[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
PREPARING FOR HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING: A Handbook for Local Officials FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY and OFFICE OF OCEAN AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, NOAA TC 223 P74 1983 RALPH M. FIELD ASSOCIATES, Inc. 7- 68 Church Lane, Westport, Connecticut 06880 (203) 226-3785/227-7979 August 29, 1983 Ms. Delores Clark Coordinator, CZIE Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource management NOAA 3300 Whitehaven Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20235 Dear Ms. Clark: The attached publication was just publised by FEMA. We had prepared the docu- ment some time earlier under a contract with OCZM but funds were not available through NOAA to publish it. Aftek some modification FEMA agreed to bear the publication costs. I am passing it along for your review. You might want to include it in the next issue of the CZM INFORMATION EXCHANGE. Copies may be obtained from FEMA Headquarters or through FEMA Regional Offices. If you wish any additional information, please feel free to call. Sincerely yours, Ralph M. Field RMF:mj Enclosure PREPARING FOR HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING: A Handbook for Local Officials FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGE NCY and OFFICE 0F OCEAN AND COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, NOAA Prepared By: RALPH M. FIELD ASSOCIATES, INC. Westport, Connecticut March 1983 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Nature of Coastal Hazards Property damages that can be expected from hurricanes and coastal flooding are increasing year by year. In many places threat to life is increasing also. Most coastal communities are vulnerable to one or more different kinds of flooding and related hazards: frequent flooding from storm tides, inadequate storm drainage, or overflow of coastal streams � hurricane storm surge and winds, particularly if the community is located on the Gulf or Atlantic coast � storm-caused erosion of bluffs and beaches This Handbook for Local Officials focuses on two of the most common of these coastal hazards: tidal flooding and hurricanes.. The Handbook also focuses on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, although much of the material on coastal flooding is justas relevant to the Pacific coast. Deciding__How to Prepare For Hurricanes and Coastal Flooding There are many measures that a community can take to help reduce damages from hurricanes and coastal flooding. Before deciding which measures are appropriate to your situation, it is essential to be aware of the nature of the problem in your community, along with the responses already undertaken and their ef- fectiveness. A community can draw on many Isources of information to obtain this information -- including local, state, and federal agencies, as well as private individuals and groups. Chapter I of the Handbook,explains how to go about this task of information gathering and evaluation.' Techniques for'Responding to Coastal Hazards A wide range of techniques can be used to respond to your community's coastal hazards: Keeping new development.from hazardous areas, through regulations, acquisition of undeveloped areas, or persuasion. Promoting safe construction.of development that does occur in hazardous areas, through regulations or by providing technical or financial assistance. � Protecting natural systems, through regulations, beach nourishment, dune vegetation and maintenance, and protective structures such as groins and breakwaters. o Protecting development from coastal flooding with structures such as seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments. � Helping people leave risky areas before storms arrive through fore- casting, warnings, and evacuation planning along with programs to increase public awareness of these systems and plans. � Acquiring developed hazardous areas and relocating hurricane and flood victims to safer areas. � Planning before disasters for popt-disaster recovery actions that will reduce future losses. Each of these types of response is discussed separateZy'in Chapters 2 through 8. Considerations in Deciding Which Techniques to Use Many factors need tobe considered in deciding which of these many techniques are most suitable for your community. Most communitieswill choose to use several of these measures in combination for greater effectiveness. Consider- ations to keep in mind when evaluating these measures include: o Federal and state requirements, such as regulations.of the National Flood Insurance Program, comprehensive state plans, model codes or ordinances., permit requirements, etc. * Benefits, beginning with reduced threat to life and property, but in- cluding as well enhan ced recreational and tourism opportunities, im- proved wildlife habitat, and support for on-going local planning efforts. � The degree of risk, or how vulnerable your community is to a particular hazard. � The effectiveness of a particular technique for limiting damage from hazard; for example, the capability of a protective structure to withstand hurricane forces. � Costs of developing and implementing techniques. e Public and political acceptability. � Current level of awareness of the hazard. � Legal limitations. � Tax impacts. � Availability of technical or financial assistance from state, federal and private sources. � Availability of data needed to implement a response. � Administrative enforcement and maintenance capabilities. � Availability, or suitability, of alternatives. � Impacts on natural coastal features and adjacent properties. The importance of each of these factors varies considerably, depending on the techniques that are most appropriate to your community's circumstances. Chapters 2 through 8 describe, in some detail, which factors are most relevant to each technqiue you may consider. Assistance for Responding to Coastal Hazards Many communities will need financial or technical help in developing an approach for respondingto coastal hazards. Assistance may be avaiiable from the state government or from federal agencies, or in limited cases from private sources. However, the availability of assistance varies a great deal from state to state, and the availability of federal aid is constantly shifting as federal budgetary priorities are revised. Chapter 9 describes some selected assis- tance programs which have been used by communities in the past. Contents Page INTRODUCTION THE FREQUENT FLOODING PROBLEM HURRICANE WIND AND STORM SURGE PROBLEMS PREPARING FOR FLOODS AND HURRICANES: HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK vi SCOPE OF THE HANDBOOK vi PART 1: STEPS TO PREPARE FOR HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING PROBLEMS CHAPTER 1 GATHERING INFORMATION AND EVALUATING OPTIONS 2 STEP 1: GATHERING INFORMATION ON COASTAL FLOODING AND HURRICANE PROBLEMS 2 STEP 2: GATHERING INFORMATION ON ACTIONS ALREADY TAKEN 7 STEP 3: MEASURING YOUR COMMUNITY'S RESPONSE AGAINST ITS HURRICANE 11 AND FLOODING PROBLEMS STEP 4: DETAILED EVALUATION OF LOCAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR ACTION 12 PART II: WAYS'TO REDUCE DAMAGE FROM HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING CHAPTER 2 KEEPING NEW DEVELOPMENT FROM HAZARDOUS AREAS 15 REGULATIONS 16 ACQUISITION 21 PERSUASION OR ENCOURAGEMENT 26 CHAPTER 3 PROMOTING SAFE CONSTRUCTION IN HAZARDOUS AREAS 29 REGULATIONS 30 TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE 41 CHAPTER 4 PROTECTING NATURAL SYSTEMS 46 REGULATIONS 47 BEACH NOURISHMENT 51 DUNE VEGETATION AND MAINTENANCE 53 PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES 56 Page CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURES TO PROTECT AGAINST COASTAL FLOODING 61 CHAPTER 6 FORECASTING) WARNINGS AND EVACUATION PLANNING 70 FORECASTS AND WARNINGS 71 EVACUATION PLANNING 74 PUBLIC AWARENESS 81 CHAPTER 7 RELOCATING HURRICANE AND FLOOD VICTIMS: 86 ACQUISITION OF DEVELOPED AREAS'. i CHAPTER 8 PRE-DISA8TER PLANNING FOR POST-DISASTER ACTION 94 PART III: SOURCES OF ASSI.STANCE CHAPTER 9 TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL AID FOR RESPONDING 101 TO HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING REGULATIONS 102 ACQUISITION 103 FORECASTING',,WARNINGSIT AND EVACUATION PLANNING 106 PRE- AND POST-DISASTER PLANNING 108 STRUCTURAL MEASURES 109 APPENDICES APPENDIX A - STATE AND FEDERAL INFORMATION CONTACTS 112 APPENDIX B - GENERAL SOURCES'OF INFORMATION ON-FLOODPLAIN 132 f- MANAGEMENT) STORMWATER MANAGEMENT, AND COASTAL EROSION FOREWORD AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Begun in 1981, this Handbook went through several revisions in response to rapidly evolving changes in Federal and State programs in the field of hazards management. Hence, many individuals contributed to the prepa- ration of this Handbook including numerous local officials throughout the country who provided the information needed for the case examples cited in the Handbook. We are particularly grateful to Dr. Gene Zeizel of FEMA's Office of Natural and Technological Hazards for his careful reading and suggested improvements. Dick Rigby, formerly with OCZM, provided guidance and support to this effort, as did Dennis Carroll of NOAA's Coastal Hazard's office. Representatives of State and Federal agencies and non-profit organizations reviewed earlier drafts and provided much valuable guidance.- The following individuals deserve special mention in this respect: Bob Carnahan and Walter Anderson, National Weather Service; Dr. Sue Halsey, New Jersey Bureau of Coastal Planning & Development; Mary C. Holliman, National Sea Grant Program; Roy Popkin, American Red Cross; and Stephanie Schlesser, Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council. Staff of RMFA who contributed to preparation of the Handbook are: Stuart Braman, Project Manager; Julie Troy, Teresa Belmonte, Annette Saksa, and Jack Noble. RalphOM. Field Westport, Connecticut INTRODUCTION Hurricanes and coastal flooding are far more serious problems than many people like to admit. Nationally, computer models indicate that annual damage from hurricane wind and storm surge will increase by over $3 billion, to approximately $5 billion in the year 2000. At the local level, hundreds of communities face the risk of hurricanes each year and many cope far more frequently with lesser coastal flooding. This'-hafidbook is. designed to help communities prepare for these common coastal hazards. THE FREQUENT FLOODING PROBLEM Many coastal areas flood frequently from wind-driven storm tides, from rain- induced flooding of coastal streams, and from inadequate storm drainage. Certain types of shorelines or bays are more likely to be flooded than others. Coasts that are only a few feet above sea level, for example, and which may also be near river mouths, are especially susceptible to both salt water and fresh water flooding. Though the dollar amount of damages from any single low-level flooding event may be small, frequent low-level flooding can result in a continual drain on municipal resources. Traffic disruption due to flooding can also have a major impact on the quality of community life, even though it may be difficult to put a dollar value on the disruption. Finally, even low-level flooding may cause health and safety problems for people living close@,to the water's edge. A number of techniques are available to help communities keep damage and dis- ruption from frequent flooding to a minimum. Some of these techniques can help your community prepare for hurricane wind and storm surge as well. HURRICANE WIND AND STORM SURGE PROBLEMS If your community is on the Gulf or Atlantic coast, there is some probability that a catastrophic hurricane will strike it; in many towns the probability is quite high. Figure 1 gives the historical frequency of hurricanes on these coasts; figure 2 provides some indication of the vulnerability'of specific coastal areas to a life threatening hurricane. (Although hurricanes do strike the Pacific coast on rare occasions t@e last in 1939 the risk of hurricanes is much less than on the Atlantic or Gulf coasts.) FIGURE-1 -HISTORICAL FREQUENCY OF HURRICANES: 1900-1980 Area Total Hurricanes Average Frequency Florida 52 every 1 1/2 years Texas 32 2 1/2 Louisiana 20 4 New England 20 4 North Carolina 19 4 Georgia-South Carolina 15 5 Alabama-Mississippi 13 6 New York 7 11 V i rg i n i a-Mary I and.- 5 16 Delaware-New Jersey The kinds of impacts a hurricane or other severe coastal storm will have on your community, when it comes, depend on a host of factors, some of which you have no control over the direction the hurricane comes from, the general configuration of the shoreline, wind speed, and so on. The damage caused by hurricanes comes from many sources, including: - direct wind forces in excess of design criteria - flying debris, consisting of loose objects, failed construction material, and temporary structures in the vicinity, including unsecured construction material at building sites iv FIGURE 2: HURRICANE PROBABILITY ON THE EAST AND GULF COASTS '-V 5 5 5 5 5 5 54 54 53 .52 .0 3 149 0-48 N 47 4 bi 45 44 43 CO 432 4 41 041 14) CV 40 40 39 10 38 38 V) 10 CV 37 * ; Go 36 3 35 rV 3 3 3 L- 13, 17 19 id 1 16 20 3 2 N 7 0 1 2 31 31 %n 5 14 15 16 17 21 3 9 10 11 1 22 30 co Ln 3 0 8 9 6 13 14 7 6 23 29 29 W) q 1 19 2 6 20 4 28 2 2 4 1 21 2 r2 7 a 22--- 2 5 6 232 25 4 ALL HURRICANES 1 4 5 13 -\13 10) 3 2 AT HURRICANES G R E@ 2 A Ck 9cr This map i llustrates hurricane probabi.lity for the U,S, East and Gulf Coasts. The interior column shows the probability, by percentage, of a hurricane striki'ng in any given year. The exterior @olumn gives the probability (also by percentage).that a great hurricane will occur in any given year. Winds exceeding 73 mph constitute a hurricane and winds in excess of 125 mph compose a great hurricane. (After Simpson and Lawrence, 1971) V - penetration of wind driven, salt-laden water into the interior of the structure - direct attack by high ocean waves and/or storm surges generated by the hurricane - tornadoes spawned by hurricanes. There are things you can do to reduce the impact of these natural hazards on your community, however, and in many cases to dramatically reduce the death toll from a major hurricane. PREPARING FOR FLOODS AND HURRICANES: HOW TO USE THIS HANDBOOK This handbook is designed to help communities choose a course of action to reduce damages from hurricanes and coastal flooding. Part I of this handbook provides an overview of the initial steps required to identify the actions your community could take to prepare for hurricanes and coastal floods, with particular attention to the information collection process. Part II of the handbook focuses on evaluating opportunities for action. It describes basic measures to consider in preparing for coastal flooding, many of which will also be helpful in preparing for hurricanes. And it describes additional measures to consider in preparing specifically for hurricanes. Numerous examples of how communities (or states, in some cases) have used these types of measures are highlighted in "boxes" throughout the text. In deciding whether to proceed with additional measures to respond to your community's coastal hazards, you may need to consider the assistance available to pursue particular options. Part III of the handbook describes some federal and state programs and activities that have h6lped communities in the past to At' manage their coastal hazard problems. The appendices provide additional information on useful information contacts. V1 SCOPE OF THE HANDBOOK only the most common coastal hazards are addressed by the handbook -- hurricanes and tidal coastal flooding. Non-tidal coastal flooding -- from coastal streams and inadequate storm drainage -- can be an important problem for many coastal communities, but the ways to reduce the damage caused by non-tidal coastal flooding are largely the same as they would be for inland communities. Ac- cordingly, general guidance on floodplain management and stormwater management is not contained in the body of this handbook. Useful references to these subjects are contained in Appendix B. Problems caused by coastal erosion are most often impossible to separate from tidal flooding problems. As a result, some measures affecting erosion are discussed in the handbook. These measures are treated from a flood damage reduction perspective, however, and the treatment of erosion is accordingly not complete. Additional references on erosion control are also provided in Appendix B. Finally, the handbook focuses on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. vii PART 1: STEPS TO PREPARE FOR HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING PROBLEMS Part I of the handbook provides an overview of the steps required to identify actions your community could take to prepare for hur- ricanes and coastal floods, with particular attention to informa- tion collection. Part I consists of the foltowing chapter: CHAPTER I GATHERING INFORMATION AND EVALUATING OPTIONS* CHAPTER 1 GATHERING INFORMATION AND EVALUATING OPTIONS Four steps are needed to identify ways to help a community prepare for hurricanes and coastal flooding. Two information gathering steps are necessary at the outset: (1) Collect information on local coastal fiooding and hurricane problems. (2) Collect information on actions already.being taken to address the problems, as well as on the people and government agencies taking those actions. As a practical matter, you can.hardly compile information on either of these subjects without learning about the other. Once this information is gathered, two additional steps are neces- sary: (3) Evaluate current responses: do they adequately address the problem? (4) Where present actions fall short in any way, evaluate local options for further action. Depending on the particular situation, the evaluation steps may be very sophisticated or very informal. STEP 1: GATHERING INFORMATION ON COASTAL FLOODING AND HURRICANE PROBLEMS In deciding how to prepare for coastal flooding and hurricanes, and to con- vince the community that preparations are worthwhile, you need a good des- cription of the problem: a Kinds of hazard problems. Hazard problems of many kinds may affect coastal communities: hurricane wind qnd storm surge, frequent flooding from low-level storm surge and from coastal streams, and coastal erosion are the most common. Different kinds of coastal hazard problems require different kinds of solutions. Part II of the Handbook describes, in some detail, a range of actions communities can take for two different kinds of problems: frequent tidal flooding and hurricanes. � Locations of problems. Your community's hazard problems may vary consid- erably from place to place. While one portion of the local shoreline may be especially exposed to high winds and storm surge, another area may be protected by its particular configuration from all but the worst storms. Still another area may be subject to a combination of tidal and riverine flooding. It is important to know exactly where problem areas are within the community. � Seriousness of problems. Some problems are serious enough to require immediate attention; of-hers may.not be worth the effort,of-responding. There are a number of ways to measure the seriousness of hurricane and flooding"problems. They may be serious because of how frequently they cause-problems or because of the'magnitude of the damagd they cause, even thoughyears may go by between storms. Or, problems may be seri- ous enough to warrant attention simply because they cause frequent disruption even though the damage is not-great. It is important to determine how serious-y6ur town's problems are. In some communities, particularly those subject to frequent flooding and those recently hit by a hurricane, much of this information will be common knowledge. To evaluate possible future actions, however, you will need detailed informa- tion. Likely Sources of Information Although knowledgeable officials and local residents will probably be the only source of some needed information, you can save their time (and ask them bet- ter questions when you talk with them) by obtaining some basic material first, from a variety of sources, specifically: 4 - (1) National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) Your community may participate in the National Flood Insurance Program. Chances are very great that it does (approximately 1,800 coastal commu- nities were participating in 19bl). If it does, the following informa-@ tion should be available from the local engineer, building inspector, or city clerk. - Flood Hazard Boundary map (FHBM): This is a map showing the approximate boundaries of the area in your community that is subject to flood damage. It is a preliminary.document and should be considered a rough guide to the location of flooding problems. This map provides no information, however, on the relative severity'-of the flobding problem. - Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM): This is a more precise map, based, in most cases, on detailed engineering studies. Offi- cially, this map is used as the basis for determining flood insurance rates. It gives not only the location of potential flood problems but some indication of their frequency and an- ticipated flood heights. THE NATIONAL FLOOD INSURANCE PROGRAM The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) was created in 1968 for two purposes: - to make flood insurance available to property owners (residences and businesses) already located in floodprone areas, and - to encourage state and local governments to make appropriate land use adjustments to reduce development of land exposed to flood damage and to minimize damages caused by floods. At the federal level, the NFIP is administered by the Federal Insur- ance Administration (FIA) of the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Ten regional offices are responsible for working with communities, and each state has designated a flood insurance coordinator to assist communities participating in the program. (See Appendix A.) At the local level, eac h participating community has designated an individual responsible for program information and a location in the community where information related to the program is collected. 5 Copies of NFIP maps can be obtained free of charge by calling this toll-free number: 800-638-6620 or, in some states, by calling your state flood insurance coordinator (see Appendix A). (2) Local planning and engineering data Municipal planning and engineering departments can be consulted to see if they have studied your community's flood or hurricane problems. The planning department may have prepared general studies, for example, to provide a basis for floodplain regulations, or they may have obtained relevant studies prepared by county, regional,'-state or federal agencies. The town engineer may have conducted an analysis of flooding problems in connection with specific proposals for coastal construction. In many cases, however, neither the community planner nor the engineer will have relevant studies on coastal hazards, and you will hav e to rely on regional, state, and federal agencies. Your community's planner or engineer may be able to provide the name of someone to contact at the county, regional, or state level. (3) County and regional agencies At the county level, planning and public works departments can be con- tacted to see if they have prepared or are aware of any relevant reports on,coastal hazards. In some states, a regional planning agency may have conducted studies that would help identify the nature and extent of your community's coastal flooding and hurricane problems. In New York, the Westchester County Department of Planning under- took a study of the county's floodprone areas. On the basis of soils maps and interviews with local engineers, the.agency identi- fied the locations of a number of specific flooding problems in each community, along with a general evaluation of the seriousness of each community's problems. The report went on to identify the regulations related to flooding in each community. As this example implies, while collecting information on the extent of the coastal hazards problem, you are likely to come across information 6 needed for Step 2: Finding out what's being done about flooding, and who does it. County and regional officials can provide information on who they deal with at the state level on flood and hurricane related problems. (4) State agencies* At the state level, two important contact points are the state coastal zone management agency and the state flood insurance coordinator. Tele- phone numbers for these offices are provided in Appendix A. If your state does not have an agency devoted specifically to coastal area planning, the natural resources or environmental protection agency may be helpful. In Puerto Rico, the Department of Natural Resources has prepared a nump, er of reports on hurricane and coastal flooding problems. One of'the repbrts provides a general overview of the island's coastal hazard problems. Other,site-specific reports have been prepared for areas hit especially hard by recent hurricanes. (5) Federal agencies* The Corps of Engineers provides planning and technical assistance to local communities through its Floodplain Management Services. Starting in 1960, the Corps began preparing a series of Floodplain Information Reports, which evaluated the local flood hazard for communities that requested such assistance. At times they have also prepared special studies at the request of state or local governments.. In 1976 the Corps prepared a report for the state of Connecticut I on the likely severity of damage to coastal communities from storm surge associated with hurricanes. Appendix A provides telephone numbers for the Corps of Engineers Flood- plain Management Services offices serving your area. *Other types of assistance from state and federal agencies are discussed in Chapter 9. - 7 - The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has a program to map histori- cal floods. Information on the availability of these maps can be ob- tained from the USGS District Office in your state. (See Appendix A.) The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) provides historic severe weather data and has prepared evacuation maps and con- ducted storm surge modeling for some coastal areas. information can be obtained from NOAA's Coastal Hazards Program office. (6) other official and unofficial local sources Finally, a variety of other people living and working on the coast will have information on how serious a problem flooding has been in the past. operators of marinas, coastal residents, builders and construction com- panies that have worked along the shore, members of local chapters of the Audubon Society and the Sierra Club,, for example, or local land trusts are all possible sources of information on local hurricane and flooding problems. Offices of the Red Cross, too, may have files on past storms in your area. STEP 2: GATHERING INFORMATION ON ACTIONS ALREADY TAKEN In addition to information on the nature, location, and extent of your commu- nity's flooding and hurricane problems, you need to collect information on ongoing hazard-related activities, as well as on what has been done in the past and who is responsible. In each case, plans for future action will be as important as the actions already taken. Four different kinds of hazard-related projects and programs should be investi- gated: regulations, warning systems and evacuation plans, coastal protection structures, and plans prepared to guide actions following a disaster. In addition, any plans your community has for managing its coastal areas should be located, even though on the surface they may seem to be unrelated to hazards. For each category of action, possible contacts are suggested on the following pages. Regulations Many different kinds of regulations may have an impact on your community's coastal hazard areas, including: - Goastal flood hazard area permit regulations - clune protection ordinances - zoning regulations with special provision for coastal areas - subdivision regulations with special provision for coastal hazard areas - beach traffic restrictions - building codes Some of these regulations affect coastal construction; others affect a range of coastal activities. You need to determine what'regulations your community has adopted that affect coastal areas, the specifics of these regulations, and whether or not the regulations are consistently enforced. If your com- munity is in the National Flood Insurance Program, it must have some sort of regulation governing coastal construction; this may be a separate coastal hazard area permit ordinance, or it may be a section in an already existing zoning ordinance, subdivision regulation, or building code. The building inspector, the local or regional planner, or the city clerk may be able to provide information about the existence of coastal hazard regula- tions. The parks department or the police department may be good contacts for regulations governing activities prohibited on beaches and dunes. A source of information on the full range of permits required for coastal construction could be someone in the community with development experience. In a number of places, the state regulates construction in coastal areas, in addition to any local regulations which might apply. Florida has established a Coastal Construction Setback Line, sea- ward of which-all construction mVst be approved by the state. The line is set on a county-by-county basis, taking the specific geographical characteristics of each county Into acLount. When a local property owner applies for a building.permit, the build- ing Inspector sends the application to the state Bureau of Beaches and Shores when the property is located in the regulated area. To find out whether state regulations apply in your area, the local building inspector may be helpful; it will be his job to determine whether a state law or regulation is triggered by coastal development proposals. Chapters 2 to 4 contain additional information which may be of assistance in determining what to ask about the regulations you find. Warnings and Evacuation Planning Civil defense or disaster preparedness officials at all levels of government are sources of information on local warning systems and evacuation plans. Someone in your community may be designated as a civil defense or disaster preparedness director, and this person should be contacted for information on local preparedness plans and procedures. The police and fire chiefs are other possible contacts. Once it has been determined whether your community has a plan, it is impor- tant to examine it. The plan may be a formal one, or it may be quite brief and cover only a few of the possible topics. The evacuation plan for the Town of Topsail Beach, North Carolina, consists of a list of 11 items assigning responsibilities for ordering evacuation and notifying.residents. A relocation center is designated and coordination between Topsail Beach and the .neighboring town needing to use the same evacuation route is required. However, many details about who will do what remain unspecified. If your town has no formal plan as such, speaking to local officials about how they would respond to a hurricane would be useful in establishing your commu- nity's needs for a formal plan. States assign responsibilities for disaster preparedness and civil defense in various ways. In many places, counties or groups of counties have an impor- tant role to play; the county civil defense unit should be contacted to determine the situation in your area. The state also plays a role in dis- aster preparedness planning; for example, many states have prepared model plans that can be used as a guide to the preparation of local evacua- tion plans. The Georgia Civil Defense Agency has prepared a Natural Disasters Operation Plan, including a Coastal Georgia Hurricane Evacuation Plan. This plan is intended to be a gbide to local. governments, and consists of five elements: The Basic Plan, Operations, Evacuation, Re-entry and Cleanup,.Disaster Assistance-Program. 10 Coastal Protection Structures: Seawalls, Bulkheads, Revetments, Groins, Jetties, and Offshore Breakwaters much of the nation's coast is privately owned. Since a community can cohsider building coastal protection structures only where it owns coastal property, you will need to know which property along your coast is publicly owned. The town planner or tax assessor can provide information on public land ownership. A field visit to identify exisLng structures in the area is a good first step. Pictures of shore protection structures in Chapter 5 may be helpful if you are not already familiar with these structures. Other sources of information on local coastal protection structures are the municipal engineer and the district office of the Corps of Engineers. Your community's engineer should be contacted in any case to find out if your community is already planning to build a coastal protection structure of some kind. In addition, the county or state, or private property owners along the coast', may be planning structures that affect publicly owned shorelands. Because the Corps of Engineers must issue permits for coastal protection structures, they will likely be aware of structures planned by private property owners as well as public agencies. Plans for Post-Disaster Recovery and Other Community Development Plans Because the period immediately following a hurricane provides special oppor- tunities for rebuilding in ways and places that will reduce your community's vulnerability to future hurricanes, some communities have prepared plans for post-hurricane recovery. The mayor, city manager or'administrator, planner, or engineer in your community should be aware of such a'plan, if one has been prepared. Because actions to protect your community from hurricane and'flood damage are related in one or more ways to a range of other community activities; it is also important to find out-'about non-hazard-related plans that affect coastal hazard areas. Transportation plans, re6reation and open space plans, master plans, capital improvement plans -- all.