[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
Port and Harbor COASTAL ZONE Development S M INFO-Rimmon caux Coastal Zone Information Cente 0 ot % 0 0 0 0% 000 0 %* 00 TC 209 T48 yste P67 V 1971 phasel Port and Harbor Development System Architecture Research Center Phasel - Design Guidelines College of Architecture & Work Report Environmental Design Texas A&M University August 1971 TAMU-SG-71-216 College Station, Texas 77843 COASTAL ZONE CENTER U S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON SC 29405-2413 P'roverty of c8c "brow Acknowledgments This project was partially funded by NOAA, We wish to thank the persons and departments National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- who furnished us information: tration, Office of Sea Grants, Department of Mr. Leonard E. Bassil Commerce, through institutional grant GH-101 Project Manager made to Texas A&M University. Port and Cargo Systems Committee National Research Council Washington, D.C. The work on the Port and Harbor Development System project is the result of the efforts of Mr. Paul A. Amundsen several groups: Executive Director The American Association of Port Authorities Architecture Research Center., Research Team: Washington, D.C. Russell L. Stogsdill, Research Architect, Project Director Mr. Frank McCurry John Langston, Research Assistant Santa Fe Railroad Arie Schinnar, Research Assistant Amarillo, Texas Mike Willingham, Graduate Research Assistant Linda Escamilla, Secretary Mr. C.J. Calvin Judith Hlubucek, Secretary The Truck Trailer Manufacturers Association Linda Jamison, Secretary Washington, D.C. Lucinda Kerley, Librarian Mr. H.J. Rome Research Advisors: Superintendent of Docks Prof. Gunter Schmitz, Director of Project Mr. Verdun Daste Development Publicity Representative Randolph Waligura, Research Architect New Orleans Centroport New Orleans, Louisiana Administrative support: Sea Grant Program Office Dr. Charles C. Bates Willis H . Clark, Assistant Director Science Advisor Donald Walsh, Program Associate U.S. Coast Guard T&W, @- 19 -1) Roger D. Anderson, Marine Education and ton', Training Coordinator Allen Martin, Administrative Assistant Mr. George W. Altvater Leatha Miloy, Head and Editor, Department of Deputy Director Marine Resources Information Port of Houston Janet Howe, Associate Editor Houston, Texas Kathi Jensen, Assistant Editor Rosemary E. Boykin, Program Associate Col. J.B. Newman Executive Director of Civil Works Department of the Army Office of the Chief of Engineers Washington, D.C. Mr. C.S. Devoy Port Director and General Manager Port of Galveston Galveston, Texas Directors and staffs of the following ports: Port of Dublin, Ireland United States: Port of Hong Kong, China Port of Seattle, Washington South African Railways and Harbors Port of New York, New York Port of Kitimat, British Columbia Port of Oakland, California Port of Halifax, Nova Scotia Port of Tampa, Florida Port of Antwerp, Belgium Port of Hampton Roads, Virginia Nafional Harbor Board, Canada Port of Long Beach, California Port of London, England Port of San Francisco, California Port of Liverpool , England Port of Los Angeles, California Port of Piraeus, Greece Port of Baltimore, Maryland Port of Bangkok, Thialand Port.of Boston, Massachusetts Po rt a fBristol , England Port of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Port of Lagos, Nigeria Port of Catoosa, Oklahoma Port of Beaumont, Texas Special Credits Port of Galveston, Texas Appreciation is extended to the following Port of Port Arthur, Texas individuals for support and encouragement: Port of Corpus Christi, Texas Edward J. Romieniec, Dean, College of Port of New Orleans, Louisiana Architecture and Environmental Design, Foreign: Dr. John C. Calhoun, Jr., Director, Sea Port of Lisbon, Portugal Grant Program Office . Port of Amsterdam, Netherlands Port of Rotterdam, Netherlands Port of Dover, England Special thanks to the following persons for their time and efforts in editing the text: Port of Le Havre, France Roger D. Anderson, Sea Grant Program Port of Calcutta, India Office Port of Auckland, New Zealand Dan Bragg, Industrial Economics Research Port of Copenhagen, Denmark Division Israel Port Authority, Israel John 0 . Greer, Architecture Research 'Port of Hamburg, West Germany Center Port of Ghent, Belgium Gerry Maffei, College of Architecture and Port of Bremen, Germany Environmental Design Po rt o fHelsinki, Finland John Miloy, Industrial Economics Research Port of Venice, Italy Division Port of Hanko, Finland Don Sweeney, Architecture Research Center. Port of Sydney, Australia Port of Wellington, New Zealand Port of Christchurch, New Zealand Port of Bergen, Norway Port of Melbourne, Australia Port of Manchester, England Port of Stockholm, Sweden Port of Belfast, Northern Ireland Port of Bombay, India Port of Osaka, Japan 1 Table of Contents I Table of Contents 1 2 Introduction 2 3 Port 3.1 Types 3.1.1 Geographical 4 Analysis 3.1.2 Cargo 3.2 Location 3.2.1 Physical Factors 9 3.2.2 Socio-economic 3.3 Administration 3.3.1 Owning Organizations 12 3.3.2 Operations 3 .4 Transportation 3.4.1 Land 18 3.4.2 Airborne 3.4.3 Waterborne 3.5. Cargo Handling 3.5.1 Methods 32 3.5.2 Equipment 3 .6 Labor 3.6.1 Type 41 3.6.2 Structure/Organ izat ion 3.6.3 Occupational Structure 3.6.4 Age 3.6.5 Mechanization 3.6.6 Safety 3.6.7 Work Hours 3.6.8 Wages 3.6.9 Amenities and Welfare 3.6.10 Manpower 3.6.11 Training 3.7 Support Industry 49 3 .8 Safety 3.8.1 Types of Fires 50 3.8.2 Firefighting Agents 3.8.3 Fire Prevention 3.8.4 Medical 3.8.5 Navigational Aids 3.8.6 Marine Safety 3.9 Finance 3.9.1 06jectives 55 3.9.2 Revenue 4 Planning 4.1 Design and 4.1.1 Decision 58 Construction 4.1 .2 Prel iminary 4.1 .3 Site Investigation 4.1.4 General Review 4.1 .5 Harbor and Channel 4.1 .6 Breakwaters 4.1.7 Terminals 4.1 .8 Offshore Structures 4.1 .9 Buildings 4.1.10 Dock Types 4.1.11 Dry Docks 4.1 .12 Piles 4.1 .13 Fender Systems 4.1.14 Mooring 4.1 .15 Dolphins 4.1 .16 Moles, Trestles and Catwalks 5 Trends 102 6 Concepts 6.1 Existing Port 105 6.2 Interim Port 115 6 .3 Trans-Port 125 7 Glossary 132 8 Bibliography 134 Introduction OKLO At 3 Perhaps no aspect of modern times is as ports in different stages of development . Nau- pervasive and influential as change . This tical terms, perhaps unusual to the uninitiated, century has been marked from its beginning are explained in the Glossary, Part 7. by far-reaching change -- scientific, tech- nical , social, political, even cultural . The synergistic effect of change acting on change has increased its rate, so that the ability to cope with and plan for change has become a central feature of modern exis- tence The problems that can result from the mobility to respond to change are well illustrated by the design of many of the world's ports and harbors. Until recently these facilities could be designed by looking backward for examples from the past . But rapid communication and the economic pressures of world trade have so shortened the gap between scientific break- through and technological implementation that models from antiquity no longer suffice . Can- tainerization, supersized vessels, ocean-going barges and new cargo handling techniques are but few of the most recent developments to which ports must respond. Another, spawned by necessity and massive social pressure, is the need for preserving environmental balance. Clearly, ports and harbors of the future must be planned and designed to accommodate change . The purpose of this report is to aid those who are involved in and responsible for port and harbor planning and design . It is hoped that through the use of the guidelines presented herein,marine facilities may be de- veloped which are more rational , more flexible and thus more functional . The next section of the report, Part 3, pre- sents an analysis of present harbor design features . Part 4 describes step by step re-' quirements in port design and construction . Important trends in marine and transportation technology are described in Part 5, and Part 6 suggests planning and design concepts for 3 Port Analysis -.JIM Er IL L ram, t LI Ip ho, 4w OL 3.1 Types 5 3.1.1 Geographical 3.1.1.1 Coastal Port 3.1 .1 .2 Inland Port Coastal Ports are those which are affected by Inland ports are those which have little or no tidal ranges and are readily accessible to tidal effects . These ports are located up rivers open water. They provide the following or channels. They provide the following ad- advantages: vantages: � deep water for large vessels . protection � expansion capabilities on water and land - water access to interior � maximum accessibility for coastal and . reduced transportation costs overseas trade . I imited tidal action. � desirable locations for industrial develop- ment. MI. jo @17 ........... Reproduced by permission of the Port of Reproduced by permission of the Port of Hamburg, Wellington, New Zealand Germany Disadvantages of coastal ports: Disadvantages of inland ports: tidal action unseasonal rise and fall of rivers or channels silting accumulation of sedimentary material unprotected. limitsonvessel size. Coastal port development follows two basic Inland port development follows two basic forms: forms: A. Seaward expansion ... A . Restrictive ................. B. Inland expansion. B . Unrestrictive . ............. ................ ................ 6 3.1.2 Cargo 3.1.2.1 Containerized Classification of ocean borne general cargo The container provides a sound protective suitable for containerization is listed in three covering for cargo and provides an econom- general classifications: ical system for transfer of cargo from one A . Prime - generally commodities of high transportation mode to another value with relatively high shipping rates. These prime commodities possess physical Containers come in five basic types: reefer, attributes which permit them to be effi- dry, insulated, vented and special . They ciently packed in containers. Many of these are manufactured in 10 foot increments, commodities are highly susceptible to damage ranging from 10 to 40 feet,and are 8 feet or pilferage. Examples of prime cargoes are tall and 8 feet wide. liquors, wines, pharmaceuticals and non- Advantages of containerization are: bulky items. � reduced ship turnaround time B. Suitable - generally commodities of � less damage moderate value with shipping rates less than � less theft those for prime commodities. This classifi- � transit shed not required cation has a modest susceptibility to damage containers can be stacked. or pilferage. Example of this type include wood shingles, wire products and bagged Disadvantages of containerization are: coffee . Other type cargoes that fit in this large amount of land area for container category are those that could be contaminated, marshalling and storage required such as bagged flour or cargoes that incur older vessels not designed to handle such labor penalty charges such as green hides and large units carbon black. expensive handling equipment required C. Marginal - generally low value cargoes paper work involved not as advanced as that could be placed in containers. This type containers, therefore delays occur. cargo includes pig iron, steel ingots and unmanufactured wood. Source: Container Services of the Atlantic 1970 7 B. Wet bulk - all commodities which exist in a I iquid or semi-I iquid state This cargo Is usually pumped. Examples: sulphur, petro- chemicals, crude, gas, slurried minerals (coal, bauxite, iron ore). Loading facilities for wet bulk usually include a loading dock which supports the various 7, 7< valves and required hose handling equipment . Tankers and tank barges generally are equip- ped with adequate pumping equipment to dis- charge their cargo Advantages of bulk handling: Reproduced by permission of the Port of Bristol, -minimum labor required England .no packing or packaging required 3.1 .2.2 Bulk Cargo *one bill of loading A homogeneous cargo with no form of pack- .usually one port of call aging and not capable of being handled with .ability to haul large volumes over long a sling . There are two general classifications distance . for bulk cargo: A . Dry bulk - all commodities which are not Disadvantages of bulk handling: in a I iquid or gaseous state . Examples: ore, *not all ports can service bulk vessels potash, phosphate, gypsum, limestone, ce- .limited variety of cargo ment, coal, grain .require large storage facilities .many bulk cargoes difficult to dis- Loading facilities for dry bulk vary from con- charge ventional drag line to seaside galleries equip- .require extensive clean up of equipment ped with elevators, storage bins and convey- for different type cargoes using same or systems . discharging equipment. Wheat loading facility in Sidney, Australia ALI-11 Ali& t FA 10 0, -0 8 3.1 .2.3 Break Bulk Existing problems facing passenger service: General cargo that is largely manufactured - decline in passenger volume due to airlines items or components of various types and - passenger vessel routes seldom change quantities that are shipped together. A great - speed and cost . deal of food stuffs and raw materials fall into this category . These items generally require storage or protection offered by transit sheds . Advantages of break bulk cargo: - usually transported by land carriers because of value (truck or rail) Shipped on regular schedule can be economically stored away from dockside. Disadvantages of break bulk cargo: - require large open storage space - subject to theft and pilferage - require transit sheds for sorting and tem- porary holding. 3.1 .2.4 Passenger Ports which are designated for the movement of people and their personal effects to and from a vessel. Characteristics of passenger ports: - provision of facilities for passengers: toilets, lounges, baggage check, etc. - related to established trans-ocean routes - usually concentrated at densely-populated Reproduced by permission of the Port of areas. Bristol , England Passenger and freight time schedules for the Port of Dover, England Dover Novrcraft Roll-on/roll-off Zeebrugge Townsend Ferries 3.75 hours. 5 sailings daily Ostend Belgian Marine. 3.75 hours. 8 sailings daily Dunkerque British Rail Ferry. 3.50 hours. 4 sailings daily French Railways . 3.50 hours. 2 sailings daily Calais French Railways.1.50 hours.-8 sailings daily. British Rail Ferry. 1.50 hours 4 sailings daily Townsend Ferries. 1.50 hours - 12 sailings daily Boulogne British Rail Ferry. 1.50 hours.12 sailing dally seaseed SRN 4 Hovercraft, 40 minutes, 12 flights daily 0 32 Location 9 3.2.1 Physical Factors 3.1.2.5 Specialized 3.2.1.1 Land Ports which handle one material or product Parameters to be considered include: only. All their equipment is geared to maxi- established trade routes and their relation mize the handling of its particular cargo at to interior transportation networks the highest efficiency. Example: coal port, existing adjacent port installations fishery port. accessibility to hinterland and areas of production. Fishery ports are of basically two classifi- First and second day rail service cations: A. Commercial - port utilized as a place of discharge for fish product. They require facilities for filleting, packing, freezing and manufacturing fertilizer or fish meal. B. Small fishing boat operation - catch sold day by day at the docks. First and second day truck delivery La Goulette Rades Source: Port of New Orleans 3.2.1.2 Water 3.2.1 .2 Water A harbor is primarily a sheltered water area af- fording a natural or artificial haven for ships. Harbors provide calm water for maneuvering of and berthing ships as well as providing anchor- ing space. Harbors have three general classifications: A. Natural harbor - an inlet or area of water protected from storms and wave action by the natural configuration of the land itself. The entrance is so formed and located that it pro- vides safe navigation as well as protection . 10 B. Semi-natural harbor - an inlet or river D. Embayed volcanoes - where an island or sheltered on two sides by head lands and re- coastal volcano has had its crater walls eroded quiring artificial protection at the entrance and submergence has taken place . The crater only. and the eroded gully can form a deep, well- C Artificial harbor - protected from wave protected harbor. action by means of breakwaters or by dredging E. Coral harbors - coral reefs in the form of atolls and barrier reefs often act as immense Types of natural harbors: breakwaters . A . Rio harbors - submerged estuaries in a rejuvenated land surface provide very good It is necessary in the selection of a suitable shelter with adequate depths for vessels. harbor site to consider: B. Fiords - great length in proportion to -amount of dredging that will be required breadth, steep sides, unimportance of rivers . bottom conditions which drain into them, seaward threshold, . Shore area available for terminal develop- have great depths. ment C. Fohrden - estuaries in low country of . size and shape of harbor soft rocks, which have lost the rivers which - geographic, climatological and geological once flowed into them. information . ...................................................... ............ ......... . .............. ........ X .......... .......... ...... ........... ..... . . ............ . .............. ... . .............. .............. ......% ........ .................... ... V.. . . . ........ ............................. .. ......... ............. ............... - .......... ..... .. ..... X", .. ........ .......... -- ----- . ........ . ........... . . . .. ..... ........................ Loch Ewe .... ............... X, ..... .... .... .... .... X.. % 0 5 10 . ..... ............... L __L __L X: ........... miles ..................... X ..... ......... .... .... %......... ... .... X.: X X.- ....... X-:-X-X-:.X-: ... ............ X.. ....... X.: .. ... Rio de Janeiro ............ . ................. ................. .......... ... ................. XXXXX X ap do ........... *. ..... ... .... ............ .......... ... ....... X ........... X-X X :X: X. N X 0 5 10 X... X X .......... L___J L__J . . ...... X.:- ........ Mi es X.: Rio harbor example Fiord harbor example 3.2.2 Socio-economic Location in areas with unexploited resources and an embryonic industrial development re- quires an appraisal of basic position of the port in reference to how it will best serve the hinterland. Factors influencing these deci- sions include: processing plants utilizing inexpensive water transportation for raw materials and finished products fuel types and accessibility export and import potential . In developing countries,ports are developed for usually one of the following four reasons: A . Establishment of new national boundaries. This process may have eradicated or placed a port outside of the new boundaries making it necessary to establish a new port if the country is to continue in trade and commerce . B. Shifts in national growth patterns may create the need for facilities nearer the hinter- land previously serviced by remote trade centers. C . New or major industry requiring a coastal outlet . D. If existing ports are unable to expand and have reached their economic limits, it is nec- essary to establish new adjacent facilities to efficiently handle the trade. 3.3 Administration 12 3.3.1 Owning Organizations After close examination, it becomes apparent the representation which they offer to those that no two ports are administered the some using the port in the course of business and way . No standard administrative structure to organizations whose interests are affected has been established. However, most ports by its efficiency and success fall into the following classifications: their freedom from political considerations self-governing ( board, trust, authority, their impartial policy in relation to all forms commission) of transport wishing to use the port. private (industry -owned) public/state 3 .3.1 .2 Private municipal Privately owned ports are those owned and others (railway-owned, customs-owned, managed for the purpose of making a profit, free ports). in the same manner as any other private enter- prise. They are normally owned by companies 3.3.1 .1 Self-Governing or private individuals operating under statutory A self-governing or trust -port is one controlled powers conferred on them by government. Within and operated under the direction of the users, this category fall those parts of a port owned pri- the port authorities and other interested organi- vately and run for the particular purpose of dealing zations. This includes local public authorities with the specialized cargoes of a company or tra@- and state departments, all of whom are re- ing grou'p. presented on a governing body, usually called a board. The board is almost invariably made Originally, many ports were run as private enter- up of appointed members, presided over by a prises, but the heavy cost of capitalizing them, chairman . Normally, there is a substantial, the rapid obsolescence of expensive facilities many times a majority, representation of payers caused by the great advance in size of ships, and of rates and charges on vessels and goods using the freezing of capital in anticipation of such the port. The trust ports are non-profit making developments made them unsuitable subjects for with undertakings ordinarily financed by this type of undertaking . They gradually came public subscriptions bearing fixed rates of in- under the control of one or the other of the more terest. However, because borrowing can be financially powerful types of organization . The made only with governmental consent, funds major characteristics of privately owned ports available to trust ports for development are are their: normally limited to the gains realized by success- relative freedom from restrictions ful management . The trust port authorities, freedom from political considerations independent and non-pol itical , provide a unity impartial policy in relation to all forms of of administration with a considerable fund of transport . expert business experience on which the port can depend. The desires of the members who 3 .3.1 .3 Publ ic/State are port users are combined with the long ex- Publicly and state-owned ports are both govern- perience and know-how of the management and ment-owned ports, (although there is a distinction executive officers. Summing up, it may be between those that come directly under a govern- said that self-governing ports owe their growing ment department i e . state-owned port) and those popularity in many ports of the world to: organized under control of some type of govern- their power to shoulder the heavy finan- mental agency. cial burden which the provision and main- tenance of port and dock entails With the state running the port, the national policy can be expected to be evident . The port may well be 13 integrated with rail, road and waterway impartial policy in relation to all' forms services when they too are nationalized. of transport . Subsidies from state sources are not un- known, particularly where major develop- 3.3.1 .5 Others ments are concerned. Fears of absentee Railway-ownership has been brought about direction, bureaucatic interference and in many cases by the practice often followed failure to appreciate local conditions may by railway companies of acqu-iring or build- be evident. It should be noted that state ing docks for the purpose of feeding their ownership in its present form is not ac- railway systems or for use as terminals. Such companied by any reduction in the number docks are regarded as independent profit-' of organizations operating within the port . earning units . They are part of the service In fact, the state rarely seeks to do more offered by railway companies to the tradin go than provide a port, leaving the users to or traveling communities. Railway companies operate it have been enabled by their good financial resources to spend large sums in developing The major characteristics of state-owned and improving docks. The major characteris- ports include: tics of railway-owned dock undertaking in- excellent financial resources clude: opportunity for planning on a national good financial resources level ability to offset losses on docks, against impartial attitude to all methods of profits earned over the whole railway transport desirous of using the ports. system freedom from political considerations. 