dioxide, is not a significant greenhouse
          gas, but is associated with important chemical interactions
          involved in the greenhouse effect (June 1991).

          Atlantic Swordfish Protection Proposed.       NOAA's National Marine
          Fisheries Service announced emergency regulations to protect and
          restore the declining Atlantic swordfish population. The plan will
          allow fisherman to catch three million pounds of swordfish during
          each of two six-month periods.        The quotas are based on 1990
          recommendations    by   the   International     Commission    for    the
          Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (June 1991).


          NOAA Coordinates Interagency Project on Past Climates.           NOAA's
          National Geophysical Data Center is coordinating an interagency
          project to study 500 years of climatic data to document effects of
          two key historical climatic cooling events: very low sunspot
          activity from 1680 to 1715 and the eruption of Tambora volcano in
          1815.  Among the records to be checked are tree rings, lake and
          marine sediments, corals and glacial ice cores. Computer models
          will be run to determine the cause of the 400-year period (1450 to
          1890) of global cooling called the "little ice age" (June 1991)

          El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Advisory Issued. The latest
          ENSO Advisory from NOAA's Climate Analysis Center showed that
          during the last several months, the trend in sea surface
          temperature (SST) in the equatorial Pacific from 1600E eastward to
          1600W, has been indicating the development of a warm episode.
          However, enhanced persistent atmospheric convection has not yet
          become established in the central equatorial Pacific.           As the
          Northern Hemisphere warm season comes to a close, * tropical
          convection will begin shifting toward the equator (August 1991).

          New National Marine Sanctuaries Progress Toward Reality.             The
          nation's two newest National Marine Sanctuaries (NMS) moved closer
          to designation with the release of environmental impact statements
          (EIS) . A draft EIS was released for public comment for the Olympic
          Coast NMS and a management plan and final EIS was released for
          comment for the Flower Gardens NMS. The Olympic Coast NMS covers
          3,400 square miles off the scenic coast of Washington. The Flower
          Gardens NMS, located about 115 miles southeast of Galveston, Texas,
          protects the northernmost coral reefs in the Gulf of Mexico (August
          1991).



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            NOAA Leases European weather Satellite to Assure Forecasting
            Capability.   NOAA, the European Space Agency, and the European
            Meteorological Satellite Consortium agreed to the use of the
            European Merosat-3 meteorological satellite to back up U.S. weather
            forecasting capabilities. The agreement will allow NOAA's National
            Weather Service to provide continuous monitoring of weather from
            space in case the aging U.S. GOES-7 weather satellite reaches the
            end of its scheduled lifetime early in 1992. The first replacement
            for the U.S. GOES satellites will not be available until late 1993
            or early 1994 (September 1991).

            New Exxon Va ldez Settlement Approved. A federal judge approved a
            new plea bargain agrement for the 1989 oil spill in Prince William
            Sound, Alaska.    The penalties, higher than those rejected in an
            April 1991 ruling, are the highest ever assessed in the U.S. for
            environmental damages.      A portion of the penalties will be
            allocated to NOAA for funding damage assessment and habitat
            restoration projects (October 1991).

            NOAA Lawsuit Provides For Environmental Improvements. A lawsuit
            filed by NOAA provides for the cleanup of Elliott Bay and parts of
            the Duwamish River in Puget Sound, Seattle, Washington.          The
            cleanup calls for capping or removing metals and oil products that
            have built up over decades in nearshore waters to levels poisonous
            to fish and shellfish and for restoring fish habitat.            The
            settlement involves federal, Washington State, native-American
            tribes, and local governments. The settlement is the largest ever
            for a marine contamination case, excluding oil spills. NOAA has
            responsibility to recover. natural resource damages under the
            Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act
            (October 1991).                                                  1

            Future North America Vegetation Changes Predicted by NOAA.       The
            next two centuries may produce unprecedented vegetation changes in
            the Northern Hemisphere if projected future climate warming occurs.
            Some plant ranges could shift as much as 500-1000 km during the
            next 200 to 500 years and could have dramatic impacts on forest and
            other ecosystems. The climate-pollen analysis model was published
            in the journal, Science, by scientists. from NOAA's National
            Geophysical Data Center (November 1991).

            Snake River Sockeye Salmon Designated an Endangered Species. The
            National Marine Fisheries Service of NOAA formally designated the
            Snake River sockeye salmon as an endangered species.             The
            designation initiates a federal program to restore the species
            population (November 1991).

            Gray Whale Population Recovers.        The California gray whale
            population has recovered to numbers at least as many as, or more
            than, existed prior to the peak of commercial whaling in the mid-
            nineteenth century.     The findings were announced by Dr. John
            Knauss, Administrator of NOAA. California gray whale numbers have

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         been growing at about 3 percent annually and are now estimated at
         about 21'000 individuals. NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service
         monitors the abundance of California gray whales under the
         Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act (November
         1991).






















































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