-these may.proVide useful information in planning for coastal hazards and may be available from the appropriate local agency or department. STEP 3: MEASURING YOUR COMMUNITY'S RESPONSE AGAINST ITS HURRICANE AND FLOODING PROBLEMS Once you have obtained some idea of the nature and extent of your community's flooding and hurricane problems and the actions underway or planned to re- duce future vulnerability, the next step is to evaluate-whether current responses meet the problem and whether additional action is called for. This evaluation process may be a very sophisticated process or it may be very informal, depending on the community's needs and resources. At one end of the spectrum are those communities who have used computer modelling or other technical analyses to examine their problems and the adequacy of existing responses. At the other end of the spectrum, an evening's informal discussion with other concerned officials may be sufficient to identify the need for additional action. This is especially likely in the wake of a recent hurri- cane or a recent near-miss. If your community has recently experienced a major coastal storm, gaps in the response to the hazard will likely be ap- parent. For example, if evacuation during the storm was confused and inef- fective, you should probably look to preparing or improving an evacuation plan. Of, if following severe hurricane damage, coastal property owners rebuilt unsafe structures in obviously vulnerable areas, you may want to consider adopting hurricane construction standards in your building code or preparing a plan now to acquire similar properties in the future.- There are basically,two ways in which your community's current response to its hurricane and flooding problems may fall short: (1)'Geoqraphically: while some areas of-the town may be adequately protected, others may remain vulnerable and in need Qf attention. (2) Kind of response: for example, while your community may have suffi- cient regulations in place to ensure that future coastal construction will withstand predicted hurricane wind and coastal flooding', proce- dures to evacuate those already living in exposed locations may not exist. 12 These'shortfalls in an adequate response-represent your community's oppor- tunities for improvement. STEP 4: DETAILED EVALUATION OF LOCAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR ACTION Once a preliminary identification of opportunities has been made, it is time to pursue your community's options for responding to its hurricane and coastal flooding problems in some detail. Chapters 2 through 8 of the Handbook pro- yide a starting point for this evaluation, outlining possible actions of all kinds as well as factors to consider in evaluating each option. For each possible response, the first question to ask is: will the response serve the purpose? In some cases the answer to this question is easy. For instance, if your community has not yet designated emergency shelters for hurricane evacuation, the identification of such shelters is clearly needed. In other cases, engineering or other technical assistance may be needed in order to evaluate the adequacy of a possible response. This is true, for instance, of the structural responses discussed in Chapters 4 and 5 and the establishment of setback lines discussed in Chapter 2. The second question to ask is: how does the response compare to other iden- tified opportunities? Alternative approaches to reducing flood and hurricane vulnerability should be considered alone and in combination. The effect of each kind of response is not necessarily additive, so the benefits and costs of combinations of responses should be carefully examined. Like Step 3, this process can be very simple and informal, involving rough-estimates of the value to your community of a few of the responses that appear useful, or very sophisticated. You may be able to obtain technica 1 or planning assistance in evaluating your options from FEMA's State Assistance Program or through the Corps of Engineers' Floodplain Management Services. (See Chapter 9.) 13- Identification of an approach to your community's hurricane and flood prob- lems is only a first'step; adoption of the selected approach as policy by those in your community with the authority to commit community resources is needed. Going through this process of identifying problems and possible solutions effectively can be important preparation for presenting a per- suasive case to your community's policymakers. PART 11: WAYS TO REDUCE DAMAGE FROM HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING Part II of the Handbook provides a detailed look at the techniques your community can use to reduce damages from hurricanes and coastal flooding. These opportunities for community action include regulations, acquisition, structural measures, dune vegetation, beach nourishment., evacuation planning, and.others. For each type of opportunity., a brief description is included along with a discussion of factors that must be considered in evaluating each option. In most communities, an effective program to reduce damages from hurricanes and coastal flooding will include a combination of these technique& Part II includes the following chapters: CHAPTER 2 KEEPING NEW DEVELOPMENT FROM HAZARDOUS AREAS CHAPTER 3 PROMOTING SAFE CONSTRUCTION IN HAZARDOUS AREAS CHAPTER 4 PROTECTING NATURAL SYSTEMS CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURES TO PROTECT AGAINST COASTAL FLOODING CHAPTER 6 FORECASTING, WARNINGS, AND EVACUATION PLANNING CHAPTER 7 RELOCATING HURRICANE AND FLOOD VICTIMS: ACQUISITION OF DEVELOPED AREAS CHAPTER 8 PRE-DISASTER PLANNING FOR POST-DISASTER ACTIONS - 15 CHAPTER 2 KEEPING NEW DEVELOPMENT FROM HAZARDOUS AREAS There are several approaches available to keep new development away from hazardous areas along the coast: - regulations - acquisition - persuasion In deciding whether to use 'these approaches, you should consider. @everal factors, including: - National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) requirements - federal and state laws protecting natural features - benefits - costs and tax impacts - legal limits Many beach experts firmly believe that, on or adjacent to most beaches,,no structures can survive for long periods of time. To these experts, the idea of "safe" construction on beaches or structures to "Protect" coastal develop- ment is simply unworkable. Threats to life and property when construction occurs too near the shore, along with desires to preserve beaches in their open state, lead many coastal communities to consider keeping new develop- ment away from high hazard areas altogether. Aside from important questions of costs and benefits, two key issues arise in considering this tactic -- how can development be kept from high hazard areas? and where should the boundary be drawn to separate areas too hazardous for construction from adjacent areas where the community might regulate but not prohibit construction? In deciding to keep new construction away from certain areas, a choice must be made as to which hazardous areas should be closed to construction, for example: e the entire floodplain e limited hazardous areas, such as a narrow strip right along the shore e critical areas and natural features, such as dunes e areas suitable for multiple purposes, such as flood reduction and recreation, if retained as open space Three basic avenues are available to the community desiring to keep develop- ment away from its most hazardous coastal areas -- regulation, acquisition, and persuasion. A range of regulatory approaches to prohibiting development in hazardous areas is discussed below. Most of these use some sort of "set- back line" which establishes a boundary seaward of which development is not permitted. Open space acquisition is also discussed below, while acquisi- tion of developed coastal areas is discussed in Chapter 7. Finally, ways to encourage people not to build in hazardous areas, through education programs or the location of public facilities, are noted. REGULATIONS ,Restricting Coastal Development Through Regulations Your community may have already established controls on coastal development in response to requirements of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). With or without the NFIP, many communities impose controls on coastal develop- ment through zoning or subdivision regulations. 9 With existing zoning. When communities already have zoning regulations in effect, the simplest way to establish new controls over coastal de- velopment may be the use of an "overlay zone". With an "overlay", minimum setback requirements for new construction can be established without otherwise affecting current zoning and its controls on density, permitted land uses, and so on. The state of Michigan, for example, recommends this technique to its coastal communities that want to assume local con- trol of construction in high risk erosion areas.* *State law in Michigan requires a special permit for all coastal construction. If local governments do not.choose to administer the law, the state will issue necessary permits. - 17 MAPPING SETBACK LINES; WHERE SHOULD DEVELOPMENT BE PROHIBITED? In thinking about where your community should prohibit construction, consider the following rule of thumb 6 with rare exceptions, no con- struction should be allowed on beaches or on active dunes. However, beaches and dunes constantly move, and your community's setback line should ideally take that movement into account. This requires an estimate of the annual rate at which your beach is receding and a decision as to how many years of recession your setback line should take into account. Because determining recession rates is not easy, many communities have opted for a fixed setback not related to the recession rate. Also, where the coast is neither bluff nor sandy beach, recession may be so slow that a fixed setback line is not a problem. But, if the setback distance is small compared to the actual recession rate, development allowed under the ordinance will likely suffer damage from coastal storms or erosion within a few years. If the setback distance is large, compared to the actual recession rate, development may be needlessly prohibited. As a result, determining the recession rate, although a difficult task, is worth some invest- ment of community resources in areas with sandy beaches or coastal bluffs, or where erosion is known to be a problem. In addition to establishing a recession rate, your community must decide what time period to be concerned about. A recommended mini- mum is thirty years or the life of an average mortgage. Your community'has a longer life span than the average mortgage, how-. ever, and leading coastal experts recommend-that your setback line should be measured from the anticipated beach location 50 to 70 years from the present. Alternatively, a community may choose to amend its.zoning regulation by establishing a special zone -- a "dune protection district" or "seashore conservancy zone",for example -- which will protect coastal areas as well as inland development by prohibiting.development in beach and dune areas. Without existing zoning. In some coastal communities, zoning is not al- ready in place. If your community.is one of these, you still have several options:. establish a comprehensive zoning ordinance including provision for a "beach and dune protection z9ne"; adopt a "partial zoning" approach (if allowed by state enabling legislation) and establish a "beach and dune pro- tection zone" alone; or adopt a police power ordinance restricting coastal development. ESTABLISHING A BEACH AND DUNE PROTECTION DISTRICT Glynn County, Georgia adopted a Beach and Dune Protection District in 1974, which paid special attention to the translation of dune formation and migration processes into workable development con- trols. A primary dune district, extending 40 feet inland from the landward side of the most seaward stable dune, was established by the ordinance. In this district, only fencing and elevated board- walks are allowed. To the landward side of the primary dune district, a secondary dune field district was established in which conditional uses are allowed by special permit. In this district, elevation on pilings to at least 14 feet is required,and special road access restrictions are imposed during site plan review. HAZARD ZONING IN RHODE ISLAND In 1955, the Rhode Island Development Council prepared model hurri- cane zoning regulations which could be adopted by communities as amendments to existing zoning regulations. The model regulations suggest three types of hazard zones: beach zones in areas of ex- treme danger, commercial zones in areas of extreme danger, and areas of danger where uses are permitted according to prior zoning, but additional construction restrictions are imposed. Areas of extreme danger are those lands vulnerable to direct impact of hurricane waves and floods, and areas of danger are those lands vulnerable to hurricane flooding alone. For each danger zone, the model regulation suggests permitted uses and related provisions. Regulations based on this model w6re subsequently adopted by a number of communities. For example, Warwick included sections on areas of extreme hurricane danger (specified lots) in its zoning ordinance in 1957. In areas of extreme hurricane danger, no building is allowed, except for specified purposes: non-commer- cial boat docks, beach cabanas, non-building uses such as farming, bathing beaches, picnic areas, and similar uses approved by the Zoning Board. In 1966, Providence adopted similar provisions for areas subject to hurricane tidal flooding. Areas.subject to hurri- cane tidal flood lying 10 feet or less above mean sea level are not to be used except for limited purposes: public parks, non- building.uses (e.g. bathing beach), beach cabanas, marinas, boat docks, launching ramps, lighthouses, seawalls, breakwaters, or jetties. - 19 Factors Affecting Decisions to Regulate New Development In deciding whether to adopt the regulatory approach to keeping new develop- ment from hazardous coastal areas, you should consider several factors: (1) National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) requirements If your community is participating, or is planning to participate, in the National Flood Insurance Program, NFIP requirements on new coastal development must be satisfied. However, the NFIP imposes only a minimal requirement on the location of coastal development: participating communities must prohibit development seaward of the mean high tide line. (Other NFIP requirements on.safe construction are discussed below in Chapter 3.) (2) Federal and state laws protecting natural features In addition to the NFIP requirements, your community may have to consider the effects of other federal or state requirements. In some cases, federal law may impose sufficient controls on development affecting certain natural features that additional local controls may not be needed; or additional local controls can be tailored to supple- ment existing federal controls. For example, the Corps of Engineers has significant authority to control development in wetlands under its "404 Program." Also, some states may prohibit development in certain coastal hazard areas -- such as wetlands or beaches -- or require local governments to adopt ordinances prohibiting such development. (3) Benefits Regulation of undeveloped coastal areas may serve multiple objectives for your community, in addition to reducing potential storm damages. These might include prevention of unsightly development, protection of sensitive features that buffer inland development as well as shorefront areas, enhancement of wildlife habitats. Public use, however, is not one of the benefits of regulation, though it is a benefit of acquiring high haza.rds areas. (See acquisition section below.) 20 (4) Costs If your community already administers and enforces zoning regulations, additional costs to apply controls on setback lines or special coastal districts will be minimal. In the absence of existing zoning, adminis- trative costs to carry out new controls on coastal development will be higher. The cost of establishing setback lines may be considerable, but technical or financial assistance for the necessary technical studies may be available. (5) Public acceptance If your community does not already have zoning, chances are good that a zoning ordinance will not be politically acceptable. However, if your community does contain some basis for developing support for comprehen- sive planning and zoning, you should certainly consider pursuing this approach. If this proves politically unacceptable to your community, other options are available. A "partial zoning" approach may well be politically palatable in places where comprehensive zoning is not, but this approach may not be allowed in your state. Most local governments have the authority to adopt "police power ordi- nances" to promote public health, safety, and welfare. In some cases, such ordinances may be the most acceptable exercise of your local government's power to prevent development in hazardous areas. (6) Legal limitations Traditionally, zoning and other land use controls have been subject to some opposition concerning the "taking" of private property. This issue is more likely to arise in adopting regu lations to prevent de- velopment entirely in coastal hazard areas than it is with regulations that impose strict construction standards but still allow development to take place. (See box.) - 21 - THE TAKING ISSUE One possible limit to a community's authority to regulate land uses, including use of coastal floodplain land, involves constitutional restrictions on the taking of private property for public purposes without just compensation. The "taking issue" generally areises when a landowner considers his use of the land to be unduly restricted by floodplain or other land use regulations. While the issue is a complex one, a few basic points can be made on how floodplain use regulations may be affected: - When the issue is raised, the individual landowner generally has a heavy burden of proving the "taking". - Although general legal principles apply to resolution of the issue, each allegation is resolved on a case-by-case basis. As a result, the specific facts of each individual case are important. - Local regulatory actions restricting land use are often supported by court decisions when they are based on a larger plan and related to protection of public health, safety, and welfare. - In floodplain taking cases, two types of questions are usually relevant: is the regulated activity a nuisance use (i.e. harmful to public health or safety); and, how does the adverse effect of the regulation on the value of the land in question balance against the beneficial purposes of the regulation? Local officials should be aware that, in many cases, community action to protect the public from flood dangers have been determined not to be a taking. Further legal advice from your town counsel or state Attorney General's office may be needed. *Based on discussion in Flood Hazard Management and Natural Resource Protection, Training Institute Background Papers, FEMA, April 1980, PP. 177-181. ACQUISITION Acquiring Undeveloped Coastal Property In some situations, your community may want to purchase undeveloped areas subject to flooding along the coast. Acquiring these types of coastal proper- ties may serve a multitude of local objectives including but not limited to 22 the reduction of future damages from frequent flooding -- such as protection of valuable natural areas (dunes, beaches, estuaries), improvement of beach access, enhancement of recreational opportunities, and protection of wild- life. Factors Affecting Decisions to Acquire Undeveloped Coastal Property In deciding whether to acquire undeveloped coastal properties to reduce coastal hazards, and to obtain related benefits, the community will have to consider potential problems -- primarily high costs and loss of tax revenues as well as potential benefits. (1) Potential benefits As noted above, acquisition of undeveloped coastal lands can benefit your community in more ways than just reducing flood damages. It can: Enhance local recreational opportunities: The community may be able to utilize the undeveloped parcels as additions to its recreational lands -- for recreational beaches or as parks, for example. (See box.) - Enhance tourism opportunities: In addition to improving recreation for local residents, acquisition of undeveloped coastal land can provide additional recreational space for tourists. As noted below, in- creasing your community's attractiveness to tourists may balance anticipated tax losses from public acquisition of coastal open space. - Prevent hazardous or unsightly development: Public acquisition of undeveloped coastal property can assure that it stays undeveloped. Building on the hazard-prone land can be prohibited with little or no opposition. If limited development of public facilities is desired., the community can determine exactly where and how con- struction occurs. - Protect sensitive natural features: undeveloped coastal property will likely include beaches, dunes, and/or wetlands -- natural 23 features that help protect the near-shore as well as inland proper- ties. Acquiring these areas and maintaining them as open space will help assure that this natural protection continues. ACQUIRING COASTAL OPEN SPACE: UPPER TAMPA BAY, FLORIDA Hillsborough County, Florida recently purchased 596 acres of coastal wetlands to add to its regional park system. The acquired property, known as Upper Tampa Bay Park, is an area of extremely productive estuarine habitats on the north shore of Old Tampa Bay. The Hillsborough County Park Board first identified the need to acquire waterfront park land in the Upper Tampa Bay area in the early 1960's. While early efforts to obtain funds for the project -were unsuccessful, a 1968 application to the Department of Housing and Urban Development for an Open Space Grant was well-received. The threat of an extremely large development on Upper Tampa Bay pro- posed park lands tri7gered increased local pressure on the county to acquire these valuab e coastal wetlands, and, in 1969, Hillsborough County received a $450,000 grant from HUD to acquire the land on a 50/50 matching basis. The county used these funds to purchase 409 acres from the Tampa Bay Port Authority. An additional 187 acres for the Upper Tampa Bay Park were purchased in 1976 with fund5 from a county bond issue, added to a match from the Land and Water Conserva- tion Fund. Although the first plan for the Park showed considerable development of the area (marinas, camping and picnicking areas, beach facilities), a citizen group pressed for uses that give greater weight to the preservation of environmental values, and the Park is scheduled to be opened sometime in 1981 as an environmental education center with minimal facilities -- a classroom, some boardwalks, nature trails, observation platforms and limited picnicking. (2) Cost Public acquisition of floodplains is often considered beyond the finan- cial reach of inland communities; the cost of coastal properties -- even though undeveloped is astronomical in many places. Even though coastal property is subject to severe hazards, it has traditionally been very valuable and will often have a high market value. In addi- tion to the initial costs of acquiring the property, the community will have to plan for the costs of maintaining the property, even if the in- tended use is minimal. However, these costs should be weighed against costs the community might alternatively have to pay for control devices or beach nourishment@ and disaster assistance if development were allowed to occur. 24 A community can reduce the costs of acquiring and managing coastal property with funds from state and federal governments, private foundations, and local land-trusts. (3) Loss of tax revenues Anticipated loss of property tax revenues is a common barrier to consideration of open space acquisition by coastal communities. Even if the property is undeveloped, the owner will have been paying some local property taxes. Taxes from coastal property, where develop- ment is anticipated, could be substantial, and..removal of the property from the local tax roll may be perceived to be significant. In considering possible impacts on local taxes, the community should examine the overall impacts of possible acquisition projects. It may find that, when tourism opportunities are enhanced by public acquisition of coastal areas, the local tax base may increase rather than decrease. (4) Availability of assistance A variety of state and federal programs provide financial assistante which may, in some cases, be used to support acquisition of undeveloped coastal f loodplains. These include programs to support open space and recreation goals, to protect and maintain wildlife habitat, to improve beach access, to protect and restore wetlands, and others. Some of these which have been used by communities in the past are described in Chapter 9. Though funding for these programs, along with other federal and state assistance programs, is likely to be reduced during ap era of shrinking budgets, private sources of assistance may still be available and should be pursued. Private foundations or individuals may donate money -or land itself -- to the community that embarks on a pro- gram of acquiring hazardous property. Acquisition of less than full interests in the property may also help to reduce costs. Purchase of "conservation" easements that restrict future development is one example of this approach. 25 - (5) Availability of alternatives Acquisition is most likely to be a sensible approach when potential damages are high and when the community wants to make some public use of the coastal property. (When potential damages are very high or pose significant threat to life, it may even be sensible to purchase properties that are already developed; this is especially likely after a damaging hurricane or other severe storm and is discussed in Chapter 7.) When possible future damages pose less of a problem, the desire for public use of undeveloped coastal areas may still be great enough by itself to encourage local purchase of these floodprone lands. Your community may want to consider acquisition as an alternative to regulation of hazard-prone areas. Public acquisition is generally a more permanent solution than imposing regulatory controls on use of property. Also, where regulations on development in hazardous areas are imposed, there may very well be public opposition to what is con- sidered a "taking" of private property, even though the regulation might easily stand up in court. Particularly in the most hazardous areas, controls on building or rebuilding must be quite strict to be effec- tive. Acquisition of the property by the.community may prove more acceptable to landowners than imposition of these strict controls, and problems faced by the community in enforcing tough regulatory standards would be eliminated. As a first step in evaluating your community's options to acquire coastal property, you will have to consider the community's potential need for these undeveloped shorelands -- for recreation space, for example. These needs may be fairly well established already, through community development plan- ning or related efforts. Second, you will have to consider how vulnerable to hazards these undeveloped shorelands are and whether they would be ac- ceptable for the uses (recreation, habitat improvementi etc.) that the community has in mind. Third, you will have to make a preliminary exploration of possible sources of funds to acquire these properties. Local sources -- such as local land trusts or municipal open space agencies -- 26 may be the best ones to look at first. State and federal sources also need to be explored. PERSUASION OR ENCOURAGEMENT Discouraging Development in Hazardous Areas In addition to establishing regulatory controls and acquiring coastal open space to keep development from hazardous areas, communities can simply attempt to discourage people from undertaking new development in coastal hazard areas through a variety of means. o Public awareness or information programs may be helpful-in persuading people not to build in hazardous areas. For communities participating in the NFIP, federally-insured lending institutions must inform mortgage applicants that the property is located in a flood hazard area and that the buyer must purchase flood insurance in order to obtain a loan. If your community is already participating in the NFIP, programs to support and expand on public information related to hazardous areas may be help- ful. Even communities not in the NFIP may want to develop general public information programs and consider encouraging banks to disclose hazard information. Real estate agents could play an important role in inform- ing prospective buyers about the vulnerability of coastal properties, though they are unlikely to do so unless required.by local ordinance. (See box.) HAZARDS DISCLOSURE: SANTA CLARA COUNTY Some localities have passed laws on disclosure of potential hazards to property buyers. Santa Clara County, California, for example, passed a law in 1978 which requires that a written statement of flood hazards,, as well as landslide or seismic risk,,be provided to property buyers. Regional and state realtor associations have pre- pared materials to help real estate agents comply'with the disclo- sure law,, including instruction booklets, contract forms and, most important, indexed street maps showing one or more of the hazards. The maps do not give official hazard identification, but provide a first step in locating hazard areas. Supplemental information can be obtained by realtors from state or local officials. 27 Location of public facilities may discourage residents from building in hazardous areas. If your community adopts a policy not to locate any public facilities -- sewers, roads, sewage treatment plants, etc. -- in the most hazardous areas, this may discourage private owners from building in such areas as well. Factors Affecting De isions to Select the Persuasion Approach In*deciding whether to systematically encourage people not to develop hazardous areas, you should consider two basic factors: cost and effectiveness. (1) cost While the costs of adminiistering regulations to control new develop- ment may or may not be significant, and the cost of acquisition is almost certain to be significant, the costs of promoting public aware-. ness of the need to prevent coastal development in critical areas will ususally be low. (2) Effectiveness The effectiveness of this approach will depend a great deal on the .attitude of your community's citizens and the alternatives available to them. In some areas, where pressure for new development of coastal areas is great, regulations or acquisition are almost certain to be needed to prevent such hazardous development. Even in these areas, persuasion may have some effect if vulnerability is great. on the other hand, if development pressures are low, and adequate non-developed areas are avail- able in safer parts of town, the persuasion method may prove quite effec- tive. SOURCES OF DETAILED INFORMATION Public Acquisition of Floodplains and Wetlands: A Handbook on the Use of Acquisition in a Floodplain Management Program. Second Review Draft. Pre- pared by Ralph M. Field Associates, Inc., for U.S. Water Resources Council, May 1981. 28 A guidebook to assist state and local governments in determining whether floodplain/wetland acquisition would be an effective element of their floodplain management programs and in identifying ways in which acquisi7 tion programs can be successfully implemented. It is intended for state and local officials generally familiar with floodplain management, but without experience in floodplain acquisition. The handbook contains ten de scriptive case histories of communities that have used acquisition under various programs, many examples of acquisition techniques, and a chapter ,on technical and financial assistance that may be available from state and federal governments for acquisition projects. 