3.3.1 .4 Municipal Municipal ports are usually administered by An ancient form of port management which a committee of the local authority . This stil I I ingers in some parts of the world is that committee is usually drawn entirely from of control by customs administrations of the members of the town council who therefore country concerned. It is understandable that rely on re-election at municipal elections under primitive conditions the ruler of a mari- to continue their membership on the com- time state should regard ports as means through mittee . This system creates incentive for which much needed revenue could be channel- elected persons to take pride in a smooth ed, with the day by day running of the port as operating port. However, there is little a secondary objective. guarantee that a newly elected committee- man wi I I be wel I -informed on the problems The free port is a port area in which goods peculiar to the port. Surplus revenue that liable to import duties can be stored without should go to port development may prove payment of duty; this is paid when the goods too great a temptation to city councilors with go out through the dock gate to their destina- pet schemes for municipal improvement. tion in the surrounding country . The obvious advantage of this system is that foreign goods The major characteristics of municipal port can be discharged from ships, put into ware- undertakings are: houses, processed and exported again without good financial resources having to pay duty to the national exchequer. ability to offset losses against "invisible assets", such as employment for towns- people 14 3.3.2 Operations The operation of a port is a complex under- taking. Due to the overlapping of types of port ownership and administration, it has been necessary to establish some sort of operational format. This has been successfully achieved in the formation of port authorities. Func- tions of port authorities vary but usually in- clude items such as: �development planning �traffic promotion �capital raising �independent terminal development �leasing facilities operating transportation modes operating harbor equipment. Amajority of the port authorities of the United States possess the power of right of eminent domain. Board Law and Parliamentary Committee Stores Committee The following examples are the organizational Maintenance Committee charts of three selected ports: -Staff Committee -Finance Committee - River Committee - Dock and Warehouse Committee - General Purpose Committee Port of London, London, England Port of New York, New York City - organization world trade & procedures administrative-- personnel -tunnels & director bridges - purchasing -real estate administrative services - planning & development Board of Executive - Commissioners Director public affairs operations legal services terminals finance comptrol ler [engineers -rail transportation -marine terminals treasurer -aviation 15 Mayor Deputy Port and Administration--- general general affairs Mayors Harbor Division affairs - welfare Bureau department - 1st accounting - 2nd accounting - requisition - promotion promotion and research T research department - management management --Eoperations - port opera - marine tions de- wharfage partment Ist port service T 2nd port service Engineering planning Ist planning Division department 2nd planning engineering engineering engineering works de- works partment inspection construction E machinery electric design de- I st designing partment __T: 2nd designing 1st constru- Ist construction ction office T 2nd construction 2nd construc- -E 1st construction tion office 2nd construction Reclamation construction designing Division depar Ist construction tment _E2nd construction project department Port of Osaka, Osaka, Japan 16 3.3.2.1 Customs Ship related problems or responsibility of The primary responsibility of the U.S . Bureau 'cargo matters fall into the jurisdiction of of Customs is the administration of the Traffic the Cargo Superintendents Department. Act of 1930, as amended. Their duties in- Usually one person either on staff of the c I ude: company or on contract assumes the duties assessment and collection of all duties, tax- outlined: es and fees on imported merchandise see that all booked or manifested cargo enforcement of customs and related laws is loaded or discharged administration of certain navigation laws note its condition on receipt and treaties. comply with the requirements of the master in the matter of storage As an enforcement organization, it combats o ensure that the stevedore's responsibilities smuggling and fraud and enforces the regula- are satisfactorily discharged . tions of numerous other federal agencies. The number of independently operated organi- Criteria for establishing a customs office is zations involved in executing port and harbor based largely on volume of business in a port. functions may vary from suprisingly few to Size of staff also is "dependent" upon many. The following list indicates several volume of business. Facility requirements typical types: are dictated by staff size . A . Carriers: steamships 3.3 .2.2 Physical barges The physical functions carried out in a port are railroads divided into inboard and outboard functions motor trucks with the transition point being the ship's rail . airlines pipelines. B . Storage Agencies: waterfront general storage agencies inboard outboard functions warehouses � piloting grain elevators � dredging free trade zones. � lightinq � buoying C. Shipper and Shipper's Agents: locking ships in or out shippers of freight � dry docking receivers of freight � landing, customs brokers _0 receiving & loading cargo export agents. - _@_r_ 0 ovicring & maintaining D. Freight Handlers: cranes 0 quay equipment stevedores 41 policing car and truck loaders and unloaders 0 providing power cooperage firms 0 bunkering terminal companies 0 0 wateFF_ng grain elevators � towing ore, coal and other bulk handling. � customs E. Vessel Agents: 0 victualling steamship agents 0 repairing 0 discharging steamship brokers . 0 d-isembarking emFa_rk_"I_ng 17 F . Vessel Service Agents: G Financial Institutions: towage firms banks vessel stores suppliers insurance firms. fuel suppliers H . Industry: repair yards waterfront business firms dry dock firms free trade zones supplier of water and power. export subsidiaries of warehousing firms. Diagram of cargo movement from vessel Source Port of Rotterdam N A Temporary storage Transit Customs Storage AMW Bonded Warehouse Storage Import Public Temporary storage 01 so 41 TE -"N r=M L4 0 4b 3.4 Transportation 18 3.4.1 Land The main function of the various transpor- This is the point about which all points on tation modes is the fast,efficient movement trailer 02 must rotate to miss trailer 01 . of cargo. E . With the compass point on point X, swing 3 .4 .1 .1 Trucks trailer 02's nose around until point A reaches Truck characteristics which relate to port Al . Sketch trailer 02 into its* position as usage and planning include the weights, shown . sizes and turning radii . The following charts are an attempt to provide a reference guide F - Through the location of the kingpin, ex- for truck information, but detailed informa- tend a line back through point X. This line tion concerning each state's vehicle laws then represents the center line of the tractor must be used in the final planning of a parti@ drive axle or bogie . From this drive axle cular pc@q. center line, draw the tractor with the great- Min,... Interference Line est turning radius in its proper position with Traclar T respect to trailer 02 in its second position Radius G. With the compass point on the tractor front bumper (opposite side from the direction of the turn) scribe an arc equal to the turning radius of the tractor so that it intersects the 61 E center line of the tractor drive axle at pointY. E 40 H . With the compass set at the turning radius of the tractor, place the point at Y and scribe Center line .1 @..dlng D..., an arc that represents the curve through which Ir' liar axle Determining Maneuvering Equipment the bumper will travel A - Draw to scale trailers up against the load- I . Finally, measure that distance from the dock ing dock at expected minimum spacings. (Use to that point on the curve just drawn which measurements of longest and widest trailer ex- represents the greatest distance from the dock. pected at dock with rear most axle or tandem Based on a Single Continuous Forward Move- position ment,.This Represents the Absolute Minimum Distance Away from the Dock Needed For B - Extend trailer 02 axle or tandem center I ine Maneuvering Area. in direction of turn . Minimum interference distances may be de- C . Draw chord AA1 from that point on the side creased by increasing the minimum spacing of trailer 02 where the axle or tandem center between trailers.. by using, trailers with the I ine intersects the side of the body, to the nose axle or tandem advance as far forward as corner of the adjacent trailer (01). This is a possible, by using tractors with smaller turning chord of the curve through which point trailer radii and by using a saw-toothed loading plat- #2 must traverse to miss trailer 01 form design . Power steering can be of some help, for in a practical operation and for a D. Bisect chord AA I and extend a perpendi- given turning radius, the less effort required cular line until it intersects the extension of to turn a tractor, the shorter the distance re- trailer #2 axle or tandem center I ine at point X. quired to maneuver the vehicle. Reproduced by permission of Truck Trailer Manufacturers Association 19 bingle Vehicle is--- No motor vehicle, commerical motor vehicle, truck tractor. trailer or semitrailer shag exceed a length of 40 feet 10 (I 15-- 10- 5- 0- Combination of Vehicles is The 40 toot limitation will not apply to a Mitraller combinallon does not "coed SO feet in total "th 10 5- 0- No truck trador and semitrailer operated in when the semitrailer is 40 feet In total length combination shall exceed a total length of 55 feet 10 5 15 No truck and trailer or two trailers or any other combination of vehicles operated in a tandem conibmation shall exceed 65 last in overall length, limited to 40 toot lengths for single vehicles 0 - 0 10 20 @D 4.0 io 6@0 7@ Big Vehicle Types Source: Texas Commercial Vehicle Size and \A/-:-k4. 1 1()/,o 20 PUX@SX -.0 0 @ @49 .9 ITS 7X-- -T. Lh., WAD NI lb,. P-- T. 1=1-11L.1 T Reproduced by permission of Truck Trailer Manufacturers Association . STATE SIZE & WEIGHT LIMITS llhl@ M- i@ "i',j 0y it,.[ ..... @ - @- I,a@ M.Ild b@- F-il@ 61@ s',-fi-) JULY 1. 1870 LENGTH LIMITS ITT) AXLE LOAD tMITS(Ibl.) OWES WEIG44T tIMITs(L.Sj 'ouse IT, STATE ...... MULA T'.."., ALLOMILLE .11. A--- TABLES 1- 96 NS 55 NP i"wo E5 36,000 E5 13: NO 71. 1 M M. T AI-k. L3-6 40 6 oo .;5 20. No DI u, NO No NO T A,I.. 13-6 KIR. o5 65 o3 18.000 59.0 71.0@- 1@7@6: 600 T 6@ ":'00 0'.' 59. ON 73. no ... @2 No L. :,1 .1 4@o 0 1:: No U.- 59.N. 7@ no- - . - . a@ a. 75:201) 13-6 AT 96 MILL AT 65 A, 65 At 16,000 36,000 45,000 6.1. NO IT-6 112 40 55 w 22,400 IM;E1 11:10 El 53. BDO 7@ ': @111 7@ It o NIL O'@.o 7 ": .3- 65 48. NO no D""', 1 11 61 ": No No 'o. 2-6 0 MIL to - T@ 30, .0 u'wo 69, ON T L 6 .6 Hit C5 55 1., ON E5 0 1%.2- T "'NO E5 '0': O'L* G-rgi. 4 NFL 34 0. 1 0 1, H...Ii 11-6 HIT .1 1 .60 32'No 6 1: 71:.111 T no L. N.0 71 0 HR :1C 11, IN Do 12: NO Do nil 1., 13-6 96 42 1. :.1 ,At ii,'ooo .2 NO 45, No 13 73. 111 . 65 1., No Do .ow 5, GOG -wi- 116 - 55 0 .. 2: .1 72.208w* E!- @.a -- --- -- .-- - ..' - - - ---. - - I -- I @ -!t- 59.000 TEL 71,612 E4 2:0 T :@l AL 1::100 12 11 112 41, 0 1 0 @2: ON . :1 ": 2 13-6 .2 4@2. o'C2 @'5' 1"@ AT 000 o'l. No 73. No 1@ T 13 6 At 96 HE. 55 AT 65 A@ 65 A3 il@'O 2:111 45, 000 AT @0' 6. AT 7..2.1. AT 13 6 go HILL Go .- - 0 0 ": @':o L-P.1- 11 L@'O 0 D .12 NO 45,0. 59.00 7@3. 71 It I.-G 102 M HIT 5 "'M ___ . 1 22,000 36.000 At 66, - 73,280 Y3. 2110@ U.,1,md - -- -- -----1751- -I - - __ _ _NP - _ 96 Im 55 55 65 AT 22 NO 3::" T 13-6 M 55 - - ;":, It T M.-h. 22:. 36:oo. @3 :1 4" 3 .@i- HIT 5@1 55 65 AT 18. ON M;G4 26 NO G4 4 , 0 0.0 59. " AT 73,000 AT 136,OW At ... Mi - 1. 96 4D 0 n TIP L 8. 000 n: NO 45,000 59'.0 7@, 0. 73, no T ]HI.C.Aw 13-6 96 Hit 55 16, 000 M .N0 At 5,000 5., No 73.200 _73.1801AI T 1111 :1 1AT 45 At 28,000 32.000 4 NO 59,000 1@1: 21, 7 no T 0 w- T3-: KIT AT 7 D3 :1@ AT 11 3 32 N G3 45,000 '9.0. No 7: NO W T ,.:M G 3 23-o 96 C. 60 ON E. 2: NO E3 45.000 E2 [email protected] E2 .@'.O AT T @2,000 45..00 51 76 T NO IN B2 M 11 71 To CA 13 H-,..- 13-. .6 N11 @O 05 4'N IN -00 52.800 66:4.' . 73. 73: ZD 13-6 96 Int C4 -gS -122.41WO 156'-E@ 12,- Z3 AN E3 63,400 E3 73.281) W.- 13-6 1`3 M 65 21.6N W 11 52.200 ":.121 66:4 T n: 12 L3-. :6 LOT C4 :11 1., - 21 4.1.0 1 No W, w .7 71,4DO E3 nO F3 C...- 13-6 NIL 55 ` - L.:. .; in 36,00 E6 45 0 0. NO E3 70.ON E3 11: 2" ... M@ Dai-. 1-6 Do M N 0 ON M '3 28 AT F1 :5 A; 18, ON D2 32,000 46 00 EJ 5.1000 Ch. 13- 96 PDT 5 19 2:.11111 4 No on NO I 1 0" , ': o'w 11:. 3-6 :11 65 I8:NO IN 12 N @'5: 0. 5. ON T 0, 13-o .3 @N!T` 6. 1 605 AT: CIO 75 AI;C8 18,00 D2;.2 32:11. G2 'i. No A, 63,00o At ;31:2180 -Al 1": OOD A3;Al T 11-1 ME 22:.100 1 n ON 50': ON E2 1O:N1 12 28 ... L.: 22 wON .70 .-- -M . . 7@%2:: 11- C-11- 13-6 101, n. No AS 50:0100 El 71:21* 7 4 00 73 ,':' lb.4, D@ NIL AT :'I AT 65 At 18. No OT 32:NO 1.': .".0 ON 3 @'W' T 13-6 To NIL 55 LA. No 32. No .0.0 59. NO 73,260 ... T 13-6 96 Hot 32. . 45 ON 71:' '2: 1 T 6 40 No ANo 0: 7%ooo 79 14 .0 C. I No n. NO T V .3-6 55 55 22,4GO E3 3 11 73 no L.'ow N S: AN 4" ":n" : viw L. 13-6 11 11 0 4 ON No 7. TO 13-. 96 40 To 05 L8.ON D2 32, 76.NO A NIL, '4': No S'o 73. L3-1 At il@ AT @li AT Iti, 13 U.- E@ @ NO : E3 '7.: AT 9: 35 'o ON 48.000 L3 6 0 32. .0.50 7% No T3-6 .6 - 'o I u'ooo 45.0N 13.00o 73.1. 00' M - ' ' -"' -- 6.9 Sit RLE"Hailk C.%P 21 3.4.1.2 Rail Another concept utilized in the rail industry Rail movement of cargo represents a sizeable is the %@it train" . This idea, not really volume . The types, sizes and number of new to the industry, is growing in use . rail cars are many: Basically, the concept is designed for bulk general purpose box cars cargoes, such as coal, pelletized ore, potash, bulk head flat cars phosphate, lead, com, etc., which can be general and special purpose flat cars loaded at one point then delivered uninter- specially equipped box cars rupted at the destined port . Thp owner of auto-veyor and saddleback flat cars the cargo leases the entire train for his cargo . gondola cars covered hopper cars Another concept designed to compete with �open-top hopper cars marine conveyance is the "land bridge". �refrigerator cars The land bridge is the utilization of land transport for part of what would normally Each rail line provides their own sizes and be an ocean voyage. Its intent is'to move variations to each of the above as wel I as goods by shortest distance between two many custom and special cars . The only points at the lowest elapsed time and cost item that remains constant is the wheel Containerization is the key to bringing spacing to fit existing tracks . time and cost for land transport to a com- petitive position with sea transport . How- In 1968, the total U,.S . fleet of freight cars ever, many experts in transportation believe was approximately 814,000, of which 70,000 it will be difficult for land bridges to com- were added in that year. The trend has been pete with the new faster container ships to larger cars. currently coming into service The "piggy back" concept represents 5% of all car loading. a )C) YL Uk) 49 W- In 1968, there were approximately 1,337,000 railway car loadings, which carried 2,179',000 revenue producing units . This figure increases as more items are containerized . Problems generated by this increase are pri- marily ones of congestion . Many shippers desire late afternoon collection and early morning delivery. To accommodate this, more trailer parking space is needed at the port . 22 ............ .... ........ ............... ........... .............................. ........... ......................................... ............................. ................ ....... ............ ....... .... ............... ...................... ... ............... ... ......... .... ......... ........... ......................... ......... ................. ... .............. ............. .......... .... ........ ..... ........... ................ ......... ............. ..... ..................... . ........................ ....................... ....... .................. ...................... .................. ............... ........ .......... .......... ................ ............. ................. ...................... ............................ .................. .................. ...... ........... ...... ......... . ............ ... ................................................. ........ ........ ......... .............................. ....... ..... ................ . .............. ..... ..... .... .... ........ ..................... ........ ............ .. . ... ........ ... .................................. ................. X. ....... .......... ...... ....... . ................ ............... ........................ ..... ....... .... ... .......... ................... ....... ........................... ............ ... .............................. ........ .... ...................... ....... .......... .... .................. ........................... ...... ....... .................................................. ..... .... .............. ................................ . .... .... ...... . ................. :.. ..... ... ................... . .. ................. .......... ....................... ... .... .............. .. .......... .. .. ...... ...................... ............................ ........... ..... .......... ::.. . .. . ...... ............ ................ X. X.- .............. ................. ...................... .................. ........... ........... .............................. ....... .... ........................ . .......... ........... ......... . . ......... ................... ................ .......... .......... X.: ........... * ............ .. . ........ ........ ........... ........... .. .. ... ... ............ .............. ........... ....................... ... ..................... ............................. . . ........ ............ .. ............. ......... ........ ....... .................. ......... ...... ........ . ............ .......................... .... ........... ..................... ................. ..................... ......... .... ............................ ...................... ................... ............ ............................... ......................... ... ... ........ ....................... ................... ................. ............. . . .............. ................ . ......... ............ ........ ................ ................... ........ ........... .................. ......... . .... ...... ........ . .......... . ...... . ........ . ......... .. ........ .......... ........ ...... ........ . . ...................... .......... . ... ............... X.: ............... . . .......... ... . ...... ........ ... ... ........... ............ ........... Proposed route of the "Land Bridge" Source: New Orleans, Centroport Raikvay Clearance Dimensions IV-6"min. 5--V 5, 9"Min. w 5-9"min. Warehouse doors I 101-dTmin. 81 011 . .Side tracks 8'-6- 5'-0" 1, 5,-P" r 4qbl/2'@ co) only It -7 r r L 61-61, X V Lo platform For shed High platform For all cars except refrigerator cars 0 C4 40 in 0 011 40 1@1- U W-0- 81.0" r 3. C LU IL Buildings and sheds Warehouse and adjacent side tracks engine house doors High Platforms serving Canopies and awnings Source: Architectural Graphic Standards refrigerator cars 23 NOTES THIS CHAPT FOR INFORMATION ONLY- NO LIAB!LIrY CAN BE ASSUMED ARCHITECTS, CONTRACTORS, ETC,.SNOULD CHECK WITH RAILROAD INVOLVED DIMENSIONS! SHOWN IN FEET AND INCHES. ARE FOR TANGENT TPAC@ - MOST LAWS SPECIFY INCREASES FOR CURVED AND SU'GREL VATLD TRACK. 'EAT!CAL- MEASUREDrr.DM TOP Of IRA IL , EXCEPT CANADA - BASE Of RA I. FOR 01hEA THAN PLATFORMS, 4ORiZONTAL-MEASURCC FROM. CENTIER LINE OF TRACK. APPLY TV NEW CONSTRUCTION, SOME RECONSTRUCTION AND SOME EXTENSIONS. SC BE VARIED UPON APPROVA. OF APPLICATION Of GOVERNING BODY. DME CAN ARE BASCO ON MAXIMUM CAR SIZE FOR ARIZOrjA, CALIFORNIA, IDAHO, MINNE- SOTA, MONTANA, NEVADA, NORTH DAKOTA CREGO AND WASMINGTIDIA ALL ARE MINIMUM EXCEPT COLUMNS 20: 25, 29,13t AND 33 ANION ARE "Xi". HAWAII OAAITTED@ NO COMMON CARRIER RAILROADS C-CON0ITIONA%L- SEE SPECIFIC REGULATION CF A- CAR FLOOR HEIGHT EEXEMPT HHEIGHT Of CARS GOVERNS COLUMN2SHOWS BASIC REGULATION SHOWS BASIC DATE OR DATE Of LATEST AMENDMENT 6 APPLY TO HAND AND @ECHANICAI.LY OPePATtD SWITCHES EXCEPT AS NOTED :: :REVAILS FOR ALL ITEMS NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR 5FDOES SUPPORTING TRACKS 14 IS 20 BRIDGES SPANNING TRACKS 24 & 25 PAS SE HGER PLAY FORMS 26 6 27 FIRE "'E@111 PLATFORMS ON SIDE TR.S EXCEPT AS NOTED GAr PLATFORMS ON SIDE MACK$ STE PRED PLATFORMS ARE NOT GENERALLY ALLOWED ,5 OTHER THAN TROLLfY CONTACT IANOLEES 36 TO CENTER OF STAND EXCEPT AS NOTED 37 APPLIES TO BOTH SUPPORTS AND PLATFORMS EXCEPT AS NOTED 1, NO CURRENT REGULATION - CHECK WITH RAILROAD INVOLVED 2LES SEA L ARANCES NOT PERMITTED IN QUADRANTS 3ENGINE HOVSES AND SHOP BUILDINGS EXEMPT CA -PIERNATTEE, LESSER DIMENSIONS 0ON LY IF TRACKS END WITHIN BUILDINGS 5MAI :E REDUCED TO 5-9 IF 9-3 tg-t FOR Y'YOMItIQ I PR3VIDkD ON OPPOSITE SIDE to M. EtEDUCED TO 5.9IF 8-0 (0-6 FOR NEII.& 0Y170.PFNv'DEr ON OPPOSqT SIDE IOt4LY IF a.017-3 FOAMONTSWYO. @ 6 'S: O.C., MASS, 6. DANJ PROVIDED ON 01POSITE SIDE 8MAY BE LESS ON ONE SIDE IF FULL GE"4ERAL ICOL 121 PROVIDED ON OPPOSITE SIDE 9PASSENGER PLATF09-S ONLY. C. MAY BE 8-0 AT 4-6 FOR REFRIGERATOR CAR PLATFORMS ONLY tITO ENDS OF ARM IN OPERATING POSITION 12 FORPATFORMS AT CAR EAVE HEIGHT - SU"CRTS M BE 6-0 CB-6 FOR TEXAS) 13, FCR @-IN TRACKS -ALL OTHERS 22-0 14. 9-6 FOR MAIN ANd PASSING TRACKS @5 FOR FREIGHT TRACKS - CAN BE 13-0 FOR PASSENGER TRACKS 6FOR HAND OPERATEC SwITCHIES-MAY BE 15-0 FOR WECHANICALLY OPERATED SWITCHES :7 FQ HAND OPERATED SWITCHES-MAY BE 17-0 FOR MECRUNICALLY OPERATED SWITCHES .8 AAA.LLEL LEAD TAIL KS: 19-0 IS A'G.NOING CANADA -CHECK STA14DARD CLEARANCE DIACAA..ARPROVLD By BOARDOF TRANSPORT COMMISSIONERS FOR CANADA,FOR RAILWAY INVOLVED. Reproduced by permission of Santa Fe Railway LEGAL CLEARANCE REE-QUIREMIENTS T. CK CENTERS VEkTICAL <-IZCN.L -SIGNALS GETwEE1 too, A 11-1 ETC, REGVLATION REFERENCE A IF q 8 IF E 24 567 a9-0 .1 12 13 14 15 16 IS IS 2C 21 22 23 2- @1 26 21 2S 3, 32 31 1Do139 :OTE Ii ALASKA WE Ii XZOIA CgE 111 2 2D-IS 0' 18-0: -L-S-IS 6.-0 '.311 S-6 3-0 @6-0 0 43 08-6 E 7-84, -6 AReAgw 111i 111 - 0 1101510 1010 1000 - I133: 00 1212.- 10011 O:z -6 5-0 1. S 6, IS I"1 14' G 14-0 14-0 17-0 @OC14-0 15-0 '1 2Z2-0 23 008-6 0, '-0- -0 5.9' 4-0 T- 0 2z-6 22-6 22 6 22 6S-O S-0 -' E-C S.O CILIFORMA Cj 026ml)w VK a 0 aL-463-6 0.6 011. -604 - 84--@-7-6@- 8-6 5-0 6-() 0-4 3-0 8-6 6---571 1:1@ -6 663-0 8.6 8.6 6-8-@ 8.6 a 6 :6--n-6 '2 i- 6- 'S-H G-O -S. i4 -0 13 0 2-2 -.Z2 7-0 3-0' 0-8 @5--O- 55 -4--0-14--0- -.5, 0- - 74 0 7 1i -7-1)1@@84-/@@ -.dV CAIADI 2'65 13 0 13-6 14-0 15 0 E 0 13 6 12-0 12-0 22-6 22 S22 o,22-6 2@ i--22 68114-;@ ts-d-,s 4,@je-o 70`4.- .8Z4/. COLORADO DECI;'t 17 0 200 C 'T CUT 16 13-0 -.'30 '15-0:18-0 ON.%E@ OCCK 8995 47@' CI@jto. e IS.614 0 se 6a9a_O -T :6-0 7j 16-8 1-2 E-6 3-0 �-_O O@ 4 @ELA@40f OPOER 214 1555 141-0 '13 IS 0 09 OL,13 6--L3'2. 3:0 U,0 22,0.22-0,22:0-'s-olts-61 oa-i @E-q:T--c CO 8--o 0-e .4 1.1 At,-D 3-0 :E_-_0_4-0 -@G8- -L __ _--T 4 --]S - ___6_T -IS -01 _@_L _ _ -T OF COLIJ@ -0 14-0 15-0118 0 19-0 14 0 13-0 13-0 22 0 22-0 22 0 22 0 4-0@476 s-6 B-0 :0.6 B-0 8-0 8-0 0 8 4 8 11-0 5-77 S.-6-3.0-6-0 @2-4 3-0 S-6 DI@ ORDER 1954 14 -FRUE-918-711 1-9 53 i-3-6 -rj- 4-6-1-3-6 U70-22-6-22 1-6 5-6 8-6 8-6 ROMA 6 10-1:9 0-1@1@ 8 CF 11-9 3'@, 6-0 -4 0 10 6 5 NOT 1 1-0 1-0 GE O-RC CA El ---- -- - - -------- IDAHO 0 99 1955 I'D 14-0 14-0 15-0 13-0 2-2-6 22 6:226'224i iis-o"Tawo, 8.6 e-o -a 6:a o 6 6::8-6'; 0-8 4_E1_'4:CI -3-4-08-6@00-T-016-0 50-4 3-0 P-6 IS- C TNT---I 9 ED 1 :6 --Sl 6-1 W.- 36 2 @ 672 1 - 3 @il 6V - 68-0 0-0 .6 0@S 017-0 0-4 WIND 04 -6 0- 8 .5-1 CF. @5-6 EF e9 0 a-0 a3-0 IRCANA !51 22-0 22-0'22,0 22-02@-O0-ELFI- $TATOTIS TT@ _6 0 8-0 - Ea.01 7-614-60-07-ac 0-3 0 a 08 0 22 is XIA OM K-lib 936 74-0 7j--eloi 4 d' 1 '67 -6 22-0,22 0'22-0-22 Ce HP,85-1 8:02--137--- 7 i--O -6- W-8:6- *-7- 0- 8 0 - -60-3 -5814-44' 19-55 -4--- --6- -0- -737 -'T3- -6- .22 6:2 -88-'0 :5 9- iANSAS 00 7 25 14'0 `6 -6 22 '22-0 O-F7--O:'i -W S-6 -0 _6 84-7--O@7-0'-0:8 -5-0-4 4-0 0-0 8 6 3 0 6-0 0 4 3-0 8-6 9-6 8=6 8-6 IENIOC-K.I- STAjUIE-$'94?- T-,I 22 01 LO'. SI&VA NOTE I 1-T- MINE 10-2 -i-Mks 2-2-0 22:5-2-2 0-iF Ctl-O@7:6- 8 0S-0 EFI, a-ct -cl.a-0 C-e-5--4 A- 6oTF-5@@ -o-.Z-T-o-a:o @E-.66.o a-o VARTLIVO s--i -8 -0 a t' -8 0 aw6 -DK,,L50 31.-L953 14 O_ 18 0_19.0_1L613-_0 __Ek-q 22 0.22-0 22 0 Z2 0 S C''S 0' 8 0 OB 5-_1 0@508 6 3-0 6-0 C 4 3-0 8 62@t -6 -B -- -j-- -.-6 6 A_ 6_ 956 3 C 13 11-0 11 0 17 0 13 0 IS 0 6t2i6 22:45 IS -6@ 8.1; -@@ a59108 60-6 a 6 9-6 8 6 _57A@UTES L @6 22 6" 22 6; 22 111:1,1GAN STAIVIES . 957 14-0 :!4-0 14 0 i-o-i@ 6-wo o-o--,4o 22 6E - E -22 6:'22-6-y2-68-o,ERE B-6' 8-6 !! -6E NAIESOTA -- ---- ---- - - -6 8 6S-@ 0 66 Sti 8 6 PATUrES' S43 14- 0 4 - 0 14,16_ T7:6-119 0 -A :0 W 0 22:6"22 022 0 2ZTO-@@70 WISS SSIPP11 NOTE II -A A SSOURI C 0. i4-1959- 74:0 14 0 1 0 --1 f---01-9 -0 T4-6- -tii--o-T-3 6 22 C22 0 22-0 22 08- -6 8 -0 8- - C, S- -. -6 -8-- 8 iS 6-4 0 85- 1- 1--008 -6. 5 o@@ 1- 6 _0 -15 6 -9 2Z-6'2Z-6 4 O@ii--O S- 6 66-0 1011TA HFA C@EP 25977 956 14 0 hil 0 20 0 0 -0 6-6V 8--C 6 -'j6IS-0 8-686-5 9 8 6 8 6 MRASINA ic.23 C'Ti:(Drie-lt 8.6 -8 to I, . 07 0'--' 6" 6-e- 5-0 0 5 9@ S-6 3 06-0 0@4 5 0-0-o6 0 2 -6-Y CC6 16C6:6E- AEVADA__ CASE 59TISM 29-0.209 -3-0 220 22 -23:022 -8-0 4.-, j@y-6---6-,767,0 8 66 8.6 _11:6_ 2-.--' 1 41 1 NEW HAMPSAIRE OR 0.jo-O.-O' 13-0 @3 0 24 01 0 21 0 ZI- 6 11-0@17-6 8-0@ -0@, S-D'. 13- 0', 7-O'S 0.-12 54 0 5-9' 6 6 3-2 *5 50-4 3 0a IS -6-1 z7 E@0-6 O-E 6 -- L- ---- - @S -- '0 REA NEXICT IiI L 'ERS-E an, - - 2202 .1951 4-.4740-15-0! :-6:2F-6 5-- 0IT 01;' S: 611i 666- 7 0' 7-0' 0-8 14- :4 O@5 9'@4 O@8 0 'S 613-0 '6:0 0-4 3-0 8 6-6-6-j:8 `6:T@8-6 CRBEA__-- ._ ._ _- --20-0,14 0-13*0-- 22 IS-2Z .a 08 NE, YORI STUCTES 1961 13 6-0- 6 15 OL'8 0 19 0 13-6 13-6 13-6 U:2 @?2 0 ;22 0'22-0 @13-0' 18-0 S-60oS-H B-o 8-6 6-8 05- 74F4 - 08 - 6 'T.S- 63 0 .6-0 0 43-0 8-6 6 5 E-c. E__S-o voul i;*---! NORTH CAROLINA ILL- j 7.1 WINTA-901A --STITUTES FF61-itso -4 6s-0 S-0-a 0-8 0--0-816-3 c 1-43 13- 0 113 0 13.0 113 0 oi5 1.01. C, a-D, S-0, to 41 is 0. a 0:a 0 NO ORDER.2653111556 A L", '5-0! IS 0104 0 21 021-W 21 021 072, 0 @1-0.0:-Ot':-0 :8-D, 8 018*6-6Fa oelo'c-6-8 o-a o --- TRURR341 ISSIS 14- 0 -14-0 14 0 17 -C720-0 14 0 4 0@50 22-o z2 6'22-6-n-o: IT cis o6- C) .6 P-O' "' TO'.0-8504-q 5 9.4 08 0 TS 0%'36306@O 0 4.3-C -E:S"-87-6-3 6 ORDER-33IN: 195@ ii 6@ 1.: 0 IS 012-07'0'it) 0 4 0 IS 0'130 22-6"6,62,6!IB WIS 0' 6:6 8- 0 8 G j 0a 6a66 6-1 -0-8 .,I-S 4-0 7 3"86306 00-43C36..8 6, 7 5S@G -- PENXS1CV A MEN_ M4 13-6 :13 6 5 0. IS 0 19- 9-13.6 13-6 22-O.U022 022 0 19 O@S'C) 8 6B 0 -S C:-0 -0 0 85 14 05 ?' 4 D6-6,'8630'6 00 430S66 5 F 0E 8-6 -F'om SoNC -00a -668 oss- 37o-I-:G`E- 0-.-,B 0 19-0.14-0 L5 0140 8 0 18018-0 180to 014 68:6 S-6 -8 C,0a 0, 600 a4 O'SE3-@ C-04.50EIS 1-a 6'a o-S 6 -MUNCANOLNA -00HEL TOWIN-OAK-OTA- TRDE '22 G'22 6' 2?60 8-0 to 6-0a6:0- 1?49, 1957 22 6-1-0.22 68-6 .884 8CF., 5 - 9'500 4.3 0. 9jS'S 6*E 6 1-13 '22 022 0. 11 0 - 0' 8 000 8-@ 8-01 6 0'8- 0 a4 84 05-9*4 0706 6D 43-D 8D6 5 7 0'8-CI'S-0 qwsua SIAMES jMt t4 0 0 -0'. 18-0 IS-0 1. 0 1- t 30 2?-C 2206o H IF - - -- -- ; - : -6-76 8 -8 6' 8:0 a-6 0-12 4 6-@ 0-66E 7:3 @E-6-. 6 TEUS SIMUIES ! .918 J. .7 . @@ 6.22 O'Z2 Q22 ff2Z:0@?Z 08D-6 2, 5-6 C) 15 TATTV- 00 vs g-IRKSI mq@@,17-0 20 0 14-0 11-6 11-6 22 6 22 6 22 6221G@IWO' 18-04 8:660'6@ SS-0 owoo-E; *0-8 4 8195 8' 4-0 7 3@ B 63 06:0 0:4 '3 0-j-6 ?:S 8-@-g IS SUIT. ES 7 m5-1 2j-6'22-O -T, --- Ij7, 2-4 1 -_ -_ @_- 41J[4 -O@1- 914-0 1011t@"'T-.+ W -197 -14--0 26--0-20:6 A@ o IS 6! ii@- ,?2-6 22-6,22.6 10.0 -61.-.3t- -6 8-6 -14 9 -is1187615-6 @@- ::18 6E-. -6-. CI -IS 0' -8 -IRE A@[-FOT2-1 ws gTO-L'! --0 -!15- 0 _;q-0' 4-0 A-. CIII]l c WIT 1951 14-0 14 0 14 - O@ 14 01 14 0! 14 0 14-01 11-0 F2 0O'@123 .1 Z2 Q22'9,Z2 a 618 6 :0 6'6-'S-6 5 O:fi-4 8-6! E-C6 STAT IN -15 _9, 0, 1. 1I.Lo -66. - F. 8.6 3.0 0-. i5-0. 8-6 8 6 6 81 8 6 8- 6 9287 I95j WE F4--C -0 17 0 ZO 0 14 0 43@0. Q 86808 68.0 OZ 7--C' :4 0 5-9' 4 0S-6 24 3.4.2 Airborne 3 .4.2 .1 Air Transportation Presently, in terms of tonnage, air line cargo movement is relatively smal I . Air cargo con- ------ sists of primarily high value, low weight goods. In 1968, air cargo represented only 438,900 tons, but its value was 6.2 billion dollars. New high speed, high capacity air craftsuch as the 747 and C-5A, together with increasing- ly fast ground handling systems,will improve air cargo capacity and productivity and will lead to lower ton-mile costs and probably lower freight rates. It is predicted that by the year 2000 air cargo 13 could absorb 25% to 35% of ocean borne general cargo . 3.4.2 .2 Future The effect of (V/STOL) Vertical/Short Take Off and Landing Aircraft is yet to be fully realized. The benefits are unlimited, pro- Source: D/FW 2001 Dallas/Fort Worth viding the aircraft can carry large payloads economically. This type aircraft will permit Regional Airport - 2001 faster, more direct port-to-wer delivery to inland areas. There exist proposals for offshore airports to eliminate problems of noise and air congestion. These some air ports could be combined with deep water ports to'further intermodal transportation Helicopters can be an effective mode for the movement of goods, due to their vertical lift capability. 