9 Land Conservation and Preservation Techniques. U.S. Department of the Interior, Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service. March 1979. One in a series of handbooks prepared by the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service to assist government agencies and non-profit organiza- tions involved in recreation and heritage preservation to utilize limited funds for the greatest public benefit. The report discusses numerous ways of acquiring property for these activities -- from land donations to ease- ments -- and includes brief notes on how the methods have been used by communities and states. * The Taking Issue. An Analysis of the Constitutional Limits of Land Use Control, Fred Bosselman, David Callies and John Banta for the Council on Environmental Quality, 1973. Provides a comprehensive look at constitutional issues raised in regulation of land use. Includes a regional overview of the issue, as well as histori- cal and current interpretations. Governmental strategies for coping with the issues are discussed and numerous cases are cited. Additional references following Chapter 3 include useful information on the regulatory approaches discussed in this chapter. 29 CHAPTER 3 PROMOTING SAFE CONSTRUCTION IN HAZARDOUS AREAS Methods to promote safe construction in hazardous areas of your community include: - regulations - financial and technical assistance In deciding whether to use these approaches, you should consider a number of.factors; including: - requirements of the Pational Flood Insurance Program WIP) - state requirements 7 model code-provrisions - actual or perceived risk - costs of compliance - administrative requirements There are a number of ways to provide some measure.of protection from coastal flooding and hurricane winds for the development that does occur in hazardous areas: construction standards to limit damages from flooding (e.g. elevation, anchoring, breakaway walls, or floodproofing); construction standards to re- duce wind damages; and land development practices (e.g. lot grading or set- backs to protect natural features). Communities can use different techniques primarily regulations and techni- cal or financial assistance -- to promote safe construction in coastal hazard areas. Since the early 1970's, many communities have adopted some type 6f floodplain regulation. in response to requirements of the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). Other communities have gone beyond the NFIP re- quirements and developed innovative or more stringent approaches to reducing coastal flood,or hurricane wind damage. Specific regulatory approaches to promoting safe construction --,to meet NFIP requirements or go beyond them are'also varied. They can include provisions of zoning or subdivision regulatlons, building codes, or separate special-purpose regulations. 30 Measures to keep development away from hazardous areas (including setbacks) and measures to protect natural areas are discussed in Chapters 2 and 4. This chapter concentrates on techniques to promote the safe construction of development that does occur in hazardous areas. REGULATIONS Promoting Safe Construction through Regulations There are a number of ways that communities can establish building standards or land development practices that protect developm ent in hazardous areas from coastal flood and wind damage (see box). Communities can add vrovisions to existing local ordinances, such as building codes, subdivision regulations, or zoning ordinances. or communities can adopt new special purpose flood hazard area permit regulations. Construction standards for resisting flood damage. Structures in coastal hazard areas may be subject to flood water damages from both increased tide levels and from wave action. Communities can attempt to reduce these types of damages by requiring: - elevation of new or rebuilt structures in coastal hazard areas to raise them above anticipated flood le vels - adequate anchorage to prevent structures from floating off their foundations - use of open breakaway walls that will collapse under stress - dry floodproofing to keep storm waters from entering-structures - wet'-floodproofing to allow the passage of waters through structures without causing structural damage. These types of construction standards can be fairly.easily incorporated into local builoifig codes, and they can be as specific as the community desires -- for,example, a general requirement for pilings adequate to withstand a 100-year flood, to be certified by a registered engineer, can be established; or the use of certain construction materials for pilings that can better-withstand flood waters could be specifically required. 31 EXAMPLES OF LOCAL REGULATIONS ON DEVELOPMENT IN FLOOD HAZARD AREAS* South KingstownRhode Island: A zoning ordinance combines minimum elevation requirments with a beach setback line and comprehensive wetland protection regulations. Warwick, Rhode Island: A two-district coasta@ floodplain zoning ordinance includes a high velocity wave zone where most develop- ment is prohibited and an elevation requirement for backlying areas. Gulf Shores, Alabama: Building regulations require elevation above the 100-year flood elevation, including wave heights, and piling standards. Littleton, Colorado: Zoning and subdivision regulations, along with a building code, require a 200-foot setback from a water channel and the elevation of residential structures in outer areas to one foot above the 100-year flood elevation. Sanibel, Florida: Development regulations specify performance standards within ecological zones to insure that flood-moderating functions are not impaired. Fairfax County, Virginia: An erosion and sediment control ordinance requires conservation plans to prevent erosion, minimize sedi- mentation, and preserve floodplain vegetation. Virginia Beach, Virginia: Floodplain regulations require new structures to be elevated one foot above the 100-year flood elevation, and development is prohibited in areas less than 6 feet above mean sea level. The community has adopted its own detailed flood maps at a scale of 1:100 and it has hired four coastal inspectors to monitor and enforce regulations. In addition, coastal wetlands and sand dune protection regulations require setbacks. *Derived in part from Flood Hazard Management and Natural Resource Protection, Training Institute Backgro6nd_Papers, FEMA, April 1980. While some of these'regulations are from inland communities, the approaches taken may be applicable to coastal situations. o Construction standards to reduce wind damage. Structures in coastal hazard areas are subject to wind damages, as well as flood water damages. Com- munities can adopt wind-resistant building standards that are addressed to two problems: reducin g damages from the high velocity winds themselves and reducing damages from wind-driven debris. Standards for resistance can range from specificat-ions on roof design, to use of coverings (e.g. shutters) on windows and doors, to requirements for "tie-downs" for mobile homes. 32 Like building standards to reduce flood damages, communities can incor- porate these types of standards into their building codes. Texas communities, in particular, have gone far in using wind-resistant standards in their building codes (zee'box'Sn page 37). Land development practices. Another method communities can use to reduce storm damages to coastal development is to require certain land development practices. Lot grading to reduce flood damages, for exam- ple, can be required. Subdivision regulations, too, can be designed to include special considerations related to flood'damage reduction, for example, the dedication of easements along drainageways or the design of roads and bridges to withstand specified flood velocities. Factors Affecting Decisions to Require Safe Construction Standards Your community should consider a number of factors in deciding how to regulate construction in coastal hazard areas: (1) National Flood Insurance Program requirements A basic decision your community will have to make in responding to coastal flooding, if it has not already done so, is whether or not to participate in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The NFIP brings with it certain minimum requirements related to local land use and management. Some elements of the NFIP require measures to prevent development in hazardous areasi and are di.scussed in Chapter 2. However, the NPIP i� focused primarily on promoting safe construction, rather than prohibi- tion of construction. As part of the NFIP, a community's floodplain areas are divided into different zones, depending on the risk of flooding. Coastal areas most vulnerable to flooding are identified as either A zones or V zones. A zones a@e subject to the 100-year flood (a flood with a 1 percent chance of occurring in any given year), but not (in theory) subject to high velocity wave action. V zones are a fairly narrow strip along the shore clearly subject to high-velocity wave action, and thus the most-vulnerable of the coastal hazard zones. 33 The minimum NFIP standards for construction in coastal hazard areas are different for A zones and V zones: -In coastal A zones, new construction or substantial improvements of residential structures, at a minimum, must have the lowest floor (including basements) elevated to or above the 100-year flood ele- vation through use of fill, raised foundations, piles, or columns. In coastal A zones, the community's Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) will identify the 100-year flood elevation. Although the A zone is that portion of the 100-year coastal floodplain which is less subject to turbulent wave action, it is important to note that high velocity water may be experienced due to the forward momentum of breaking waves, especially in the vicinity.of.the V zone/A zone boundary. Land in the A zone may also be subject to wave'action during flood events which are more severe than the 100-year flood. -The minimum requirements for construction in V zones differ signifi- cantly from those that apply in coastal A zones. In V zones, all new construction and substantial improvements to existing structures must be elevated on adequately anchored pilings or columns so that the bottom of the structural members supporting the lowest floor (excluding the pilings and columns) is elevated to or above the 100-year flood elevation. A registered professional engineer or architect must certify that the structure is securely fastened to adequately anchored pilings or columns in order to withstand high velocity waters and hurricane wave wash forces. In addition, the space below the lowest floor must not be used for human habitation and must be free of obstructions. It may be enclosed with break- away walls, however, such as open latticework intended to collapse under load without jeopardizing the structural support of the building. At this time, most tIRMs for coastal communities show the stillwater ele- vation of the 100-year flood but do not show the height of the 100-year flood including wave heights. (See box.) Until wave height elevations are shown on FIRMs, NFIP regulations cin be satisfied by elevation to the stillwater 100-year flood elevation alone. Additional NFIP standards for V zones require that fill not be used for the structural support of new or substantially improved structures. (In addition,aand dunes and mangrove stands may not be altered so as to in- crease the'potential for flood damage. See Chapter'4.) A summary of FNIP requirements is included in Table. 1. 34 TABLE I NFIP PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS SUMMARY* DATA AVAILABLE TO COMMUNITY SUMMARY OF ADDITIONAL PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS EMERGENCY PROGRAM Flood Prone - No Map 1. Community-wide building permit system allowing case-by-case evaluation of flood hazard. 2. General performance standard applicable to activity in flood-prone areas to ensure: � structural safety; � minimization of damage; � protection of utilities. Flood Prone with Flood 3. Obtain base flood elevation data from best Hazard Boundary Map available source. 4. Application of elevation and/or floodproofing requirements to new construction and substan- tial improvement and repair in flood-prone areas (based oh best available data). 5. Mobile home anchorage requirements. 6. Maintain carrying capacity of channel. 7. Notify adjacent communities of alterations in water course. REGULAR PROGRAM Base Flood Elevation Provided 8. Elevation and/or floodproofing requirements for No Floodway or Coastal High new construction for substantial rehabilitation Hazard Area Identified and repair, and for mobile homes. 9. Certification of structural integrity or floodproofing by professional engineer. 10. Demonstrate that new developments in 100-year floodplain do not increase base flood more than one foot. Base Flood Elevation Plus 11. Adopt regulatory floodway. Designation of Floodway 12. Prohibit any activity inside regulatory floodway which would raise base flood. 13. No new mobile homes In mobile home parks in floodway. Base Flood Elevation Plus 14. Anchorage plus certification of structural Coastal High Hazard Area integrity by engineer. (Velocity Zone) 15. Elevation above wave height. 16. Use of open breakaway walls in space below lowest floor. 17. No use of fill for elevation in Velocity Zone. 18.@ Protection of mangrove stands and sand dunes. *This chart merely summarizes requirements. It does not list all of them, nor does it make necessary regulatory distinctions between residential and Mon-r6sidenti6l development, or 'between existing and new structures. For a fuller description of requirements, see NFIP program regulations. SOURCE: Flood Hazard Management and Natural Aesources Protection, Community Action Guide, FEMA, Washington, D.C., pp. 15-16. - 35 WAVE HEIGHTS Storm surge, or the storm-generated rise of water above mean sea level, is composed of the astronomical tide, wind set-up or the piling-up effect of storm winds on waves, and wave set-up or the effect of offshore topography on wave height. Because much of the damage from coastal storms is caused by waves, and because waves are considerably elevated above stillwater elevations, it is important to know how high storm waves are'likely.to be when designing coastal construction. Until 1979, maps of coastal flood hazard areas prepared for the NFIP showed only the still- water height of the 100-year flood. Following agreement on a methodology to calculate wave heights, FIA has begun preparing new maps for.all coastal communities in the NFIP. Through remapping, FIA will add wave height information to most existing FIRM's published prior to the development of the new wave height study methodologies. Information on potential sources of wave height information, when such information is-not inc'ljded on the FIRM, can be obtained from'FEMA.re@ion6l offices. (See Appendix A.) ----------- (2) State requirements Some states establish standards on construction in coastal hazard areas that local communities must comply with (see box), or require that com- munities adopt their own standards. For example, Wisconsin's statewide floodplain zoning regulation, which requires local communities to adopt floodplain zoning ordinances, includes minimum use standards, such as elevation on fill of residential structures located in flood fringe areas. State regulations in North Carolina establish use standards which must be met as permit conditions in areas of critical environmen- tal concern, including dunes and beaches. (3) Model codes In some areas, communities customarily use provisions from model con- struction codes formally as their own construction codes or informally as technical guides. Some model building codes include guidance on construction standards to reduce storm'damages. A.study done in the early 1970's found that the major national model building codes lacked floodproofing standards,. although the Southern Standard Building Code did include wind protection standards. - 36 FLORIDA COASTAL CONSTRUCTION SETBACK LINE The Florida Legislature enacted the Coastal Construction Setback Line Law (CCSBL Law) i.n 1971 in order to "prevent beach encroach- ment that would endanger the existing beach-dUne system and to help prevent existing and future structures from being unreasonably sub- ject to great and irreparable harm". The Florida Department of Natural Resources is responsible for establishing the CCSBL for each county with sandy coastal beaches, based on the individual characteristics of each county. On the basis of opinions aired during public hearings and on the recommendations of the Coastal and Oceanographic Engineer,ing Laboratory of the University of Florida, the Florida State Cabinet approves the legal CCSBL for each county. Until setback lines are so designated, builders are required to stay 50 feet back from the beach vegetation line. The law also provides that, after the CCSBL has been approved, variances may be granted for structures provided 'that they are designed to withstand the 100-year hurricane and will have a minimum adverse impact on the beach/dune system. Since that time, several attempts to develop or refine hurricane building standards have been made. Texas has developed a model building code which includes four different hazard zones: the most severe is subject to storm surge, wave battering, wave scour, and wind; the least severe zone is subject only to wind. (See box.) South Florida and Mississippi also have building codes specifically designed for hurricanes. 37 - TEXAS MODEL MINIMUM HURRICANE RESISTANT BUILDING STANDARD A 1975 resolution passed by the Texas Legislature required the de- velopment of model minimum building standards for high-risk coastal areas. The work in developing the standards.was performed by the Texas Coastal and Marine Council. As a first step, four hazard zones reflecting different levels of exposure to hurricane forces were identified: - Zone A is subject to scour, battertng with debris, flooding and wind (140 mph) - Zone B is subject to battering with debris, flooding and wind (140 mph) - Zone C is subject to flooding and wind (140 mph) - Zone D is subject to wind forces alone. The model minimum standard, which is presented as an amendment to a city building code, includes an inspection checklist for various parts of the construction, as well as specific design parameters. A chap- ter on wave and scour action presents design standards for bulkheads, seawalls, piers, docks, groins, jetties, breakwaters and boathouses, while a chapter on battering addresses the effects of debris. Speci- fic standards are also given for slabs, columns, pile foundations, plastic materials, seams, pipes, joints, etc. The use of various classes of materials, heating, air conditioning and ventilating sys- tems, and hot water, electric and plumbing systems are also discussed. Another chapter is devoted to wind 'loading for maximum design wind velocities up to 140 mph taking into account the shape parameters of the structures. Additional chapters address design and construction of foundations, use of masonry walls, steel and iron, wood, and con- crete, as well as roof coverings. The Southern Standard Building Code Is currently being revised to incorporate hurricane protection provisions based on the Texas model minimum hurricane resistant standards. once your community has considered these three factors NFIP requirements, state requirements, and model codes -- some thought should be given to what the remaining opportunities are: Should your community opt for minimum NFIP or state standards or adopt stricter construction standards? Will minimum standards provide sufficient protection to construction*in your community's most vulnerable locations? - 38- The NFIP minimum floodplain management requirements have no effect locally until local ordinances meeting them are adopted by a community wishing to participate in the program. More than 16,000 communities (approximately 1,800 of them in.coastal areas) have adopted such ordinances and are cur-- rently participating in the NFIP. These local regulations meeting NFIP floodplain management standards are often the first flood protection standards adopted by a community, and most are designed simply to meet the minimum re- quirements. Other communities, however, have adopted regulatory 'standards that go beyond the minimum requirements. These regulatory techniques include stricter ele- vation requirements, or restrictions on floodproofing as an alternative to elevation, standards on construction materials, and others. Going beyond the minimum NFIP requirements may be particularly appropriate in responding to the hurricane hazard. In evaluating these opportunities, you should con- sider the following additional factors: (4) Risk The local community will have to weigh a number of considerations in deciding how far to go in promoting safer construction in coastal hazard areas. One of the most important is risk. For example, mini- mum NFIP requirements are different in V zones and A zones. But, as noted above, structures in the A zone may, in some storm situations, be subjected to high velocity waves or to wave action during floods greater than the 100-year event (to which NFIP requirements are ad- dressed). Your community may decide that the risk to'these areas is great enough to warrant stricter than minimum construction standards. I As noted above, until the Federal Insurance Administration finishes its remapping program, many coastal communities will be without Flood Insur- ance Rate Maps that show wave height information. For,these communities, compliance.with minimum NFIP regulations' will leave-V zone residents exposed to the full force of storm waves. As a result, communities without wave height data on their FIRM's may still want to consider requiring elevation above 100 year wave height levels, based on the - 39 - best available information. If no information on the magnitude of wave heights is available, some estimate can be developed. Consideration of wave heights is also important to enable certification by a professional engineer or architect. Finally, elevation above anticipated wave heights will often significantly reduce the insurance premiums. The NFIP requirements on safe construction are designed to reduce damages from storm waves and flood waters; they do not include standards for re- ducing wind damages from coastal storms. Some coastal areas may suffer more severe damages from wind than from floods.-. Also, elevation of structures to avoid water damage may inadvertantly lead to an increased possibility of wind damages. For example, required elevation may result in a roof more than 30 feet above ground level; a roof of that height is subject to greater wind uplift forces, and rafter connections and other structural components will receive greater stress. Also, higher eleva- tion may increase the possibility of a structure being blown over by horizontal wind forces. Studies in Texas have shown that the use of hurricane-resistant building standards can bring significant benefits,, reducing wind damages by 45 to 60 percent. (5) Cost of compliance in addition to considering the risks that may make safe construction standards desirable, coastal communities must consider (a) costs of meeting any chosen minimum standards, and (b) additional costs of stricter standards determined to be desirable. A Texas study has estimated the costs of meeting Texas hurricane-resis- tant building standards, based on using five types of,structures and various design elements. As noted above, the Texas-model building stan- dards contain both hurricane-resistant wind and flood requirements and were designed to complement the Southern Standard Building Code (SSBC). Results of the study showed that application of the standards, as an adjunct to commonly-used codes such as,the SSBC, increased structural costs 3 to 8 percent over the basic structural cost of a building designed to meet the SSBC (a 1 to 3 percent increase to the overall finished cost 40 of the structure). As noted above, benefits in reduced damages may be considerable, likely outweighing building costs in many instances. The primary alternative to promoting safer construction in coastal hazard areas -- either to or beyond the NFIP standards -- is to prohibit con- struction in such areas. The community and individual homeowners may want to compare the increased costs of building to.safe standards with the impact of a complete prohibition on building in coastal hazard areas. Communities failing to adopt even minimum standards, on the other hand, run therisk of catastrophic damages combined with-a failure to qualify for federal disaster assistance following a major disaster. (6) Administrative considerations As noted above, communities have a wide range of methods to choose from to assure safer construction in hazardous areas. Most commonly, commu- nities add provisions to existing local ordinances, such as building codes or subdivision regulations, although the content and scope of these codes may vary widely from community to community. In these cases, the costs of administering new provisions may be fairly low. In other cases, communities may adopt special-purpose permit-requirements for flood haz- ard areas, possibly needing new administrative mechanisms to implement them. Alsq some process of monitoring and enforcement of the standards is es- sential,bringing additional administrative costs. Where floodproofing of structures below the 100-year flood elevation is allowed, monitoring during construction to ensure that appioved plans are followed is par- ticularly important. For example, following Hurricane Eloise in 1975, it was discovered that a number of beachfront buildingd were not con- structed to plan spedification6.' one high-rise fieari'Ag completion in Panama City Beach was found to be missing the concrete from most of its steel-reinforced concrete pilings, leaving th6 building@without one-third of its structural support. - 41 TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE Providing Local Assistance to Residents, As noted above, model codes -- such as the Model Minimum Hurricane-Resistant Building Standard developed in Texas -- provide guidance to communities in meeting and going beyond NFIP standards. Other technical assistance may also be available to your community, such as help from your state flood insurance coordinator. (See Appendix A.) Communities-, in turn, have a responsibility -@o help local property owners meet local requirements for safe construction. Many coastal residents, especially people recently relocated from inland states, will be unaware of the possibilities for safer construction in coastal hazard areas. In many cases, the availability of technical and/or financial help may be essential to persuade local property owners to impnave structural standards in their buildings. Some communities have responded to this need by developing special programs directed at individual property owners. These may involve making local building department officials available for consultations or providing low-cost loans for floodproofing (see box) or working with local banks to provide information on hazards to potential buyers of coastal property. HOWARD COUNTY FLOODPROOFING LOAN PROGRAM In 1974, Howard County, Maryland established a Countywide Revolving Loan Fund for floodproofing dwelling units in accordance with federal, state and county guidelines. The loans (a maximum of $6,000 per im- proved property) are available to property owners having a minimum of $25,000 of flood insurance; they have a 20-year maximum period of amortization. Interest rates are I percent higher' than the average interest rate obtained at the most recent sale of County Government obligati,on bonds. Application forms for this loan program are avail- able through the County Storm Water Management Division of the De- partment of Public Works. 42 Factors_Lffecting Decisions to Provide Financial or Technical Assistance In deciding whether to undertake a program of local technical or financial assistance, you should consider the following factors: (1) Relationship to enforcement In many situations, safe construction standards may fall short of en- suring adequate construction because property owners lack sufficient funds or knowledge to meet the standards and because strict enforcement can be politically difficult. In these circumstances, technical and/or financial assistance may ease enforcement difficulties by helping coastal property owners meet strict standards. At the same time, enforcement becomes less of a political problem when meeting requirements imposes less of a hardship. Even where technical assistance alone is provided, both "how to" information and projections of savings from safe con- struction can significantly increase the acceptability of strict standards and reduce the difficulty of enforcing them. (2) Cost The cost or providing financial assistance (e.g. floodproofing loans) to coastal property owners must be weighed against the public benefits of safe construction along the coast. The costs of providing technical assistance (such as construction manuals, workshops led by building officials, etc.) are often quite low, however, and your community may be able to obtain useful materials or other help from state or federal agencies. FEMA and various state Sea Grant programs, for example, have published guidebooks on safe construction practices.. SOURCES OF DETAILED INFORMATION 9 Kusler, Jon A. and Lee, Thomas M. Regulations for Flood Plains, Chicago: American Society of Planning Officials. Planning Advisory Service, Report No. 277. February 1972. 43 This report is geared to aid local public officials who are faced with the responsibility of developing floodplain regulations. Local floodplain zoning ordinances -- and their place in comprehensive floodplain management -- receive primary attention. Describes terms used in floodplain regula- tions; includes summaries of case law findings on floodplain regulations; classifies kinds and sources of hydraulic data and describes the utility of the data for developing legally valid ordinances. Includes text for a local floodplain zoning ordinance, with modifications to fit the conditions .of four hypothetical communities. � U.S. Water Resources Council, Regulation of Flood Hazard Areas to Reduce Flood Losses. Volume One, 1971 and Volume Two, 1972. This report explores selected issues in the regulation of private and public land uses to reduce flood losses and presents draft statutes and local ordinances for regulation of land uses in riverine and coastal flood hazard areas. Discussion of draft statutes that supplement existing zoning and subdivision regulations as well as of state enabling acts to specifically authorize local adoption of flood hazard ordinances and regu- lations is included. General problems and specific legal consideration in utilizing flood hazard area regulations at the state and local levels are addressed. � U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Develop- ment and Research, and Federal Emergency Management Agency, Federal Insurance Administration, Design and Construction Manual for Residential Buildings in Coastal High Haz@rd Areas, January 1981. This manual is intended for use by designers, home builders, community leaders, local officials and home owners who wish to build prudently in areas of high hazard due to coastal flooding and to meet,the requirements of the National Flood Insurance Program. It focuses on unique factors and conditions found in coastal environments as the basis for design and con- struction recommendations. Among the subjects discussed are background information on the NFIP, the hazards associated with building in the coastal floodplain, a review of alternative approaches for housing built on raised foundations, recommended performance criteria for the construc- tion of foundation systems,in flood hazard areas, and some indications of design solutions. It includes an extensive bibliography. 44 Walton, Todd L. Jr. Hurricane - Resistant Construction for Homes. Florida Sea Grant Publication, Marine Advisory Program. University of Florida, August 1976. This pamphlet is intended to familiarize the home builder and home owner with federal and local regulations dealing with construction in hazardous coastal areas of Florida and to suggest construction guidelines to "hurri- cane-proof" homes (both new and existing) for wood frame, masonry and brick, and pole construction. The pamphlet also includes a brief review of types and causes of hurricane damages and probabilities, and includes .an extensive list of technical references. Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Mddel Minimum Hurricane-Re6istant Buildin2 Standards-for the Texas Gulf Coast. September, 1976. This report presentsminimum building standards that can reduce the hurri- cane risk to life and reduce the risk to property to an acceptable level. Principal elements of the report include: a discussion of the hurricane- related forces impacting the Texas coast; a description of the nature and magnitude of the destructive forces associated with hurricanes; an analy- tical procedure for spatially delineating the varying degrees of exposure to the design hurricane's destructive forces in coastal areas; i.e. estab- lishing "hazard zones"; a set of minimum performance criteria for structures in each of the hazard zones; and a draft minimum model building standard to implement the performance criteria in each hazard zone. Bureau of Disaster Preparedness, Florida Dept. of Community Affairs and Dept. of Urban and Regional Planning, Florida State University, Hurricane Hazard Mitigation at the Local Government Level. The Roles of the Building Code and Other Development Management Strategies. October 1980. 4 Study prepared to provide local governments with guidelines to address long-term mitigation of hurricane hazards. Includes three major chapters: hazards of a hurricane, the use of building codes to reduce hurricane hazards, and the use of other non-structural techniques governing the location of development (regulations, acquisition, etc.) as hazard miti- gation measures. The focus is on assisting local governments in Florida (e.g. one appendix is on Florida's vulner@bility to a hurricane), but sections are generally useful to other coastal areas. The chapter on build- ing codes is quite thorough, addressing problems with codes commonly used in - 45 - Florida, what a hurricane protection code should ideally address, ways to insert hurricane provisions into a code, and the types of problems that can be expected. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Ways of Estimating Wave Heights in Coastal High Hazard Areas. April 1981. A collection of three separate documents concerning wave height calcula- tions. The first, "Field Manual for Estimating Wave Heights in Coastal High Hazard Areas in Atlantic and Gulf Coast Regions", is a simplified version of the method FIA uses to calculate wave heights in its new flood insurance studies. Step-by-step procedures are provided as well as data forms. A more detailed version of the methodology is provided in the second document, "Users Manual for Wave Height Analysis". The third docu- ment provides the technical background for the procedures. 46 CHAPTER 4 PROTECTING NATURAL SYSTEMS A variety of approaches are available to protect natural coastal systems in your community: - regulations - beach nourishment - dune vegetation and maintenance protective structures .In deciding whether to use these approaches, you should consider several factors, including: - effectiveness - public acceptance - availability of alternatives - implementation and enforcement difficulties - legal limitations - costs - impacts on the neighboring shoreline Scientists and engineers have come to agree that the best protection for coastal development lies with the natural protective system of beaches and dunes. Beaches can absorb much of the destructive energy of storm surge, while dunes provide the innermost line of natural defense. Beach and dune systems can afford partial or complete protection to land areas behind them. Even when breached by major storm waves, dunes will gradually rebuild. If dunes are adequately protected, they can provide much protection to coastal development; additional structural measures may not be needed. As a result, protection of these natural features frequently has the effect of reducing flood damages, even where flood loss reduction is not the pri- mary objective. Some coastal states and localities, however, have adopted measures explicitly directed to reducing storm damage by protecting natural systems. Such programs may, at the same time, enhance local recreational and tourism development opportunities. - 47 - A variety of regulatory and other programs that may fit your community's needs to protect natural features are discussed in this chapter. Techniques which protect natural features by preventing construction in coastal areas through setbacks or other means are discussed in Chapter 2 above. REGULATIONS Kinds of_Regulations to Protect Natural Systems If your community participates in the National Flood Insurance Program, it will have to meet minimum NFIP requirements on protection of natural systems (in addition to NFIP requirements on safe construction in hazardous areas, as described in Chapter 3). Beyond the NFIP requirements, there are a variety of regulatory approaches to protecting beaches and dunes. These include controls on traffic or other activities;on beaches and dun@@s, asVell'as con- trols on the removal of sand. � NFIP requirements. The National Flood Insurance Program requires pro- tection of two types of natural features that are effective in reducing losses from coastal storms. Communities participating in the regular phase of the insurance program must prohibit man-made alterations of both sand dunes and mangrove stands within V zones* which would increase potential flood damages. Sand dunes may be found in A zones, as well as V zones, however, and therefore, in many communities, additional controls are necessary to adequately protect dunes. � Beach and dune protection ordinances. Your community can choose from a variety of regulations to protect its dunes and beaches. The simplest and most general type of restriction is one which simply prohibits any alteration of the dune. Onslow County, North Carolina, enacted a good example of this kind of ordinance in 1968. (See box.) Beach anddune protection regulations may be contained as part of the community's zoning ordinance (pakticularly ones 6stablishing coastal tonservancy objectives, such as wildlif@ and scenic beauty protection), or *V zones and A zones are described on page,32. - 48 they may be adopted as special purpose regulations. If a zoning ap- proach is taken, different beach and dune use restrictions can be easily imposed on different portions of the coastal area. ONSLOW COUNTY SAND DUNE PROTECTION ORDINANCE The Sand Dune Protection Ordinance of Onslow County, North Carolina makes it unlawful for anyone to damage, destroy or remove any sand. dune or portion thereof lying on the ocean si'de of a "shore protec- tion line" which is precisely defined in the ordinance. It also makes it a crime to kill, destroy, or remove trees, shrubbery or other vegetation growing on sand dunes without a permit from a shore- line protection officer (the county surveyor, .county sheriff, or sheriff's deputies) authorizing such alteration. Permits are not issued for any action which might materially weaken the dune or re- duce its effectiveness in protecting the shore from the effects of wind and water. Failure to comply with the provisions of this ordi- nance is a misdemeanor punishable by a fine of $50 to $500; failure to repair damage to dunes and vegetation is a separate violation. ordinances may also be directed specifically at the prevention of par- ticular activities which threaten beaches and dunes, such as excavation and traffic. As a minimum, excavation of beaches and dunes,should be controlled. 'Such controls might, for instance, require a permit for mining of sand and impose minimum standards for the size and shape of the dunes remaining after sand removal. (See box.) Taking sand from shallow underwater areas may also have to be controlled since extractors may move to these sources to avoid prohibitions on beach sand removal. Regulating sand removal from this near shore area is important because beach erosion will simply increase to replace any sand extracted there. Both pedestrian and vehicular traffic can damage dunes and beaches, and both may be restricted by local ordinance. In order to effectively re- strict pedestrian traffic on dunes, it is often necessary to construct walkways over them; this is inexpensive and is usually more effective than simply forbidding walking on the dunes. In some areas, ordinances restricting the use of off-road vehicles (e.g. dune buggies) on dunes may be needed. 49 REGULATION OF DUNE SAND EXTRACTION IN PUERTO RICO The Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources administers a regula- tion on the extraction of materials from the earth's crust, including sand, gravel, clay, etc., on public and private property. In order to obtain a permit, the applicant must submit information on the ex- traction operation, including a map and detailed sketch, a marine chart (if extraction in coastal waters will occur), a recent'a,ir photo, and a description of facilities to be installed to prevent water or air pollution and to preserve the natural resources in the immediate or adjacent area. Special conditions may be applied to any permit. In cases where removal of sand from dunes is requested, additional information (a topographic survey) must be submitted. The regulation also specifies requirements that apply to residual dunes resulting from extraction: not less than 10 meters in width, minimum altitude of 8 meters with specified slope, and a final elevation of the excavated area of not less than one meter above mean sea level. OFF ROAD VEHICLE REGULATION: ALABAMA Act No. 755 approved September 1973 by the Alabama Legislature pro- hibits operation of vehicles in certain counties on.coastal sand dunes located fifty feet -or further from'-the water I.ine: without written permission of the landowner.. The penalty for.violation of this act (a misdemeanor) is a maximum fine of $1,000 and/or a maximum term of imprisonment of I year. Failure to see public notices of this act posted along applica.ble beaches is not a de- fense to violations of this act. o other regulations. While beach and dune protection ordinances are most common, other types of regulations also address the protection of natural coastal features. For example, regulations that protect offshore coral reefs can help reduce the impacts of storm waves on the shore. Regula- tions designed to protect coastal wetlands can also minimize the effects of coastal storms. Factors Affecting Decisions to Regulate Protection of Natural Systems In deciding whether regulatory measures may be useful in protecting natural features in your community, you should consider several factors: (1) Effectiveness If building on or adjacent to beaches and dunes has already occurred, or if dunes have already been destroyed, protective regulations are likely to be ineffective. In this case, the beach nourishment approaches discussed below may be the only available method of employing natural systems to protect your coast. However, if your beaches and dunes are basically intact or only partially eroded or damaged regulatory ap- proaches can be quite effective and may be sufficient to protect them from further harm. .(2) Public acceptance Restriction of public recreational use of beach'-and dune'areas may lead to considerable public opposition, even though these areas are very vulnerable to damage. In particular, there may be conflicts with rec- reational goals of increasing public access to coastal areas. Accordingly, restrictions on use of beach and dune areas may need to be combined with increased publib access to less vulnerable recreational lands. (3) Enforcement problems Proper implementation and strict enforcement of local beach and dune pro- tection regulations are essential to their effectiveness. Both sand ex- traction and beach.traffic can cause damage in short periods of time and they'may occur at night. Since signs identifying illegal activities are rarely sufficient, some sort of patrolling effort is usually necessary. Appropriate penalties must be available to impose on offenders. (4) Legal limitations In places where dunes can be privately-Owned, legal qu estions may arise over f4hether dune regulations con!�titute "a "taking"' of private property. For example, wfiere lots are very small (which is the case in many coastal communities),'prohibitihg alteration of the dune may, in effect, prohibit'all use of the lot and may be perceived as "taking" (see page 21). - 51 - BEACH NOURISHMENT Methods to Build Beaches Eroding beaches can be built up to provide protection against coastal flooding by placing sand on the shore through mechanical means. The sand used as fill may come from behind the beach, from offshore, or from other sources farther away. As noted above, sand from the nearshore zone should not be used to replenish the beach because removing sand from this area will simply result in faster erosion of the beach. To protect against hurricanes as well as more frequent flooding, dune construction through mechanical means may be undertaken in addition to beach nourishment. Engineering techniques must be used to determine the beach dimensions needed to withstand antici- pated storm damages, as well as the required replenishment rate. Factors Affecting Decisions to Build Beaches In deciding whether to mechanically reconstruct your community's beaches, or rebuild its dunes, you should explore several factors: (1) Availability of alternatives If your community's beaches and dunes are currently intact, or if they have been only partially eroded, adopting one of the regulatory ap- proaches discussed above may serve your community well. In many towns, however, dunes are largely destroyed and beaches have been seriously eroded. In these cases, beach nourishment and dune replenishment programs may be the only way to restore natural protective systems. (2) Technical feasibility Beach nourishment is technically complex, requiring an engineering evaluation of: - direction of longshore transport of sand - amound of sand needed, taking the natural supply into account - characteristics of native beach material - characteristics of borrow material (sand, stone, or organic material) to be used - beach characteristics, such as height and width of berm. 52 (3) Cost If conditions are suitable, the costs of beach nourishment may be rela- tively low compared to methods using structures to protect beaches. Generally, beach nourishment is more economically feasible and more practical for longer stretches of beach. Protection of small stretches of beach is, as a rule, too expensive since the newly-widened beach is exposed to the sea and erodes rapidly, making maintenance costs very high. Maintenance costs for annual additions of sand can be high for long stretches of beach as well and should always be considered in addi- tion to initial costs. Constructing dunes to protect against hurricanes, while feasible in some instances, is generally quite expensive, often beyond the reach of coastal communities even with state and federal assistance. COSTS OF BEACH NOURISHMENT Costs of beach nourishment depend upon proximity of the borrow site, sand type of borrow site, time of the year work is to be done (win- ter work will elevate costs), quantity of material available at the borrow site (additional sites will elevate costs), exposure of the native beach, and extent of any mitigation measures required to les- sen adverse environmental impacts on borrow sites. If it is a large project (fill for a two-mile stretch or more), several million cubic yards of sand may need to be obtained. The cost of transporting this sand from an ocean area by means of an hydraulic dredge may reach $5 to $10 per cubic yard in some states (1981 prices). This price fluctuates with the price of oil and de- pends on whether marine equipment is required. Costs of a beach nourishment project in Westhampton, Long Island, under good condi- tions, were estimated at $4 to $5 per cubic yard of sand in a 1981 study. An emergency fill project at Moriches Inlet, New York, which extended into the winter months, was\much more costly -- ranging from $9 to $11 per cubic yard of sand used (1981 prices). On the North Carolina coast the cost of pumping sand ashore by hydraulic dredge has been estimated at @1.50 to $3.00 per cubic yard (1981 prices). For projects where sand can be transported via truck from nearby land areas, the cost can be considerably less; the exact cost depends on the distance the sand is hauled. In the winter of 1981, Westport, Connecticut, built up a 2,000-foot strbtch of municipal beach with 2,000 cubic yards of sand obtained one-quarter mile away. The cost of this small beach nourishment project was approximately $2.75 per cubic yard. 53 Obtaining an adequate supply of suitable sand is critical to beach restoration projects. It may be difficult, in many cases, to find a source of borrow material that has the desired characteristics, as well as being economic to utilize. As noted above, borrow material can be hauled over land to the beach or pumped from an offshore floating dredge through a pipeline to the beach. Beach nourishment projects undertaken in recent years have relied more heavily on off- shore deposits as a source of borrow material. sand deposits in bays and lagoons are easily depleted; removal from estuarine areas may be ecologically unacceptable. (4) Availability of assistance Financial assistance for beach nourishment projects may be available from the Corps of Engineers to towns for projects on publicly-owned beaches, but projects must meet strict benefit/cost guidelines. Though Corps assistance will reduce the cost to your town, the commu- nity will still have to pay 50 percent of the project's cost if the project is defined as beach erosion control or 30 percent if the pro- ject is designed to provide hurricane protection. In addition, waiting periods for Corps projects are often extremely long. DUNE VEGETATION AND MAINTENANCE Methods of Dune Vegetation and Maintenance Where development encroaches on the dunes or the dunes are partially removed (e.g., sand extracted for construction or. to make accessways), the capability of the dune system to withstand storm waves is greatly reduced. Regulatory approaches and beach nourishment are two methods to protect or replace natural dunes and are discussed above. A third method is to rebuild natural dunes using fences, vegetation, or similar low-cost methods. If your dunes have been destroyed by storm or developipent, reconstructing them can be an effective means of providing some protection to your shore- line development. To build.dunes, fences are commonly installed to trap sand, and vegetation is planted to hold it in place. Replacement dunes should be built above the high tide line and on slopes that face the ocean. These same techniques can be used to maintain existing dunes. - 54 - Dune maintenance. Structuresi such as snow fences, can be used to build and protect dunes, or fencelike structures that serve the same puiposes as snow fences can be constructed from materials such as discarded Christmas trees or brush. (See box.) Once dunes are pro- tected with fencing, vegetation should be placed on the dunes to enhance stability. The rate at which dunes can be built varies de- pending upon local conditions. In some places dune establishment may take several years, while, in others, a four foot dune may be built in less than a year. While long linear fences can be used in wide o plenbeach areas to build long linear dunes, in more populated areas different configurations of fencing may be more effective. For instances, on Long Beach Island, New Jersey, the state has used fences perpendicular to the dune line to trap the sand moving along the dune followed by zig-zag-fencing which catches sand from all angles of the wind., CHRISTMAS TREES AND THE PREVENTION OF COASTAL EROSION IN JACKSONVILLE, FLORIDA Thousands of Jacksonville's Christmas trees are being buried along the beaches. Officials of the Jacksonville Marine Institute hoped that the trees would stop beach erosion caused by winds and by beach buggies that had killed beach vegetation. Much to the sur- prise of the Institute, thousands of residents of this northeastern Florida city donated their trees to the project. Dune vegetation stabilizes sandy beaches and dunes bytrapping windblown beach material. As a result, it is effective only in areas where sand volume is considerable. Dune vegetation generally should be planted parallel-to the high-tide line, in the path of blowing sand. Of course, the location of plantings must take into account the direction of.local prevailing winds. Because dunes grow toward the sand supply, which is often near the surf zone, it is a good idea to locate plantings as fdr as possible from the water. Sand fencing can be placed in the planting areas temporarily while the plants get started. - 55 Beach Wetgrass is commonly used along the Atlantic Coast, south to North Carolina, and in the Great Lakes. New England and New Jersey have also had success with American beachgrass. Further south along the Atlantic, Sea Oats are common and along the Gulf Coast, Sea Oats, Dune Panic Grass, and Salt Meadow Cord Grass are commonly used. State offices of the Soil Conservation Service should be consulted for information on the exact A species that are best adapted to your community. Factors Affecting Decisions to Maintain Dunes In deciding whether to place fences or like materials or to plant vegetation on dunes, you should consider a few factors: (1) Ease of use- Both dune vegetation and maintenance are fairly simple methods of shore protection. They can usually be accomplished on a small scale -- by the community, by groups of property owners, or by individual property owners. Non-technical materials explaining how to install dune protec- tion fences or similar devices and how to plant dune grasses are usually available. (2) Cost In addition to being fairly simple methods of protection, dune vegetation and maintenance are usually low-cost. Costs for vegetation planting may be as low as $10 per foot, depending on the species used and the areas to be covered. However, vegetation on dunes may be destroyed during storms and have to be replaced frequently. Building beaches and constructing dunes by mechanically dumping sand may be prohibitively expensive in areas where sand is in short supply, and in certain locations the rate of erosion may require replenishment year after year. By comparison, the capital costs of dune vegetation and snow fences are very low, though they are impermanent and require fre- quent replacement. Where development has not yet taken over your beaches, there are few limitations to the use of these labor-intensive, low cost protection methods. 56 PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES* Engineering L@pproaches to Strengthen Natural Protection Another method your community can consider is the engineering approach to strengthening natural protective systems. This approach does have major drawbacks, however; since it works by disrupting natural processes, adverse side effects often outweigh anticipated benefits. e Groins -- "dams for sand" or barriers extending from the backshore into the littoral zone of sand movement -- are the primary engineering tool used to maintain beaches. They do so by interrupting the natural flow of sand along the shore, and trapping it in the desired place.** Groins are made of timber, steel, concrete, or rock. They may be long or short, high or low, permeable or impermeable. Low groins allow sand to.pass-over the top; permeable groins allow sand to pass through. High gkoihs,'extending beyond the breaker zone may have exceptionally severe downdrift impacts by diverting the course of littoral drift past adjacent beaches. In many cases, sand may be artifically placed between the 'groins to solve sand supply problems. e Offshore breakwaters are structures designed to protect an area from wave action. They are placed in deeper water than the seaward edge of jetties or groins and are.not tied to the shore. The purpose of the offshore breakwater may be to protect a section of shore, to aid navi- gation (by providing a protected harbor), as a trap for littoral drift, or some combination of these purposes. In some-areas, offshore break- waters have been built in conjunction with on-shore seawalls as a first line of defense against storm waves. Offshore breakwaters dissipate wave forces and cause littoral drift to deposit on the shore. *Other types of structures designed to directly protect coastal development include seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments. These are discussed in Chap- ter 5. **Jetties are similar to groins in that they dam the littoral flow of sand. They are used primarily in conjunction with navigation projects, however, to prevent the flow of sand into a navigation channel. 57 In almost all cases, offshore breakwaters are of rubble-mound construc- tion. Steel sheet-pile is sometimes used in the Great Lakes where the breakwater is not exposed to the action of the open ocean. Factors Affecting Decisions to Build Protective Structures In deciding whether your community should build structures such as groins or offshore breakwaters, you should consider several factors: (1) Effectiveness Groins have a high rate of failure to achieve their intended purpose. Several conditions are required for the success of groin systems: there must be a significant volume of littoral drift, and the drift must carry coarse materials greater than 0.2mm. In the case of offshore breakwaters, effectiveness depends in great part on their height in relation'to wave action and water level variations. They are most effective when no significant wave overtopping will occur. Still, even the partial bar- rier of a submerged bre akwater may be desirable in some instances. In any case, a widespread view of many coastal scientists and environ- mentalists is that these types of structures are basically ineffective at protecting beaches and dunes. In addition, because of their effects on neighboring shorelines (see item 3 below), many beach experts feel that they should not be used at all. (2) Cost The cost of groins has been estimated at several hundred dollars per foot (1981 prices) depending on exposure to wave action, range of tide, accessibility of buildng materials, the height of the apron, and the distance the groin will extend from the shore. In North Carolina, a 450 foot long rubble and stone groin with a maximum water depth of six feet would cost approximately $250,000 to build (,1981 prices), or $550 per.linear foot. The cost of sand to fill between groins is extra. The cost of offshore breakwaters depends on the depth of water, avail- ability of materials, and wave action, and it is generally greater than on-shore structures. Typical construction costs (1981 prices) have 58 been estimated at $300 to $500 per foot for a stone breakwater in water depths of 6 to 10 feet and $3500 per linear foot for construction in water depths of 10 to 15-feet. (3) Impacts on neighboring shoreline Beaches are dynamic landforms in constant motion. Sand is always moving offshore, onshore, and along the coast with longshore currents. By continuously shifting, sandy beaches naturally-adjust to changes in tide, sea level, and sediment supply. Constructing shore protection devices inevitably interferes with these natura.1 processes, often caus- ing the aesthetic and recreational benefits of natural beaches in the vicinity to be reduced, or disappear. Accordingly, the effects on natural features and adjacent properties must be taken into account when considering employing structures to protect your coast. Groins and offshore breakwaters may increase the rate of destruction of downdrift beaches since they interrupt the natural flow and deposi- tion of sand. These impacts may be dramatic. Since offshore break- waters intercept littoral drift and cause sand to deposit onshore up- drift from the breakwater, erosion downdrift is comm on. Similarly,* an adjacent property owner's groin may cut off the sand supply needed to maintain your town's beach. As noted above, sand may have to be artifically placed between groins to solve the sand supply problem. (4) Availability of alternative approaches Nonstructural approaches to beach replenishment and maintenance cost less, work better in many situations,'and impose fewer hardships on downdrift beaches, than their structural counterparts. As a result, coastal communities should generally look first to rec@ulatory programs R. to protect natural systems, and to vegetative and maintenance programs or beach nourishment approaches to strengthen existing natural systems. only if these "natural" approaches have proven ineffective, or if they need to be supplemented, should engineering means to strengthen natural protection systems be considered. - 59 SOURCES OF DETAILED INFORMATION o The Conservation Foundation. Coastal Environmental Management; Guidelines for Conservation of Resources-and Protection Against Storm Hazards. 1980. This guidebook offers a comprehensive set of physical management policies for coastal communities and a description of relevant federal and state programs. It includes recommendations for specific areas: coastal uplands, coastal floodlands, saltwater wetlands, banks and bluffs, dunelands, beaches, coastal waters and'basins. The aim of the guidebook is to help communities create effective programs that conserve resources and, at the same time, protect property and life against natural hazards. Part I addresses principles and policies for ecological and hazards management and practical ways in which federal programs and laws affect implementa- tion. Part II describes the current regulation and program structures of the federal agencies with major responsibility for the areas,of environ- mental management. � Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers. Shore Protection Guidelines. A Part of the National Shoreline Study. August 1971. These guidelines describe typical erosion control measures and present examples of shore protection facilities and criteria for planning shore protection programs. They are intended for general use by officials who are interested in suitable and economical methods of shore protection. � U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center. Shore Protection Manual Volume 11. 1977. One of a two-volume publication (Volume I introduces more technical aspects of coastal engineering), this report describes planning analysis, struc- tural features, physical factors of structural design., and case studies of shore protection. It is an extensive work which is fairly technical in nature and contains an extensive bibliography. 60 Kaufman, Wallace and Pilkey, Orrin. The Beaches are Moving: The Drowning of America's Shoreline. Garden City, N.Y. Anchor Press/Doubleday. 1979. 26 pages. This book offers a very readable discussion of the natural changing nature of the nation's shoreline. It begins with the effects of rising sea levels and continues with a description of the meterological, geological, and hydrological processes affecting beach dynamics. With this understanding as a base, the authors address the issues surrounding the use of engineer- ing works for shore protection. Examples drawn from all the nation's coasts are used throughout. Advice on successful living with beaches concludes the book. - 61 - CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURES TO PROTECT AGAINST COASTAL FLOODING One way to reduce damages from coastal flooding is to build structures that directly protect coastal development: seawalls, bulkheads, revetments. In deciding whether structures are appropriate for your commu- nity, you should consider several factors, including: - the availability of alternative protection measures. - effects on natural features and adjacent property - costs of construction, maintenance, and reconstruction - availability of financial and technical assistance - insufficiency of structures in hurricanes. KINDS OF STRUCTURES AVAILABLE TO PROTECT AGAINST COASTAL FLOODING* Seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments are structures placed parallel, or nearly parallel, to the shoreline, to separate a land area from a water area. They are typically placed on the upper part of the beach. Historically, these structures have been the traditional response of coastal property owners -- individuals, commercial enterprises, and communities -- to flooding and erosion problems. The structures discussed in this chapter generally serve a dual purpose -- preventing or reducing coastal erosion, and reducing coastal flood damage -- and it is nearly impossible to consider one without the other. However, this chapter is concerned primarily With their direct or indirect effects on reducing coastal flooding. As noted in Chapter 1, a full treatment of coastal erosion control is beyond the scope of this hand- book. A number of information sources that do specificaliy address coastal erosion are included in Appendix B. *Derived from: Corps of Engineers, Shore Protection Manual, Volume 11, 1975. Other kinds of structures -- groins and offshore breakwaters -- protect coastal development indirectly by protecting natural features. These are discussed in Chapter 3. 62 The distinction between seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments is mainly a matter of purpose. Specific design features are determined at the func- tional planning stage, and the structure is named to suit its intended pur- pose. Often the same type of structure in different localities bears a different name. Some general distinctions can be made, however; * Seawalls are generally the most massive, and thus usually quite expen- sive. They are generally only suitable for special situations. The primary purpose of a seawall is to protect land and upland property from damage by waves in areas of high wave action, with incidental functions as a retaining wall or bulkhead.. * Bulkheads are usually smaller than seawalls and are built to retain fill. Unlike seawalls, they are generally not exposed to severe wave action. 