25 3.4.3 Waterborne "Insofar as world pressures are concerned, the ship appears to be corning first. The growing sizes of certain types of ships are increasingly rendering many traditional ports obsolete in terms of capabilities, and are'forcing others to adopt radically new handling, storage and distribution techniques. In many cases, vast cargo volumes are involved which are already causing the activities of superships to be con- centrated at new and often more remotely located deepwater, specialized harbors." Source: Harbor and Port Development, A Problem and an Opportunity - U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, July 1968. 1970 1980 1990 2000 Container Max DWT in Ships/General World Fleet 25,500 33,500 43,500 50,000 Cargo Ships Length (feet) 850 930 1,010 1,050 Beam (feet) 108 117 127 132 Depth (feet) 74 80 85 88 Draft (feet) 36 39 40 40 Average DWT in World Fleet 8,168 8,583 9,043 9,350 Tankers Max DWT in World Fleet 300,000 76o,ooo 1,000,000 1,000,000 Length (feet) 1,135 1,460 1,570 1,570 Beam (feet) 186 252 276-- 276 Depth (feet) 94 129 142 142 Draft (feet) 72 98 104 104 Average DWT in World Fleet 39,825 76,225 90,000 94,325 Dry Bulk Max DWT in Carriers World Fleet 105,000 185,000 317,000 400,000 Length (feet) 870 1,040 1,230 1,325 Beam (feet) 125 152 183 198 Depth (feet) 71 84 99 IM Draft (feet) 49- 57 66 71 Average DWT in World Fleet 14,750 18,750 23,575 27,350 Projected Vessel Characteristics 1970-2000 Source: U.S . Department of Transportation 26 3.4.3.1 Container Ships Roll-on/roll-off vessels utilize cargoes that move under their own power. A majority . . . . . . . . . . of heavy cargoes and large items that do not lend themselves to containerization such as farm machinery and wheeled vehicles, utilize the roll -on/roll-off concept. The advantages of roll -on/roll -off are: eliminates loading by sling 9 uarantees under deck stowage saves time and money (no packing required). Roll -on/roll -off requires ramp space to unload and load. slip wharf with wharf landing Mr E P Ful I container ships are being used more and more because as world wide general cargo trade con- .. ..... .... .. . Containers tinues to grow so do vessel sizes. Container .... . ..... ..... .... .... .... ..... ..... ..... .. . .... ..... vessels are replacing traditional break-6ulk ..... vessels due to their faster loading and unloading ... Void capabilities. Factors limiting the size of con- 14;A'4 ...... .... .... tainer vessels are: * harbor orientation Oil, fuel * shoreside space 4X-x. X: ... .... ... .... .. . X ex isting distribution systems. .. . ..... X-X. .. .... .... .... ...... X .... .. .... . ..... Water .... .... ... ... ballast SeCtion A A r-ir-I Mr-I E=E= r_Ir__1 r EJ BB EBFJH L---------------- X-1 Source: Container Service of the Atlantic 1970 27 LASH (Lighter Aboard Ship) and SEA BEE are variations of the containership. These vessels carry barges instead of containers. The barges are actually floating containers which are dis- tributed to inland waterways, loaded at points of distribution, then floated in flotillas to shelter- ed water where they are lifted by ship cranes onto the deck of the mother vessel . Advantages: good where barge trade is heavy from in- land areas could be utilized at developing ports where little or no facilities exist. Disadvantages: � loss of cargo space in mother vessel by barge proper � barges and vessel expensive � barges do not totally adapt to intermodal Loading Barges Onto Lash Vessel system. require calm water to load barges aboard vessel Dry bulk cargo vessels are expected to grad- ually increase in size but not as rapidly as container vessels. The OBO (Oil-Bulk-Ore) vessels are oriented in the some direction as tankers; they also will continue to grow until their draft exceeds the limits of existing harbors. It will then be necessary to examine new methods of loading these vessels. 28 3.4.3.2 Tankers Incentive for vessel growth has been In May 1'969, 238 tankers, each in excess strongest for crude oil tankers . Increas- of 150,000 DWT, were under construction ing use of offshore terminals and new or on order. 50 were in service at that time deep water harbors located away from and 6 of the 326,000 DWT tankers had also traditional established ports have con- begun service. In addition to tankers, a tributed to this trend. 146,000 DWT bulk salt carrier and a 157,000 DWT ore-bulk-oil carrier were under construc- F tion. Plans for a 215,000 DWT OBO were 1945 17 000 dwt under consideration . number of vessels 1955 50 000 dwt L4J DWT 200!@ac>ROROOOO 1960 100 000 dwt (000) C*4 M Ln %a 00 0 7:: CN Cn 10- 20 1966 200 000 dwt 20- 40 1968 300 000 dwt 40- 60 19M - 5W 000 dwt 60- 80 0" Growth in Tanker Size 80-100 00e, Factors influencing tanker size: -Ilk - sharp and continued increase in world 100-125( petroleum demand - @71 - increased length of haul from sources 125-150, of supply to refinery and consumption centers 150-200 comparative economics of tanker trans- portation 200 construction . 400- '00" Operational constraints of tankers: Tanker fleet now and projected serious handling problems in restricted Source: Port and Harbor Development, A coastal and harbor waters Problem and An Opportun"ity threat of oil pollution caused by vessel casual ities . Tanker loading from floating offshore terminal Future Concept - Submarine Tanker: Designed to bring oil from Arctic regions under the Artic ice-pack to ice free ports, these tankers could be loaded from undersea termi- nals while submerged, then unloaded at ice- ............ .. ... ...... ...... . .. ....... . ... . . ...... . . .......... .............I.... .. __ r.... ' " '"* ....- ............. ..... ...... free ports by conventional methods. ...... . ............................................. ....... ..... ........... ........................... ...... .... ........ ........................... 29 3 .4 .3.3 Barges A barge is an unmanned vessel controlled by another vessel and generally with no load- ing or unloading equipment on board. Move- ent of barges is usually done by tug boat. Oil wato []AL It Pushing Pul I ing Attached Submarine Tanker (proposed) loading from Methods of barge movement underwater terminal Source: General Dynamics Louisville Cairo Tulsa Knox le Nashville Wilmington Little Ro k Dallas Birmi gharn @h chorle-s-Fo-n- *Ft. Worth. Huntsville Natchez Col bus Savannah Mob I Houston Jacksonville New Orleans 0 -torpus Christi Gulf of Mexico Brownsvi I le 16N Miami am, Area served by barge traffic from Port of New Orleans 30 C1 a 0 0 is0 a 0 b Standard barge types Deck Barge sizes inland offshore cn a b c a b c 92 26 140 30 9 100 26 6.2 150 39 9.1 100 28 6.2 160 40 10 Seagoing tank barge under tow 100 30 6.6 200 60 14.6 110 30 7 240 72 14.6 Load capacities of seagoing tank barges 110 jo 7,3 range from 25,000 barrels to 165,000 120 30 7 barrels. Tank barges with 240,000 barrels 120 30 7.3 capacity for products suchas liquid caustic 120 32 7.3 soda, benzol, toluene, aqua ammonia, 120 34 7.6 ethylene glycol as well as petroleum pro- 125 34 7.6 ducts are in the planning stages. The Alaska Hydro-Train, introduced in Oi IBarges 1963, provides a direct rail link between a (ft.) b (ft.) c (ft.) capacity_Fa_rre_I_s@ Seattle and Alaska . The concept is to use 72 24 5 11200 mammoth ocean barges as rol I -on/rol I -off 100 28 6.5 2,600 vessels capable of handling up to 64 loaded 110 30 7 3,000 rail cars with various commodities. 120 30 7.3 3,250 139 32 7.5 5,000 150 34 10 6,000 170 40 10 8,700 180 50 10 10,000 205 40 10 11,400 383 68 39.4 120,000 31 Transocean Barges: The concept is to develop transocean trans- portation systems with separable propulsion units (tugs and barges) to compete with systems without separable propulsion systems (self-pro- pelled ships). Ocean barging is a relatively new mode of large-scale ocean transportation, originating in the United States and Canada . Transocean tug-barge system advantages over self-propelled vessels: � manning � utilization � cargo-handling equipment � operational flexibility. The major disadvantage is that it is a low speed mode of transportation . Transocean barge sizes Container Bulk Break BWIk Cargo DWT 10,000 30,000 3,500 Length (ft) 450 485 252 Beam (ft) 85 105 55 Depth (ft) 32 35 18 Draft (ft) 16 26 14 Proposed Transocean Container barge with capacity of 910 twenty foot containers Source: Transocean Tug-Barge Systems 3.5 Cargo Handling 32 3.5.1 Method Cargo handling is the preparation, placing Man-Hours Per 100 Tons and positioning of goods to facilitate their Operation movement or storage. The primary objective Pelletized Loose Cargo is to promote rapid ship turn around. To accomplish it several factors play an impor- Loading 15 0 tant part: E9 � planning work in cooperation with ports and ships before ship actually arrives � maintaining close coordination between Strapping 35 0 ship and shore � establishing and quickly implementing correct unloading procedures � utilizing ships equipment to maximum Loading 8 50 � having required dock facilities at point of unloading � securing required dock crews � following customs procedures Unloading 9 24 � ensuring that cargo is properly stowed in sheds Stowage 9 30 E 91" Several factors which can increase the effi- ciency of materials handling: � increasing size of unit being handled Loading 8 50 � maximizing equipment efficiency @kN_ � increasing dock area by using air rights � practicing safety for ship, cargo and Unloading 9 24 personnel � flexibility in equipment � standardizing equipment and methods of cargo handling. Loading 37 47 Careful planning of stowage in transit sheds eliminates dupi ication of efforts and improves operation efficiency: Unloading 24 164 � minimize distance cargo has to move from transit shed to ship 0 0 N minimize Loading 8 54 iminate traffic congestion and interference. � el' U Unloading 9 57 'Comparison of palletized unit loads with loose cargo in a typical shipment Source: Materials Handling 33 Methods of Cargo Handling by Cargo Types: . promotes an economical transportation A. Heavy and Large Bundles: of cargo handled on the wharf by forklift or other * reduces pilferage, damage and labor equipment with special attachments handling costs. readily loaded or discharged to vessels by various slings confine stowage to machine handling capa- bilities for optimum efficiency. B. Unitized and Pre-Palletized Cargo: 77:-." �normally handled by forklifts, paper roll grabs, hydraulic clamping devices or other attachments for lift trucks as required �optimum speed at tained by machine stowing cargo up to 8' high permitting easy tiering with stability and eliminating the need for dunnage. C. Loose Packages: Stowage of modular units within a container delivered loose by land transport to transit Source: Container Services of the Atlantic shed 1970 hand-loaded onto pallets - moved about shed for storage or to ship on same pallets unloaded by hand labor in the ships hold. ....... ... ................. .......... Roufe of typical container transport system ...... . ..... .............. Source: Auckland Harbor Board, New 7ealand X., X.: @_@Efl Shipper Consignee .... .......... .......... ............... ........................... Inland Inland D. Containers: Clearance Clearance Depot Depot small items or bulk materials are packed into larger re-usable containers Terminal Terminal can be transported over land in same con- T tainers as shipped large scale container operation requires 00 00 special equipment aboard ship or on wharf (gantry cranes, straddle trucks, etc .) 34 3.6.2 Equipment E. Roll-on/Roll-off: This technique requires ships which have side or end doors through which vehicles may be driven . For maximum efficiency, a port needs to be equipped with moveable approach ramps, such as those used at ferry ships, which are capable of adjusting to tides and ship sizes. Crew Loading Cargo Hold Cargo Hold Engine ............. ............. ..... . ............. ............ ................. ................. .... ............................. .............. 3.5.2.1 Ships Gear A majority of ship loading is carried out by ships gear because: vessel can discharge goods when unable to dock at berths vessel capabilities are often greater than port capabilities, especially in developing countries in case of shoreside power failure, vessel can unload without being delayed. Typical cargo vessels from the past are equipped with a pair of cargo booms over each hatch . During operation, one is positioned over the offshore edge of the hatch, the other overhanging the wharf. Cargo hooks hang from a link to which both hoisting lines are attached. By joint mani- pulation of two winches, the operator can drop the hook into either side of the hold and maneuver the load vertically or horizontally at high speeds. 35 Oe a b ------------ a . Example of two swinging booms doubling up with a traveling block 6. Example of two swinging booms doubling up with an equalizing beam Source: Marine Cargo Operations New vessels are being constructed with ship cranes in lieu of conventional ships gear because: more effective manipulate loads over a greater area decks are free of rigging easier to operate one crane will replace two pairs of cargo booms. Ship crane unloading lumber 36 3.5 .2 .2 Port Equipment The standard two wheeled hand trucks and four wheeled platform trucks remain an essential tool in material handling, espec- ially in areas where labor is inexpensive and the purchase of mechanized units is not warranted. Both are economical only on short trips and are frequently used inside ship holds. C:!j IL PILL -N&P%U.@DRM A Wharfside cranes are used extensively because of their large area of deposit . These cranes are generally mounted on tracks. Dock cranes are grouped into three general categories: cantilever - mounted on roof of dock shed with level luffing jib PI_- -1 C"11 W SL'P_ -1-- IRLOB semi-gantry - one set of I egs supported by a -A. has rail along the face of a pier shed wal.1; revolving capabilities -CLImp full arch gantry - all legs supported on wheels 0 It--- CLAII with track mounted in apron; has revolving Reproduced by permission of Cascade Corp. capabilities. Fork lifts have done more than any other single device to revolutionize cargo handling on the wharf. They can pick up unit loads or palletized loads off the apron, transfer them to transit sheds and stock them, 16 to 18 feet high . Fork I ifts are considered efficient for horizontal movement up to 150 feet. They have attachments enabling them to handle a multitude of special cargoes. Two examples of two wheeled hand trucks: a. Western style a b b . Eastern style Source: Marine Cargo Operations 37 Mobile cranes perform a similar function to Travel loader,or side carrier,is a combina- that of a fork lift, but they possess a boom tion fork I ift and straddle carrier. It has the and sling that extends 3 to 4 feet above the ability to carry long lengths and very large load which does not allow them to stack loads. It uti I izes its own set of forks . material or operate close to the underside of ceiling structures. The prime advantages Overhead monorail systems keep the deck of mobile cranes are: , clear of moving vehicles. They have been better handling of long and awkward used successfully for many years, but pri- objects marily in specialized applications where designed to operate in close quarters only one commodity is continually handled relatively -small and easy to maneuver. over a ihort, fixed route . Tractor trains are used where the distance Conveyors are used for loading and unload- between shipside and storage is too great for ing ships from side ports, trucks, rail cars the eff i cient use of fork I ifts . This system and for moving cargo within the wings'of a consists of tractor drawn trains and low-bed, ship. There are two general types of con- small wheeled trucks which are generally veyors: loaded from ship by ships gear and unloaded - gravity conveyors - which are wooden or by fork lifts. steel chutes fitted with steel rollers or wheels; generally used for light loads Straddle carriers were originally developed . power conveyors - used for various types for the efficient handling of lumber. They of cargo; kinds include endless belt, end- are now used for items such as lengths of less pocket or bucket, screw and pneu- pipe, steel rails, steel plates, multiple pal- matic elevators or air conveyors. let loads and containers. The load is built upon bolsters and the carrier runs over it. The flanges of the hoisting arms are position- ed under the bolsters and the load is hoisted. The load can be picked up and released in 30 seconds . It can be gripped to prevent displacement while traveling up to 35 mph. Straddle carrier positioning above a container Portable belt conveyors presently in use 38 3.5.2.3 Floating Equipment Types of pallets Source: Marine Cargo Operations Single-face Double-face A floating pneumatic elevator used for loading and unloading barges and bulk ships Source: Materials Handling Stevedore Single-wing Pallets are double platforms separated a few inches by batten strips to permit the insertion of fork lift forks. The top plat- form supports the load and the bottom one provides a flat surface for stacking . Gen- era y pa I I ets are of wood construction . Pneumatic or vacuum pumps are used in handling bulk commodities such as oil and grains. These are incorporated in grain elevators, oil tanks and floating grain elevators. The cargo is discharged from the ship by flexible pipes inserted into the hold. .......... ........ .......... . ........ ................. ........... ... ........ ........... ...... ............... .......................... ....................... . ............ ................. ...... .. ...............- ....................... ............. ........ .. ... .... .. ......................... ........................... ............. ............. ................. ......................................... ................ ................................. ................. .......................I.............. ........ ....... .................. .................... ...........I........................................ ............... ..................- ................ ........ .................. ... ..................................... ............ Pinwheel Brick ....................... ....................... . ................ ........ 39 AY 2 4 A tug boat's primary job is to meet ships at the harbor entrance and guide them to the 3 berth . Tugs push or pull the ship into a car- rect course to speed up the docking proce- dure. The movement of barges and many items of floating equipment are provided by tug power. Generally tugs are privately owned and are contracted for service . 2L T 7- Floating drydocks can be used as graving docks. By flooding tanks which form part 4 of its hullfit can be submerged to a sufficient depth to allow ships to be floated into it'. When the ship is in position the dock is pumped dry, leaving the ship sitting on Examples of types of dredges: blocks. Advantages of floating dry docks: I . grab dredges do not require space on land 2. cutter suction dredges can be relocated 3. cutter suction dredges can be altered to meet increasing ship 4'. trailing suction dredges. size Source: Costain - Blankevoot Int'l does not affect main stream of traffic . Dredging Co. Ltd. Dredges are the means by which harbors and channels are deepened or maintained. =T 4 Grab dredger at Port of New Orleans 40 Fire boats are used to combat fires aboard ships and on piers, wharfs and water- front facilities in support of land based fire fighting equipment. ............. .......... .... ...... .................... .................... .................... .......... ............... ............... ................... ......................................................................... ... .... ................ . ........ ................ .................... ...................I..........I....... ...... . . ........ . .................................... .......... ...... . . . -............... ........ ........... .......... . . ...... ....... . ....... ............. ......... .. . ............................ ............. . ..................................... ..... ..... ......... ...... ........... ................. ..... . ................. CF Ov AC Paw (P@LO@R Av OODOG 0 CYO VO 0 -0 0 3.6 Labor 41 3.6.1 Type The primary function of labor is to assist vessel loading and unloading . Labor is involved in the transfer of cargo from transportation mode to storage and vise versa . It is their endeavor to move cargo as fast, safe and efficient as possible to aid vessel turnaround time . 3.6.1 .1 Casual Employment In port personnel, there is a I ine between ap- pointed staff and casual labor, the former gen- erally being employed regularly and paid a fixed salary and the latter hired as needed on a per hour per day basis or on a performance basis measured by physical units of cargo handled. Waterfront employment is casual in nature because it is dependent upon the f ime a ship in in port. Due to ship schedule fluctuations the following list of problem areas occur: It is difficult to maintain a regular work force It is difficult for dock worker to anticipate increase due to irregular work periods Problem in establishing an employee/employer up d" relationship because labor is hired by multiple employers for short duration "Lod brok" largest floating crone in the Port It is difficult for labor to plan activities ahead of Stockholm, has a maximum lifting power of due to ship schedule fluctuations and long 260 tons and maximum lifting height of 35 working hours when ship is in port meters. It contains its own propulsion ma- Dock work is generally hard, unpleasant and chinery with a speed of 5 knots. subject to changing weather conditions . .Source: Port of Stockholm, Sweden Floating cranes have become a standard faci- lity in most modern ports. They have several advantages over land-based cranes: self propelled or hauled by tugs easily moved to site of lift can serve other functions besides ship loading . 42 3.6.2 Structure /Organization The port labor force is organized in a closed % shop structure composed of registered dock workers . A laborer generally will not be em- 100- total port played unless he is registered with a local board go- registrati )n run by the union . The union serves as an agent for port labor. They obtain jobs from em- 80. ployers (stevedores) and distribute them among the membership. The union maintains and 70. port controls the size of the permanent registered 60. quota dock worker supply . so. regulars The union negotiates contracts, stipulating 40. base rates of pay, overtime periods and . numerous working conditions, including 30. grievances and disciplinary procedures. The union is charged with administration of. sums 20- provided by employers for labor welfare 10. amenities as well as for minimal job train- ing programs. O-H_@-@@ iirregulars CD W X 0) 0 0) ` = 0 E -:2 -Z E c -0 a) 0 (D 0 0 -0 E M Ln - -0 a) Co (D 4)< I- Z U shi ping 0 abor force company CL 0 0- por authority Comparison of 8 Australian ports (1965) of percent of labor force Also compares the regular vs. irregular percent of total regis- tered labor force union Source: Sea Gateway of Australia employer stevedoring company demand supply of labor supply of equipment supply of facilities Network used to get dock labor for a vessel 43 3.6.3 Occupational Structure 3.6.4 Age The estimated major difference in the occupa- According to a 1968 census, dock labor has tional structure between the ports, transport remained fairly constant. Recruitment has industry and the labor force as a whole is' in compensated for vacancies, but an inbalance the percentage of unskilled labor employed. may be created if: 5.6% 3 6% ' a move from manual skills to highly skilled Proprietors,monagers: and professionally trained labor comes about 17.0% clerical 11 2% which will generate a retraining problem for 3.3% p rofess i ona I a nd 1:2% present personnel technical . recruitment does not balance vacancies semi-skilled and . cargo handling methods change. 73.2% other manua 1 84% The dock labor force is substantially older (including regis- than other industries. There is a much smaller tered dock workers) proportion of young employees and nearly double the national proportion of men over I the age of 64. It is becoming apparent that National Port the age structure of the industries labor force labor labor will present serious replacement and recruit- force force ment problems just to maintain present condi- tions Occupational structure of port transport in- dustry compared with British industry as a (0/0 whole Source: British National Ports Council According to the above chart, it can be assum- 90 ed that the occupations in the upper one/third 80- of the charts will tend to increase in the port industry to match the national labor force . 70- However, the projection of port labor over the next twenty years indicates that the pro- 60 portion of labor will remain relatively con- stant 50 - management regd . dock workers A breakdown uf percentages of people per- other personnel manently employed in 11 major British 40 supervisory/ ports indicated that 50% of the total labor management force are registered dock workers and the 30 remaining 50% are made up of operational staff such as: shunters, lockmen, launchmen, 20 watchmen and maintenance personnel , etc 10 0.- co co co M co %o N N 00 00 0@ 01 01 0% 0`_ Estim ated percent reduction import labor force through retirement only Source: British National Ports Council 44 3.6.5 Mechanization O/bI5 - (days) Bulk Visit (ship) or 8 10 0' 7 IN% 6 .000 5 4 3 2 5 National labor force C'@ C-) C@ @@t Registered dock LO workers 10 %a 10 10 10 10 yI a, 0@ a, a, 01 0- Non Bulk Visit (ship) 0, -@t 01, :4 '41 -,It 131, (days) CN CN M 0 LO + I I I 1 1 9 0 8A 0 A 8 LO 8 10 CD LO Age C14 CN Cn CO .