'While the primary purpose of the bulkhead is to retain or prevent sliding of the land, it does afford some protection to upland areas against wave damage. There are three basic structural types of bulkheads -- concrete, steel, and timber. Revetments are generally the lightest type of the traditional structural shore protection devices and the least expensive. Like the seawall, revetinents are designed primarily to withstand wave damage and control erosion, but in areas of light wave action or currents. Revetments are structurally of two types: rigid, cast-in-place concrete or flexible (such as stone riprap). Shoreline conditions will affect the selection of a structural type for a R seawall, bulkhead, or revetment. Foundation material must be compatible with the type of structure. For example, a structure that must penetrate the underlying foundation for stability is not.suited to a rock bottom. In ad- dition, the effect on the foundation of a seawall, bulkhead or revetment itself must be considered; they may induce'bottom scour causing settlement 63 - of the structure, and the initial placement and design of the structure must take this into account. As noted above, exposure to wave action also affects both the choice of structural type and design. For example, in areas of severe wave action, light structures,such'as-timber crib or light riprap revetments should not be used. Availability of materials, too, can be a major factor affecting the choice of structural type, as well as construction and maintenance costs. If ma- terials are not available near the construction site, or are in short supply, a particular types of seawall or bulkhead may not be economically feasible. Design considerations for seawalls, bulkheads, and revetments include: use and overall shape of the structure, location with respect to the shoreline, length, height, and stability of the soil, and ground and water level seaward and landward of the wall. Table 2 summarizes the major advantages and disadvantages of these types of structures, as well as maintenance requirements. FACTORS AFFECTING DECISIONS TO BUILD STRUCTURES In deciding whether structures may be useful in preparing your community for coastal flooding, you should explore several factors: (1) Availability of alternative protection measures When a community's beaches have already been eroded away and the sea is approaching existing development, structures may be one of the few op- portunities to reduce damage. To protect developed areas, some conunu- nities find it beneficial to build and maintain structures that are quite costly. (See box.) Artificial construction of beaches and dunes and public acquisition of developed coastal properties are the other remaining opportunities to protect fully developed coastlines, andIthese options each have serious drawbacks themselves. (See Chapters 4 and 7.) TABLE 2 SUMMARY OF SEAWALLS AND REVETMENTS Nie'rtica'l Seawalls of Flat Slab or Sheet Piles with Too Penetration and Ti .e-Backs to Anchor Massive Free-StBriding Gravity General - Seawalls Concrete Slab steel Sheet Pik Wood Sheet Pilo Seawall CA a) Relatively fast construction a) See all advantages listed under a) See all advantages listed under a) see all advantages listed under a) Provides protection from severe LAJ time. "General - Seawalls.- "General - Seawalls." "General -Seawalls." we" attack. ca 4C I- b) Provides good protection for b) Concrete is usually more dur- b) Steel has mors strength per b) Wood is usually the lowest cost b) Low maintenance cost. z eroding or unstable shoreline. able for the same or less cost. pound, requiring less tonnage material. 4C > of material transported to the cl May provide suitable 000 for C3 c) Low maintenance costs. job site. d Wood appearance blends better roadway or wal kway along with natural surroundings. crest. d) Widely used. Experienced c) Often the only practical alter- designers and contractors are native where long piles are re- d) Wood is easier to cut and shape. available. quired. a) Vertical face provides for easy d) Steel may be driven immedi- mooring or lifting facilities for ately without curing, shortening boats, or deeper water close to the construction time. shore for fishermen. a) May be driven or jetted. ca a) Structural security depends a) See all disadvantages listed a) See all disadvantages listed a) See ell disadvantages listed a) Usually very expensive. UJI upon adequate under "General - Seawalls." under "General - Soemils." under "General - Seawalls." ca 0 too penetration and b) Security depends upon ade. 4 M I-- protection W Concrete used in marine en- b) Subject to corrosion if not kept b) Subject to attack by marine quate foundation and protec. z ii) tie-back rod strength vironment requires special adequately coated. IMarine borers and fungi if not properly tion of foundation material. and anchorage skill in design and construc- resistant steel composition and treated or coated. -iii) maintenance of support- tion. cathodic protection may reduce d Downward component of do- < ing backfill behind the corrosion) flected wave energy induces CA wall. c) Concrete slabs require either scour at the toe. extra time for on-site curing b) Vertical wells induce scour at or hauling heavy slabs from d) Complex design and construc. toe. stock pile. tion problems require special skills and equipment. c) Complex engineering design d) Slabs usually jetted into place problem. to avoid spelling or cracking el Limits access and use of beach. under driving hammerblows. d) Construction requires special f) Incompatible with some forms pile driving skills and equip- of natural animal and plant ment. shore life. e) Limits access and use of beach. f) Incompatible with conditions required for some forms of natural animal and plant shore life. (All costs are estizri&te4 for a Con- strucUon Cost Index of 2100. CJ $43/LF to $130/LF $220/LF to $330/LF $60/LF to $120/LF $300/LF to ovbr $1 106/1-F TABLE 2 - continued Revetments Precast Concrete Checkerboard Revetment of Nylon Bags Filled Revetment of Stone-Filled General - Revetments Revetment Stone Revetment with Cement Grout Wire Cage Gablons a) Usually the least expensive a) See all advantages listed under a) See all advantages listed under a) See all advantages listed under a) See all advantages listed under hardened protection for the "General - Revetments." "General - Revetments." "General - Revetments." "General - Revetments." shoreline. b) Provides for access to beach b) Natural stone provides most b) Requires only small equipment b) No special equipment required. b) Constructed of individual ar- over easily traversed slope. surface area for accommodation and mostly unskilled labor. Suitable for do-it-yourself. ticulating units able to accom- of marine shore life. modate some settlement. c) Indented pattern may trap c) Suitable for stage construction. c) Flexible, easily repaired. sand and become covered with c) Repairs often require only the c) Provides sloping surface and beach. addition of more stone. d) Low initial cost. d) Low first cost. more surface area on individual units to accommodate more d) Rough surface is most effective e) Rounded, non-hazardous surfaces forms of natural animal and in dissipating wave energy. Re- plant shore life. duces wave run-up. f) Blends well with surroundings. d) Sloping surface is more accept- e) Suitable for stage construction. g) Repairs are easy, add more bags. able to state agencies due to less adverse effect on shoreline. a) The light armor facing depends a) See all disadvantages listed a) See all disadvantages listed a) See all disadvantages listed a) Wire cage gabion subject to for stability upon the under- under "General - Revetments." under "General - Revetments." under "General - Revetments." corrosion if coating not main- lying ban. tained. b) Units are light weight and de- b) Hard dense igneous rock is not b) Smooth surfaces do not inter- b) If surface is not sufficiently pend on keying action for sta- native to Florida and must be lock. (Reinforcing rod dowels b) High level of maintenance rough to dissipate the wave bility under wave attack. imported in scarce gondola cars may be installed to compensate.) effort often is required. energy, the upward deflection causing extra expense and sche- of the sloping face may cause c) Gravel layer is required between duling problems. c) Smooth rounded surfaces may overtopping. concrete and filter to prevent become slippery and hazardous uplift. c) Sharp projecting surfaces make for pedestrian footing. c) If the filter fails, the under- beach access difficult and haz- lying material is easily lost d) Loss of supporting material ardous. through the open joints. may require disassembly of revetment to restore contour. d) Underlying gravel over filter d) An underlying cushion of gravel cloth is required or rock may over the filter cloth is required e) Severe wave attack along sink. to prevent puncture by sharp Florida's east coast has led projections on rough units or to to some failures. e) Heavy equipment required for prevent uplift under smooth construction. units. (All costs are estimated for a Con- struction Cost index of 2100. $300/LF to $500/LF $30/LF to $110/LF(about $25/ton) $90/LF to $130/LF $30/LF to $80/LF Source: Collier, Courtland A. Seawall and Revetment Effectiveness, Cost and Construction. Florida Sea Grant Program. Report No. 6. May 1975. 66 - BULKHEAD CONSTRUCTION: FAIRFIELD, CONNECTICUT. The town of Fairfield, Connecticut recently built an 800-foot timber bulkhead in order to prevent flooding of approximately 25 residential structures built on a barrier beach on Long,ls- land Sound. Frequent flooding had been caused by the rising waters of Pine Creek. Built on the lee side of the sand barrier (facing Pine Creek), the structure is a wooden bulkhead combined with a 1000-foot earthen dike. The estimated cost of the bulk- head -- $300 per linear foot (1978 dollars) for a total of $240,000 -- was met with local funds. The town hired an inde- pendent structural engineer experienced in coastal construction and a private contractor to construct the bulkhead. SEAWALL REPAIR: LONGPORT, NEW JERSEY The state of New Jersey is preparing to repair a 3,700 foot long seawall in Longport. Built in the 1930's with state and local funds, this reinforced concrete seawall reaches 10 feet above mean low water. Years of wave action has caused the con- Crete to chip off the face of the wall, thus exposing the rein- forcement rods. $41.2 million (50% state, 50% local) will be required to repair its 3700 foot length. The repair, which is expected to take 4 months, will include the raising of its ele- vation 2 feet along the entire length and the replacing of exposed reinforcement rods which have begun to erode. In addi- tion to replacing the rods, six inches of concrete will be poured into the wall. For a wholly undeveloped coastline, expenditures on structural measures are far less likely to be warranted. Regulations to protect undeveloped coastal hazard areas from inappropriate development may be quite effec- tive (see Chapter 2), and beach and dune protection measures can be used to protect undeveloped shorelines from erosion (see Chapter 4). In cases where communities can meet important recreational needs by acquiring coastal property, acquisition provides still another @lternative to structures (see Chapter 2). on partially developed coasts where some beach remains, alternatives to structural protection include beach and dune protection ordinances, beach and dune replenishment and maintenance'programs, and regulations to pre- vent inappropriate development. - 67 - (2) Effects on natural features and adjacent property As discussed in Chapter 4, constructing shore protection devices in- evitably interferes with natural beach building processes, often adversely affecting natural features and adjacent properties. These problems must be taken into account when considering the use of structures to protect your coast. While seawalls, bulkheads, and re- vetments afford protection to the land immediately behind them, they do not protect adjacent areas up- or downcoast. When these structures are built on receding shorelines, beach recession will continue and may even be accelerated on adjacent shores. Loss of beach material in front of such a structure also may increase. As a result, companion works may be needed to maintain a beach in the immediate vicinity of such struc- tures, and sand replenishment measures may be needed to maintain the beach in front of the structure. (3) Economic costs of planning, construction, maintenance Initial construction of these structures is expensive. Seawalls may cost up to $800 per foot; revetments may cost up to $500 per foot. (See box.) COSTS OF SEAWALLS AND BULKHEADS The four most commonly built types of seawalls and bulkheads are constructed of concrete, steel, timber, or dumped rock, with con- crete being the most expensive structures and dumped rock being the least expensive. Following are approximate estimates of 1980 costs per linear foot of construction in New England: � concrete - $700 $800 for height of 15 feet � steel (s eeting) $600 to $700 for height of 15 feet o timber - $350 for height of 5 or 6 feet � dumped rock - $175 for height of 7 feet Periodic maintenance of these types of protective devices is critical to continued effectiveness of the devices to protect the shore. Even so- called "maintenance free" stone revetments must be carefully inspected at least twice a year; timber or concrete jetties or wwlls must also be carefully inspected. In some cases more.material may have to be added to compensate for settling of the structure. Also, repairs may have to be - 68 - made following storms. The expense of continuously battling natural pro- cesses has prevented construction of some proposed structures and led to abandonment of others. These ongoing repair and maintenance costs must be considered as well. (4) Availability of financial and technical assistance Because costs often preclude communities undertaking this approach on their own, many have'looked to the state and federal governments. Some states have programs to assist towns in protecting their coasts. The federal government has a program to help communities build shore protection stuc- tures, both to prevent flood damage.from coastal storms and'to prevent erosion. Such aid does not come quickly, however; the average waiting period in a recent study of Corps projects was found to be 18 years. Corps District Offices can be contacted to find out if your community has ever had a study of the feasibility of protection from hurricanes or coastal flooding. The Corps of Engineers may also be able to provide technical or planning' assistance to communities considering the use of shore protection structures. Chapter 9 provides a brief description of how Corps programs work. If a structural solution looks like a significant possibility for your community, engineering assistance to evaluate the structural option in more detail will likely be needed. The advice of a structural engineer experienced in the planning and supervision of coastal construction is essential in most cases. An experienced marine contractor will also be needed. X (5) Inability of structures to provide adequate protection from hurricanes In many cases, structures large enough to protect against the storm surge generated by hurricanes are simply impractical. Even where it is tech- Fir nically feasible to build hurricane protection structures, only the storm surge is affected; hurricane protection structures offer no protection against wind. Finally, the possibility that storm surge will overtop the hurricane protection structure is always present. As a result, in addition to any structures your community invests in, your community will want to 69 consider promoting safe construction (see Chapter 4) and forecasting, warning, and evacuation plans (see Chapter 6) to reduce potential hurricane damages. (6) Permit requirements Prior to construction of bulkheads or other structures at or below the mean high water line, and prior to any excavation or filling between mean high water and the annual floodmark, a permit must be obtained from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In many locations, state and/or local permits are required in addition to Corps permits. In most cases, the Corps will not process a permit application prior to state approval. Corps regulations give protection of wetlands a high priority, stating "Unless the public interest requires otherwise, no permit shaLltbe granted for work in wetlands." State agencies may impose;stri6t stan- dards on coastal construction, even where such construction';inoets Corps permit requirements. SOURCES OF DETAILED INFORMATION e Collier, Courtland A. Seawall and Revetment Effectiveness, Cost and Construction. Florida Sea Grant Program. Report No. 6. May 1975. This publication is designed to give-owners of waterfront property an easily-understood reference guide explaining the types of shore pro- tection structures that are commonly available, as well as the rela- tive merits and costs of each. For additional sources, see those listed in Chapter 4 70 CHAPTER 6 FORECASTING, WARNINGS, AND EVACUATION PLANNING One method of reducing threats to life and property from coastal storms is to adequately inform coastal residents of an approaching .:storm and to help people most vulnerable to the storm leave the exposed area through: - forecasting and warning systems - evacuation planning - public awareness programs In deciding how to use these methods, you should consider several factors, including: - benefits - other current planning and awareness efforts - data availability - cost - availability of assistance - physical feasibility One of the most important tools available to yourcommunity to save lives in the event of a hurricane or other disastrous storm is the ability to warn residents of an approaching storm and to evacuate those in most danger. With adequate forecasting and warning time, many emergency measures can be put into effect in anticipation of huricame winds and flooding. Emergency mea- sures include evacuation, provision of shelt er, and rescue operations, as well as emergency floodproofing or preparing structures to resist wind damage. rk Local governments should play a major role in developing evacuation and shelter plans and in disseminating information to the public on the nature of the hurricane hazard, as well as on hurricane warnings and evacuation plans, both prior to and during a hurricane. Generally, the more localized a warning and evacuation plan is, the more effective it will be. The illustrations in the Introduction show how vulnerable many coastal commu- nities are to being hit by hurricane force winds and storm surge. Portions 71 - of many coastal communities are low-lying, heavily developed areas where alternative approaches to reducing damage from hurricane wind and storm surge are simply not possible. It may be too late to control development (except new development) through restrictive regulations; acquisition of numerous developed properties would be prohibitively expensive. In these areas, pro- viding enough advance warning to allow people to evacuate high hazard areas, in accordance with a plan to guide the evacuation, may be the only feasible solution. In addition, providing information to coastal residents about the community's vulnerability to hurricanes in advance of such a disaster is im- portant. Increasing public awareness of the hazard beforehand can lead to better response to warnings and evacuation advisories in the event a hurri- cane does strike. FORECASTS AND WARNINGS Kinds of Forecasting and Warnin2 Systems Warnings enable both coastal residents and government agencies to take appro- priate actions before the hurricane occurs. If residents of a hurricane hazard area are warned sufficiently in advance, they can evacuate their homes or businesses, move some possessions to upper levels of the structures, or take other appropriate actions. NOAA's National Weather'Service .(NWS)., through its 1@ational Hiirricane Center-in Florida, takes the lead in issuing hurricane forecasts and warnings. The national hurricane warning system provides information on the anticipated time and location of hurricane landfall, as well as the severity of flooding and storm surge that can be expected. (See box.) However, local agencies are responsible for assuring that local residents are made aware of the situation and informed of what to do to assure their safety in the event a hurricane does strike. Even NWS's sophisticated warning system is limited: 24 hours or less before anticipated landfall, about'300 miles of coastline will be placed under warning (the average landfall forecast error at 24 hdurs is 100 miles). - 72 - NWS HURRICANE ADVISORIES The National Weather Service weather advisories include two types of releases on approaching hurricanes: � A HURRICANE WATCH is issued 36 hours or less before expected landfall (although it may be issued 48 hours ahead of antici- pated landfall before weekends or holidays). It alerts officials and residents that a hurricane poses a possible threat to coastal and island communities. � A HURRICANE WARNING is issued 24 hours or less before (a) sus- tained winds of at least 74 miles an hour and/or (b) dangerously high water or a combination of high water and exceptionally high waves (even though winds may be less than hurricane force) are expected in a specified coastal area. Often, coastal residents are unwilling to evacuate their homes until it is too late. Rising storm waters can flood coastal roads used for evacuation routes long before the worst part of a storm strikes. For these reasons, the effectiveness of hurricane warnings and evacuation plans depends upon how well the community has made the public aware of the hurricane hazard, how effective the local government is in spreading the actual warnings, the time available, and the actions taken in response. Coastal offices of the National Weather Service (NWS) issue Local Statements which inform the public about current and anticipated storm effects and serve to expand on the information in the Hurricane Advisories and Bulletins. Local Statements, Advisories and Bulletins are available to the media and state and local officials via a dedicated teletype system known as NOAA Weather Wire and/or continuous radio broadcasts known as.NOAA Weather Radio. Information is available directly to any individual through.NOAA Weather Radio. As circum- stances permit, information is passed directly from the local NWS office to the appropriate local government official by telephone or locai radio communications. The manner in which warnings -- including advisories to evacuate -- are then provided to local residents varies considerAbly from town to town. In many areas, the amount of official and unofficial information is a source of confu- sion to local residents, who may hear conflicting information passed on by radio 73 - or TV and who have no central information facility to contact. To avoid con- fusion, it is essential for local officials and the media to agree on a central source for official information during disasters. The local civil defense coordinator or other appointed agency or individual may take charge of trans- mitting official warnings and evacuation orders to the broadcast media (radio, TV, newspapers). For example, in Lee County, Florida, local disaster prepared- ness officials keep in touch with the National Hurricane Center and the state Office of Disaster Preparedness, and issue (over local radio and TV) local action statements that include directions to residents on evacuation and shelters. The local police or fire department may-play a role.in touring coastal neighborhoods to advise residents to leave, or a telephone system of passing warnings along may be utilized. Telephone systems are vulnerable to disruption during storms, however, unlike radio communication systems. Factors Affecting Decisions to Use Warnings Systems In deciding whether to implement or improve a local warning system, you should consider several factors: (1) Benefits Providing adequate advance local warnings of an approaching hurricane can reduce significantly the chances of damage to property and threat to human life. While NOAA is responsible for providing reliable fore- casts of hurricane landfall and expected storm surge, a local system for effectively and clearly communicating warnings can assure that local residents are forewarned of the danger and are able to take necessary precautions. Properly informed residents taking even simple measures -- such as removing outdoor furniture -- can reduce damages significantly, in this case from flying debris. (2) Legal considerations Until recently, few communities have had to deal with issues of legal responsibility for providing reliable local flood warnings or of public liability for damages following inadequate warnings. However, changing - 74 - notions of governmental liability may make these problems more common in the future. Also, there may be challenges to the legal authority of local offi- cials to order individuals to leave their homes and businesses; often people are simply advised to leave instead, with the the final decision to evacuate .left to the individual. EVACUATION PLANNING Types of Evacuation Plans An evacuation plan generally addresses three basic elements of emergency re- sponse: warnings, the logistics of evacuation itseif, and the provision of shelters. � Warnings. The plan should address all the elements of warning trans- mission discussed above -- how NOAA hurricane forecasts will be received and transmitted by state and local agencies, who will be responsible for making these known to the general public (e.g., through the broadcast media), how the emergency communication system will work, how the public can confirm information, who issues evacuation orders and how, etc. � Evacuation. -The plan should address, as specifically as possible, when and how evacuation will take place, what evacuation routes should be used, and how residents can get to shelters and refuges most easily. � Shelters. The plan should provide specific instruction as to when public shelter should be sought, who provides usable shelter space, who is re- sponsible for shelter preparedness and management, specific shelters for specific neighborhoods, etc. Other issues, too, need to be addressed in an evacuation plan, including: local resources to be called on in.the event of an emergency, coordination among private and public agencies, and ways to evaluate a program once it is put into effeqt. Some areas (including Miami and New Orleans have considered "vertical evacuation", namely the use of high-rise buildings in hazardous areas near the shore as an alternative or adjunct to evacuation inland. However, this approach is generally - 75 - considered only as a last resort due to a number of serious concerns, pri- marily unresolved questions of liability (e.g., municipal liability to owners of buildings used in the event of damages incurred), difficulty in locating suitable, structurally-sound buildings (e.g., ones outside of the high-velocity zone), and the possibility of discouraging earlier' evacuation to safe inland shelters. As noted above, the role of the community is critical to the success of storm warnings and evacuation. Actual arrangements for preparation of evacuation plans may vary from place to place: - local areas may prepare plans on their own - local areas can undertake evacuation planning with state help - local areas can undertake evacuation planning with federal help - a local area may be covered by a regional warning/evacuation plan - a local area may be covered by a state-wide emergency plan which deals with warnings and evacuation. Regardless of the particular arrangements used, local involvement in plan preparation is an important key to plan success. TAMPA BAY REGION, FLORIDA: HURRICANE EVACUATION PLAN ()UNE 1981) The Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council has prepared a comprehensive re- gional hurricane evacuation plan for the 4-county Tampa Bay region, one of the areas of the nation most vulnerable to hurricanes and tropical depressions. Intended to provide a model for multi-county evacuation planning, primary funding was provided by the Jacksonville District Corps of Engineers through its Floodplain Management Services Program, with additional funding from NOAA and participating local governments. Initiated in January 1980, the Plan provides a quantitative regional framework for implementation by the local government5. The technical report, developed in large part through computer modeling, includes: analysis of potential hazards, identification of vulnerable areas and populations, delineation of evacuation zones, behavioral tendencies of potentia'1 evacuees, analysis of shelter stability and capacity and procedures for overall coordination. -The Regional Plan also includes four county implementation reports and public awa'reness tabloids. The Plan was successfully tested during an exercise in May 1982. Begin- ning in October 1983, revisions are to be considered in response to increases in population, changes in transportation, and in shelter avail- ability, as well as in response to new hurricane hazard analysis tech- niques. 76 - Factors Affecting Decisions to Prepare an Evacuation Plan In deciding whether your community needs to prepare a local evacuation plan, you should consider several factors:, (1) Benefits The benefits of having an effective evacuation plan are substantial, though often hard to measure precisely. Reduced loss of life is cer- tainly the major objective of evacuation planning. During Hurricane Camille in 1969,for instance, 175,000 people we@reevacuated from along the Gulf coast. Although 6,000 homes were destroyed by the storm and another 30,000 damaged, there were only 150 fatalities. It has been suggested that this figure would probably have been i.n the'.thousands if not for the wide-spread evacuation that took place. In 1980, the evacuation prior to the landfall of Hurricane Allen was wide-spread and effective. (See box.) (2) Integration with other local efforts A variety of types of emergency response planning may be undertaken by coastal communities in addition to hurricane evacuation planning, in- cluding planning for hazardous materials emergencies, crisis relocation planning, and planning for nuclear reactor emergencies. Significant savings in cost and labor can result from coordinating these emergency response planning efforts. In some instances, identical tasks must be performed for each kind of plan (traffic studies for instance) and, with adequate coordination, need be'done only once. .(Of course, each kind of plan also involves unique tasks, and one cannot be substituted for another.)' (3) Availability of data The nature of an evacuation plan may vary considerably from place to place, depending on the amount of technical data available for plan preparation, as well as the level of technical detail desired by the community. If state and/or federal help is available; an evacuation plan based on detailed analysis of storm surge probabilities, expected flood heights vs. elevation of possible evacuation routes, population, evacuation traffic that can be expected with various lead times, and other factors can be - 77 - prepared. Routes to shelters for various sectors of town can be mapped and detailed information distributed to all residents of coastal hazard areas. EVACUATION IN THE TEXAS COAST: HURRICANE ALLEN When Hurricane Allen threatened to strike the Texas coast in August 1980, surprising numbers of coastal residents took early heed of warnings and prepared for the storm's arrival; many others evacuated the area, in many cases well before the hurricane warning was issued. Although Allen never did strike the coast with its full fury, the experience is a valuable one. FEMA is conducting a study of the public's response to Hurricane Allen. Some of the preliminary findings are as follows: � The public seemed to be quite willing to evacuate the area well before being encouraged to do so by officials and the posting of a Hurricane Watch. Such willingness may be at- tributed to the area's experience with a major hurricane ten years earlier, plus the publicity Allen received as being a major storm of record proportions. Thousands of people such as those living 20 miles inland and 30 feet above sea level -- may have fled from relatively safe dwellings in search of even safer shelters. � Preliminary figures indicate that over 70,000 people moved into over 194 shelters, while another 200,000 people left the coast to stay overnight in motels or in the inland homes of friends and relatives. � Generally, the public appeared to be better prepared and more responsive to the changing situation than the officials and government entities. Fortunately, "Allen" was a gentleman, and the selective track of the storm failed to expose the lack of comprehensive emergency preparedness of a few govern- mental organizations. (Disaster Information, FEMA, September 1980) However, a few problems were also apparent. FEMA's itudy has noted that since a number of coastal shelters did not opren until late in the day (after many coastal residents had left the area) or because the shelters' locations were not known, many people evacuated several hundred miles northward rather than utilizing nearby shelters. Also, some residents unknowingly evacuated from one danger area to another because of a lack of information about the extent of the watch/ warning area. 78 Ideally, every community would have an evacuation plan based on reliable engineering and technical data. Plans prepared with an adequate data base increase the likelihood of efficient evacuation in all the necessary circumstances, and in only the most necessary situations. However, many coastal communities may find themselves unable to obtain outside help for evacuation planning and with limited local technical capabilities, but still wishing to do something. In these cases, minimal action may still be possible; this could include identification of a few shelters that are clearly on safer ground, and designation of local police or fire depart- ments to issue evacuation advisories. (4) Cost The costs of preparing a hurricane evacuation plan can vary widely de- pending on the availability of technical data (on vulnerability, storm surge, etc.), the level of detail to be included, and the area covered by the plan. As an example, Lee County, Florida's evacuation plan, which covers an area of 785 square miles, cost approximately $45,000 and took about one year to prepare. The Southwest Florida Regional Evacuation Plan, prepared with assistance from the Sea Grant Program and the office of Coastal Zone Management, covers 6,663 square miles and cost $115,000 to prepare, including federal and local matching funds. (5) Availability of assistance Local officials wishing to develop or revise a local evacuation plan are most likely to encounter problems obtaining all the technical data re- quired to prepare adequate evacuation plans. As a result, state or federal assistance is often sought in preparing an evacuation plan -- both as a A source of funds for obtaining data and a source of technical assistance in developing needed data. For example, NOAA has prepar6d maps that show tv coastal routes that will be inundated at various levels of storm surge for most of the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. NOAA has also prepared storm simula- tion-models in a few areas to illustrate the coastal storm surges and inland flooding that can be.expected from hypothetical storm's and based on histori- cal storm tracks. Studies are now complete for Tampa Bay, Lake Ponchatrain, Charlotte Harbor in Florida and Galveston, Texas. In addition, NOAA's 79 Coastal Hazards Program can provide various kinds of technical assistance in risk analysis, coastal mapping, etc. The Corps of Engineers has pre- pared detailed evacuation plans for a handful of areas across the country, including Lee County, Florida (see box) . FERA's Hurricane preparedness pro- gram provides financial and technical assistance for the entire preparedness effort. This preparedness program has assisted in Tampa Bay and the coastal counties of Georgia and includes involvement in twenty High-Risk High-Popu- lation areas through FY 1989. LEE COUNTY, FLORIDA, FLOOD EMERGENCY EVACUAT ION PLAN The Lee County Flood Emergency Evacuation Plan was prepared by the Jacksonville District of the Corps of Engineers and the Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council at the request of the Board of', County Commissioners of Lee County. It was'published in May 1979. The Florida Division of Disaster Preparedness and the Lee County Disaster Preparedness Coordinators also cooperated in preparing the plan. This Flood Emergency Plan consists of three documents: � A public information handout describes courses of action that residents should take in event of a hurricane. Flood emergency maps are included which describe evacuation routes, break down the county into evacuation zones, and detail routes to Red Cross shelters. Important telephone numbers and addresses are included. � An implementation plan provides for an orderly and coordinated emergency system to minimize the effects of flooding on resi- dents and visitors of Lee County, Florida. It is designed specifically for use in hurricane situations and addresses three elements of emergency response: warnings (a comprehensive system for on-going public information, early recognition of impending storms, and public dissemination of emergency warning); evacua- tion (a countywide procedure for orderly evacuation); and shelter (a comprehensive system of shelters of adequate capacity and accessibility). � A technical data report establishes guidelines and makes recom- mendations for the successful implementation of the evacuation plan. The report includes: recommendations for the future de- velopment of a postflood recovery plan for Lee County, guidelines for periodic review and updating of plan elements, recommenda- tions for testing and evaluation of plan elements through local simulation procedures. This plan is now being updated as part of the Southwest Florida Regional Evacuation Plan. (6) Physical feasibili@Ly Some hurricane prone areas may be so physically situated that, if population increases, evacuation may be physically impossible in the amount of time 80 usually available once warnings are issued. Some communities facing this problem have attempted to limit growth in hurricane prone areas to the extent of their capabilities to evacuate the residents. Sanibel Island, off Florida's Gulf Coast, determined how many people could be safely evacuated off the island during the approach of a "typical hurri- cane then established policies and regulations that limit population growth and future development in keeping with this capacity to evacuate. (See box.) SANIBEL ISLAND: GROWTH LIMITATIONS VS. EVACUATION CAPABILITIES Although Sanibel Island is part of Lee County, Florida (for which the Corps completed a detailed evacuation plan in 1979), the City of Sanibel has its own Emergency Preparedness, Evacuation, and Relief Team (EPERT) p'lan,for Sanibel and Captiva Islands. Sanibel's EPERT plan (which pre-dated the CoLunty-wide plan by three years) includes sections on notification procedures, evacuation routes, and shelters to be used. Evacuation instructions are also reprinted periodically in the local newspaper. The unique aspect of Sanibel's evacuation plan is its relationship to growth limitations on the island. Sanibel Island is a 12-mile long barrier island with an average ground elevation of five feet of less. Evacuation into elevated buildings was considered unac- ceptable, except as an emergency measure, due to the probability of isolation and hazardous conditions after a storm. There is one evacuation route -- a causeway to the mainland, which connects to an evacuation route also used by mainlanders. In light of these factors, local officials decided to plan for evacuation of all per- sons on the island in the event of a hurricane warning. Planners determined the number of people that could be safely evacuated from the island in a "typical hurricane" (based on warning time and timing of potential flooding or other blockage of the evacuation route): LK a total of 4900 to 6250 cars, depending on the severity of the storm. (in addition, it was determined that an evacuation order was needed 15 to 19 hours before landfall, depending. on storm intensity, to safely evacuate the island's inhabitants.) A population dehsity ceiling based on that figure was adopted, along with a rate-of-growth ordinance al- lowing only 180 new units to be built per year, through the next 20 years, in order not to exceed the population limit. As a result, The Sanibel Plan for development of the island includes an element on hurricanes, which incorporates detailed policies and plans on evacuation, population limit; on-island refuge, building codes, and capital improvements. This evacuation plan is now being updated to include hazard mitigation techniques. See page 96. 81 "Vertical evacuation" deserves consideration in very developed areas where evacuation of the entire exposed population is physically not pos- sible, or as a contingency plan used, for example, when a hurricane shifts unexpectedly and there is not enough time for inland evacuation. However, there are many serious problems with "vertical evacuation". one critical concern is the need to select buildings that are structurally sound and can be expected to withstand hurricane forces. Certifying the structural integrity of high-rise structures may be very difficult. The possibility of partial failure, such as extensive breakage of windows must be consid- ered as well. Following the hurricane, high-rise structures in hazardous areas, such as barrier islands, may be in a highly vulnerable situation, for example, isolated by flood waters from medical help. Another problem is that the existence of high-rise shelters may encourage residents to stay in the hazardous area, thinking that there is a safe last-minute shelter, rather than evacuating inland. Vertical evacuation thus should be considered only as a last resort for most communities. PUBLIC AWARENESS Informing and Convincing e Public Making the public aware of warning systems and evacuation plans, as well as your community's vulnerability to hurricanes, is particularly important. It is advisable to use a wide variety of methods to increase public awareness: radio, TV, disaster pamphlets, and so on. Public information materials usually include general information on what to do in case of a hurricane and maps of evacuation routes and shelters. The kinds of information and the ways they are distributed to the public will vary. (See box.) Factors Affecting Decisions to Increase Public Awareness In deciding whether your community should take steps to improve public aware- ness of the hazard from hurricanes and other coastal storms, you should consider the following factors: (1) Benefits Public response is absolutely essential to the success of any evacuation 82 - plan. Preparing the best possible evacuation plan will help no one if your town's residents do not pay attention to it. As a result, efforts to improve public awareness of your town's action plan for disaster will likely be of great benefit. Even if your town has only a minimal plan or no warning system or evacuation plan, providing information to residents on basic hurricane preparedness (e.g., publication of standard printed material in the local newspaper or telephone book) can be beneficial. PUBLIC AWARENESS INFORMATION The Lee County, Florida evacuation plan includes (in addition to technical reports) a brief but comprehensive public handout on fliod emergency evacuation, with the following information: - who will most likely have to evacuate - how residents will be informed - step-by-step instructions on what to do if evacuation is ordered or if it is not - preparedness tips for the season - telephone numbers and addresses of shelters and refuges - detailed maps and instructions on routes to shelters and routes to leave county. This information is printed annually in all major newspaper hurricane .supplements, and will be distributed from fire stations, government offices, and other appropriate public places as well. Baytown, Texas distributes brochures on elevation and hurricane in- formation, on what to do before, during, and after a storm, and maps at a scale of approximately 1:43,000*which show areas of rain flood- ing and tidal-flood.ing and possible escape routes. (2) Current level of awareness Your town's residents may or may not have much awareness of how exposed they are to severe coastal storms. If your town has recently experienced a major hurricane, awareness will probably be high, but recent experience in some cases may discourage evacuation depending on the results of the experi- ence. For example, residents of Cameron Parish, Louisiana were reluctant to evacuate during Hurricane Audrey in 1957 because they had successfully weathered earlier storms. Reluctance to evacuate was one of several mis- takes leading to the death of close to 500 people. 83 - on the other hand, if your town has not had a major hurricane in a number of years or if your town has many residents who have recently relocated from inland areas, many residents may be complacent or too young to remember the last storm. For this reason, distribution.of materials at the beginning of the hurricane season is especially important. If your town has recently experienced rapid growth or has a large tourist population from non-coastal areas, public awareness activities are even more important. (3) Costs The cost to conduct a hazard awareness program can vary considerably, depending on the types and quantities of materials to be distributed and methods of distribution. The most'basic StePS can be taken at a minimal cost -- for example, making hazard awarenes s pamphlets from. FEMA NOAA or the Red Cross available in public places or printing standard hurricane pre- paredness information in the local paper. If your-town decides to under- take a more active public awareness program, and disseminate specific information on the hazards in your town, costs will be higher. (4) Availabili@@ Of assistance Federal agencies, primarily NOAA and FEMA, as well as the Red Cross have a variety of materials on coastal hazards already available, ranging from standard information applicable everywhere on the coast to materials which can be used as a guide in tailoring your own program. Your state also may have prepared pamphlets or brochures for distribution or make technical or financial assistance available to local areas. Federal programs too may be a source of technical or financial help, including training and education programs in emergency management. These are described in Chapter 9. 84 THE ROLE OF THE RED CROSS When hurricane winds or high tides begin to cause damage to land areas, Red Cross chapters along with national and division volun- teers and paid staff assigned to the affected districts provide emergency mass care and emergency relief. Emergency mass care assistance includes food for disaster victims and emergency workers, temporary shelters, clothing, medical and nursing aid including blood and blood products. Once disaster victims can resume living as family units, the Red Cross will provide emergency assistance in the form of food, clothing, rent, transportation, temporary home repairs, medical and health needs, selected furnishings, and personal occupation supplies and equipment. Also, the Red Cross' will help families apply for government@funded assisiance for other recoviry needs. The Red Cross district headquarters is responsible for establishing appropriate contact with local officials within each Red Cross chapter's geographical jurisdiction. The Red Cross often works closely with local governments and civil defense and emergency services agencies in disaster planning activities. SOURCES OF DETAILED INFORMATION 0 Baker, Earl J', editor. Hurricanes and coastal Storms: Awareness, Evacua- tion, and Mitigation. Papers presented at a National Conference held in Orlando, Florida on May 29-31, 1979. Report No. 33, Florida Sea Grant College, April 1980. This series of papers was presented at a national conference which was cooperatively sponsored by FEMA, the Florida Sea Grant College, the Florida Bureau of Disaster Preparedness, the Florida Bureau of Beaches and Shores, the Florida Office of Coastal Management, Florida State University, and NOAA. The areas covered by these papers are warning and evacuation, local disaster response planning, the National Flood Insurance Program, land use and growth management, coastal construction, post disaster hazard mitiga- tion, hurricane perception and awareness, public participation in policy formation, and computer models of disaster effects. 0 Davenport, Sally S. and Waterstone, Penn y. Hazard Awareness Gui4ebook: Planning for What Comes Naturally, Texas Coastal and Marine Council, October 1979. This guidebook is based on a national Hazard Awareness Workshop held in - 85 - Corpus Christi, Texas, March 22 and 23, 1979. It provides guidelines for future awareness efforts concerned with earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, tornadoes, or the other natural hazards with which people must learn to cope. It describes who should initiate a hazard awareness program, what the program should include, and ways to evaluate its effectiveness. Appen- dices include sample programs and questionnaires. U.S. Department of Commerce, National oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Disaster Preparedness, Publications, Films, and other Audio Visual Materials from the National Weather Service". June 1980. Lists and describes materials prepared by NWS which can be us ed in public education and awareness campaigns. Explains how to obtain the publica- tions, films, etc. The Federal Emergency Management Agency and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration "Hurricanes Awareness Resource Kit." The Hurricane Awareness Resource Kit offers cloud charts for weather prediction, boat owner hints, hurkicane tracking charts for scbo6ls and homes, preparedness tips for business and industry, and flood damage and tax form data. The Resource Kit can be the seed for an effective local Hurricane Safety Campaign. It has been compartmentalized for instant reference, including such specialized items as a program planner's package, based on practical field experience; media background materials; and camera-ready art for campaign leaders. The elements of the kit also include a mobile home owner's guide, industrial hurricane programs, safety checklists, hurricane posters, and storm survival tabloids. Radio, television spots, and feature articles are also important components of an awareness campaign, and FEMA has provided samples of regional PSAs for adaptation. 86 CHAPTER 7 RELOCATING HURRICANE AND FLOOD VICTIMS; ACQUISITION OF-DEVELOPED AREAS One method of reducing damages from hurricanes or other severe storms is to acquire developed coastal properties and relocate residences or businesses to safer areas. In deciding whether to acquire developed coastal properties, you should consider several factors, includiftg:' - post-disaster opportunities - availability of alternatives - cost - availability of assistance - multiple benefits ACQUIRING DEVELOPED COASTAL PROPERTIES The effectiveness of acquiring undeveloped coastal areas as a tool to manage coastal hazards is discussed in Chapter 2. Your community may also want to consider acquiring developed high hazard areas that are subject to severe damages or repeated damages. Acquisition of developed properties that are vulnerable to damage from hurricanes and other severe storms can be used to break the cycle of damage and rebuilding, and at the same time provide coastal recreation areas or open space for your community. But, acquisition of coastal property particularly developed shorefront property -- can be very expensive. FACTORS AFFECTING DECISIONS TO ACQUIRE DEVELOPED COASTAL PROPERTIES Although acquisition of hurricane-prone areas offers many potential benefits, your community will have to consider a number of factors in deciding whether to acquire these types of properties: 87 (1) Post-disaster opportunities Communities most commonly consider acquiring developed coastal properties after they have been damaged by a hurricane or other severe storm. At that time, the costs of acquisition can be weighed against the available 3V alternatives -- primarily rebuilding as before or rebuilding to stricter standards. Even though community resources are already stressed by the need for emergency services, the post-hurricane period may be a most op- portune time for a community to initiate acquisition of coastal properties. (See box.) The weeks following damage to structures from a hurricane or major storm provide special opportunities to communities interested in acquiring developed proper-@ies prim@Lrily because owners of flood-prone properties are most likely to be interested in selling during this period of heightened awareness of risk. The community may further encourage the sale of property by imposing stringent construction standards on those who decide to rebuild. often, the sites of damaged structures are con- centrated in a few areas, increasing their attractiveness to local governments 'considering acquisition. Acquisition can also help trapped property owners. Some owners of flood-damaged property would like to move to safer ground but are unable to find private buyers for their property, so they are trapped into rebuilding on the same site -- where they may well be flooded again. Public purchase can enable these owners to move out of the hazardous area. (2) Availability of alternatives As noted above, your community'is most likely to consider acquisition of developed properties after they have been damaged. The alternatives to acquisition in the post-disaster situation are limited: rebuild to pre- flood conditions, rebuild to meet safer standards (e.g., floodproof or elevate the structure), or set the structure a safer distance back from the shore. 88 GULF SHORES, ALABAMA: POST-HURRICANE ACQUISITION Approximately 3,000 people live year round in Gulf Shores, Alabama, the central town on a 32-mile long barrier island known as Pleasure Island (increased from 909 in 1970). Another 1.5 million people visit the area each year. In September of 1979 Hurricane Frederic caused extensive damage in Gulf Shores destroying 400 structures and substantially damaging 50 more. The availabili,ty of funds shortly after Frederic struck permitted Gulf Shores to acquire valuable beachfront property for public use. Town officials worked with federal agencies to acquire several pieces of shore- front property and to prepare a plan for managing them: e Through its "1362 Program", the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) acquired five formerly-developed beach proper- ties (in the V-zone). These properties contained 15 building lots. The purchase added 200 feet to the public beachfront. The total cost of.acquisition of the properties, which are be- tween a narrow town-owned beach and the coastal highway, was $1,068,000 for the 3.5 acres. Titles were transferred to the town in November 1980. o The Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service (HCRS) ap- proved the town's application for $372,000 in Land and Water Conservation Fund monies to acquire another piece of property that was ineligible for the 1362 Program. A private founda- tion is providing the local matching share for the HCRS grant. 0 The Office of Coastal Zone Management (OCZM) agreed to pay up to $25,000 through the Coastal Zone Management Program for the town to develop a Master Plan for re-use of the area, in- cluding the development of long-range acquisition goals. In addition to the acquisition and related planning, the town adopted stricter floodplain regulations, including requirements for deeper pilings, bracing of pilings and incorporation of wave heights into elevation requirements. Stricter enforcement of regulations was also instituted. Although rebuilding of damaged structures in hazardous areas may be per- mitted by'your town's floodplain or zoning regulations, stricter controls than those which governed earlier construction wilf likely apply. For example, a rebuilt structure may have to be elevated above wave heights or meet new building code requirements on wind resistance. Or, a - 89 - rebuilt structure may now have to be set back a greater distance from the shoreline, requiring new foundation work. Rebuilding may make the property less prone to future damage of one sort, but more likely to be damaged in other ways. For example, de- pending on the nature of local regulations, elevation of a structure may reduce future damages from storm surge, but increase the likeli- hood of wind damages by increasinq exposure to wind. In many instances, regulations can complement acquisition in a commu- nity's program to reduce damages from coastal flooding. This can happen in at least two ways: (a) regulation of hazard fringe areas may be combined with acquisition in areas of extreme hazard to provide pro- tection to the entire coastal hazard area. (See box.) (b) strict regulations in high hazard areas may encourage the sale of coastal properties to local governments by increasinq the cost of rebuilding. (3) Multiple benefits Since the cost of public acquisition of developed coastal property is often so hihh, it is generally most effective when used in conjunction with funding programs that serve broader community goals, such as recreation or community development, and when used in combination with a variety of other hurricane and flood damage reduction techniques, such as warnings, regulations, etc. As noted in Chapter 2, acquisition of undeveloped coastal hazard areas may provide numerous benefits to your community ---- increased recreation, open space, wildlife habitat, and others. Acquisition of developed coastal hazard areas may also serve these and other related community goals as well as eliminate future damages. Where acquisition results in the conversion of a developed shore to an undeveloped area, public benefits often include, among others, reduction of public expenditures 90 - for roads and sewer lines, and reduction of public expenditures to reduce erosion caused by inappropriate development. Acquisition of developod properties provides an additional benefit beyond those obtained hy acquiring undeveloped properties: it can help communities correct pait mistakes. Experience shows that many structures in floodplains should simply never have been built there. Regulations can control future development in unsafe locations, but they can't remove already existing development. Acquisition, however, can. WARWICK, RHODE ISLAND: ACQUISITION COMBINED WITH COASTAL FLOODPLAIN ZONING Warwick, Rhode Island is a coastal town of 86,000, with a compara- tively long history of response to its coastal storm hazard. War- wick has focused its efforts on a two-zone regulatory approach, along with selective acquisition for recreational development. A 1957 zoning ordinance prohibited rebuilding and new building in areas of extreme danger (roughly identified as areas devastated by a 1954 hurricane). Additional construction requirements were added to the zoning ordinance for areas of danger not subject to high velocity waves, but all prior uses remained acceptable in this backlying zone in the revised ordinance. Rhode Island's Shore Development Act of 1955 authorized State participation in acquisition of hurricane danger areas. The Oakland Beach area of Warwick was certified as eligible, but a local bond issue for the acquisition failed by a narrow margin in 1957. Twelve acres were purchased without state assistance in 1958, and in 1961 a local bond referendum was finally passed and the state condemned the remaining 15 acres in 1963. The city purchased the lots from the state that same year and initiated the Oakland Beach Park project. Development of the Oakland Beach area, including 2500 feet of shore frontage, began in 1975 with funds from another local bond issue and from the Land and Water Conservation Fund. Parking and picnic facili- ties have been constructed at the rear of the beach area. Improved beach access through previously developed areas is another important benefit. If developed coastal properties are acquired only after storm.damage has occurred, it is likely that some individual 91 isolated parcels will be -available for@purchase. -While acquiring sc&-ttered properties may make maintenance difficult,.it can be'very useful in pro- viding needed access to the coast at a number of places. (4) Costs Acquisition of developed shorefront property is likely to be costly even more so than the purchase of undeveloped open space along the coast. It is possible, however, that costs will be lower after a disas- ter, for example, if a structure is nearly or completely destroyed. In any case, state or local funds alone may be insufficient, even to meet the matching share required by many federal acquisition programs. In addition, the community will likely need to estimate the costs and benefits of acquisition compared to other alternatives, such as-re- building. The community can reduce some 6k these costs by selectively acquiring only highly vulnerable areas, for example, or, as noted above, by packaging state or federal funding programs that serve mulfilple goals. (5) Availability of assistance Your community will have to consider the availability of both financial assistance to acquire coastal properties and technical assistance to undertake such projects. Since local funds alone may be insufficient to acquire coastal properties, state and federal programs are often looked to for supplemental assistance.- Funds specifically earmarked for acquisition of developed floodplain properties are limited to a single program: FEM&'s 1362 Program. However, a number of federal assistance programs that have, in the past, been used for traditional types of disaster assistance -- such as loans to rebuild a structure -- may now be used for relocation and/or acquisition itself in many cases. Low- interest loans from the Small Business Administration, for example, have recently been used to relocate structures from hazardous areas. 92 Like open space acquisition programs, an acquisition program focused on developed properties that is designed to serve multiple community goals has a wider range of possible funding sources. Community development block grants, for example, could be used to acquire hazard-prone proper- ties that are not eligible for acquisition under FEMA's 1362 Program but contribute to an overall community development scheme. other possible sources include Land and Water Conservation Fund monies, Fish and Wildlife t Restoration funds, and similar programs for beach access, open space, etc. The community may also want to consider private sources of funding, although these are likely to be limited also. Encouragi6 donation of 9 privately-owned residential or commercial properties damaged by a hurricane, in order to obtain tax benefits, is one of the ways to obtain private financing of acquisition projects. The community may not have the technical resources, or not have them soon enough after a stbrm, to implement an acquisition prograin -- for 'example, people who can select the most appropriate sites for acquisi- tion from the standpoint of reducing future damages. There may be competing demands for local manpower to handle acqu*isitioh projects in the post-disaster'situation, when many resources are needed to deal with emergendy or immediat6-recovery@needs. If the.town does not act quickly, however, to apply for aVailable fuinds, to propose the acquisition alterna- tive to the landowner, to undertake appraisals,-etc., -- rebuilding may occur, and the town may lose its opportunity. to acquire. For tl@ese reasons, it may be important to request state or federal assistance in evaluating an acquisition program itumediately following a hurricane or severe storm. Developing local capability to respond quickly in a disaster situation through advance planning for acquisition also promises great benefits to communities that want to acquire developed shorefront properties or pursue other opportunities to reduce future damages following the next hurricane or damaging storm. (See Cha@ter B.) - 93 (6) Tax impacts Acquisition may adversely impact local tax revenues by removing proper- ties from the tax rolls. Anticipated tax losses may be even greater than actual losses. Politically, the threa t of tax loss can create public and private opposition to acquisition projects. On the other hand, the value of properties adjoining newly-acquired public open space may rise. The net tax impacts of an acquisition project should be carefully assessed rather than assuming a significant negative impact at the outset. SOURCES OF DETAILED INFORMATION See sources listed in Chapter 2, page 27. 