-It 1-41 LO LO 10 10 8 A comparison of age structure 7 Source: British National Ports Council 6 N 5 100 90 3 2 80 1 0 Cn LO S LO 70 - 0- "a 10 10 10 10 10 0, 0, o' 0, C@', 60 average/visit days in port 50 - ----average working days time Retirement only between commencement and 40 - completion of stevedoring Retirement and operations 30 - death in service* From the above chart two conclusions can be Retirement and determined: 20 - death in service . when bulk cargo is handled by laborthe dock and disciplinary" workers are responsible for only 50% of the 10 - Retirement and turn around rate of vessels in a port; & other death in service 50% can usually be attributed to waiting on 0 and disciplinary* facil ities 00 LO 00 M 00 when labor is engaged in handling non-bulk 10 N 00 00 and other wastage cargo the workers- are almost solely- responsi- at the average of 1962-67 ble for the turn around rate of vessels in port at half the average of 1962-67 Estimated reduction in British dock labor force assuming no recruitment 45 3.6.6 Safety The following figure'compares the efficiency Dock work is a hazardous occupation. Much in a loading and discharging operation over attention has to be focused on safety . It is an 8 hour shift for three different cargo types. important that labor and management work It becomes obvious that efficiency of cargo carefully together to eliminate conditions or handling in terms of tons per man increases practices conducive to accidents. The follow- with the level of mechanization employed. ing are minimums for the reduction of accidents: establish new injury classifications for statis- tical and control purposes introduction of newly developed, safe (Ton) - containers mechanical aids 4000 - - extensive training in accident prevention 3000 - . adequate I ighting for night work 2000 alletised . first aid facilities convenion . periodic medical examinations for workers 1000 r_1 ' t' al * frequent inspection of winches and mechan- 0 20 40 60 80 100 (pers) ical equipment . proper ventilation of enclosed spaces to keep carbon monoxide below .01% Source: British National Ports Council . strict observance and application of pre- vailing rules and regulations concerning fire, Port development is turning more and more intoxication, hazardous areas, etc. to mechanized systems of cargo handling which is creating a great deal of concern in port labor forces. They fear elimination of the demand for port labor. But there are (pers) advantages for port labor as wel I; systems will: 7000 - create the need for skilled workmen Ran create specialized tasks demanding higher % ".00 pay scales 6000 eliminate much of the unpleasant factors of dock work. 5000 C) @; 04 CO -4- LO 10 N 00 a, C> % to to LO LO to to LO LO to 10 110 - (@@ 01 a' 0, o' o' o'0, o' 0, 0, Ton/hour (pers) (yrs) Cost/hour 100 - eo -'J fa 100 50 IL A L M Ilan ------- i Cost/Ton 0 C) @; CN CI) It tO 0 N 00 0% C:@ to to to W) LO to LO to LO 10 90 01, 1 a, a, 0@ 0% 01 a, a, a, 000, %o 1", 00 01 (yrs) 10 01 8011 Reported accidents and fatalities at the docks Source: Pacific Maritime Association of the British Port Industry Source: British Ministry of Transport 46 3.6.7 Work Hours 3.6.8 Wages The regular work hours during which basic pay The wages paid to the dock worker are usually is earned are generally fixed. But it is often paid upon either an hourly basis or on piece difficult to match ship discharge and loading rate; paid per ton, sack, bale or other unit of operations to regular working shifts. In order measurement. The hourly system is usually to accomplish prompt dispatch of ships and based upon an agreed hour related to the work- maximize shore efforts, work beyond normal ing unit. Three rates apply depending on time hours is often required. involved: standard time (regular rate) 3.6.7.1 Overtime overtime (usually 509/o higher than standard This is the most common method for extending time) normal working hours. Disadvantages of double time (double standard time rate). overtime: physical exhaustion of labor force due to Piece rates are generally most useful in stimu- long and hard hours lating output when applied to a consistent reduced output of tired labor increases volume of standardized cargo . To achieve the cost per ton of cargo handled most effective use of the unit rate, it must be accident potential increases classified according to the following conditions: weight Advantages: stowage conditions . more money for labor handling procedures 3.6.7.2 Shift condition of cargo (hazardous, sticky, cracked). This is an incentive method for ports that permits higher utilization of port facilities, reduces the need for capital expenditures, and facilitates more rapid turnover of ships. Disadvantages of shift method: requires increase in the number of register- ed dock workers which creates an unecono- mical increase in pensionable staff shifts conflict with maintenance and repair work of port equipment which is generally carried on during non-working hours. 47 3.6.9 Amenities and Welfare 3.6.10 Manpower In but a few ports do adequate amenities Many schemes and plans have been initiated for dock labor exist. The facilities pro- in an attempt to solve labor problems, enhance vided should include: dock worker status and increase the efficiency sanitary accommodations of dock labor. Decasualization is a scheme washing facilities and changing rooms with many favorable merits: eating facilities reduction of fluctuation of employment by first aid facilities. reducing the number of labor contractors increase security of employment by pro- Labor does not qualify for the financial viding a steady income level security measures provided by the port increase the efficiency of employees authorities for appointed staff, however, provide a way to control the number of the labor unions have undertaken to com- employees in a port. pensate members by providing fringe bene- fit payments . In recent ye 'ars, pension plans have been introduced together with planned compulsory retirement . L F too W nw 4@41nq utter creamery I butter creamery creamery creame" butter butter butter cre ery creamery b b butter 48 3.6.11 Training The objective of a training program is to esta- supervision so they can understand how to blish a permanent, qualified labor force capa- read ship stowage plans and cargo place- bl e of handling multiple situations. This is ment in transit sheds and warehouses, proper achieved by: tallying and record keeping, as well as organi- � understanding mechanization procedures zing labor gangs � stimulating pride in workmanship crews involved in maintenance of port � promoting safety and team work equipment, structures and facilities. � introducing an apprentice program with suf- ficient salary to recruit (Young) trainee Advanced training is offered for tally men and workers weighers to qualify them for certification as a � establishing performance criteria to evaluate weigher and measurer. Advanced training may workers. be offered to supervisors and checkers. This level is primarily theoretical designed for Existing training programs have two levels: the general education level of the trainees basic and advanced. The basic training program is composed of practical and theoretical sessions involving familiarization with the harbor, with Some ports have attempted to introduce teenage procedures in the arrival and departure of vessels, students into apprenticeship programs where with ship layout, the nature of port business, they receive part-time instruction, general cargo gear, machinery, safety, first aid and education, on a partly paid basis. with hygiene . Practical instructions are given in lifting, hoisting, tallying, shed and cargo Problems connected with training programs: work, stowage and dunnaging of goods in . recruitment of qualified instructors vessels, driving fork lifts and handling of bulk . provision of adequate training facilities cargoes . This program is offered to selected - attitude of older workers towards education staff and employees involved in: process loading and unloading @yhich requires the knowledge of the operation of not only mechanical lifts but transport equipment A suggested pattern for manpower planning as well Source: British National Ports Council THE Nab@nal Forecasts MANPOWER PLAN Organisation's Recruitment objectives Future external labor supply FMDr by occupational group Compare s%ply and demand and astablis, Training/ MSF* by occupational > Retraining group Redeploym;,nt/ Analysis of existing labo Redundanc force Retirement FEEDBACK/ Reassessment Demand Manpower Supply Forecast 3.7 Support Industry 49 Supporting industries are natural products abrasives plant - mineral wool insulation plant of ports. They use the raw materials accessible basic oxygen steel plant and hot rolling mill at a port and utilize the transportation modes steel pipe plant for distribution of their products. Many in- aluminum reduction plant dustries need waterfront locations because of: aluminum rolling and drawing mill availability of barge service metal cans plant, hardware plant considerable amounts of water valves and pipefittings plant, metal stampings waste disposal plant imported raw materials marine and traction diesel engine plant close proximity to primary economical tractor and farm equipment plant transportation for foreign markets. oilfield machinery and equipment plant bulldozer and crone plant Industry is selected for location at a port pump and compressor plant, refrigeration and based on "desirability criteria": air conditioning plant environmental capability electrical motor and generator plant employment density electrical controls plant demonstrated growth, locally and truck and bus bodies plant notionally truck trailors plant potential for generating port cargo . shipyard, boat building and repair plant railroad car plant Criteria for industry to locate at ports a re: trailer coach plant. � proximity to local and export markets � availability of labor B. Marine Related Industry: � availability of ship, rail, barge and boats, amphibious vehicles truck transportation marine and land geophysical survey � proximity to production materials oceanic instrumentation manufacturers � availability of low cost utillties (water, tug and barge transport power and fuel) drilling rigs and associated equipment manu- � availability of special port services. facturer marine construction The following selected examples indicate the . ship brokers and chartering wide cross section of supporting industries at . electronic equipment fabricators and manu- a typical port: facturers. . fishing A . General Industry: . tourist and recreation sugar refinery . develop and manufacture heavy duty main- pul p and paper mi I I tenance coatings corrugated shipping container plant . chemical recovery from seawater methanol plant . pipe manufacturer butyl rubber plant . ship building mixed fertilizer plant . diving and salvage plastic products plant . ship repair flat glass plant . oyster shel I portland cement plant . concrete manufacture clay soil pipe plant . sales and service of marine craft engineering, manufacturing, equipment and vehicles. 3.8 Safety 50 3.8.1 Types of Fires 3.8.2 Firefighting Agents 3.8.1 .1 Class A 3.8.2.1 Fire Main System Fires in ordinary combustible materials such as The fire main system aboard a vessel is a mattresses, dunnage, piles of wood and shav- system of permanent piping which receives ings, canvas, etc . These fires are best ex- water pumped from the sea and delivers it tinguished by the quenching and cooling effects to fire hydrants strategically located through- of quantities of water or water fog. out the ship. 3.8.1.2 Class B Fires in substances like gasoline, oil, diesel oil, lubricating oil, tar, grease, etc. This type of fire requires a blanketing or smother- ing effect produced by an extinguishing agent 3.8.1 .3 Class C Fires in live electrical equipment such as switch board insulation, transformer terminals etc. The extinguishing agent must be non -MENEM MENEM conductive to eliminate the hazard of electrical shock to the fire fighter. 3.8.1.4 Class D Fires in combustible metals such as magnesium, OWNER sodium, titanium, lithium, etc. Fire hydrant outside station 3.8.2.2 Water Water as a cooling agent is the most common method of fighting fires. Generally water is superior to other agents and is usually avail- able in ample quantities at low cost. Water, in the form of fog, has the greatest capacity for heat absorption of all the extinguishing agents presently in use. Fog also has the capa- bility to dilute combustible vapors as the fog turns to steam by the heat of the fire. It also forces air away from the fire , thereby removing the oxygen needed to support combustion . 3.8.2.3 Foam Foam is an effective agent for Class B fires and some Class A fires. Foam has a few disadvan- tages, namely: it conducts electricity, it's not always effective on flowing liquids and it's not effective at extremely low temperatures (under 100F.). 51 3.8.2.5 Steam The steam smothering system is one of the oldest types of fire-fighting methods used aboard tank vessels. Its primary purpose is to smother fires in enclosed or confined spaces . Steam also cools the fire and dilutes vapor-air mixtures to a point below combustion . This system is not installed on vessels constructed today 3.8.2.6 Dry Chemical Dry chemical extinguishers are effective on al I Class Band C fires. On Class C fires,the VP residue, a powder, renders electrical contacts and relays inoperative which is a minor dis- advantage. However, there are several ad- PPP" vantages the dry chemical has over C02: greater range stream provides excellent shield for the fire-fighter . Operation of mechanical foam pickup unit Foam for fire-extinguishing purposes onboard tank vessels is of two types: chemical and mechanical . The characteristic difference is in the equipment for producing the foam . The nozzel used for mechanical foam adds air to the chemical bearing stream after the chemi- cals have been dissolved in it, whereas the nozzle for chemical foam does not add air. 3.8.2.4 Carbon Dioxid e (C02) This agent is an excellent smothering agent for extinguishing Class B and C fires in lo- cations where it can not be widely diffused or, if the fire is beyond the incipient stage, where it is not blown away by drafts. Carbon dioxide is most effective when applied in an "30 pound" dry chemical extinguisher area where it will remain as a cover long (sectional view) enough to reduce the oxygen level below the point of combustion . (Caution - if oxygen is made available to fires extinguished by C02 it is possible to rekindle them.) 52 3.8.3 Fire Prevention 3.8.4 Medical Ma !or areas of concern contributing to the General practices required for safe operation difficulties of fire fighting in marine facili- concerning dock personnel: ties are: . care and maintenance of cargo handling large undivided areas of transit sheds and equipment warehouses . use of proper handling gear inaccessibility of piers to fire fighting team ..maintaining high degree of light without the variation in types of quantities of glare cargoes stored . o clear understandable work assignments . constant awareness of safe procedures . The following items are presently used in the prevention of fires: 3.8.4.1 Medical Centers marine terminals constructed of incombust- Some major ports provide medical centers for ible materials (desirable fire resistive con- maritime personnel . Generally these centers struction) are used for people involved in international pier and wharf substructure of incombustible shipping . They provide: material presign-on physical examinations dock openings for hose nozzles to substruc- diagnosis and treatment at clinic tures or sprinkler system ambulance service fire-stops and fire-walls innoculations storage structures with sprinkler systems ship calls to administer treatment and standpipe systems inventory of medical stores aboard ship interior fire alarm boxes provided at Standard personnel to treat victims of accidents Insurance Underwriters specified minimum on the open sea spacing for use by pier personnel ready access to site by local fire department 3.8.4.2 Qua rantine'Regul ations Quarantine regulations are necessary to pre- vent the spread of an infectious disease from an incoming vessel to the country in which the port is located. Most national regulations are based on the International Sanitary Con- vention with reference to the following diseases: plague, yellow fever, cholera, smal I pox (Variola major) and a lastrim (Variola minor), typhus fever (Exanthematic) and febris reccurrens (relapsing fever). If there is a patient suffering from any infectious disease on ship, or if a member of the crew or passenger has suffered or died in conse- quence of an infectious disease, the master of the vessel is obliged to inform the harbor master T, of the port of entry. The vessel will be kept out of communication with shore or craft until necessary measures have been taken by health officials . g@_ View of typical warehouse location of fire extinauishers 53 3.8.5 Navigation Aids Navigation aids function to warn vessels Fixed structure channel markers possess: of hidden dangers and to provide direction lights in safe waters . The types of aids vary with anchored to bottom the waterways and the functions they serve. -radar reflectors. There are two basic types of navigational Fixed-structure beacon I ights are located on aids , floating and fixed, which include: projecting ends of breakwaters and on the salient floating buoys points of land projecting into the navigational fixed structure channel markers waters at harbor entrances . navigational lights on piers, wharves and dol phins Lighthouses are tower structures (fixed) with fixed-structure I ight beacons on shore marine beacons lights, fog signals, sound de- and breakwaters vices and radio stations. They are located I ighthouses on points along the shore to guide vessels light ships safely to port and require durable structure to range I ight installations on framed struc- withstand heavy wave action . Lighthouses tures on shore require long visibility to be effective. Lighted Buoy Spar Buoy Lighted Buoy with Light ships serve the same functions as light Radar Reflector houses and may be manned or unmanned. Radar light installations are used to guide shipping through hazardous, narrow or twisting port entrances and chann 'els. The structure is generally a metal frame with dig a unidirectional marine range light lantern orr top. They are powered by shore electricity Critical factors include the distance between* lights, the height of the lights and the candl e-I ight sensitivity of the I ight . Nun Buoy Can Buoy Spherical Buoy Selected buoy types Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 54 Radar reflectors reflect an echo 6ack to Ln L_ the transmitting vessel to worn ships of L_ cn their presence or to mark a particular fa -W E Q) location M Ln Ln Q) 4J &_ C 4-J U:) -WZ 4) -,- o_ Properties of marine 6eacon light lanterns: 4- 0 1- 0- u) 41 z -W .7 - 2 type of lanterns Q) -0 0 ra -C (n type of lenses -0 4-J 4J -W a) z -C -C 0) -W 0 > X 0) C sun-controlled switches D M .- .- M .0 C L@_ - flasher mechanisms automatic lamp changes. I oca't i on: channel harbor entrance wharves piers dolphins objects shore breakwaters offshore purpose: outline warning direction International buoyage system Location and purpose of various navigational aids. Source: The Port Management of Amsterdam Cardinal system Lateral system NW NE A.&IIAIA starboard hand mid channel danger MM port hand isolated danger SW SE A& landfall middlegrounds wreck buoys 3.9 Finance 55 3.8.6 Marine Safety 3.9.1 Objectives Some of the worst ship accidents have oc- Ports usually do not have any direct stimulus curred in harbors or inland waterways. The other than their financial performance and causes have been attributed to poor vessel therefore must establish 'goals in financial design, improper maintenance, over-load- terms . They must ta-ke into account statutory ing, poor navigation, weather and bad obligations and other special circumstances judgement on the part of the ships officers. appropriated to the individual port. The majority of theseafter careful analysis, were found to have been preventable. The Rochdale Committee of England establish- ed several financial objectives that a port The Coast Guard is concerned with merchant should attempt to achieve: marine safety, aids to navigation, search depreciation at replacement cost and rescue . working expenses interest on loans The Merchant Marine inspection office' has taxation the task of inspecting ship construction and a reserve to meet contingencies to assist structural alterations from the drawing board in financing minor improvements. to actual launching . They also inspect cargo handling equipment, life boats and other If financial objectives are not met then pro- safety equipment aboard ship. blems arise for ports such as: - insufficient resources available to modern- The captain of a port's own vessel is charged ize and develop as required with the responsibility of inspecting vessels . cannot combat trade pattern fluctuations and waterfront facilities for proper stowage - cannot offset high cost of labor with the of dangerous cargo . His personnel provide economics of mechanization supervision of the loading of explosives and . replacement costs exceed original costs radioactive materials. They then provide and differences have not been properly escort away from the port proper. prepared for . new loans at higher interest replace o1d loans at much lower interest rates premature obsolescence of port facilities brought about by advanced ship and trans- Port warehouse fire portation technology. Reproduced by permission of U.S. Coast Guard A7_4 56 3.9.2 Revenue 3.9.2.1 Charges . charges for handling Charges are designed to insure enough revenue . Charges for other services and facilities. to meet the financial objectives of the port . They should be based on the need of a port Dues on vessels consist of harbor dues, sovereign- with respect to the particular services the port ty, and stay within the port area, as well as provides . dockage charges (wharf, buoys, anchorage), pilotage, towage, mooring, line handling, A difficult problem in determining a standard etc . Dues are charged to a ship owner on the charge structure based on cost, arises from the basis of the net registered tonnage of the ship variations of unit costs at different cost centers with respect to these variables: offering similar facilities to users. The fol- nature of voyage lowing chart indicates the percentage varia- reason for anchorage (storm, repair, etc.). tion in the charge I eve I of major English ports . Dues on goods are more commonly referred to as port rates, dock rates, wharfage rates, quay rates, etc . They are levied on all goods ship- 0/0 ped or received at port and are chargeable based of 6,250 n. i's cargo of n unit weight, volume or number . Dues are .1 iron are from Norwo,0 0 o ship of 3,750 n.r.t. and it, cargo of paid to the port authority. 150 6,000 tons of beat from Canada- d it, cargo of M, 1littL n%. lp..n On a ship of 1,050 n.r.t. an tons of softwood from the Baltic 2, WO On an import consignment of 100 tons of [a apportion charges between vessel and cargo wool 100 - - - - - - - import consignment of 50 tons of is a difficult task. In practice, charges are ned goods ual ly based upon one or the other, separately. 0, an import consignment of 40 tons of us coffee f 50 to,s of Vessel charge: On on, e,port consignment a sa steel ubes On 0o, :,port consignent of 20 tons of waterway and berthing areas ele ri cable On an e,port consignment of 5 tons of 50% of open wharfs and included land @) kkk, aprons al I of land supporting aprons and 50% of land supporting aprons with tracks Source: British Ministry of Transport aisle space within the shed used by vessel or its agents in receiving cargo or delivering it to In assessing charges in a new facility which a point of storage, together with a proportionate is in the building up stage of itt development share of the supporting land and has not established itself, it would be pro- . services covered by "Service Charge" hibitive to calculate charges based on actual . office and other space used by vessels clerical costs. In this case,charges are usually based forces. on estimated average cost . This type of charge requires a continual review in-order to avoid Cargo charges: undercharging . all land not previously covered all trackage and its supporting structure Port operating revenues are generally derived 509/o of open wharfs from: aisle space not covered in vessel charge charges against vessels al I cargo areas within sheds Charges against cargo al I other trackage, roadway, etc. rental of space within port limits any services rendered for the benefit of cargo. passenger dues where applicable 57 Charges for other services and facilities cover .......... ........... ........... .......... ........... -dockage a wide range of items such as cranes, grabs, ........... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ........... .......... we.ighing machine, graving docks, supply of fresh water, warehousing, electricity, fuel, etc . There has been a good deal of talk concern- ing standardization of port charges, but each port has its own inherent problems that make -wharfage such charges difficult to ascertain services- Percent distribution of 1965/66 Revenue P lotage 1 YO rt 1% ocks 1% -storage a i Iway _@demurrage Inte st & ........... .......... ........... .......... ........... p i I ota g e Mi c. 11% .......... ........... Wet Docks ........... .......... ........... assessed charges, Land and 45% ........... .......... preferential Buildings 100 @'@wharf/shed revenue -land Bunkers re,nta 1 26% pipeline Macilities &bldg. warehouses bldg. rental XWarehouses others @@railway, permits, misc. Percent distribution of 1965/66 Expenditure oil royalties Port of Los Angeles Income Distribution 1969 Dept Source: Port of Los Angeles, California cha es cargo areas aprons iscellaneous 5% 18% en rates, taxes, po i e 4% Staff 41% Operation repair, ma i ntenance wharf age & renewa Is aisle space dockage replacement .......... 32% .......... .......... Z [j rT7r!T-" o cost of No Charged to Source: Port of Bombay, India Source: American Association of Port Authorities 4 Planning 58 woo-% TI. I 71 VA '"@Aw IL wp 00 -r;r '00 -it ve rl ISM 4.1 Design and Construction 59 4.1.1 Decision 4.1.2 Preliminary Factors affecting the decision to build a port: After establishing the general requirements for a port it is necessary to make a preliminary 4.1 .1 .1 Need and Economic Justification site study supplemented with cost estimate to serve a growing inland metropolis based on assumptions that will require verifi- to serve as a shipping terminal for private cation in the final analysis. industry to serve as a military terminal or naval 4.1 .2.1 Preliminary Site Information base . Information from several proposed sites to be compared will be derived from: A private port will have to show economic Marine Data: feasibility whereas a municipal or military depth of water port wil I tend to grow out of necessity . general character of bottom range of tides and current 4.1.1 .2 Traffic Volume Meteorological Data- A survey of anticipated future commerce wind (type and quantity) will be required for muni- temperature cipal ports. A private port must have a guar- rainfall anteed tonnage . Topographical Data: . shoals 4.1 .1 .3 Inland Communication reefs The inland transportation routes require study mouths of rivers to determine feasible locations for road, rail , shore I ine water and airways to service the port. Geographical Information: depth and presence of rock depth of overburden Factors Economic soils. Trade/Co Inland C 4.1 .2.2 Selection Criteria Variables Decision Location/Port The following factors wil I play an important Proximity role in the final selection: Other Ports - amount of dredging (minimize) National Boundaries Development . most favorable bottom conditions Urbanization o most suitable shore area for terminal develop- Industries Military Bases ment Highways . transportati Railroads on accessibility Waterways . development future of area Volume . depth of water Tonnage 0 Direct . exposure of coast L@_l ndirect * orientation . Decision Matrix In areas where tide is 2 to 3 feet, the adjacent land area should be approximately 15 to 20 feet higher' . If tides are higher or the area is subject to tidal waves, then even higher elevation is desirable . River locations where flood conditions exist may require higher elevation also . 