94 CHAPTER 8 PRE-DISASTER PLANNING FOR POST-DISASTER ACTIONS One way to reduce the damage and disruption caused by severe storms is to plan ahead for actions to be taken following a disaster. In deciding whether your community should undertake pre- disaster planning for post-disaster actions, you should con- sider several factors, including: - benefits - federal requirements and state plans - costs "lability of assistance - avak - degree of risk PLANNING FOR POST-DISASTER ACTIONS Many coastL communities have made no comprehensive effort to plan for a range of post-disaster actions prior to the occurrence of a disaster. As a result, decisions on'what can, or should, be done to restore damaged properties, or to alleviate-the-potential for future damages, must be made after the dis- aster strikes. The post-disaster period, though, is a difficult time to have to make these kinds of decisions. Evaluation of coastal hazards prior to a disaster may identify opportunities for reducing future damages which could be overlooked immediately following a disaster. Identifying these opportuni- ties ahead of time can provide a basis for decisions which would otherwise be difficult when political pressure to rebuild may be intense. Some coastal communities have basic disaster preparedness plans that deal -- at least minimally -- with storm warnings, evacuation, and rescue. While � more comprehensive post-disaster.action plan may address@ these aspects of � disaster, it should go further and distinguish between immediate relief activities where opportunities for reducing future damages are small and long-term recovery actions which often pres'ent major opportunities. Plan components will vary from town to town -- depending on the local physical situation and community goals, as well as the resources available for planning. Possible plan components -- some directed at short-term responses and others at longer-term recovery actions are briefly discussed below: 95 - * Identification of responsibilities. Clear identification of "who is to do what" is essential to effective action after a disaster. Often local government agencies have no specific directives as far as disaster re- covery -- particularly long-term recovery -- is concerned. Also, they may have conflicting responsibilities. For example, one agency may want to rebuild damaged roads as quickly as possible, while another may want to consider alternative locations or construction techniques in order to reduce future damages. Pre-disaster planning can establish, in advance, what each agency should do following a disaster; ideally, agreement would be obtained from relevant agencies on assigned..roles and financial and other resources to be provided. Special task forces to deal with the emergency and community recovery can also be provided for. o Disaster relief. Many communities undertake immediate disaster relief activities on an ad hoc basis. Pre-disaster planning can improve the ability of a community to quickly and more effectively provide or ob- tain this relief. Instructions on how to perform damage surveys that meet federal requirements can be incorporated in the plan, along with information on funds that may be available. * Inventory of vulnerable areas. An inventory of properties potentially susceptible to flooding and wind damage from hurricanes and other coastal storms is the first step in identification of possible land use changes to be implemented following a disaster. 9 Flood insurance. Pre-disaster planning can include a survey of insured and uninsured hazard-prone properties. Such surveys can provide the basis for promotion of federal flood insurance to reduce future needs for other public relief, and to reduce property ownerso losses. & Acquisition. Pre-disaster planning can identify hazardous areas that are particularly suitable for acquisition following severe flood or wind damage. Pre-disaster planning for this type of acquisition lets the community integrate community open space and recreation goals with hazard planning. Priorities for acquisition can be established, and background work completed, so that acquisition can be accomplished quickly following a disaster, before property owners opt to rebuild. 96 Specific potential funding sources can be identified so that eligibility is determined in advance for particular programs. 0 Public education and awareness. Pre-disaster planning can provide for public education to inform property owners.not only of the nature and magnitude of the hurricane hazard, but also of options available to them should a disaster occur. Public awareness before a disaster can often reduce public opposition to actions to be taken following a disaster. LOCAL PLANNING FOR POST-DISASTER ACTION The city of Sanibel, Florida is conducting a study on hurricane evacu- ation and hazard mitigation, funded in part, by the Federal Insurance Administration's State Assistance Program. The study has six elements: � Warning. Recognizing that adequate lead time may not be pro- vided by warnings from the National Hurricane Center, the study will evaluate the feasibility of a separate system of evacuation orders based on hurricane strike probability. � Evacuation. This will focus on evacuation routes used in I cooperation with mainland Lee County. Vertical evacuation and other shelters on Sanibel were rejected. � Damage reduction. Development of construction standards to minimize property damage and facilitate post-hurricane re- covery. � Recovery. Measures to minimize the likelihood of future losses, including standards for the reconstruction of sub- stantially-damaged structures. � Coordination. Especially with other levels of government. � Implementation. Integration of hazard mitigation with com- prehensive planning, zoning, development regulations, and other land use controls; identifi'cation of needs for help beyond the local level in hazard mitigation. FACTORS AFFECTING DECISIONS TO PLAN FOR POST-DISASTER ACTIONS In considering whether or not your community should prepare a pre-disaster plan, you should consider the following factors: (1) Federal requirements and stateplans As noted above, many coastal communities have no comprehensive plan 97 dealing with the post-disaster situation beyond the emergency phase. Often, coastal communities have simply,responded in their disaster planning to federal and state programs which, until recently, have concentrated on the immediate pre- and post-disaster situations -- namely on storm warnings, search and rescue operations, and provision of disaster relief to restore pre-storm conditions. The Disaster Relief Act of 1974, for example, called for the development of state disaster preparedness plans. These plans tend to focus on evacuation, warnings, and rescue operations during an emergency. Even so, they are not specifically directed to flood or hurricane emergencies and often they do not adequately address the magnitude of the hurricane problem. In other cases, localities that have recently experienced a severe storm or hurricane may have conducted hazard planning in response to require- ments of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (under Section 406 of P.L. 93-288). FEMA now requires, as a condition.of receiving federal disaster relief, state post-disaster planning to reduce vul- nerability to future natural disasters in affected communities. Al- though this requirement is a step beyond earlier disaster planning because it looks beyond the emergency relief phase, the "406 plans" are only prepared in the post-disaster context, and they are only prepared by the state. (2) Benefits Pre-disaster planning for post-disaster recovery actions offers a number of benefits to the local community. Most important, it can provide a basis for sound decision-making at a time when local resources are stressed by emergency needs and when the most common @ttitude is often "just put things back together". Airing these plan s prior to a disaster can make carrying out innovative measures more politically acceptable. The availability of a plan can make faster action possible and thereby increase the likelihood that actions to reduce future damages will take place. 98 (3) Availabil ty 0 assistance Often the lack of resources for pre-disaster planning -- funds or technical expertise -- can present major problems to the local offi- cial. However, federal financial or technical assistance to increase the capabilities of local officials to deal with natural hazards may be available. (See Chapter 9.) State or regional programs, in some instances, can also be tapped for pre-disaster.planning. (See box.) (4) Degree of risk Pre-disaster planning for actions to be taken following a disaster is especially important for communities suffering repeated severe damage or particularly vulnerable to major hurricanes. The magnitude of damage from a single hurricane is generally greater than from frequent, low-intensity coastal flooding or long-term coastal erosion, and the opportunities for actions to reduce future damages may be greater. Since there may be opposition to allocating sArarGe public resources to planning for "eventualities" which may not occur for many years, local leaders may have to be convinced first of the magnitude of the hurricane hazard before deciding to devote funds for pre-disaster planning. 99 SUB-STATE REGIONAL PLANNING FOR DISASTER PREPAREDNESS The Georgia Coastal Area Planning and Development Commission has recently prepared a model for regional disaster preparedness plan- ning for coastal areas under contract to FEMA. A broader-than- local effort was undertaken because local or county staff for preparedness planning is often minimal, with insufficient exper- tise regarding disaster preparedness. Civil defense officials, long the prime source of staff for disaster preparedness activi- ties, are frequently part-time without the time or resources to adequately deal with disaster planning. This situation is par- ticularly severe in small, rural communities. The Georgia Coastal Commission set out to develop,a"model for use by sub-state regional agencies to assist local governments in dealing with disaster planning. The Commission's program suggests that disaster preparedness planning should contain four basic elements: � planning � mapping � education and public awareness � mitigation It also defines several functional areas that should be addressed in the planning element: training and education; communication and warning; inventory of resources/coordination/emergency services; evacuation/t'ransportation/re-entry; shelters; clean-up and recovery. Functional areas suggested for the mitigation element include zoning and regulations, building codes, acquisition and open space, warnings, and long-range planning, among others. The Commission estimated financial resources necessary to under- take the model program, assuming that the comprehensive disaster preparedness program is a new one for the regional entity and re- quires a two-year start-up period. The estimate for year one is $84,019 (including full-time staff positions for a disaster preparedness coordinator and disaster preparedness/response planner, with supervisioh by a planni-ng director and cartographic and secretarial assistance); the second year estimate is $92,592. Actual costs will vary depending on the available level of staff and agency work programs. A chapter is included on the transferability of the model program to other geographic areas. PART III: SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE Part III of the Handbook describes selected federal and state assistance programs which have been used most commonly by com- munities in the past to plan or implement programs to reduce damages from hurricanes and coastal flooding. Part III includes the following chapter: CHAPTER 9 TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL AID FOR RESPONDING TO HURRICANES AND COASTAL..FLOODING - 101 CHAPTER 9 TECHNICAL AND FINANCIAL AID FOR RESPONDING TO HURRICANES AND COASTAL FLOODING Many communities will need technical or fina*ncial assistance to manage their coastal hazards problems. This chapter includes descriptions of some state and federal programs that have pro- vided help in the past to localities for: - developing regulations - acquisition projects - forecasting, warning systems and evacuation planning - pre- and post-disaster planning - structural measures Chapters 2 through 8 describe the types of measures that can be taken to respond to hurricane and coastal flooding problems. This range of-techniques is likely to represent the basic set of opportunities available to your com- munity for the foreseeable future, even though local government experience and technical or engineering advances may lead to some changes in the use of particular techniques. On the other hand, sources of technical and financial assistance to aid your community in implementing these techniques are constantly changing. The availability of funding and community eligi- bility for state and federal assistance varies from year to year and from state to state, depending on state priorities as well as federal budgetary constraints. Two useful compilations of information on federal programs are available: (1) Digest of Federal Disaster Assistance Programs The third edition of this digest was published by FEMA in June 1980. It listsprograms to assist in preparedness, emergency, long-range re- covery and mitigation activities. The programs are grouped in 11 cate- gories: agriculture, business, emergency services, fire suppression, flood prevention and protection, health services, housing, assistance 102 - for individuals, preparedness planning, State and community assistance, and volunteer agencies. Brief descriptions of each program are provided along with a cross-referencle to the Catalogue of Federal Domestic Assistance'., (2) Catalogue of Federal Domestic Assistance This catalogue is published yearly by the Office of Management and Budget. It provides a comprehensive compilation of federal domestic assistance of all types, including programs relevant to preparing for hurricanes and coastal flooding. Programs are indexed by*subject, by agency, and by applicant. Brief descriptions are provided for each program listed. Despite its comprehensiveness, not all relevant programs are included here. REGULATIONS FederaZ Assistance Floo lain-MAnagement Services (FPMS) The Floodplain Management Services Program administered by the Army-Corps of Engineers has provided assistance and information to states and com- munities for a variety of:projects related to flood hazards. These tech- nical services, for which there has been no set matching requirement, have included'assistance in developing a technical basis for regulations, planning wise development of coastal hazards areas and evacuation planning. States, and political subdivi.sio.ns. of states, have generally requested this type of assistance through a letter to the District Engineer. For information, contact the District Engineer of the nearest U.S. Army Corps of Engineer District; Attn: FPMS (see Appendix A),. or,the Director of Civil Works, Attn: DAEN-CWP-F, Office of Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. 20314. Telephone (202) 272-0169. State Assistance State flood insurance coordinators often-have model ordinances adapted to the needs of'individual states for assistance in writing local hazard regulations. A list of state flood insurance coordinators is included in Appendix A. - 103 ACQUISITION Federat Assistance 9 Land and Water Conservation.Fund (LaWCON) The Land and Water Conservation Fund, formerly administered by the Department of Interior's Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service (HCRS), has provided for two types of activities -- direct acquisition of lands by federal agencies and grants to states. Grants to the states have been used for purposes of increasing public recreational opportuni- ties through planning, acquisition of land, and development of outdoor recreational facilities. The 50 percent matching grants have been made to designated state agen- cies to prepare and implement a State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan (SCORP) that identifies priorities for state and local recreation and open space projects. States have used annual grant funds to under- take state projects or to fund local acquisition or recreation develop- ment projects. In a number of coastal states, the state coastal zone agencies have recommended the use of LaWCON funds for recreational pro- jects in hazardous areas. State Liaison Officers, appointed by the. Governors, have acted on behalf of other state agencies, cities, counties, or park districts in applying to HCRS for LaWCON funding. For information, contact your State Liaison Office or the National Park Service, DOI, 18th and C Streets, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20240. Tele- phone (202) 523-5152. 9 Community Deve102ment Block Grants many communities have received formula grants for a wide range of community development projects through the Community Development Block Grant Program of the Department of Housing and Urban Development's'Office of Community Planning and Development. Community activities funded through this program have included: acquisi- tion, rehabilitation or construction of certain public works facilities and improvements, clearance, housing rehabilitation, code enforcement, 104 - relocation payments-and assistance, administrative expenses$ economic development, and completion of existing urban renewal projects. In addition, block grants have been used to meet the state-or local matching share of some other federal programs, including the coastal zone manage- ment program. As noted above, property acquisition -- for rehabilitation, preservation, open space, public works, etc. -- has been funded, with minimal restrictio ns attached to future use or transfer of acquired pro- perties. Block grant funds have been used in combination with other federal, state, or-local programs to acquire property in coastal hazard areas. For information, contact the appropriate HUD Area office or Headquarters Office, Community Planning and Development, 451 7th Street, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20410. Telephone (202) 755-6587. Section 1362 A new program of financial and technical assistance, authorized by Section 1362 of the National Flood Insurance Act and initiated by FEMA in Septem- ber*1919, is devoted specifically to acquisition of flooded properties. One hundr ed -and seventy-three properties were acquired by FEMA, then trans- ferred to a state or local government agency in the program's first two years. Funds, administrated by-FEMAls Federal insurance Administration (FIA), have been provided for the purchase of insured properties that meet one of the following damage criteria (iA addition to community eligibility criteria): - damaged "substantially beyond repair" by flood while covered under the NFIP; - incurred significant flood damage on not less than three previous occasions within a five year period while covered,under the NFIP; and on each occasion the cost of repair,-on the average, was at least 25 percent of the value of the structure;'or - while 'covered under the NFIP, property has sustained damage from a "single casualty of any nature" so that, a statute, ordinance or regulation precludes its repair or restoration or permits repair or restoration only at significantly increased cost. Given the nature of these criteria, in some cases only scattered proper- ties have qualified for Section 1362 assistance. As a result, some projects - 105 - have combined a variety of other programs with the use of Section 1362 funds in order to acquire additional floodprone properties. For information, contact the appropriate FEMA regional office (see Appen- dix A). State Assistance Some states have programs available for acquisition of coastal hazard areas. Many state programs for purchasing coastal hazard areas, or planning for that acquisition, have received funds from the federal government. The nature of these state programs varies considerably. Among these types of programs are: state coastal management programs (e.g. using federal coastal zone management funds); state fish and wildlife programs (e.g. using federal fish and wild- life management and restoration funds); and state recreation and open space programs (e.g. using Land and Water Conservation Fund monies). Other state programs are funded directly by the states, and involve state acquisition of floodprone properties or provision of funds to localities for acquisition. These include open space acquisition programs, wetland preser- vation programs, and municipal grant-in-aid programs. For information, contact agency in your state that is responsible for open space acquisition and the agency responsible for fish and wildlife management. FORECASTING, WARNINGS, AND EVACUATION PLANNING FederaZ Assistance e Coastal Hazard Program The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has initiated a Coastal Hazards Program to coordinate Federal grants, basic environ- mental data, technical information, land use management techniques, and local expertise in order to help local institutions develop hazard plans to fit their specific problems and requirements. Several NOAA elements are involved in this effort. The National Ocean Survey produces storm Evacuation Maps, showing evacuation routes, eleva- tion data, and topographic features of coastal areas. The National 106 - Weather Service Weather and Flood Warnings Coordination Staff develops preparedness quidelines and disseminates education infontiation on hazard preparedness to the q4-neral public and to public officials. Local offi(.es of the National WeathA-i Service are frequently able to assist in local coastal hazard prepart@dness@ planning. The Sea Grant Marine Advisory ,@;ervicu conduct-, work:;hops and public meetings to educate local officials about coastal hazards ind mitigation opportunities. The Environmental Data Infi)rmation service acquires, stores, and distributes environmental data that can be used is a base for preparedness planning. NOAA has planned to establish-39 regional projects to develop plans and programs to deal with natura.1 hazards in those regions by 1988. The proposed regional. hazard plans would include a description of warning systems and a plan for evacuation, including maps showing road elevation and storm surge levels. These maps would be used to determine how long various routes will remain open during a storm. Priority areas for par- ticipation in the program have been established based on: the*frequency and severity of hurricanes, tornadoes, storms and floods; population density'and industrial development; and the state of development of the state's Coastal Management Program. For information, contact the NOAA'Coastal Hazards office, National Oceanic and'Atmospheric Administration, U"S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20852. Telephone (301) 443-8860. State Assistance Program in Training and Education for Emergency Management The Training and Education office of FEMA conducts this program for state assistance in hazard related activities through cooperative agreements with participating states. The program was designed to promote compre- hensive emergency management training, covering emergpncy preparedness planning, hazard mitigation, and disaster response-and recovery. States have been-encouraged to conduct several types of activities: training to meet emergency and disaster operational requirements; training programs to disseminate emergency management concepts; encourage inter-governmental operational response capability; provide management capability for emer- gency management staffs; motivate the general public to practice emergency self-help; and build self-confidence among public officials regarding their capability to successfully manage crisis. - 107 - Applications have been filed by the state agency responsible for compre- hensive emergency management with the appropriate FEMA Regional Director. For further information, contact your FEMA regional director (see Appendix A) or the Associate Director for Training and Education, Federal Emergency Management Agency, 1725 1 Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20472. Telephone (301) 447-6671. e Floodplain Management Services (FPMS) The Floodplain Management Services Program, administered by the Army Corps of Engineers, has provided assistance to local..governments for the prepa- ration of evacuation plans. This program is described above on page 102. State Assistance Many states offer some assistance -- technical or financial to local govern- ments attempting to improve their emergency preparedness capabilities. For information on assistance available in your state, contact the State's Civil Defense Agency (see Appendix A). PRE-AND POST-DISASTER PLANNING FederaZ Assistance Coastal Zone Management Program Administration (Section 306) The Department of Commerce's Office of Coastal Zone Management (OCZM) has provided matching grants (up to 80 percent federal) to coastal states to administer federally-approved coastal management programs. Grants have been used for a wide range of planning and management activities that are consistent with program policies. OCZM has encouraged the coastal states to undertake projects related to hazard mitig4tion in coastal areas. Funds have also been passed through by the designated state agencies to communities for local coastal planning or special projects related to hazards.' For further information, contact: Director, Office of Coastal Zone Manage- ment, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Department of Commerce, 3300 Whitehaven StreetN.W., Washington, D.C. 20235. Telephone (202) 634-1672, or the state agency designated by the Governor to adminis- ter the program (see Appendix A). some communities may also have local contacts for the coastal management program. 108 e State Assistance Program NFIP This program administered by the Federal Emergency Management Agency was designed to promote intergovernmental flood hazard mitigation actions and to help the 'states strengthen their capability to address NFIP and flood hazard mitigation issues. Three program elements have been iden- tified: assessment of current state and local NFIP and flood hazard mitigation activities; development of state-wide information bases to promote understanding ofthe NFIP; and working with local governments in the mechanics of implementing and administering flood hazard miti- .gation programs. Funds have been provided to the states through cooperative agreements with the state agency designated by the Governor as the Coordinating Agency for the NFIP, based on a formula which includes population in flood hazard areas, communities in the NFIP, and"claims under the NFIP.. Local governments have,been responsible.for informing the state of their needs so that they may be incorporated in the state's flood'hazard miti- gation program. In an attempt to foster a broader view of emergency management, FEMA is encouraging for FY 83 the funding of this program through a combined cooperative agreement also including local civil defense and state disaster preparedness planning assistance programs. For information, contact your State Coordinating Agency (see Appendix A) or Office@of Emergency Management Programs, State and Local Programs and Support, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C. 20472.. Telephone (202) 287-3891. o Hurricane Plans and Preparedness This Federal Emergency ManagementAgency program is designed to assist states in the development of capabilities to respond in an integrated fashion to the threat or consequences of severe hurricanes in high-risk, h.igh-population areas. A final rule tor this program was published on September 28,, 1981, identifying 24 hurricane risk areas as examples of locations where this program could be applied. Through grants and - 109 cooperative agreements with Texas and Florida, for example, the program has provided project funds for conducting vulnerability analyses in the Galveston and Tampa areas. Vulnerability analyses include determination and definition of the hazard area, identification of storm-surge rises, estimation of casualties and structural damage, and postulated impact on essential populations, operations, and resources. Preparedness planning activities for evacuation, response and recovery, following the completion of vulnerability analyses, are also eligible for funding. Grants for vulnerability analysis and for preparedness planning may be awarded separately or combined. FEMA's regional offices generally work through state agencies and/or Governors' Offices which identify projects suitable for these types of activities. For information, contact: Office of Natural and Technological Hazards, State and Local Programs and Support, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C. 20472. Telephone (202) 287-0254. State Assistance Some states may provide assistance to local governments for disaster planning, either focused on storm-related hazards or a range of natural and man-made hazards, through state civil defense or disaster preparedness agencies. For information, contact your state Civil Defense or preparedness agency (see Appendix A). STRUCTURAL MEASURES Federal Assistance Civil works Program - Hurricane Control The Corpp of Engineers has built protective structures in a number of localities that have experienced hurricane damages. Following a series of severely-damaging hurricanes in the early 19501s, the Corps surveyed the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and between 1955 and 1965 completed 77 reports on specific localities; 44 of these reports proposed structural protection measures, (of which 30 were authorized to be constructed). Economic feasibility defined simply as benefits exceeding costs - 110 is the primary criterion for determining the eligibility of such projects. Projects must be authorized by Congress. Up to 70 percent of the costs of projects on non-federal public land has been met by the federal government with the remainder paid for by state and local governments. Additional non-financial requirements are also imposed on participating local sponsors. For information, contact your District Engineer (see Appendix A) or the Director of Civil Works, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. 20314. 'Telephone (202) 693-6869. Small Beach Erosion Control Projects Under this program, the Corps of Engineers has designed and constructed projects to control beach and shore erosion in publicly-owned areas. Non-federal sponsoring agencies have been required to provide all neces- sary lands, easements, rights-of-way, and to assure public use of the beach and provide project maintenance, including maintenance of access roads, parking areas and other public facilities. Federal participation has not exceeded $1 million or 70 percent of project costs. States, political-subdivisions of states, or other responsible local agencies have applied.for funds by.formal letter to the District Engineer. For information, contact your District Engineer (see Appendix A) or the Director of Civil Works, office of the Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. 20314. Telephone (202) 693-6869. Small Flood Control Projects Through this program, the Corps has designed and built projects intended to reduce flood damages. Non-federal sponsoring agencies have been re- sponsible for providing all lands, as well as project costs over $2 million, and project maintenance after completion. .(Projects located in Presidentially- declared d1saster areas have received federal funds up to $3 million.) States, political subdivisions of states, and other local agencies have sponsored small flood control projects. Application has been by letter to the District Engineer. For information, contact your District Engineer (see Appendix A) or Director of Civil WorRs, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Department of the Army, Attn: DAEN-CWP-A, Washington, D.C. 20314. Telephone (202) 693-6984. 0 Community Development Block Grants Community Development Block Grants, administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development, have been used for structural flood protection measures such as storm drainage. This program is described above on page 103. State Assistance Some states provide financial or technical assistance to local gover6ments for shore protection structures. Such assistance may come from bond issues or legislative appropriations. To find out if your state has any such assistance available, contact the state agency concerned with shore pro,tec- tion or coastal management. APPENDICES The appendices of the handbook provide additional information on agency contacts for coastal hazard technical and financial assistance and source documents for general information on topics related to coastal tidal flooding and hurricanes. The appendices include the'foZZowing.: APPENDIX A: STATE AND FEDERAL INFORMATION CONTACTS (1) State Flood Insurance Contacts (2) Corps of Engineers District and Field Offices (3) U.S. Geological Survey Contacts (4) Federal Emergency Management Agency Regional Offices (5) State Coastal Zone Management Agencies (6) State Officials Responsible for Disaster Operations and Emergency Planning APPENDIX B: GENERAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT, STORMWATER MANAGEMENT, AND COASTAL EROSION 112 - APPENDIX A STATE AND FEDERAL INFORMATION CONTACTS (1) STATE FLOOD INSURANCE CONTACTS Alabama Connecticut State Planning and Federal state Dept. of Environmental Program Division Protection State Capitol Bldg. State Office Bldg. Montgomery, AL 36130 Hartford, CT 06115 (205) 832-6400 (203) 566-3540 Alaska Delaware Department of Community office of Management, Budget, & Regional Affairs and Planning Division of Community and Townsend Building, 3rd Floor Regional Planning Dover, Delaware 19901 .225 Cordova, Bldg B (302) 736-4271 Anchorage, AK 99501 (907) 264-2206 District of Columbia Arizona Department of Environmental Services Department.of Water Resources 5000 Overlook Ave., SW Floor Control Branch Washington, D.C. 20032 99 E. Virginia 2nd Floor (202) 767-8170 Phoenix, AZ 85004 (602) 255-1566 Florida Arkansas Department of Community Affairs 2571 Executive Ctr. Circle East Division of Soil & Water Resources Howard Building State Department of Commerce Tallahassee, FL 32301 1818 W. Capitol Building A (904) 488-9210 Little Rock, AR (501) 371-1611 Georgia California Georgia Department of Natural Resources Environmental Protection Department of Water Resources Division P.O. Box 388 270 Washington Street,,S.W. Sacramento, CA 95802 Atlanta, GA 30334 (916) 445-2985 (404) 656-4713 Colorado Guam Colorado Water Conservation Board office of Civil Defense State Centennial Building, Room 823 Post Office Box 2877 1313 Sherman Street Agana, Guam 96910 Denver, CO 80202 477-9841 (303) 866-3441 113 Hawaii Louisiana Hawaii Board of Land and Natural Louisiana Department of Urban Resources & Community Affairs P.O. Box 373 P.O. Box 44455 Honolulu, HI 96809 Batch Rouge, LA 70804 (808) 548-7619 (504) 925-3706 Idaho Maine Department of Water Resources Bureau of Civil Emergency State House Preparedness Boise, ID 83720 State House (208) 334-4440 Augusta, ME 04330 (207) 622-6201 Illinois Local F1 ood Plain Office Ma yland Illinois Dept. of Transportation Maryland Water Resources Division of Water Resources Administration Local Flood Plain Programs Flood Control Section 300 North State Street, Room 1010 Tawee State Office Building D-2 Chicago, IL 60610 Annapolis, MD 269-3826 (312) 793-3864 Massachusetts Indiana Massachusetts Water Resources Department of Natural Resources Commission 608 State Office Building State Office Building Indianapolis, IN 46204 100.Cambridge Street (317) 633-5267 Boston,-MA 02202 (617) 727-3267 Iowa Iowa Natural Resources Council Michigan Wallace State Office Building Water Management Division Des Moines, IA 50319 Michigan Department of Natural (515) 281-5029 Resources P.O. Box 30028 Kansas Lansing, MI 48909@ Chief Engineer & Director (517) 373-3930 Division of Water Resources Minnesota Kansas State Board of Agriculture. 901 Kansas Avenue Land Use Management Section Topeka, KS 66612 Minnesota Department of Natural (913) 296-3717 Resources Division of Waters Kentucky 444 LaFayette Road Division of Water Resources St. Paul, MN 55101 Kentucky Department of Natural (612) 296-9226 Resources 950 Leestown Road Frankfort, KY 40601 (502) 564-3980 - 114 - Mississippi New Mexico Mississippi Research & State Engineer Development Center Bataan Memorial Bldg. Post Office Drawer 2470 Sante Fe, NM 97501 Jackson, MS 39205 (505) 827-2135 (601) 982-6376 New York Missouri Bureau of Flood Protection Disaster Planning & Operations New York Dept. of Environmental office Conservation P.O. Box 116 50 Wolf.Road - Room 618 Jefferson City, MO 65102 Albany, NY 12233 (304) 751-2321 (518) 457-3157 Montana North Carolina Montana Department of Natural North Carolina Department of Resources & Conservation Natural Resources & Community 32 South Ewing Street Development Helena, MT 59601 Archdale Building (406) 449-2864 Raleigh, NC 27611 (919) 733-4918 Nebraska Nebraska Natural Resources North Dakota Commission North Dakota Water Commission P.O. Box 94876 State Office Building Lincoln, NB 68509 900 Boulevard (402) 471-2081 Bismark, ND 58505 (701) 224-2750 Nevada Division of Water Resources ohio Dept. of Conservation & Ohio Department of Natural Resources Natural Resources Flood Plain Management Unit 201 South Falls St. Ohio Department Building Carson City, NV 89700 Fountain Square (702) 885-4380 Columbus, OH 43224 (614) 466-6020 New Hampshire New Hampshire Office of State Oklahoma Planning Oklahoma Water Resources Board 2 1/2 Beacon Street 12th Floor Northeast Concord, New Hampshire 03301 10th & Stonewall (603) 271-2155 Oklahoma City, OK 73105 (405) 271-2555 New Jersey Division of Water Resources New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection P.O. Box CN 029 Trenton, NJ 08625 (609) 292-1840 115 - Oregon Tennessee Oregon Water Resources Dept. Local Planning Milcreek Office Park Tennessee State Planning Office Salem, OR 97310 660 Capitol Hill Building (503) 378-3671 Nashville, TN 37219 (615) 741-2211 Pennsylvania Department of Community Texas Affairs Texas Dept. of Water Resources 551 Forum Building 1700 North Congress Avenue Harrisburg, PA 17120 Austin, TX 78701 (717) 787-7400 (512) 475-2171 Puerto Rico Utah Puerto Rico Planning Board Utah Department of Public Safety P.O. Box 41119 317 State Office Building Minillas Station Salt Lake City, UT 84114 Santurce, PR 00940 (801) 533-4900 (809) 726-7110 Vermont Rhode Island Division of Water Resources Statewide Planning Program Agency of Environmental Conservation Rhode Island Office of State Office Building State Planning Montpelier, VT 05602 265 Melrose Street (802) 828-2761 Providence, RI 02907 (401) 271-2656 Virgin Islands South Carolina Disaster Preparedness office Box 839 South Carolina Water Resources Charlotte Amalie Commission St. Thomas, VI 00801 P.O. Box 4515 (809) 744-6555 3830 Forest Drive Columbia, SC 29240 Virginia - (803) 758-2514 Virginia State Water Control Board South Dakota P.O. Box 11143 Richmond, VA 23230 South Dakota Planning Bureau (804) 257-0056 State Capitol Pierre, SD 57501 Washington (605) 224-3661 Department of .Ecology Olympia, Washington 98504 (206) 753-0577 West Virginia Disaster Recovery Office 1262 1/2 Greenbrier St. Charleston, WV 25305 (304) 348-0416 Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Flood Plain-Shoreline P.O. Box 7921 Madison, WI 53707 (608) 266-2121 Wyomin Wyoming Disaster & Civil Defense Agency P.O. Box 1709 5500 Bishop Boulevard Cheyenne, WY 82001 (307) 777-7566 117 - (2) CORPS OF ENGINEERS DISTRICT AND FIELD OFFICES Alabama Philadelphia District Mobile District U.S. Custom House P.O. Box 2288 2nd and Chestnut Streets Mobile, AL 36628 Philadelphia, PA 19106 (205) 690-2511 (215) 597-4848 Alaska ''Florida Alaska District Jacksonville District P.O. Box 7002, P.O. Box 4970 Anchorage, AK 99510 Jacksonville, FL 32201 (907) 752-2605 or 279-1132 (904). 791-2241 Georgia California South Pacific Division, Room 1216 South Atlantic Division 630 Sansome Street 510 Title Building San Francisco, CA 94111 30 Pryor Street, S.,W. (415) 556-0914 Atlanta, GA 303.03 (404) 526-@711 - Los Angeles District Savannah District P.O. Box 2711 P.O. Box 889 Los Angeles, CA 90053 Savannah, GA 31402 (213) 688-5300 (912) 233-8822, Ext. 224 Sacramento District Hawaii 650 Capitol Mall Sacramento, CA 95814 Pacific ocean Division (916) 448-2232 APO, San Francisco, 96558 (808) 438-1500 San Francisco District 100 McAllister Street Illinois San Francisco, CA 94102 North Central Division (415) 556-3660 536 South Clark Street Connecticut Chicago, IL 60605 (312) 353-6310 New England Division 424 Trapelo Road Chicago District Waltham, MA 02154 219 South Dearborn Street (617) 894-2400, Ext. 200 Chicago, IL 60605 (312) 353 6400 Delaware Baltimore District Rock Island District P.O. Box 1715 Clock Tower Building Baltimore, MD 21203 Rock Island, IL 61201 (301) 962-4545 (309) 788-6361 - 118 - Louisiana New Hampshire New Orleans District New England Division P.O. Box 60267 424 Trapelo Road New Orleans, LA 70160 Waltham, MA 02154 (504) 865-1121 (617) 894-2400, Ext. 200 Maine New Jersey New England Division New York District 424 Trapelo Road 26 Federal Plaza Waltham, MA 02154 New York, NY 10007 (617) 894-2400, Ext. 200 (212) 264-0100 Maryland Philadelphia District Baltimore District U.S. Custom House P.O. Box 1715 2nd and Chestnut Streets Baltimore, MD 21203 Philadelphia, PA 19106 (301) 962-4545 (215) 597-4848 Massachusetts New York New England Division North Atlantic Division 424 Trapelo Road 90 Church Street Waltham, MA 02154 New York, NY 10007 (617) 894-2400, Ext. 200 (212) 264-7101 Michigan Buffalo District Detroit Division. 1776 Niagara Street P.O. Box 1027 Buffalo, NY 14207 Detroit, MI 48231 (716) 876-5454, Ext. 200 (313) 226-6762 New York District Minnesota 26 Federal Plaza New York, NY 10007 St. Paul District (212) 264-0100 1135 USPO and Customhouse St. Paul, MN 55101 New York Harbor, Supervisor of (612) 725-7501 26 Federal Plaza New York, NY 10007 Mississippi (212) 264-0100 Lower Mississippi Valley Division North Carolina P.O. Box 80 Vicksburg, MS 39180 Wilmington District (601) 636-1311 P.O. Box 1890 Wilmington, NC 28401 Vicksburg District (919) 763-9971, Ext. 466 P.O. Box 60 Vicksburg, MS 39180 (601) 636-1311, Ext. 401 119 - Oregon Galveston District P.O. Box 1229 North Pacific Division Galveston, TX 77550 310 Custom House (713) 527-6301 220 N.W. 8th Avenue Portland, OR 97209 Virginia (503) 221-3700 Norfolk District Portland District 803 Front Street P.O. Box 2946 Norfolk, VA 23510 Portland, OR 97208 (703) 625-8201, Ext. 231 (503) 777-4441, Ext. 200 Washington Peppsylvania Seattle District Philadelphia District P.O.'-B6x C-3755 - U.S. Custom House Seattle, WA 98124 2nd and Chestnut Streets (206) 764-3690 Philadelphia, PA 19106 (215) 597-4848 Walla Walla District Building 602, City-County Airport Pittsburgh District Walla Walla, WA 99362 Federal Building (509) 525-5500, Ext. 100 1000 Liberty Avenue Pittsburgh, PA 15222 (412) 644-6800 Rhose Island New England Division 424 Trapelo, Road Waltham, MA 02154 (617) 894-2400, Ext. 200 South Carolina Charleston District P.O. Box 919 Charleston, SC 29402 (803) 577-41711 Ext. 229 Texas Southwestern Division Main Tower Building 1200 Main Street Dallas, TX 75702 (214) 749-3336 Fort Worth District P.O. Box 17300 Fort Worth, TX 76102 (817) 334-2300 120 (3) U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY CONTACTS Alaska Maryland Water Resources Division, USGS Water Resources Division, USGS 218 "Ell St. 8809 Satyr Hill Rd. Anchorage, AK 99501 Parkville, MD 21234 California Michigan Water Resources Division, USGS Water Resources Division, USGS 855 Oak Grove Ave. 2400 Science Parkway Menlo Park, CA 94025 Okemos, MI 48864 Connecticut Mississippi Water Resources Division, USGS Water Resources Division, USGS Room 235, Post Office Bldg. 430 Bounds St. 135 High St., P.O. Box 715 Jackson, MS 39206 Hartford, CT 06101 New Jersey Georgia Water Resources Division, USGS Water Resources Division P.O. Box 1238 Southeastern Region, USGS- Room 420, Federal Bldg- 1459 Peachtree St., NE 402 East State St. Suite 200 Trenton, NJ 08607 Atlanta, GA 30.309 New York Illinois water Resources Division, USGS Water Resources Division, USGS P.O. Box 1330 605 N. Neil St., P.O. Box 1026 Room 343, Post Office & Court House Champaign, IL 61820 Albany, NY 12201 Indiana North Carolina Water Resources Division, USGS Water Resources Division, USGS 1819 North Meridian St. P.O. Box 2857 41 Indianapolis, IN 46202 Room 440, Century Sta. Post Office Bldg. Louisiana Raleigh, NC 27602 Water Resources Division, USGS P.O. Box 66495 Oregon 6554 Florida Blvd. Water Resources Division, USGS Baton Rouge, LA 70806 P.O. Box 3202 830 NE Holladay St. Massachusetts Portland, OR 97208 Water Resources Division, USGS 150 Causeway St., Suite 1001 Boston, MA 02114 121 Pennsylvania Water Resources Division, USGS P.O. Box 1107 4th Floor, Federal Bldg. 228 Walnut St. Harrisburg, PA 17108 South Carolina Water Resources Division, USGS 2001 Assembly St., Suite 200 .Columbia, SC 29201 Texas Water Resources Division, USGS 630 Federal Bldg. 300 East 8th St. Austin, TX 78701 Virginia Water Resources Division, USGS 200 West Grace St., Room 304 Richmond, VA 23220 (4) FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY REGIONAL OFFICES Region I (Boston) Federal Emergency Management Agency Connecticut 422 J.W. McCormack-.Post Office & U.S. Maine Courthouse, Boston, MA 02109 Massachusetts Director (617) 223-4741 New Hampshire DR&R (617) 223-4741 Rhode Islahd Vermont- Region II (New York) New Jersey Federal Emergency Management Agency New York 1349 J. K. Javits Federal Building Puerto Rico New York, NY 10278 Virgin Islands Director (212) 264-8395 DR&R (212) 264-8980 - 122 - Region III (Philadelphia) Federal Emergency Management Agency Delaware Curtis Bldg. 7th Floor District of Columbia Sixth and Walnut Sts. Maryland Philadelphia, PA 19106 Pennsylvania Director (215) 597-9416 Virginia DR&R (215) 597-9416 West Virginia Region IV (Atlanta) Federal Emergency Management Agency Alabama 1375 Peachtree St., M.E., Room 664 Florida Atlanta, GA 30309 Georgia Director (919) 226-1761 (Thomasville) Kentucky DR&R (404) 881-2400 Mississippi North Carolina South Carolina Tennessee Region V (Chicago) Federal Emergency Management Agency Illinois 300 S-. Wacker Drive 24th Floor Indiana Chicago, IL 60606 Michigan Director (312) 353-1500 Minnesota DR&R (312) 35j-1500 Ohio Wisconsin Region VI (Dallas) Federal Emergency Management Agency Arkansas 206 Federal Regional Center Louisiana Denton, TX 76201 New Mexico Director (817) 387-5811 Oklahoma DR&R (817) 387-5811 Texas Region VII (Kansas City) Federal Emergency Management Agency Iowa 300 Old Federal Office Building, Room 405 Kansas 911 Walnut St. Missouri Kansas City, MO 64106 Nebraska Director (816) 374-5912 DR&R (816) 374-5912 Region VIII (Denver) Federal Emergency Management Agency Colorado Federal Regional Center- Montana Denver, CO 80225 North Dakota Director (303) 234-2553 South Dakota DR&R (303) 234-6542 Utah Wyoming 123 Re gion IX(San Francisco) Federal Emergency Management Agency American Samoa 21L Main St. Room 220 Arizona San Francisco, CA 94105 California Director (415) 556-V95 Guam DR&R (415) 556-8795 Hawaii Nevada Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands Region X (Seattle) Federal Emergency Management Agency Alaska .Federal Regional Center Idaho Bothell, WA 98011 Oregon Director (206) 486-8800 Washington DR&R (206) 486-8800 (5) STATE COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT AGENCIES Alabama California Coastal Area Board California Coastal Commission P.O. Box 755 631 Howard St., Fourth Floor Daphne, AL 36526 San Francisco, CA 94105 (205) 626-1880 (415) 543-8555 Alaska Connecticut Policy Development and Planning Div. Coastal Area Management Program Office of the Governor Dept. of Environmental Protection Pouch AP 71 Capitol Ave. Juneau, AK 99801 Hartford, CT 06115 (907) 465-3541 (203) 566-7404 American Samoa Delaware. Development Planning Office. Coastal Management Program Government of American Samoa Office of Management, Budget & Planning Pago Pago, American Samoa 96799 James.Townsend Bldg. t684) 633-5155 Dover, Dk 19901 (302) 736-4271 - 124 Florida Maine Office of Coastal Zone Management State Planning Office Dept. of Environmental Regulation Resource Planning Div. Twin Towers Office Bldg. 189 State St. 2600 Blair Stone Rd. Augusta, ME 04333 Tallahassee, FL 32301 (207) 289-3155 (904) 488-8614 Georgia Maryland Dept. of Natural Resources Coastal Resources Division Tidewater Administration Dept. of Natural Resources Tawes State Office Bldg. 1200 Glynn Ave. Annapolis, MD 21401 Brunswick GA 31520 (301) 269-2784 - (912) 264-4771 Massachusetts Guam Executive Office of Environmental Bureau of Planning Affairs Government of Guam 100 Cambridge St. P.O. Box 2950 Boston, MA 02202 Agana, Guam 96910 (617) 727-9530 (via Overseas Operator)477-9502 Michigan Hawaii Dept. of Natural Resources Dept. of Planning and Economic Div. of Land Use Programs Development Stephens T. Mason Bldg. P.O. Box 2359 Lansing, MI 48926 Honolulu, 111 96804 (517) 373-1950 (808) 548-4609 Minnesota Illinois State.Planning Agency Illinois Coastal Zone Management Capitol Square Bldg, Program 550 Cedar St., Room 100 300 N. State St., Room 1010 St. Paul, MN 55155 Chicago, IL @60610 (612) 296-2633 (312) 793-3126 Mississippi Indiana Mississippi Bureau of Marine Resources State Planning Services Agency Dept. of Wildlife Conservation 143 West Market St., Harrison Bldg. P.O. Box Drawer 959 Indianapolis, IN 46204 Long Beach, MS 39560 (317) 232-1482 (601) 864-4602 Louisiana New Hampshire Coastal Management Section Office of State Planning Dept. of Natural Resources 2h Beacon St. P.O. Box 44396 Concord, NH 03301 Baton Rouge, LA 70804 (603) 271-2155 (504) 342-7898 125 New Jersey Puerto Rico Bureau of Coastal Planning and Coastal Management Office Development Dept. of Natural Resources Dept. of Environmental Protection P.O. Box 5887 P.O. Box 1889 Puerta de Tierra, Puerto Rico 00906 Trenton, NJ 08625 (809) 725-2769 (609) 292-9762 Rhode Island New York Coastal Resources Management Program Coastal Management Unit Washington County Government Center Dept. of State Tower Hill Rd. 162 Washington St. South-Kingstown, RI '02879 Albany, NY 12231 (401) 789-3048 (518) 474-8834 South Carolina North Carolina South Carolina Coastal Council Dept. of Natural Resources and Wildlife and Marine Resources Dept. Community Development 1116 Bankers Trust Tower Box 27687 Columbia, SC 29201 Raleigh, NC 27611 (803) 758-8442 (919) 733-2293 Texas Northern Mariana Islands- Natural Resources Div. Coastal Resources Management Office Texas Energy & Natural Resource Office of the-Governor Advisory Council Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950 E.R.S. Bldg. (via Overseas Operator) 6623 200 E. 18th St. Austin, TX 78701 Ohio (512) 475-0773 Dept. of Natural Resources Virgin Islands Division of water 1930 Belcher Dr., Fountain Square Virgin Islands Dept. of Conservation Columbus, OH 43225 and Cultural Affairs (614) 466-6557 P.O. Box 4340 Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas 4 Oregon U.S. Virgin Islands 00801 (809) 774-3320 Land Conservation and Development Commission Virginia 1175 Court St., N.E. Salem, OR 97310 Council on the Environment (503) 378-4097 Ninth Floor, Ninth St. Office Bldg. Richmond, VA 23219 Pennsylvania (804) 786-4500 Dept. of Environmental Resources Washington Third and Reily Sts. P.O. Box 1467 Dept. of Ecology Harrisburg, PA 17120 PV_ll (717) 783-9500 State of Washington Olympia, WA 98504 (206) 753-4348 126 wisconsin office of Coastal Management Dept. of Administration General Executive Facility 2 101 S. Webster St. Madison, WI 53702 (608) 266-3687 127 (6) STATE OFFICIALS RESPONSIBLE FOR DISASTER OPERATIONS AND EMERGENCY PLANNING Alabama Colorado Director, Civil Defense Dept. The Adjutant General State Administrative Building 300 Logan Street 64 North Union Street Denver,,CO 80203 Montgomery, AL 36130 (303) 733-2431 Ext. 41 (205) 832-5700 Director, Disaster Emergency Alaska services' DOC, Camp Ge@rge West. Director, Division of Golden, CO 80401 Emergency Services (303)-279-7555 P.O. Box 2267 Palmer, AK 96645 Connecticut Dial 9 (907) 248-0055 State Director American Samoa Connecticut Office of Civil Preparedness Commissioner of Public Safety State Armory, 360 Broad.Street Department of Public Safety Hartford, CT 06115 Office of the Governor (203) 566-3180 Pago Pago, Tutuila American Samoa 96799 Delaware Overseas Operator Director, Division of Emergency (160+684) 633-4127 Planning and operations Arizona Department of Public Safety P.O. Box C Director, Arizona Division Delaware City, DE 19706 of Emergency Services (302) 834-4531 5636 East McDowell Road Phoenix, AZ 85008 District of Columbia (602) 273-9880 Acting Director, Office of Arkansas Emergency Preparedness Room 5009, Municipal Center Director, officer of Emergency 300 Indiana Avenue, N.W. Services Washington, D.C. 20001 Dept. of Public Safety (202) 727-6161 P.O. Box 758 Conway, AR 72032 Florida (501) 329-5601 (in Conway) Chief, Bureau of Disaster Preparedness (501) 374-1201 (in Little Rock) 1720 S. Gadsden Street California Tallahassee, FL 32301 (904) 488-1320 Director, Office of Emergency Services Georgia P.O. Box 9577 Deputy Director of Civil Defense Sacramento, CA 95823 Georgia. Emergency.Management Agency (916) 421-4990 Ext. 201 P.O..Box 18055 Atlanta, GA 30316 (404) 656-5500 128 Guam Kansas Director, Civil Defense Deputy Director, Division of Territory of Guam Emergency Preparedness P.O. Box 2877 P.O. Box C-300 Agana, Guam 96910 Topeka, KS 66601 (913) 233-9253 or 333-7560 Ext. 300 Hawaii The Adjutant General and Kentucky Director of Civil Defense Adjutant General and State Director 3949 Diamond Head Road of Disaster & Emergency Services Q@ Honolulu, HI 96816 EOC Building Dial 9 (808) 734-2195 Boone National Guard Center Frankfort, KY 40601 Idaho (502)*564-8558 - State Coordinator Bureau of Disaster Services Louisiana 650 West State Street Assistant Secretary Boise, ID 83720 Department of Public Safety (208) 334-3460 Office of Emergency Preparedness P.O. Box 66536 Illinois State Land and Resource Building Director, Illinois Emergency Baton Rouge, LA 70896 Services and Disaster Agency (504) 342-5470 110 East Adams Street Maine Springfield, IL 62706 (217) 782-2700. Director, Bureau of Civil Emergency Preparedness Indiana State Office Building Director, Indiana Department of Civil Augusta, ME 04333 Defense and Emergency Management (207) 622-6201 90 State Office Building Maryland 100 North Senate Avenue Indianapolis, IN 46204 Director, Maryland Civil Defense & (317) 232-3830 Disaster Preparedness Agency Reisterstown Road and Sudbrook Lane Iowa Pikesville, MD 21208 The Adjutant General & Executive Director (301) 4186-4422 Department of Public Defense Massachusetts Camp Dodge, R.R. #1 Grimes, IA 50111 Director, Massachusetts Civil (515) 278-9211 Defense Agency & Office of Emergency Preparedness Director, Office of Disaster Services 400 Worcester Road Hoover State Office Building Framingham, MA 01701 Level A (617) 237-0200 Des Moines, IA 50319 (515) 281-3231 129 Michigan New Hampshire Deputy State Director of Director, New Hampshire Disaster Emergency Services Planning Office 111 South Capitol Avenue, 2nd Floor Room 3 - Building 257 Lansing, MI 48913 NHANG, PAFB (517) 373-0617 Portsmouth, NH 03801 (603) 436-2450 Minnesota Director, Division of Emergency New Jersey Services New Jersey State Police B-5, State Capitol State Police Headquarters St. Paul, MN 55155 P.O.-Box 7068 (612) 296-2233 West Trenton, NJ 08625 (609)- 882-2000 Ext. 201 Mississippi Director, Mississippi Emergency New Mexico Management Agency Director, State Planning@Division P.O. Box 4501, Fondren Street Department of Finance and Administration Jackson, MS 39216 505 Don Gaspar, Greer Building (601) 354-7200 Santa Fe, NM 87501 (5015) 827-2073 Missouri Director, Disaster Planning New York and operations office Disaster Preparedness Program P.O. Box 116 Division of Military and Naval Affairs Jefferson City, MO 65102 Public Security Building (314) 751-2321 Ext. 173 State Campus Albany, NY 12226 Montana (518) 457-2222 State Disaster Coordinator North Carolina Disaster & Emergency Services Div. P.O. Box 4789 Assistant Secretary of Public Safety Helena, MN 59604 Department of Crime Control and (406) 449-3034 Public Safety 116 West Jones Street Nebraska. Raleigh, NC 27611 Adjutant General and Director, (919) 733-3867 Nebraska Civil Defense Agency North Dakota National Guard Center Lincoln, NB 68508 Director, Disaster Emergency Services (402) 473-1100 P.O. Box 1817 Bismark, ND 58505 Nevada (701) 224-2111 Director, Civil Defense and Disaster Agency Northern Mariana Islands 2525 South Carson Street Disaster Control Officer Capitol Complex Commonwealth of the Northern Carson City, NV 89710 Mariana Islands (702) 883-7111 Saipan, Mariana islands 96950 Overseas Operator (160+671) 6407 130 .Ohio South Dakota The Adjutant General and The Adjutant General and State Director of Disaster Services Director of Civil Defense 2825 W. Granville Road Camp Rapid Worthington, OH 43085 P.O. Box 2150 (614) 889-7070 Rapid City, SD 57709 (605). 394-2211 Oklahoma Administrative Services officer Director, Oklahoma Civil Division of Emergency and Defense Agency Disaster Services P.O. Box 53365 EOC State Capitol Oklahoma City, OK 73152 Pierre, SD 57501 (405) 521-2481 (605) 773-3231 Oregon Tennessee Administrator, Emergency Director,.Division of Civil Defense Services Division and Emergency Preparedness Oregon State Exective Department Emergency Operations Center 43 Capitol Building National Guard Armory Salem, OR 97310 Sidco Drive (503) 378-4124 Nashville, TN 37204 (615) 741-5181 Pennsylvania Director, Pennsylvania Emergency Texas Management Agency (PEMA) Chief, Division of Disaster Room B151, Transportation and Emergency Services Safety Building Texas Department of Public Safety Harrisburg, PA- 17120 Box 4087, North Austin Station (717) 783-8150 Austin, TX 78773 (512) 465-2000 Ext. 2434 Puerto Rico Director, State Civil Defense Agency Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands 4 P.O. Box 5127 D-Lsaster Control Officer San Juan, PR 00906 Office of the High Commissioner Dial 9 (809) 724-0124 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Saipan, Mariana Islands 96950 Rhode Island Overseas Operator (160+671) 9367, 9306 Director, Defense Civil Preparedness Utah Agency State House Utah Division of Comprehensive Providence, RI 02903 Emergency Management (401) 421-7333 Department-of Public Safety 1543 Sunnyside Avenue South Carolina Salt Lake City, UT 84108 (801) 533-5271 Director, South Carolina Emergency . Preparedness Division Vermont Rutledge Building 1429 Senate Street Deputy Director Columbia, SC 29201 Civil Defense Division (803) 758-2826 132 State Street Montpelier, VT ' 05602 (802) 828-2163 131 Virginia State Coordinator, Office of Emergency and Energy Services 310 Turner Road Richmond, VA 23235 (804) 745-3305 Virgin Islands Lt. Governor P.O. Box 450 Charlotte Amalie St. Thomas, VI 00801 Dial 9 (809) 774-2991 Washington Director Department of Emergency Services 4220 East Martin Way Olympia, WA 98504 (206) 753-5255 West Virginia Director, office of Emergency Services State Capitol Building, Room EB-80 Charleston, WV 25305 (304) 348-5380 Wisconsin Deputy Administrator Office of Emergency Government Hill Farms State Office Building 4802 Sheboygan Avenue #99A Madison, WI 53702 (608) 266-2983 Wyoming Coordinator, Wyoming Disaster and Civil Defense Agency P.O. Box 1709 Cheyenne, WY 82001 (307) 777-7566 132 APPENDIX B GENERAL SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT, STORMWATER MANAGEMENT, AND COASTAL EROSION FLOODPLA-TN MANAGEMENT 9 Lehman Powell Associates,'Inc. A Process for Community Flood Plain Management. U.S. Department of Interior, Office of Water Research and Technology. November 1979. 121 pages. A planning manual that presents guidelines for the process of pre- paring and implementing plans for the reduction and avoidance of flood damages. The manual emphasis a discussion of planning process. It includes as well a review of the full variety of tools available for flood plain management. The legal framework of flood plain management is discussed, along with technical and financial assis- tance available. References are included. The manual also contains a selected list of federal programs offering flood plain management assistance. e Office of Coastal Zone Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. Natural Hazard Manage- ment in Coastal Areas. Washington, D.C. November 1976. 250 pages. This handbook provides easy access to information on a wide range of natural hazards affecting coastal areas including hurricanes, floods, coastal erosion, landslides, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, avalanches, and land subsidence. The information is organized by coastal hazard and by category of management recommendations. It is not intended to provide in-depth scientific analyses but instead focuses on an overview of hazard area delineation, kinds of adjustments, federal policy and programs, and community examples. It includes an annotated bibliography as well as a directory of selected federal, state, and voluntary agencies concerned-with natural hazards in the coastal zone. 133 o U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Center; by William D. Carson. Estimating Costs and Benefits for Nonstructural Flood Control Measures. October 1975. 100 pages. This research paper reports the findings of William D. Carson, Research Economist at the University of California, Davis, on procedures for estimating costs and benefits of three nonstructural measures: flood- proofing, evacuation/relocation, and land use regulation. Cost data from a number of Corps of Engineers reports are summarized for flood- proofinq and evacuation. The report concludes with some observations on criteria for an adequate analytic tool to screen nonstructural measures. o U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Center and Institute for Water Resources; by William K. Johnson. Physical and Economic Feasibility of Nonstructural Flood Plain Management Measures. March 1978. 225 pages. This report presents the findings of an investigation into the physical and economic feasibility of 11 nonstructural flood plain management measures -- temporary and permanent closures for openings in existing structures; raising existing structures; small walls or levees around new or existing structures; rearranging or protecting damageable pro- perty within an existing structure; removal of existing structures and/or contents from a flood hazard area; flood forecasting, warning, and evacuation; elevating new structures; construction materials and practices for new or existing structures; zoning ordinances, sub- division regulations, and building and housing codes; public acquisi- tion of flood plain land, and flood insurance. Appendices contain the detailed damage analyses used in establishing economic feasibility, a summary of the engineer's cost estimates for selected measures, and a bibliography of literature collected during this study. - 134 - e U.S. Water Resources Council. A Unified National Program for Flood Plain Management. Washington, D.C. September 1979. 90 pages. An update of the 1976 Unified National Program this report: (1) sets forth a conceptual framework for floodplain management; (2) identifies available management strategies and tools for reducing the risk of flood loss, minimizing the impacts of floods on human safety, health, and welfare, and restoring and preserving natural and beneficial flood- plain values; (3) assesses the implementation capability of existing federal and state agencies and programs; and (4) makes recommendations for achieving a unified national program for floodplain management. o Waananen, A.0., Limerinos, J.T., Kockelman, W.J., U.S. Geological Survey and Spangle, Blair, Spangles & Associates. Flood-Prone Areas and Land Use Planning -- Selected Examples from the San Franci,sco Bay Region, California. Geological Survey Professional Paper 942, Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1977. 75 pages. This report focuses on the relationships between land use plculning -and floodplain management through an examination of the problem of flooding in the San Francisco Bay region. It describes the preparation and use of various types of flood maps and flood information reports, lists sources of information on flooding and floodplains,.discusses flood loss prevention and reduction measures, and addresses the role of comprehen- sive planning in floodplain management. C - 135 - STORMWATER MANAGEMENT � American Society of Civil Engineers. Urban Stormwater Management in Coastal Areas. 1980. 435 pages. A collection of papers presented during the June 1980 National Symposium on Urban Stormwater Management in Coastal Areas. This report includes reports covering the following aspects of coastal stormwater management: frequency analysis, management approaches, runoff simulation, estuaries and canals, planning models, stormwater quality control models, lake and detention basins and inlets and channels. References are.included for each section. � American Society of Civil Engineers, National Association of Home Builders, and Urban Land Institute. Residential Storm Water Management: 2bjectives, Principles and Design Considerations. Second Printing, March 1977. 64 pages. This report emphasizes the desirability of detaining or storing rainfall where it falls, on-site, thereby attentuating both peak runoff and total short-term runoff. Its discussion of objectives, principles and design considerations attempts to articulate a creative approach to managing stormwater that moves beyond historic urban drainage practices. Con- siderations in analyzing stormwater runoff and storage are presented along with design considerations for streets and curbs, natural drainage, underground pipe systems, and stormwater inlets. 136 COASTAL EROSION Mitchell, James K. Community Response to Coastal Erosion; Individual and Collective Adjustments to Hazard on The Atlantic Shore. University of Chicago, Department of Geography Research Paper No. 156, Chicago: 1974. 209 pages. The problem of coastal erosion is reviewed and individual and community adjustments to erosion are examined. Case studies of five east coast communities are described in an attempt to understand.how communities reach erosion control decisions. Sorenson,John H. with-J.,Kenneth Mitchell. Coastal Erosion Hazard in the United States: A Research Assessment. Institute of Behavorial Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado: 1975. 63 pages. thotigh directed towards identifying research needs and opportunities, this assessment discusses-the dimensions of the coastal erosion problem in the U.S., the range of'possible adjustments, and the'findings of current research. 9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, North Central Division. Help Yourself: A Discussion of Erosion Problems on the Great Lakes and Alternative Methods of Shore Protection. Revised September 1978. 25 pages. This pamphlet provides private property owners with technical assistance for the protection of the Great Lakes shoreline from damage due to erosion. An explanation of shore erosion is provided along with planning con- siderations for erosion control. A number of general shore pr otection designs and costs are presented, with discussions of construction and main- tenance guidelines, standard designs,.and sample specifications in order to help the property owner select a type of shore protection. The dis- cussion may be of interest to non-Great Lakes communities as well as those in the Great Lakes region. It also contains a glossary of shoreline ero- sion terms. GPO 900-044 I . t A .-- - ---l i IIIINHINNINDI i 3 6668 14109 0987 1