60 4.1 .2.3 Harbor Layout Considerations The selection of the type of breakwater depends A. Harbor and turning basin on: B.' Berthing and anchor area direction of maximum wave C. Breakwaters the effectiveness of quieting waves. D. Entrance and exit E. Channel and harbor depth Basic breakwater configurations: F. Installations, facilities and services. two arms plus single parallel A. Harbor and turning basin - The size and number of ships anticipated shape of harbors are determined by: size of ships type of cargo single arm where wave is mainly unidirectional tonnage of cargo existing site conditions services to be provided will tugs be utilized to assist maneuvering . Unless the harbor is natural, the size of the converging two arms harbor will be minimized to safe and reason- able operational dimensions. A minimum harbor area is the space required for docks plus a turn- ing basin . The larger the harbor the greater the overlapping two arms opportunity for wave generation by wind. B. Berthing and anchor area - In general,winds and currents are more of a problem when dock- ing a vessel that is empty, than small waves generated in a harbor. For comfortable berthing, wave he ight should not exceed Zfeet nor wind D. Entrance and exit The purpose of the velocity 15 @mph. entrance is to provide a safe navigational access to the harbor and prevent tides and currents . In handling bulk cargo, wave height up to 4 feet is permissable, provided there is wind In designing an entrance, careful consideration protection . should be given to reduction of wave height within the port. It is preferable to locate the The anchor area should provide: entrance on the lee side of the harbor. In cases protection from weather where the entrance must be located on the wind- waiting area for ships ward end, the breakwater must overlap. It is turn around area for ships . also desirable to have an exit to each harbor. C. Breakwaters - The location and extent of breakwaters are determined by: nd direction of maximum waves configuration of shoreline minimum size of harbor required for anti- cipated traffic 61 The Stevenson equation computes the height 6 feet is required. In areas where ships ar- of a reduced wave at any point in the harbor rive empty and leave loaded,two depths of as a result of the entrance . All dimensions channel could be provided. are in feet. In the post, the loaded draft of ships has been 4 b limited to not over 40 feet so as not to exceed h p H 0.02 TD ( I+ the principal harbor and channel depths of the major world ports . The current trend in deep draft vessels is presently being handled by: hp height of reduced wave at any point * use of submarine lines with offshore anchor- in the harbor age in deep water H height of wave at the entrance - lightening by transferring part of the load b breadth of entrance to another vessel then finishing loading in B breadth of harbor at point p deep water D distance from entrance to point of - construction of special deep water terminals. observation entrwMe F. Installations, facilities and services - . shore facilities for marine terminals - docks - The number of docks vary according to the anticipated number of vessels, loading time involved and cargo types. The Elements that determine dock types are., The type of entrance depends upon: special requirements or local customs and depth of water practices site conditions size of harbor availability of materials ship characteristics. permanency of construction economy of construction Three basic harbor entrance sizes are: size and weight of ships using port small harbor entrance - 300 feet method of construction (time factor). medium harbor entrance - 400-500 feet large harbor entrance - 500-800 feet. Dredging may not be done until docks are built. Wharfs and piers should be located in the most E. Channel and harbor depth - These depths sheltered part of the harbor and along the lee should permit navigation at low tide when a side of the breakwaters. ship is fully loaded. (Surge of a ship is cal- culated at one half maximum wave height.) Depth factors: . bottom conditions the maximum wave height. When waves in a harbor do not exceed 2 feet, a depth of surge plus 4 feet is required for a soft bottom. For a hard bottom, a surge plus 62 Examples of harbor layouts: small artificial harbor A small harbor with a single pier and turning basin and a long approach channel from the open sea . This harbor requires the minimum amount of space and can accommodate two vessels. The artificial harbor is constructed by dredging a channel through the shallow dredged area water protected by natural barriers (Off-shore reefs, islands, etc .) and enlarging the in- shore and to provide a minimum harbor. To eliminate backing out of the harbor a vessel must warp itself around the end of a pier. an artificial harbor restricted in area An artificial harbor restricted in area because of deep water. The prevailing wind and waves are from one direction, and smooth water is obtained in the harbor by using a curved break- water parallel to the shore and connected at one end . Due to a rapid increase in the depth warping dolphins of water off the shore, it is necessary to restrict the width of the harbor and use of breakwater pier or wharf type construction . Two warping wharf dolphins are used to turn a ship for exiting. breakwater wind waves medium size artificial harbor An artificial harbor of medium size with separ- ate openings for entering, and I eaving . This type w ar of harbor is less restricted and generally long and narrow with openings at each end which provide the opportunity to establish a one way traffic a r @e@_, dolp@'X:` pattern for vessels. Also provided near the break- water is a place for waiting vessels to anchor. breakwater itrance waves wind exit 63 medium size artificial harbor with turning basin A medium size artificial harbor with a full reakwater waves wind turning basin, protected by two breakwater entrance arms. The radius of the turning basin is twice the length of the largest anticipated vessel . (This is the smallest radius a ship can comfortably turn on, under continuous headway without the assistance of a tug turning circle slips large artificial harbor A very large artificial harbor with anch- waves ind orage area, several berths, turning basin entrance and several service facilities. breakwater turning circle anchorage slip8 w )ancho,,g, ar @tulr 'fl 7 I /r//, 791117711THfIlllMfflllllllll11111111, 64 Pre-site Marine information Meteorological Topographical Geological Location Layout Harbor Turning Basin Berthing Anchor Area Breakwaters Entrance/Exi Channel Facilities/Services Operations Service Docking Turning Protection Awaitin Dredging Transshipping Navigation Site Bottom Condi ions Conditions Rock soil Depth of Water Waves Winds Tides Currents Tem erature Rainfall 0 C3 Orientation Exposure of Coast Shore Configurations Adjacent Land Offshore Functional Terminal Structures Areas Docks Transit Sheds Warehouse Bulk Cargo Stora e Guard Houses Stevedore Warehouses Fire Houses Power Plants Garages Repair Shop Dry Docks Fishing Pier Yacht Basin other Communication (Te-yelopment Ship Characteristics Traffic Trade Cargo Tu s Types Special Requirements _Fa t e r1 -a] s Construction Natural/Artificial Safety Ship Turnaround 0 Direct 0 Indirect Port planning matrix 65 4.1.3 Site Investigation Prior to initiating the final design phase Tidal. Ranges for Selected Major World Ports it is necessary to obtain detailed site in- formation which will consist of: Mean Spring A. Hydrographic survey of harbor and range range channelarea Anchorage, Alaska 26.8 29.6 B. Topographic survey of marine terminal Antwerp, Belgium 15.7 17.8 area Bilbao, Spain 9.0 11.8 C. Soil survey and analysis Bombay, India 8.7 11.8 D. Tide and current observation Boston, Mass. 9.5 11.0 E. Miscellaneous (meteorological, geo- Buenos Aires,, Argentina 2.2 2.4 logical, etc.). Callao, Peru 1.8 2.4 A. Hydrographic survey is to determine: Canal Zonef Atlantic side 0.7 1.1 elevation of the body of water in question Canal Zone, Pacific side 12.6 16.4 location of shoreland during high and low Capetown, Union of South Africa 3.8 5.2 water Cherbourg, France' 13.0 18.0 location and size of submerged obstacles. Dakar, Africa 3.3 4.4 B. Topographic survey is required where all Galveston, Tex. 1.0 1.4 proposed structures will be. Genoa, Italy 0.6 0.8 Hamburg, Germany 7.6 8.1 C - Soil survey and analysis consists of pene- Havana, Cuba 1.0 1.2 tration below water level to an area of rock Hong Kong, China 3.1 5.3 or suitable bearing strata that will support pile Honolulu, Hawaii 1.2 1.9 La Guaira, Venezuela ... 10.8 or caisson foundations. Generally penetrations Liverpool, England 21.2 27.1 of about forty feet into firm material will in- sure adequate support for marine structures. E. Miscellaneous information concerning: Soil analysis includes: winds soil classification o waves water content determination . earthquakes specific gravity determination . availability and cost of materials voi d ratio . labor . unconfined compression test (cohesiveness . local ordinances and building codes . and shear) wind triosial shear test Beaufort Velocity, consolidation tests (settlement). number Description miles per hour D. Tide and current observations determine- 0 Calm 0-1 general direction I Light air 1-3 velocity in currents 2 Slight breez 4-7 average intervals between successive high 3 Gentle breeze 8-12 tides 4 Moderate breeze 13-18 range of tides which depend upon: 5 Fresh breeze 19-24 secondary tidal waves 6 Strong breeze 25-31 depth of water 7 Moderate gale 32-38 configuration of coast . a Fresh gale 39-46 9 Strong gale 47-54 10 Whole gale 55-63 11 Storm 64-75 12 Hurricane Above 75 66 Waves are classified as deep water waves or Problems involving wave action: shallow water waves: forecasting wave height and length . Deep water waves are those which occur in wave action on mound breakwaters water having a depth which is larger than half wave run-up on slopes the wave length, a depth where the bottom wave action on vertical walls, particularly does not have any significant influence upon breakwaters the motion of water particles. The amplitude wave action on piles, cylinders and caissons. of waves in deep water decreases rapidly with the depth, but the wave length remains the Wave size for a particular location depends same. u pon: . Shallow water waves are those on which the .wind velocity influence of the bottom changes the form of -duration of wind orbital motion of the water particles from cir- .wind direction cular to elliptical greatest continuous distance over which wind can act water depth . Site Hydrographic Survey Investigation Topographic Survey Soil investigation Tide and Currents Observation Miscellaneous information Channel Harbor Terminals. Breakwaters Structures Foundation Pier/Wharf Quay/Piles Bottom Conditions Depth of Water Configuration of Coast Rock (location & size) Soil Wind Waves Earthquakes Dredging Testing Ob s e rva t i on s. Pressure Direction Velocity Range Time (interval duration) Dimensions Materials (cost & availabilit Labor Codes/Ordinances direct indirect 67 4.1.4 General Review 4.1.5 Harbor and Channel Before initiating the detail design phase, it is Final design of the harbor and channel must extremely bdvisable to review and reevaluate include: the preliminary phases. Areas to be consider- , navigability of harbor and channel (depth ed are: to meet anticipated shipping development) . information for turning basin dimensions A. Access: required . proximity to user . projection of immediate and future charac- - forall transportation modes teristics as well as directional flow of vessels - amount of waterfront area required to allow B. Environment: proper functioning of port - impact on ecology * provide protection and anchorage . impact on human * requirement for a closed harbor. C. Site: An enclosed harbor is one which artificially � land availability separates its facilities from the open sea, lake � land cost or river. The reason to enclose a harbor is to � real estate value of surrounding area maintain a constant water level in the harbor � alternate uses of selected site during tide fluctuations. Determining factors: * water depth at of I states of tides D. Location - if selected site is not feasible . channel depth at all states of tides then process repeats itself for new location. * vessel size - range of tides * other conditions (currents, type of seas). Comparison between open and enclosed harbors 0 Cr a 'U 4-@ %4- V) I- -C or 4J (n r_ 4-WQ) 4J -0 Ln 4-)0 U 6 L_ 0 C M > U a 0 L- 0 0 M I M f .0 -0U U 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I * 0 1 1 1 1 1 01010 1* _ 0 J 0 advantages Enclosed harbors require: caissons gates locks pumping machinery and equipment. Size of entrance locks depends on ship charac- teristics, present and future, as wel I as tidal depth at of I stages. 68 4.1.6 Breakwaters Breakwaters are the structures (artificial) that 28 1 provide the shelter for a harbor. 24 20 types of breakwaters: 16 4.1.3.1 Mound 12 4.1.6.2 Wall 8 4.1.6.3 Pneumatic and hydraulic 4 4.1.6.4 Floating. 0 Factors to be considered in the selection of a 28 2 breakwater: 24 availability of materials 20 water depth 16 sea bottom conditions 12 function or use 8 availability of construction equipment. 4 0 Breakwater stability depends upon: specific weight of individual cap rock 28 3 coefficient of friction 24 wave height 20 slope of breakwater (a flat slope is de- 16 sirable from a stand point os stability, however, 12 such specifications would increase the volume 8 of the core and bedding material to such a point 4 that it would not be economically feasible to 0 construct. A steep slope mermits a narrow pro- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 tection to the harbor porper.) 1. Waterways Experiment Station formula 2. Modified Iribarren 3. Original Iribarren (wave height in feet) Comparison of breakwater types Slopes A-1:1.25 B-:1.5 C-1:2 D-1:2.5 E-1:3 F-1:3.5 G-1:4 H-1:4.5 I-1:5 Relationships between weight of rock, slope of armor course, and wave height, by three different formulae mound type wall type pneumatic- hydraulic floating advantages Source: Design and Construction fo Ports and Marine Structures 69 4. 1.6. 1 Mound type breakwater - This type is used when unfavorable foundation condi- tions exist because it will most readily.ada.pt to the effects created by settling. A - Natura I rock armor'rock Type I - a rock mound in which the core ma- sea harbor terial extends above the water level and is covered by one or more intermediate layers intermediate layer with an envelope of armor rock. core Type2 -a rockmound in which the core fill armor rock stops at a given depth below water level, then sea covered by a medium-weight rock, and capped with heavy armor rock. core For maximum protection, the top of a rock mound breakwater should reach the maximum height of the wave before breaking. It also should extend above the level of the highest tides. It is important to have the crest at an elevation which will prevent serious overtop- ping. The minimum width of the top of a breakwater should equal the approximate height of the The Delaware Breakwater maximum wave. One determining factor for controlling the width of the top is ample pro- vision for the accommodation of construction sea equipment and vehicles. In natural rock breakwater constructiona 20 ton rock is the largest size to handle or trans- port economically La Guaira, Venezuela Breakwater sea .a media@te r o a core Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 70 B. Concrete Block - generally cubic or Poll Moll crown wall rectangular in shape . Used in areas where natural rock unavailable. harbor Concrete block is placed on breakwaters in either: - pell mell (random) - designed pattern . Designed Pattern crown wall sea Intermediate core Naval Air Station, Coco Solo, Panama sea C. Combination (rock and concrete block) sea Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures D. Concrete tetrapods and tribars tetrapod (fourlegged, truncated-cone shape, precast concrete unit) tribar (special, 3 legged, precast concrete unit). Tetrapods and tribars have design advantages over standard concrete blocks due to their shape They have a superior ability to absorb @ harbor d Internist wave energy. They are produced up to 40 tons in weight. Tetrapods are placed two layers deep in equal numbers. 71 Tribar One construction technique used pel I mel I combination (rock and concrete block) break- water at Rotterdam, Europort . The constructions phases were: I . dredging 2. laying sea gravel 3. laying river gravel and rubble 4. laying rubble of I to 6 tons elevation plan 5. laying 43 ton concrete blocks 6. final filling with rubble. KI sea harbor tetrapods -4- ........... ... ......... ...... ... ............. ........... ....... .......... 4N_ do hhA NJ Placing first layer of tetrapods on rock embank- SON& ment for a breakwater Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 010 0 M 4-J U C >_ =1 4-0 4-Y 6.0 Q) -C W.- E 0 4) u) in 6-6) 6. w(n 4-) E > -_I(0 ICC Ln 1- 0' 12 12 0) x a)0 0 CLImPlu Q) 'n 3: o -au Iul natural rock concrete block combination Retrapod & tribarlo 0101910fe OF07 0 advantages 72 4.1 .6.2 Wall type breakwater (Vertical) This type breakwater differs from the sloping mound type in the manner it resists wave ac- tion . Vertical walls reflect the waves with- out reducing any of the destructive energy of the wave, producing stationary undulation. Whereas; a sloping mound type dissipates kine- tic energy through run-up on the topping sur- face and through friction caused by the ir- regularity of the surface . Design considerations for vertical wall break- waters include: . Stability - the design for maximum wave height must include a safety factor. The height of the breakwater above the highest tide should be no less than 1 .5 times the height of the maximum wave . The depth be- low the lowest water level to the bottom of the wall should not be less than 2 times the height of the maximum wave and not exceed- ing 60 feet. The width should be no less than .75 the height . Height - must be sufficient to permit com- plete obstruction of waves . Foundation - should extend a sufficient dis- tance below sea bottom to prevent erosion be- neath the toe (extension equal .25 of wave length). A. Concrete-block gravity wall sea rnasonry harbor cellular oncrate blocks quarry T_ B. Concrete caissons reduce construction time on the water . The concrete caissons are sea concrete caisson box -like structures with closed bottoms and diaphragm walls which divide the box into sev- eral compartments the side wal Is of which may be sloping or vertical . They are often used in quarry dry-dock construction 73 C. Rock-filled cellular sheet piles - consist sea harbor of cell construction that is stable and self- bedding done supporting when filled with rock or other suitable material quarry stjne steel sheet piling D. Rock-filled timber crib - constructed of concrete in place cribs of 30 to 35 square feet, divided into Boa concrete blocks compartments by transverse and horizontal walls which are filled with rock and sub- foundation merged end to end along the I ine of the breakwater y1prap E . Concrete or steel sheet pilewalls - con- structed of concrete sheet piling and concrete concrete cap wall batter piles driven through a soft bottom lake material to the underlying firm strata . These are capped above the low water level with poured-in-place walls, generally used where height of waves do not exceed 10 feet or where the bottom is of soft material which extends to a great depth C 0 (n sa6d, 4, Ln -0 0 Z C 0 4) U U 4J > C 0 0 q-- 4J Q) (n - -C U _r_C 0 V) 1; 4J 4J0 4J 0 0 C (U 4- 4-M . L_0 41 0 4- Q) 41 a)U U) Ln Q) 3: concrete block 0 *1 1* concrete caisson 9 e 0 0 0 cellular sheet 0 0 timber crib 0 * 9 0 Source: Design and Construction of Ports sheet pile a _.!JO -0 and Marine Structures 0 advantages Wall Type Breakwaters 74 4.1 .6.3 Pneumatic and Hydraulic type break- The result is loss of wave energy through waters - Uses for pneumatic and hydraulic turbulence . breakwaters: � quieting the water at the entrance of 4.1 .6.4 Floating type breakwaters harbors Characteristics: � improving conditions inside a harbor . unaffected by water depth � use on off shore loading conditions * mobile � creating of temporary sheltered water areas. . limited influence on local quality of water and on the hydro-biological environment A. Pneumatic breakwater - a method of re- . minimal construction cost . ducing wave height by the use of compressed air. This system is in the experimental stage A. Rigid type - pontoon or barrier and has several drawbacks: prohibitive amount of power required high degree of inconsistency for volume of air required can obtain 50% reduction in the height of steep waves, however negligible reduction in flat waves. Operation procedure: unn1w___t Rising air bubbles entrain water upward Loss of water flowing off is compensated by inflows at the bottom forming vortexes B. Flexible type - pontoon, barrier, sheet, If the vortex speed is high enough and mattress the wave deep enough, the waves running up against the surface flow of the vortex will break. B. Hydraulic breakwater - reduces wave height by water jet action . _7 Operation procedure: Water forced through a perforated pipe The discharged water induces a current which causes waves to break 75 4.1.7 Terminals Terminals are the specialized areas of a port 4.1.7.2 Container Terminals: Containeriza- where points for discharging and receiving tion techniques provide the designer the oppor- cargo are provided for rail, highway, pipe- tunity to design terminal facilities that will lines, inland waterway carriers and ocean minimize individual cargo handling thereby going vessels. The controlling factors for speeding up ship turn-around time . terminal layout are: � characteristics of cargo to be handled Controlling design factors: � handling equipment to be used * need for vast land area � number of outlets for cargo . circulation and parking area for vehicles � vessel types . shoreside equipment � cargo handling efficiency. vessel characteristics , LASH, Roll-on/Roll- off, etc. Terminals are generally classified by cargo types: 4.1.7.1 General Cargo Terminals 4.1.7.2 Container Terminals 4.1.7.3 Bulk Cargo Terminals 4.1.7.4 Passenger Terminals 4.1.7.5 Military Terminals A 4 4.1.7.6 Free Port Terminals 4.1.7.7 Fishing Terminals 4.1.7.1 General Cargo Terminals: For general cargo a facility has to be equipped to handle many different types of cargo. In designing a general cargo terminal the fol- Sou-rce: Jahrbuch der Hafenbau'technischen lowing must be considered: Gese I I scha ft � type of equipment required � method of cargo handling 4.1.7.3 Bulk Cargo Terminal: These facilities � type of transportation vehicles used are usually designed for a single function, the � open and closed storage space required handling of loose cargo such as grain, coal, � vessel characteristics. cement, sugar, ores, etc . Basic requirements: � storage facilities which may be open or of elevator type � cargo handling equipment for loading and un- loading which generally includes pressure pipes, conveyors, buckets, weighing equip- ment, etc . Bulk cargo terminals vary according to: site (less requirement for still water) characteristics of material handled (dry, liquid, powdered, granulated, etc.) quantity requirements availability and type of transportation mode type of berthing proximity to urban areas. 76 An essential part of bulk cargo operations is the existence of adjacent industrial users such as flour and lum6er mills, refineries, iron and steel mills. They require water front access to export their products, therefore the distance from the water to their plant location depends upon the handling techniques involved: liquid - piped commodities may be located several miles from water front bulk cargo - handled by conveyors, or similar apparatus may be located several yards from the water front . Bulk terminals generally require deeper chan- nels and larger turning basins than other types of terminals. A. Liquid terminals utilize wharf, piers and offshore mooring depending on water depth, bottom conditions and the rate of unloading . Offshore mooring generally consists of either a hose handling platform or a floating buoy These facilities do not require heavily pro- X: tected waters and are constructed in deep water to facilitate deep draft vessels. Loading apparatus for offshore terminals: Causewa submarine hose lying on bottom, used for hard bottom conditions trestle Hartley hoister, used where sea bottom is berth no.2 soft and a high unloading rate is required. loading arms ------- r light tanker loading arms pipeway loaded tanker berth no.1 ... ...... :x .......... ...... ...... . ..... .. ... ... ....:.......... .. .. ...... . . ... .... X.XX ............. The only requirement for pieror wharf is a light open structure capable of carrying the .X weight of the pipes and valves and withstanding the pressure of the ships. A common policy is to construct oil terminals on the seaward side away from commercial docking areas. Source- Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 77 ions: Additional d6-sign considerat' 4.1 .7.4 Passenger Terminals generally separate pipelines and pumping equipment passenger traffic and cargo traffic to eliminate tank storage facilities congestion . The traditional method of accom- fire and explosive hazards. plishing this has been to locate passenger facil- ities on a second level over a cargo area . Since B. Grain terminals utilize wharf loading the passenger levels of ships are generally at with direct delivery of grain from storage to upper decks, this separation works very well the vessel. Necessary facilities include: � storage bins Design considerations: � pneumatic, suction devices . peak flow of.passengers � car and track unloading facilities . baggage requirements � weighing facilities 0 customs requirements � elevators. . vehicle.access . parking and storage of vehicles - . office space for port administrators and J. 1@_ service facilities * waiting and recreation facilities. . ............ . ...................... ..................... Plan of passenger facility Source: Seeverkehrswassebau C. Ore and Coal terminals Careful consideration should be given for: ground. storage and stockpile areas loading and unloading equipment (tower unloaders, grabbing equipment, floating crones, etc .) vehicle circulation 4.1.7.5 Military Terminals provide military CY vessels with berthing, maintenance, storage and supply facilities. In developing countries, it is not uncommon to find joint use of a port with the mi I itary . 4.1 .7.6 Free Port Terminals represent the de- signation of a port or portion of a port as a "free zone" where goods may be transshipped, manu- factured and packaged, duty free. 4.1 .7.7 Fishing Terminals are designed to pro- vide protection in time of storms and a place to process and market the catch . 78 4.1.8 Offshore Structures Offshore structures may be classified in three 4.1 .8.3 Offshore Drilling Structures are of general categories: several types: 4.1.8.1 Mobile Wharves tended, permanent drilling platforms 4.1 .8.2 Radar and Lighthouse Platforms mobile submersible drilling structures -4.1 .8.3 Offshore Drilling Structures drilling barges or vessels mobile, elevating drilling platforms. 4.1.8.1 Mobile Wharves were developed to be used in areas where construction equipment and 40 .0 materials are not readily available and where on-site construction time is limited. Major '00'@ characteristics are: 2 30 01,00' � prefabricated � temporary � por 20-- table . 1 E 4.8.1 .2 Radar and Lighthouse Platforms are used Cc Ile 10 in navigation and as early warning stations for national defense. They are permanent structures. ........ 0 1956 1957 1958 1959 - f Ixed, tended - fixed, self-contained mobile, submersible ------ mobile, elevating 772t Types of drilling rigs used in the Gulf of Mexico V1111 Up Down elevation .............. .......... ....... ...... . . . .......... ... ...... ........ .............. . .. ... ............... ................ .......... ................... .... ................. ... ........ . .. ........ Source: Le Tourneou Offshore, Inc Locked plan Source-- Design and Construction of Ports Mobile drilling platform in various stages and Marine Structures of erection 79 4.1.9 Buildings IC I%r ,transit shed warehouse cold storage administration 7N. customs police station guard mouses stevedore wa repair shops, garages -fTrehouse @ower house 41direct 0 indirect Relationship matrix for port buildings Wharf with tra@sit shed Source: Port Design and Construction 4.1 .9.1 Transit Shed Requirements in shed design: Transit sheds function to provide temporary * sufficient floor area for storage storage for goods discharged from vessels . maximum access (wide and tal I openings) or goods waiting to be loaded. They vary in . minimum number of columns each port according to: - smooth, hard wearing floor surface - type of cargo handled * natural and artificial lighting . climate - loading platforms with depressed railroad . local labor practices tracks - available building materials . ample height inside facility for mechanical type of land transportation servicing the handling and stacking foci I ity . * adequate drainage . length of shed proportional to berth and Operations involved in a transit shed: apron width � loading . number of stories (vertical) � stacking . available building materials. � discharging -:t,; -0%'% � sorting V MIN � inspection � transferring . Functional areas: A storage space circulation space lockable area for valuable cargo separate area for "dirty" cargo labor facilities (Washroom and toilets) labor storage (dressing rooms and lockers) office space . .. .... 300 0 300 on on r ges e ou s garages Design objectives: "`-@eet efficient cargo handling within shed Pier with transit sheds economy of construction maintenance (low). 80 Dimensional criteria (the area of a transit shed is a function of): the size of port in which the facility is located the type of trade engaged in by the vessels using the facility aisle space (40 to 50 percent of gross floor area) length of facility (minimum length should equal distance between extreme hatches of largest vessel) width of facility (restricted to available space, however depends on area required and length of facility) height from floor to ceiling (should be 20' to 24') spans for structure (clear span most desirable with interior columns spaced 40' to 70') Cross section of single story long span transit exterior column spacing (20' minimum) sheds at Port of Bremen, Bremen, Germany door openings (alternate bays on both sides Source: Seeverkehrswasserbau of shed, opening dimensions, 18' wide by 15' high) capacity of shed (should accommodate at least 3 days discharge of cargo, and one third of cargo to be shipped). To facilitate service, reduce handlin opera- tions and ease traffic congestion, it is de- sirable to: design for direct transfer between rail cars and ship provide grade separation for rail and truck establish one way traffic pattersn provide adjustable ramps for truck loading separate long lengths of transit sheds for fire Wharves & protection and to relieve traffic problems. Piers 613 21 26 39.5 20 84,52 Wharves only 606 31 35 42 20 85,675 Piers only 604 16 25 33.5 20 83,222 access transit transit transit *Range 3'-70' shed shed shed **Range 35,000-120,000 The distance between ends of transit sheds should be enough to allow free movement of transport vehicles and cargo handling equipment. 81 PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS OF SELECTED MODERN OCEAN TERMINALS mot.w. MREA- up CATS Lemem, WIo Snapass Anat Lwarks Inakess, lasks, 'R- PORT FACILITY per Apianat K P:!;, ause LIENG@ SHED PIE REMARKS co.n A BER"re, T1011 ft. R. R. A. N. State R. Boston mystic Pie, No. I Pier 897 - South 41511 - East 25 - Smith 1 558 418 - 246,00101 897 82, IOD 3 R.R. 1,Kks I. depressed "[I in 1952 688 - North 25 - North 1 698 shed. 2D - East - 468 Honsec, Pier No. I Pier S25 - Wag $15 - South 25 - Wed 1 495 462 - 228,200 525 76,200 2 R.R'fruits in depressed well in 19W 535 - East 2D East 1 535 shed. 20: Smith - 516 East Barsdon Pier Pie, 1912 603 390 25 - well 1 585 340 - 199,000 603 99,500 2 FIR lack, in depressed wall in N. I Itinwilt 25 - East I shed. 1950 ZD - South - Near York Pier 57 North River Pier 750 150 12 Upper - 70D '125 28.5 175.000 750 87,500 Tan-strv transit Shed - G- 1954 Lower (2 flol Lima combination cargo ad pon. sengef terminal with passenger mosonvandbrim, in handuccuse. Pi.r::A" 14.1arkson Pier 7M 329 25 - North 1 680 293 2D 192,001) 700 96, DID 2 R.R. track, I n depressed ..If in Pier V Similar 1954 211, - South- Shed. (temporarily filled in and 2D - East want to gad. of shed flai War-. T"Imisal Wait ],vto - 5D 2 1,020,4611, 200 20 269,ODO 2 @ 55D 89,600 2 R.R. trucks .1 Platform love at (port Novara) IVA 550 - 50 - 465 ZDD 2D (" Shech) 16550 rear of larger shed. Open berth not considered in this compika@ ft., Pier 3 -Bral Pier 665 - San If 350 30 - No. & So,- 618 286 - 176,ODD 65a S11, DDO So= for 16 trucks an inshore (Fallen T,rinfirical) 1959 635 - h 25 - West and. IGDO1O IQ. It. pentad I,. a ,our. Noftk Pie, "N" Pie, I'liso 393 Upper 2 I,Q5O 320 32 336,000 55D 84,01110 2 11.11 task$ in depressed well in 11 : 2 Shed.' Two, awri-parial 9.Oty 1948 31 Lower 25 - Face - ,I- tom appe, pic, pron. Wilmington. N. C. State Docks Whad 1,5110 46 2 450 112 U` 111,M 151 72.900 2 R.R. trucks for platform level 1951 45D 162 16 (aph Sheds) kradi & at rear at both shads. Two .forlall-portal gantry crames an 'prm. Sviraimals State Docks Wharf 2,G17 46 2 45D 165 22.5 74,250 6BD 2C 74.25D 2 R.R. trucks tar platform level 1952 35 1 450 165 22.5 74,25D 1 IRS 59,400 loading at rear of all shed. . 360 165 22.5 59,00 hill-dertal gentry craws on wharf apron. Mobile State Docks - wharf Low 31 - 1.553 2D) 21 312, 11010 2s; 545 104. DOD 2 R.R. tracks to, platform level Ittrilas 6, 7, & 8 1949 495 31 - I 1, 495 loading at ,I, of area. Long Beach Berth, 6 5 7 Wart 1.226 51 2 1,152 2DD Up to 23D.4DD 612 115.20D 2 P.R. track, far platform I ... I (Municipal Whaverst) 1947 (2 berth,) 33 looding at rear of shed, Barths 20 '21'22'24 Wharf 1 995+ 350 - 45 2 1.162 16G Do to 18D.010 W, 665 4(,, 90,000 2 R.R tracks for platform le,el 25, & 26 1950 1:9% + 350 3D loading at rear Of Shed. (municipal Whairmal 51XI - Face 1.162 l6o 179,742 Los Angeles Bonus 195,196,197 Wharf 2,272 - 36 2 1. 2113 2oD - 241 @ GDO 3(@i 75i 80.5(s) Matsom Navigation Cc. combina. (g. 198 1951 r1alflon. or or lion cargo &passemp, le7@nal. municipal whannes) 4(,, 555 50ADD 2 floors and m- 704 in. I. rst @1- 140,111)(1sa. It, nkedsolely Or ca@gD: 504 fir, ft. loo.sw It. . Used I., pa ... ng- general cargo. Upper floor - pa,- ....... oni, 3 R.R, tracks for platform 1-1 load,19 I rear .1 shed, San I'matisca, Mission thick Double 1,414-L.K., 1,000-Face DR. Facu 2 Ggo 115 17 78. IOD 2 vii 740 2v, 78,100 Open berth, not can,sideed in Do le Terminal Pier I'l P us 31 21 UPPE@ 21 Sul 111 1; 71 12 1 1, Aer - DPW, 3 _29 1., 612 511 96DD 10) 91 600 platform level at rest of all sheds .1111 Iv: 1 50.@ 1950 582 1 71@ IDO IN, comp0iiian. R.R. tracks I 0, or 80 ft. her.., Odg. .1 platform, 700 151 17 105.ODO 2 v, 55D t, 45 3W at rear of V,n inshore parallel- sheds. Seattle Pier 42 Dodbl. I'm 396 32 No, In 2 981 110 16 107.9DO 511) 53.950 5 P.R. tracks at platta- le,el Pie 32 ScxIh 2 981 110 16 lol.93D et. - sheds. 9, ft. bet-, 1942 AD Face - Idges Of pult."Is at - Of sheds. Toronto Pie, 11 Wharf 801) - 35-45 - V5 15D 20 loo.ooo sm 100.000 T,o,k, a, ,it If t-inst. 1955 1-1,nal NO I lompares ,,In r,,, 1"IscIpt In, ,- "idth MiNvionikess Pie, N. 2 Sinfir, Pier 1.017 Own Face : North (Municipal 1961 'ol South 520 32:,5 : No, h1 5G4 150 18.8 74.3101) It., 5?0 2,,i @4300 Tral, & rail depressed ell on 32 S.Ift I 5D4 15D 18.8 74.300 "Pen- Pie, tirt-n nev, . V@ teet 41 wc, -de --In too, 111t1o,cl track& 2w 508 NOTES: : All transit shed, D-Sony ..of he,. otherwise noted under -11hormaks." Wad. track ..A, - inches. mus Ed Other man-starap arm Reproduced by permission of the American Association of Port Authorities 82 Recent trends in shed construction are toward multistory transit sheds (up to 6 stories) Advantages: provide long time storage space minimize land requirements I L 11 1 r ,segregate import-export operations -reduce roof area -distri6ute work area over several floors facilitate customs clearance. Disadvantages: - require vertical delivery facilities * require stronger, heavier foundations - increase construction costs . require more columns . require more circulation space . HFI Section and detail of multistory warehouse Source: Port of Stockholm, Sweden IiL --w import export Cargo flow in a two story transit shed 83 4.1.9.2 Warehouse The primary function of a warehouse is long time storage . Factors to be considered in designing a warehouse: k/ *temperature *humidity *air movement *equipment dimensions and clearances *distance from berth or transit shed NI *Optimal column spacing for longer spans *loading platforms *railroad capabilities *covered loading areas K *wall cranes or travelling crones. k@' Dimensional criteria: �availability of space �use of warehouse �for fire protection structure should be compartmental ized NI �provide minimum of 2 feet clearance NI between top of cargo and ceiling . Advantages of constructing warehouse above transit sheds: cargo can be transferred from transit shed to warehouse regardless of weather conditions Multistory Warehouses provides minimum distance for cargo move- ment reduces external traffic congestion . Typical Warehouse Layout Source: Jahrbuch der Hafenbautechnischen Gese I I sc ha ft Port Newark, New Jersey width 160 feet length 640-960 feet Clear height 20 feet column spacing 40 feet floors at tru4 and rail car level light (natural plus artificial). 84 4.1 .9.3 Cold Storage 4.1.9.5 General Criteria Function: refrigeration of perishable goods. A . Structural framing: Requirements: steel frames: close temperature control pre-fabricated controlled humidity rapid erection time location near or in transit shed. provide long spans (trusses) Meat: storage teme. critical temp. low maintenance. *timber frames: Chilled 30 28 10-15 days used for roof and wall structures Frozen 15 10 1-10 months can get long spans (laminated beams) Dairy products: generally an available material . Butter 15 5 1-6 months .masonry frames and reinforced Frozen eggs 5 0 1-2 years concrete: Shell eggs 31 30 6-10 months poured in place construction Cheese 40 35 1-6 months tilt up construction Fish 0 5 2-3 months pre fa bri ca te d Fruit: long spans Apples 36 31 1-6 months low maintenance Pears 32 30 1-4 months fire proof construction . Oranges 32 31 1-4 months Vegetables: Green 35 32 10-20 days Comparison between types of framing Root 38 34 1-3 months Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 4.1.9.4 Administration Function: to handle necessary office and masonry- clerical work for cargo movement. Customs concrete and immigration facilities may be included timber depending on location and size of port. steel advantages General requirements are: office space toilet facilities B. Wall construction types: waiting room reinforced concrete passenger and baggage spce if customs concrete block/brick included. metal siding corrugated plastic siding glass aluminum or porcelain enameled steel combiniations of the above. 85 LO 4J V) Materials- J_0 C C .-U 4@ 0 portland cement concrete 0 a),- C U1 Cr 0 M 0 asphaltic cement concrete 4@ C > 0 M .- a U 0-0 M U 4J -- E .- 4) LA .- %_ M M U laminated treated floor 0 _r_ -Y0 0 L_ M 0 -W L_ (U L4- a) - 4@M U C -0 4)M L- -C0 - a.- 0 0 n -W E I- 1.@' -0 1- O)j 4) 10 1 CL-1 Q) L. 0 1- U 4j 0 ra L_ = 0. U 0- U 0 E -0 U - - U CIL in fu C C 0) reinforced Q) _r_Ca) 4.1 'nC concrete C.- C ru concrete block @@ Ia) tilt up E 3:U concrete 0 *101 0 10 laminated treated 00 1 T-1 corrugated cement concrete . 0 aluminum 0 asphaltic cem . conc @L* -i- 0 galvanized 0 9 advantages sheet steel Comparison of floor types corrugated 0 Floor finishes should be hard smooth surfaces plastic sheets brick an-: tile 0 0 0 with anti-skid properties. /porce- 0 aTuminum Hain enamelled E. Door types: e advantages rolling steel doors Comparison of wall types sectional vertical lift doors horizontal sliding doors. Door selection is governed by-. size and type of equipment used C. Roof construction : To achieve the de- cargo sired long spans it is'necessory to use trusses, frequency of use prestressed or laminated members. Door spacing: In selection of roof types the following must minimum spacing would be every other bay be considered: for the length of the shed (both sides) site conditions initial costs maintenance costs availability of materials weight and strength properties life expectancy Roof types: maximum spacing every bay corrugated metal metal r built-up composition D. Floor construction self-supporting on fill end doors may also be provided 86 F . Ventilation systems Types of ventilators: - gravity * rotary - continuous ridge mechanical The size, location and type of ventilators Rolling shutter door are determined by the number of air changes required per hour (common practice is 1 .5 air changes per hour). G. Offices and washrooms N RfH The determining factors for size, location and number are: proximity to personnel activities size of worker population local health and sanitation codes muiti-section vertical lift door need. H . Security enclosure Designed for the protection of valuable cargoes from theft, pilferage and damage . Size, location and number are governed by: size of cargo anticipated value of cargo Horizontal sliding tire door * request by owner of cargo . volume of cargo. I . Methods to protect against physical damage to building include: highway beam guard rails concrete curbs pipe hand rails depressed areas driving romps pipe guards for buildings Horizontal sliding double door guard frames for utilities and services. Types of transit shed doors J . Painting decisions: Source: Design and Construction of Ports color coding and Marine Structures direction indicators protection from weather aesthetics improve lighting conditions. 87 K . Fire protection systems M. Electrical supply automatic sprinklers standard 110/220 volt 3 way system supervisory fire alarms 208/120 volt 3 phase system fire walls 480/277 4 wire system auxiliary fire fighting equipment (hose rocks, chemical fire extinguishers, etc.). L Lighting: general requirements for a lighting system are for it to produce diffused I ight without harsh shadows or glare. available light (natural) provided by: roof lighting (skylights, clearstory, etc side wall lighting (glazing, translucent panels, etc.) artificial light for night operations or to supplement natural I.ight U- C@ C@ C@ C@ 0 'A 0 0 0 0 0 0 C) C> 0 0 0 CO 0 C@ C@ , CIO, Types of artificial light: Length LO C) LO 0 t.0 CD CN LO N 0 04 LO incandescent ft. fluorescent 1000 mercury vapor (minimum vertical distance 35 feet). 900 N \1 I The general practice has been to provide 10 800 foot candle illumination indoors and I foot candle illumination outdoors for transit sheds 700 - and warehouses . 600 500 "IN Comparison of type of fixtures 400 C W 300 U C U M C Cn (1) Q) C 200 41 - U-C L- ;C 4j P. -1 C74 0 (a 4) 4L1-- 100 E -C 4) -C U descent ncan -7- f luorescen-t--F-i I*[ f-84qF 0 mercury vapod9j9_ F o to a in o io o Nto o tn o a Lo o 04 U) r,, 0 04 to CO C4 ILO C) CI4 LO 0 advantages - " CN CN C14 CI) CI) CI) CI) Chart to determine length or width of shed or warehouse based on desired square footage 88 4.1.10 Dock Types The most basic part of port facilities are the 4.1.10.2 Marginal Wharf: wharves extending docking facilities for the vessels. parallel with the shore line and connected to the shore at more than one point which allow berth- Types of berthing facilities: ing to take place on only one side. 4.1 .10.1 Pier 4.1.10.2 Marginal Wharf 4.1.10.3 Specialized Berthing Controlling factors for dock selection are: Marginal wharf type of cargo P7//=///7//7///7/77///=////7/7/7///7A vessel types and sizes life expectancy of facility Wharves generally permit: � direction of wind and waves construction of terminal facilities on the land bottom conditions side of the bulkhead line construction costs high degree of design flexibility ownership. o provision of loop rail and highway connections , reduced distance for land carriers to transit 4.1 .10.1 Pier: a structure extending outward sheds at an angle from the shore into the navigable * easier in docking vessels waters of the harbor, permitting vessel berth- . less maintenance ing on both sides. . more adaptability to changing requirements brought about by new developments in vessel technology, cargo handling systems, trans- portation techniques, etc . LA 0 (D U 0) 0 C U5 0 C C -C Pier at angle to Pier 900 to channel M >- 04- _C 4.1 1-0 E U 4- E C4) 0 0 (A 0 C channel 0 1-0 4, 0 U 0 0 C 0 0 > 0 0J-_W 0) .. ..... 3: (00 CA .0 Ln 'a -0 a) 0 CA I- 11imited i9i 0 0 0 ................. tensive (+) lex 101 .0 0 10 ":XX X EOO X X Opier L-shaped pier T-head pier 00q* wharf Site conditions determine pier or wharf Piers are constructed because they provide more selection berths per linear length of channel than wharves do. Factors governing the size and shape of pier or wharf layout: T-head and L-shaped piers are economical ways age and development of the port to provide docking facilities in deep water which size, shape and dollar value of available land eliminate dredging. vessel characteristics trade requirements 89 amount of dredging necessary for maintenance General requirements for land vehicles: depth of water . road and rail should serve parallel to berth type of cargo - minimum tracks 2 but not more than 5 cargo handling methods maximum codes and regulations berth railroad tracks should be shunted types of equ i pment used for cargo independently from neighboring sheds one rail track should be located near the Water depth required: edge of the apron � open docks (one foot more than maximum vessel draft) General requirements for piers and wharves: � enclosed docks (not less than entrance sill). - elevation of surface should be a minimum of 5 feet above the high water level mark Vehicle use on dock facilities depends on: at maximum tide � strength of structure . should have slips wide enough to allow ships � equipment used to be safely navigated to permit docking � cargo handling method . should be broadside to the prevailing wave � available space front . It is desirable to have the vessel � volume of shipping anchored parallel to the direction of the � number of berths prevailing winds. If this cannot be achieved then the berth should be oriented in such a manner that the wind holds the ship away from the dock. 1857 1888 1905 A 7= .......... ........... 1967 1929 1955 Evolution of an apron Source: Jahrbuch de Hafenboutechnischen GeselIschaft 90 Recommended clearance dimensions for wharves,a- area of transit shed piers and slips b- minimum of 75 feet c- beam of vessel A . Wharf d- minimum of 100 feet I I e- minimum of 50 feet r f- minimum of vessel beam plus 150 feet I- length of vessel Factors affecting pier slip width are: Ea length of pier beam of ship using pier requirements for tugs or lighters(which include vessel handling, docking and maneuvering space). Type of construction utilized for piers or wharves are determined by: B. Two-berth pier and slip specific operational requirements of the pro- posed terminal C d c availability, cost and anticipated life of con- struction material b structural requirements local foundation conditions. Construction Types: A . Open type b L receiving platform in which the main struc- tural slab is below the finished deck or sur- face and the space between is filled to pro- vide additional weight for stability 7 ........ ... C Four berth pier and slip C. f @C. b P IF I iL@H @ @11' I e a -77= b 91 high level decks in which the deck super- rock-filled timber crib: used for early structure system is supported directly on construction of piers and wharves. The piles. The piles are arranged in trans- top of the timber crib is usually terminated, verse rows. The deck is generally con- at a low water level and the retaining wall crete, precast and prestressed . above is constructed of concrete or masonry on which the dock paving is placed ....... ....... ......... . ...... -A ....... ....... . . . . . . . . M777TTIfff I I] W 00 W/ I- B Solid fill type: concrete caissons (used extensively in steel sheet-pile cells: used where water Europe). Usually of two types: depth does not exceed 50 feet and bottom . open well type sunk in the dredged conditions are suitable to support a gravity bottom for increased stability structure . close bottom type which is set on a gravel or crushed stone bed ............. X sheet-pile bulkhead: constructed of wood, gravity quay wall (usually construc- steel or concrete sheet piling and support- ted of 20 - 200 ton precast concrete ed by tie rods attacked to an anchor or by blocks a pile located a safe distance in the back of the face of the bulkhead or by batter piles along the rear of the piles U -77N Li V.: Iz. ..... . . . . . . Source: Port Design and Construction 92 4.1 .10.3 Specialized Berthing A . Lighterage berths B. Romped cargo berths A . Lighterage berths - for intermediate transfer of cargo between land and water conveyance when insufficient water depth exists for large vessels and deep water berths are not economically feasible to construct. B. Romped cargo berths - gently sloping wharves with adjustable ramps. They are used extensively for Roll -on/Roll -off cargo. ........... .... ....... ..... . ..... . ...... ...... .... ....... ....... ................ .......... .............. ............. .... ............. ............................ ............... ................ . .... ....... .... ......... ............... area off ................ .......... hard sta ..... ............. ...... nding 7- ...................................... ................ .......... rompea cross section of hard standing & amp Ramped Cargo Berth, Kiddapore Docks Calcutta Source: Mission Port Development 93 4.1.11 Drydocks The function of dry docks is to provide maintenance and repair on the underwater portion of a vessel . Types of dry docks- A. Graving Docks r------ -. B . Floating Dry Docks C. Slipways Large tanker in drydock Source- Lisnave Estaleiros Navais de Lisboa 0 Q) CL 4- L_ Ln U .- C Z)U a- C M Q) :: .0 - T MC 0 0 0.- -0 M L- C CP M U L- W C 4@ W 0 S_- .- -0 L 4-1W S_ , C c- C: o > U M 0..- E Q) 1 S_ M C Q) M =3 O_ 0-1 0- 3 ro -Z) EC, 0 Igraving dock I oa t i ng dockle *]*I Giadvantages Comparison between graving and floating drydocks Slipways provide a recessed bed plus mechani- cal hauling facilities to haul vessels out of the water Source: Seeverkehrswasserbou- 94 4.1.12 Piles Function: to support the deck and its live and dead loads. _T Factors to be considered in pile selection: ... . ....... required length of life X.: character of structure a flability of materials va type of loads ............ factors causing deterioration maintenance, amount and ease XX .. .......... cost estimate (initial cost, maintenance X. cost, life expectancy) L available funds. point of point-of- U support fixity Also important in pile selection is the cross a Ub section of the pile . Wave forces are smaller ends not f 1 xed to f Ixed bottom fixed both for piles of cylindrical cross section; for piles boltom not fixed top not fixed f ixed with flat or irregular surfaces such as square and Effective length of pile for various end H shape piles, very little is known about wave conditions generated drag and internal forces. The fol- An essential step in pile design is to determine lowing drawing demonstrates some of what is the condition of support at the top and bottom known about the relative increase in wave of the pile (piles may be considered fixed if force on various cross-section types of piles the ends are secured against rotation). (assume a cylindrical cross section has a relative increase of 09/6). To be fixed at the top of the pile, the deck Pile sections must be of heavy construction and the pile rigidly fastened to the deck. % 0 25 42-158 122-258 To be fixed at a point not too far below bottom, the soil must be compact and hard. The point fixed in the case is 10 to 15 feet below the bottom . If the bottom is soft the fixed point would occur 20 - 25 feet below bottom. The pile may be considered supported from buckling Considerations in designing pile foundations: at a depth of 5 to 10 feet below the bottom soil properties pile types and driving equipment Types of Piles: piles carrying capacity . 4.1 .12.1 Bearing Piles: utilized for the trans- mission of structural loads through air, water and Principal deterioration factors of piles: soft surface soils to harder more stable soils. corrosion decay 4 .1 .12.2 Sheet Piles consist of specially shaped TrI insect attach interlocking piles used to form a continuous wal I marine-borer attack to resist horizontal pressure from earth and water . mechanical wear fire chemical reaction (concrete). 95 E Steel piles: load carrying capacity E M end bearing (48 - 120 tons) a a a- CL L n C 0. C friction bearing (48 - 70 tons 4.- -C 0 _0U 0 0 0 _r_ 1-1@@14-1@:J C= sections (H or round). 4- 0 U M C =1 0 :3 1- C &- 4) U -a 4@M -0 -4-- U -01- 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 F. Composite piles - consists of one material bearing * 0 1 1 1 1 1 H for the lower part of the pile and another Isheet **1 material for the rest . The critical point for this type pile is the junction point between the two materials. 4.1 .12.1 Bearing piles may be classified . Timber and cast-in-place concrete (load by the form of bearing or type of material: carrying capacity 30 to 40 tons, length 100 A. End bearing piles - piles which transmit feet) their load by point bearing to the firm stratum upon which it rests Concrete-filled steel pipe and concrete (load carrying capacity 75 tons., length 100 feet) B. Frictional piles - piles which transfer the loads to the surrounding soil by friction along Steel H-sections and concrete (load carrying the piles embedded length. capacity 200 tons). tional piles > C. Wood piles - make good fric 4J U with load carrying capacity of 12 to 15 tons. >- >_ >_ M U Their average length is 35 feet, with life span 4@ Cr 01 -0 -r- C .0 C C M 4@ Q) C 4@ 0" -0 4J of about 10 years depending upon oxygen con- -C 4@ 1.0)[- 4@ tent and temperature of the water . L_ Q) L_ Ln U-) > 4@ :30 M 0 VI Ln _0U n E D. Concrete piles: composite precast: pile conventional shapes - square, round steel pile 0 6191919 0 0 1 1010 octagonal Cast Lin place 0 0 0 0 * 0 0 length 114 feet (max.) concrete - I I load carrying capacity approximately prestressed 0 0 9 0 0 -concrete I 50 tons. precast conc. I prestressed: wood 9 0 9 0 used where difficult to use precast & advantages lengths over 140 feet 4 .1 .12.2 Sheet Pi I es load carrying capacity approximately Design factors for sheet piles: 80 tons. use of weep holes Cast-in-place: change in dry and wet submerged conditions load carrying capacity approximatety up to type of soils 150 tons. moisture content '10 yielding conditions of walls recent developments. 96 4.1.13 Fender Systems Major types of sheet piles: The function of a dock fender system is to A. Steel sheet piles prevent ships or docks from being damaged variety of shapes during mooring, by controlling ship motion adaptable for cellular retaining walls and and reducing or eliminating the impact of cofferdam construction ship-dock contact. The fender also pre- advantages over other types in areas of vents damage due to rubbing. strength, salvage value, simplicity, hand- I ing and heavy construction . Pier Deck gravity-type fenders B. Concrete sheet piles - reinforced or pre- IN W N W V2 W a stressed, precast piles of rectangular cross section C. Wood Sheet Piles - used to resist light lateral loads. Design factors for a fender system: vessel characteristics vessel speed Section thru precast concrete sheet piles approach direction wind expected tidal current conditions rigidity and energy-absorbing characteristics of the dock initial cost and maintenance costs vs. ship and dock repair costs with a fender system . Materials to be used for fenders must possess the The primary use for sheet piles is in retaining following requirements: wal I construction. high compressive strength high fiber hardness Piles are driven into the earth by pile driving high bending stress hammers: durability. drop hammer single-acting steam hammer Classification of fender systems is by material double-acting steam hammer used or the principles of operation: A . Wood fender systems B . Rubber fender systems C Flexible (spring) fender systems D Gravity fender systems E Floating fender systems A . Wood fender systems Single timber "rubbing strip" fender - Used when the approach to the berth is sheltered, the water calm and when tug assistance is available The wood is the element absorbing the impact energy 97 Timber fender with two or three horizon- B. Rubber fender systems - have generally tal walls together with vertical timbers. Used replaced the use of flexible - spring type of where tidal range is relatively small . They fenders because they have: have a low initial cost and have proven to be longer life economical in replacement. less maintenance better absorption of longitudinal forces - Timber fender plus fender piles. Used parallel to the dock. when additional energy absorptions are desired and tidal ranges are greater than six feet - Timber fendering with cylindrical rubber units. Used where greater deflection and energy absorption is required. When using wood fenders, it is necessary to: use only stress graded timber *drill bolt holes to the same diameter as the bolts *protect al I cuts with creosote *use only galvanized bolts. Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures, A D. Quinn, 1961, Timber fenders on sheet pile bulkheads McGraw Hill . Used with permission of Mc- Graw Hill Book Company Types of rubber fenders: . Rubber-tire truck-wheel fender (Utilizes truck tires on wheels, placed in a horizontal position along the face of the dock. Suitable for calm waters and a small tidal range) Hollow-rubber cylinder type ( Requires a solid fascia wall to a depth of at least six feet because of the curvature of the fender . This type is adaptable to solid type dock construction) 98 Combination steel beam and rubber fender D . Gravity fender systems - based on the system with steel fender piles ( Utilized principle of transformation of kinetic energy where it is not practical to use deep dock into potential energy by means of raising fascia beam or wal I) weights (massive blocks of concrete) utilizing: system of cables and sheaves Raykin fender buffer ( Consists of a series pendulum of connected sandwiches made of steel plates, trunnoins cemented to layers of rubber). Raykin fender buffers Suspended gravity fenders C . Flexible fender systems - utilize steel E . Floating fender systems used generally spring fenders for additional energy absorption to keep ships away.from a dock or to separate or spring type wood fenders which are placed vessels which are tied up adjacent to one away from the dock at a slight angle (1:24) another. to absorb energy by deflection . Types: . rolling type EE @7 . heavy timber box section type floating fender log type . N V TE \1 V Or Typical springing-type wood fender Source: Design and Construction of Ports 0 and Marine Structures Rubber tired fender and a timber pole fender Source: Port Design and Construction 99 4.1.14 Mooring Function: to anchor or tie up vessels for the following reasons: waiting for a vacant berth stern breasti line bow working cargo overside only fine . ... .... spirliii@ifeF_ line waiting in calm water waiting for dry dock or repairs corner mooring post to take on cargo for super-sized tankers 0 bollard Types of mooring: vessels own anchor tie up to buoys combination of buoys and anchors A vessel should be moored as close to shore tying up at a berth as possible with its approach to the buoy being into the wind and parallel to any tension bar buoy currents . Number of buoys utilized for mooring de- pends upon: riser chain vessel size and characteristics winds, currents and waves bottom conditions economic factors. ground chain anchor _-7;</Sinker Components of a mooring buoy 71 Multiple mooring buoy arrangements double bitt bollard corner mooring cleat post 3-Buoy Mooring 5-Buoy Mooring A A A,;\ A ships anchor bu C S B B 0 C an%or open chock closed chock power capstan B B 13 'e'c C%111 Vie "%C ;C CI releasing hook A A c-@ -C B a C 8 B C B B Typical mooring accessories CO-- CN---' - . - ---*)C Spacing of the mooring devices is based on: C a C B vessel characteristics /@A B C B B B B. JB convenience of cargo handling wind and tidal conditions. 6 - Buoy Mooring 8-Buoy Mooring Al I mooring devices with anchorage are de- Source: Design and Construction of Ports signed for worst conditions with a 50% safety and Marine Structures factor added . 100 4.1.15 Dolphins Structural classification: Al%h@ A. Flexible type dolphins: used for mooring of smal I vessels or as an outer fence for the protection of a dock the flexible dolphin, though not designed to take the impact of ships, may be used for berthing medium type vessels from off- shore loading platforms and structures. Types of dolphins include: wood pile dolphins wood pile and timber frame dolphins 17 1- 177777- _P] I IT- steel cylinder dolphins 3 pile 7 pile 19 pile steel pipe and wood frame dolphins cluster cluster cluster steel pipe and steel frame dolphin . Typical wood-pile dolphins Dolphins are used for mooring- and docking of vessels. They are designed to resist horizontal Power c4 tan impact loads in addition to wind and current rubber forces. bollarl fender Functional types: . Berthing dolphins (for fendering to resist vessel impact) Mooring dolphins (to hold the vessel against a broad side wind blowing in a direction away from the dock). These are not designed for ship impact. Length of mooring lines: 200 feet to 400 feet. B. Rigid type dolphins: used for large vessels and tankers wood platform type sheed pile cell plus fender heavy concrete platform slabs supported by vertical and battered steel piles. view a Source: Design and Construction of Ports Flexible dolphin with steel-pipe piles of and Mari -ne Structures Miragoane, Haite 101 4.1.16 Moles,Trestles and Catwalks Moles, trestles and catwalks are designed C. Catwalks used to provide access from for access from the shore to pier or terminal . one dolphin to another. They are generally light weight construction, wood or steel . Cat- A. Moles - constructed of rock 'fill with walks are located at a distance from the face sloped sides for protection from erosion, of the structure to prevent damage by vehicles similar to breakwater construction . The or vessels. function of the moles is to support roads, sidewalks, railroad tracks, utilities, pipe- I ine, conveyors, etc. ft 50 Cross section of atypical rock mole B. Trestle - lighter construction than piers . They are designed primarily for vertical loads. The majority of trestles use precast," and prestressed concrete decks because Of durability and economy. AN DI K M V4 M W N Cross section of timber trustle on wood piles Source: Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures 5 Trends 102 0 200 400 600 ON 1000 1200 .. . . ........ ... .......... 0 ...... ...... . . ........ ....... ................... ........... ............. .... .......................... 40 80 ntalnershlps 0 .......... . ............................. ........ ..... ..........I.................. ..... ...... ...... ..... 40 .................... .......... 3 so ISO .......... ...... . ... ............ ....... ... ........... . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . 40 . . . . . . . . . . . ....... . . . . . . ..... .... . Tankers . ... .. . 12 -------- -- ......................... 20C FA L 0 ............ .. ....... ............ 40 ...................... ....................... .............. 80 0 40 7.7. nt, w J@ 0 . ... ...... ......... ...... .... . .................... 80 103 This publication demonstrates an insight Specialized ports-. a limited number of larger, into the complex problems involved in port regional type ports with sophisticated equip- and harbor design and construction . It is ment designed to handle,a specific type of intended to serve as a starting guide to the cargo - An example would be a regional con- various planning procedures necessary to to i ner port . design a port or harbor . Intermodal transportation- a highly organized The following list presents selected trends and scheduled, factory-to-user chain under a which it is believed will have the greatest single bill of lading . This system requires a impact on ports of the future: great deal of standardization of components to I enable all transport modes to equally participate . Functional obsolescence of port facilities i 's becoming increasingly apparent as ship con- Improved conditions for port labor: struction technology advances. 'New innova- provide and maintain hygiene locker, dining tions include: and toilet facilities deep draft vessels (80 feet) that exceed all improve recruiting programs channel and harbor depths improve and implement training programs to LASH and SEABEE concepts that require facilitate highly skilled dockworkers. entirely different facilities standardization of ship components Improve and enforce safety standards and pro- trans-ocean barge concepts cedures for personnel, facilities and harbors automated vessels controlled by ship board to reduce accident frequency computers. Movements to off-shore loading systems in order to efficiently use deep draft vessels . The only cargoes loaded off-shore presently are liquid, such as oil and slurried ores . New Facilities for off-shore loading vary from submerged pipelines to artificial island installa- tions . Containerization is revamping cargo handling techniques. Harbor obstacles are influencing new port thinking: expensive dredging costs expensive relocation costs of tunnels, pipelines, etc. environmental and ecological factors. Development of coastal barge terminals to pro- vide secondary distribution centers. 6'Concepts 104 lee$ T7' fT it 6.1 Existing Port 105 6.1.1 Introduction In the past few decades, while trucking, The older port could greatly increase its rail and air operations have sharply risen, efficiency by gradually eliminating facilities the shipping industry has declined. To which are inefficient, unprofitable or unfit better compete, the shipping industry has for modern operations because of size or loca- introduced technological advances including tion . The remaining terminals and facilities increased ship size and containerization of could be upgraded and a logical expansion plan general bulk cargo. But while the shipping developed to forestall premature functional industry has made great strides in shipbuild- obsolescence. ing and containerization, most of the ports have not kept pace. A port can be of great economic benefit to a community by attracting trucking, storage , and A major problem facing ports today is the distribution concerns; providing jobs within the task of modernizing obsolete facilities, equip- portand stimulating secondary work opportuni- ment and methods. The large marshalling ties outside; attracting port associated industries; yards requ-ired for containerization have not and bringing an increased flow of goods through been constructed in many instances, usually the entire area . However, without proper plan- because of lack of available land. Many ning for transportation, facilities and increased ports have been unable to cope with the in- traffic flow, the port can become a hindrance creased truck traffic due to I imited access to community progress, especially in the face roads, and shipping lanes are often too of today's rapid change . narrow and too shallow to handle the new superships. Such obsolete facilities often The objective of this part of the report is to cite force shippers to ship from ports with new improvements which could be implemented in facilities, thereby diminishing the older ports' existing ports. This includes aspects of port cash inflow at a time when- they can least planning, facility design and handling methods afford it . which would allow better land usage in the port and its surrounding area; more regard for In these older ports, the lack of space is a the physical and social environment of the port major problem. They are typfcal ly located in areas; and techniques for effecting more rapid the oldest part of the city where narrow , con - turn around of ships . The aim is not to advance gested streets do not permit adequate truck port technology so that it is more competitive traffic for transfer and delivery of cargo. The with trucking, rail and air transport systems, waterfronts are characteristically packed with but to promote better coordination of these obsolete, decaying piers and wharves which transportation modes . inhibitport efficiency. To illustrate how modern facilitiesand better The lack of appropriate planning for advanced planning can reduce congestion within a port marine technology has created expensive de- and increase the efficiency of its operations, lays in the loading and unloading of ships. the Port of Galveston has been chosen as a case Valuable land is often occupied by piers and study . The case study A I concentrate on new wharves with aprons too narrow for efficient concepts of cargo handling which include multi- cargo handling, and ship turn around time is purpose warehouse - transit shed buildings and often needlessly lengthened by narrow channels a system of vertical container storage and re- and congestion caused by improperly located trieval . The possible subsequent need for re- industrial sites . moval and relocation of existing facilities will also be considered. 106 6.1.2 Port of Galveston -Case Study Build ings: 01 ... to. Boll... Many of the present port buildings in Galveston Say Peninsula were built in the 1920's or before and are in extremely bad repair. Since 1956 the Port of pelican Galveston has spent approximately $25 million on repairs and renovations of these buildings . The transit sheds are of concrete, tin and wood .1 ... to. Gulf of Mexico construction with foundations of concrete pilings 1 0 2 and beams. Some aprons are still extremely awit". U. narrow, however, several of them have been History: Galveston Bay, probably the finest natural harbor on the Gulf, is protected against the open sea by Galveston Island. The harbor opening is the pass between the island and Bolivar Point. Galveston Island has such a superior position on the coast that it became the first port in Texas and, since the middle of the nineteenth century, has served as the largest cotton exporter in the nation . The Galveston in 1860 and goods exported from AO Texas began to funnel through Galveston . 14@1 8qn_ Except for the rapid growth of the Port of widened and have had rail lines added to them. Houston and Galveston Island's susceptibility These wider aprons can be serviced by rail type to storms, the Port of Galveston could possibly or shoreside cranes . have been the major seaport in the Gulf of Mexico. IC4 IV S@ 4 L t C 32q7- T .nait ad. and w -J@ _7-7 Cotton compresses rehouses 4 t -:7 L@> General cargo warehouses I __7 I44qr CJ28qQ[ CD :3C3 -JC7 44q3 4qci J C) q_q_ C) @_JED rJ Land available for port expansion q_q_@ _@ @D J1:3 - 500 0 1000 J j::y@ QJCJ QC Galveston 107 E Good condition E Medium condition EBad condition 5!00 1000 Buildings The warehouse district is intermingled with residential areas of extremely poor quality. Very little delineation is made between com- mercial and residential areas with houses and apartment complexes being simply inserted between warehouses and compresses . If the _F storage facilities were relocated, warehouses and land could be converted to housing and re- 4, creational areas . Several warehouses have al- L ready been sold and replaced with apartments and shopping centers Cotton is transferred by tractor troins consisting IL C@ of strings of eight or ten cars pulled by small tractors .This has proven to be the most efficient method of cotton transfer so the port is- planning to expand its program. Circulation: Warehouses and transit sheds are serviced by narrow congested streets, and heavy truck traffic is impeded by the maze of railways in -4, F the area . Railroad spurs to several of the ware- houses have long been clogged by rubbish and 14 overgrown by weeds. Tracks in the area of the cotton compresses and warehouses are often un- used due to lack of repair . "@'_77 7-77--:@!-7@-__'@7 . . ..... 108 N 0 Major points of congestion Railroads Expansion storage The combination of these two faci- Due to the age of Galveston, the port is lities could reduce the time required to move crowded with old buildings! streets and rail- cargo from the docks, through the transit sheds ways. This limits space for expansion of the and to the warehouses. The cargo for storage port (16 acres within the port and several in- could be unloaded directly into the ware- dustrial-areas are available). house from the ship. Within this multipurpose Expansion on Pelican Island is limited due to Transit Shed Warehouses present tenants, and plans for the future are already in progress. Presently on Pelican Island are Todd shipyards, the site for Texas Maritime Academy, the site for the Seabee barge terminal, several marine oriented in- dustries and chemical and petroleum termi- nals . Future plans for the island are to zone it for residential , recreational and commer- cial areas. Galveston Wharves (the Port of Galveston) presently owns only 48 acres on which the Seabee barge terminal will be built. Multistory Warehouse/rransit Shed ......... One ofGalveston's major problems is presently the lack of available land for new facilities. To reduce the space now occupied by outdated, single-purpose warehouses there is a possibility Multistory of combining transit sheds and warehouses into Warehouse Transit Shed single buildings, with the lower floors for transit cargo and the upper floors for long term 109 building could exist transit storage areas, rail and truck circulation, refrigerated star- age, general storage, private rental spaces and.office spaces for port officials or ship- ping related industries. To further implement the efficiency of these Space Frame .80 led multipurpose structures, covered facilities could be used for loading and unloading, en- abling cargo to be stored and handled in all types of weather . With no losses of man hours Do 00 because of rain or ice, the efficiency of the facility would be increased and ship turn Vault COMM we around time improved. Where multistory sheds are used in con junc- tion with slips or finger piers, it would be a Cargo could be loaded from the upper floors by simple matter to cover the span with a space a gantry type crane, moving on tracks along the frame, a vault, a cable-supported structure apron . Cargo could be brought to the edge of or a cantilevered roof. In the case of a shed the warehouse where it would be picked up by alongside a marginal wharf, a cantilevered the crane . A system of small ramps or balconies or cable-supported roof system could cover the could be used to pick up cargo from fork trucks. apron and the ship. With the facilities These balconies could be lowered for the fork covered, the upper floors of the building trucks to drive onto them and raised when they could then open onto the apron without fear were driven off. This would allow cranes to of weather damage, except in extremely harsh pick up and drop cargo without any overhead climates. This would allow cargo intended for obstructions . refrigerated.storage or long term storage to be unloaded directly onto the level desired I L K_ IL 11 6.,wila-A.- Longitudinal Section Transverse Section 110 Truck Ramp Elevators Ist Level 2nd Level Elevators Rail and truck circulation within the building would be carried out on different levels. Railcars would enter the warehouse on a level Vertical circulation within the warehouse would slightly below the apron I evel to allow easier be accomplished by lifts or elevators, overhead loading and unloading. Lanes would be pro- cranes and conveyors and ramps,. Vertical vided on the first level for trucks to enter be- distribution of goods for storage from ships would tween the railroad tracks but the major truck, be accomplished by the dock crones,or overhead traffic would enter the warehouse on the conveyors. second level . N Area a 4 Transit sheds Warehouses Phasing Railroads - Phase I Phase I Phase 3 The construction of multistory warehouses During phase 3, four of the old transit sheds wil I occur in four phases. During the first are removed and replaced with multistory ware- phase one existing transit shed is removed and houses, while their cargo is handled by the work is begun on the multistory warehouse/ three previously constructed warehouses . Storage shed which replaces it. The existing rail to is transferred to the new warehouses freeing the this shed is retained once the multistory ware- old warehouses for recreational or other commer- house is completed. Whenever the warehouse cial uses . Additions and changes are made to the section of the new building is completed, railroads servicing the new warehouses. storage is transferred to it from warehouses in the immediate area, which are then removed . Phase 2 Three more sheds ate removed and their cargo is handled by the first multistory warehouse . The three sheds are replaced by two multistory warehouses and then storage is moved into them from se.veral more warehouses throughout the port. Rail lines are then changed to the new routes servicing the three multistory warehouses Railroads- Phase 3 with as many of the existing lines as possible kept in use until the project is totally complet- Phase 4 ed. The remaining three transit sheds are removed and replaced by multistory warehouses and re- maining warehouses transfer their storage to the shipside warehouses. Railways to the new warehouses are completed providing at least one through rail to each warehouse with numerous sidings for each warehouse or group of warehouses to prevent a bottleneck of rails RefirwWo. Ph"e 2 112 .. . ... . . ..... .. ... Railroads- PhaseA in the waterfront area Various switches preceding the entrance to the waterfront area and around the warehouses allow railcars to be rerouted Container Fa'cilities Two slips to be filled Work is already underway on Galveston's first container facility. Two existing slips are being filled to gain 66 acres for a container marshal I - ing yard. Storage will be available for approx- imately 1800 containers stacked two high . Con- tainers will be moved by trans-tainers from trucks to the stacks- and@ from the. stacks to the container crane Approximately 1700 feet-of berthing space will be obtained by the filling in of,the slips, allow- ing 6erthage for two container ships-. At present, 66 acre container yard one of the slips has been filled and the facility will be open early in 1972. The remaining slip Detail - Area a is to be filled later. Container storage Vertical Container Storage Instead of filling in the remaining slip and con- verting the entire 66 acres info a marshal I ing yard, the slips could be widened.-and a system of vertical container storage could be utilized. By not filling in the slip, berthing for four -ships could be provided. 113 If the remaining slip is filled and the marshall- ing yard is used, a vertical storage system could still be installed at a later date to increase the capacity. The storage capacity could be in- creased from 1800 to approximately 2500 and much of the land from the previous marshalling yard could be returned to other usage . The Excavated to Increase shoreline along the eastern side of the yard size of slips ready filled would be filled to gain another berth. for container yard Detail -Area a Vertical container storage ........... Excavated Both slips filled for container yard Detail-Area a Area to be filled when expansion is necessary With a vertical storage system, room could be provided for up to 25,00 containers (10 high), plus a considerable savings in land. Fewer people would be required to operate such a facility, therefore, part of the labor force could be channelled into other port operations . By creating certain zones for rail and truck One possible system of vertical container unloading, congestion will be kept to a mini- storage is a skeleton structure of columns and mum. slabs which would hold the containers . The slab structure would be used in conjunction with elevator type gantry cranes similar in design to those used by the "Pidgeon Hole" parking garage system Circulation mited Both slip Ar to filled when .x . a," Zn.io I,. n "e.. Future expansion could be provided by filling along the eastern shoreline to gain another berth and area for another vertical storage structure . 114 6.1.3 Conclusion With the addition of multistory warehouse/ transit sheds, Galveston could greatly in- crease the efficiency of its handling of general cargo. With covered facilities, dock gangs could work cargo in all types of weather and the distance required for cargo transfer would be reduced with warehouses located on the aprons. The addition of wider aprons with the warehouses would permit the use of gantry cranes in loading and unloading . .... ........... Transfer of cargo to the new warehouses would allow removal of the old warehouses and the I/ railroad lines servicing them . Traffic conges- tion would be greatly relieved without the rail lines and the heavy truck traffic which now ""ii. Fl@ service the warehouses. With the old ware- houses removed, room would be provided for expansion of the port or for housing or recrea- tional facilities. The implementation of a vertical container These cranes travel horizontally on tracks storage facility would reduce the area re- between the structure and the edge of the pier quired for the storage of containers . The while containers can be lifted to the desired smaller number of people required to operate height . The crane picks up containers by a vertical storage facility would allow the means of an extendable arm which positions port to spread its labor force over several above the container, raises the container and other facilities. By introducing Vertical returns to the crane with the container . storage either now or at a later dote in- stead of a container marshalling yard, the Film storage capacity can be greatly increased. 1 2 3 4 ........ .... 5 6 Containers to be stored in this facility would be brought by rail , truck or barge . Large lift trucks would carry containers from train cars to the crane, while containers on trucks and barges would be unloaded directly onto the crane 6.2 Interim Port 115 6.2.1 Introduction The preceding concept which dealt with existing ports demonstrated the fact that most present day ports need to update their anti- quated facilities nnd that new achievements in marine technology demand changes. A need arises for functionally designed facilities which can respond efficiently to changes in maritime technology, but the planning of such port facilities should not end there. Much thought should be given to phasing out the old facilities in the interim between the present and the projected future completion date. The objective of such interim planning should be to develop transition concepts based on anticipated changes in port and harbor de- velopment, like the developmenf of offshore ports, supersized vessels and other trends in the shipping industry . To compound the pro- blems of transitional development, the design- er is not only faced with conventional econo- mic, social and political pressures but has also to consider the maintenance of environ- mental resources, particularly in coastal and inland water zones which are currently being abused and destroyed. Environmental con- straints directly affect the development of ports and harbors throughout the world . The problems are especially acute in highly in- dustrialized areas such as the Houston Ship Channel in the United Stat-es where the waters are so polluted that no manner of life exists within five miles of the turning basin . Such conditions exist where environmental balance is neglected in port and harbor operation and planning . Effective interim planning which could deal with such imbalances would include three major areas of activity: A) introducing en- vironmental concern and thought into the transitional development of ports and harbors of the future; B) developing more efficient use of patterns in coastal and inland ports and their surroundings; C) modernizing transportational delivery and retrieval systems. 116 6.2.2 Concept Development In order to approach the transition of ports and Man must be able to understand the natural harbors in a rational manner " it would be of processes occuring in the nearshore environ- value to look first at the large scale operations ment and thus predict his own effects on the of ports and harbors,where they do exist and why environment . He must also use the environ- they exist and what is around them . All ports ment for the benefit of all mankind by accom- and harbors are found in coastal or inland water modatingwith minimum conflict,,multiple uses zones. Within these zones by definition we find and maintain and restore if necessary to an that ports are in a transitional environment, acceptable level of public choice both now between the land and the water, whether coastal and in the future . or inland. Environmentally, socially, politically and economically this is of importance to us: Noting the chart on present coastal zone A)Socially, because a majority of populations live usage, (the items shown are rated to their in the coastal zone or rely on some form of water- future development) those positive valued borne trade . These populations are constantly items indicate a need for increased develop- growing and expanding. B) Politically, because ment and the negative values indicate a governments rely upon their people and resources. decrease in development, i e . aqua culture Ports and harbors have always played major roles (4+) should have more emphasis than fisheries in the development of world powers and should (2+). continue to be an important international trans- 4+ 3+ 2+ 1+ 1- 2- 3- 4- portational system . C) Economically, we find that waste disposal - municipal sewerage a good deal of industry worldwide is located near - industrial waste water . Factors affecting waterfront location of sh O'eline development industrial industrial concerns are: A) Use of cheap water. housing ports borne transportation, i e . bulk raw materials exploitation of living resources B) Use of water in manufacturing process (brack- C fisheries qua culture i sh water is satisfactory, i e . cool ing of equi p- recreation swimming ment). Q Ability to discard waste into ocean booting and sport fishing shore, rivers and lakes,i e . dumping of waste water resources . municipal and industrial supplies gases . D) Saving on product distribution usually transportation shipping being adjacent to large metropolitan areas . waterways harbour wr ildlife and mtuarine preservation In the light of industry, availability of water - 'ildlife and estuarine management routes is of major economic importance in oper- exploitation of non-lMnq resources ON gas ational planning of waterfront industry . Envi- gravel ronmentally, these zones are the most productive sand land areas, teeming with life and food for man . oyster shell In relation to natural and artificial changes in From this point it would appear that some any coastal and inland water zone problems such basic concepts are developing: We as these do develop: have established the fact that the coastal pollution and inland water zones are of basic value shoreline erosion to man in order for him to live on the earth and shore I ine damage from storms it would follow that man would be concerned loss of wildlife and nutrient areas with this zoning and establish land usage silting and shoaling around this premise detrophication proliferation of pests and other unwanted Conceptually it could be conceived that use species of the land for-urban purposes could be kept dredging and filling to a minimum by creating cities of people living in high density structure and using 117 areas not considered habitable such as deserts, Barges: Advances have been made in the steppes, mountains, ice-covered areas and employment of barges, both ocean going and water surfaces for settlements in order to de- inland water barges - The development of the velop the most valuable land in cultivation LASH vessel concept and the Seabee System and nearshore and estuaries in aqua-cultiva- (Lykes Bros. Steamship Co., Inc.) for trans- tion . porting unit barges on overseas routes coupled with attendant facilities (rail, road, ware- housing, transit distribution facilities) are among many proposals involving the use of barges as a major means of waterborne traffic . The barge-tug systems appear to be ............. .. a realistic approach in many aspects. Some ... ... ...... obvious advantages are: the draft of the barge in relation to other forms of waterborne traffic (tankers, cargo vessels) the amount of load which can be carried Interior Citie economica y, outweighs other systems of Rk;: transportation unit handling costs are lower flexibility of major equipment components. : :Xx'] Xx'] Transportadon _X'X: .... ....... Linkage uaculture 7_7 We can see that a transportation system must be developed showing imports and exports @J traveling from coastal terminals to the inland L cities not always following natural water- ways,i e . cities which would exist in deserts, mountains, steppes, etc The transportation system seems to be a sound barges lend themselves to various operational idea and will be looked at more carefully ty pe s: based on the fact that one of our aims is to stay-tugs remain attached to the flotilla establish a more modern and efficient trans- while cargo is worked portal delivery and retrieval system. swap - tugs exchange an inbound barge for an outbound barge The different systems of transportation to be drop - a tug drops a barge in a port and considered in the development will be as returns for it before proceeding on the follows: transocean journey barges flexibility allows certain variety in facilities trains to handle the barges trucks barges could maintain full time operation while aircraft construction of new facilities were taking place. pipeline. 118 Problems which have arisen from the' growing m-ejl@l gyloTd CoWigurefl@ I JwWtTin, I I 10 breed of waterborne vessels are in the area of personnel and management aboard these vessels: captains with little or no training in inland or 0 10 0 ocean going navigation too I i ttl e pay to attract top quality seamen to these positions. 4 0, Trains: Rail systems are at a different stage of 1: so development. They have neither reached the 77= optimum in size or speed. The function of any 777= transportation system is to move cargo and people so 30 efficiently and economically from place to place. The Japanese have done considerable work in K1 100 developing faster more effective trains,*1 e . New 46 Tokaido Line, Japan,reaching speeds of 130 Comparison between'sizes and loads carried miles/bour. by conventional trains and possible super trains of the future . @ Trucks: In dealing with the road system we must recognize the two distinct areas of func- tion: those being private and those being commercial . Private vehicles: passenger vehicles trucks for private use farm equipment. Commercial vehicles: commercial trucks buses. Being aware of this distinction in road systems it would be feasible to separate the two with- Perhaps we might find that our needs from the in the transport line . This separation would present day's trains to special train units for, allow the expansion of the present size of. use in an intercity transportation system are commercial vehicles for more efficient road an increase in 'size of wheel base resulting systems as well as greater carrying capacity in greater payloads in haul ing capacity combined with accompanying speedwhich leads to economic saving Greater po wer thus needed to pull these loads could be developed through use of atomic fuels for engines . Use of air suspension in short unit trains could also achieve maximum speed. rain 0 ............ ..... .. .. .... Cross section of Transportation Link 119 ioml M WId qcnllguratl@ Aircraft: V/STOL systems could readily be 15 01 ... ........ applied to a more rapid and efficient system of transportation. Helicopters could be L__J employed for high value low weight cargo 777.11 as wel I as provide shuttle service between 0' 5 U a 51 101V 2 e2q port area and.destination of goods. The need for more advanced aviation calls for Xv-, a balanced system of air, surface and water 10 transportation modes. This system will maxi- . . . ... x, 60 '4X mize the flow of passengers and cargo from point to point Pipelines. A fifth area of transportation which has been little exploited is pipelines. 777777 370 x. Its use to date has been largely devoted to liquified petro products and liquified sulfurF natural gas and others . It seems feasible 12W ....... .... that other products could be transported L4 through pipelines from one place to an- other by use of pneumatic, hydraulic or No optimums have been reached in this magnetic forces. area of transportation, although this con- cept does not deal completely with the Coupling all five areas of transportation systems trucking mode. It does suggest concept- into a package we might see that an efficient ually the consideration of super-trucks economical system could be developed to serve basing size on earth moving machinery the need for a transportation link between but with adaption of speeds, making them coastal distribution terminals and major inland economically feasible for transportation metropolitan areas. It is conceivable that inter uses . port linkage could be developed between off- These vehicles could carry enormous pay- shore facilities and the coastal distribution loads of cargo and passengers to and from terminal . coastal port terminals at conventional speeds. Passenger-carriers also appear At this point our concept development is barely fedsible at this increased scale . complete. By knowing what we have in present day ports and realizing what we need in future ports we have the opportunity to take a systems approach to port and harbor development in the form of the interim port showing: . facilities . interface of transportation phasing. I I LE - M. C-1- so 120 6.2.3 Concept In the interim port we find that distribution:of Responding to the need for a systems vehicle to cargo is of major importance in the operation of utilize unified distribution, interim port com- any port handling any commodity. It ii apparent bines major transportational modes into a func- that lack of @oordihotion and flexibility in the tional facility supporting a number of secondary present day ports can snowball the entire system act,i-vities. of retrieval and delivery . Because of this u'n- organized distribution in most ports the resulfs become clear: � wasted time on dockfront � delay in ship turnaround � secondary conflict of land-side interface � higher cost for handling � indirect distribution. The objective of the interim port would be to provide unified distribution of passengers and cargo throughout the port. The results of this proposal would also become clear: � direct distribution � saving on handling cost � faster service to customer � faster ship turnaround Interim port facilities: � increased efficiency of.,port operation. The facilities offered by interim ports are � eliminate interface conflict. broken down into primary and secondary eval- uation . The primary facilities are as follows: barge terminal complex V/ST OL teriminal complex road vehicle terminal . ........ .... rail complex . 0 The secondary facilities will be intergrated 04000 within the interim port structure: 0 MA 0 housing 0 intermodal service center fuel storage center unorganized distrib!@ utilities complex communication center parking (auto) administrative operations medical support commercial retail center international trgde mart marina operations observation control unit p Iublic viewing areas transit cargo center unified distribution warehouse complex transportation feeders service complex Schematic representation of port areas having: waste treatment facility unorganized distribution and unified distribution green belt reserves. rn X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x . . . wate ............. .......... ........ ... CD 0 ............... .. .. .. ... .. ......... ....... Ln ................. < . ................ CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 CD 0 interi 0 .......... m < < shop .................. c . ......... .............. hous 0 X.: ........... < .......... ....................... (D .............. < WSTI 3 CD -0 M rm 0 CM 0 M CL IFM + m 0 indu parK 0 15 t-gree % --zon NOR 0 c Ity Emus Ll 122 11JI11111111= a, 7T1I_MDTT==nTM1 T=@ gill IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Interim port interface: Vertical section through interim port showing The surface transportation network will consist circulation patterns and facilities of a central roadway traversing the above interim port at the residential level All inbound a *nd outbound barges wi I I enter Interface in interim port will be on two levels at specified levels into interim port. Special of importance: first is the four modes of trans- employee parking and traffic service lanes port within the port . Second , the operational will be established at different levels of acti- interface servicing the first level of interface . vity. Transit vehicles will also serve the in- Both these systems are inder-dependent on the terim port complex from near by metropolis other . areas . Grade separation interchanges wil.1 allow un- interrupted interface between the major trans- portational modes. Greenbelt reserves and landscaped zones will be provided to buffer public usage areas from commercially un- attractive operations. Maximum usage of such areas wil I establish acoustical reduction and visual screening of interim port services. Phasing: Interim Port: The staging and adoption of facilities at the terminal connection would need tremendous coordination between all persons, organizations and governments involved. Phasing could be thought of as two different op- proaches but both very much a part of the other: instructive phasing physical phasing If @l The instructive or educational phasing should be so designed as to educate people, the real rJ recipiants of the system,as well as owners and operators of transportation systems (peo- rge truck&rail air interim port pie directly affected by the existence of such a port) . 123 establishment of alternate approach routes to site area 2.1wmniary formal informal road and rail development near completion 3jumor high . . ..... . . ....... ............................. . ... establishment of greenbelt areas 4mgh.wa ............... ..... 500/c total facilities near completion 5 Phase 3 6 7 PEW nswg final connection of linkage system with interim 3 8r*dio 9 libmries 4 am port lot.. full operational service to be established InWin, pW5 waterborne traffic using 5091c. barge. 10 This phase is of particular importance because all aims of the concept should be becoming reality in the technological sense while maintaining en- Educational flow for instructive phasing vironmental integrities . Phase 4 will be a re-evaluation of the concept with the establishment of objectives in relation to population growth patterns and distribution The educational approach is needed for success. with emphasis upon areas which show the greatest More than one project has been crushed for need. The concept will provide a firm basis for failure to adopt this approach . Publicity is not enough; the people must be'involved. Feeling further expansion of future transportationa I needs. they know what is going on as wel I as wanting Conclusions the project to be a success will help them know It is apparent that only the schematic design of the benefits of the venture will be theirs. the interim port concept has been established in the preceding pages,locking dimensional -character This educational program should be carried of a finished design package. It- is the aim of this throughout the entire development of interim concept to offer an option to port development;o ports . system,employable now, 10 years from now and After a well designed educational plan has in future ports of 2000 AD. been conceived and structured the first phase of a four phase plan could begin The physical phasing would begin with trans- formation of port facilities at the coastal points and inland points cis wel I as the development of the transportation systems into a car'related linkage matrix between interim port and the hinterland it serves Phase I . procurement of right-of-ways phasing out of present facilities on a ten year program preparation of site area for new construction . ................... . .) redefinition of rail and trucking routes temporary use of land for support facilities pollution contracts begun Phase 2 begin construction of linkage systems to metro- politan areas 124 :7t,:@ 7 Y. F, ....... F, .. .. ........ aerial view - interim port 6.3 Trans -Port 125 6.3.1 Introduction Technological advancement is and always has .6een a major part of the maritime scene . How- ever, the changes occuring now are much great- er and faster than ever before . There is a re- volution in ocean shipping operations, which effects equipment as well as cargo handling methods. Supersized vessels capable of single-trip de- liveries of over a million barrels of liquid cargo are now in service, with vessels on the drawing boards that wil I dwarf these. Trem- endous economic benefits are made possible by large scale vessel., . However, these vessels require deepwater mooring facilities or harbor and channel depths substantially greater than now available . To provide such depths creates an avalcriche of problems both natural and man- made, 'Such as: physical ecological safety economic/financial Containerization of non-bulk commodities is accelerating at an unprecedented rate. The benefits are numerous: lower freight costs faster deliveries less shipping damage to cargo more economical handling costs. In order to realize all of these benefits it will be necessary to expend a large amount of funds, either in rennovating existing port facilities or building new ports. The time is right for new, innovative and creative thinking for ports and harbors . This section will present an idea of a multi-func- tion facility located offshore. 126 6.3.2 Concept Trans-Port is a facility designed to meet Based on the requirement of deep water the need; of an industry with rapid chang- to accommodate deep draft vessels, the ing technological advances . It is a point Trons-Port will be located in water over of interface of transportation modes . Trans- 100 feet deepalong the continental shelf. Port becomes the common denominator for The actual site to be determined by need each transportation mode . based on volume of ship traffic . Hinterland Air Unk (/1L a d a The prime goal of each mode is to move Since the Trans-Port must serve the hinter- cargo, whether it be bananas, mail or land, it is necessary to establish a direct people . The terminal facilities where link. There are several options available: cargo is loaded and unloaded requires above surface very similar equipment regardless of surface carrier type . below surface. The principal behind the Trans-Port i dea By providing a submerged tunnel/tube con- is to stratify or vertically separate the trans- necting the Trans-Port to land, it will be portation modes. In effect, separate zones possible to establish a dry connection for are created for each mode with a common rail or conveyor systems. The tunnel/tube terminal facility. can be prefabricated of concrete, floated to the site, submerged and assembled. After assembly the structures can be anchored to the bottom then pumpad dry . A tunnel/tube Above connection will permit continuous submerged access in conjunction with air and sea access . Surface Below 127 Monorail Pipelines Conveyors Section thru tunnel/tube The tunnel operation would be continuous feeding from existing terminal facilities, thereby utilizing existing facilities with esta6l ished trade routes. E T u The tunnel/tube provides the advantage of being operational independent of. weather conditions that might affect air or sea operations . It has the added ad- vantage of being a submerged structure that can provide the initial impetus for an artificial reef, desirable for ecolo- gical aspects. 128 The need for a facility is apparent, due to the liquid bulk cargo industry. By providing a multi-use facility the expensive cost of constructing such a facility is justifiable. The advantages are many: unlimited expansion capabilities facility not dependent upon one cargo type for success eliminates noise and air pollution pro- blems from the urban areas inhances ship turnaround and travel time increases safety in navigation by elimi- nating treacherous channel navigation . A study by Paul Weidlinger, consulting engineers, called FLAIR proposed a large module M. 41 floating airport constructed of large modu- 1 lar units, floated together and anchored by cables. This system when completed pro- vided a stationary platform providing two parallel runways with necessary aircraft archors loading and support facilities. Source: Architectural & Engineering News, Assembly section December 1969 12000' 4800' E-71 4E L L CM J C': CL C= F"_J_1 C== Plan of FLAIR 129 Applying the same technique with a 2 level module, it will provide approximately 50,000,000 square feet of covered space Airport level that can provide a year round working en- rt vironment for port personnel and visitors,as wel I as accommodations for air travelers with layovers. Upper level Plan, Trans - Port Section irport level 130 With the use of conveyor systems and com- puterized coding . Storage and retrieval of containers will be a simple automatic pro- cedure . Aircraft can be lowered to the port level to receive their cargo and returned to the flight level for rapid delivery. Lower level plan, Trans - Port Bulk zone Harbor Container zone Service zone TU-niWI _/tI!b_e_ 131 7 -tT 7 00 X" UP Interior view of container section Glossary 132 "'K2 f J @r" 7,M Ow, Source: Port of Amsterdam 133 Air Rights - use of air space above DWT - dead weight tons Apron - the portion of a pier or wharf lying Fender System -.protective devices to prevent between the waterfront edge and the contact between vessel and structures transit sheds. Iribarren Equation - determines the relation- Basin, Tidal - a dock or basin in which the ship between weight and slope of break- water level changes - waters for different wave heights. Basin, Turning - area of water set aside Mean Low Water - the average height of the for vessel turnaround . low waters determined by averaging the hourly levels over a period of time . Berth - the water area reserved for vessels at a wharf or pier . Mean Sea Level - the average height of the . sea determined by averaging the hourly Breakwater - an engineering structure pro- levels over a period of time . viding shelter from wave action. Mole - a breakwater. Cofferdam - a temporary structure for the exclusion of water from a site during Overtopping - cresting of waves over the top construction . of a breakwater. Crane, Gantry - a lifting device mounted Quay - European term for wharf. on a structural frame, generally track mounted for mobility. Slip - open space of water between piers. Crane, Luffing - the boom can be raised or Stevenson Formula - developed by Thomas lowered without changing the height Stevenson to determine the approximate of the load. wave height in a harbor. Dock, Dry - A) floating dry dock is a buoy- Stowage the process of placing cargo . ant structure open at both ends capable of being flooded and pumped out to faci- Terminal the structures, facilities, or equip- I itate vessel entry. 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